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A. Remembering Information
1. Repetition—saying or writing information a number of times
2. Mnemonics—a technique to remember details such as:
a. Acronyms are words that are formed by combining some parts (usually the first
letters) of some other terms. The term is also used to refer to initialisms, which are
combinations of letters representing a longer phrase.
b. Abbreviations (from Latin brevis “short”) is strictly a shorter form of a word, but
more particularly, is a letter or group of letters, taken from a word or words, and
employed to represent them for the sake of brevity.
c. Pegwords are words that rhyme with numbers and are used to build associations with
the information to be remembered
d. Keywords are familiar words that lead the reader to the new words to be learned.
They can be used to create mental images to remember new words and definitions.
e. Rhymes are words with similar sounds usually found in poetry and songs
f. Graphic Organizers—are visual representations that show how information is
organized
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B. Underlining / Highlighting
Highlighting and underlining engage the reader to select words, phrases and
sentences, as well as, selecting the most important ideas and details in a reading. It makes
information stand out so that you can find it easily when you go back to the text to study for a
test. Systematically using different colored highlighter pens can make the review process
even easier. Familiarity with the techniques is helpful to find rapidly what the reader needs
when rereading the passage.
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you cover card again. Make some quick reviews later on from time to time. Long term
memory does improve grades.
g. Reflect—as you read a passage, turn on your critical thinking. Ask yourself:”What
does this all mean? Is it true? How can I apply it?” reading and reflecting should be
simultaneous and inseparable—built right into every step of PQ5R.
3. Annotating—is a system of marking that includes underlining and notations. A notation
system is used for selecting important ideas that goes beyond straight lines and includes
numbers, circles, stars, and written comments such as marginal notes, questions and
keywords. Annotations are comments, notes, explanations, or other types of external remarks
that can be attached to a document or to a selected part of a document. As they are external,
it is possible to annotate any document independently, without needing to edit the document
itself. From a technical point of view, annotations are usually seen as meta data, as they give
additional information about an existing piece of data.
How to use an annotation:
a. Underline important terms
b. Circle definitions and meanings
c. Write key words and definitions in the margin
d. Signal where important information can be found with key words or symbols in the
margin
e. Write short summaries in the margin at the end of sub-units.
f. Write the questions in the margin next to the section where the answer is found
g. Indicate steps in a process by using numbers in the margin.
4. The Cornell Method – this note-taking method has been devised 40 years ago by Walter Pauk, a
lecturer at the Cornell University. This method is used by dividing the paper in two columns.
The first column is used to enter key or cue words while the second is the notes column (for
recording ideas and facts). There are six steps to Cornell note-taking:
a. Record—during the lecture, record as many facts and ideas as possible in the notes column.
b. Reduce—after the lecture, read through the notes taken and reduce to key words and
phrases, or questions. The key words and phrases are used as cues to help recall the ideas and
facts. The questions are to add clarity to the facts and ideas.
c. Recite—using only the key words, phrases and questions in the cue word column recite the
ideas and facts in the notes column. It is important that you are not just mechanically
repeating, but using your own words.
d. Reflect—based on the facts and ideas learnt, reflect upon how this fits in with what you
already know, and how this knowledge can be applied.
e. Review—on a frequent basis, review your past notes by reciting and reflecting upon them
f. Recapitulate—after you have reduced, recited and reflected upon your note, you should
recapitulate each main idea using complete sentences at the bottom of the key word column.
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2.5” 6”
CUE
C
O Note- Taking
L Area
U
M
N
2” Summaries
CORNELL METHOD
5. Concept maps and Mind Maps—the idea is to map out concepts, either as they are found or
receives during the Review process in the Cornell or SQ3R method. Mind maps (i.e., hierarchical
trees) can be used to take lecture notes in real time, but more often to recognize concepts into a
hierarchical tree. Concept maps allow to visualize more complex relationships between different
concepts. They allow for example to integrate old and new knowledge and to construct a
representation of a complex concept. Finally, concept maps also can be used a design tool. For
example, after the initial literature review for a paper or a thesis, a student may create a conjecture
map that relates theory to design to observable process to outcomes.
6. Charting—is a method that helps to summarize the most important concepts found in articles and
to identify implicit relations (what concepts go together and which authors). This concept charting
technique uses a table with columns representing concepts and rows representing a text.
7. Outlining—is a short verbal sketch that show in skeleton form the pattern of ideas in text or a
draft prepared for speaking or writing often with main and sub-ideas highlighted by numbers and
letters. It is a form of notetaking that gives a quick display of key issues and essential supporting
details. It shows indentions, numbers, and letters to show levels of importance.
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Roman and Arabic Number and Letter System Decimal Numbering System
Title Title
I. 1.
II. 2.
A. 2.1
1. 2.1.1
2. 2.1.2
a. 2.1.3
b. 2.2
3. 2.2.1
B. 2.2.2
1. 2.2.3
2. 2.4
III. 3
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E. Summarizing—is a method used in stating the main idea and significant supporting details
into short, concise statements about the material you have read. Summaries are full pieces of
writing that fit together a selection’s facts and ideas in readable sentences and paragraphs
which are shorter versions of the original.
F. Test-taking Strategies
1. Read to comprehend—concentrate on the main idea of the passage and avoid fixating on
details
2. Interact with the passage—predict the topic and activate schema; monitor and self-
correct
3. Anticipate—read the first sentence carefully, it usually gives clues of what is to come
4. Relax—plan your time and concentrate
5. Recall—remind yourself of the author’s main point
6. Understand major question types—test questions that follow certain predictable patterns
a. Main Idea Questions—ask to identify the author’s main point
b. Detail Questions—check your ability to understand material that is directly stated
in the passage
c. Implied Meaning Questions—deals with the attitudes and feelings of the writer
that emerges behind or between words where in favourable and unfavourable
descriptions suggest positive and negative opinion towards the subject
d. Purpose Questions—the purpose of the passage which is not usually stated but
implied and is related to the main idea
e. Vocabulary Questions—test general knowledge as well as the ability to figure out
meaning by using context clues
7. Multiple-Choice and True-False Tests
a. Read all options
b. Predict the correct answer
c. Avoid answers with “100 Percent” words
d. Consider answers with qualifying words
e. Do not Overgeneralize
f. True statements must be true without exception
g. If two options are synonymous, eliminate both
h. Figure out the difference between similar options
i. Use logical reasoning when two answers are correct
j. Look suspiciously at directly quoted pompous phrases
k. Simplify double negatives by cancelling out both
l. Certain responses are neither true or false
m. Validate true responses
n. Recognize flaws in test taking
o Grammar
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B. Functional Reading
Readings often contain more than just words. Graphics accompany text and knowing
how to read these visual aids help the reader how to relate it to the ideas of the selection.
1. Photographs—to interpret photographs, you need to be able to identify what is being
represented and then to infer moods, attitudes, and relations that help give life to the
pictures, particularly if they are of people
2. Diagrams—are drawings with labelled parts. Notice what the separate parts represented
and see how they work together. Labels and captions usually point out the key features
and explain how parts relate to each other.
3. Word Charts—presents information in summary form to make material easy to find.
Instead of using sentences in a paragraph, a writer can present complex information in
chart form
4. Statistical Tables—present numbers in chart form. Often, the numbers appear in columns
with headings to explain what the numbers represent.
5. Graphs—present statistics visually with lines, bars, or circles that show how statistics
compare with each other.
6. Maps—visually condense material to show relationships. It is a diagram that places
important topics in a central location and connects major points and supporting details in
a visual display that shows degrees of importance which uses space in a free and graphic
manner
7. Charts—give information in an abbreviated outline form.
C. Active Reading
1. The main idea of a passage is the core of the material, the particular point the author is
trying to convey. The main idea of a passage can be stated in one sentence that condenses
specific ideas or details in the passage into a general, all-inclusive statement of the
author’s message.
Steps in determining the main idea:
a. Recognize general and specific words—look for specific ideas presented in the
sentences and decide on a general topic or subject under which the ideas can be
grouped. The general term encompasses or categorizes the ideas and is considered
the topic of the list.
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b. Recognize general and specific phrases—topics of passages are more often stated
as phrases rather than single words
c. Recognize the General Topic for Sentences—sentences are related to a single
subject, with two of the sentences expressing specific support and one sentence
expressing the general idea about the subject.
d. Differentiate Topic, Main Idea, and Supporting Details
e. Questioning for the Main Idea
o Question: Who or what is this about?
o Question: What are the important details?
o Question: What main idea is the author trying to convey about the topic?
2. Stated Main Ideas—are directly stated, particularly at the beginning of the passage. Such
an initial main idea statement, thesis statement, or topic sentence is a signpost for readers,
briefing them on what to expect. This thesis or main idea statement provides an overview
of the author’s message and connects the supporting details.
3. Unstated Main Ideas—when the main idea is not directly stated, it is said to be implied,
which means it is suggested in the thoughts that are revealed. In this case, the author has
presented a complete idea, but for reasons of style and impact has chosen not to express it
concisely in one sentence. As a reader, it is your job to connect the details systematically
and focus the message.
4. Getting the Main Idea of Longer Selections—longer selections have several major ideas
contributing to the main point and many paragraphs of supporting details. To pull the
ideas together under one central theme, an additional step is necessary: Simplify the
material by organizing paragraphs or pages into manageable subsections and then
deciding how each subsection contributes to the whole.
The following questions can help you determine the central theme for a longer
selection:
a. What is the significance of the title? What does the title suggest about the topic?
b. How does the first paragraph suggest the topic or thesis?
c. Under what subsections can the paragraphs and ideas be grouped?
d. How do these subsections support the whole?
e. What is the overall topic?
f. What point is the author trying to convey?
5. The supporting details develop, explain, and prove the main idea. They can be facts,
descriptions, and reasons that convince the reader and make the material interesting.
Details answer questions and paint visual images so the reader has an experience with the
author and sees what the author sees and understands. Details can be ranked by their
level of importance in supporting a topic. Some details offer major support and
elaboration, whereas others merely provide illustrations to relate the material to the
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Where:
mi = main idea
mi = p + f + t p = pattern of organization
f = focus of discussion
t = topic
Read the entire selection to confirm if the main idea you have predicated matches the writer’s
main idea. If there is a match, the purpose of your reading is to look for the support ideas. Jot down
all the important notes that relate to the main idea. However, if there is a mismatch between you
main idea and the writer’s main idea, revise or change your hypothesis before you gather the support
ideas.
Evaluate the notes that you hjave written, and synthesize the ideas you gathered from steps 1-4 to
summarize the infformational text in two or three sentences. The formula for summary of an
expository text is:
Set = mi + si + (sd)
Where:
Set = summary of expository text
mi = main idea (p + f + t)
si = support idea
sd = support detail
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A. Fragments
SENTENCE FRAGMENT fails to be a sentence in the sense that it cannot stand by
itself. It does not contain even one independent clause.
There are several reasons why a group of words may seem to act like a sentence but
not have the wherewithal to make it as a complete thought.
1. It may locate something in time and place with a prepositional phrase or a series of such
phrases, but it’s lacking a proper subject-verb relationship within an independent clause:
In Japan, during the last war and just before the armistice.
2. It describes something, but there is no subject-verb relationship:
Working far into the night in an effort to salvage her little boat.
3. It may have most of the makings of a sentence but still be missing an important part of a verb
string:
Some of the students working in Professor Espinoza’s laboratory last semester.
4. It may even have a subject-verb relationship, but it has been subordinated to another idea by a
dependent word and so cannot stand by itself:
Even though he head the better arguments and was by far the more powerful speaker.
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A comma splice is committed when a writer uses a comma without the proper connective.
This, according to Tiempo and Tiempo, “destroys the unity of the sentence.” The sample
sentence below looks almost the same with the sample run-on sentence. The only difference
is the fact that the sentences uses a comma to divide the two independent clauses.
The crowd cheered loudly when the band manager from the backstage, Eric stood
quietly.
Fused Sentences
The bus stopped suddenly. I spilled coffee all over my shirt.
Mario told everyone in the room to be quiet his favourite show was on.
In other run-ons, known as comma splices, a comma is used to connect or “splice” together, the two
complete thoughts. Some stronger connection than a comma alone is needed.
Comma Splices
The bus stopped suddenly, I spilled coffee all over my shirt.
Mario told everyone in the room to be quiet, his favourite show was on.
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the “boy” was doing the running. However, if we wrote, “Running down the street, I saw the
boy,” we would be suggesting to readers that “I” was doing the running.
Misplaced Modifier
Sometimes we become careless and place descriptive phrases far away from the words they
modify, making our sentences unclear or inaccurate. We call these phrases misplaced modifiers. For
example, in “I was told that I had been awarded the scholarship by my professor,” does the
underlined phrase mean that the professor did the telling or the awarding? If the professor did the
telling, we could make the meaning of this sentence clearer by repositioning the phrase: “I was told
by my professor that I had been awarded the scholarship.”
Dangling Modifiers
Other time we write descriptive phrases that point to or modify words that are not clearly
stated in our sentences, making our sentences illogical. We call these phrases dangling modifiers. For
example, in “Walking to college on a subzero morning, my left ear became frozen,” the underline
phrase modifies “my left ear.” This doesn’t make sense; some person must have been doing the
walking. We can clarify the sentence by putting a logical word after the phrase: for example,
“Walking to college on a subzero morning, I froze my left ear.” Or, we can change the phrase so that
it has a logical subject and verb in it: “When I was walking to college on a subzero morning, my left
ear became frozen.”
On July 20, 1969, American astronauts Neil Armstrong and Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin landed on
the moon, watched nearly by a fifth of the world’s population.
Revision:
Watched nearly by a fifth of the world’s population, American astronauts Neil Armstrong and
Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin landed on the moon on July 20, 1969.
(The world was not watching the moon; the world was watching the astronauts)
After seeing the benefits of reduced employee turnover, absenteeism, and lateness, onsite
daycare is being provided more frequently as a perk for working parents.
Revision:
After seeing the benefits of reduced employee turnover, absenteeism, and lateness, more and
more companies are providing onsite daycare as a perk for working parents.
(Onsite daycare is not seeing the benefits of reduced turnover, absenteeism and lateness;
companies are seeing these benefits as a result of onsite daycare.)
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An author who did not receive much attention until after her death, readers of all ages enjoy
Emily Dickinson’s poetry today.
or
Readers of all ages enjoy Emily Dickinson’s poetry today, an author who did not receive
much attention until after her death
Revision:
Today, readers of all ages enjoy the poetry of Emily Dickinson, an author who did not receive
much attention until after her death.
(The phrase, an author who did not receive much attention until after her death, should
modify Emily Dickinson rather than readers or Emily Dickinson’s poetry)
Cost-efficient and convenient, many of today’s corporate employees are being trained
through computer-assisted instruction.
Revision:
Cost-efficient and convenient, computer-assisted instruction is being used by many
companies to train employees.
Having submitted the conference registration form after the deadline, special permission by
the chairperson was needed before she could give her presentation.
Revision:
Having submitted the conference registration form after the deadline, Susan needed special
permission from the chairperson before she could give her presentation.
(The example doesn’t make sense as it is written. Someone must have submitted the form late.
According to the revision, Susan submitted the form late.)
When purchasing a cellular phone, the wide variety of calling plans and features overwhelms
many people.
Revision:
When purchasing a cellular phone, many people become overwhelmed by the wide variety of
calling plans and features.
(The calling plans and features aren’t purchasing cellular phones. People purchase cellular
phones)
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D. Faulty Parallelism
Words in a pair or series should have parallel structure. By balancing the items in a
pair or series so that they have the same kind of structure, you will make the sentences
clearer and easier to read.
E. Faulty Coordination
The Coordinating Conjunction
Coordinating conjunctions connect words, phrases, and clauses.
And, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet—these are the seven coordinating conjunctions.
Look at the examples that follow:
1. The bowl of squid eyeball stew is hot and delicious.
2. The squid eyeball stew is so thick that you can eat it with a fork or spoon.
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3. Rocky, my orange tomcat, loves having his head scratched but hates getting his claws
trimmed.
4. Rocky terrorizes the poodles next door yet adores German shepherds across the street.
5. Rocky refuses to eat dry cat food, nor will he touch a saucer of squid eyeball stew.
6. I hate to waste a single drop of squid eyeball stew, for it is expensive and time-consuming to
make.
7. Even though I added cream to the squid eyeball stew, Rocky ignored his serving, so I got a
spoon and ate it myself.
F. Subordination
Subordination, however, emphasizes the idea in the main clause more than one is the subordinate
clause. Generally, the patterns look like these:
Three patterns in writing use coordinating conjunctions. Add commas when required.
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Subordinating Conjunctions
A subordinating conjunction joins a subordinate clause to a main clause. An adverb clause is always
introduced by a subordinating conjunction. A noun clause and adjective clause sometimes are.
Adverb clause: Before you go, sign the log book.
Noun clause: He asked if he could leave early.
Adjective clause: That is the place where he was last seen.
A subordinating conjunction is always followed by a clause. Many subordinating conjunctions can be
other parts of speech.
Adverb: Jill came tumbling after.
Preposition: Jill came after Jack.
Subordinating Conjunction: Jill came tumbling after Jack had fallen.
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You could use each one of these sentences as a topic sentence because each main idea is
limited to and focused into two essential parts: a topic (key word or phrase) and a general direction
(conclusion or opinion) about the topic:
Topic Direction or General Word
Doing housework is very boring
Browsing in a library is an exciting experience
The Paragraph
A paragraph has three parts:
1. A topic sentence 2. Support sentences 3. A conclusion
Completeness
A paragraph must have enough information in it to give the reader a clearer picture or a full
discussion of its main idea (the topic sentence). A paragraph without details or examples will be
vague and unconvincing. A paragraph that does not have enough information is called incomplete or
undeveloped.
Example of an undeveloped paragraph:
Dancing can be good exercise. It can be entertaining. It can be lot of fun as well. Dancing can be very
beneficial to everyone.
Example of a complete paragraph:
Dancing can be good exercise. The constant arm and leg movements are like aerobics. They
can be a really good workout if the dance lasts long enough. If the dance requires lot of quick
movements, many calories can be used up, and more fat will be burned. Some dances require
movements that are like stretching, so flexibility and muscle tone will be increased. Dancing can help
maintain weight and can be beneficial exercise to everyone.
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Logical Order
All support sentences should be in clear, logical order. Sometimes the order of these supporting
details does not matter. Other times, however, it does matter because if the sentences are not in
logical order, the reader misses the main point of the paragraph.
Illogical Order:
I opened the front door of my house and went inside.
I walked up the fronts steps to my front door.
Logical Order:
I walked up the front steps to my front door.
I opened the door of my house and went inside.
Unity
All sentences in a good paragraph relate to the topic sentence (main idea). When any idea doesn’t
relate specifically to the topic sentence, then that paragraph lacks unity or is not unified.
Example of a unified paragraph:
American scientists are working hard to gather facts about sea turtles called leatherbacks. The
observers work, no matter what the weather is like—on clear days or in pouring rain. They count the
turtles lay their egg, the scientists walk up and down the beaches for many hours at a time. They
count the eggs in the sand. Then, later, they count the eggs that hatch. These biologists know that
they are collecting information that will someday be important to other scientists.
Coherence
One of the most important considerations in writing a paragraph is coherence—the way all the
sentences should be clearly connected to each other. Without connecting words or phrases,
supporting ideas may be hard to follow and sometimes may even seem to be unrelated to the topic
sentence and to each other.
The following paragraph has all the coherence it needs:
When Sue was a child, she learned from her Dad how to be hard worker. For example, she
always helped in the yard. Many times they mowed the lawn together. Sue emptied the grass catcher
(which her dad did not overfill), and he did the heavy part by lifting the barrels full of grass. Working
together, they did not quit until the job was done. She and her dad worked even after the sun was
gone, making sure the edges of the lawn were neat. In this way, Sue learned to stay with a job until
she had done well and could feel proud of her effort.
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To show addition again, also, and, then, besides, equally important, finally, first, further,
furthermore, in addition, in the first place, last, likewise, moreover, next, or,
still, then, too
To contrast although, and yet, at the same time, but, conversely, despite, even so, even
though, for all that, however, in contrast, in spite of, nevertheless, nonetheless,
notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the other hand, otherwise, regardless,
still, though, yet
To give examples after all, as an illustration, certainly, even, for example, for instance, indeed, in
or intensify fact, it is true that, namely, of course, specifically, that is, to be sure, to
illustrate, to tell the truth, truly
To summarize, all in all, together, as a result, as had been noted, basically, finally, in brief, in
repeat, or conclude conclusion, in other words, in particular, in short, simpler terms, in summary,
on the whole, that is, therefore, to put it differently, to summarize
To indicate place above, adjacent to, below, elsewhere, farther on, here, nearby, on the other
side, opposite to, there, to the east, to the left
To indicate time after a while, afterward, as long as, as soon as, at length, at that time, before,
currently, earlier, eventually, first (second, third, etc.), finally, formerly,
immediately, in the meantime, in the past (future), lately, later, meanwhile,
now, presently, shortly, simultaneously, since, so far, soon, still, subsequently,
then, thereafter, until, until now, when, while
To indicate cause accordingly, as a result, because, consequently, for this purpose, hence,
and effect otherwise, since, so, then, therefore, thereupon, thus, to this end, with this
object
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You can tell if your thesis is strong if you can answer the following:
Do I answer the question? Re-reading the question prompt after constructing a working thesis
can help you fix an argument that misses the focus of the question.
Have I taken a position that others might challenge or oppose? If your thesis simply states
facts that no one would, or even could, disagree with, it’s possible that you are simply
providing a summary, rather than making an argument.
Is my thesis statement specific enough? Thesis statements that are too vague often do not
have a strong argument.
Does my thesis pass the “So what?” test? If a reader’s first response is, “So what?” then you
need to clarify, to forge a relationship, or to connect to a larger issue.
Does my essay support my thesis specifically and without wandering? If your thesis and the
body of your essay do not seem to go together, one of them has to change.
Does my thesis pass the “how and why?” test? If a reader’s response is “how?” or “why?” your
thesis may be too open-ended and lack guidance for the reader.
Expository: This is the simplest of all types of thesis, the expansionary thesis principally puts
forth some facts and simplified explanations regarding a specific idea, in front of the people.
Example: watching too much television may lead to physiological and psychological
problems.
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Argumentative: the third type is that of the argumentative thesis and presents arguments
between two viewpoints.
Example: Smoking should be banned in all public places.
Larry suddenly woke up from a deep sleep. The sun was dazzling his half-open eyes, and he
couldn’t figure out what time it was. The door to his room was closed; the house was immersed in
some sort of reckless silence. He slowly got out of his bed and approached the bench right next to the
window. For a moment, he thought, he heard a tapping sound coming from the attic. Then again he
heard the sound, only this time it seemed to be somewhat closer. He looked outside the window and
saw a man going by the left side of the road. On seeing Larry, the man approached his garden’s fence
and whistled. At this point, Larry recognized Nick and waved his hand. He quickly got dressed and
was about to get down to open the gate, but he again heard someone murmuring in the other part of
the house. Larry decided to go to the attic and see what was causing this, now buzzing, sound. He got
to the second floor of his house and looked toward the attic. He quickly opened its door and looked
inside. Nothing was found. He was about to turn back and attend to his guest when he, suddenly
slipped on the stairs and fell. He called out to Nick to help him get up.
Descriptive Essay
The descriptive essay relies on concrete, sensory detail to communicate its point.
When writing a descriptive essay, writers should have a broad fund of modifiers, i.e.,
adjectives. Moreover, writers should be specific in using adjectives and other words that
would describe the topic, i.e., beautiful may be different from pretty, cute, gorgeous, etc.
Process Essay
A process essay may either be “how to do” or “How something works”
In a “How to do” essay the objective of the writer is to tell the reader how a certain product is
produced. Most often, this type of essay uses the first person point of view because it
“demonstrates” how something is does to the reader (e.g. How to apply for the Fulbright
Scholarship Grant)
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My most valuable possession is an old, slightly warped blond guitar—the first instrument I
taught myself how to play. It’s not play. It’s nothing fancy, just a Madeira folk guitar, all scuffed and
scratched and finger-printed. At the top is a bramble of copper-wound strings, each one hooked
through the eye of a silver tuning key. The strings are stretched down a long, slim neck, its frets
tarnished, the wood worn by years of fingers pressing chords and picking notes. The body of the
Madeira is shaped like an enormous yellow pear, one that was slightly damaged in shipping. The
blond wood has been chipped and gouged to gray, particularly where the pick guard fell off years ago.
No, it’s not a beautiful instrument, but it still lets me make music, and for that I will always treasure
it.
The writing process has four distinct phases. (2) The first is invention, which is aided by any
number of techniques, including free-writing, mind-mapping and outlining. (3) In this first stage, it’s
important for a writer not to edit but to let ideas flow and simply get them down on paper. (4) After
invention, comes the first draft—the stage where the ideas start to take shape. (5) Many writers use a
sentence outline at this stage to see where they need to cut and where they need to add material. The
first draft is also where writers should develop a tentative thesis to guide the structure of the essay.
(6) The next stage of the process is when both the second and third drafts are done. (7) Here, ideas
and structure are refined, and the thesis is revised until it becomes the unifying idea of the paper. (8)
Finally, comes the last stage, that of editing. (9) Writers should take care at this stage that all sentence
structure and punctuation is correct, and they should make corrections to documentation format as
needed. (10) Writers often repeat four phases more than once, or skip a phase and go back to it,
making the writing process more cyclical than linear.
Comparison-Contrast
A comparison-contrast essay presents the relationship between two items; this may be in the
form of similarities and differences.
This essay may be organized by using either the “point by point organization” or the “block
organization”
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Block Arrangement
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Cause-Effect
The cause-effect essay presents the reasons or results for something.
There are two possible ways to outline a cause-effect essay: (a) single cause, multiple effects of
(b) multiple causes, single effect.
The tropical rainforests of West Africa, Brazil, Latin America, and Southeast Asia are some of
the most important environmental regions of the world because they hold millions of unique plants,
animals, and people. However, they are being destroyed rapidly for agriculture, mining, and logging.
This essay will examine the causes of this destruction and outline its effects on our lives.
One of the main causes of this is logging for timber. Millions of hectares of trees are cut down
every year, often illegally. The most valuable wood is taken and not replaced, and landless people
move in along the new logging roads.
Argumentative
An argumentative essay presents premises and conclusions regarding an issue. It presents the
writer’s stand—whether s/he agrees or not. However, it should be noted that an
argumentative essay is different from an opinion simply because an argumentative essay
shows evidences and support details, while most opinions are based on beliefs and personal
ideologies.
Premises are reasons that support conclusions, while a conclusion is the key assertion, or
claim.
Because of the pressing issues regarding global economic recession, it is high time that the
government supports programs that would boost the country’s economy. We should set aside moral
issues and start thinking of ways to curb to growing problems in finance. One way to deal with this is
by legalizing prostitution.
We all know that this is the oldest profession and legalizing this will allow more revenues.
How? Well, basically, legalizing prostitution is tantamount to taxation. Each prostitute will be taxed.
Hence, a portion of their profits will contribute to the needs of the nation.
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GRAMMAR
I. The Parts of Speech
The parts of speech fall into two categories: 1) the content words (also called form classes
because they are best identified by form rather than by functions) which include nouns,
verbs, adjectives, adverbs; and 2) the structure words most of which do carry some meaning
but which also serve to form a structural framework so that the words can fit into sentences.
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PERFECT
The perfect aspects all give the idea that one thing happened before another time or event
-an action happened sometime
PRESENT PERFECT before now at an unspecified time a. Gary has already eaten
(has/have + V-en (past in the past. The exact time is not b. I have known him for many years
participle) important
(Adverbs like ever, never, already, NOTE: the difference between since and
yet, still and just are frequently for:
used with the present perfect FOR + a duration of time
SINCE + a particular time
-a situation that began in the past
and continues to the present
(usually used with for or since)
PAST PERFECT -an action was completely finished
(had + V-en (past before another activity or time in a. Gary had already eaten when his friend
participle) the past arrived
FUTURE PERFECT -an action was completely finished b. Gary will already have eaten when his
(will/shall + have + V-en before another time in the future friend arrives
(past participle)
PERFECT PROGRESSIVE
The perfect progressive aspects give the idea that one event is in progress immediately before, up
to, until another time or event.
PRESENT PERFECT -an event is in progress
PROGRESSIVE -it happened before now up to now a. Abet has been delivering the speech for
(has/have + been + V-ing) 30 minutes now
PAST PERFECT -emphasizes the duration of an
PROGRESSIVE activity that was in progress before b. Abet had been delivering the speech for
(had + been + V-ing) another activity or time in the past 30 minutes before the President arrived.
FUTURE PERFECT -an event is in progress
PROGRESSIVE -it happened before another event c. Abet will have been delivering the speech
(will have + been + V-ing) in the future and will last for a for 30 minutes by the time the President
particular period of time arrives
C. Dynamic Verbs, sometimes referred to as “action verbs,” express a wide range of actions which
may be physical, mental, or perceptual as opposed to a stative verb which purely expresses a state in
which there is no obvious action
Some examples of dynamic verbs are: eat, drink, go, type, read, write, listen, speak, watch,
say, grow, melt, sleep, cook, talk, etc.
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Rule 2: Two singular subjects connected by either-or or neither-nor require a singular verb,
but when a singular and plural subject are connected, use a plural verb
e.g. Either John or Susan is available.
Neither the teacher nor the principal is coming.
Either the house or the cars are for sale.
Neither Jenny nor the others are available.
Rule 3: When one of your two subjects is I, put it second and follow it with the singular verb
am.
e.g. Neither she nor I am going to the festival
Rule 4: Compound subjects joined by and require a plural verb, but when the parts refer to
the same person or have some other close relation, they take a singular verb. Also, if
parts of the compound subject are modified by each, or no, a singular verb is required.
e.g. Her professor and thesis adviser is here. (same person)
Every branch and twig was covered with dust.
No one is here.
Rule 5: Sometimes the subject is separated from the verb by words such as along with, as well
as, besides or not. Ignore these expressions when determining whether to use a
singular of plural verb.
e.g. The politician, along with the newsmen, is expected shortly.
Excitement, as well as nervousness, is the cause of her shaking.
Rule 6: The definite pronouns each, everyone, one, everybody, anyone, someone, and
somebody are singular and require singular verbs. Do not be misled by what follows
of.
e.g. Each of the girls sings well.
Everyone of participating teams is pleased about the judging.
Note: Everyone is one word when it means everybody. Every one is two words when
the meaning is each one.
e.g. Every one of the items on sale is gone.
Rule 7: With words that indicate portions—percent, fraction, part, majority, some, all, none,
remainder, etc.—look at the noun in your phrase (object of the preposition) to
determine whether to use a singular or plural verb. If the object of the prepositions is
singular, use a singular verb. If the object of the preposition is plural, use a plural verb.
e.g. Fifty percent of the pie has disappeared.
Fifty percent of the pies have disappeared.
All of the pie is gone.
All of the pies are gone.
Some of the pie is missing.
Some of the pies are missing.
Rule 8: When either and neither are subjects, they always take singular verbs.
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III. Nouns
Nouns are names of anything exists or that can be conceived, referring to a person,
place, thing, or idea. They can also be categorized based on the following:
1. The kind of thought or perception they convey (abstract or concrete)
2. The type of matter they name (common or proper)
3. The number (singular or plural)
4. The quantity or amount they indicate (collective or mass)
5. The gender (masculine, feminine, or neuter)
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Possessives
1. An apostrophe is added to form the possessive case of singular and plural nouns ending in –s
or –z; ‘s to those not ending in –s or –z
2. An of phrase is used after nouns not related to people.
e.g. the tires of the car the surface of the road
the roof of the house the leaves of the tree
3. Nouns connected with people and human activity usually take the ‘s form.
e.g. Proper names: Abraham Lincoln’s speech
Personal nouns: the girl’s dress
Collective nouns: the team’s success
Relating to human activity: the body’s ability
Institution: the museum’s members
4. Many phrases of time take the ‘s form.
e.g. a month’s pay two weeks’ vacation
a year’s work season’s greetings
5. Certain idioms take the ‘s form.
e.g. our money’s worth an arm’s length
6. Higher animals can take the ‘s form.
e.g. a dog’s life the kitten’s cry
a bird’s nest the horse’s mane
7. Double possessives using both of and the ‘s form are common with proper nouns when
reference is definite and personal.
e.g. a novel of Conrad’s a painting of Picasso’s
Plurals
8. The plural of most nouns are generally formed by adding final –s when the singular form can
be pronounced without adding a syllable, or a final –es if the singular form ends in –s, -ch, -z,
and –x that cannot unite with s to form one syllable.
9. Plurals of figures, signs, and letters used as words add ‘s.
10. There are nouns generally used in the singular and therefore require singular verb. Among
these are beard, food, fish, fruit, grass, hair.
11. The following nouns do not have their plural form: baggage, chalk, furniture, jewelry,
scenery, information, machinery, pottery.
12. The following nouns are always plural: trousers, binoculars, scissors, means, refreshments,
forceps, pliers, and falls.
13. Nouns ending in –ics are singular when they denote scientific subjects such as Physics,
Mathematics, Linguistics
14. Nouns ending in –ics are plural when they denote activities or qualities such as acoustics,
acrobatics, athletics
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15. Hyphenated nouns or compound nouns usually attach –s to the element that is actually being
pluralized: mothers-in-law, officers-in charge, editors-in-chief, mayors-elect
16. Foreign plural:
Foreign Noun Plural Form Foreign Noun Plural Form
larva larvae criterion criteria
vertebra vertebrae phenomenon phenomena
alumnus alumni automaton automata
bacillus bacilli libretto libretti
cactus cacti/cactuses tempo tempi
focus foci virtuoso virtuosi
B. Order of Determiners in a Noun Phrase
Pre-Determiner Core Determiner Post-Determiner (Adjective) Noun
A. Articles Cardinal Numbers school
all a/an 1, 2, 3… red college
both the Ordinal Numbers old dormitory
half B. Possessive first, second,… last new house
Adjectives
double her everyfew big garden
his less high fence
its little(quantity) tall garage
my many(a) thick gate
our more intellectual summer
their most thoughtful rock
your other excellent wool
C. Possessive of same Japanese silk
names
Ex. John’s several silken steel
D. Demonstratives single woolen clay
this such plastic
that cloth
these leather
those brick
E. Indefinite paper
another coat
any, each skirt
either
enough
much
neither
no
some
what(a)
which
whose
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IV. PRONOUNS
Pronouns are words that stand for a noun or noun phrase
SUBJECT OBJECT POSSESSIVE
PRONOUN PRONOUN PRONOUN
SINGULAR I me mine
you you your
he her hers
she him his
it it its
PLURAL we us ours
you you yours
they them theirs
The noun being referred back to is called the “antecedent” (e.g. I read a book. It was good).
The pronoun “it” refers to the antecedent noun “book”
Possessive pronouns are not followed immediately by a noun; they stand alone. (e.g., That
book is hers.)
Possessive pronouns do NOT take apostrophes.
Possessive determiners are followed immediately by a noun; they do not stand alone. (e.g. Her
book is here.)
It has no apostrophe when used as a possessive determiner. (e.g. A bird uses its wings to fly.)
It’s is a contraction of it is or it has.
V. ADJECTIVES
A. Degrees of Adjectives
Only the comparative and superlative adjectives show degrees. We use the comparative for
comparing two entities and the superlative for comparing three or more entities.
Gladys is a rich woman, but Josie is richer than Gladys, and Sadie is the richest
woman in town.
Positive Comparative Superlative
rich richer richest
lovely lovelier loveliest
beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
Certain adjectives have irregular forms in the comparative and superlative degrees:
Irregular Comparative Superlative
good better best
bad worse worst
little less least
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Determiners e.g. this, that, these, those, my, mine, your, your, him, his, her,
hers, they, their; or a, an, the
Observation / Opinion e.g. beautiful, interesting, polite, difficult, hardworking
Size e.g. tall, wide, large, high, narrow, thin
Shape e.g. round, rectangular, circular
Age e.g. young, old, new, ancient
Color e.g. red, black, pale
Origin e.g. French, American, Canadian
Material e.g. woollen, metallic, wooden
Qualifier e.g. rocking chair, hunting cabin, passenger car
C. Collective Adjectives
When the definite article, the, is combined with an adjective describing a class or
group of people, the resulting phrase can act as a noun: the poor, the rich, the oppressed, the
homeless, the lonely, the unlettered, the unwashed, the gathered, the dear departed.
The rural poor have been ignored by the media.
The rich of Connecticut are responsible.
The elderly are beginning to demand their rights.
The young at heart are always a joy to be around.
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D. Irregular Comparisons
A few of the comparatives and superlatives in English do not follow the usual pattern.
Here is a list of common exceptions:
Positive Comparative Superlative
bad worse worst
badly worse worst
far(distance) farther farthest
far(extent) further furthest
good better best
ill worse worst
late later latest or last
less lesser least
little (amount) less least
many more most
much more most
well better best
E. Kinds of Adjectives
1. Possessive Adjectives
o Modify a noun by telling whom it belongs to
o Answer the question “Whose?”
o Include his, her, its, my, our, their, and your
e.g. You can share my rice. Have you seen their house?
2. Demonstrative Adjectives
o Include that, these, this, those and answer the question “Which?”
o Used to modify a noun or pronoun
e.g. I’m going to open that present
Those socks look warm.
3. Interrogative Adjectives
o Include what and which used in a question
o May look like an interrogative pronoun, but it is used differently in a sentence: It is
an adjective used to modify a noun or pronoun
e.g. What movie do you want to see?
Which leaves turn color first?
4. Indefinite Adjectives
o An indefinite adjective gives indefinite, or general information
o Often, it answers the question “How much?”
o Some common indefinite adjectives are all, any, each, every few, many, and some.
e.g. Many children like dinosaurs.
Did you want some bananas?
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VI. Adverbs
Adverbs are modifiers of a verb, an adjective, another adverb, a phrase, or a clause. They
indicate manner, time, place, cause, or degree and answers questions such as “how,”
“when,” “where,” “how much.”
A. Types of Adverbs
1. Adverbs of Manner
Provide information on how someone does something
Placed after the verb or entire expression (at the end of the sentence)
e.g. Jack drives very carefully.
Their teacher speaks quickly.
2. Adverbs of Time
Provide information on when something happens
e.g. We’ll let you know our decision next week.
3. Adverbs of Degree
Provide information concerning how much of something is done
Placed after the verb or entire expression (at the end of the sentence)
e.g. They like playing golf a lot.
She’ll attend the meeting as well.
4. Adverbs of Comment
Provide comment, or opinion about a situation
Placed at the beginning of a sentence
e.g. Fortunately, there were enough seats left for the concert.
Luckily, I was able to come to the presentation.
B. Adverb Placement
Adverbs of frequency are placed after the verb ‘to be’ when used as the main verb of
the sentence.
e.g. Jack is often late for work.
Some adverbs of frequency (sometimes, usually, normally) are also placed at the
beginning of the sentence for emphasis.
Adverbs can also modify an adjective. In this case, the adverb is placed before the
adjective.
e.g. She is extremely happy. They are absolutely sure.
Do not use ‘very’ with adjectives that express an increased quality of a basic adjective.
e.g. good—fantastic
Adverbs of frequency (always, never, sometimes) usually come before the main verb.
e.g. He is often late for class
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VII. Prepositions
Prepositions show relationships in time and space and relationship between ideas
(logical relationships).
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VIII. Conjunctions
AND addition
BUT shows contrast
YET but at the same time
SO therefore
FOR because
OR one or the other two alternatives is true
NOR conjoins two negative sentences, both of which are true
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Subordinating Conjunctions connect two complete ideas by making one of the ideas subordinate to or
less important than the other.
e.g. He ran steadily as though wolves were after him.
(main idea) (subordinate idea)
Frequently Used Subordinating Conjunctions
after because now that until
although before since when
as even if so that whenever
as if even though than where
as long as if though wherever
as soon as in order that till while
as though lest unless
IX. Modals
Basic modals: can, could, may, might, must, ought to, shall, should, will, would
Phrasal modals: be able to, be going to, be supposed to, have to, have got to, used to
Modals do not take a final –s even when the subject is singular.
Correct: She can do it.
Incorrect: She can do it
Modals are followed by the simple form of the verb. the only exception is ought, which is
followed by an infinitive (to + simple form of the verb)
Correct: She can do it.
Incorrect: She can does it.
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X. Tag Questions
A tag question is a question added at the end of a sentence. It aims to seek agreement or to
ascertain correctness of information. A tag question may be spoken (a) with a rising
intonation if the speaker is truly seeking to ascertain that his/her information, idea or belief
is correct, (e.g. Ann lives in an apartment, doesn’t she?) or (b) with a failing intonation if
the speaker is expressing an idea with which s/he is almost certain the listener will agree
(e.g. It’s a nice day today, isn’t it?)
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ENGLISH PHONOLOGY
Effective oral discourse means being able to use grammatical structures accurately; having the ability
to express ideas, messages, and intentions meaningfully; and observing rules of use appropriately
when interacting with others in various social contexts. In other words, a competent speaker has
good pronunciation and correct intonation, forms grammatical sentences, and uses language
appropriately when communicating with others.
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The speech-producing mechanism or vocal apparatus consist of the following parts as shown in the
figure:
The resonators or resonating cavities: the pharynx or pharyngeal cavity, the nasal cavity, and
the oral cavity. These cavities serve as the passage of the moving stream of air. The
pharyngeal cavity is a space formed by the root of the tongue and the walls of the throat.
The articulators: lower lip, lower teeth, the tongue and its parts (the tongue apex is made up
of the tongue tip and blade, the front of the tongue, and the back of the tongue or dorsum), as
well as the soft palate or velum with its pear-shaped appendage called the uvula. Articulators
are movable parts.
The important points of articulation are the upper lip, the upper teeth, the alveolar ridge (the
gum behind the upper teeth), the hard palate (the bony roof of the mouth) and again, the
velum. Except for the velum, these parts are non-movable. They are the parts of speech
apparatus near which or against which the articulators are placed in the production of the
various speech sounds.
The vocal cords / bands. They are two short bands of elastic flesh and muscle located inside
the larynx (Adam’s apple). The opening between them is called the glottis. The glottis may be
opened so as to cause no obstruction in the passage of air as in normal breathing, completely
closed, or partially closed. Speech sounds produced with an open glottis are said to be
voiceless. When the vocal bands are brought so close together than the air passing through
causes the glottis to vibrate, the speech sounds produced are said to be voiced. When the
vocal bands are pressed together so tightly as to resist considerable air pressure from the
lungs, the sound produced is a glottal stop.
B. The Phoneme
The phoneme is a minimal significant or contrastive unit in a language. This speech sound
signals a difference in meaning e.g.. /p/, /b/, and /f/ as in pan, ban, and fan. Note that a
phoneme is enclosed in slants / /.
A phoneme may be pronounced in different ways, depending on its position in the
utterance, and still remains the same phoneme. These variations in pronunciation, called
allophones, are enclosed in square brackets [ ]. For example, the phoneme /p/ is
pronounced differently in the following words: pin, spin, nip. It is aspirated in pin [phin],
unaspirated in spin [spin] and unreleased in nip [nip-].
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Using Trager and Smith and the IPA transcription systems, the following are the simple
and complex vowels of English with their corresponding key words:
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Awareness of certain sounds are crucial in pronouncing noun plurals, and noun possessives as
well as the third person singular inflection of regular verbs. Similarly, it is also significant in
pronouncing the regular simple past inflection. To illustrate:
Noun plurals are spelled as –s or –es. This plural inflection can be pronounced in three
different ways, i.e., /-s/, /-z/, or /Əz/ as shown below:
/-s/ /-z/ /-Əz/
cats, ropes, rocks, graphs beds, chairs, seeds, stones, dishes, churches, judges,
leaves, dolls garages, buses
/Əz/ occurs after sibilants or s-like sounds such as /s, z, š, ž, č, j/
/s/ occurs after voiceless sounds except /s, š, č/
/z/ occurs after voiced sounds except /z, ž, j/
The pronunciation rules defined for the plural above also apply to noun possessives and third person
singular forms of regular verbs.
Likewise, the regular simple past tense inflection –ed has three variants, namely /t, d, Əd/
/Əd/ occurs after /t/ and /d/ as in planted, hated, needed, and raided
/t/ occurs after voiceless sounds except /t/, e.g. liked, surprised, realized, cooked
/d/ occurs after voiced sounds as in loved, played, owned and belonged
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(level 1). We begin on level 2, our natural normal level, and remain there until we
reach the primary stress.
Pitches combine into patterns to make meaningful melodies over the whole phrase or
sentence, e.g. 231, 233, or 232. In 231, a statement or proposition is being uttered.
These melodies have three methods of closure called terminal junctures or simply
terminals. As the name suggests, these terminals occur at the end of the sentence.
oftentimes, they are marked with arrows as follows:
↓ = fading terminal
↑ = rising terminal
→ = sustained terminal
The fading terminal as in 231↓ is characterized by a rapid fadeaway of the voice into
silence. It closes a statement.
e.g. 2I’m going to 3school↓
The rising terminal as in 233↑ is a short, slight rise in the pitch from the last level
heard, but it does not go all the way up to the next level. This terminal commonly
occurs at the end of a yes-no question.
e.g. 2Are you 3happy3↑
The sustained terminal as in 232→ is characterized by a slight lengthening of the
preceding pitch 3 word (i.e., the word that gets the primary stress. It may be heard at
the end of a long sentence subject
e.g. 2All of the members of the 3team2→look confused.
Patterns of pitch, with their accompanying terminals such as 231↓, 233↑, and 232→
are called intonation contours.
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There are three elements in oral communication: the speaker, the message, and the audience. The
purpose of the speaker’s message must be appropriate to the occasion and the intended audience. Oral
communication process may be illustrated as one-way or two-way as shown below.
ONE-WAY TWO-WAY
Message
A. Group Communication
The Four Criteria that Determine a Small Group (Morreale, Splitzberg, & Barge, 2007)
1. Includes Three of More People
2. Includes Shared Perception
3. Emphasizes Interdependence
4. Requires Communication
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2. Types of Speeches
An informative speech increases the audience’s understanding or awareness by
imparting knowledge. It provides audience with new information, new insights, or
new ways of thinking about a topic, and introduces new ideas, events, people,
places, or things.
A persuasive speech attempts to influence the attitudes, beliefs, values, and acts of
others. It limits alternatives, seeks a response, and respects audience choices.
Special Occasion Speeches
o Speech of Introduction prepares or warms up the audience for the speaker.
It aims to motivate audience members to listen to what s/he has to say.
o Speech of Acceptance aims to express gratitude for the honor bestowed on
the speaker.
o Eulogies and Tributes celebrate and commemorate the life the deceased
while consoling those who have been left behind.
o Speech of Inspiration aims to uplift the member of the audience and to
help them see things in a positive light.
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Expressions of Advice
Asking Giving Accepting Rejecting
Can you give me any / You should + verb Thanks for the advice. Thanks, but I don’t think
some advice? I advise you to + verb That sounds like a good that’s a good idea.
What should I do? I suggest that you + verb idea. Thanks. I’ll think about
What do you suggest/ You can / could +verb Thanks. I’ll do that. it.
recommend/ advise? Why don’t you + verb Thanks, but I’m not so
What do you think I Verb / Don’t + verb sure.
should / ought to do?
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I. Early literary historians divided Philippine literature in English into five periods
a. Period of Orientation (1898-1909)
b. Period of Imitation (1910-1924)
c. Period of Growth and Experimentation (1925-1941)
d. Post-Liberation Period (1945-onwards)
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The first book of poems and the first novel in English written by a Filipino were published
during this period: Procopio Solidum’s Never Mind and Other Poems and Zoilo M. Galang’s A
child of Sorrow.
It is the theme that poet sing about and glorify in sublime and immortal
poetry. It is the wine that intoxicates. It is one of the greatest events in life—
when two passionate lips dip into the sweet realm of the cup of love, while
Cupid stands smiling and the angels in heaven sing of the faith of two loving
souls, blessing them with ineffable happiness.
“A Child of Sorrow”- Zoilo M. Galang
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The first Filipino biographer to write in English is Carlos Quirino with his The Great
Malayan. I.V. Mallari’s The Birth and Discontent showed his mastery of the art of irony as
well as of the English language.
In the essay, the notable writings included Salvador P. Lopez’ prize-winning collection
Literature and Society and Francisco P. Icasiano’s Horizons from My Nipa Hut.
Filipino playwrights flourished during this period: Augusto C. Catanjal (The Oil Lamp), Vidal
A. Tan (The Husband of Mrs. Cruz), Severino Montano (The Land of Our Fathers), and
Wilfrido Ma. Guerrero (13 Plays), who became the most prolific dramatist.
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Father and I hastened to the hut. He was proud of me, but he had no
intention of making me marry that girl, he explained. He had better
hopes for me. He opened his coconut shell in which he kept his money
and tool out all he had saved for years. Then we ran to town, where my
mother lived with my two sisters. Father explained what had happened.
“The Laughter of My Father” – Carlos Bulosan
Stevan Javellana published his novel Without Seeing the Dawn, a war novel comparable to
Rizal’s masterpieces
Her words fell like a bolt of thunder in his ears and he could not think
clearly for some time. The boy, had he looked? Did he ever come to learn
to call his name, saying, “Tatay—Father?” He wanted to ask her but he
did not. He had come home expecting to find peace in the bosom of his
family. Peace did not welcome him, but Grief sat on its haunches at his
doorstep.
Without Seeing the Dawn – Stevan Javellana
Jose Garcia Villa’s collection of poems Have Come, Am Here revealed great power both in
thought and expression and elicited the warmest praises from American and English critics.
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Pre-War Poetry
S.P. Lopez, a prophet of socially committed literature, influenced as he was by the social
protest movement sweeping the USA at about that time in the wake of the great economic
collapse and the depression wrote:
The real artist has a deep compassion for the suffering of the oppressed and anger at
the oppressors. The highest form of art is that which springs from the wells of man’s
deepest urges and longings… his love for his own kind and his longing to be free…of
all the ends to which he (the artist) may dedicate his talents, none is more worthy
than the improvement of the condition of man and the defense of freedom.
(Literature and Society, 1939)
Jose Garcia Villa, on the other hand, believed in “art for art’s sake;” that in art, craft comes
before meaning, that poetry should never be useful and propagandistic, that it must only
arouse pleasure in the beautiful, must lead to contemplation, not action.
Prior to the 20’s the poems that were written were nothing more than mere versifications,
exercises in rhetoric, using specific classical moulds or patterns and poetic forms more for
discipline than for art.
Literary models were mostly Romantic and Victorian 19th century Anglo-American poets.
The 20’s and on to the 30’s saw the profusion of romantic poems, effusive personal expression
of all kinds of emotions, specifically love, love lost, love betrayed, love unrequited, or love
triumphant.
Summarizing, pre-war poetry underwent three important phases:
1. Poetry used as vehicle for mere rhetorical exercises in the service of language-learning
rather than literature
2. Poetry used as vehicle for mere self-expression, personal and uncontrolled outpourings.
3. Poetry as vehicle for a dawning nationalistic fervor in the wake of the great S.P Lopez
versus Villa debate and the establishment of the Commonwealth in 1935.
Pre-War Fiction
Prior to the 20’s, Leopoldo Yabes said, “the short stories are better classified as tales rather
than stories.”
The Philippine Free Press encouraged writers through its short story contest involving a cash
award of one hundred pesos for the winning piece, aside from the regular twenty-peso
publication royalty.
By the end of the 30’s, Filipino short stories written in English already showed more carefully
crafted pieces:
a. The unified single impression or effect through atmosphere, tone, and style
b. Plausible characterization
c. A well-defined plot structure
d. Control of language as medium
e. Interesting situation an d a significant theme
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Post-War Poetry
Modernism in poetry started in the 1950’s. the modern poet experimented in techniques of
versification, rhythm, music, and imagery.
Modern poets were influenced by modern or western schools: (1) imagism, (2) metaphysical
school, (3) impressionistic-symbolistic school and (4) new criticism.
Post-War Fiction
Carlos Bulosan’s America Is In the Heart pursued literature’s commitment to social problems
in the choice of subject matter, the peasants, the labourers, the interface of economic
conditions and politics.
NVM Gonzales published Seven Hills Away in 1947.
Francisco Arcellana joined the ranks of the finest writers with his Divide By Two by showing
his artistic ingenuity in point of structure, emotional impact, subtle manipulation of symbols,
and the powerful rhythm of his language.
Bienvenido Santos wrote You Lovely People, his first book of short stories about Filipino
exiles in America.
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“Look,” I said it, “one of these days, very soon, I hope, I’ll be going
home. I could go to your town.”
No,” he said softly, sounding very much defeated but brave, “Thanks
a lot. But, you see, nobody would remember me now.”
Then he started the car, and as it moved away, he waved his hand.
“Goodbye,” I said, waving back into the darkness. And suddenly the
night was cold like winter straying early in these northern woodlands.
“Scent of Apples” – Bienvenido N. Santos
Nick Joaquin stood above his contemporaries which included Kerima Polotan Tuvera, Gilda
Cordero Fernando, Aida Rivera Ford, Estrella Alfon, Rony Diaz, Lilia Pabloc Amansec, and
Gregorio Brillantes.
The short story achieved a degree of mastery and became preoccupied with form: (1)
emphasis on key moment or illumination usually at the end of the story, (2) use of consistent
point of view, (3) use of symbols, the story existing in more than one level, (4) evocative use
of language and tone, and (5) overall structural unity, blending of form and content.
In the normal form, Nick Joaquin’s The Woman Who Had Two Navels showed a new way of
presenting the subject matter, employing rich multi-layered meanings, and incorporating a
sense of history and tradition.
Francisco Sionil Jose started his Rosales saga with The Pretenders, an indictment against the
modern illustrados and social injustice.
Kerima Polotan, writer-turned-publisher, showcased her artistic sensibility and social
conscience and portrayed the yearnings and frustrations of a Flaubertian heroine in The
Hand of the Enemy, a novel that is naturalistic in its pessimism, but romantic in its style and
presentation.
It’s bad enough having poor around us all the time, but not use them their
loyalty, to fail to harness them for a man or a cause that can bring the
country and themselves much good—All right, we pander to their greed
but if you want to ensnare people’s minds, you must dangle a bit of bait
before them.
The Hand of the Enemy- Kerima Polotan Tuvera
The Essay
The political essay became popular and most suited for the discussion of ideas and timely
issues. Nationalist writers included Renato Constantino, Petronilo Daroy, Luis Teodoro, Jose
Lacaba, Bienvenido Lumbera, Epifanio San Juan, and Dolores Feria.
Nick Joaquin as Quijano de Manila (his pen name) wrote many essays.
Travel essay became popular with Cristina Pantoja Hidalgo leading the pack.
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Literary critics wrote reviews and became members of the Manila Critics Circle, among them
Isagani Cruz, Alfred Yuzon, Alfredo Salanga, Alice Guillermo, Doreen Fernandez, Rio Alma,
and Ophelia Dimalanta.
III. The Development of Philippine Literature in English (Since 1900) by Richard Croghan, S.J.
(1975) divided Philippine literature in English into the three periods.
A. The Early Period (1900-1930)
B. The Middle Period (1930-1960)
C. The Modern Period (1960-1975)
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IV. Josephine Serrano and Trinidad Ames in A Survey of Literature in English had the following
divisions:
A. The Apprenticeship Period (1910-1935)
B. The Emergence Period (1935-1945)
C. Contemporary Period (1945-present)
V. Silverio Baltazar et.al. in Literature Past and Present (1981) described Philippine Literature in
English as
A. Period of Transition and Learning (1900-1935)
B. Period of Emergence and Recognition (1935-1960)
C. Period of Diversity and Re-examination (1960-present)
VI. Bienvenido Lumbera and Cynthia Nograles Lumbera in Philippine Literature: A History and
Anthology (1982, revised 1997) chronicled Philippine Literature in English into:
Literature during Pre-colonial Times (___-1564)
Literature Under Spanish Colonialism (1565-1898)
Literature Under American Colonialism (1898-1945)
Literature Under the Republic (1946-1985)
Literature After EDSA (1986-1995)
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C. Ang Tanaga—tulang palasak nab ago pa man dumating ang mga Kastila. Binubuo ito ng apat
na taludtod na may sariling pantigan.
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b. Kantahing-bayan
Oyayi o holoborin—awit pampatulog ng sanggol
Diona o ihiman—awit pangkasal
Soliranin o talindaw—awit pamamangka
Kundiman—awit ng pag-ibig
Tagumpay, kumintang o tikam—awit-pandigma
c. Karunungang-bayan
Bugtong at palaisipan
Salawikain at kasabihan
Bugtong Salawikain
Langit sa itaas, Ang kalabaw na apat
Langit sa ibaba, ang paa, nadudulas pa.
Tubig sa gitna.
Ang unti-unting patak,
Bongbong kung liwanag, Sa bato nakaaagnas.
Kung gabi ay dagat.
Madali maging tao,
Itinanim ng gabi Mahirap ang magpakatao
Sa umaga inani
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2. Panahon ng Epiko
a. Microepic—kumpleto at maaaring matapos sa isang upuan lang
b. Macroepic—ipinakikital lamang ang partikular na bahagi, nag-iisang awit
c. Mesoepic—maraming masalimuot na insidente
d. Epiko ng mga Kristiano: Lam-ang, Ibalon, Labaw Donggon
e. Epiko ng mga di-Kristiano—Alim, Tuwaang, Darangan, Agyu, Sandayo, Bantugan
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Korido—ang sukat ay walong pantig sa loob ng taludtod. Ang musika ay mabilis o allegro.
Ang paksa’y pananampalataya, alamat o kababalaghan.
Pasyon—Gaspar Aquino de Belen, Don Luis Guian, Padre Mariano Pilapil, Padre Aniceto
de la Merced
b. Tulang pang-aliw
“Arte Poetico Tagalo”
c. Tuluyang pang-aliw
Barlaan at Josaphat
Mga Buhok na Nangungusap
Tandang Basio Macunat
d. Dulang pang-aliw
Duplo—tagisan ng talino ng dalawang pangkat sa pamamagitan ng pagtula at ang mga
kaisipang taglay ng berso ay kadalasang buhat sa mga awit, korido, salawikain, at
kasabihan.
Karagatan—mimetikong laro batay sa alamat ng bisang prinsesang sa hangad na
makaisang dibdib ang binatang mahirap na kanyang iniibig ay inihulos sa dagat ang
kanyang singsing upang sisirin ng lahat ng kanyang manliligaw
Pangangaluluwa—
Tibag—paghahanap at paghukay sa krus na pinagpakuan kay Kristo
Santacruzan—marangyang parada ng mga sagala na kumakatawan sa iba’t ibang tauhan sa
Bibliya
Moro-moro o komedya—paglalaban ng mga Kristiyano at mga Muslim
Karilyo—binubuo ng mga papet na nilikha buhat sa ginupit na mga karton at pinagagalaw
sa harap ng putting tabing kung saan makikita ang mga anino ng papet bunga ng ilawan sa
likod ng talon
Senakulo—pagsasadula ng buhay at kamatayan ni Hesus
Panunuluyan—ang paghahanap ng matutuluyan nina Maria at Jose
Salubong—pagsalubong ni Maria at ng muling nabuhay na si Hesus
Sarswela—dulang musikal, binubuo ng pagsasalaysay na sinaniban ng mga sayaw at
tugtugin at may paksang mitolohikal at kabayanihan
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a. Maiklling Katha
Pasingaw—kadalasang tungkol sa mga dalagang hinahangaan, nililigawan, sinasamba
nang lihim o pinaparunggitan sa dahilang nais tawagin ang pansin ang kapintasan sa
pag-uugali o hitsura.
Dagli—maikling salaysay na nangangaral, namumuna, nagpapasaring at nanunuligsa
Maikling kasaysayang pampatawa—pinamahalaan ni Patricio Mariano sa Muling
Pagsilang
b. Tula at Mga Makata
Jose Corazon de Jesus—Huseng Batute, ang Makata ng Puso, “Isang Punongkahoy”
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d. Dula at Dulaan
Severino Reyes—“Mga Kuwento ni Lola Basyang,” ‘Walang Sugat,” Gran Companada
de Zarsuela Tagala
RELIGIOSO 1: Ah, si Capitang Luis. Ito tagaroon sa amin. Masamang tao ito.
MARCELO: Mason po yata among.
RELIGIOSO 1: Kun hindi man mason, marahil filibustero, sapagka’t kun siya
sumulat maraming K, kabayo ka.
MARCELO: Hindi po ako kabayo Among.
RELIGIOSO 1: Hindi ko sinasabi kabayo ikaw, hindi kun isulat niya an kabayo may
K, an lahat nan C pinalitan nan K. Masama tao iyan, mabuti
mamatay siya.
RELIGIOSO 2: Marcelo, si Capitan Piton si Capitan Miguel at an Juez de Paz, ay
daratdagan nan racion.
MARCELO: Hindi sila makakain en.
RELIGIOSO 2: Hindi na racion and sinasabi ko sa iyo na dagdagan ay an pagkain,
Hindi ano sa akin kundi sila kumain. Mabuti nga mamatay silan
lahat. An racion na sinasabi ko sa inyo ay an palo, maramin palo na
kailangan.
“Walang Sugat”- Severino Reyes
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Nangagtigil
ang gawain
sa bukirin
napahinga
ang makina
sa pabrika.
Natiwangwang
ang daunga’t
pamilihan.
At sa madla
ay nagbanta
ang dalita.
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1. Gilgamesh. The epic poen Gilgamesh is the first great heroic narrative of the world literature.
It origins date back to the margins of prehistory, and its evolution spans millennia. Tablets
containing portions of Gilgamesh have been found at sites throughout the Middle East and in
all the languages written in cuneiform characters, wedge-shaped characters incised in clay
stone. The epic developed over a period of nearly a thousand years. The version discovered in
the city of Nineveh amid the ruins of the great library of Assurbanipal, the last king of the
Assyrian Empire – what modern scholars call the Standard Version—circulated widely
throughout the ancient Middle East for a millennium or more.
The epic narrates the legendary deeds of Gilgamesh, the king of Uruk, but it begins
with a prologue that emphasizes not his adventures but the wisdom he acquired and the
monuments he constructed at the end of his epic journey. It also tells us that Gilgamesh was
endowed by his divine creators with extraordinary strength, courage, and beauty. He is more
god than man—2/3 god and 1/3 human.
Gilgamesh is an epitome of a bad ruler: arrogant, oppressive, and brutal. The people of
Uruk complain of his oppression to the Sumerian gods, and the gods’ response is to create
Enkidu as a foil to Gilgamesh. The goddess Aruru creates Enkidu to contend with Gilgamesh
and absorb his energies. Gilgamesh and Enkidu fight savagely and for a long time, but no one
emerges as the winner for both are strong and a match for each other. Later Enkidu becomes
a faithful friend of Gilgamesh. Together they set off to destroy Humbaba, the giant who
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guards the cedar forest. Both of them also kill the bull Ishtar sends to punish Gilgamesh for
rejecting her advances. Enkidu is destined to die for helping to kill the bull and Humbaba.
When he dies, Gilgamesh is so grief stricken that he embarks on a quest not for glory but for
everlasting life. The death of Enkidu reveals to Gilgamesh the hollowness of mortal fame, and
this leads him to undertake a solitary journey in search for immortality. He travels far and
wide in search of the plant of immortality. When he finally gets it, he loses it to a snake
which ate it while Gilgamesh sleeps.
I will proclaim to the world the deeds of Gilgamesh. This was the man whom all
things were known; this was the king who knew the countries of the world. He
was wise, he saw mysteries and knew secret things, he brought us a tale of the
days before the flood. He went on a long journey, was weary, worn-out, returning
he rested, he engraved on a stone the whole story.
When the gods created Gilgamesh they gave him a perfect body. Shamash the
glorious sun endowed hin with beauty, Adad the god of the storm endowed him
with courage, the great gods made his beauty perfect, surpassing all others,
terrifying like a great wild bull. Two-thirds they made him god and one-third
man.
2. Ancient Egyptian Poetry. The literature of ancient Egypt has survived only in scattered
fragments, and because of the difficulty of the Egyptian language and writing system (a
complex system of stylized pictographs called hieroglyphics), it is far less well known than
either the art of the architecture.
The ancient Egyptians possessed a poetry that was rich and varied in both its subjects
and its forms. The largest and earliest group of poems comes from the pyramids that were
constructed in the period of the Old Knigdom (ca. 2575-2130 B.C.). They include narratives,
incantations, and invocations designed to help the pharoah’s soul on its journey to the other
world. There were also lyrics and devotional poems that were composed during the
millennium that includes all the dynasties of the Middle and New Kingdoms (ca. 2130-1200
B.C.).
The flowering of ancient Egyptian culture came between 1570-1085 B.C., the time of
the New Kingdom in Egypt. One type of poetry that emerged in the New Kingdom is the
pastoral poem which deals with the pleasures of simple rural life or that treats the longings
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and desires or simple people. The word pastoral comes from the Latin word for shepherd—
pastor—but pastoral poetry is not merely about shepherds.
Sample of Egyptian poetry (excerpt only)
*Pharoah Akhenaten
Translated by John L. Foster
What inferences do you make about the speaker? How does the speaker portray God (line 3), the
father of Pharoah Akhenaten? What lines or words would support your answer? What figure of
speech is used in ‘you have flooded the world with your beauty? What does it mean?
Below is an excerpt from an Egyptian love poem.
Love of you is mixed deep in my vitals, like water stirred into flour for bread,
Like simple compound in a sweet-tasting drug, like pastry and honey mixed in perfection.
Oh, hurry to look at your love! Be like horses charging in battle,
Like a gardener up with the sun burning to watch his prize bud open.
High heaven causes a girl’s lovelonging. It is like being too far from the light,
Far from the hearth of familiar arms. It is this being so tangled in you.
(translated by John L. Foster)
Point out the lines that show the use of simile and metaphor. What do they mean? Why are they
used by the speaker?
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3. The Bible: The Old Testament. The religious attitudes of the Hebrews appear in the story that
they told of the creation of the world and humankind. The most important example of
Hebrew literature is the Jewish Bible called by Christians as the Old Testament in contrast to
the New Testament).
The word Bible came from the Greek word biblia, meaning a collection of writings.
Despite the diversity of the Bible, it is unified by a few constant themes. Among these are
power, goodness, and mercy of one God; the covenant, or solemn agreement, into which God
enters with the Hebrew people; the tendency of humans to commit sins; and the forgiveness
they win from God. The Bible has also been of major importance for Muslims and Christians.
One famous translation of the Bible was the English version done by a committee of scholars
of King James (1611).
In the beginning God created the heaven abd the earth. And the earth was without form,
and void; and darkness was upon the face of the deep. And the spirit of God moved upon
the face of the waters. And God said, Let there be light: and there was light. And God saw
the light, that it was good: and God divided the light from darkness. And God called the
light Day, and the darkness he called Night. And the evening and the morning were the
first day. And God said let there be a firmament in the midst of the waters, and let it divide
waters from the waters. And God made the firmament, and divided the waters which were
under the firmament from the waters which were above the firmament: and it was so. And
God called the firmament Heaven. And the evening and the morning were the second
day…
4. The Bible: The New Testament. The collection known to Christians as the New Testament
was formed by combining the four gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John with another
book by Luke. The Acts of the Apostles, which is an account of Paul’s missionary journeys to
the cities of Greece and Asia Minor. The Gospel of John draws on different sources and also
has greater theological density than the other three.
From Luke 15
Then drew near unto him all the publicans and sinners for to hear him. And the
Pharisees and the scribes murmured, saying, This man receiveth sinners, and eateth with them.
And he spoke this parable unto them saying, What man of you, having a hundred sheep, if he
lose one of them, doth have to leave the ninety and nine in the wilderness, and go after that
which is lost, until he find it? And when he hath found it, he layeth it on his shoulders,
rejoicing. And when he cometh home, he calleth together his friends and neighbours, saying
unto them, Rejoice with me; for I have found my sheep which was lost. I say unto you that
likewise joy shall be in heaven over one sinner that repenteth, more than over ninety and nine
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Arabic Literature
By the time of Muhammad’s birth, the Arabs alreadr possessed a large body of poetry. For
centuries, poets from all over Arabia had gathered to recite odes (qasidas) praising their own tribe or
making fun of others. Even after the rise of Islam, Arabs continued to appreciate poetry. Arabic prose
also began to develop, although the earliest works were religious in nature and dealt, directly or
indirectly, with the text of Koran. Islamic Arabs also enjoyed listening to fables and folktales. The
Thousand and One Nights (also known as The Arabian Nights) is by far the most famous. This
collection of stories puts together tales into one long narrative. One of the simplest and oldest tales in
the The Thousand and One Nights is “The Fisherman and the Jinnee.”
Persian Literature
The form of literature for which Persia is best known is poetry. In the 9th and 10th centuries,
several poets attempted to write epic poems describing Persian history. The most famous of these
poems is The Shah-nama, or “Epic of Kings,” by Firdawsi. This epic is still considered a national
treasure in Iran. The Shah-nama is presented as a history of Persia form the beginning of the world
until the conquest of Iran by the Arabs. The most important hero is the warrior Rustam.
Another Persian poet is Omar Khayyam, who is also a mathematician and a scientist. He is
probably the best known. He is probably the best known Islamic poet in the West. A collection of
poetry called The Rubaiyat is attributed to him. His poems are written in a literary form known as
the rubai. This form takes its name from the Arabic word for ‘four,’ because each poem consists of
four lines, the first, second, and fourth of which rhyme with one another. The poet must use concise
and vivid imagery to convey his message to the reader through the use of elaborate metaphor.
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The Mahabharata is the world’s longest epic. The myths and tales in this epic are woven into
the fabric of its main story: the account of a fight over the rights to a kingdom. Two branches of a
family, the Pandavas and the Kauravas, are involved in this dispute. When the five Pandava brothers
are banished or exiled to the forest, they meet various characters who tell them instructive and
entertaining stories. One such story is “Sibi” about how righteous behaviour is rewarded.
The Panchatantra (The Five Books or The Five Strategies) attributed to Visnusarman, is the
best known collection of folktales and animal fables in Indian literature. It aimed to teach the young
princes of India in the ancient times about political matters and interpersonal relationships in
general.
Each of the five books of the Panchatantra begins with a frame story, whose characters tell each other
stories illustrating the conduct appropriate to diverse social and political situations. The characters
within the illustrative tales tell each other stories as well and so on, until the nested tales eventually
lead back to the frame of the story.
Sakuntala by Kalidasa is the most beloved of Indian plays. Rooted in the values of India’s
classical civilization, and at the same time articulating a profoundly human vision, the play about
lovers parted and reunited transcends cultural particularities. The plot, adapted from an older epic
tale, is simplicity itself.
On seeing the lovely maiden Sakuntala in the enchanting setting of the woodland hermitage
presided over by the sage Kanva, Dushyanta inevitably falls in love with her. The young woman
returns his passion. Circumstances cause the lovers to part. A sage’s curse and the loss of the king’s
signet ring result in the king’s forgetting of his liaision with Sakuntala, and plunge her into further
suffering, far away from her lover. Thre recovery of the ring jogs the Dushyanta’s memory, and now
it is his turn to suffer, not knowing where to find Sakuntala. With the intervention of the sages and
gods, the two lovers are reunited together with their young son.
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The exchange is economically unequal, a jewel returned for fruit. But the young man
acts at once to restore the exchange to balance, explaining that the jewel was not given as an object of
value, but as a token and message, just as the fruit she threw had been a message.
What do the plums represent in the poem? What does each of the last line mean? What does each
imply?
Along with poetry, the most highly valued Chinese literary works are philosophical texts. Of
these books, the most notable are The Analects of Confucius and the Tao Te Ching of Lao Tzu—the
principal works of Confucianism and Taoism, respectively.
The Analects represents the memory of Confucius’ teachings and was probably not written
down until many centuries after his death. In its present form the Analects consists of twenty “books”
or chapters. It is a collection of terse and sometimes apparently innocuous sayings as well as a few
longer anecdotes. Throughout the Analects the reader is reminded that wisdom comes in fragments
and fractions; the burden of understanding is placed on the reader. At the heart of the Analects is the
hope that the members of society behave with a natural decency toward one another, respecting age
and hierarchy and adapting to their changing roles.
What values or virtues are emphasized in the two teachings from the Analects?
The Tao Te Ching is widely regarded to be the most influential Taoist text. The title means
“The Classic of the Way and Its Power of Virtue.” It is a foundational scripture of central importance
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in Taoism purportedly written by Laozi. The earliest text of the Tao Te Ching that has been excavated
(written on bamboo tablets) dates back to the late 4th century B.C. It has been used as a ritual text
throughout the history of the religious Taoism.
The Tao Te Ching is not thematically ordered. However, the main themes of the text are
repeatedly expressed using variant formulations, often with only a slight difference. The leading
themes revolve around the nature of Tao and how to attain it. Tao is said to be unnameable and
accomplishing great things through small means.
What virtue or value is emphasized in this Taoist teaching? What metaphor is used in this text?
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by any of the known poets. The collection includes poems that tell life in the wilderness,
poems by fishermen, farewell poems, even poems by travellers to Korea.
The above poem is an example of a choka, a poem that consists of alternate lines of five and
seven syllables with an additional seven-syllable line at the end. Unlike other Japanese verse forms,
there is no limit to the number of lines in a choka.
Another Japanese poetic form is the tanka which consists of five lines of five, seven, five,
seven, seven syllables. This poetic form shows the Japanese preference for simplicity, suggestion, and
irregularity. The most common subjects of a tanka are love and nature. Tanka poets generally exhibit
restraint, relying on clear, powerful imagery to evoke an emotional response rather than using
abstract words to directly express their feelings. The Japanese place more emphasis on the imagery
used and the emotions evoked by a tanka than they do on the structure of the poems.
-O. Mitsune
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Still another Japanese poetic form is the haiku, which consists of three lines of five, seven,
and five syllables. Originally, it is the opening verse (the hokku) of a renga, a form of collaborative
poetry, but later the haiku developed into a distinct literary form. Reflecting the dominant tastes of
the Japanese culture, haiku are characterized by precision, simplicity, and suggestiveness. Almost all
haiku contains a kigo, a seasonal word, such as cherry blossoms, snow, falling leaves.
Appearing in the early part of the 8th century, the first works of Japanese prose, the Kojiki, or
“Record of Ancient Matters,” and Nihon Shoki, or “Chronicles of Japan,” focused on Japanese history.
Before Lady Murasaki Shikibu’s Tale of Genji appeared, there was The Tale of the Heike written by an
unknown author during the 13th century. Another important work of prose produced during the age
of feudalism is Essays in Idleness, a loosely organized collection of insights, reflections, and
observations, written during the 14th century by a Buddhist priest named Kenko.
The Nō, the classical theatre of Japan, is the world’s extant professional theatre. It is also
among the world’s gravest and most stylized. The word nō may be translated as “talent,” “skill,” or
“accomplishment.” Performed on an austere, undecorated stage of polished cypress, with no scenery
and virtually no props, the ritual-like poetic dance-dramas of the Nō have been described as theatre
free of the artifice of stagecraft. The small cast of actors, all males, wearing masks is accompanied by a
chorus, and because the stage is bare with no trappings of representational theatre, the actor’s own
talent or accomplishment (that is his nō) became paramount.
Two other forms of drama emerged later: the Joruri (now called Bunraku) and the Kabuki.
Joruri is staged using puppets. Kabuki involves lively, melodramatic acting and is staged using
elaborate and colourful costumes and sets.
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F. Greek Literature (c. 800 B.C. -323 B.C.) and Roman Literature (c. 300 B.C. – A.D. 500)
The stories told in the Homeric poems are set in the age of the Trojan War, which
archaeologists date back to the 12th century B.C. the poems preserve some of the faded
memories of the Mycenean Age. This was the time of the final statement of the Greek
peoples, an age of invasion perhaps and migration which saw the foundation and growth of
many small independent cities. The geography of Greece—a land of mountain barriers and
scattered islands—encouraged this fragmentation.
Greek literature begins with two masterpieces, the Iliad, and the Odyssey which are
attributed to the poet Homer, about whom nothing is known except his name. Revered as
statements of cultural identity, the Iliad and the Odyssey center on heroes who embody the
values of ancient Greek culture.
The Iliad recounts only part of a long series of events in the Trojan War, which was
fought, according to the legend, because of a quarrel among the gods and the resulting
betrayal among mortals. All the action in the Iliad is, more or less directly, the consequence
of Achilles’ anger at being dishonoured.
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Why does Achilles refer to Agamemnon as shameless? What figure of speech is evident in the
line ‘you with the dog’s eyes’? ‘there is much that lies between us/ the shadowy mountains and the
echoing sea’?
The Odyssey is concerned with the peace that followed the war and in particular with the
return of the heroes who survived to their own kingdoms. Its subject is the long drawn-out return of
Odysseus to Ithaca. He was destined to spend ten years wandering in unknown seas before he
returned to his own kingdom. It celebrates return to ordinary life after all the excitement, toil, and
danger. The Odyssey offers a more positive meditation on the nature of civilization and of the
structure of political daily life as the Greeks experienced it. It does so by showing what a community
has to lose by the absence of those structures and to gain by their affirmation.
What does the scene reveal about the character of Odysseus? What lines will support your
answer? What figures of speech is used in ‘Your last hour has come.’?
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The Greeks are also known for their lyric poetry. One of the poets of the lyric is Sappho—
singing or chanting poems to her own accompaniment on the lyre. The musical quality of her poems
heightens their emotional quality. Here is an example of a lyric poem by Sappho:
Greek drama reached its peak in the 5th century Athens. During that time, tragedies and
comedies were performed in conjunction with the worship of Dionysus and fertility rituals connected
with the seasons and the staple crops of the community. Tragedies dealt with universal issues and
indirectly with contemporary politics, but the plots were taken from the same cycle of legends found
in the Homeric epics. Themes such as war, incest, and murder were treated seriously.
One of the great Greek tragedians, aside from Aeschylus and Euripides, is Sophocles. He wrote
the trilogy of Oedipus Rex, Oedipus at Colonus, and Antigone.
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What does Teiresias really want to say in line 1-4? What is his attitude towards Oedipus?
What line/s support your answer?
Certain conditions must exist in tragedies. First, the character must be of high birth or noble
status in society. Second, they must experience a series of events that threaten their positions. Finally,
the tragic character must suffer a tragic fall through his/her own actions. The gods interfere to some
extent, but they never direct the plot or the characters’ actions. Characters are responsible for their
own actions—that is what renders tragedy tragic. Tragic characters choose their destinies. It is their
choices that cause their downfall.
Oedipus Rex is famous for its dramatic irony, which is the contradiction between what the
character thinks and what the audience knows to be true. Sophocles’ use of dramatic irony brings out
the play’s knowledge motif. The knowledge Oedipus relentlessly seeks causes his downfall.
Roman Literature
The Romans as well as the Greeks venerated the Homeric epics, the most ancient texts of
Greek literature. To take his place alongside Homer, Virgil situates this story at the time of the fall of
Troy, and adopts conventions such as invoking the muse, involving Olympian gods in the action, and
beginning the story in medias res. The Aeneid recombines and transforms the major works of Greek
and Roman treadition to make a new, original, and fundamentally Roman work.
What do you infer about the value Virgil places on self-control as opposed to passion? This
situation shows the conflict Aeneas undergoes in being a dutiful Roman and a husband.
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Conflict is a struggle between opposing forces. Sometimes this struggle is internal, or within a
character. At other times the struggle is external, or between the character and some outside force.
Another Roman writer is Catullus who is known for his lyric poems. He is a poet whose
polished verses rivalled those of his Greek predecessors, including Sappho. A key element of Catullus’
literary expression is his ability to make the emotions real in his lyric poems.
Here is a sample lyric poem of Catullus:
What is the overall mood of the passage? What lines or words will support your answer?
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3. The Decameron by Boccaccio has delighted readers and inspired writers for half a
millennium. It is a 14th century medieval allegory told as a frame story encompassing 100
short prose tales or novelle (singular: novella) by ten young people, three men and seven
women, who are fleeing from plague-ridden Florence to a villa in the countryside for two
weeks. The word decameron means ‘ten days.’ Rather than telling the stories directly,
Boccaccio creates a fictional background or frame for the book. One famous story from this
book is the ‘Tale of the Falcon.’
4. The Adventures of Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra is one famous work from
the Renaissance. Don Quixote and Sancho Panza, the knight and the squire, ride from one
ludicrous adventure to another in pursuit of the knight’s dreams of glory. The central concern
of the novel is the relationship between reality and fantasy.
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5. The most important figure of the Renaissance is William Shakespeare he wrote sonnets,
comedias, tragedies, and historical plays. His major work in the second half of his career
included a series of tragedies from Julius Caesar to Coriolanus. In the final phase of his career,
he produced four plays which are now called romances, works that blend the happy ending of
a comedy with elements of tragedy.
Sonnet XXIX
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1. Francis Bacon was an English essayist, philosopher, and statesman. His collections of essays
are written in clear English, and contain memorable maxims on such subjects as friendship,
studies, truth and adversity.
‘Studies serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability. Their
chief use for delight, is in privateness and retiring; for ornament, is in
discourse; and for ability, is in judgment and disposition of business…
Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, some few to be
chewed and digested; …’
2. Gulliver’s Travels is Jonathan Swift’s famous work. Swift was a master craftsman of irony and
satire. His other works are A Modest Proposal, A Tale of the Tub, and The Battle of the
Books.
Irony is the general name given to literary techniques that involve surprising, interesting, or
amusing contradictions. Satire is writing that ridicules or holds in contempt the faults of
individuals and groups.
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1. William Blake’s poems have a charming simplicity that reveals his childlike
imagination. He was a lover of flowers and animals as well as his fellowmen. Many
of his poems show an appreciation of nature that marks him as a romanticist.
2. The short stories of Guy de Maupassant show a realistic depiction of life, its
underlying pessimism, inescapable irony, surprise ending. His more popular works
are The Necklace, A Piece of String, The Jewels, and Madame Sauvage.
3. Henrik Ibsen, a Norwegian writer, was the creator of the modern, realistic prose
drama. He was also one of the first writers to make drama a vehicle for social
commitment. He wrote the following dramas: A Doll’s House, Ghosts, An Enemy of
the People. The last one is about a man who comes into conflict with the people in
the village because of a truth he wants to reveal, but he is pressured not to do it for
political reasons.
4. Leo Tolstoy was regarded as the greates 19th century Russian writer. He is
remembered most for his short stories like God Sees the Truth but Waits; Where
Love is, There God is Also; and How Much Land Does a Man Need? Which probed
human nature and its strengths and weaknesses.
5. Edgar Allan Poe is noted not only for being the greatest American short story writer,
but also for having first standardized the short story as a literary type. His subjects
were weird, often supernatural, with no bearing whatever on life as it is normsally
lived. The Raven, The Bells, and Annabel Lee are some of his popular poems. His
popular short stories are The Cask of Amontillado, The Masque of the Red Death,
Tell-Tale Heart, The Purloined Letter, and The Pit and the Pendulum.
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Many writers turned away from the dominant literary forms and approcaches of the
past and began experimenting with new themes and techniques. The modernist writers tried
to capture in their works the essence of modern life in both the form and content of their
works.
1. Luigi Pirandello was both a dramatist and short story writer. His works dealt with the
difficulties of achieving identity and questioned the distinction between appearance and
reality. He is famous for his plays Six Characters in Search of an Author and It is So (If You
Think So). His short stories include A Breath of Air, The Jar, and War which particularly
reflected his views on human nature and the emotional effects of war on people.
2. Rabindranath Tagore showed a deep awareness of the poverty and other hardships faced
by so mane of his people. He was also a vocal supporter of human and personal freedom.
He was best known for his collection of poems called the Gitanjali or Song Offerings.
Where the mind is without fear and the head is held high;
Where knowledge is free;
Where the world has not been broken up
Into fragments by narrow domestic walls;
Where words come out from the depth of truth;
Where tireless striving stretches its arms towards perfection;
Where the clear stream of reason
has not lost its way into the dreary desert sand of dead habit;
Where the mind is led forward by thee into ever-widening thought and action—
Into that heaven of freedom, my Father, let my country awake.
3. Robert Frost is ranked as one of the best modern American poets. His popular poems are
Mending Wall, The Road not Taken, Fire and Ice, Birches, and Stopping by Woods on
Snowy Evening. His collection of poems includes North Boston, A Boy’s Will, and A
Further Rage.
(for the poem below) Why does the persona stop in the woods? What figure of speech is used in lines
5-6? What is the central irony of the poem?
From Eveline
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She sat at the window watching the evening invade the avenue. Her
head was leaned against the window curtains and in her nostrils was the odour
of dusty cretonne. She was tired.
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What figure of speech is used in ‘… watching the evening invade the avenue’? What is the
mood of the persona? What words / passages point to this?
(for the poem below) Why does Neruda use a biblical allegory in the first three lines?
What tone does he want to achieve in using such allegory?
From The United Fruit Co. by Pablo Neruda
When the trumpet sounded, it was 96 reserved for itself the most succulent,
all prepared on the earth, the central coast of my own land,
and Jehovah parceld out the earth the delicate waist of America.
to Coca-Cola, Inc. Anaconda, it rechristened its territories
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4. Wole Soyinka is a Nigerian novelist, poet, and playwright. Some consider him Africa’s most
distinguished playwright, when he won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1936, the first
African to be so honoured. He is known for the following works: Telephone Conversation (a
poem), Ake: The Years of Childhood (a memoir), and The Interpreters (a novel).
Why does the persona have to confess over the phone that he is African? Why is the landlady
silent as soon as the persona confessed that he is African?
5. The Indonesian writer Pramoedya Ananta Toer wrote novels, short stories, essays and
histories of his homeland and his people. His works span the colonial period, Indonesia’s
struggle for independence, the Japanese occupation during WW II, as well as post-colonial
authoritarian regimes of Sukarno and Suharto. Two od his best know works are The Fugitive
(a novel) about how Indonesians lived and suffered during the Japanese occupation, and the
short story Inem is about the traditions of Indonesia.
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Inem was my friend. She was eight, two years older than I was. She was
just like all other girls, except that she was thought to be rather pretty. People
liked her. She was polite, natural, intelligent and a good worker. Because of this
she quickly became well-known in the village and people began to say: “Inem
would be a good daughter-in-law to have.”
Then one day, as she boiled water in out kitchen, she told me, “Muk, I’m
getting married.”
“Really?” I said.
“Yes. Someone asked for me a week ago. My parents and kin have
accepted him.”
“Imagine being married!” I shouted.
It was true. Her mother came one day and talked to my mother. Inem
had been entrusted to my parents. She helped with the cooking and looked after
me and the others when we played.
...
Mother tried to dissuade her, but Inem’s mother had other reasons.
Finally she said: I’m glad someone’s asked for her last. If we postponed this,
perhaps no one would ask for her again. I’d be ashamed of her if she was an old
maid. Perhaps she can make things easier for me when I’m old.”
How would you characterize Inem’s mother? What is she really worried about?
6. Siew Yue Killingley was a Malaysian poet, dramatist, teacher, and linguist. A Question of
Dowry and Everything’s Arranged published in Twenty-Two Malaysian Stories (1968) brought
her immediate recognition and probably urged her to cultivate a literary career alongside her
professional teaching and research duties.
(for the excerpt below) How would you characterize Mr. Ramachandran?
What is Mrs. Ramachandran’s concern after learning they could not
pay for the dowry?
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9. Aside—in a play, it is a speech delivered by an actor in such a way that other characters on
stage are presumed not to hear it.
10. Assonance—the repetition of vowel sounds in conjunction with dissimilar consonant sounds.
11. Ballad—a songlike poem that tells a story, often dealing with adventure and romance.
12. Blank verse—poetry written in unrhymed iambic pentameter. An iamb is a foot consisting of
one weak stress followed by one strong stress.
13. Caesura—a pause or a break in the middle of a line of poetry.
14. Climax—the highest point of interest or suspense in a literary work.
15. Conceit—an unusual or surprising comparison between two different things.
16. Connotation—an association that a word calls to mind in addition to the dictionary meaning
of the word.
17. Consonance—the repetition of consonant sounds at the ends of words or accented syllables.
18. Denotation—the objective meaning of a word, independent of other associations that the
word brings to mind.
19. Dialogue—a conversation between characters. Writers use dialogue to reveal character, to
present events, to add variety to narratives, and to arouse their readers’ interest.
20. Elegy—a solemn and formal lyric poem about death, often one that mourns the passing of
some particular person.
21. Essay—a short non-fiction work about a particular subject.
22. Fiction—prose writing that tells about imaginary characters and events. Short stories and
novels are works of fiction.
23. Figurative language—writing or speech not meant to be taken literally.
24. Figure of Speech—an expression or a word used imaginatively rather than literally. Many
writers use figures of speech—apostrophe, hyperbole, metaphor, simile, metonymy,
synecdoche, personification, oxymoron.
25. Flashback—a section of a literary work that interrupts the chronological presentation of
events to relate an event from an earlier time.
26. Foil—a character who provides a contrast to another character.
27. Foreshadowing—the use of clues that suggest events that have yet to occur.
28. Free verse—potry that lacks a regular rhythmical pattern or meter.
29. Hyperbole—a deliberate exaggeration or overstatement. (e.g. There is garden on her face)
30. Image—a word or phrase that appeals to one or more of the five senses.
31. Imagery—the descriptive or figurative language used in literature to create word pictures for
the reader. These pictures are created by details of sight, sound, taste, touch, smell, or
movement.
32. Irony—a contrast between what is stated and what is meant, or between what is expected yo
happenand what actually happens. In verbal irony, a word or a phrase is used to suggest the
opposite of its usual meaning. In dramatic irony, there is contradiction between what a
character thinks and what the reader or audience knows to be true. In irony of situation, an
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event occurs that directly contradicts the expectations of the characters, of the reader, or of
the audience.
33. Litotes—a figure of speech that makes a deliberate understatement to affirm by negating its
opposite (e.g. Barbara Streisand is not a bad singer)
34. Local color—the use of characters and details unique to a particular place or geographic area.
35. Lyric Poem—a melodic poem that expresses the observations and feelings of a single speaker.
36. Metaphor—a figure of speech in which one thing is spoken of as though it were something
else. It expresses an indirect or implied comparison of two things which are not evidently
comparable.
37. Metonymy—a figure of speech that entails using a word that closely relates to a person or
thing (e.g. The pen is mightier than the sword)
38. Mixed metaphor—when two metaphors are jumbled together e.g. the thorns of life rained
down on me.
39. Onomatopoeia—the use of words that imitate sounds e.g. buzz, hiss, murmur, hum.
40. Oxymoron—a figure of speech that combines two opposing or contradictory ideas (e.g.
freezing fire, cruel kindness)
41. Paradox—a statement that seems to be contradictory but actually presents a truth. It is
surprising or shocking to draw the readers’ attention to what is being said, e.g. ‘Because I
could not stop for death / He kindly stopped me.’
42. Parody—a humorous imitation of a literary work, one that exaggerates or distorts the
characteristic features of the original.
43. Personification—a figure of speech that gives human traits to inanimate objects or ideas.
44. Satire—writing that ridicules or criticizes individuals, ideas, institutions, social conventions,
or other works of art or literature.
45. Simile—a figure of speech that makes a direct comparison between two subjects using like or
as.
46. Sonnet—a lyric poem composed of 14 iambic pentameter lines focusing on a single theme
47. Symbol—anything that stands for or represents something else.
48. Synecdoche—a figure of speech in which a part of something is used to stand for the whole
thing (e.g. No roving foot shall crush thee here.)
49. Theme—a central message or insight into life revealed by a literary work.
50. Tone—the writer’s attitude toward his or her subject, characters, or audience.
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- Pang-angkop
- Pang-ukol
b. Mga Pananda
- Pantukoy
- Pangawing
6.3 Sintaks – pagbuo at pagpapahaba ng mga pangungusap
Batayang pangungusap at mga bahagi nito:
Panaguri
Paksa
Sa Filipino, normal o karaniwan ang pagsasabi muna ng panaguri, kasunod ang paksa tulad
nito:
Kumakanta si Martin Nievera.
(Panaguri + Paksa)
sa halip na:
Si Martin Nievera ay kumnakanta.
(paksa + ay + panaguri)
Magagamit na panaguri ng pangungusap ang iba’t ibang bahagi ng pananalita, kabilang ang
nominal, pang-uri, at pandiwa, at pang-abay, tulad ng mga sumusunod na halimbawa:
Pangungusap = Panaguri + Paksa
Mga Nominal
Pangngalan - Doktor + ang kapitbahay ko.
Panghalip - Sila + ang barkada ko.
Panghalip Pamatlig- Iyon + ang alaga niyang aso.
Pariralang Nominal- Ang dalagang iyan + ang nililiyag ko.
Pangungusap = Panaguri + Paksa
Pang-uri
Payak - Duwag + si Berto.
Maylapi - Mataba + si Berto.
Inuulit - Maligayang-maligaya + si Berto.
Tambalan - Balat-sibuyas + si Berto.
Pariralang Pang-uri- May makinis na balat + si Berto.
Pandiwa
Walang komplemento- Naglalaba +ang nanay.
May komplemento- Naglilinis ng mesa sa kusina + ang nanay.
(aktor,layon, taga-tanggap, ganapan, atbp)
Pang-abay
Pamanahon - Kamakalawa pa inilibing + ang napatay na sundalo.
Pamaraan - Malikot matulog + ang sanggol
Panlunan - Sa Baguio nagbakasyon + ang mag-anak.
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6.4 Semantika – may kinalaman sa interpretasyon ng mga kahulugan ng mga salita at pangungusap
Nabanggit na sa simula na binubuo ang grammar ng wika ng pronolohiya, morpolohiya,
sintaks at panghuli, semantika. Tumutukoy ang naunang tatlo sa pag-aaral ng anyo (form) at patern
ng wika, tumutukoy naman ang semantika sa pag-aaral ng kahulugan mismo sa wika.
Paano ang pagbibigay o nairerepresenta sa isipan ng tao ang kahulugan?
Denotasyon at konotasyon
Halimbawa: PASKO
Denotasyon: ika-25 ng Disyembre para sa mga kristyano, araw ng
kapanganakan ni Kristo
Konotasyon: panahon ng pagbibigay ng mga regalo, pagpunta ng
mga inaanak sa ninong at ninang, karoling ng mga
bata, pagkain ng bibingka at puto-bumbong
Sinonim, antonim, polisemi at homofon
Sinonim - mga salitang magkapareho ng kahulugan
Halimbawa: payak-simple
magbili-magtinda
magkatulad-magkapareho
Antonim - mga salitang magkasalungat ang kahulugan
Halimbawa: mataas-mababa
Maliwanag-madilim
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Paano natin maipakikita na nagagamit natin ang wikang Filipino nang may lalong mataas na
antas ng kasanayan at kahusayan? Naririto ang mga halimbawa ng mga inaasahang kasanayan
(Belvez, et.al., 1990):
A. Naisasagawa ang iba’t ibang uri ng pagpapahayag o gawi ng pagsasalita kaugnay ng pagtugon sa
iba’t ibang tungkulin ng komunikasyong kinakaharap sa pang-araw-araw na sitwasyon.
1. Nagagamit ang angkop na pahayag sa pagdalo sa isang pagtitipon
2. Nakakasali sa isang makabuluhang gawain ukol sa pagtatanong ng direksyon, tao o bagay.
3. Malinaw na naipapahayag ang iba’t ibang kaisipan ayon sa lugar o sitwasyong kinaroroonan
4. Nasasabi nang malinaw at may paggalang ang pagpapagawa ng isang bagay o gawain
5. Nasasabi nang mabisa ang mga iniisip at niloloob
6. Nakapaghahatid at nakapaghaharap nang mabisa ng iba’t ibang impormasyon
7. Naipapahayag at natutukoy ang mga saloobing moral.
8. Naisasagawa ang wastong pakikipagkapwa
9. Nakalilikha nang pasalita ng ilang tugma, kuwento, at patalastas
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10. Sa pagsasalita at pagsulat ang wastong paggamit ng mga salitang karaniwan ay lubhang
kailangan. Kailangang sumusunod ito sa mga alituntuning panggramatika. Nakatutulong sa
maayos, malinaw at mabisang pagpapahayag kung wasto ang gamit ng mga salitang Filipino.
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1. Pagpapakahulugan sa pagbasa
Pagkilala at pagkuha ng mga ideya at kaisipan sa mga simbolong nakalimbag upang
mabigkas nang pasalita ang mga ito. Pag-unawa ito sa wika ng awtor o manunulat ng
mga nakasulat na simbolo (Semorlan, et.al., 1999).
Sinasabing unang hakbang sa pagtatamo ng kaalaman. Tumutukoy sa kognitibong
proseso ng pag-unawa sa mensahe ng wikang nakasulat. Isang proseso ng pagkuhang
muli at pag-unawa sa mensahe ng ilang anyo ng nakaimbak na mga impormasyon o
mga ideya (Alejo, et.al., 2005)
Mahalagang salik sa pagbasa ang papel ng dating kaalaman o teorya ng iskema.
Inumpisahan ni Bartlett (1932) at nilinang nina Anderson (1977) at Rumelhart (1981)
ang teoryang ito na nagsasaad na nakaiimpluwensiya nang malaki sa pag-unawa kung
ano ang mga alam na o hindi alam ng mambabasa.
2. Mga uri ng iskema:
Content o nilalaman (tumutukoy sa mga sistema ng tunay na katotohanan, balyus at
kombensiyong kultural)
Formal (tinatawag ding tekstwal na iskema, na may kaugnayan sa kaalamang retorikal
na istruktura ng teksto at mga genre ng panitikan tulad ng mga nobela, maikling
kwento, dula, resipe, patalastas, talambuhay, liham, jornal, atbp.)
Linggwistika (tinatawag ding iskema ng wika, na tumutukoy sa istruktura ng wika,
bokabularyo, impleksyong gramatikal at mga gamit pang-ugnay (cohesive devices)).
3. Pagpapakahulugan sa pagsulat
Paggawa o pagbuo ng mga titik, simbolo at mga salita. Isang paraan upang ang mga
mahahalagang bagay na hindi matandaan ay muling mapagbalikan sa isipan (Lorenzo,
et.al., 2011)
Isang mabagal at kompleks na proseso at itinuturing na isang sining na
nangangailangan ng malalim na pag-unawa at pag-iisip Badayos, 2000)
4. Makatutulong sa lalong pagkakamit ng mabisang pagpapahayag at pagsulat ng apat na anyo ng
pagpapahayag:
a. Paglalahad (nagbibigay impormasyon at nagpapaliwanag)
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Halimbawa--- Bahay
Pangunahing Detalye
May dalawang uri ng pamaksang pangungusap: lantad at di-lantad. Matatagpuan ang lantad
na pamaksang pangungusap sa—
Unahan - una’t hulihan
Gitna - hulihan ng talata
lalo na kung ang mga talata ay naglalahad at nangangatuwiran.
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11. Magsisilbing proposal ng sulating pananaliksik ang konseptong papel. Binubuo ito ng apat na
bahagi:
Rasyunal (rationale)
Layunin
Metodolohiya
Inaasahang output o resulta
13. Mula sa paghahanap ng datos, susunod ang pagdedesisyon sa format at uri ng balangkas na
gagawin para mabuo ang pansamantalang balangkas ng napili mong paksa
14. Magiging batayan ng maayos na dokumentasyon ang anyo o klase ng tala tulad ng:
- direktong sipi - buod ng tala - presi
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15. Sa kasalukuyang konteksto ng pananaliksik, mahalaga ang interbyu bilang bagong bukal ng
impormasyon kayat dapat na batid ng mananaliksik ang mga hakbang sa mabisang gamit nito.
17. Upang magkaroon ng kabuluhan ang anuman ideya o kinalabasan ng pananaliksik kailangang
maisulat ito sa isang maayos at mabisang paraan na binibigyang pansin ang mga sumusunod:
Iba’t ibang prinsipyo sa pagsulat ng burador
Ang wastong dokumentasyon ng pananaliksik
Presentasyon ng papel sa maayos na estilo at format
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5. Kung gayon sa mga kaalamang pambalarila (tulad ng wastong gamit, tamang mga panuring,
pandiwa, atbp.) nakasalalay ang kawastuhan at kalinawan ng ating pagsasalita at pagsulat.
Kahit na maganda ang pahayag kung hindi wasto ang mga gamit at ugnayan ng mga salita,
hindi lamang makakabawas iyon sa kalinawan ng pahayag kundi gayundin sa pagiging kaakit-
akit nito. Samakatuwid, kasama ng retorika ang balarila para makamit ang mabisang
pagpapahayag.
6. Paano ba ginagamit ang retorika sa proseso ng mabisang pagpapahayag?
Paggamit ng mga Alusyon at Talinghaga
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salita
Halimbawa: Kumalabog sa matigas na lupa ang bumagsak na kargamento mula sa trak.
i. Pagsalungat / oksimoron/ epigram (oxymoron)—paggamit ng dalawang salitang
magkasalungat o pahayag na nagsasalungatan
Halimbawa: tumatawa’y umiiyak
may lungkot at tuwa
mabuting kaaway
j. Paralelismo (parallelism)—paggamit ng inihahanay na kaisipan sa magkakahawig na
istruktura, tulad ng:
sama-samang nabubuhay
sama-samang namamatay
k. Paglumanay (euphemism)—paggamit ng mga salitang nagpapaganda ng pangit na pahayag;
pagpapahayag na gumagamit ng mga malumanay at magagandang pananalita upang tukuyin
ang isang pangyayari na maaaring kung sasabihin nang tiyakan ay masakit o pangit sa
pandinig.
Halimbawa:
Ang babaeng naglalaro ng apoy (nagtataksil) ay humantong sa isang makabagbag
damdaming tagpo sa harap ng kapitbahay.
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PORMAL KOLOKYAL
saan naroon sanaron
naroon, naroroon naron
nasaan nasan
kaniya kanya
kani-kaniya kanya-kanya
almirol almidon, almirol
aywan ewan
piyesta pista
PORMAL DI-PORMAL
Pambansa Pampanitikan Lalawiganin Balbal
- ang tono ng mga salitang gagamitin ay maaaring pauyam, malisyoso, seryoso, nakikiusap, o
maaaring neutral
Tamang pagkakaugnay ng mga salita sa isang pahayag upang makabuo ng malinaw na
kaisipan o diwa.
Kailangan ang kaisahan sa pangungusap para maging epektibo ito. Narito ang ilang
patnubay upang magawa ang kaisahan sa pangungusap (Tumangan, et.al., 1997: 21-22):
a. Huwag pagsamahin sa pangungusap ang hindi magkakaugnay na kaisipan.
b. Ang pagtataglay ng maraming kaisipan sa pangungusap ay labag sa kaisahan ng
pangungusap dahil lumalabo ang pangunahing isipang ipinahahayag.
c. Gawing malinaw sa pangungusap kung alin ang pangunahing sugnay at ang panulong na
sugnay.
d. Huwag ilayo ang salitang panuring sa tinuturingan ng salita.
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Sa kabilang banda, nagiging malinaw ang mga pangungusap ng talata kapag may wastong
paglilipat-diwa. May mga salita at pariralang ginagamit sa paglilipat-diwa na nakatutulong upang
maunawaan ang tamang pagkakaugnay-ugnay ng mga pangungusap. Sa bawat kaisipang ililipat,
naririto ang angkop na salita o pariralang maaaring gamitin:
a. Kaisipang idinaragdag—at, saka, pati, gayundin
b. Kaisipang sumasalungat—ngunit, subalit, datapwat, bagaman, kahiman, sa kabilang dako
c. Kaisipang naghahambing—katulad, kawangis ng, animo’y, anaki’y
d. Kaisipang nagbubuod—sa katagang sabi, sa madaling sabi, kaya nga
e. Kaisipang nagsasabi ng bunga o kinalabasan—sa wakas, sa dakong huli, kung gayon, sa
ganoon
f. Paglipas ng panahon—noon, habang, di-naglaon, samantala, sa di-kawasa, hanggang
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IRRATIONAL
REAL NON-INTEGERS
COMPLEX RATIONAL
IMAGINARY
INTEGERS
Counting Numbers—numbers that we use in counting; also called natural numbers. Using the roster
method, N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5..}
Whole Numbers—union of the number zero and the set of counting numbers. Again, using the roster
method, W = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5…}
Integers—the union of the set of counting numbers, their negatives, and zero. Using the roster
method In = {-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5…}
Operations on integers
I. Addition
Like signs—add the absolute values, and prefix the negative sign if the addends are negative
Unlike signs—get the absolute values of the numbers and subtract the smaller absolute value
from the other and prefix the negative sign if the negative addend has the larger absolute
value
e.g. -4 + (-6) = -10
-2 + 7 = 7 – 2 = 5
3 + (-9) = (-9 – 3 ) = -6
II. Subtraction—if the minuend and subtrahend are both positive and the minuend is greater than the
subtrahend, proceed to subtract forthwith. Otherwise, change the sign of the supposed subtrahend
and proceed as in addition.
e.g. 8–3=5
4 – 4 = 4 + (-5) = -1
III. Multiplication (Division)—to multiply (or divide) two integers with
Like signs—get the product (or quotient) of their absolute values
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Unlike signs—get the negative of the product (or quotient) of their absolute values
e.g. -5 x -4 = 20
-3 x (2) = -6
12 / (-3) = -4
Divisibility Rules
2: Number ends with 0, 2, 4, 6, or 8, meaning the number is even e.g. 512
3: Sum of the digits (digital root) is divisible by 3 e.g. 216
4: Last two digits form a number that is divisible by 4 e.g. 1012
5: Last digit is 0 or 5 e.g. 340
6: Divisible by 2 and 3 e.g. 192
7: Difference obtained after subtracting twice the last digit from the number formed by the
remaining digits is divisible by 7 e.g. 364
8: Last three digits form a number that is divisible by 8 e.g. 1024
9: Root is divisible by 9 e.g. 423
10: Last digit is 0 e.g. 3540
11: Difference between the sum of the 1 , 3 , 5 ,…digits, and the sum of the 2nd, 4th, 6th,… digits
st rd th
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Greatest Common Factor (GCF)—largest whole number devisor of the given numbers. The GCF ot
two numbers, say a and b, is denoted by (a, b).
e.g. The GCF of 8 and 28 is 4
Methods of Finding the GCF
Intersection of Sets Method—for each of the given numbers, list their factors from least to greatest
and pick out the greatest factor that is common to all lists.
e.g. Find (8, 28)
8: {1, 2, 4, 8}
28: {1, 2, 4, 7, 14, 28}, The GCF is thus 4.
Prime Factorization—write the prime factorization for each of the given numbers so that the
common, and only common, prime factors are in the same column. The GCF is the product of the
lowest powers occurring in columns common to all prime factorizations.
e.g. Find (12, 15, 90) 12: 22 x 3
15: 3 x 5
90: 2 x 32 x 5
3 = 3 (GCF)
Euclidean Algorithm (may be used if we are looking for the GCF of only two numbers). The
procedure may be best understood through an illustration. e.g. For 24 and 28
1. Divide the larger number by the other. 28 ÷ 24 = 1, with a remainder of 4.
2. If there is a remainder, divide the last divisor by 24 ÷ 4 = 6, with no remainder
by this remainder. Repeat this step until no
remainder is left.
3. The GCF is the last divisor. The GCF is thus 4.
Least Common Multiple (LCM) of two or more counting numbers—the smallest non-zero number
that is a multiple of the given numbers. The LCM of two number, say a and b, is denoted by [a, b].
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e. g. The LCM of 5, 6 and 8 is 120 because it is the smallest non-zero number that is a multiple of
5, 6, and 8.
Methods of finding the LCM
Intersection of Sets Method—for each of the given numbers, list their multiples from least to greatest,
and pick out the smallest non-zero multiple that is common to all lists.
e.g. Find [12, 15, 30]
12: {0, 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 72, 84, 96, 108, 120, …}
15: {0, 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, 105, 120, 135, …}
30: {0, 30, 60, 90, 120, 150, …}
Prime Factorization—write the prime factorization for each of the given numbers so that common,
and only common, prime factors are in the same column. The LCM is the product of the highest
powers occurring in a column of any prime factorizations
e. g. Again, for 12, 15 and 30, we have
12: 22 x 3
15: 3 x 5
30: 2 x 3 x 5
22 x 3 x 5 = 60 (LCM)
Euclidean Algorithm—the LCM of two numbers may be obtained by dividing their product by their
GCF. In symbols,
e.g. Find the LCM of 12 and 15
𝒂𝒙𝒃
[𝐚, 𝐛] =
(𝒂,/ 𝒃)
[12, 15] = (12 x 15) (12, 15) = 180 / 3 = 60
Repeated Division—the task is to divide the two numbers by a common prime factor and dividing the
resulting quotients also by a common prime factor. This step is repeated until the resulting quotients
are already relatively prime (GCF=1). The LCM is product of the prime divisors and the relatively
prime quotients. This may better understood through an illustration
e.g. 12 and 30 2 12 30
3 6 15
2 5
The LCM is therefore 60.
Fractions
Meanings
a. Part of a whole or group
b. Indicated division
c. Ratio
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Kinds of Fractions
As to relation between the numerator and the denominator
a. Proper—the numerator is less than the denominator e.g. ¾
b. Improper—the numerator is equal to or greater than the denominator e.g. 5/3
As to relation of the denominators of two or more fractions
a. Similar—the denominators are equal e.g. 2/5 and 4/5
b. Dissimilar—the denominators are not equal e.g. 3/7 and 4/9
Other classes
a. Equivalent—fractions having the same value e.g. 3/7 and 9/21
b. Mixed—composed of a whole number and a proper fraction e.g. 5 ¼
Rules involving Zero
a. Zero numerator and non-zero denominator – the value is zero
b. Zero denominator—no value, undefined
c. Zero value—the numerator is zero
Operations on Fractions
1. Multiplication—multiply numerator and denominator to get the numerator and denominator
respectively of the product
𝟑 𝟏 𝟑
e.g. 𝑿 =
𝟓 𝟒 𝟐𝟎
2. Division—multiply the supposed dividend by the reciprocal of the supposed divisor.
𝟒 𝟑 𝟒 𝟕 𝟐𝟖
e.g. ÷ = 𝒙 =
𝟓 𝟕 𝟓 𝟑 𝟏𝟓
3. Addition (Subtraction)
a. Similar Fractions – add (subtract) the numerators and copy the common denominator
𝟑 𝟐 𝟓
e.g. + =
𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏
b. Dissimilar Fractions—use a common denominator (preferably the least) to make the
addends (minuend and subtrahend) similar and do as in the preceding rule
𝟏 𝟐 𝟕 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟕
e.g. + = + =
𝟓 𝟕 𝟑𝟓 𝟑𝟓 𝟑𝟓
Simplifying Fractions
A fraction is in simplest form if the numerator and the denominator are relatively prime
(their GCF is 1). Thus, to simplify fractions, express both the numerator and the denominator as
products of a number and their GCF. The fraction is then decomposed into two fractions one of
which has the GCF both as its numerator and its denominator. This fraction reduces to 1. The other
fraction thus is the desired simplest form.
e.g. Simplify
𝟏𝟔 𝟒𝒙𝟒 𝟒 𝟒 𝟒
= = 𝒙 =
𝟐𝟖 𝟒𝒙𝟕 𝟒 𝟕 𝟕
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Ordering Fractions
Two fractions are equivalent if their cross products are equal. Otherwise, that fraction the numerator
of which was used to get the greater of the two cross products is the larger fraction.
𝟑 𝟏𝟓
e.g. =
𝟒 𝟐𝟎
Since the two cross products 3(20) and 4(15) are both 60 and therefore equal, the two fractions are
equivalent.
On the other hand, for the two fractions below, the left cross product is 7(8) or 56 while the
right cross-product is 66. Thus, the fraction on the right:
𝟕 𝟑
<
𝟐𝟐 𝟖
Decimals
The place value chart
Ten thousands
thousandths
thousandths
thousandths
hundredths
thousands
thousands
hundreds
Hundred
Hundred
tenths
ones
tens
Ten
100000 10000 1000 100 10 1 . 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001 0.00001
Operations on decimals
Addition (Subtraction) Addition of decimals is facilitated by writing them in a column so that their
decimal points are aligned. Thus aligned, digits with the same place values would be in the same
column and the addends (or the minuend and the subtrahend) are added (or subtracted) as if they
were whole numbers, the decimal point in the sum (difference) in the same position as the addend
(minuend and subtrahend).
Multiplication Multiply the numbers as if they were whole and so place the decimal point in the
result as to have as many decimal places in it as there are in the factors combined.
e.g. To multiply 21.4 x 0.32, we write
214 x 32 = 6848
Since there are a total of 3 decimal places in the factors, we place the decimal point between 6
and 8 to have also 3 decimal places in the result. Thus, 21.4 x 0.32 = 6.848
Division
To divide a
a. Decimal by a whole number, do as in dividing whole numbers but writing the decimal point
directly above that of the dividend
b. Number by a decimal, multiply both dividend and divisor by that power of ten such that
divisor becomes the least whole number, and then proceed as in (a) above.
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Conversion
1. Fractions to Decimals
Divide the numerator by the denominator
e.g. 5/8 = 0.625
2. Decimals to Percents
Multiply by 100%. The same result may be had by moving the decimal point two
place to the right and prefixing the % sign.
e.g. 0.625 = 0.625 x 100%
= 62.5%
3. Percents to Decimals
Divide by 100%. The same result may be had by removing the % sign and moving the
decimal point two places to the left.
e.g. 62.5% = 62.5% ÷ 100% = .625
4. Decimals to Fractions
a. Terminating Decimals
Multiply the decimal by a fraction the numerator and denominator of which are both
equal to such power of ten with as many zeroes as there are decimal places in the given
decimal, and then simplify.
e.g. 0.625 = 0.625 x 1000/1000 = 625/1000 = 5/8
b. Repeating Decimals
The procedure is outlined below together with an example to illustrate each step.
To convert 𝑥 = 0.166
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In either of the above forms, a nd d are referred to as extremes, while b and c are referred to
as the means.
Note: If a/b = c/d, its alternation (a/c = b/d) and inversion (b/a = d/c) are both true
provided a, b, c, d, ≠ 0.
Finding the missing term of a proportion—as ratios may be treated as fractions, and proportions as
equations relating two equivalent fractions, then a missing term of a proportion may be found by
equating the cross products and solving for the unknown. Stated differently, the product of the means
equals the products of the extremes. In symbols, given the proportion a : b :: c : d, ad=bc.
e.g. Find k in 3 : 5 :: k : 30 Solution: ad=bc
3(30)=5k
k= 18
Word Problems Involving
Direct Proportion—the ratios of two quantities being compared is constant
e.g. Five bananas weigh as much as 3 star apples. At this rate, how many star apples will weigh as
much as 30 bananas? The ratio of the weight of bananas to that of apples is 5 : 3. We thus
have b1 : a1 = b2 : a2
5 : 3 = 30 : a2
5a2 = 3(30)
a2 = 18
Inverse Proportion—the product of two quantities being compared is constant
e.g. If 10 of a certain car model running for 3 hours use up 150 liters of gas, how many of the same
car model running for 6 hours will use up the same amount of gas?
a=rxt
r x t = r2 x t2
1 1
10 x 3 = r2 x 6
5 = r2
Partitive Proportion—if a quantity q is to be partitioned into p1, p2, p3,…pn, so that the partitions are
in the ratio a1:a2:a3:…:an, then the size of the kth partition may be computed as follows:
e.g. If 24 hours is to be partitioned into 3 parts so that the parts are in the ratio 1 : 2 : 5, how many
hours would the third part be?
5
p3= x 24
1+2+5
5
= 𝑥 24 = 15
8
Per Cent—literally meaning “per hundred,” it is one way of writing fractions in which the
denominator which is required to be 100 is written as “%” and read as “per cent”
e.g. ¾ = 75/100 = 75%
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Percentage, Base and Rate—in the statement 15 is 30% of 50, three quantities are involved—
Percentage (P), Rate (R) and Base (B).
Percentage is that which bear to the base in the same ratio as the rate. The statement “15 is 30% of
50” is telling us that 15 (the percentage) bears to 50 (the base) in the same ratio as 30% (the
rate) in symbols, 15 = 30% x 50.
The basic formula P = R x B, has two other useful forms:
R = P/B and B = P/R
ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA
A. Properties of Real Numbers
1. Closure Property—for any real numbers a nd b, a + b and a x b are also real numbers
2. Commutative Property—for any real numbers a and b, a + b = b + a and a x b = b x a
3. Associative Property—for any real numbers a, b, and c
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c) and (a x b) x c = a x (b x c)
4. Existence of Identity Elements—for any real number a, there exist real numbers 0 and 1,
such that a + 0 = a and a x 1 = a.
5. Existence of Inverses—for any real number a, there exists a –a such that a + -a = 0, and a
1/a such that a x 1/a = 1.
6. Distributive Property—for any real numbers a, b, and c, a(b + c) = ab + ac
B. Properties of Equality
1. Reflexive—if a is a real number, a = a
2. Symmetric—if a and b are real numbers and a = b, then b = a
3. Transitive—if a, b and c are real numbers and a = b and b = c, then a = c.
C. Some Basic Terms
1. Variable—any symbol that is used to represent an element of a set e.g. x. y, Ө
2. Domain—the set of all elements represented by a particular variable
3. Constant—a symbol with only one element in its domain e.g. 3, -2, ∏
4. Algebraic Expression—a constant, a variable or any combination of constants and
variables involving indicated operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,
raising to a power, or extraction of a root) on them.
x−y
e.g. -4 25x2 -1, 3x3 – 2xy + y2,
4
5. Polynomial—an algebraic expression consisting only of non-negative integer powers of
variables, and with no variable in a denominator. Among the examples of the algebraic
expression above, only the last is not a polynomial
6. A Term of a polynomial—a constant or a constant multiplied by non-negative integer
powers of variables. A polynomial with only 1 term is monomial, polynomial with 2 is a
binomial and a polynomial with 3 is a trinomial.
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b. Removing fractions by multiplying both sides of the equation by the LCD of all
fractions
2. Use the APE/SPE to have all variables only on one side of the equation and the constants
on the other
3. Use the MPE/DPE to make the numerical coefficient of the variable equal to 1.
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Solution of a Linear Inequality—an element of the domain of the variable which makes the inequality
true
Solving a Linear Inquality—the process of finding, through the use of the properties of inequality, all
the solutions of the inequality
Note: Solving a linear inequality is similar to solving linear equations except that instead of
using the properties of equality, we use the properties of inequality.
e.g. -4 ≤ 2x -3 ≤ 9
-4 + 3 ≤ 2x – 3 + 3 ≤ 9 + 3
-1 ≤ 2x 12
-1/2 ≤ x ≤ 6
Word Problems Involving Linear Inequalities—the steps in solving word problems involving linear
inequalities are the same as those in solving word problems involving linear equations except that,
again instead of using the properties of equality, we use the properties of inequality
e.g. Ani’s grades in the last four tests were 85, 89, 90 and 93. What must be her grade in
the fifth and last test to get an average of at least 90?
Solution:
85 + 89 + 90 + 93 + 𝑔5
90 ≤
5
357 + 𝑔5
90 ≤
5
450 ≤ 357 + 𝑔5
93 ≤ g5
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Contemporary Mathematics
1. Plane Geometry
1.1 Show a working knowledge of basic terms and concepts in Plane Geometry
1.1.1 Lines and curves, perpendicular and parallel lines
1.1.2 Angles, angle properties
1.1.3 Special triangles and quadrilaterals
1.2 Solve problems involving the basic terms and concepts in Plane Geometry
2. Statistics and Probability
2.1 Show mastery and knowledge of basic terms and concepts in statistics and
probability
2.1.1 Counting techniques
2.1.2 Probability of an event
2.1.3 Measure of central tendency
2.1.4 Measure of variability
2.2 Solve, evaluate, and manipulate symbolic and numerical problems in
elementary algebra by applying fundamental rules, principles and
processes.
Introduction:
This part focuses on the concepts identified in the LET competencies for Gen ED
Mathematics. It provides a review of the definitions, formulas, operations, postulates, and theorems in
Geometry and Statistics. However, in an effort to effectively guide students to a deeper understanding
of the concepts involved, it begins with the foundations ang gives a wider, more comprehensive
discussion than those specifically identified by the competencies.
GEOMETRY
BASIC DEFINITIONS
Undefined Terms: the basic geometric concepts for which no definitions are given. These are the
points, lines and planes.
Collinear points: points that lie on the same line.
Coplanar points: points that lie on the same plane.
Space: the set of all points.
Line Segment: a part of a line consisting of two endpoints and all the points between them.
Ray: a part of a line having one endpoint and extending infinitely in one direction.
Opposite rays: rays with a common endpoint but extending in opposite directions.
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POSTULATES
Space contains at least 4 noncoplanar points.
Every plane contains at least three noncollinear points.
Every line contains at least two points.
Two points determine a line.
Three noncollinear points determine a plane.
If two points are in a plane, then the line containing the points are in the same plane.
If two lines intersect, then their intersection is a point.
If two planes intersect, then their intersection is a line.
POLYGONS
Polygon: a closed plane figure formed by fitting together segments end to end with each segment
intersecting exactly two others.
Diagonal of a polygon: a line segment that connects two non-consecutive vertices.
Convex polygon: no diagonal is in the exterior of the polygon.
Concave polygon: at least one diagonal is in the exterior of the polygon.
Equilateral polygon: all the sides have equal lengths.
Equiangular polygon: all the angles have equal measure.
Regular polygon: it is both equilateral and equiangular.
Interior angles of a polygon: the angles formed by the sides of a polygon
Exterior angles of a polygon: the angles formed in the exterior of the polygon when its sides are
extended.
THEOREMS
Angle-Sum Theorem for Triangles: The sum of the measures of the three angles of any
triangle is 180˚.
Angle-Sum Theorem for Quadrilaterals: The sum of the measures of the four angles of any
quadrilateral is 360˚.
Angle-Sum Theorem for Polygons: The sum(s) of the measures of the interior angles of any
polygon with n sides is given by s = (n – 2)180˚.
Exterior Angle Theorem for Polygons: The sum of the measures of the exterior angles of a
convex polygon (one at each vertex) is 180˚.
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TRIANGLES:
Classifying Triangles According to Sides
a. Scalene: No two of its sides are congruent.
b. Isosceles: At least two of its sides are congruent. The two congruent sides are the legs. The
third side is called the base. The angle opposite the base is the vertex. The angles adjacent to
the base are the base angles.
c. Equilateral: All of its sides are congruent.
Classifying Triangles According to Angles
a. Acute: all of its angles are acute
b. Right: has one right angle. The hypotenuse is the longest side. The legs are the other two
sides.
c. Obtuse: One of its angles is obtuse.
d. Equiangular: all of its angles are congruent.
Secondary Parts of a Triangle:
Altitude of a triangle: a segment from a vertex perpendicular to the line that contains the opposite
side.
Median of a triangle: a segment from one vertex to the midpoint of the opposite side.
Concurrent lines: Three or more lines that meet at the same point.
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CIRCLES
Circle: the set of all points in a plane at a given distance (radius) from a given point (center) in the
plane.
Radius: the line segment from the center to any point of the circle.
Chord: a line segment whose endpoints lie on the circle.
Diameter: a chord containing the center.
Secant: a line that intersects the circle in two points.
Tangent: a line lying on the same plane as the circle that intersects the circle in exactly one point.
Point of Tangency: The point where the tangent touches the circle.
Congruent circles: two or more circles having the same radius.
Concentric circles: two or more coplanar circles sharing the same center.
ANGLE PAIRS
Adjacent angles: two angles with a common vertex, a common side, and no common interior points.
Supplementary angles: two angles whose measures have a sum of 180˚.
Complementary angles: two angles whose measures have a sum of 90˚.
Vertical angles: Two angles are vertical if and only if their sides form two pairs of opposite rays and
their angles are nonadjacent formed by two intersecting lines.
Linear pair: two angles which are adjacent and supplementary.
Theorems:
Supplements of congruent angles are congruent.
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Postulates:
If parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then:
1. The alternate interior angles are congruent.
2. The corresponding angles are congruent.
3. The alternate exterior angles are congruent.
4. The same-side interior angles are supplementary.
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COUNTING TECHNIQUES
Experiment: any activity that can be done repeatedly (e.g. tossing a coin, rolling a die)
Sample space: the set of all possible outcomes in an experiment.
Example: In a rolling die, the sample space is S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
Sample point: an element of the sample space.
Example: In a rolling die, there are six sample points.
Counting Sample Points
1. Fundamental Principle of Counting (FPC)
If a choice consists of k steps, of which the steps can be performed in n1 ways, for each of these the
second can be performed in n2 ways, for each of these the third can be performed in n3 ways . . . , and
for each these the kth can be made in nk ways, then the whole choice can be made in n1n2n3…nk
ways.
Example: In how many ways can two dice fall? Ans.: 6 • 6 = 36 ways
2. Permutation
Permutation is an arrangement of objects wherein the order is important.
a. Linear Permutation
If n objects are to be arranged r objects at a time, then 𝑛!
the number of distinct arrangements is given by the 𝑛𝑃𝑟 = , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 ≥ 𝑟
(𝑛 − 𝑟)!
formula -------------------------------------------------
Example: In how many can the first, second and third winners may be chosen in a beauty pageant
with 10 contestants?
10!
10P3 = = 10 • 9 • 8 = 720 ways
(10−3)!
b. Circular Permutation
If n objects are to be arranged in a circular manner, then the number of distinct arrangements is
(n-1)! Answer: (7-1)! = 6!
c. Permutation with Repetitions
The nuber of distinct permutations of n things of which p are of one kind, q are of a second
kind,… r of the kth kind is
𝑛!
𝑃= where p + q + ⋯ + r = n
𝑝! 𝑞! … 𝑟!
Example: How many different permutations are there in the word COMMITTEE if all letters are
to be taken? Answer:
9!
P= = 45360
2! 2! 2!
3. Combination
Combination is the arrangement of objects regardless of order. In other words, the order of arranging
the objects is not important. If n objects are to be arranged r at a time, the number of distinct
combinations is given by the formula:
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𝑛!
n Cr = 𝑟!(𝑛−𝑟)! , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 ≥ 𝑟
Example: In how many ways can a committee of 4 be chosen from 6 persons?
6!
Answer: C4 = 4!(6−4)! = 15 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
6
PROBABILITY
Probability: the likelihood of the occurrence of an event.
If E is any event, then the probability of an event denoted by P(E) has a value between 0 and
1, inclusive. In symbol,
0 ≤ P(E) ≤ 1
If P(E) = 1, then E is sure to happen
If P(E) = 0, then E is impossible to happen.
Moreover, the probability that E will not happen is P(E’),
then P(E) + P(E’) = 1.
1. Theoretical Probability
Theoretically, the probability of an event E, denoted by P(E), is defined as
𝑛(𝐸)
𝑃(𝐸) = where n(E) = number favourable outcomes
𝑛 (𝑆)
n (S) = number of possible outcomes
2. Experimental Probability
The probability of an event may also be obtained experimentally. Suppose we want to find
out the probability of obtaining a tail in a toss of coin. We can perform an experiment by tossing
the coin 50 times and record the number of occurrences of tail. Suppose that tail occurred 24 times,
then the probability of getting a tail based on this experiment is
P (tail) = 24/50
STATISTICS
Statistics is the branch of mathematics used to summarize quantities of data and help investigators
draw sound conclusions. Its two main branches are descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.
A sample is a specified set of measurements or data, which is drawn from a much larger body of
measurements or data called the population.
Kinds of sampling
1. Random sampling techniques are used to ensure that every member of the population has an
equal chance of being included in the sample. A random sample is said to be representative of
the entire population. The two methods of random sampling are lottery method and the use
of the table of random sampling.
2. Systematic sampling is a technique which selects every nth element of the population for the
sample, with the starting point determined at random from the first n elements.
3. Stratified random sampling is a technique of selecting simple random samples from mutually
exclusive groupings or strata of the population.
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Natural Science
1. Use scientific knowledge to explain natural phenomena and protect man’s
environment
2. Use scientific inquiry to investigate materials, events and phenomena in the
natural world (designing experiments, collecting, organizing, analyzing and
interpreting data, making conclusions, and communicating results)
3. Identify scientific traits and attitudes exhibited in various situations
4. Analyze the impact of technology on non-living and living things
5. Analyze advantages and disadvantages of different solutions to particular
problems.
INTRODUCTION:
Scientific knowledge and skills are essential for socio-economic and cultural development.
While the required knowledge may or may not be generated wholly, we must have the capacity to
make use of it.
Today, the amount of scientific and technological knowledge has transformed societies. With
the advent of information and communication technology, information can be relayed to other
parts of the world in just a matter of seconds. The inventions in telecommunications and
transportations have drawn the world smaller and smaller. Moreover, technology has enabled
humans to do things which were thought to be impossible before like exploring the universe, stem
cloning, in-vitro fertilization, etc… The recent breakthroughs in genetic mapping have made it
possible to identify the useful and bad genes that will result to the breeding of a better species. Life
has been increasingly influenced by science and technology in our pursuit of a more comfortable
lifestyle. BUT the transformations have not been entirely beneficial.
To better understand the innumerable transformations in science and its applications would
require at one extreme, scientists and technologists of high calibre and at the other, a scientifically
and technologically literate population. Science can be a vehicle to inculcate values on the proper
use of technology that bring both advantages and disadvantages.
The scientifically literate person understands and appreciates the joint enterprises of science
and technology, their interrelationships, and their impacts on society and the environment. Some
of the factors involved in the interrelationships among science, technology, society and the
environment are:
A. Science and Technology
There is a distinction between science and technology, although they often overlap and depend
on each other. Science deals with generating and ordering conceptual knowledge. Technology
deals with design and development, and the application of scientific knowledge, often in
response to social and human needs. Technology does not just provide tools for science,
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however; it also may provide motivation and direction for theory and research. For example,
the theory of the conservation of energy was developed technological problem of increasing the
efficiency of commercial steam engines. The mapping of the locations of the entire set of genes
in human DNA has been motivated by the technology of genetic engineering, which both
makes such mapping possible and provides a reason for doing so. The invention of the
microscope led to new discoveries about cells.
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Examples: Some people mistakenly believe that irradiation causes food to become radioactive.
Buttermilk is often mistakenly regarded as having a high caloric content. Folklore has it that
the best time to plant potatoes is during full moon. Many believe that technology is simply
applied science.
F. Variable Positions
Scientific thought and knowledge can be used to support different positions. It is normal for
scientists and technologists to disagree among themselves, even though they may invoke the
same scientific theories and data.
Examples: The debate about the possibility of cold fusion illustrated variable positions among
scientists.
There is a debate about whether or not controlled burning techniques should be used in
national parks.
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SCIENCE is a systematized body of knowledge based on nature and the facts of life. The contents or
the facts of this knowledge are gathered through keen observation and relentless experimentations.
The ideas generated are also products of further investigations. Science involves the human attempt
to generate testable concepts, generalizations and theories which explain natural phenomena and
have predictable capabilities. Scientists share certain basic beliefs and attitudes about what they do
and how they view their work. This is the nature of science and what can be learned about it.
TECHNOLOGY is the application of scientific theories, laws, concepts, and principles. It is described
as the means by which humans control or modify their environment which can be traced to
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Paleolithic cultures when humans shaped tools out of stone. Technology provides the eyes and ears of
science. The electronic computer, for example, has led to substantial progress in the study of weather
systems, demographic patterns, gene structure, and other complex systems that would not have been
possible.
WHAT ARE THE BASIC CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY?
A scientifically literate person has working knowledge of the basic concepts and principles of
the natural sciences. Scientific knowledge is holistic, i.e., it is gathered by various branches of science
contributing to an over-all conceptual scheme which is internally consistent.
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Life Science (Biology)—deals with living things and their parts and actions. Smaller branches
of life science includes:
o Zoology- the study of animals
o Botany—the study of plants
Earth Science—deals with the study of the Earth and its rocks, oceans, volcanoes,
earthquakes, atmosphere, and other features. This includes astronomy, that explore beyond
the Earth. This study objects such as stars, planets, moons.
Physical Science—deals with the study of matter. This includes:
o Chemistry—explore what substances are made of and how they change and combine.
o Physics—explore the study of relationship between matter and energy.
The scientific enterprise comprises at least two factors: processes and products. The products
of science include the facts, concepts, theories, laws, and applications that occur as a result of doing
science—that is, scientific content.
Scientific Concepts: These are ideas that combine several factors or observations. A concept is an
“observed regularity in events or objects” (Novak, 1984).
1. Green plants need light in order to grow—relates the two observations of light to the amount
of growth of green plants.
2. The human body uses food for energy and growth.
3. Some chemicals fizz when they come into contact with other chemicals.
4. It takes more force to slide a book on sandpaper than on smooth paper.
5. Running water cuts gullies in soft rock.
6. Heavy marble roll farther than light marbles when both are given the same push.
Scientific Theories: Theories are developed to explain concepts or other observed regularities. These
are proven hypothesis (tentative answers to questions).
Here are some examples of theories:
1. The Kinetic Molecular Theory: Molecules are in motion, and the rate of motion varies with
temperature.
2. Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity: The faster an object goes, the greater its mass
becomes.
3. Theory of Evolution: Species adapt to their environments, and those that are most fit to
survive.
4. Theory of Plate Tectonics: The outer shell of the earth consists of several moving plates on
which the oceans and continents lie.
5. Cellular Theory of Life: Living things are made of cells.
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Scientific Laws: are statements generally accepted to be true, universal, and absolute. They can be
expressed in terms of a single mathematical equation. They don’t really need any complex external
proofs; they are accepted at face value based upon the fact that they have always been observed to be
true.
Some examples of Scientific Laws:
1. Newton’s Laws of Motion: Inertia, Acceleration, and Interaction
2. The Law of Universal Gravitation: All objects attract all other objects with a force that
depends on their masses and the distance between them.
3. The Law of Conservation of Matter and Energy: The sum of matter and energy in the
universe is constant.
4. The Law of Segregation: During reproduction, the two factors that control each trait separate
(segregate), with one factor from each pair passed to the offspring.
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Energy in food is used by our bodies to move. A lighted fire cracker explodes with a
loud sound when chemical energy is released.
o Gravitational Energy is the energy of position of place. A rock resting at the top of a
hill contains gravitational potential energy. Water in a reservoir behind a dam, is an
example of gravitational potential energy. When something is lifted or suspended in
air, work is done on the object against the pull of gravity. This work is converted
gravitational potential energy.
o Stored Mechanical Energy is energy in stretched rubber bands, in compressed springs,
trampolines, and even our skin. They have the potential to do work or resist being
stretched out of shape.
o Nuclear Energy is energy stored in the nucleus of an atom and can be released when
the nuclei are combined or split apart. Nuclear power plants split the nuclei of
hydrogen atoms in a process called fusion.
One of the reasons energy is hard to conceptualize is that it is constantly changing from one
form to another. When this happens it is called an energy transformation.
The law of conservation of energy says that energy is neither created nor destroyed. When
we use energy, it doesn’t disappear. We change it from one form of energy into another.
A car engine burns gasoline, converting the chemical energy in gasoline into mechanical
energy. Solar cells change radiant energy into electrical energy. Energy changes form, but the
total amount of energy in the universe stays the same.
Converting one form of energy into another form always involves a loss of usable
energy. The total amount of energy available for transformation is almost always decreasing.
The human body is like a machine, and the fuel is food. Food gives the energy to move,
breathe, and think. But the body is not very efficient at converting food into useful work. The
rest of the energy is lost as heat.
Almost all of the energy stored in the molecules of gasoline used during an automobile trip
goes, by way of friction and exhaust, into producing a slightly warmer car, road, and air.
When energy is transformed into heat energy that diffuses all over, further transformations is
less likely to occur. Energy follows a one-way path. It enters the living system in the form of
electromagnetic waves—light and leaves as heat.
Energy sources are classified into two groups—renewable and non-renewable. Renewable
energy sources include biomass, geothermal energy, hydropower, solar energy, and wind energy.
They can be replenished in a short time. Non-renewable energy supplies are limited. Petroleum, for
example, was formed millions of years ago from the remains of ancient sea plants and animals.
Sound, motion, thermal energy, and light are not easily classified as kinetic and potential
energy. They are evidences of energy.
o Light is an electromagnetic radiation and has no mass, hence, it has neither kinetic
nor potential energy.
o Sound is produced when a force causes an object or substance to vibrate—the energy
is transferred through the substance in a wave.
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The human ear can hear only those sounds caused by objects vibrating
between 20 decibels (vibs/sec) and about 16,000 decibels.
Ultrasonic waves are sound waves that vibrate very fast with frequencies too
high to be detected by the human ear. They have greater penetrating power
than audible sound waves and can be used to see in utero foetuses and the
functioning of human hearts.
o Heat consists of moving molecules in air or in an object, and mechanical energy is the
combination of kinetic and potential energy of a moving object. A pendulum has
mechanical energy; it continually converts kinetic energy into gravitational potential
energy and back into kinetic energy as it swings back and forth.
ENERGY
EVIDENCES FORMS SOURCES
B. Structure of Matter
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. They differ greatly in shape,
density, flexibility, texture, toughness, and color; in their ability to give off, absorb, bend, or
reflect light; in what form they take at different temperatures; in their responses to each other;
and in hundreds of other ways.
Homogenous system is characterized by one-phase system whose characteristics are uniform
throughout. These are observed either as a pure substance or in solutions. An example of a
homogenous substance would be pure water, which contains only compound H20 or pure
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table salt that contains only the compound NaCl. Two or more gases will always mix to form
just one phase.
Elements are the simplest form of matter since they cannot be decomposed further even
through chemical means. Elements are further classified into metal, non-metal, and
metalloid. Some characteristics of metal: luster, malleability and ductility, high tensile
strength, good conductors of heat and electricity. Non-metals are characterized as are poor
conductors (thus, making them good insulators) of heat and electricity, neither malleable nor
ductile, brittle. (if in the solid phase)
Compounds are pure substances that are composed of two or more elements, which are
chemically combined in a different ration by mass. There are two ways of grouping
compounds—as organinc or inorganic; and as acid, base or neutral. Basically, carbon-
containing compounds are organic. Sugar, acetone, acetic acid, methane, ethylene, alcohol are
organic compounds. However, carbides, carbonates, bicarbonates, cyanides, carbon dioxide
and carbon monoxide are exemptions.
Inorganic compounds are those compounds that do not contain carbon. Salt, lye and water are
some examples.
Acids are usually distinguished from bases through the use of indicators. Indicators are either
weak organic acids or bases that change color over a range of pH values. Litmus is a common
indicator. Acid turns the color of blue litmus to red while base turns red to blue. Bases turn
red litmus paper to blue. Acids when dissolved in water yield hydrogen ions (H+) while bases
yield hydroxide ions (OH-). Unlike acids and bases, neutral compounds do not change the
color of indicators.
Solution is the only homogeneous mixture, made up of two or more pure substance that are
physically combined. Alloys are solid solutions which are combinations of metals. Salt and
water forms a liquid solution while air is a mixture of gases. Solutions contain a solvent (the
material that does the dissolving of another material) and a solute (the material that is
dissolved). Water is called the “universal solvent” because it dissolves many substances. The
warmer the solvent, the more solute that can be dissolved.
Heterogeneous system is characterized by the presence of two or more distinct phases, which
have different properties.
o Colloids and suspensions are heterogeneous. Of the three types of mixtures, only
colloids exhibit Tyndall effect. Tyndall effect is the scattering of light.
o Suspensions are mixtures of a solid, liquid and/or gas materials. Examples of
suspensions are soil particles in water, halo-halo, oil in water.
The components of mixtures can be separated by ordinary physical processes. The choice of
separation technique is dependent on the type of mixture and the characteristics of its
components.
Filtration is a separation technique that is being used in separating insoluble material
from the liquid by allowing the mixture to pass through a filter paper. Other methods of
separating insoluble solids from a liquid include: decantation, centrifugation, and
sedimentation.
Two immisible liquids can be separated by using a separatory funnel. Whereas, a mixture
that is composed of a metal and non-metal can be easily separated by using a magnet.
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A mixture that is made up of two solids can be separated either by using a sieve or by
dissolution. On the other hand, soluble solids from a liquid can be separated through
evaporation or distillation.
Mixtures of substances in the waters, land, and air may result to some major environmental
problems:
Water Pollution—contamination of water by foreign matter such as microorganisms,
chemicals, industrial or other wastes or sewage.
Euthrophication—a natural or artificial process on which a body of water contains high
concentrations of chemical elements required for like making the producers bloom
directly nourishing most bacteria than aquatic organisms like fishes. This results to red
tides.
Green House Effect—a process in which sunlight is not capable of excaping the earth’s
atmosphere due to suspended particles in air resulting to global warming.
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C. Non-contact forces are forces that occur when the fields around objects interact with another
field located around another body. The bodies themselves are not directly touching each
other, but only their fields interact with one another.
Gravitational force is observed when earth is attracted to the sun, earth also pulls the sun. an
object falling freely in the air is acted upon by a force of gravity that cause it to accelerate.
(g=9.8 m/s2).
o Gravity is the force behind rainfall, the power of rivers, the pulse of tides; it pulls the
planets and stars toward their centers to form spheres, holds planets in orbit, and
gathers cosmic dust together to start the process of star formation.
o Gravitational forces involve a gravitational field that affects space around any mass.
The strength of the field around an object is proportional to its mass and diminishes
with distance from its center. (F=G m1m2/r2) where G=6.67 x 10-11 Nm/kg2.
Electrostatic force is the interaction between the electric field of one charged body with
another charged body
o On an atomic scale, electric forces between oppositely charged protons and electrons
hold atoms and molecules together
o An electrically insulating material such as glass or rubber does not ordinarily allow
any passage of charges through it. An electrically conducting material such as copper
will offer very little resistance to the motion of charges. (Most electrical wires are a
combination of extremes: a very good conductor covered by a very good insulator.)
Magnetic force is the attraction between magnetic fields pulling of pushing each other—like
poles attract each other, unlike poles, repel each other.
o Magnetic forces are very closely related to electric forces—hence the term
“electromagnetic force.” Both are thought of as acting by means of fields: an electric
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charge has an electric field in the space around it that affects other charges, and a
magnet has a magnetic field around it that affects other magnets.
o Moving electric charges produce magnetic fields. For example, electric currents
circulating in the earth’s core give the earth an extensive magnetic field, which we
detect from the orientation of our compass needles.
The interplay of electric and magnetic forces is also the basis of many technological
designs, such as electric ekectric motors (in which currents produce motion), generators (in
which motion produces currents), and television tubes (in which a beam of moving electric
charges is bent back and forth by periodically changing magnetic field). More generally, a
changing electric field induces a magnetic field, and vice versa.
When an unbalanced force does not act on an object, the object’s motion changes. It may
change its speed ot its direction of motion or both. The greater amount of unbalanced force, the
more rapidly a given given object’s speed or direction of motion changes, the more massive an
object is, the less rapidly its speed or direction changes in response to any given force.
Sir Isaac Newto developed three laws of motion that explains force and motion:
1st Law of Motion—an object at rest remains at rest and an object in motion remains in
motion in a straight line and at constant speed unless acted upon by an external unbalanced
force. (Inertia) ex: This is the reason for seat belts and air bags as safety devices in cars (Law of
Inertia)
2nd Law of Motion—force is directly proportional to mass and acceleration (F=ma) (Law of
Acceleration)
3rd Law of Motion—states that for every force there is an equal and opposite force. This is the
familiar “action-reaction” system and it governs the movement of rockets and jet airplanes
(Law of Interaction)
Some complicated motions can be described not in terms forces directly but in terms of the
pattern of motion, such as vibrations and waves. Examples are sound waves, earthquakes, or surface
waves on water.
Wave behaviour can be described in terms of how fast the disturbance propagates (speed, v),
and in terms of the distance between successive peaks of the disturbance (wavelength, m).
Wavelength can greatly influence how a wave interacts with matter—how well it is transformed,
absorbed, reflected or distracted.
Electromagnetic waves include the regions from longest wavelength-radio waves,
microwaves, radiant heat or infrared radiation, visible light (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo,
violet), ultraviolet radiation in sunlight—the wavelengths that produce burning, tanning, and cancer
in the skin of human beings.
Ultrasonic waves are sound waves that vibrate very fast. Their frequencies are too high to be
detected by the human ear. Ultrasonic sound waves have greater penetrating power than audible
sound waves and can be used to see in utero foetuses and the functioning of human hearts.
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Doppler effects are evident in the apparent change in pitch of an automobile horn as it passes
the observer. The change in the wavelength of light from stars and galaxies also illustrates Doppler.
Because the light emitted from most of them shifts toward longer wavelengths (that is, toward the
red end of the spectrum), astronomers conclude that galaxies are all moving away form one
another—and hence that we are in a generally expanding universe (Doppler shift).
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Although the oceans and atmosphere are very large and have a great capacity to absorb and
recycle materials naturally, they do have their limits. They have only a finite capacity to
withstand change without generating major ecological alterations that may also have adverse
effects on human activities. Wind, tides, and solar radiation can also be harnessed to provided
sources of energy.
Forces within the earth cause continual changes on its surface. The solid crust of the earth—
including both the continents and ocean basins—consists of separate sections that overlie a
hot, almost molten layer.
The theory of plate tectonics is a unifying theory of the continental drift and seafloor
spreading theories. The current position of continents on the globe is though to be the result
of the break-up and subsequent movement of plates making up the super continent, Pangea,
about 250 million years ago. Pangea is formed from the collision of continents that formed
from the original crust of the earth and started moving around 2 ½ billion years ago.
The surface of the earth undergoes continuous cycles of building structures and tearing them
down. Weathering is process of wearing structures down while erosion refers to moving the
weathered materials. Canyons, gullies, and valleys are the result of weathering and erosion by
rivers and streams.
Human activities have changed the earth’s land surface, oceans and atmosphere. For instance,
reducing the amount of forest cover on th earth’s surface has led to a dramatic increase in
atmospheric carbon dioxide, which in turn may be leading to increased average temperature
of the earth’s atmosphere and surface.
Smoke and other substances from human activity interact chemically with the atmosphere
and produce undesirable effects such as smog, acid rain, and an increase in the damaging
ultraviolet radiation that penetrates the atmosphere.
Intensive farming has stripped land of vegetation and topsoil, creating virtual deserts in some
parts of the world.
The Universe
The earth has existed for only about a third of the history of the universe and is in
comparison a mere speck in space.
Our sun is a medium-sized star orbiting near the edge of the arm of an ordinary disk-shaped
galaxy of stars, the Milky Way. Our galaxy contains many billion stars, and the universe
contains many billion such galaxies.
The entire content of the known universe expanded explosively into existence from a single
hot, dense, chaotic mass more than ten billion years ago. Stars coalesced out of clouds of the
lightest elements (hydrogen and helium), heated up from the energy of falling together, and
began releasing nuclear energy from the fusion of light elements into heavier ones in their
extremely hot, dense cores.
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There are also a great many smaller bodies or rock and ice orbiting the sun. Some of those
that the earth encounters in its yearly orbit around the sun glow and disintegrate from
friction as they plunge into the atmosphere—and sometimes impact the ground.
Other chunks of rock mixed with ice have such long and off-center orbits that they
periodically come very close to the sun, where some of their surface material is boiled off by
the sun’s radiation and pushed into a long illuminated tail that we see as a comet.
In studying the universe, a variety of tools are used. These tools include radio and x-ray
telescopes that are sensitive to a broad spectrum of information coming to us from space.
Computers can undertake increasingly complicated calculations of gravitational systems or
nuclear reactions, finding patterns in data and deducing the implications of theories. Space
probes send back detailed pictures and other data from distant planets in our own solar
system; and huge “atom smashers” that simulate conditions in the early universe and probe
the inner workings of atoms.
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In plant cells, the plasma membrane is surrounded by a cell wall made of cellulose to provide
rigidity for the cells because plants do not have a skeletal structure.
o Plant cells also contain plastids, tiny colored bodies that provide color and are used
for storage or as chemical factories. Chloroplasts are plastids that contain chlorophyll,
which is used in making food. When the green leaves die in autumn, the chlorophyll
fades and other plastids can be seen, resulting in the brightly colored fall foliage.
Cells have basic living functions, some of which are: (1) to manufacture proteins and other
materials to help build the cell; (2) to manufacture energy; and (3) to reproduce.
o Gree plants have unique capability of manufacturing their own food in the presence
of light from water, minerals, and carbon dioxide in a process called photosynbthesis.
The products of this reaction are glucose (energy), H2O, and O2 (Photosynthesis)
o Both oxygen and glucose are used in energy production. All cells, including animal
and plant cells, use oxygen for manufacturing energy and release carbon dioxide as a
waste product. Thus, oxygen is used by both plants and animal cells, and carbon
dioxide is given off by both plants and animal cells.
Cells reproduce either by mitosis (somatic cells) or meiosis (sex cells)
o Mitosis produce two new cells whose chromosomes are the same in number as the
parent cell (diploid)
o Meiosis produce two new cells with half the number of chromosomes as the parent
cell (haploid).
Structure and Function of Plants
Plants contain organs called roots, stems, leaves and flowers.
o The roots provide anchorage for the plant and, through tiny root hairs, enable plants
to absorb water and nutritional elements from the soil.
o The stems transport the nutrients to the leaves through specialized cells
o The leaves are the food-manufacturing sites of plants.
Flowers are the sexual reproductive organs of the plants.
o The petals attract insects and birds to help disperse pollen for cross-fertilization.
o The male reproductive organ is the stamen, which manufactures the pollen.
o The female reproductive organ is the pistil, which has a sticky top called stigma to
capture the pollen, a style to transport the pollen nucleus to the ovary; and the ovary,
which manufactures the ovules.
o When the pollen nuclei join the ovule nuclei, fertilized seeds result.
Plants move in response to gravity, light, touch, water, temperature and some chemicals.
o Roots pointing downward shows plants respond to gravity (geotropism).
o Plants also tend to grow toward areas with the most light, causing them to bend;
house plants bend toward the light and forest plants grow tall, reaching for the sun
(phototropism)
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o Some plants, (makahiya) have leaves that quickly close when touched
(thigmotropism)
Structure and Function of Animals
The basic functions of all animals include nutrition, respiration, excretion, circulation,
response, movement, regulation, and reproduction.
o The digestive system takes food in, processes it for use by cells, and eliminates
indigestible materials.
o The respiratory systemis adapted for extracting the required oxygen either from the
air or from water and removing carbon dioxide.
o Excretion is accomplished through kidneys and other excretory organs that extract
liquid waste from body fluids and eliminate it from the organism.
o A complex circulatory system ensures that nutrients, gases, and regulatory hormones
are transported from the specialized systems to each individual cell and that wastes
can be removed from each cell and delivered to the excretory and respiratory organs.
o Regulatory glands secrete hormones to keep all cells working harmoniously.
o An intricate network of nerves and often a central brain structure coordinate all
systems and permit movement, thought, and interaction with the environment.
o The muscular system allows the organism to move.
o A skeletal system provides rigidity in animals that do not otherwise have the required
structure. Skeletons may be made of bone, cartilage, or water (such as hydroskeletons
in certain worms). Some aniumals, such as crayfish and lobsters, have exoskeletons
(external skeletons) that are made of chitin.
o Reproduction is accomplished either sexually or asexually through specialized organs
and specialized systems that ensure perpetuation of the species.
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o Recessive traits include attached earlobes, blue or hazel eyes, straight hair, the normal
number of fingers and toes, and the inability to curl one’s tongue.
Living organisms move through definite life cycles: they come into being, they grow, they
may metamorphose, they mature, they reproduce, and they die.
G. Ecology
Ecology is the study of the interactions of organisms with their environment and with each
other. The environment in which living organisms exist is called the biosphere, and includes
land, water and air.
o The basic unit of ecological study is the ecosystem, a community of living organisms
and their non-living environment, interacting with each other. It is the environment
through which energy flows and minerals recycle.
o A balanced ecosystem has three fundamental characteristics: (1) there is a relatively
constant source of energy (the sun); (2) The sun’e energy is converted to glucose,
which is needed by the living organisms; (3) Organic matter and nutrients are
successfully recycled.
Energy transmitted through an ecosystemprimarily by means of the food chain. Plants are the
sources of all food in an ecosystem since they manufacture their own food. Some animals are
herbivores, some are omnivores while others are carnivores. (energy follows a one-way path).
Recycling of organic matter and nutrients within an ecosystem occurs as plants and animals
excrete waste materials back into their environment and die. Microorganisms recycle all this
material back to the environment (biogeochemical cycles).
Humans may upset the balance in ecosystems. Air and water pollution result to the death of
some organisms. Increased levels of carbon dioxide may cause localized or global warming,
upsetting the balance of energy. Increased CFC levels reduce the thickness of the ozone layer,
causing increased levels of ultraviolet radiation.
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Decide how to carry out the experiment, including determine the material, apparatus,
experiment set ups and the procedures to take. The experiment tests whether your hypothesis is true
or false. It is important for the experiment to be a fair test.
Conduct a fair test by making sure that you change only one factor at a time while keeping all
other conditions the same. Repeat the experiments several times to make sure that the first results
weren’t just an accident.
ANALYZING AND INTERPRETING DATA
After collecting the data, you will need to analyze the results of the experiment. The results can be
presented in various forms, such as a table, graph or chart.
MAKING A CONCLUSION
Draw conclusions based on the observations and results. State whether the hypothesis is true or false.
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o The success of genetic engineering has helped to increase the natural variability
within plant species by using radiation to induce mutations, so that there are more
choices for selective breeding. For example, plants can be given the genetic program
for synthesizing substances that give them resistance to insect predators.
o The widespread use of insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides has greatly increased
useful farm output. However, their effectiveness may diminish as organisms develop
genetically determined resistance to them, thereby requiring increased amounts of
pesticides or the development of new ones.
o An alternative to the chemical control of pests is introducing organisms from other
ecosystems in an effort to reduce the number of pests in the agricultural ecosystem
(such as by using insects that feed on local weeds).
Process Technology—this include chemical and industrial processes, mechanical systems,
manufacturing, and transportation. Increasing automation requires less direct labor and fewer
skilled crafts, but more engineering, computer programming, quality control and may
eliminate some workers’ jobs even while it creates others. Flexibility and skill in learning a
succession of new job roles have become increasingly important as the pace of technological
change quickens.
Electronic / Control technology—this involves the design and production of simple circuits,
robotics, and control systems, electronic devices.
o With the invention of devices to generate and control electric current, information
could be encoded and conveyed over long distances by wires. With radio waves, the
same information could be encoded as changes in wave pattern and distributed in all
directions through the atmosphere without the need of connecting wires. The
efficient control of light waves in lasers has made possible the encoding and
transmitting of information as pulses in light intensity over optical fibers.
o Robots are used to perform the tasks of mass production. Instructions for processing
are used to control the processes electronically, rather than having to be interpreted
and carried out by people.
Information and Communication Technology—this deals with locating and acquiring, storing,
sorting, receiving communication information in variety of forms, data collection techniques,
storage and data search programs, and generation models.
o Computers can provide control that is as good as, or more precise and raopid than,
human control. The operation of automobile engines, the flight control of aircraft and
spacecraft, and the aiming and firing of weapons can be computerized to take account
of more information and to respond much more rapidly than a human operator could.
However, there are also risks that the information entered may contain errors and its
speed of response may exceed human ability to monitor or judge the output.
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political unit he resides in—the barangay or municipality. A citizen encounters politics in school,
in the church, in the business establishments he works, the employees’ union in which he is a
member, or in socio-civic organization he joins, and in a host of other organizations and a myriad of
situations. He may choose to ignore politics, but definitely can neverescape from its influence.
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CONCEPT OF A STATE
A state is a community of persons more or less numerous, permanently occupying a definite
portion of the territory, independent from outside or external control and possessing a government
wherein a great body of inhabitants render habitual obedience (CIR vs. Rueda, 42 SCRA 23).
CONCEPT OF NATION
A nation is a group of persons occupying a portion of the territory sharing the same language,
culture, tradition, and history.
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FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
1. Democracy—comes from the Latin terms ‘demos’ and ‘kratos’. It is a form of government
wherein the power or sovereignty is exercised and or resides in the people. It may be
classified as pure or representative democracy.
2. Aristocracy—a form of government wherein the power ios exercised by a limited few or the
so-called elite. It is always regarded as the privileged class.
3. Monarchy—a form of government wherein the power or sovereignty is exercised by one
person only, usually a king or a queen. It could either be absolute or limited monarchy.
4. Parliamentary—a form of government wherein the President serves as nominal or titular
head. It is the Prime Minister that runs the affairs of the State. He is directly accountable to
the people. Under this system, the ministry is legally responsible to legislature and
consequently to the electorate.
5. Presidential—a form of government wherein the President is the chief executive of the state
and independent of the legislature with respect to his tenure acts, and policies.
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6. Federal—a form of government where the power of the state is divided into two namely:
national for national affairs and local for local affairs. Each organ is independent in its own
sphere.
7. Military—a form of government established and controlled by military authorities over a
beleaguered state.
8. Revolutionary—a form of government wherein the State is obtained by means of force.
9. De Jure—a form of government that is founded on existing legal or constitutional basis.
10. De Facto—a form of government that is not founded on constitutional law. It exists in fact
but not in law.
11. Civil—a form of government that is run b y elected civilian officials.
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the Council of Ministers. From 1863, the Ministry of Ultramar exercised general powers of
supervision over Philippines’ affairs.
The Spanish government in the Philippines was centralized in structure and national in
scope. The barangays were consolidated into pueblos (towns) and headed by a Governador who
represents the Governor-General in the province. Cities governed under special Charters were
created. Each of the cities had an Ayunatmiento or Cabildo (city council). Cebu was the first city to
be established in 1565 in the Philippines. The second was Manila in 1571.
The powers of the government was exercised by the Government-General and ably assisted
by the Board of Authorities and the Council of Administration. The first Spanish governor-general
was Miguel Lopez de Legazpi and the last was Gen. Diego delos Rios.
To strengthen the judicial system, Spain established the Royal Audiencia in 1583 in Cebu and
in Vigan, which exercised appellate jurisdiction over criminal cases coming from the surrounding
areas. In 1886, the Courts of First Instance were established in each province and the Justice of the
Peace Courts were established in the two level. Special courts were also organized.
The Katipunan—the Katipunan was a secret society that participated the Philippine Revolution
against the Spanish in August 26, 1896. The Katipunan was organized by Andres Bonifacio. The
Central government of the Katipunan was vested in the Supreme Council (Kataas-taasang
Sanggunian). A provincial Council was established in each province. A popular council was
established in the town level. The judicial power was exercised by a Judicial Council or Sangguniang
Hukuman. When Bonifacio died, another government was established by Gen. Emilio F. Aguinaldo
who acted as the first president of the Philippines of the Philippines republic by virtue of the election
in the Tejeros Convention on March 22, 1897.
The Biak-na-Bato Republic—on November 1, 1897, with a republic established by Gen. Emilio
Aguinaldo in Biak-na-Bato (now San Miguel de Mayumo, Bulacan). It had a Constitution which was
to take for years only. The republic declared the separation of the Philippines from Spain. The
republic lasted up to December 15, 1897, with the conclusion of the pact of Biak-na-Bato.
The Dictatorial Government—the following outbreak of the Spanish-American War on April 25,
1898, Gen. Aguinaldo established the Dictatorial Government on May 24, 1898. The most important
achievements of the government were the proclamation of the Philippines’ Independence at Kawit,
Cavite on June 12, 1898 and the reorganization of the local governments.
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The Revolutionary Government—on June 23, 1898, Gen. Aguinaldo established the Revolutionary
Government replacing the dictatorial government. The aim of the new government was to struggle
for the independence of the Philippines, until all nations including Spain will expressly recognize it
and to prepare the country for the establishment of a real republic.
The First Philippine Republic—on September 15, 1898, a revolutionary congress of Filipino
representatives met in Malolos, Bulacan and framed the so-called Malolos Constitution. The
Constitution established a free and independent Philippine Republic which was inaugurated on
January 23, 1899 with Gen. Aguinaldo as President. The Republic was not recognized by the family of
nations. It was nevertheless an organized government because it actually existed from January 23,
1901. In February, 1899 the United States annexed the Philippines as a result of the Spanish-
American War and in April, 1901, Gen. Aguinaldo was captured.
The Military Government—The American military rule in the Philippines started on April 14, 1898,
the day after the capture of Manila. The existence of war gave the President of the United States the
power to establish a Military government. His authority was delegated to the military governor who
exercised, as long as the war lasted, all powers of government executive, legislative and judicial. The
three American Military Governors were: Gen. Wesley Meritt, Gen. Elwell Otis, and the last was
Gen. Arthur McArthur.
The Civil Government—the Spooner Amendment ended the military regime in the Philippines. On
July 4, 1901 a civil government was inaugurated headed by a Civil Governor. In February 6, 1905, the
title was changed to Governor-General, who exercised legislative powers. He remained as the
President of the Philippine Commission, the sole lawmaking body of the government from 1901 to
1916, the Philippine Commission acted as the upper house of the legislative branch with the
Philippine Assembly serving as a lower house. With the passage of the Jone Law in 1916, these two
bodies gave way to the Philippine legislature. The Philippines was represented in the United States by
two President Commissioners had seats in the United States House of Representatives, receiving the
same emoluments and other privileges as the American members of the body, but without the right
to vote.
The first Civil Governor was Judge William H. Taft (1901-1903). He was succeeded by Luke
F. Wright (1904-1906) who was the first American to enjoy the title of Governor-General of the
Philippines. The last Governor-General was Frank Murphy (1933-1935) who was also the first High
Commissioner of the Philippines upon the inauguration of the Commonwealth government of the
Philippines.
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The Commonwealth Government—the next stage in the political development of the Filipinos was
the establishment of the Commonwealth government of the Philippines pursuant to an act of the
United States Congress on March 24, 1934, commonly known as the Tydings-McDuffie law. The law
provided for a transitions period of ten years during the Philippine Commonwealth would operate
until July 4, 1946, wherein the independence of the Philippines was inaugurated on November 15,
1935, following the first national election under 1935 constitution held on September 12, 1935 with
Manuel L Quezon and Sergio Osmeña as President and Vice-President respectively. The
commonwealth government of the Philippines was republican in form uinder the presidential type.
The legislative power was vested in a unicameral Congress composed of the Senate and the House of
the Representatives. The Judicial power was vested in the Supreme Court and inferior courts
provided by law. The government of the Commonwealth was autonomous in nature. The Filipinos
had almost complete control over the domestic affairs, the United States retaining control only over
matters involving foreign affairs.
During World War II, the Commonwealth government functioned in exile in Washington
from May 13 1942 to October 3, 1944. It was re-established in Manila on February 27, 1945 when
Gen. Douglas MacArthur turned over to President Osmeña the full powers and responsibilities of the
Commonwealth government under the 1935 Constitution.
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was followed by Diosdado Macapagal who served the country for only one term. Macapagal was
defeated by Ferdinand Marcos in the presidential election of 1965.
The Marcos Years. Marcos took his oath of office on December 30, 1965. He was reelected in
1969, due to his outstanding performance as chief executive. However, before the end of his second
term (1969-1973), Marcos made serious efforts to amend the 1935 Constitution which was in effect at
that time. A Constitutional Convention was created which drafted the 1973 Constitution. But even
before the framing of this charter was finished, Marcos issued Proclamation No. 1081which placed
the entire archipelago under Martial Law. By virtue of this declaration, the Congress was abolished,
the opposition leaders and those who were critical of the Marcos administration were either
imprisoned or they disappeared. Marcos assumed executive, legislative, and even judicial powers of
the government. He virtually controlled all the aspects of Philippine politics through his Presidential
Decrees and through the Batasang Pambansa.
The Aquino Presidency. On February 7, 1986, Marcos called for a snap presidential election,
which marked by rampant cheating presumably on both the administration candidates led by Marcos
for President and Arturo Tolentino for Vice President and the opposition candidates led by Corazon
Aquino (the wife of slain opposition leader Benigno Aquino Jr.) for President and Salvador Laurel for
Vice President.
This event led to the so-called EDSA People Power Revolution from February 22-25, 1986,
that paved the way for the downfall of the 20 years of Marcos Presidency.
The Aquino Administration. Corazon Aquino was inducted as the first lady President of the
Philippines on February 25, 1986 in Club Filipino, San Juan, Metro Manila. Aquino issued
Proclamation No. 3 on March 25, 1986 promulgating the Freedom Constitution. Thereafter, on June
2, 1986, she appointed a Constitutional Commission composed of fifty members which drafted the
1987 Constitution.
On February 2, 1987, the Filipino people voted to ratify the charter, thereby legalizing the
restoration of democratic government and institutions in the country. This was followed by the
election of the members of the bicameral legislative body in May 1987 and the election of local
executives.
On May 11, 1992 the first post-Marcos presidential election was held and Fidel Ramos, the
former Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces and the anointed of Corazon Aquino was elected president.
The Fidel Ramos Presidency. Ramos was the former military officer to become the president
of the Philippines. He used his knowledge of the Philippine Military to re-establish a tradition of
civilian control over the armed forces. He also built on the process of restoring democracy to the
Philippines by addressing the nation’s most difficult economic reform program based on privatization
and deregulation, opening banking to foreign investment and transferring government assets to
private ownership. He moved quickly to resolve the country’s serious electric power shortage, which
had been a detriment to economic growth, by investing in the domestic power-generating
infrastructure. His government improved tax-collection policies and practices and this combined
with the growing economy to generate higher taxes revenues for the government. In 1994-1995 the
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country had its first consecutive government budget surpluses. Despite of economic reform program,
however, unemployment remained a serious problem because population growth continued to
outpace the creation of new jobs.
In the early 1990s, meanwhile, secessionist Muslim groups renewed their guerrilla war in
Mindanao. Negotiations between Ramos government and the MNLF formally began in 1993 and
resulted in a lasting peace agreement, signed in September 1996. Other rebel groups, including the
Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) and Abu Sayyaf, continued guerrilla activities.
The Joseph E. Estrada Presidency. In 1998 elections, Ramos and the ruling coalition Lakas-
NUCD, gave their support to Jose de Venecia. Joseph Estrada, vice president under Ramos and a
populist politician, entered the race as a candidate of his own party, the Partido ng Masang Pilipino
(Party of the Filipino Masses) which entered a coalition with two leading opposition parties. Estrada
campaigned on promises to work toward improving the lives of poor Filipinos. He won the election
with the widest margin ever in Philippine politics.
A major focus of the Estrada administration was “food security” which involved agricultural
modernization and major infrastructure development projects. Despite its rhetoric, however, the
government did not make much progress in implementing its “pro-poor” platform. The opposition
became more outspoken in its criticism of Estrada, and his administration became embroiled in
allegations of cronyism and corruption. The corruption allegations led to Estrada’s impeachment by
the House of Representatives November 2000. His trial in the Senate was suspended in mid-January
2001, however, after the prosecution team resigned to protest the suppression of evidence. Thousands
of Filipinos then took to the streets of Manila to demand Estrada’s resignation, however, Estrada
retained strong support among the urban poor.
The Gloria M. Arroyo Presidency. Vice President Macapagal-Arroyo formed a strong
opposition alliance, the United Opposition, within the government. The massive demonstrations,
resignation of the most of the president’s cabinet and loss of support among top military officials led
to Estrada’s ouster on January 20, after the Supreme Court declared the presidency vacant.
Macapagal-Arroyo was immediately sworn as president.
Early in her presidency, Macapagal-Arroyo declared a suspension of offensive military
operations against the MILF and pursued a policy of reconciliation with the group. In August 2001,
the two sides signed a cease-fire agreement and peace negotiations with Malaysia acting as
intermediary. The government meanwhile continued its military crackdown on the secessionist Abu
Sayyaf, which was linked to terrorist activities such as bombings and kidnapping. In 2001 legislative
elections, Macapagal-Arroyo won a popular mandate to govern the country when candidates she had
endorsed won control of the Senate. The previous Republic of the Philippines can be summarized as
follows:
1. The First Republic—established on January 23, 1899 under the Malolos Constitution.
2. The Second Republic—established on October 14, 1943 under the Japanese-Sponsored
Constitution
3. The Third Republic—established on July 4, 1946 under the Constitution
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4. The Fourth Republic—proclaimed on July 30, 1981, through the inaugural speech of the late
Constitution, amended on April 7, 1981, through a plebiscite
5. The Fifth Republic—February 2, 1987 unbder the 1987 Constitution
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On October 15, 1986, the Constitutional Commission held its final session to sign 109-page
draft Constitution. On the same day, the draft in its original form in English and Filipino was
presented to the President.
February 2, 1987. The electorate in a plebiscite held fort the purpose ratified the draft of
constitution.
CONCEPT OF CONSTITUTION
Meaning of Constitution
According to Judge Cooley, a constitution is a body of rules and maxims in accordance with
which the power of sovereignty is habitually exercised.
Purpose or Function of Constitution
1. To prescribe the permanent framework of the system of government assigned to the different
departments their respective powers and duties, and established certain fixed first principles
on which the government is founded and
2. To promote public welfare, this involved the safety, prosperity, health, and happiness of the
people.
Kinds of Constitution
1. Written or rigid—is one, the provisions of which have been reduced to writing and embodied
in one or more instruments at a particular time. Example: Philippine and US Constitutions.
2. Unwritten or flexible—is one which has not been committed to writing at any specific time
but is the collective product and accumulation of customary rules, judicial decisions, dicta of
statements and legislative enactments of fundamental character written but scattered in
various records without having any compact form in writing.
Requisites of a Good Written Constitution
1. Broad—because it must outline an organization of the government for the whole State
2. Brief—because its nature requires the only its great outlines should be marked. Its important
objects designated and the ingredients which compose those objects be reduced.
3. Definite
Two Steps Amending or Revising a Constitution
1. Proposal—may be made by
a. Congress b. Constitutional Convention c. People’s initiative
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2. Ratification—this means the submission of the draft constitution to the electorate. A proposal
made by the people’s initiative requires at least 12% of the entire electorate and 3% must
come from every legislative district.
PREAMBLE—Meaning
The term preamble comes from the Latin word ‘preambulare’ which means ‘to walk before’.
Strictly speaking, preamble is not an integral part of the Constitution. Its true office is to expound on
the scope and nature, the extent and application of the powers actually conferred by the Constitution.
(Watson, Const. Vol I p.92).
The United Nations International Convention in Geneva defined the five kinds of water in relation to
the territorial jurisdiction of an archipelago state:
1. Internal Water—the water around connecting and those that are in between the islands
regardless of their breadth and dimensions.
2. Territorial Sea—is a belt of water outside of the archipelagicbaselines and adjacent to the
archipelagic waters. The archipelagic state has a right to establish the breadth of its territorial
seas, not exceeding 12 nautical miles measured from the baselines. The archipelagic state has
sovereignty over the territorial sea, the air space above it, and the bed and subsoil of such
area.
3. Contiguous Zone—beyond the territorial sea, may extend to not more than 245 nautical miles
from the archipelagic baselines. The state may exercise, in the contiguous zone, the control
necessary to prevent and punish infringements of its customs, fiscal, immigration or sanitary
laws and regulations within the territory or territorial sea.
4. Exclusive Economic Zone—which beyond and adjacent to the territorial sea, may not extend
more than 200 nautical miles from the archipelagic baselines. The archipelagic State has
sovereign rights in the EEZ to explore, manage, and exploit all the natural resources living
and non-living in the waters, the seas, and the subsoil.
5. Continental Shelf—is the seabed and subsoil of the submarine areas that extend beyond its
territorial sea throughout the natural prolongation of its territory to the outer.
Seabed—is the land holding the sea beyond the seashore
Subsoil—is the soil below the surface soil including mineral and natural resources.
Insular shelves—are relatively shallow beds of sea bottom bordering land mass, the
outer edges of which sink considerably until the great ocean depths are reached.
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Classes of Rights
1. Natural Right—possessed by every citizen conferred upon him by God as a human being.
Example: right to life, right to live
2. Constitutional Right—rights conferred and protected by the Constitution part of the
fundamental law cannot be modified or taken away by the law making body.
3. Statutory Right—it is provided by laws promulgated by the law making body. It can be
abolished by the same body.
DUE PROCESS
Concept of due process of law which hears before it condemns and proceeds upon inquiry
before rendering judgement. Under the constitution, a person may be deprived by the state of his life,
liberty or property provided due process of law is observed.
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Search Warrant—is an order in writing in the name of the people of the Philippines, signed by a
judge, directed to the police officer, commanding him to search for personal property and to bring it
before the court.
Warrant of Arrest—is an order in writing, issued in the name of the people of the Philippines, signed
by a judge, directed to the police officer, commanding him to arrest a person, that he may be bound
to answer for the offense committed.
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Citizenship by Birth
There are two principles or rules that govern citizenship by birth, namely:
1. Jus Sanguinis—relationship by blood is the basis of the acquisition of citizenship under this
rule. The child follows the citizenship of both of the parents or one of them. This is the
predominating principle in the Philippines
2. Jus Soli or Jus Loci—place of birth as the basis for acquiring citizenship under this rule.
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ARTICLE V- SUFFRAGE
Section 1. Suffrage may be exercised by all citizens of the Philippines not otherwise disqualified by
law who are at least eighteen years of age, and who shall have resided in the Philippines for at least
one year and in the place wherein they proposed to vote for at least six months immediately
preceeding the election. No literacy, property or other substantive requirement shall be imposed on
the exercise of suffrage.
Meaning of Suffrage
Suffrage is the right and obligation to vote of qualified citizens in the election of certain
national and local officers of the government and in the decision of public questions submitted to the
people.
Nature of Suffrage
1. A mere privilege- suffrage is not a natural right of citizens, but merely privilege given or
withheld by the law making power subject to constitutional limitations.
2. A political right—in the sense of the right conferred by the constitution, suffrage is classified
as a political right, enabling every citizen to participate in the process of government to assure
that it derives its powers from the consent of the governed. The principle is that of one man,
one vote (supra).
Scope of Suffrage
1. Election—it is a means by which the people choose their officials for definite and fixed
periods and to whom they entrust, for the time as their representatives, the exercise of
powers of government.
2. Plebiscite—it is the name given to a vote of the people expressing their choice for or against a
proposed law or enactment submitted to them.
3. Referendum—it is the submission of a law or part thereof passed by the national or local
legislative body to the voting citizens of a country for their ratification or rejection.
4. Initiative—it is the process whereby the people directly propose and enact laws.
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5. Recall—it is the method by which a public officer may be removed from office during his
tenure or before the expiration of his term by a vote of the people after registration of a
petition signed by a required percentage of the qualified voters.
Qualifications of Voters
He must be
1. A citizen (male or female) of the Philippines
2. Not otherwise disqualified by law
3. At least eighteen (18) years of age; and
4. Have resided in the Philippines for at least six (6) months preceeding the election
Section __ - The Congress shall provide a system for securing the secretary and sanctity of the ballot
as well as a system for absentee voting by qualified Filipinos abroad.
The Congress shall also design a procedure for the disabled and the illiterates to vote without
the assistance of other persons. Until then, they shall be allowed to vote under the existing laws and
such rules as the Commission on Elections may promulgate to protect the secrecy of the ballot.
The Senate
Composition and Election—it is composed of 24 senators who are elected at large by qualified voters
as may be provided by law.
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Section 4. The SUPREME COURT shall be composed of the Chief Justice and 14 Associate Justices. It
may sit en banc or in its discretion, in divisions of three, five, seven members. Any vacancy shall be
filled within 90 days from the occurrence thereof.
Qualifications for Members of the Supreme Court and any lower collegiate court
1. He must be a natural born citizen of the Philippines, a naturalized citizen may not be
appointed.
2. He must be at least forty (40) years of age.
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3. He must have, for fifteen (15) years or more, been a judge of a lower court or engaged in the
practice of law in the Philippines
4. He must be a person of proven competence, integrity, probity, and independence.
Qualifications of Members
1. They must be natural born citizens of the Philippines
2. They must be at least thirty five (35) years of age at the time of appointment
3. They must be persons with proven capacity for public administration
4. They must not have been candidates for any elective position in the elections immediately
preceding their appointment
The term civil service means that professionalized body of men and women who have made of
the government service of a lifetime career. The scope of this are every branch, agency,
subdivisions and instrumentality of the government including every government-owned or
controlled corporation with original charter.
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twenty-five years, and not exceed one thousand hectares in area. Citizens of the Philippines may
lease not more than five hundred hectares or acquire not more than twelve hectares thereof by
purchase, homestead, or grant.
LABOR
The state shall afford full protection to labor, local and overseas, organized and unorganized,
and promote full employment and equality of employment opportunities for all.
It shall guarantee the rights of all workers to self-organization, collective bargaining and
negotiations, and peaceful concerted activities, including the right to strike in accordance with law.
They shall be entitled to security of tenure, humane conditions of work, and a living wage. They shall
also participate in policy and decision-making processes affecting their rights and benefits as may be
provided by law.
HUMAN RIGHTS
There is hereby created an independent office called the Commission of Human Rights. The
Commission shall be composed of chairman and four members who must be natural-born citizens of
the Philippines and a majority of whome shall be Members of the Bar. The term of office and other
qualifications and disabilities of the Members of the Commission shall be provided by law. Until this
Commission is constituted, the existing Presidential Committee on Human Rights shall continue to
exercise its present functions and power.
ARTICLE XIV- EDUCATION, SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, ARTS, CULTURE AND SPORTS
All educational institutions shall include the study of the Constitution as part of the curricula.
They shall inculcate patriotism and nationalism, foster love of humanity, respect for human rights,
appreciation of the role of national heroes in the historical development of the country, teach the
rights and duties of citizenship, strengthen ethical and spiritual values, develop moral character and
personal discipline, encourage critical and creative thinking, broaden scientific and technological
knowledge, and promote vocational efficiency.
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Marriage, as an inviolable social institution, is the foundation of the family and shall be
protected by the State.
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