Electric Motor Definitions and Terminology

Angular accuracy
The measure of shaft positioning accuracy on a servo or stepping motor.
Back EMF
The voltage generated when a permanent magnet motor is rotated. This voltage is proportional to
motor speed and is present regardless of whether the motor winding(s) are energized or de-
energized.
Bipolar chopper driver
A class of step motor driver which uses a switch mode (chopper) technique to control motor
current and polarity. Bipolar indicates the capability of providing motor phase current of either
polarity (+ or -).
Breakaway torque
The torque required to start a machine in motion. Almost always greater than the running torque.
Brushless motor
Class of motors that operate using electronic commutation of phase currents, rather than
electromechanical (brush-type) commutation. Brushless motors typically have a permanent
magnet rotor and a wound stator.
C-face mounting
A standard NEMA mounting design, where the mounting holes in the face are threaded to
receive the mating mount.
Class B insulation
A NEMA insulation specification. Class B insulation is rated to an operating (internal)
temperature of 130°C.
Class F insulation
A NEMA insulation specification. Class F insulation is rated to an operating (internal)
temperature of 155°C
Class H insulation
A NEMA insulation specification. Class H insulation is rated to an operating (internal)
temperature of 180°C.
Closed loop
A broadly applied term, relating to any system in which the output is measured and compared to
the input. The output is then adjusted to reach the desired condition. In motion control, the term
typically describes a system utilizing a velocity and/or position transducer to generate correction
signals in relation to desired parameters.
Cogging (Cogging torque)
A term used to describe non-uniform angular velocity. Cogging appears as a jerkiness, especially
at low speeds.
Commutation
1. A term which refers to the action of steering currents or voltages to the proper motor phases so
as to produce optimum motor torque. In brush type motors, commutation is done
electromechanically via the brushes and commutator. In brushless motors, commutation is done
by the switching electronics using rotor position information obtained by Hall sensors, a
Tachsyn, or a resolver.
2. Commutation of step motors is normally done open loop. Feedback from the motor is not
required to hold rotor position precisely.
Continuous rated current (ICR) (Amperes)
The maximum allowable continuous current a motor can handle without exceeding the motor
temperature limits
Continuous rated torque (TCR) (lb-in.)
The maximum allowable continuous torque a motor can handle without exceeding the motor
temperature limits
Continuous stall current (ICS) (Amperes)
Amount of current applied to a motor (at locked rotor conditions), which results in rated
temperature rise. Refer also to definition of "Continuous stall torque"
Continuous stall torque (TCS) (lb-in.)
The amount of torque at zero speed, which a motor can continuously deliver without exceeding
its thermal rating. Determined by applying DC current through two windings with rotor locked,
while monitoring temperature. Specified with motor windings at maximum rated temperature,
with motor in 25 degrees C ambient, mounted to a heat sink. Refer to individual specs for heat
sink size.
Current at peak torque (IPK) (Amperes)
The amount of input current required to develop "peak torque". This is often outside the linear
torque/current relationship.
Current, Rated
The maximum allowable continuous current a motor can handle without exceeding motor
temperature limits.
D-flange mounting
This type of mount has clearance holes on the flange, and the mounting bolts stick out through
the flange from the motor side. This mount is common in cases where the motor is integral to the
machine.
Demag current
The current level at which the motor magnets will start to be demagnetized. This is an
irreversible effect, which will alter the motor characteristics and degrade performance. Also
known as peak current.
Detent torque
The maximum torque that can be applied to an unenergized step motor without causing
continuous rotating motion.
DPBV - Dripproof Blower Ventilated
Type of motor cooled by blowing air through the inside of the motor using an attached blower.
Drive
An electronic device that controls torque, speed and/or position of an AC or brushless motor.
Typically a feedback device is mounted on the motor for closed-loop control of current, velocity
and position.
Driver
Electronics which convert step and direction inputs to high power currents and voltages to drive
a step motor. The step motor driver is analogous to the servomotor amplifier's logic.
Duty cycle
For a repetitive cycle, the ratio of on time to total cycle time.
Duty cycle (%) = [On time / (On time + Off time)] x 100%
Dynamic braking
A passive technique for stopping a permanent magnet brush or brushless motor. The motor
windings are shorted together through a resistor which results in motor braking with an
exponential decrease in speed.
Efficiency
The ratio of power output to power input.
Electrical time constant (te) (Seconds)
The time required for current to reach 63.2% of its final value for a fixed voltage level. Can be
calculated from the relationship te=L/R where L is inductance (henries) and R is resistance
(ohms).
Encoder
A feedback device which converts mechanical motion into electronic signals. The most
commonly used, rotary encoders, output digital pulses corresponding to incremental angular
motion. For example, a 1000-line encoder produces 1000 pulses every mechanical revolution.
The encoder consists of a glass or metal wheel with alternating transparent and opaque stripes,
detected by optical sensors to produce the digital outputs.
Feedback
A signal which is transferred from the output back to the input for use in a closed loop system.
Ferrite
A type of permanent magnet consisting of ceramic compounds made up of oxides of iron, barium
and strontium.
Form factor
The ratio of RMS current to average current. This number is a measure of the current ripple in a
SCR or other switch-mode type of drive. Since motor heating is a function of RMS current while
motor torque is a function of average current, a form factor greater than 1.00 means some
fraction of motor current is producing heat but not torque.
Four quadrant
Refers to a motion system which can operate in all four quadrants; i.e., velocity in either
direction and torque in either direction. This means that the motor can accelerate, run, and
decelerate in either direction.
Friction
A resistance to motion caused by contact with a surface. Friction can be constant with varying
speed (Coulomb friction) or proportional to speed (viscous friction).
Hall sensor
A feedback device which is used in a brushless servo system to provide information for the
amplifier to electronically commutate the motor. The device uses a magnetized wheel and hall
effect sensors to generate the commutation signals.
Holding torque
Sometimes called static torque, holding torque specifies the maximum external torque that can be
applied to a stopped, energized motor without causing the rotor to rotate. Generally used as a
figure of merit when comparing motors.
Horsepower
An index of the amount of work a machine or motor can perform. One horsepower is equal to
746 watts. Since power is equal to torque multiplied by speed, horsepower is a measure of a
motor's torque and speed capability; e.g., a 1 HP motor will produce 36 lb-in. at 1,750 rpm.
Formula:
HP = Torque (lb-in.) x Speed (RPM)/63,025
or
HP = Torque (lb-ft.) x Speed (RPM)/5,252
or
HP = Volts x Amps x Efficiency/746
Hybrid step motor
A motor designed to move in discrete increments of steps. The motor has a permanent magnet
rotor and a wound stator. Such motors are brushless. Phase currents are commutated as a
function of time to produce motion.
Idle current reduction
A step motor driver feature that reduce the phase current to the motor when no motor motion is
commanded (idle condition) for a specified period of time. Idle current reduction reduces motor
heating and allows high machine throughputs from a given motor.
Indexer
Electronics which convert high level motion commands from a host computer, PLC or operator
panel into step and direction pulse streams for use by the step motor driver. Indexers can be
broadly divided into two classes. A preset indexer typically accepts distance, velocity and ramp
time inputs only. The more sophisticated programmable indexer is capable of complex motion
control and includes program memory.
Inductance (L) (mH - millihenries line-to-line)
The electrical equivalent to mechanical inertia; that is, the property of a circuit, which has a
tendency to resist current flow when no current is flowing, and when current is flowing has a
tendency to maintain that current flow. Pacific Scientific measures inductance (line-to-line) with
a bridge at 1000 Hz and with the rotor positioned so the back-EMF waveform is at the peak of
the sinusoid.
Inductance (mutual)
Mutual inductance is the property that exists between two current carrying conductors or coils
when magnetic lines of force from one link with those of the other.
Inertial match
For most efficient operation, the system coupling ratio should be selected so that the reflected
inertia of the load is equal to the rotor inertia of the motor.
Insulation Class
The rating assigned to the maximum temperature capability of the insulating components in a
motor or other piece of equipment.
Mechanical time constant (tm) (Seconds)
In a simple first order system, the time required for the motor's speed to attain 63.2% of its final
value for a fixed voltage level. Can be calculated from:
where:
J is inertia in lb-in./s2
R is resistance in ohms
KT is torque constant in lb-in./amp.
8.87 is a conversion factor
tM is calculated in seconds
Microstepping
An electronic technique for increasing a step motor's position resolution and velocity smoothness
by appropriately scaling the phase currents. Microstepping is also a technique used to reduce or
eliminate the effects of system resonance at low speeds.
Mid-range instability
A phenomenon in which a step motor can fall out of synchronism due to a loss of torque at mid-
range speeds. The torque loss is due to the interaction of the motor's electrical characteristics and
the driver's electronics. Some drivers have circuitry to eliminate or reduce the effects of mid-
range instability.
NEMA - National Electrical Manufacturer's Association
Acronym for an organization which sets standards for motors and other industrial electrical
equipment.
NTC - Negative Temperature Coefficient
A negative temperature coefficient thermistor is used to detect and protect a motor winding from
exceeding its maximum temperature rating. Resistance of the device decreases with an increase
in temperature.
Open-loop
A system in which there is no feedback. Motor motion is expected to faithfully follow the input
command. Stepping motor systems are an example of open-loop control.
Overload capacity
The ability of a drive to withstand currents above its continuous rating. It is defined by NEMA as
150% of the rated full-load current for "standard industrial DC motors" for one minute.
Peak torque (Tpk) (lb-in.)
The maximum torque a brushless motor can deliver for short periods of time. Operating PacTorq
motors above the maximum torque value can cause demagnetization of the rare-earth magnets.
This is an irreversible effect that will alter the motor characteristics and degrade performance.
This is also known as peak current.
Not to be confused with system peak torque, which is often determined by amplifier peak current
limitations, where peak current is typically two times continuous current.
Poles
Refers to the number of magnetic poles arranged on the rotor of the brushless motor. Unlike an
AC motor, the number of poles has no direct relationship to the base speed of the motor.
Power factor
Ratio of true power (kW) to apparent power (kVA).
PTC - Positive Temperature Coefficient
A positive temperature coefficient thermistor is used to detect and protect a motor winding from
exceeding its maximum temperature rating. Resistance of the device increases with an increase
in temperature.
Pull-out torque
The maximum friction load, at a particular inertial load, that can be applied to the shaft of a
synchronous motor (running at constant speed) and not cause it to lose synchronism.
Pulse rate
The frequency of the step pulses applied to a step motor driver. The pulse rate, multiplied by the
resolution of the motor/driver combination (in steps per revolution), yields the rotational speed in
revolutions per second.
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
1. A PWM controller (amplifier) switches DC supply voltage on and off at fixed frequencies.
The length of the on/off interval or voltage waveform is variable.
2. Pulse width modulation (PWM), describes a switch-mode (as opposed to linear) control
technique used in amplifiers and drivers to control motor voltage and current. PWM offers
greatly improved efficiency compared to linear techniques.
Regeneration
The action during motor braking, in which the motor acts as a generator and takes kinetic energy
from the load, converts it to electrical energy, and returns it to the amplifier.
Repeatability
The degree to which a parameter such as position or velocity can be duplicated.
Resistance, Hot (RH)(Ohms line-to-line)
The motor's terminal resistance value specified at the hot winding temperature, which is at the
motor's maximum rated temperature.
Resolution
The smallest increment into which a parameter can be broken down. For example, a 1000 line
encoder has a resolution of 1/1000 of a revolution.
Resolver
An electromagnetic feedback device which converts angular shaft position into analog signals.
These signals can be processed in various ways, such as with an RDC (resolver-to-digital
converter) to produce digital position information. There are two basic types of resolvers;
transmitter and receiver. A transmitter-type is designed for rotor primary excitation and stator
secondary outputs. Position is determined by the ratio of the sine output amplitude to cosine
output amplitude. A receiver-type is designed for stator primary excitations and rotor secondary
output. Position is determined by the phase shift between the rotor output signal and one of the
primary excitation signals.
Resonance
Oscillatory behavior caused by mechanical limitations.
Restart torque
The maximum friction load, at a particular inertial load, that can be applied to the shaft of a
synchronous motor without causing it to lose synchronism when accelerating to a constant speed
from standstill.
Ringing
Oscillation of a system following a sudden change in state.
RMS Current - Root Mean Square Current
In an intermittent duty cycle application, the RMS current is equal to the value of steady state
current which would produce the equivalent motor heating over a period of time.
RMS Torque - Root Mean Square Torque.
In an intermittent duty cycle application, the RMS torque is equal to the value of steady state
torque which would produce the equivalent motor heating over a period of time.
Rotor
The moving part of the motor, consisting of the shaft and magnets. These magnets are analogous
to the field winding of a brush-type DC motor.
Settling time
The time required for a parameter to stop oscillating or ringing and reach its final value.
Shock loading
A load that produces extremely high peak torques for very short durations. This type of load is
associated with conveyorized grinding, crushing and separation processes.
Stall Torque
The amount of torque developed with voltage applied and shaft locked, or not rotating. Also
known as locked-rotor torque.
Stator
The non-moving part of the motor. Specifically, it is the iron core with the wire winding in it that
is pressed into the frame shell. The winding pattern determines the voltage constant of the motor.
Step angle
The angular distance the shaft rotates upon receipt of a single step command.
Stiffness
The ability to resist movement induced by an applied torque. Stiffness is often specified as a
torque displacement curve, indicating the amount a motor shaft will rotate upon application of a
known external force when stopped.
Synchronism
A motor rotating at a speed corresponding correctly to the applied step pulse frequency is said to
be in synchronism. Load torques in excess of the motor's capacity (rated torque) will cause a loss
of synchronism. This condition is not damaging to a step motor.
TENV - Totally Enclosed Non-Ventilated
Acronym describing a type of motor enclosure, which has no outside air going into it. It is cooled
only by convection to the frame, which is usually finned.
Thermal protection
A thermal sensing device mounted to the motor to protect it from overheating. This is
accomplished by disconnecting the motor phases from the drive in an over temperature
condition.
Thermal resistance (Rth) (°C/watt)
An indication of how effectively a unit rids itself of heat; a measure of temperature rise per watts
lost. In Pacific Scientific literature, it is the specified value from the motor windings to the
ambient, under locked rotor conditions.
Thermal time constant (tth) (minutes)
The time required for a motor to attain 63.2% of its final temperature for a fixed power input.
Torque Constant (KT = lb-ft./A)
An expression of the relationship between input current and output torque. For each ampere of
current, a fixed amount of torque is produced.
Torque-to-inertia ratio
Defined as the motor's holding torque divided by the inertia of its rotor. The higher the ratio, the
higher a motor's maximum acceleration capability will be.
Unipolar driver
A step motor driver configuration that uses a unipolar power supply and is capable of driving
phase current in only one direction. The motor phase winding must be center tapped (6 or 8 lead)
to operate with a unipolar driver. The center tap is used instead of providing the current reversal
of a bipolar driver.
Viscous Damping (KDV) (lb-in./kRPM)
Inherent losses are present in all motors which result in lower torque delivered at the output shaft
than developed at the rotor. Losses which are proportional to speed (i.e. speed dependent terms
such as windage, friction, eddy current) are related through the motor's "viscous damping"
constant, measured as the slope of the damping curve.
Voltage constant (KE) (V/kRPM peak, line-to-line)
May also be termed back-EMF constant. When a motor is operated, it generates a voltage
proportional to speed, but opposing the applied voltage. The shape of the voltage waveform
depends upon the specific motor design. For example, in a brushless motor, the waveshape may
be trapezoidal or sinusoidal in nature. All Pacific Scientific brushless motor designs have a
sinusoidal voltage constant. For a sine waveform, the voltage constant can be measured from
line-to-neutral or line-to-line and expressed as a peak value or "RMS" value.

Start and Running Torque Requirements, Calculations for Electric Motors

When determining the torque requirements for a electric motor, consideration should be given to
the load and start time demands during the start duration, operating torque, and peak load torque.
The starting torque is dependant on the number of times an electric motor will have to start in a
given time, as well as, the duration of the start cycle. The actual start torque applied should be
many times greater than the actual start torque required by the application. The greater difference
in torque applied by the motor and the start torque required by the application, the faster the
applied acceleration of the electric motor.

The time duration required to accelerate a application from a dead stop to operating speed
is given by the following:

T = [ N x WR2 ] / [ Ta x 308 ]

Where:

T = Time ( seconds )
N = Velocity at load ( rpm )
Ta = Average Torque During start ( ft-lbs )
WR2 = Rotating Inertia (lbs-ft3)
W = Weight (lbs)
R = Radius of Gyration (ft2)
308 = Constant derived converting minutes to seconds, mass from weight, and radius to
circumference

Running or operating torque is determined by the following equation:

To = [ 5250 x HP ] / N

Where:

To = Operating or running Torque ( ft-lbs )

HP = Horsepower delivered by electric motor
N = Rotational velocity ( rpm, revolutions per minute )
5250 = Constant converting horsepower to ft-lbs/minute and work/revolution to torque
Use the peak horsepower to determine the maximum operating torque.

Basic Electric Motor Torque Equation

Equation: T = FR

Where:

T = Torque, lb-ft
F = Force, lb
R = Radius, or distance which force is applied from pivot location,
ft

To determine a fan or blowers horsepower use the following equation.

Equation:

Where:

P = Power, hp
Q = Flow Rate, cfm
p = Pressure, lb/in2
= Efficiency coefficient

Hydraulic Pump Horsepower Equation

To determine a pumps horsepower use the following equation.

Equation:

Where:

P = Power, hp
Q = Flow Rate, gpm
S = Specific Gravity of fluid
H = Head height, ft
= Efficiency coefficient

Linear Motion to Rotary Motion Equation

To convert the linear motion or velocity of an object into rotary motion (rpm) use the following
equation.
Equation:

Where:

N = Rotational speed of shaft (rpm)

V = Linear velocity of object (ft/min)
D = Diameter of sprocket or pulley (ft)

Linear Object Motion Horsepower Equation

To determine linear objects motion horsepower use the following equation.

Equation:

Where:

P = Power, hp
F = Force, lb
V = Velocity, ft/min

Rotating Object Horsepower Equation

To determine the rotary horsepower of an object into rotary motion (rpm) use the following
equation.

Equation:

Where:

P = Power, hp
N = Rotational shaft speed, rpm
T = Torque, lb-ft

Bearings and Lubrication Application Generators

Application bearings and lubrication used on generators - Several types of bearings, each
with specific lubrication requirements, are used on the generators. Usually, a generator has two
bearings, one to support each end of the armature shaft. On some generators, one end of the shaft
is supported by the coupling to the prime mover and one bearing is used at the other end. The
selections of bearing type and lubrication are based on generator size, type of coupling to prime
mover, and expected usage. A generator is usually equipped with either sleeve or ball bearings
which are mounted in end shields attached to the generator frame.

Sleeve bearings are usually bronze and are lubricated with oil. Most unit s with sleeve-type
bearings have a reservoir for the oil and a sight gauge to verify oil level. Bearings and the
reservoir are fully enclosed. Distribution of oil to shaft and bearings from the reservoir is by an
oil-slinger ring mounted on the generator shaft. Rotation of the slinger ring throws the oil to the
top of the bearing. Holes in the bearing admit oil for lubrication. Some units with sleeve-type
bearings have an absorbent fiber packing, saturated with oil, which surrounds the bearing. Holes
in the bearing admit oil for lubrication.

Ball bearings (or roller-type bearings) are fully enclosed and lubricated with grease. Most units
with ball or roller-type bearings are equipped with a fitting at each bearing to apply fresh grease.
Old grease is emitted from a hoie (normally closed by a plug or screw) in the bearing enclosure.
Some units are equipped with prepacked, lifetime lubricated bearings.

Cylinder Inertia Calculations and Equations

Solid Cylinder Inertia Based on Weight and Radius Equation and Calculator

Use this equation and calculator to determine the Inertia of a Cylinder.

Solid Cylinder

Equation:

Where:

J= Inertia, lb-in.-sec2
W= Weight, lbs
R= Radius, inches
g= Gravitation constant 386 in./sec2

Solid Cylinder Inertia Based on Density, Radius and Length Equation and Calculator

Use this equation and calculator to determine the Inertia of a Cylinder.

Solid Cylinder

Equation:
Where:

J= Inertia, lb-in.-sec2
L= Length, in.
R= Radius, inches
g= Gravitation constant 386 in./sec2
p= Density, lb/in3

Hollow Cylinder Inertia Based on Weight and Radius Equation and Calculator

se this equation and calculator to determine the Inertia of a Hollow Cylinder.

Hollow Cylinder

Equation:

Where:

J= Inertia, lb-in.-sec2
W= Weight, lbs
R0 = Radius outside, inches
Ri = Radius inside, inches
g= Gravitation constant 386 in./sec2

Hollow Cylinder Inertia Based on Density, Length and Radius Equation and Calculator

Use this equation and calculator to determine the Inertia of a Hollow Cylinder.
 Hollow Cylinder

Equation:

Where:

J= Inertia, lb-in.-sec2
L= Length, inches
R0 = Radius outside, inches
Ri = Radius inside, inches
p= Density, lb/in3
g= Gravitation constant 386 in./sec2

Drive Systems Inertia Calculations and Equations

Direct Drive (Motor - Load ) Moment of Inertia Equation and Calculator

Use this equation and calculator to determine the Inertia of a direct drive system. The
calculations assume there is no linkages and the all friction is exclusively within the load.

Direct Drive System

Equation:

Where:

Jt = System Inertia, lb-in.-sec2

 Jl = Load Inertia, lb-in.-sec2
Jm = Drive Motor Inertia, lb-in.-sec2

Gear Drive Motor Moment of Inertia Equation

Gear Drive Motor Moment of Inertia Equation: Use these equations and calculator to
determine the Inertia of a gear drive system. For any change in rotation speed, the load inertia
will reflect back through the gears to the motor.

Gear Drive System

Equation:

Motor Speed

or

Motor Torque:

Reflected Load Inertia

Total Inertia realized at Motor:

Where:

Sm = Motor Speed, rpm

Sl = Load Speed, rpm
Nl = Number teeth on load gear
Nm = Number teeth on motor gear
N= Gear Ratio
 Tm = Torque of Motor, lb-in
Tl = Torque of Load, lb-in
e = Efficiency
Jl = Load Inertia, lb-in.-sec2
Jm = Drive Motor Inertia, lb-in.-sec2
Jr = Reflected Load inertia, lb-in.-sec2
Jt = Total Inertia, lb-in.-sec2

Tangent Drive Motor Moment of Inertia Equation and Calculator

Use these equations and calculator to determine the Inertia of a tangent drive system. Tangent
drive may be the following: Timing belt and pulley, Chain and sprocket, rack and pinion, etc...

Tangent Drive System

Conveyor System

Equation:

Motor Speed:

Load Torque:

Friction Torque:

Load Inertia:
Total Inertia

Where:

Sm = Motor Speed, rpm

Vl = Load Speed, rpm
R = Radius, in
Fl = Load Force, lb
Tf = Friction Torque, in-lb
Ff = Friction Force, lb
Tl = Torque of Load, lb-in
Jl = Load Inertia, lb-in.-sec2
Wlb = Weight of load plus belt, lb
g = Gravitational constant, 386 in./sec2
Jp1 = Pulley Inertia, lb-in.-sec2
Jp2 = Pulley inertia, lb-in.-sec2
Jm = Motor inertia, lb-in.-sec2
Jt = Total Inertia, lb-in.-sec2

Lead Screw / Worm Gear Drive Motor Moment of Inertia Equation and Calculator

Use these equations and calculator to determine the Inertia of a lead screw / worm gear drive
system.

Worm Gear / Lead Screw Drive System

Equation:

Motor Speed:
Load Torque Reflected to Motor:

Friction Force:

Friction Torque:

Total Inertia

Where:

Sm = Motor Speed, rpm

Vl = Load Speed, inches/minute
P= Pitch, rev/in
Tr = Torque reflected to motor, lb-in
Fl = Load force, lb
e= Efficiency
Fpf = Preload Force, lb
= Coefficient of friction of screw
Ff = Friction force, lb
W= Weight, lb
Tf = Friction torque. lb-in
Jl = Load inertia, lb-in-sec2
g= Gravitational constant, 386 in/sec2
Jls = Worm gear / lead screw inertia, lb-in-sec2
Jm = Motor inertia, lb-in-sec2

Electric Motor Torque and Force Equations and Calculations.

Electric Motor Accelerating Torque and Force Equation and

Calculator

To determine a fan or blowers horsepower use the following equation.

Equation:

=
Where:

T = Required Torque, lb-ft

WK2 = Inertia of load to be accelerated
(See moment of inertia calculations)
= Change of speed, rpm
t = Time to accelerate the load, seconds

Electric Motor Solid Cylinder Rotating About Own Axis Torque, Force Equation and
Calculator

to determine a fan or blowers horsepower use the following equation.

Equation:

and

Where:

T = Required Torque, lb-ft

Inertia of load to be accelerated lb-ft2
WK2 =
(See moment of inertia calculations)
= Change of speed, rpm
t = Time to accelerate the load, seconds
W = Weight of object, lb
R = Radius of cylinder, ft

Electric Motor Hollow Cylinder Rotating About Own Axis Torque, Force Equation and
Calculator

To determine a fan or blowers horsepower when driving a hollow

cylinder/shaft use the following equation.

Hollow Cylinder
Equation:

and

Where:

T = Required Torque, lb-ft

Inertia of load to be accelerated lb-ft2
WK2 =
(See moment of inertia calculations)
= Change of speed, rpm
t = Time to accelerate the load, seconds
W = Weight of object, lb
R1 = Outside Radius of cylinder, ft
R2 = Inside Radius of cylinder, ft

Electric Motor Driving Conveyor in Linear Motion Torque, Force Equation and
Calculator

Use this equation and calculator to determine the the torque and force to
drive material in linear motion with respect to a continuous fixed relation to a
rotational drive/velocity. Such as, a material moving system or conveyor
machine.

Equation:

and
(Moment of Inertia)

Where:

T = Required Torque, lb-ft

Inertia of load to be accelerated lb-ft2
WK2 =
(See moment of inertia calculations)
= Change of speed, rpm
t = Time to accelerate the load, seconds
W = Weight of object, lb
V = Linear velocity, fpm
N = Rotational speed of shaft, rpm
Electric Motor Driving Speed Reduction ( Gear, Belt, or Chain ) Torque, Force Equation
and Calculator
Use this equation and calculator to determine the torque and force to drive
gears, belt, or chain mechanical systems.

Equation:

and

Where:

T = Required Torque, lb-ft

2
= Reflected inertia, lb-ft
2
= Load inertia, lb-ft
= Reduction ratio
= Change of speed, rpm
t = Time to accelerate the load, seconds
= Change speed of shaft, rpm
 Electric Motors
There are many types of electric motors, some
smaller than a human hair others large enough
to power a locomotive. For the purpose of this
page we will be discussing induction motors
which are typically found on most workshop
machinery such as air compressors, drill
presses, table saws, band saws, jointers,
shapers and lathes. These types of motors have
no brushes and work only on alternating current.
They may range in size from 1/4 horsepower up
to 5 horsepower or more.

To find the specs of an electric motor check the name plate, it will tell you among other
things:

Manufacturer's type and frame

designation
Horsepower output.
Time rating.
Maximum ambient temperature for
which motor is designed.
Insulation system designation.
RPM at rated load.
Frequency.
Number of phases.
Rated load current.
Voltage.

Types of Motors

Split Phase

The split phase motor is mostly used for "medium starting" applications. It has start and run
windings, both are energized when the motor is started. When the motor reaches about 75% of its
rated full load speed, the starting winding is disconnected by an automatic switch.

Uses

This motor is used where stops and starts are somewhat frequent. Common applications of split
phase motors include: fans, blowers, office machines and tools such as small saws or drill presses
where the load is applied after the motor has obtained its operating speed.

Capacitor Start

This motor has a capacitor in series with a starting winding and provides more than double the
starting torque with one third less starting current than the split phase motor. Because of this
improved starting ability, the capacitor start motor is used for loads which are hard to start. It has
good efficiency and requires starting currents of approximately five times full load current. The
capacitor and starting windings are disconnected from the circuit by an automatic switch when the
motor reaches about 75% of its rated full load speed.

Uses

Common uses include: compressors, pumps, machine tools, air conditioners, conveyors, blowers,
fans and other hard to start applications.

Horsepower & RPM

Horsepower

Electric motors are rated by horsepower, the home shop will probably utilize motors from 1/4 HP for
small tools and up to 5 HP on air compressors. Not all motors are rated the same, some are rated
under load, others as peak horsepower, hence we have 5 HP compressors with huge motors and 5
Hp shopvacs with tiny little motors. Unfortunately all 5 HP compressor motors are not equal in
actual power either, to judge the true horsepower the easiest way is to look at the amperage of the
motor. Electric motors are not efficient, most have a rating of about 50% due to factors such as heat
and friction, some may be as high as 70%.

This chart will give you a basic idea of the true horse power rating compared to the ampere rating.
Motors with a higher efficiency rating will draw fewer amps, for example a 5 HP motor with a 50%
efficiency rating will draw about 32 amps at 230 VAC compared to about 23 amps for a motor with a
70% rating.

AMPS at AMPS at 230

TRUE HP
115VAC VAC
1/4 3.2 - 2.3 1.6 -1.2
1/3 4.3 - 3.1 2.2 - 1.5
1/2 6.5 - 4.6 3.2 - 2.3
3/4 9.7- 7.0 4.9 - 3.5
1 13.0 - 9.3 6.5 - 4.6
1 1/2 19.5 - 13.9 9.7 - 7.0
2 25.9 - 18.5 13.0 - 9.3
5 64.9 - 46.3 32.4 - 23.2

A quick general calculation when looking at a motor is 1 HP = 10 amps on 110 volts and 1 HP = 5
amps on 220 volts.

RPM

The shaft on a typical shop motor will rotate at either 1725 or 3450 RPM (revolutions per
minute).
The speed of the driven machine will be determined by the size of pulleys used, for example a 3450
RPM motor can be replaced by a 1750 RPM motor if the diameter of the pulley on the motor is
doubled. The opposite is true as well but if the pulley on the 1750 RPM motor is small it is not
always possible to replace it with one half the size. It may be possible to double the pulley size on
the driven machine if it uses a standard type of pulley, (not easily done on air compressors for
example).

Electronic speed reducers such as the ones sold for routers will not work on induction type motors.

Phase, Voltage & Rotation

Whether or not you can use a motor will likely depend on these factors.

Single Phase

Ordinary household wiring is single phase, alternating current. Each cycle peaks and dips as
shown. To run a three phase motor a phase converter must be used, usually this is not practical, it
is often less expensive to change the motor on a machine to a single phase style.

Three Phase

This is used in industrial shops, rather than peaks and valleys the current supply is more even
because of the other two cycles each offset by 120 degrees.

Voltage

Many motors are dual voltage, by simply changing the wiring configuration they can be run on 110
volts or 220 volts. Motors usually run better on 220 volts, especially if there is any line loss because
of having to use a long wire to reach the power supply.

Motors are available for both AC and DC current, your typical home wiring will be AC, there are DC
converters available which are used in applications where the speed of the motor is controlled.

Rotation

The direction the shaft rotates can be changed on most motors by switching the right wires, there is
usually a diagram on the motor.

The direction of rotation is usually determined by viewing the motor from the shaft end and is
designated as CW (clockwise) or CCW (counter-clockwise). Note: Some manufactures may have a
different method of determining shaft rotation but will usually make a note of it.
 Back of plate showing voltage and rotation terminals

Frame Style
Motors are built to standard specifications, such as shaft height, shaft diameter, and style of
mounting. The different styles are defined by a number and lettering system developed by Nema
(See Reference Chart).

Types of Mounts

The three most common types of mounts you will find are:

Rigid base

Is bolted, welded or cast on main frame and allows motor to be rigidly mounted.

Resilient base

Has isolation or resilient rings between motor mounting hubs and base to absorb vibration and
noise.

NEMA C face mount

Has a machined face which allows direct mounting, bolts pass through mounted part to threaded
holes in the motor face.

Enclosures

The two most commonly used styles are:

ODP

An ODP enclosure on a motor means "Open, Drip Proof". They are relatively inexpensive motors
used in normal applications. The construction of an ODP motor consists of a sheet metal enclosure
with vent stamped to allow good air flow. The vents are designed in such a way that water dripping
on the motor will not normally flow into the motor. A fan is mounted on the motor's rear shaft to pull
air through the motor to keep the motor cool.

TEFC

A TEFC enclosure on a motor means "Totally Enclosed, Fan Cooled". This is probably the most
commonly used motor in ordinary industrial environments. It costs only a few dollars more than the
open motor, yet offers good protection against common hazards. It is constructed with a small fan
on the rear shaft of the motor, usually covered by a housing. This fan draws air over the motor fins,
removing excess heat and cooling the motor. The enclosure is "Totally Enclosed". This ordinarily
means that the motor is dust tight, and has a moderate water seal as well. Note that TEFC motors
are not secure against high pressure water.

Switching

Low Voltage (110)

Use a "Single Pole/Single Throw" switch since only

the black wire needs to be switched.
High Voltage (220)

Use a "Double Pole/Single Throw" since both the

black and white wires need to be switched.

This configuration may also be used on a Low

Voltage machine if there is a possibility it will be
changed to High Voltage later on.

Troubleshooting
Before you start to work on the motor, MAKE SURE THE POWER IS OFF. Always turn the power
off at the electrical service entrance breaker box or fuse, to prevent electrical shock.

FAILURE TO START
1. Check for blown line fuse or tripped breaker.
2. Allow motor to cool and try to reset.
3. One of the most common problems in a woodworking shop is a build-up of sawdust in the motor,
especially with open drip proof motors. Give the motor a shot of air to blow out the sawdust, nine
times out of ten this will get the motor to start again, to fix the problem the motor should be replaced
with a totally enclosed, fan cooled model.

MOTOR IS NOISY

Excessive vibration.
1. Check for loose mounting.
2. Check shaft alignment.
3. Check for bent shaft.

Excessive noise.
1. Check for damaged bearings. Replace as necessary.
2. Check for rotor rub by rotating the shaft slowly by hand.

OVERHEATING

(Motor runs but overload trips)

1. Check for adequate ventilation. Be sure motor vent holes (or fan blades) are free of obstructions.
2. Use a shorter or heavier gauge extension cord.

For more detailed information see this page from Reliance Electric