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by

MARILINA TZELEPI
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Music history, throughout the centuries, has witnessed the evolution of numerous
music genres. One of the most widespread and popular types of composition is the
concerto. Its origins can be traced back to the end of the seventeenth century. It was from
that time on and in the hands of composers such as Corelli, Vivaldi and Bach that the
concerto evolved. In the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the concerto genre was
firmly established and used by almost every significant composer ever since. It became
ground for musical and stylistic experimentation from Mozart and Beethoven to the
contemporary composers. Innovations in the concerto genre included expansion of its
movements or sections and modification of the orchestra – increasing the number and
variety of instruments used. In addition, the solo parts became progressively more
challenging, both technically and musically. All the above, as well as the great number of
concerti composed throughout time, endorse the concerto’s significance as a music genre.

The term concerto was derived from the Italian concertare – to join together or to
agree, as Roeder explains1. The term seemed quite suitable for this type of composition,
that featured the union and interaction of two musical groups – the soloist (or soloists)
and the orchestra. The perception of the concerto as a composition varied from composer
to composer. Consequently, one might find more than one soloists, different
combinations of solo instruments or of orchestral groups – chamber orchestra, woodwind
or brass ensemble etc. However, as Roeder remarks, the idea of contrast of sound
between the solo instruments and the orchestra, as well as the relationship of the two
groups are essential and act as unifying factors for the concerto genre2. Through time, this
relationship of soloists and orchestra underwent significant changes, following the
evolution of form, harmony, structure and instrumentation that occurred mainly from the
baroque period – 17th century – until today.

According to Arthur Hutchings, the concerto originated in Italy in the beginning

of the eighteenth century and became one of the most popular genres3. During that time,
___________________
1. Michael Thomas Roeder, A History of the Concerto (Portland: Amadeus Press, 1994), 13.
2. Ibid., 13.
3. Arthur Hutchings, The Baroque Concerto (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1979), 15.
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public concerts were becoming increasingly popular throughout Europe. Roeder further
informs us that the division of performers into groups, known as stile concertato
occurring in the late sixteenth century was one of the primary elements of the concerto
form developed in the seventeenth century4. Italian composers of the time, such as
Gabrieli, Corelli, Albinoni and Vivaldi became the leading force in concerto composition.
The term “concerto” appears as a title for the first time in several of Gabrieli’s
compositions intended for performance during liturgy. The use of the term at that time,
however, did not designate the instrumental genre it later came to be associated with. It
was used merely to signify the dramatic contrast between vocal groups, accompanied
mainly by organ and sometimes a few string or wind instruments5. A more significant
predecessor of the concerto genre is the trio sonata – a multimovement work featuring a
group of two violins and basso continuo. The use of more than three instruments in this
type of composition led to the evolution of a new genre during the late seventeenth
century, known as concerto grosso6.

The success of the concerto grosso led to the secularization of the genre. It was no
longer intended strictly for church use. The incorporation of dances to the movements of
the concerto grosso was of great significance – making the genre more approachable and
popular to the wider public. Hutchings further notes the fact that the designation da
chiesa – which denoted compositions intended for church use – was no longer used7. One
of the most significant contributors to the trio-sonata and concerto grosso genres in the
late seventeenth century was Arcangelo Corelli.

Corelli composed four sets of trio sonatas, some da chiesa – Church sonatas – and
some da camera – Chamber sonatas, as well as a set of twelve Solo Sonatas.
Furthermore, he was one of the first to compose concerti grossi. According to Roeder,
Corelli’s orchestration in the concerti grossi consisted of first and second violins, violas
_____________________
4. Roeder, A History of the Concerto, 17.
5. Ibid., 18-20.
6. Ibid., 24.
7. Hutchings, The Baroque Concerto, 19.
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and basses, with importance given to the concertino – principal violin8. The main features
found in Corelli’s concerti grossi are the dynamic contrast and the alternation of solo,
during which the principal violin performs alone, and tutti, where the orchestra and the
principal violin are joined together. Hutchings notes that regarding structure and form,
Corelli’s concerti were based on an expansion of the trio-sonata concept9. One of the
main differences between the two genres is that although all the movements in most of
the trio-sonatas are in the same key, in the concerti one of the movements is usually in a
contrasting key – such as that of the relative minor10. This seems to contribute more to
the music contrast, which is a key element to the concerto concept. Corelli’s concerti
grossi featured characteristics that later became essential to the Baroque concerto.
Tonality had gradually replaced modality and the definition of harmonic structures
became clearer. According to Roeder, tonality was becoming increasingly more
important for music composition. This had a significant impact on the relationship of
melodic and harmonic elements – melody and harmony complemented each other11.
Furthermore, the soloist’s part was becoming more prominent as the concerto genre
evolved. Torelli, Albinoni and Vivaldi were among the most important composers in the
field of the concerto in the eighteenth century.

Torelli’s contribution to the evolution of the concerto genre was quite important.
He was the first to compose concerti consisting of three movements in the fast-slow-fast
order. Until that time, concerti had usually consisted of several dance-movements, similar
to those of the trio-sonatas and the dance suites. Roeder notes that the three-movement
structure was derived from the Italian opera overture – also known as simfonia12. In
addition, in Torelli’s solo concerti, which were among the earliest samples of the genre,
the composer further emphasized the contrast between the soloist and the orchestra. He
achieved this by enhancing the solo parts technically and musically, thus making them
_____________________
8. Roeder, A History of the Concerto, 26-27.
9. Hutchings, The Baroque Concerto, 20.
10. Roeder, A History of the Concerto, 28.
11. Ibid., 34.
12. Ibid., 38.
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more diverse and creative than the orchestral parts13. Albinoni and Vivaldi adopted
Torelli’s concerto approach and, in their hands, the genre was further developed.

Vivaldi wrote an incredible number of concerti, most of which featured the violin
as the solo instrument. Other instruments featured as solo were the cello, the trumpet, the
horn, the mandolin, the oboe, the flute and the bassoon. Roeder notes that Vivaldi used
keyboard instruments of the time mainly as continuo, not as solo14. Although his
structural approach is similar to that of Torelli’s, Vivaldi’s output in the concerto field is
much more interesting and creative. Through his concerti, the composer helped establish
the baroque concerto as an important genre. In his opening movements, Vivaldi makes
use of the ritornello form, which originated in opera arias and is similar to the rondo
form. The ritornello’s basic feature is the interaction of the orchestra alone and the soloist
accompanied by the orchestra. The solo parts are tonally more diverse, while the
orchestral sections are tonally clearer and more stable. The tutti sections, played by the
orchestra, contain thematic material and the solo sections give the soloist the chance to
enhance the preceding melodic elements. The role of the soloist in Vivaldi’s concerti was
more important than ever before. The composer wished to achieve dramatic contrasts
between solo and orchestral parts. Consequently, the solo sections display technical and
musical contrast, being more ornamented and technically more demanding than the tutti
sections15.

It is interesting that in a few of Vivaldi’s concerti, a solo section appears in the

beginning. This was further developed in the classical period by Beethoven, as will be
discussed later. In a comparison between the baroque and classical era concerti,
Hutchings states that in several of Vivaldi’s concerti, the theme that has been introduced
by the orchestra in the opening orchestral section is used in the opening of the solo
section that follows. This is also the case in many concerti of the classical period16.
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13. Roeder, A History of the Concerto, 39.
14. Ibid., 46.
15. Ibid., 48-51.
16. Hutchings, The Baroque Concerto, 147.
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Composers in the classical period further developed the first movement scheme of
Vivaldi’s concerti – one of the most important additions in the first movement of the
classical era concerti was the recapitulation, as shall be discussed later on17. During the
baroque period, another feature of the concerti that became increasingly important was
the cadenza. The term denotes a section near the end of the first movement of a concerto,
during which the soloist plays without being accompanied by the orchestra. The cadenzas
were either written or improvised during performance18. In Vivaldi’s concerti, the
cadenza appeared before the final ritornello. According to Quantz, Vivaldi was one of the
first composers to use cadenzas in first movements of his concerti19.

Many of Vivaldi’s concerti featured programmatic titles, one of his most famous
works being the Four Seasons. In general, the concerti composed by Vivaldi display
great diversity. His earlier works are closely related to those of Corelli and Torelli, while
his later compositions are harmonically and stylistically more evolved – closer in concept
to the concerti of the classical period20. In the late baroque period, two of the most
prominent composers, George Friedrich Handel and Johann Sebastian Bach, composed
numerous concerti, entrusting keyboard instruments with solo parts.

Handel was a cosmopolitan composer. He traveled throughout Europe and settled

in London, where he lived until his death. His music displays influences of Italian,
French and English music traditions. He is said to be the first to compose concerti for
organ21. The English organ used by Handel was a one-manual, small organ with no pedal
board. Consequently, Handel’s organ concerti were quite simple and could also be
performed on the harpsichord. Roeder notes that Handel’s organ concerti displayed
Italian influences and were in four-movement form, similar to that of the sonata da
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17. Hutchings, The Baroque Concerto, 148-149.
18. Roeder, A History of the Concerto, 52.
19. Johann Joachim Quantz, On playing the Flute (London: Faber and Faber, 1985), quoted in Roeder, A History
of the Concerto, 52.
20. Roeder, A History of the Concerto, 63.
21. Ibid., 67.
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camera. Counterpoint is evident throughout Handel’s concerto output. The composer also
incorporated fugues, as well as variation form in several movements of his concerti.
Furthermore, Handel’s use of dual themes foreshadowed the Classical sonata form22.

During the same time that Handel was composing his concerti in London, Johann
Sebastian Bach was also becoming involved with concerto composition in Germany.
Bach’s first concerto compositions were keyboard transcriptions of violin concerti by
Vivaldi and other composers – for harpsichord or organ. Italian influence is evident in
these transcriptions, blended with the richness of German harmony and Bach’s
contrapuntal mastery. Eventually, Bach’s concerti combined elements of Italian concerto
structure and German polyphony23. What is interesting is that Bach made use of the term
“concerto” for a harpsichord work entitled Italian Concerto, which did not feature
orchestral accompaniment. Jane Stevens interprets this fact as “an unusual, perhaps
experimental, essay in projecting he substance of a large instrumental ensemble work
through the medium of a single harpsichord”24. And this seems like a plausible
explanation, because the structure of the Italian Concerto is similar to that of Bach’s later
concerti for harpsichord.

It appears that the first time that the harpsichord assumed a solo role was in
Bach’s Fifth Bradenburg Concerto, as Stevens states25. Later on, the composer wrote
several harpsichord concerti. Specifically, he composed seven concerti for one
harpsichord, three for two harpsichords, two for three harpsichords, one for four
harpsichords and a Triple Concerto for flute, violin and harpsichord26. Through Bach’s
works, the harpsichord became a prominent solo instrument in the concerto genre. It was
no longer regarded merely as a continuo instrument. Bach’s harpsichord concerti were
modeled after his violin concerti and keyboard arrangements of Vivaldi’s works. In
_____________________
22. Roeder, A History of the Concerto, 67-68.
23. Ibid., 74-75.
24. Jane R. Stevens, The Bach family and the Keyboard Concerto (Michigan: Harmony Park Press, 2001), 8.
25. Ibid., 23.
26. Roeder, A History of the Concerto, 96.
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Bach’s early harpsichord concerti, the solo part was technically simpler, with the left
hand assuming a continuo role. In Bach’s later concerti, the function of the left hand is
similar to that of the right hand, thus making the harpsichord parts more soloistic27. In
general, Bach’s keyboard concerti are not as successful as his Bradenburg and violin
concerti28. His treatment of the harpsichord as a solo instrument was significant,
eventually leading to the evolution of the piano concerto in the classical period. However,
the fact still remains that Bach’s concerti do not display any important innovations in the
structure or form of the genre. Bach’s sons, especially Carl Phillip Emmanuel and Johann
Christian, followed their father’s lead in harpsichord concerto composition29.

Carl Philip Emmanuel Bach composed fifty-two keyboard concerti. Despite his
great concerto output, he was not very successful in the genre and his compositions are
rarely heard today. His brother, Johann Christian Bach, was taught by Carl Philip
Emmanuel and was influenced by his brother’s style. Johann Christian’s keyboard
concerti were much more effective than those by his brother. Stevens states that Johann
Christian’s concerti are more creative, with rhythmic and dynamic shifts that create an
effective contrast between the solo and the orchestral parts. The composer achieved a
high degree of musical expression in his concerti and his harmonic treatment led to the
evolution of the concerto in the classical era. The first movements of Johann Christian’s
concerti became more lengthy, with striking harmonic shifts and sudden dynamic
contrasts. The slow movement was often in an unexpected key. Stevens cites Johann
Christian’s F minor concerto as an example. In this concerto, the slow movement is in the
dominant minor, which is most unusual30.

Johann Christian Bach also makes use of a recapitulation section in the first
movement and technically enhances the cadenzas, to give the soloist a more prominent
role. With the evolution of the English pianoforte and its technical possibilities, Johann
____________________
27. Roeder, A History of the Concerto, 97.
28. Ibid., 100.
29. Stevens, The Bach Family and the Keyboard Concerto, 65.
30. Ibid., 178.
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Christian’s approach to the concerto genre changed. The movements of his concerti
became more expanded, the phrases and musical ideas were longer and the contrasts
became more dramatic31. In general, Johann Christian Bach’s keyboard concerti
displayed greater continuity than those of his brother. Furthermore, Johann Christian’s
expansion of the concerto movements, as well as the expressive and harmonic diversity
displayed in his compositions were essential to the evolution of the classical period
concerto32. It is said that Mozart, in his early piano concerti, was influenced by Johann
Christian Bach’s compositional approach to the genre33.

At the dawn of the nineteenth century, a new generation of composers was

emerging. With them came a new period for music composition, that became known as
the Classical period. Composers such as C.P.E. Bach, J.C. Bach, Tartini, Locatelli,
Stamitz and others contributed to the evolution of a new musical style, different from that
of the baroque period. Diversity, simplicity and contrast were among the main features of
the classical period music. Harmonic treatment was more clear and direct and the
dynamic range utilized was far greater than ever before. Roeder notes that the concerto
continued to be one of the most interesting and promising genres, because it was based on
the principle of contrast – an increasingly popular idea in the classical period34. The solo
concerto superseded the concerto grosso and the pianoforte became the prominent solo
instrument for concerti. According to Roeder, the main reasons for the pianoforte’s
popularity as the solo instrument in concerto composition were its sound, its range and
sound capabilities that matched those of the orchestra and its polyphonic quality35.

The concerto in the classical period was in three-movement form, as had been in
the baroque period. However, the structure of the movements was further developed. One
of the most important forms of the classical period was the sonata-allegro form, which
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31. Stevens, The Bach Family and the Keyboard Concerto, 207-208.
32. Ibid., 210-211.
33. Ibid., 244.
34. Roeder, A History of the Concerto, 103.
35. Ibid., 104.
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was applied usually to the first movement of almost every major composition of the
period – concerti, symphonies, sonatas and chamber music works. Roeder informs us that
the use of sonata-allegro form in the concerto became known as concerto-sonata form36.
One of the most successful composers in the field of the classical period concerto was
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.

Mozart was subjected to various music influences at an early age, mainly due to
his numerous travels throughout Europe. He came into contact with French, Italian and
German music styles and, as mentioned earlier, Johann Christian Bach’s music was of
great influence to the young composer. Regarding this issue, Charles Sanford Terry
writes:
“ From him [J.C. Bach] and Manzuoli [the famous castrato] Mozart learnt the secrets of vocal technique.
The later symphonies he composed in London were directly inspired by Bach’s…If less permanent, Bach’s
influence also affected Mozart’s instrumental style, conveying the characteristics of his own – an almost
feminine sweetness; and in his Andantes a rare and spontaneous beauty. Elegant rather than profound,
Bach’s effects were gained in large measure by the contrasts Burney observed as distinctive of his style –
the alternation of forte and piano, transmission of a subject from one instrument to another, and, in genera;,
37
a happy mixture of plan and improvisation” .
Mario Mercado informs us that Mozart’s three concerti KV107 were based on sonatas by
J. C. Bach. Mozart made use of dual themes, influenced by J.C. Bach and this became an
essential trait of Mozart’s concerti to follow38.

Mozart concerto output consists of forty works, twenty-seven of which for solo
keyboard instrument. The solo parts of Mozart’s keyboard concerti are technically
demanding, due to the fact that the composer himself was a keyboard virtuoso and used
to perform most of his works. The orchestral part is by no means less important than the
________________
36. Roeder, A History of the Concerto, 104.
37. Charles Sanford Terry, Johann Christian Bach (London: Oxford University Press, 1929), 80, quoted in Mario
R. Mercado, The Evolution of Mozart’s Pianistic Style (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press,
1992), 6.
38. Mercado, The Evolution of Mozart’s Pianistic Style, 8.
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solo part. Roeder notes that Mozart used the orchestra to introduce thematic material,
to clearly define the sections of the concerti and to create a greater contrast, especially
through his extended use of woodwinds39. Mozart favored simple, lyrical melodies,
supported by light harmonic textures. To achieve the highest degree of contrast,
Mozart presented his melodies in different tempi, in major and minor modes and in
different rhythmic values. The following chart demonstrates the most common
structure of the opening movements in Mozart’s concerti.

Mozart’s first-movement structure40

TUTTI 1 SOLO 1 TUTTI 2 SOLO 2 TUTTI 3 – SOLO 3 TUTTI 4

(Ritornello 1) (Exposition) (Ritornello 2) (Development) (Ritornello 3 - (Final Ritornello)
Recapitulation)

First theme Solo section in Remains in dominant Widely Combination of

sonata-allegro form modulatory tutti and solo for
Transition Sometimes briefly recapitulation of
Restatement of the explores new keys Sequences of all thematic
Second theme exposition themes motivic material material
Leads to the
Candential material Establishment of the development section Development of Concluding display
à tonic dominant previous thematic section ends with
material trill in the solo
New theme exclusively instrument
in the solo instrument More lively role
of the orchestra In the tonic
Reintroduction of
secondary thematic Dialogue between Short section
material in the new key orchestra and
soloist Leads to a solo
Solo section closes Cadenza
with a trill leading to Retransition over
the Tutti 2 dominant and Greater animation
closing trill leading and louder dynamic
to the opening level
material in tonic

The cadenzas in Mozart’s concerti are quite interesting. In general, performers

during the classical period used to improvise the cadenzas during performance, but
_________________
39. Roeder, A History of the Concerto, 128.
40. Ibid., 131.
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Mozart wrote cadenzas for most of his concerti. The cadenza followed a tonic six-four
chord that designated the end of the fourth tutti. In his cadenzas, Mozart reintroduces
thematic material in different keys and rhythmic patterns. Furthermore, the cadenzas
feature technical passages such as arpeggios and scales. Wofgang Fetsch notes that one,
two, even up to three themes can be found quoted in Mozart’s cadenzas. He also explains
that there is no specific structural plan to the composer’s cadenzas, in an effort to
maintain a certain degree of improvisation41. Shorter cadenzas, known as entries, are
found in second or third movements in several of Mozart’s concerti. Fetsch states that
there have been as many as three entries in the same movement. Typically, the orchestra
reaches a fermata in the dominant chord and the entry begins on the same chord. Starting
in the dominant, the entry eventually leads to the return of the main theme in the tonic42.

In several of his piano concerti, Mozart entrusts the piano with the introduction of
the themes. This is quite interesting, considering that thematic exposition belonged
primarily to the orchestra43. In other concerti, the soloist and the orchestra introduce the
main theme jointly. Mozart’s concerto KV271 in E flat Major constitutes a great example
of this technique. The main theme is divided into two parts, the first part introduced by
the orchestra and the second part by the piano44. Mozart also employed a similar
technique within the orchestra, creating an interaction between woodwind and string
instruments.

Where structure was concerned, Mozart utilized the sonata-allegro form for the
first movements of his concerti, as mentioned earlier. The third movements of his
concerti were usually cast in rondo form, which was similar to the sonata-allegro form.
The chart below demonstrates the structure most commonly used in most of Mozart’s
finales. However, Mozart was the first to use a set of variations as a third movement in
his Concerto in G Major KV 453, as Mercado indicates45. The construction of
___________________
41. Wofgang Fetsch, Cadenzas in the Mozart Concertos (Clavier Vol. 30 No.10, December 1991), 13-16.
42. Ibid., 16.
43. Mercado, The Evolution of Mozart’s Pianistic Style, 56.
44. Ibid., 57-58.
45. Ibid., 84.
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the above mentioned finale was similar to the sets of variations for solo piano that Mozart
had composed earlier.

Mozart’s third-movement (finale) structure46

Refrain 1 Episode 1 Refrain 2 Episode 2 Refrain 3 Episode 3 Refrain 4

Solo instrument Construction Movement’s main New theme Section Recapitulation A short
begins similar to that of theme stated by Introduced by frequently of Episode 1 version of the
sonata-allegro the soloist and The soloist in omitted material in the refrain leads
Refrain in tonic form then by the a new key tonic key to a coda
key orchestra in the If present, a
First theme in tonic key short version of Cadenza may
Dance-like tonic key the rondo be placed
Orchestra’s theme given in after the
Orchestra Transition leads harmonic the tonic closing theme
concludes the to second and movement leads
refrain closing themes to a new key in
In tonic key Episode 2

Soloist begins the

Episode with a
New theme in the
tonic

The orchestration of Mozart’s concerti was diverse. The composer made use of
strings, gradually adding wind instruments such as oboes, clarinets, flutes, bassoons,
horns and trumpets, as well as timpani. The use of the above-mentioned instruments led
to a more symphonic treatment of the concerto genre, more firmly established by
Beethoven. In addition, Mozart’s example of entering the soloist in the opening measures
of his concerto KV271, as mentioned earlier, was followed by Beethoven in his Fourth
and Fifth piano concerti47. This was to become an important trait in the nineteenth
century, followed by composers such as Liszt (in his first piano concerto), Brahms (in his
second piano concerto) and others.
_________________
46. Roeder, A History of the Concerto, 131.
47. Ibid., 140.
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Overall, Mozart’s concerti displayed great diversity in orchestration, form,

harmonic and melodic treatment, as well as character contrast. Influences from the field
of operatic music are also evident throughout Mozart’s concerto compositions. Especially
in Mozart’s late concerti, the relationship between the soloist and the orchestra reaches its
peak. The growth of orchestral size coincides with the increase of technical and musical
brilliance in the solo parts, thus creating a perfect balance48. Finally, Mozart’s concerti
feature two major contributions to the concerto of the Romantic period. The finales of his
violin concerti in G Major and D Major are dance movements, which include folk or
exotic elements. This became common in Romantic violin concerti49. Furthermore, in his
last piano concerto KV595, Mozart establishes the mood of the movement by assigning
the orchestra with a subtle harmonic accompaniment one measure before the entrance of
the main theme (ex. 1). This idea also became widely spread during the Romantic
period50. Another prominent composer of the Classical period, Ludwig Van Beethoven,
followed Mozart’s lead in concerto composition, further enhancing the genre with his
own stylistic and musical traits. Beethoven’s compositional approach was of great
influence to Brahms, Mendelssohn and other composers of the Romantic period.
Ex. 1
Mozart, Piano Concerto KV59551
1st mov., mm.1-5

Ludwig Van Beethoven’s concerto output includes five concerti and a rondo for
piano and orchestra, one violin concerto and a Triple concerto for violin, cello and piano.
Although Beethoven’s concerti were far less in number than those written by Mozart,
they are equally important. Beethoven wrote and performed his piano concerti, as did
Mozart and the latter’s influence is evident in Beethoven’s early concerti.

__________________
48. Roeder, A History of the Piano Concerto, 154.
49. Ibid., 138.
50. Ibid., 164-165.
51. Ibid., 165.
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Beethoven’s first three piano concerti were composed during what is known as his
“first period” – up to 1802. An interesting point is that Beethoven’s first piano concerto –
published as No.2 – is in the key of B flat Major, as is Mozart’s last piano concerto52. The
structure of this concerto, as well as the following two, is similar to that of Mozart’s
concerti. However, Beethoven’s harmonic treatment is more evolved than that of his
predecessor. Beethoven’s interest in exploring distant key relations is evident throughout
his music and traces of it can be found in his early piano concerti. Other main features in
Beethoven’s music are the full exploitation of the keyboard range, the numerous sf
markings, the persistent rhythmic motifs that appear in different keys and the abrupt
changes in dynamics that take the listener by surprise53.

The first movements of Beethoven’s concerti are structurally similar to those by

Mozart. They are based on the sonata-allegro form, and feature the alternation of four
orchestral sections and three solo sections54. The opening orchestral section introduces
the main thematic material. Furthermore, the introduction of the cadenza is done in a
similar way – following a 64 tonic chord featuring a fermata. Roeder states that Beethoven
composed several cadenzas for his early concerti, despite the fact that during that time,
performers were expected to improvise the cadenzas during performance55. The first
movements of Beethoven’s Fourth and Fifth piano concerti are slightly different than
those of his earlier concerti. The soloist opens the first movement of the Fourth piano
concerto, introducing the main theme. As mentioned earlier, Mozart had already
experimented with this in his Piano Concerto KV271, where the soloist and the orchestra
presented the main theme jointly. Beethoven takes this a step further, by entrusting the
soloist alone with the main theme. In his Fifth Piano Concerto, the composer delays the
introduction of the main theme by placing a brilliant cadenza in the beginning of the
movement. The opening cadenza helps establish the mood and the tonality of the
movement. Despite these peculiarities, the general structure of Beethoven’s first
__________________
52. Roeder, A History of the Concerto, 180.
53. Ibid., 180.
54. Leon Plantinga, Beethoven’s Concertos (New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1999), 12.
55. Roeder, A History of the Concerto, 181.
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movements is in accordance to the classical period standards.

In the middle movements of his concerti, Beethoven appears to be much more

innovative. In his third piano concerto, the highly expressive second movement is
expanded in form56. It features extended use of ornamentation and of rhythmic values
such as 256th notes, hardly ever occurring in any other works. The middle movements of
Beethoven’s Fourth and Fifth piano concerti appear to be introductions to the finales. The
Andante of the Fourth piano concerto is surprisingly short and there is a contrast of
character between the orchestral and solo parts. A lyrical, almost choral-like solo by the
pianist interrupts the orchestra’s firm rhythmic motif. The movement ends with an E
minor chord. The finale does not begin in the tonic key of G Major. Instead, the
composer chooses to surprise us by a setting the main theme of the movement in the
tonality of the subdominant – C Major, eventually reaching the tonic. In his Fifth piano
concerto, Beethoven also links the middle movement to the finale. He does so by
introducing a slow version of the main theme of the finale in the final measures of the
middle movement. The B flat sustained by the French horns is one of the main elements
linking the two movements. Overall, Beethoven’s two last piano concerti display the
greatest contrast between movements.

The finales of Beethoven’s concerti are cast in traditional rondo form,

harmonically and musically enriched by the composer. Great key contrasts, wide
dynamic range and fast interchange of material between the soloist and the orchestra are
among the most common features in Beethoven’s finales57. The soloist and the orchestra
are equally responsible for the introduction of thematic material. In the finale of the Fifth
concerto, the soloist introduces the main theme, as opposed to the finale of the Fourth
concerto, where the main theme is entrusted to the orchestra. In general, the rondos of
Beethoven’s piano concerti are more fast-paced and uplifting than the previous
movements.
_____________________
56. Plantinga, Beethoven’s Concertos, 21.
57. Ibid., 18.
 17

In his early compositional efforts in the field of the concerto, Beethoven was
clearly influenced by Mozart. However, Beethoven’s later concerto compositions display
technical difficulties in the solo parts, mainly due to the fact that his late piano concerti
were composed for the new piano constructed during Beethoven’s time. The instrument
featured not only an additional octave but also a wider dynamic range. This led
Beethoven to compose works that would take full advantage of the new piano’s
possibilities58. One of his main contributions to the concerto genre was the expansion of
the traditional first and third movement forms. In addition, he gradually reduced the size
of the slow movements and linked them to the finales in four of his concerti – in the
Fourth and Fifth piano concerti, in the Violin concerto and in the Triple concerto59.
Roeder notes in the Romantic period, composers such as Brahms, Liszt and
Mendelssohn, to name a few, adopted Beethoven’s idea of beginning the concerto with
the soloist, as well as linking the middle movement to the last60. However, the Romantic
period witnessed daring innovations in music composition and the concerto underwent
significant changes, as did most music genres.

The main aspect of Romanticism was the expression of one’s innermost emotions.
Poetry, philosophy, literature and music became means to reaching emotional
completeness. The strictness, clarity and objectivity of the classical period were
substituted by subjectivity, emotionalism and passion61. Classical forms such as the
sonata became more flexible, “taken over for convenience rather than deep-felt
necessity”, as Florence Garvin remarks62. This occurs mainly because composers of the
nineteenth century wished to free themselves from the compositional restraints of the
classical period. And in order to achieve their goals, many composers experimented with
new harmonies, forms and musical ideas.

____________________
58. Roeder, A History of the Concerto, 184-185.
59. Ibid., 196.
60. Ibid., 196.
61. Florence Hollister Garvin, The Beginnings of the Romantic Piano Concerto (New York: Vantage Press, Inc,
1952), 2.
62. Ibid., 4.
 18

A very important development that was of definite impact in the field of concerto
composition was the increasing interest in virtuoso performers. During the Romantic
period, virtuosos such as Paganini and Liszt toured Europe, thrilling audiences with their
breathtaking technical and musical abilities. The technical facility of the virtuosos led to
compositions of extreme difficulty. In addition, the significance given to the virtuoso
performer, who was idolized by the public, led to the composition of piano concerti
where the soloist’s role was far more prominent than that of the orchestra63. Thus, the
traditional balance between solo and orchestral parts was largely abandoned and
alterations were made to the concerto form. In the Romantic piano concerto, the solo
parts were extended and enhanced by virtuoso passages accompanying the introduction
of thematic material by the orchestra. The fast movements were the most important,
displaying the performer’s technical abilities. The slow movements became secondary,
serving mainly as introductions to the finales64. The orchestral parts, although not as
important as in the classical period concerto, helped mainly in harmonically supporting
the soloist.

The nineteenth century orchestra featured increased use of wind instruments,

especially brass65. In addition, various instruments were applied to achieve a certain
sound effect or to imitate natural phenomena or specific sounds. Examples of this are the
imitation of bells in Paganini’s second Violin concerto and the use of triangle in Liszt’s
First piano concerto. Garvin notes that the main difference between the orchestra of the
classical and romantic periods is in the way the instruments were used66. In the Romantic
orchestra, wind instruments are as important as strings and their extreme range is fully
exploited, in order to achieve the intended sound color and effect. The combination of all
the above, together with the subjectivity of the time, resulted in many different
approaches to the orchestration and structure of the concerto.

___________________
63. Roeder, A History of the Concerto, 199.
64. Ibid., 199.
65. Garvin, The Beginnings of the Romantic Piano Concerto, 9.
66. Ibid., 10-11.
 19

Many composers, in an attempt to escape the strictness of the classical period

forms, composed works for solo instruments and orchestra that were not modeled after
the traditional concerto form – such as Weber’s Konzertstuck, Chopin’s Andante
Spianato et Grande Polonaise Brilliante, Mendelssohn’s Capriccio Brilliant, Liszt’s
Totentanz and others. A form that became widely used in the place of the concerto form
was variation form67. Among the most well known variations for piano and orchestra are
Franck’s Variations Symphoniques and later on Rachmaninoff’s Variations on a Theme
of Paganini. According to Roeder, there is a strong preference for minor mode. He claims
that although most eighteenth century concerti were composed in major mode, in the
Romantic period there is a distinct preference for minor mode68. Furthermore, the
instruments that seem to be favored in concerto composition during the nineteenth
century are the piano, the violin and the cello. It is only natural that the piano be preferred
as a solo instrument in concerto composition, because of its wide range of sound and
expressive qualities. Due to its polyphonic nature, the piano was capable of imitating
orchestral effects and this made it popular among nineteenth-century composers69.

As in the classical period, composers performed their concerti in public.

Consequently, most nineteenth century composers were fairly good performers, if not
virtuosos. Carl Maria Von Weber was one first to compose not only two piano concerti,
but also works for solo instrument and orchestra that were structured differently. Apart
from his two piano concerti, Weber also composed works entitled Konzertstuck – Concert
Piece – and Concertino. The Concert Piece consists of four movements linked to each
other. Each movement bears a literary description70. This idea of “program music”
became popular among many composers of the nineteenth century, such as Schumann
and Liszt – who composed many pieces based on literary references. Weber made a
distinction between the traditional concerto form and the concertino form. According to
the New Harvard Dictionary of Music,
_____________________
67. Roeder, A History of the Piano Concerto, 200.
68. Ibid., 200.
69. Ibid., 200-201.
70. Ibid., 217-218.
 20

“Concertino is a work in the style of a concerto, but freer in form and on a smaller scale, sometimes for one
or a few instruments without orchestra and usually in a single movement. A common German title for
71
works of this type is Konzertstuck” .
Taking into consideration the above-mentioned definition of the term concertino, one can
reach the conclusion that this term is applied to designate compositions that are loosely
based on the traditional concerto form, but are not modeled strictly after it. Linderman
notes that the terms Konzertstuck and Concertino have been widely used until today and
proceeds to add that Weber’s Konzertstuck was very important, because the form became
popular among composers who sought to compose works for solo instruments and
orchestra outside the framework of the classical concerto form72.

The most important composers of the nineteenth century in the field of concerto
composition were Chopin, Mendelssohn, Liszt, Schumann and Brahms. They were all
skilled performers and their concert-pieces and concerti are considered to be masterpieces
of the genre, popular to this day. Chopin’s output includes two piano concerti and several
concert-pieces – Andante Spianato et Grande Polonaise Brilliante, Grand Fantasia on
Polish Airs and Krakowiak. The Grand Fantasia and Krakowiak are based on popular
Polish dances and folk material73. In the course of the nineteenth century, with the
emergence of nationalism in music, incorporation of folk material became very popular.
This is evident in concerti by Russian composers such as Rubinstein, Tschaikovsky and
Rimsky-Korsakov, as well as in concerti by Grieg, and Dvorak, among others. Chopin’s
piano concerti are not dramatic. They are very lyrical in character and the orchestration is
very spare. The solo parts are highly ornamented and lyrical. Chopin’s concerti are not
virtuosic works. The first two movements are highly melodic, with dramatic middle
sections and increased ornamentation in the recapitulation. The finales are based on
Polish dance rhythms. An interesting fact is that in the middle section of the
______________________
71. “Concertino”, The New Harvard Dictionary of Music, 185-186, cited in Stephan Linderman, Structural

Novelty and Tradition in the Early Romantic Piano Concerto (Stuyvesant: Pendragon Press, 1999), 53.

72. Linderman, Structural Novelty and Tradition in the Early Romantic Piano Concerto, 53 and 75.

73. Roeder, A History of the Concerto, 222.

 21

finale, the violins and violas play col legno – using the wooden part of the bow – to
achieve a drum-like sound, typical in Polish dances74. Although Chopin’s concerti are not
very innovative in structure and the orchestration is not very effective, the fact still
remains that they are among the most loved compositions among pianists.

Another composer whose concerti are widely performed is Felix Mendelssohn.

His compositional output numbers three piano concerti, two concerti for two pianos and
orchestra, two violin concerti and three shorter pieces for piano and orchestra – Capriccio
Brilliant, Rondo Brillant and Serenade and Allegro giojoso. Although a composer of the
Romantic period, Mendelssohn favored the classical period forms. As a result, his early
concerti are modeled after those of Mozart. Furthermore, traces of counterpoint are
evident in his concerti, as a result of his profound interest in Bach’s music75. In his
mature piano concerti, Mendelssohn made use of the sonata-allegro form, eliminating the
first tutti section and allowing the soloist to introduce the thematic material. In his piano
concerti in g minor and d minor, Mendelssohn also linked the middle movements to the
finales, as had Beethoven done before him76. The solo parts are technically brilliant and
in extremely fast tempi, featuring rapid scales, arpeggios and octaves, influenced by
Hummel and Weber. The latter’s Konzertsuck was of influence to Mendelssohn, who
proceeded to connect all the movements of his g minor piano concerto without pause,
following Weber’s example77. Interestingly enough, Mendelssohn did not include a
cadenza in these two concerti. It is said that Schumann was impressed by Mendelssohn’s
piano concerto in g minor. Linderman cites part of a review written by Schumann in
1835, in which he refers to Mendelssohn as “F. Meritis”. In his review, Eusebius – one of
Schumann’s alter egos – notes:
“There are some things in this world that just cannot be talked about, e.g. Mozart’s Symphony in C with the
78
fugue, most of Shakespeare and some of Beethoven….and Meritis when he plays M.’s concerto!”

____________________
74. Roeder, A History of the Concerto, 224.
75. Ibid., 227.
76. Ibid., 228-229.
77. Linderman, Structural Novelty and Tradition in the Early Romantic Concerto, 88.
78. Robert Schumann, “An Chiara”, Gesammelte Schriften, vol.1, 120, quoted in Linderman, Structural Novelty
and Tradition in the Early Romantic Piano Concerto, 95-96.
 22

In a time during which virtuosos such as Paganini and Liszt were at the height of
their career, Robert Schumann and Johannes Brahms were among the few composers that
did not agree with the compositional views of the two above-mentioned virtuosos.
Instead, Schumann and Brahms’ goal was to restore the balance between the solo and
orchestral parts. In their effort to do so, the role of the orchestra in their concerti became
more important, giving the works a symphonic character79. Schumann was impressed by
the virtuosos of his time, but he felt that the concerto genre had lost its balance, primarily
due to the increased attention given to the solo parts. Brahms was influenced by
Schumann’s compositional approach and modeled his concerti according to classical
tradition.

Schumann composed a Concerto,a Konzertstuck and an Introduction and Allegro

for piano, a cello Concerto, a Concerto and a Fantasie for violin and a Konzertstuck for
Four Horns. His piano concerto is among the most popular of the genre. It is of Romantic
character, filled with chords, syncopations and warm, clear melodic lines80. The main
theme of the first movement becomes essential in the development of thematic material
in the other two movements, as Roeder remarks. Thematic transformation is one of the
main features in Schumann’s compositions and it is particularly evident in his concerto,
where the main theme appears in different keys and tempi81. As in Beethoven’s Fourth
and Fifth piano concerti, the second movement of Schumann’s piano concerto is linked to
the finale. Unlike most of his contemporary composers, Schumann includes a lengthy
cadenza in the first movement82. In general, Schumann’s concerto is successful in
restoring the balance between the soloist and the orchestra, without depriving the solo
parts of demanding technical passagework that was popular at the time.

Brahms was twenty years old when he made the acquaintance of Robert and Clara
Schumann. He was deeply influenced by Schumann’s compositional ideas and he shared
_____________________
79. Roeder, A History of the Concerto, 249.
80. Ibid., 252.
81. Ibid., 252.
82. Linderman, Structural Novelty and Tradition in the Early Romantic Concerto, 155.
 23

the latter’s affection for classical forms. His concerto output consists of four concerti –
two piano concerti, a violin concerto and a Double concerto for violin and cello.
Although his music is romantic in character, the structure of his compositions is
undoubtedly classical. Brahms’ first piano concerto in d minor is in three-movement form
and is of symphonic proportions, featuring significant orchestral parts. Brahms’ second
piano concerto consists of four movements and is in major mode. Furthermore, Brahms
introduces the solo part in the beginning of the concerto, as did Beethoven in his last two
piano concerti. The last movements of Brahms’ second piano concerto and violin
concerto both feature themes based on Hungarian folk dances83. As mentioned earlier,
many composers incorporated folk elements in their compositions – another composer
that used Hungarian folk elements in the finale of his violin concerto was Henryk
Wieniawski.

Although Brahms’ concerti were not conceived as virtuosic works, the solo parts
are both technically and musically challenging. However, the Romantic period traits are
best represented in the concerto compositions of Franz Liszt. The latter was one of the
most prominent virtuosos of all times and his daring harmonic treatment was not well
received by most of his contemporary composers. He composed two piano concerti and
three concert-pieces – Malediction, Totentanz and Grande Fantaisie Symphonique. The
concert-pieces were of programmatic character, influenced by Berlioz’s music84. Liszt
did not favor the traditional concerto form and the structure of his piano concerti is more
similar to that of Weber’s Konzertstuck. His first piano concerto consists of one large
movement that can be divided into four sub-sections. The key relationships are distant
and the reoccurring thematic material is acts as a unifying device85. In this aspect, Liszt’s
compositional approach is representative of the Romantic period, as discussed earlier.

Liszt’s second piano concerto is also a one-movement work, unified by means of

____________________
83. Roeder, A History of the Concerto, 268-271.
84. Ibid., 242.
85. Linderman, Structural Novelty and Tradition in the Early Romantic Concerto, 181-183.
 24

thematic transformation. The difference between the first and the second piano concerto
is that the latter can be subdivided into six sections, contrasting in mood86. Overall,
Liszt’s concerti resemble his tone poems and are important and unique in that aspect.
However, as Roeder successfully remarks, not many composers followed Liszt’s example
in concerto composition. In fact, Bela Bartok was the first one to model two of his
concerti after Liszt’s compositions87.

The twentieth century was filled with experimentation in the field of musical
composition. Nationalism led to ethnomusicology – the study of the music of different
countries – and many composers made use of folkloric elements in their music. In France,
composers such as Claude Debussy sought to experiment with new tone colors, forming a
movement known as Impressionism. In Germany, there was a shift from tonality to atonal
music and serialism – compositions based on series of pitches. Roeder notes that the
element of improvisation was promoted by the music of composers such as John Cage.
Furthermore, a return to classical values and forms was realized primarily by Igor
Stravinsky as an answer to the subjectivity of Expressionism88. During the twentieth
century, virtuoso performers were still as popular as in the previous century.
Consequently, the concerto became one of the most significant music genres of the
contemporary period. In twentieth-century concerti, the solo parts are quite demanding
and the orchestral parts are equally significant89. It is safe to say that in the twentieth-
century, the balance between the soloist and the orchestra has been fully restored.

Among the most important composers of concerti in the twentieth century are
Prokofiev, Shostakovich, Stravinsky, Ravel, Schoenberg and Bartok. Serge Prokofiev
was a piano virtuoso, who was as fascinated with the piano’s percussive qualities as
Stravinsky and Bartok were. Consequently, Prokofiev’s first two of his five piano
concerti resemble the style of Stravinsky and Bartok. They feature strong dissonances,
_________________
86. Reoeder, A History of the Concerto, 246.
87. Ibid., 381.
88. Ibid., 312.
89. Ibid, 313.
 25

aggressive motoric rhythms and often mysterious moods90. Of Prokofiev’s five piano
concerti, the third is the most popular one. It is in three-movement form, the second
movement being a theme and variations. Overall, the concerto is very lyrical, filled with
sudden key changes and strong rhythmic pulsations. Another interesting concerto is the
fourth one, which was composed for Paul Wittgenstein, who lost his right arm during the
First World War91. Therefore, the concerto is composed for left hand only and it is one of
the only two concerti composed for left hand – the other one was composed by Ravel.
The orchestration of Prokofiev’s concerti included numerous percussion instruments,
such as castagnettes, cymbals, piatti and other similar instruments. Other composers of
the twentieth-century also used the above-mentioned instruments in their concerti, thus
expanding the size of the orchestra.

Another prominent composer of the Soviet Union was Dmitri Shostakovich. He

composed six concerti – two for piano, two for violin and two for cello. What is
interesting is that the orchestration of his first piano concerto was limited to string
instruments and solo trumpet. Its structure is influenced by the neo-Classicism of the time
and the solo parts are quite clear, featuring extensive counterpoint, as Roeder remarks92.
His concerti feature characteristic Russian rhythms and in his first Cello concerto,
thematic material of the first movement returns in later movements. Although
Shostakovich did not introduce any important innovations in concerto composition, his
overall contribution to Soviet music was significant.

The elements of classicism that are evident in Prokofiev and Shostakovich’s

music root in the movement of Neo-Classicism, led by Igor Stravinsky in the 1920s. The
main idea of Neo-Classicism was the return to traditional forms and stylistic traits of the
classical period. Many composers were influenced by Stravinsky’s movement, including
Prokofiev, Shostakovich – as mentioned above, as well as Ravel. Roeder notes that an
_________________
90. Roeder, A History of the Concerto, 316.
91. Ibid., 318.
92. Ibid., 322-323.
 26

important development in the twentieth-century concerto was the rebirth of the concerto
grosso93. Stravinsky’s concerto output during his neo-Classical period consisted of ten
concerti and concert-pieces. One of Stravinsky’s works modeled after the eighteenth-
century symphonies concertantes was his Concertino for String Quartet. In his Concerto
for Piano and Winds, Stravinsky employs elements derived from the eighteenth-century
French overture and from Handel’s orchestral music. References to the Baroque are even
more evident in Stravinsky’s Violin Concerto. In this composition, the four movements
bear titles such as Toccata, Aria I, Aria II and Capriccio, popular during the Baroque
period. Extensive use of counterpoint is one of the main features of this Concerto,
through which Stravinsky successfully reproduces Baroque forms94. After 1951,
Stravinsky became interested in serialism, previously explored by Arnold Schoenberg
and his students, Webern and Berg. Stravinsky’s contribution to the concerto genre did
not go past his neo-Classic period95.

Stravinsky’s Neo-Classicism also influenced Maurice Ravel. The latter was an

admirer of Mozart and Couperin, as Roeder informs us. His interest was extended to jazz
and Spanish music of his time and he combined classical traits with harmonic and
rhythmic elements derived from the above-mentioned genres. He composed two piano
concerti, one of which for the left hand – as mentioned earlier. His other piano concerto,
according to Ravel himself, was “a concerto in the strict sense, written in the spirit of
Mozart and Saint-Saens”96. This concerto displays influences not only of Mozart and
Saint-Saens, but also of Stravinsky, Gershwin and Spanish music. In addition to his two
piano concerti, Ravel composed a concert-piece for violin and orchestra entitled Tzigane.
Strong Hungarian elements are evident throughout the composition and it is technically
very demanding97. Today, it is among the most widely performed compositions.
____________________
93. Roeder, A History of the Concerto, 352.
94. Ibid., 356.
95. Ibid., 357.
96. Saint-Saens, quoted in Edward Downes, Guide to Symphonic Music (New York: Walker and Co, 1981), 735,
cited in Roeder, A History of the Concerto, 358.
97. Roeder, A History of the Concerto, 361.
 27

A composer whose approach was quite different than that of the above mentioned
composers was Bela Bartok. His profound interest in folk music led him to serious
research and study of the folklore of various areas. Consequently, folk elements are
essential in Bartok’s music. Among the main features of the composer’s compositional
approach are distinct folk rhythms, ostinatos, and frequent changes in meter. Influenced
by Liszt, Bartok makes extensive use of chromaticism and his music often features
thematic transformation98. Bartok composed twelve concerti, three of which are for piano
and orchestra, two for violin and orchestra, an incomplete concerto for viola and
orchestra, a Concerto for Orchestra and several concert-pieces.

In his piano concerti, Bartok wished to explore the percussive qualities of the
piano, as did Prokofiev. Roeder notes that Bartok’s use of clusters – extremely dissonant
chords – was inspired by the music of American composer Henry Cowell99. An
interesting aspect of Bartok’s second piano concerto is the fact that in the first movement
the orchestration consists of only wind instruments. The strings and timpani are
employed in the slow sections of the second movement, with all instrumental groups
employed in the middle Presto section and the finale100. According to Roeder, in his
piano concerti, Bartok combines elements of Beethoven motivic treatment with Bach’s
contrapuntal techniques and Liszt’s thematic transformation. Bartok’s Concerto for
Orchestra is a five-movement symphonic work. Bartok applied the title “Concerto” to
this composition in order to demonstrate the soloist quality of each instrumental part101.
Overall, Bartok’s concerti are quite diverse, displaying influences of the Baroque,
Classical and Romantic periods.

As the twentieth century unfolded, many composers sought to find new ways of
music expression. Electronic music became a field of experimentation and several
________________________
98. Roeder, A History of the Concerto, 381.
99. Ibid., 383.
100. Ibid., 383.
101. Ibid., 385-387.
 28

compositions featured electronic equipment or prepared instruments. John Cage’s

Concerto for Prepared Piano and Orchestra is one example of this kind of composition.
Roeder explains that instructions regarding the preparation of the piano are included in
the score. According to the instructions, several objects are placed in the strings, altering
the sound of the piano102. Further experimentation included the development of a new
system of notation, based on symbols rather than notes.

All the above represent an effort to create something new and to explore new
paths in music expression. However, to my opinion, most of the efforts of contemporary
composers are totally unsuccessful. The concerto, as most music genres, has been
evolving during the past four centuries, reaching its peak during the nineteenth century.
After the 1950s, a decline of traditional music genres has been noted and composers seem
to have forgotten the true meaning of music composition – the elevation of the soul and
the mind through art. Concerti, symphonies and other musical forms will not cease to
exist, but will never be as successful and as important for music history as they have been
up until the start of the decay of western music. Today, one can only be thankful for the
music masterpieces of the past, which always have and always be cherished by audiences
throughout the world.

_____________________
102. Roeder, A History of the Concerto, 433-434.
 29

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Plantinga, Leon. Beethoven’s Concertos: History, Style, Performance. W.W. Norton and
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Roeder, Michael Thomas. A History of the Concerto. Amadeus Press: Portland, 1994.

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