Sufism

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to navigationJump to search
"Sufi" redirects here. For other uses, see Sufi (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with sophism.

hide
Part of a series on Islam
Sufism

Ideas[hide]

 Abdal

 Al-Insān al-Kāmil

 Baqaa

 Dervish

 Dhawq

 Fakir

 Fanaa

 Haal

 Haqiqa

 Ihsan

 Irfan

 Ishq

 Keramat

 Kashf

 Lataif

 Manzil

 Marifa

 Nafs

 Nūr
  Qalandar

 Qutb

 Silsila

 Sufi cosmology

 Sufi metaphysics

 Sufi philosophy

 Sufi poetry

 Sufi psychology

 Salik

 Tazkiah

 Wali

 Yaqeen

Practices[hide]

 Anasheed

 Dhikr

 Haḍra

 Muraqaba

 Qawwali

 Sama

 Whirling

 Ziyarat

Sufi orders[hide]

 Akbari

 Alians

 Ashrafia

 Azeemia

 Ba 'Alawi

 Bayrami

 Bektashi

 Burhaniyya

 Chishti

 Galibi

 Gulshani

 Haqqani Anjuman

 Hurufi

 Idrisi

 Issawiyya
  Jelveti

 Jerrahi

 Khalidi

 İskenderpaşa

 İsmailağa

 Khalwati

 Kubrawi

 Madari

 Meivazhi

 Malamati

 Mevlevi

 Mouridi

 Noorbakshia

 Naqshbandi

 Naqshbandi Haqqani

 Nasuhi

 Ni'matullāhī

 Nuqtavi

 Qadiri

 Qalandari

 Rifa'i

 Safavi

 Saifia

 Shadhili

 Shattari

 Suhrawardi

 Sunbuli

 Sülaymaniyya

 Tijani

 Ussaki

 Uwaisi

 Zahedi

 Zikris

List of sufis[hide]

 Notable early

 Notable modern
  Singers

Topics in Sufism[hide]

 Tawhid

 Sharia

 Tariqa

 Haqiqa

 Ma'rifa

 Art

 History

 Music

 Shrines

 Texts

Portal

 v

 t

 e

Sufism, or Taṣawwuf (Arabic: ‫ص ُّوف‬[1] ْ personal noun: ّ‫صوفِي‬

َ َّ ‫;الت‬ َ َ ‫ ُمت‬mutaṣawwuf),
ُ ṣūfiyy / ṣūfī, ‫صوف‬
variously defined as "Islamic mysticism", "the inward dimension of Islam" or "the phenomenon of
[2] [3][4]

mysticism within Islam", is a mystical trend in Islam "characterized ... [by particular] values, ritual
[5][6]

practices, doctrines and institutions" which began very early in Islamic history and represents "the
[7] [5]

main manifestation and the most important and central crystallization of" mystical practice in Islam. [8]

Practitioners of Sufism have been referred to as "Sufis" (Arabic

plurals: ‫صوفِيَّة‬
ُ ṣūfiyyah; ‫صوفِيُّون‬
ُ ṣūfiyyūn; ‫فََ ة‬ َ َ ‫ ُمت‬mutaṣawwufah; ‫ص ُّوفُون‬
َ ‫ص ُّو‬ َ َ ‫ ُمت‬mutaṣawwufūn); historians
believe that the Arabic word root of this term originally indicated the "woollen clothes (ṣūf) or rough
garb" worn by the early Islamic mystics. Historically, Sufis have often belonged to different ṭuruq, or
[5]

"orders" – congregations formed around a grand master referred to as a wali who traces a direct
chain of successive teachers back to the Islamic prophet, Muhammad. These orders meet for [9][not in citation given]

spiritual sessions (majalis) in meeting places known as zawiyas, khanqahs or tekke. They strive [10]

for ihsan (perfection of worship), as detailed in a hadith: "Ihsan is to worship Allah as if you see Him;
if you can't see Him, surely He sees you." Rumi stated: "The Sufi is hanging on to Muhammad, like
[11]

Abu Bakr." Sufis regard Muhammad as al-Insān al-Kāmil, the primary perfect man who exemplifies
[12]

the morality of God, and as their leader and prime spiritual guide.
[13]

All Sufi orders trace many of their original precepts from Muhammad through his son-in-law Ali, with
the notable exception of the Naqshbandi, who claim to trace their origins from Muhammad through
the first Rashid Caliph, Abu Bakr. Although the overwhelming majority of Sufis, both pre-modern
[14]

and modern, were and are adherents of Sunni Islam, there also developed certain strands of Sufi
practice within the ambit of Shia Islamduring the late medieval period. Although Sufis were opposed [5]

to dry legalism, they strictly observed Islamic law and belonged to various schools of Islamic
jurisprudence and theology. [15]

Sufis have been characterized by their asceticism, especially by their attachment to dhikr, the
practice of remembrance of God, often performed after prayers. They gained adherents among a [16]

number of Muslims as a reaction against the worldliness of the early Umayyad Caliphate (661–
 750) and have spanned several continents and cultures over a millennium, originally expressing
[17]

their beliefs in Arabic before extending to use Persian, Turkish and Urdu - among dozens of other
languages. Sufis played an important role in the formation of Muslim societies through their
[18]

missionary and educational activities. According to William Chittick, "In a broad sense, Sufism can
[19]

be described as the interiorization, and intensification of Islamic faith and practice."

[20]

Contents
[hide]

 1Terminology

 2Etymology

 3History
o 3.1Origins
o 3.2As an Islamic discipline
o 3.3Formalization of doctrine
o 3.4Growth of influence
o 3.5Present

 4Aims and objectives

o 4.1Teachings
o 4.2Muhammad

 4.2.1Sufi beliefs about Muhammad

o 4.3Sufism and Islamic law
o 4.4Traditional Islamic thought and Sufism
o 4.5Traditional and Neo-Sufi groups

 5Theoretical perspectives
o 5.1Contributions to other domains of scholarship

 6Devotional practices of Sufis

o 6.1Dhikr
o 6.2Muraqaba
o 6.3Sufi whirling

 7Saints
o 7.1Visitation
o 7.2Miracles

 8Persecution

 9Prominent Sufis
o 9.1Abdul-Qadir Gilani
o 9.2Abul Hasan ash-Shadhili
o 9.3Ahmad al-Tijani
o 9.4Bayazid Bastami
o 9.5Bawa Muhaiyaddeen
o 9.6Ibn Arabi
o 9.7Junayd of Baghdad
o 9.8Mansur Al-Hallaj
o 9.9Moinuddin Chishti
o 9.10Rabi'a al-'Adawiyya

 10Major Sufi orders

o 10.1Bektashi
o 10.2Chishti
o 10.3Kubrawiya
o 10.4Mawlawiyya
o 10.5Muridiyya
o 10.6Naqshbandi
o 10.7Nimatullahi
o 10.8Qadiri
o 10.9Senussi
o 10.10Shadiliyya
o 10.11Suhrawardiyya
o 10.12Tijaniyya
 11Symbols associated with the Sufi Orders

 12Reception
o 12.1Perception outside Islam
o 12.2Influence on Judaism

 13In popular culture

o 13.1Music
o 13.2Literature

 14Gallery

 15See also

 16References

 17Bibliography

 18External links

Terminology[edit]
The term Sufism came into being not by Islamic texts or Sufis themselves but by British
Orientalists who wanted to create an artificial divide between what they found attractive in Islamic
civilisation (i.e. Islamic spirituality) and the negative stereotypes that were present in Britain about
Islam. These British orientalists, therefore, fabricated a divide that was previously non-existent. [21]

Historically, Muslims have used the originally Arabic word taṣawwuf (‫ )تصوف‬to identify the practice of
Sufis. Mainstream scholars of Islam define Tasawwuf or Sufism as the name for the inner
[1]

or esoteric dimension of Islam which is supported and complemented by outward

[22]

or exoteric practices of Islam, such as sharia. In this view, "it is absolutely necessary to be a[23]

Muslim" to be a true Sufi, because Sufism's "methods are inoperative without" Muslim
"affiliation". However, Islamic scholars themselves are not by any means in agreement about the
[24][25]

meaning of the word "sufi". [26]

Sufis themselves claim that Tasawwuf is an aspect of Islam similar to sharia, inseparable from Islam [1]

and an integral part of Islamic belief and practice. Classical Sufi scholars have [27]

defined Tasawwuf as "a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away
from all else but God". Traditional Sufis such as Bayazid Bastami, Rumi, Haji Bektash Veli, Junayd
[28]

of Baghdad, Al-Ghazali, and Sayyid Ali Hamadani, define Sufism as purely based upon the tenets of
Islam and the teachings of Muhammad. [26][29][30][31]

Etymology[edit]
The original meaning of sufi seems to have been "one who wears wool (ṣūf)", and the Encyclopaedia
of Islam calls other etymological hypotheses "untenable". Woollen clothes were traditionally [32][33]

associated with ascetics and mystics. Al-Qushayri and Ibn Khaldun both rejected all possibilities
[33]

other than ṣūf on linguistic grounds. [34]

Another explanation traces the lexical root of the word to ṣafā (‫)صصصص‬, which in Arabic means
"purity". These two explanations were combined by the Sufi al-Rudhabari (d. 322 AH), who said,
"The Sufi is the one who wears wool on top of purity". [35][36]

Others have suggested that the word comes from the term ahl aṣ-ṣuffah ("the people of the bench"),
who were a group of impoverished companions of Muhammad who held regular gatherings of dhikr.
These men and women who sat at al-Masjid an-Nabawi are considered by some to be the first
Sufis. [37][38]

History[edit]
Main article: History of Sufism
Origins[edit]
Caliph Ali is considered to be the "Father of Sufism" . . According to Carl W. Ernst the earliest
[39]

figures of Sufism is the Prophet Muhammad himself and his companions (Sahabah). Sufi orders [40]

are based on the "bay‘ah" (‫ َب ْي َعة‬bay‘ah, ‫ ُم َبا َي َعة‬mubāya‘ah "pledge, allegiance") that was given to
Muhammad by his Ṣahabah. By pledging allegiance to Muhammad, the Sahabah had committed
themselves to the service of God. According to Islamic belief, by pledging allegiance to Muhammad,
the Sahabah have pledged allegiance to God. [41][42][40]

Verily, those who give Bai'âh (pledge) to you (O Muhammad) they are giving Bai'âh (pledge) to
Allâh. The Hand of Allâh is over their hands. Then whosoever breaks his pledge, breaks it only to his
own harm, and whosoever fulfils what he has covenanted with Allâh, He will bestow on him a great
reward. — [Translation of Quran, 48:10]

Sufis believe that by giving bayʿah (pledging allegiance) to a legitimate Sufi shaykh, one is pledging
allegiance to Muhammad; therefore, a spiritual connection between the seeker and Muhammad is
established. It is through Muhammad that Sufis aim to learn about, understand and connect with
God. Ali is regarded as one of the major figures amongst the Sahaba who have directly pledged
[43]

allegiance to Muhammad, and Sufis maintain that through Ali, knowledge about Muhammad and a
connection with Muhammad may be attained. Such a concept may be understood by the hadith,
which Sufis regard to be authentic, in which Muhammad said, "I am the city of knowledge and Ali is
its gate". Eminent Sufis such as Ali Hujwiri refer to Ali as having a very high ranking in Tasawwuf.
[44]

Furthermore, Junayd of Baghdad regarded Ali as sheikh of the principals and practices
of Tasawwuf. [39]

Historian Jonathan A.C. Brown notes that during the lifetime of Muhammad, some companions were
more inclined than others to "intensive devotion, pious abstemiousness and pondering the divine
mysteries" more than Islam required, such as Abu Dhar al-Ghifari. Hasan al-Basri, a tabi, is
considered a "founding figure" in the "science of purifying the heart". [45]

Practitioners of Sufism hold that in its early stages of development Sufism effectively referred to
nothing more than the internalization of Islam. According to one perspective, it is directly from the
[46]

Qur'an, constantly recited, meditated, and experienced, that Sufism proceeded, in its origin and its
development. Other practitioners have held that Sufism is the strict emulation of the way of
[47]

Muhammad, through which the heart's connection to the Divine is strengthened. [48]

Modern academics and scholars have rejected early Orientalist theories asserting a non-Islamic
origin of Sufism, The consensus is that it emerged in Western Asia. Many have asserted Sufism to
[49]

be unique within the confines of the Islamic religion, and contend that Sufism developed from people
like Bayazid Bastami, who, in his utmost reverence to the sunnah, refused to eat a watermelon
because he did not find any proof that Muhammad ever ate it. According to the late medieval [26][50]

mystic Jami, Abd-Allah ibn Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah (died c. 716) was the first person to be
called a "Sufi". [34]

Important contributions in writing are attributed to Uwais al-Qarani, Hasan of Basra, Harith al-
Muhasibi, Abu Nasr as-Sarraj and Said ibn al-Musayyib. Ruwaym, from the second generation of
[51]

Sufis in Baghdad, was also an influential early figure, as was [Junayd of Baghdad; a number of
[52][53]

early practitioners of Sufism were disciples of one of the two. [54]

Sufism had a long history already before the subsequent institutionalization of Sufi teachings into
devotional orders (tarîqât) in the early Middle Ages. The Naqshbandi order is a notable exception to
[55]

general rule of orders tracing their spiritual lineage through Muhammad's grandsons, as it traces the
origin of its teachings from Muhammad to the first Islamic Caliph, Abu Bakr. [14]

Over the years, Sufi orders have influenced and been adopted by various Shi'i movements,
especially Isma'ilism, which led to the Safaviyya order's conversion to Shia Islam from Sunni Islam
and the spread of Twelverism throughout Iran. Sufi orders include Ba
[56]

'Alawiyya, Badawiyya, Bektashi, Burhaniyya, Chishti, Khalwati, Mevlevi,

Naqshbandi, Ni'matullāhī, Uwaisi, Qadiriyya, Qalandariyya, Rifa'i, Sarwari
Qadiri, Shadhiliyya, Suhrawardiyya, Tijaniyyah, Zinda Shah Madariya, and others. [57]

As an Islamic discipline[edit]

Dancing dervishes, by Kamāl ud-Dīn Behzād (c. 1480/1490)

Existing in both Sunni and Shia Islam, Sufism is not a distinct sect, as is sometimes erroneously
assumed, but a method of approaching or a way of understanding the religion, which strives to take
the regular practice of the religion to the "supererogatory level" through simultaneously "fulfilling ...
[the obligatory] religious duties" and finding a "way and a means of striking a root through the
[5]

'narrow gate' in the depth of the soul out into the domain of the pure arid unimprisonable Spirit which
itself opens out on to the Divinity." Academic studies of Sufism confirm that Sufism, as a separate
[58][2]

tradition from Islam apart from so-called pure Islam, is frequently a product of Western
orientalism and modern Islamic fundamentalists. [59]

As a mystic and ascetic aspect of Islam, it is considered as the part of Islamic teaching that deals
with the purification of the inner self. By focusing on the more spiritual aspects of religion, Sufis strive
to obtain direct experience of God by making use of "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must
be trained to use. Tasawwuf is regarded as a science of the soul that has always been an integral
[60]

part of Orthodox Islam. In his Al-Risala al-Safadiyya, ibn Taymiyyah describes the Sufis as those
[61]

who belong to the path of the Sunna and represent it in their teachings and writings.
Ibn Taymiyya's Sufi inclinations and his reverence for Sufis like Abdul-Qadir Gilani can also be seen
in his hundred-page commentary on Futuh al-ghayb, covering only five of the seventy-eight sermons
of the book, but showing that he considered tasawwuf essential within the life of the Islamic
community.
In his commentary, Ibn Taymiyya stresses that the primacy of the sharia forms the soundest tradition
in tasawwuf, and to argue this point he lists over a dozen early masters, as well as more
contemporary shaykhs like his fellow Hanbalis, al-Ansari al-Harawi and Abdul-Qadir, and the latter's
own shaykh, Hammad al-Dabbas the upright. He cites the early shaykhs (shuyukh al-salaf) such
as Al-Fuḍayl ibn ‘Iyāḍ, Ibrahim ibn Adham, Ma`ruf al-Karkhi, Sirri Saqti, Junayd of Baghdad, and
others of the early teachers, as well as Abdul-Qadir Gilani, Hammad, Abu al-Bayan and others of the
later masters— that they do not permit the followers of the Sufi path to depart from the divinely
legislated command and prohibition.
Al-Ghazali narrates in Al-Munqidh min al-dalal:
The vicissitudes of life, family affairs and financial constraints engulfed my life and deprived me of
the congenial solitude. The heavy odds confronted me and provided me with few moments for my
pursuits. This state of affairs lasted for ten years, but whenever I had some spare and congenial
moments I resorted to my intrinsic proclivity. During these turbulent years, numerous astonishing
and indescribable secrets of life were unveiled to me. I was convinced that the group of Aulia (holy
mystics) is the only truthful group who follow the right path, display best conduct and surpass all
sages in their wisdom and insight. They derive all their overt or covert behaviour from the illumining
guidance of the holy Prophet, the only guidance worth quest and pursuit. [citation needed]

Formalization of doctrine[edit]

A Sufi in Ecstasy in a Landscape. Iran, Isfahan (c. 1650-1660)

In the eleventh-century, Sufism, which had previously been a less "codified" trend in Islamic piety,
began to be "ordered and crystallized" into orderswhich have continued until the present day. All
these orders were founded by a major Islamic scholar, and some of the largest and most widespread
included the Qadiriyya (after Abdul-Qadir Gilani [d. 1166]), the Rifa'iyya (after Ahmed al-Rifa'i [d.
1182]), the Chishtiyya (after Moinuddin Chishti [d. 1236]), the Shadiliyya (after Abul Hasan ash-
Shadhili [d. 1258]), the Hamadaniyyah (after Sayyid Ali Hamadani [d. 1384], the Naqshbandiyya
(after Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari [d. 1389]). Contrary to popular perception in the
[62]

West, however, neither the founders of these orders nor their followers ever considered themselves
[63]

to be anything other than orthodox Sunni Muslims, and in fact all of these orders were attached to
[63]

one of the four orthodox legal schools of Sunni Islam. Thus, the Qadiriyya order was Hanbali, with
[64][65]

its founder, Abdul-Qadir Gilani, being a renowned Hanbali jurist; the Chishtiyya was Hanafi;
the Shadiliyya order was Maliki; and the Naqshbandiyya order was Hanafi. Thus, it is precisely
[66]
because it is historically proven that "many of the most eminent defenders of Islamic orthodoxy, such
as Abdul-Qadir Gilani, Ghazali, and the Sultan Ṣalāḥ ad-Dīn (Saladin) were connected with
Sufism" that the popular studies of writers like Idries Shah are continuously disregarded by scholars
[67]

as conveying the fallacious image that "Sufism" is somehow distinct from "Islam." [68][69][67][70]

Towards the end of the first millennium, a number of manuals began to be written summarizing the
doctrines of Sufism and describing some typical Sufi practices. Two of the most famous of these are
now available in English translation: the Kashf al-Mahjûb of Ali Hujwiri and the Risâla of Al-
Qushayri. [71]

Two of al-Ghazali's greatest treatises are the Revival of Religious Sciences and what he termed "its
essence", the Kimiya-yi sa'ādat. He argued that Sufism originated from the Qur'an and thus was
compatible with mainstream Islamic thought and did not in any way contradict Islamic Law—being
instead necessary to its complete fulfillment. Ongoing efforts by both traditionally trained Muslim
scholars and Western academics are making al-Ghazali's works more widely available in English
translation, allowing English-speaking readers to judge for themselves the compatibility of Islamic
Law and Sufi doctrine. Several sections of the Revival of Religious Sciences have been published in
translation by the Islamic Texts Society. An abridged translation (from an Urdu translation) of The
[72]

Alchemy of Happiness was published by Claud Field (ISBN 978-0935782288) in 1910. It has been
translated in full by Muhammad Asim Bilal (2001). [73]

Growth of influence[edit]

A Mughal miniature dated from the early 1620s depicting the Mughal emperor Jahangir (d. 1627) preferring a Sufi saint to his contemporary, the King of England James I (d. 1625); the picture is inscribed

in Persian: "Though outwardly shahs stand before him, he fixes his gazes on dervishes."

Historically, Sufism became "an incredibly important part of Islam" and "one of the most widespread
and omnipresent aspects of Muslim life" in Islamic civilization from the early medieval period
onwards, when it began to permeate nearly all major aspects of Sunni Islamic life in regions
[64][74]

stretching from India and Iraq to the Balkans and Senegal. [58]

The rise of Islamic civilization coincides strongly with the spread of Sufi philosophy in Islam. The
spread of Sufism has been considered a definitive factor in the spread of Islam, and in the creation
of integrally Islamic cultures, especially in Africa and Asia. The Senussi tribes of Libya and
[75]

the Sudan are one of the strongest adherents of Sufism. Sufi poets and philosophers such as Khoja
Akhmet Yassawi, Rumi, and Attar of Nishapur (c. 1145 – c. 1221) greatly enhanced the spread of
Islamic culture in Anatolia, Central Asia, and South Asia. Sufism also played a role in creating and
[76][77]

propagating the culture of the Ottoman world, and in resisting European imperialism in North Africa
[78]

and South Asia. [79]

Between the 13th and 16th centuries, Sufism produced a flourishing intellectual culture throughout
the Islamic world, a "Golden Age" whose physical artifacts survive. In many places a person or
[citation needed]

group would endow a waqf to maintain a lodge (known variously as a zawiya, khanqah, or tekke) to
provide a gathering place for Sufi adepts, as well as lodging for itinerant seekers of knowledge. The
same system of endowments could also pay for a complex of buildings, such as that surrounding
the Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul, including a lodge for Sufi seekers, a hospice with kitchens
where these seekers could serve the poor and/or complete a period of initiation, a library, and other
structures. No important domain in the civilization of Islam remained unaffected by Sufism in this
period. [80]

Present[edit]
Sufism continued to remain a crucial part of daily Islamic life until the twentieth century, when its
historical influence upon Islamic civilization began to be undermined by modernism as well as be [81]

combated by the rise of Salafism and Wahhabism. Islamic scholar Timothy Winter has remarked:
[58][82]

"[In] classical, mainstream, medieval Sunni Islam ... [the idea of] 'orthodox Islam' would not ... [have
been possible] without Sufism", and that the classical belief in Sufism being an essential component
of Islam only weakened in some quarters of the Islamic world "a generation or two ago", with the rise
of Salafism. In the modern world, the classical interpretation of Sunni orthodoxy, which sees in
[64]

Sufism an essential dimension of Islam alongside the disciplines of jurisprudence and theology, is
represented by institutions such as Egypt's Al-Azhar University and Zaytuna College, with Al-Azhar's
current Grand Imam Ahmed el-Tayeb recently defining "Sunni orthodoxy" as being a follower "of any
of the four schools of [legal] thought (Hanafi, Shafi’i, Malikior Hanbali) and ... [also] of the Sufism of
Imam Junayd of Baghdad in doctrines, manners and [spiritual] purification." [65]

Sufi Tanoura twirling in Muizz Street, Cairo

Current Sufi orders include Alians, Bektashi Order, Mevlevi Order, Ba 'Alawiyya , Chishti
Order, Jerrahi, Naqshbandi, Mujaddidi, Ni'matullāhī, Qadiriyya, Qalandariyya, Sarwari
Qadiriyya, Shadhiliyya, Suhrawardiyya, Saifiah (Naqshbandiah), and Uwaisi. The relationship of [57]

Sufi orders to modern societies is usually defined by their relationship to governments. [83]

Turkey and Persia together have been a center for many Sufi lineages and orders. The Bektashi
were closely affiliated with the Ottoman Janissaries and are the heart of Turkey's large and mostly
liberal Alevi population. They have spread westwards to Cyprus, Greece, Albania, Bulgaria, Republic
of Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, and, more recently, to the United States,
via Albania.
Sufism is popular in such African countries as Egypt, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, and Senegal, where
it is seen as a mystical expression of Islam. Sufism is traditional in Morocco, but has seen a growing
[84]
revival with the renewal of Sufism under contemporary spiritual teachers such as Hamza al Qadiri al
Boutchichi. Mbacke suggests that one reason Sufism has taken hold in Senegal is because it can
accommodate local beliefs and customs, which tend toward the mystical. [85]

The life of the Algerian Sufi master Abdelkader El Djezairi is instructive in this regard. Notable as [86]

well are the lives of Amadou Bamba and El Hadj Umar Tall in West Africa, and Sheikh
Mansur and Imam Shamil in the Caucasus. In the twentieth century, some Muslims have called
Sufism a superstitious religion which holds back Islamic achievement in the fields of science and
technology. [87]

A number of Westerners have embarked with varying degrees of success on the path of Sufism.
One of the first to return to Europe as an official representative of a Sufi order, and with the specific
purpose to spread Sufism in Western Europe, was the Swedish-born wandering Sufi Ivan
Aguéli. René Guénon, the French scholar, became a Sufi in the early twentieth century and was
known as Sheikh Abdul Wahid Yahya. His manifold writings defined the practice of Sufism as the
essence of Islam, but also pointed to the universality of its message. Other spiritualists, such
as George Gurdjieff, may or may not conform to the tenets of Sufism as understood by orthodox
Muslims.
Other noteworthy Sufi teachers who have been active in the West in recent years include Bawa
Muhaiyaddeen, Inayat Khan, Nazim Al-Haqqani, Javad Nurbakhsh, Bulent Rauf, Irina
Tweedie, Idries Shah, Muzaffer Ozak, Nahid Angha, and Ali Kianfar.
Currently active Sufi academics and publishers include Llewellyn Vaughan-Lee, Nuh Ha Mim
Keller, Abdullah Nooruddeen Durkee, Waheed Ashraf, Omer Tarin, Ahmed abdu r Rashid
and Timothy Winter.

Aims and objectives[edit]

The tomb of Rukn-e-Alam located in Multan, Pakistan. Known for its Sufi tombs, Multan is often called the City of Saints.

While all Muslims believe that they are on the pathway to Allah and hope to become close to God
in Paradise—after death and after the Last Judgment—Sufis also believe that it is possible to draw
closer to God and to more fully embrace the divine presence in this life. The chief aim of all Sufis is [88]

to seek the pleasing of God by working to restore within themselves the primordial state of fitra. [89]

To Sufis, the outer law consists of rules pertaining to worship, transactions, marriage, judicial rulings,
and criminal law—what is often referred to, broadly, as "qanun". The inner law of Sufism consists of
rules about repentance from sin, the purging of contemptible qualities and evil traits of character,
and adornment with virtues and good character. [90]

Teachings[edit]

Entrance of Sidi Boumediene Mosque in Tlemcen, Algeria, built to honor the 12th-century Sufi master Abu Madyan

To the Sufi, it is the transmission of divine light from the teacher's heart to the heart of the student,
rather than worldly knowledge, that allows the adept to progress. They further believe that the
teacher should attempt inerrantly to follow the Divine Law. [91]

According to Moojan Momen "one of the most important doctrines of Sufism is the concept of al-
Insan al-Kamil"the Perfect Man". This doctrine states that there will always exist upon the earth a
"Qutb" (Pole or Axis of the Universe)—a man who is the perfect channel of grace from God to man
and in a state of wilayah (sanctity, being under the protection of Allah). The concept of the Sufi Qutb
is similar to that of the Shi'i Imam. However, this belief puts Sufism in "direct conflict" with Shia
[92][93]

Islam, since both the Qutb (who for most Sufi orders is the head of the order) and the Imam fulfill the
role of "the purveyor of spiritual guidance and of Allah's grace to mankind". The vow of obedience to
the Shaykh or Qutb which is taken by Sufis is considered incompatible with devotion to the Imam". [92]

As a further example, the prospective adherent of the Mevlevi Order would have been ordered to
serve in the kitchens of a hospice for the poor for 1001 days prior to being accepted for spiritual
instruction, and a further 1,001 days in solitary retreat as a precondition of completing that
instruction. [94]
The Darbar Sharif of Shams Ali Qalandar, located in Hujra Shah Muqeem, Pakistan

Some teachers, especially when addressing more general audiences, or mixed groups of Muslims
and non-Muslims, make extensive use of parable, allegory, and metaphor. Although approaches to [95]

teaching vary among different Sufi orders, Sufism as a whole is primarily concerned with direct
personal experience, and as such has sometimes been compared to other, non-Islamic forms
of mysticism (e.g., as in the books of Hossein Nasr).
Many Sufi believe that to reach the highest levels of success in Sufism typically requires that the
disciple live with and serve the teacher for a long period of time. An example is the folk story
[96]

about Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari, who gave his name to the Naqshbandi Order. He is
believed to have served his first teacher, Sayyid Muhammad Baba As-Samasi, for 20 years, until as-
Samasi died. He is said to then have served several other teachers for lengthy periods of time. He is
said to have helped the poorer members of the community for many years and after this concluded
his teacher directed him to care for animals cleaning their wounds, and assisting them. [97]

Muhammad[edit]

“
His [Muhammad's] aspiration preceded all other
aspirations, his existence preceded nothingness, and
his name preceded the Pen, because he existed before
all peoples. There is not in the horizons, beyond the
horizons or below the horizons, anyone more elegant,
more noble, more knowing, more just, more fearsome,
or more compassionate, than the subject of this tale.
He is the leader of created beings, the one "whose
name is glorious Ahmad"[Quran 61:6].

—Mansur Al-Hallaj[98]
”
Devotion to Muhammad is an exceptionally strong practice within Sufism. Sufis have historically [99]

revered Muhammad as the prime personality of spiritual greatness. The Sufi poet Saadi
Shirazi stated, "He who chooses a path contrary to that of the prophet, shall never reach the
destination. O Saadi, do not think that one can treat that way of purity except in the wake of the
chosen one ." Rumi attributes his self-control and abstinence from worldly desires as qualities
[100]

attained by him through the guidance of Muhammad. Rumi states, "I 'sewed' my two eyes shut from
[desires for] this world and the next – this I learned from Muhammad." Ibn Arabi regards [101]

Muhammad as the greatest man and states, "Muhammad's wisdom is uniqueness (fardiya) because
he is the most perfect existent creature of this human species. For this reason, the command began
with him and was sealed with him. He was a Prophet while Adam was between water and clay, and
his elemental structure is the Seal of the Prophets." Attar of Nishapur claimed that he praised [102]

Muhammad in such a manner that was not done before by any poet, in his book the Ilahi-
nama. Fariduddin Attar stated, "Muhammad is the exemplar to both worlds, the guide of the
[103]

descendants of Adam. He is the sun of creation, the moon of the celestial spheres, the all-seeing
eye...The seven heavens and the eight gardens of paradise were created for him, he is both the eye
and the light in the light of our eyes." Sufis have historically stressed the importance of
[104]

Muhammad's perfection and his ability to intercede. The persona of Muhammad has historically
been and remains an integral and critical aspect of Sufi belief and practice. Bayazid Bastami is [99]

recorded to have been so devoted to the sunnah of Muhammad that he refused to eat a watermelon
because he could not establish that Muhammad ever ate one. [105]

The name of Muhammad in Arabic calligraphy. Sufis believe the name of Muhammad is holy and sacred.[citation needed]

In the 13th century, a Sufi poet from Egypt, Al-Busiri, wrote the al-Kawākib ad-Durrīya fī Madḥ Khayr
al-Barīya (The Celestial Lights in Praise of the Best of Creation) commonly referred to as Qaṣīdat al-
Burda ("Poem of the Mantle"), in which he extensively praised Muhammad. This poem is still widely [106]

recited and sung amongst Sufi groups all over the world. [106]

Sufi beliefs about Muhammad [edit]

According to Ibn Arabi, Islam is the best religion because of Muhammad. Ibn Arabi regards that the [13]

first entity that was brought into existence is the reality or essence of Muhammad (al-ḥaqīqa al-
Muhammadiyya). Ibn Arabi regards Muhammad as the supreme human being and master of all
creatures. Muhammad is therefore the primary role model for human beings to aspire to
emulate. Ibn Arabi believes that God's attributes and names are manifested in this world and that
[13]

the most complete and perfect display of these divine attributes and names are seen in
Muhammad. Ibn Arabi believes that one may see God in the mirror of Muhammad, meaning that
[13]

the divine attributes of God are manifested through Muhammad. Ibn Arabi maintains that [13]

Muhammad is the best proof of God and by knowing Muhammad one knows God. Ibn Arabi also [13]

maintains that Muhammad is the master of all of humanity in both this world and the afterlife. In this
view, Islam is the best religion, because Muhammad is Islam. [13]

Sufis maintain that Muhammad is Al-Insān al-Kāmil. Sufis believe that aid and support may be
received from Muhammad, even today. Sufis believe that Muhammad listens to them when they call
upon him. Sufis strive towards having a relationship with Muhammad and seeking to see
Muhammad in a dream is a common Sufi practice.
Sufism and Islamic law[edit]
Tomb of Salim Chishti, Fatehpur Sikri, Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India

Sufis believe the sharia (exoteric "canon"), tariqa ("order") and haqiqa ("truth") are mutually
interdependent. Sufism leads the adept, called salik or "wayfarer", in his sulûk or "road" through
[107]

different stations (maqaam) until he reaches his goal, the perfect tawhid, the existential confession
that God is One. Ibn Arabi says, "When we see someone in this Community who claims to be able
[108]

to guide others to God, but is remiss in but one rule of the Sacred Law—even if he manifests
miracles that stagger the mind—asserting that his shortcoming is a special dispensation for him, we
do not even turn to look at him, for such a person is not a sheikh, nor is he speaking the truth, for no
one is entrusted with the secrets of God Most High save one in whom the ordinances of the Sacred
Law are preserved. (Jamiʿ karamat al-awliyaʾ)". [109]

The Amman Message, a detailed statement issued by 200 leading Islamic scholars in 2005
in Amman, specifically recognized the validity of Sufism as a part of Islam. This was adopted by the
Islamic world's political and temporal leaderships at the Organisation of the Islamic
Conference summit at Mecca in December 2005, and by six other international Islamic scholarly
assemblies including the International Islamic Fiqh Academy of Jeddah, in July 2006. The definition
of Sufism can vary drastically between different traditions (what may be intended is
simple tazkiah as opposed to the various manifestations of Sufism around the Islamic world). [110]

Traditional Islamic thought and Sufism[edit]

Tomb of Sayyid Ali Hamadani, Kulob, Tajikistan

The literature of Sufism emphasizes highly subjective matters that resist outside observation, such
as the subtle states of the heart. Often these resist direct reference or description, with the
consequence that the authors of various Sufi treatises took recourse to allegorical language. For
instance, much Sufi poetry refers to intoxication, which Islam expressly forbids. This usage of
indirect language and the existence of interpretations by people who had no training in Islam or
Sufism led to doubts being cast over the validity of Sufism as a part of Islam. Also, some groups
emerged that considered themselves above the sharia and discussed Sufism as a method of
bypassing the rules of Islam in order to attain salvation directly. This was disapproved of by
traditional scholars.
For these and other reasons, the relationship between traditional Islamic scholars and Sufism is
complex and a range of scholarly opinion on Sufism in Islam has been the norm. Some scholars,
such as Al-Ghazali, helped its propagation while other scholars opposed it. William Chittick explains
the position of Sufism and Sufis this way:
In short, Muslim scholars who focused their energies on understanding the normative guidelines for
the body came to be known as jurists, and those who held that the most important task was to train
the mind in achieving correct understanding came to be divided into three main schools of thought:
theology, philosophy, and Sufism. This leaves us with the third domain of human existence, the
spirit. Most Muslims who devoted their major efforts to developing the spiritual dimensions of the
human person came to be known as Sufis. [26]

Traditional and Neo-Sufi groups [edit]

The mausoleum (gongbei) of Ma Laichi in Linxia City, China

The traditional Sufi orders, which are in majority, emphasize the role of Sufism as a spiritual
discipline within Islam. Therefore, the sharia (traditional Islamic law) and the Sunnah are seen as
crucial for any Sufi aspirant. One proof traditional orders assert is that almost all the famous Sufi
masters of the past Caliphates were experts in sharia and were renowned as people with
great Iman (faith) and excellent practice. Many were also Qadis (sharia law judges) in courts. They
held that Sufism was never distinct from Islam and to fully comprehend and practice Sufism one
must be an observant Muslim.
"Neo-Sufism," "pseudo-Sufism," and "universal Sufism" are terms used to denote modern, Western
forms or appropriations of Sufism that do not require adherence to shariah, or the Muslim
faith. The terms are not always accepted by those it is applied to. For example, the Afghan-
[111][112]

Scottish teacher Idries Shah has been described as a neo-Sufi by the Gurdjieffian James
Moore. The Sufi Order in the West was founded by Inayat Khan, teaching the essential unity of all
[113]

faiths, and accepting members of all creeds. Sufism Reoriented is an offshoot of it charted by
the syncretistic teacher Meher Baba. The Golden Sufi Center exists in England, Switzerland and the
United States. It was founded by Llewellyn Vaughan-Lee to continue the work of his teacher Irina
Tweedie, herself a practitioner of both Hinduism and neo-Sufism. Other Western Sufi organisations
include the Sufi Foundation of America and the International Association of Sufism.
Western Neo-Sufi practices may differ from traditional forms, for instance having mixed-gender
meetings and less emphasis on the Qur'an.
Theoretical perspectives[edit]

The works of Al-Ghazali firmly defended the concepts of Sufism within the Islamic faith.

Traditional Islamic scholars have recognized two major branches within the practice of Sufism, and
use this as one key to differentiating among the approaches of different masters and devotional
lineages. [114]

On the one hand there is the order from the signs to the Signifier (or from the arts to the Artisan). In
this branch, the seeker begins by purifying the lower self of every corrupting influence that stands in
the way of recognizing all of creation as the work of God, as God's active Self-disclosure or
theophany. This is the way of Imam Al-Ghazali and of the majority of the Sufi orders.
[115]

On the other hand, there is the order from the Signifier to His signs, from the Artisan to His works. In
this branch the seeker experiences divine attraction (jadhba), and is able to enter the order with a
glimpse of its endpoint, of direct apprehension of the Divine Presence towards which all spiritual
striving is directed. This does not replace the striving to purify the heart, as in the other branch; it
simply stems from a different point of entry into the path. This is the way primarily of the masters of
the Naqshbandi and Shadhili orders. [116]

Contemporary scholars may also recognize a third branch, attributed to the

late Ottoman scholar Said Nursi and explicated in his vast Qur'an commentary called the Risale-i
Nur. This approach entails strict adherence to the way of Muhammad, in the understanding that this
wont, or sunnah, proposes a complete devotional spirituality adequate to those without access to a
master of the Sufi way. [117]

Contributions to other domains of scholarship[edit]

Sufism has contributed significantly to the elaboration of theoretical perspectives in many domains of
intellectual endeavor. For instance, the doctrine of "subtle centers" or centers of subtle cognition
(known as Lataif-e-sitta) addresses the matter of the awakening of spiritual intuition. In general,[118]

these subtle centers or latâ'if are thought of as faculties that are to be purified sequentially in order to
bring the seeker's wayfaring to completion. A concise and useful summary of this system from a
living exponent of this tradition has been published by Muhammad Emin Er. [114]
Sufi psychology has influenced many areas of thinking both within and outside of Islam, drawing
primarily upon three concepts. Ja'far al-Sadiq (both an imam in the Shia tradition and a respected
scholar and link in chains of Sufi transmission in all Islamic sects) held that human beings are
dominated by a lower self called the nafs (self, ego, person), a faculty of spiritual intuition called
the qalb (heart), and ruh (soul). These interact in various ways, producing the spiritual types of the
tyrant (dominated by nafs), the person of faith and moderation (dominated by the spiritual heart), and
the person lost in love for God (dominated by the ruh). [119]

Of note with regard to the spread of Sufi psychology in the West is Robert Frager, a Sufi teacher
authorized in the Khalwati Jerrahi order. Frager was a trained psychologist, born in the United
States, who converted to Islam in the course of his practice of Sufism and wrote extensively on
Sufism and psychology. [120]

Sufi cosmology and Sufi metaphysics are also noteworthy areas of intellectual accomplishment. [citation needed]

Devotional practices of Sufis[edit]

Sufi gathering engaged in dhikr

The devotional practices of Sufis vary widely. This is because an acknowledged and authorized
master of the Sufi path is in effect a physician of the heart, able to diagnose the seeker's
impediments to knowledge and pure intention in serving God, and to prescribe to the seeker a
course of treatment appropriate to his or her maladies. The consensus among Sufi scholars is that
the seeker cannot self-diagnose, and that it can be extremely harmful to undertake any of these
practices alone and without formal authorization. [121]

Prerequisites to practice include rigorous adherence to Islamic norms (ritual prayer in its five
prescribed times each day, the fast of Ramadan, and so forth). Additionally, the seeker ought to be
firmly grounded in supererogatory practices known from the life of Muhammad (such as the "sunna
prayers"). This is in accordance with the words, attributed to God, of the following, a famous Hadith
Qudsi:
My servant draws near to Me through nothing I love more than that which I have made obligatory for
him. My servant never ceases drawing near to Me through supererogatory works until I love him.
Then, when I love him, I am his hearing through which he hears, his sight through which he sees, his
hand through which he grasps, and his foot through which he walks.

It is also necessary for the seeker to have a correct creed (aqidah), and to embrace with certainty
[122]

its tenets. The seeker must also, of necessity, turn away from sins, love of this world, the love of
[123]

company and renown, obedience to satanic impulse, and the promptings of the lower self. (The way
in which this purification of the heart is achieved is outlined in certain books, but must be prescribed
in detail by a Sufi master.) The seeker must also be trained to prevent the corruption of those good
deeds which have accrued to his or her credit by overcoming the traps of ostentation, pride,
arrogance, envy, and long hopes (meaning the hope for a long life allowing us to mend our ways
later, rather than immediately, here and now).
Sufi practices, while attractive to some, are not a means for gaining knowledge. The traditional
scholars of Sufism hold it as absolutely axiomatic that knowledge of God is not a psychological state
generated through breath control. Thus, practice of "techniques" is not the cause, but instead
the occasion for such knowledge to be obtained (if at all), given proper prerequisites and proper
guidance by a master of the way. Furthermore, the emphasis on practices may obscure a far more
important fact: The seeker is, in a sense, to become a broken person, stripped of all habits through
the practice of (in the words of Imam Al-Ghazali) solitude, silence, sleeplessness, and hunger. [124]

Magic may have also been a part of some Sufi practices, notably in India. [125][page needed]

Dhikr[edit]
Main article: Dhikr

The name of Allah as written on the disciple's heart, according to the Sarwari Qadri Order

Dhikr is the remembrance of Allah commanded in the Qur'an for all Muslims through a specific
devotional act, such as the repetition of divine names, supplications and aphorisms
from hadith literature and the Quran. More generally, dhikr takes a wide range and various layers of
meaning. This includes dhikr as any activity in which the Muslim maintains awareness of Allah. To
[126]

engage in dhikr is to practice consciousness of the Divine Presence and love, or "to seek a state of
godwariness". The Quran refers to Muhammad as the very embodiment of dhikr of Allah (65:10–11).
Some types of dhikr are prescribed for all Muslims and do not require Sufi initiation or the
prescription of a Sufi master because they are deemed to be good for every seeker under every
circumstance. [127]

The dhikr may slightly vary among each order. Some Sufi orders engage in [128]

ritualized dhikr ceremonies, or sema. Sema includes various forms of worship such
as recitation, singing (the most well known being the Qawwali music of the Indian
subcontinent), instrumental music, dance (most famously the Sufi whirling of the Mevlevi
order), incense, meditation, ecstasy, and trance. [129]
Some Sufi orders stress and place extensive reliance upon dhikr. This practice of dhikr is
called Dhikr-e-Qulb (invocation of Allah within the heartbeats). The basic idea in this practice is to
visualize the Allah as having been written on the disciple's heart. [130]

Muraqaba[edit]
Main article: Muraqaba
The practice of muraqaba can be likened to the practices of meditation attested in many faith
communities. The word muraqaba is derived from the same root (r-q-b) occurring as one of the
[131]

99 Names of God in the Qur'an, al-Raqîb, meaning "the Vigilant" and attested in verse 4:1 of
[citation needed]

the Qur'an. Through muraqaba, a person watches over or takes care of the spiritual heart,
[non-primary source needed]

acquires knowledge about it, and becomes attuned to the Divine Presence, which is ever vigilant.
While variation exists, one description of the practice within a Naqshbandi lineage reads as follows:
He is to collect all of his bodily senses in concentration, and to cut himself off from all preoccupation
and notions that inflict themselves upon the heart. And thus he is to turn his full consciousness
towards God Most High while saying three times: "Ilahî anta maqsûdî wa-ridâka matlûbî—my God,
you are my Goal and Your good pleasure is what I seek". Then he brings to his heart the Name of
the Essence—Allâh—and as it courses through his heart he remains attentive to its meaning, which
is "Essence without likeness". The seeker remains aware that He is Present, Watchful,
Encompassing of all, thereby exemplifying the meaning of his saying (may God bless him and grant
him peace): "Worship God as though you see Him, for if you do not see Him, He sees you". And
likewise the prophetic tradition: "The most favored level of faith is to know that God is witness over
you, wherever you may be". [132]

Sufi whirling[edit]
Main article: Sufi whirling

Whirling Dervishes, at Rumi Fest 2007

Sufi whirling (or Sufi spinning) is a form of Sama or physically active meditation which originated
among Sufis, and which is still practised by the Sufi Dervishes of the Mevlevi order. It is a customary
dance performed within the sema, through which dervishes (also called semazens,
from Persian ‫ )سماعزن‬aim to reach the source of all perfection, or kemal. This is sought through
abandoning one's nafs, egos or personal desires, by listening to the music, focusing on God, and
spinning one's body in repetitive circles, which has been seen as a symbolic imitation of planets in
the Solar System orbiting the sun. [133]

As explained by Sufis: [134]

In the symbolism of the Sema ritual, the semazen's camel's hair hat (sikke) represents the
tombstone of the ego; his wide, white skirt (tennure) represents the ego's shroud. By removing his
black cloak (hırka), he is spiritually reborn to the truth. At the beginning of the Sema, by holding his
arms crosswise, the semazen appears to represent the number one, thus testifying to God's unity.
While whirling, his arms are open: his right arm is directed to the sky, ready to receive God's
beneficence; his left hand, upon which his eyes are fastened, is turned toward the earth. The
semazen conveys God's spiritual gift to those who are witnessing the Sema. Revolving from right to
left around the heart, the semazen embraces all humanity with love. The human being has been
created with love in order to love. Mevlâna Jalâluddîn Rumi says, "All loves are a bridge to Divine
love. Yet, those who have not had a taste of it do not know!"

Saints[edit]
A Persian miniature depicting the medieval saint and mystic Ahmad Ghazali (d. 1123), brother of the famous Abu Hamid al-Ghazali (d. 1111), talking to a disciple, from the Meetings of the Lovers (1552)

Main article: Wali

Walī (Arabic: ‫ولي‬, plural ʾawliyāʾ ‫ )أولياء‬is an Arabic word whose literal meanings include "custodian",
"protector", "helper", and "friend." In the vernacular, it is most commonly used by Muslims to
[135]

indicate an Islamic saint, otherwise referred to by the more literal "friend of God." In the [136][137][138]

traditional Islamic understanding of saints, the saint is portrayed as someone "marked by [special]
divine favor ... [and] holiness", and who is specifically "chosen by God and endowed with exceptional
gifts, such as the ability to work miracles." The doctrine of saints was articulated by Islamic
[139]

scholars very early on in Muslim history, and particular verses of the Quran and
[140][141][5][142]

certain hadith were interpreted by early Muslim thinkers as "documentary evidence" of the existence [5]

of saints.
Since the first Muslim hagiographies were written during the period when Sufism began its rapid
expansion, many of the figures who later came to be regarded as the major saints in Sunni Islam
were the early Sufi mystics, like Hasan of Basra (d. 728), Farqad Sabakhi(d. 729), Dawud Tai (d.
777-81) Rabi'a al-'Adawiyya (d. 801), Maruf Karkhi (d. 815), and Junayd of Baghdad (d. 910). From [57]

the twelfth to the fourteenth century, "the general veneration of saints, among both people and
sovereigns, reached its definitive form with the organization of Sufism ... into orders or
brotherhoods." In the common expressions of Islamic piety of this period, the saint was understood
[143]

to be "a contemplative whose state of spiritual perfection ... [found] permanent expression in the
teaching bequeathed to his disciples." [143]

Visitation[edit]
Main article: Ziyara

Sufi mosque in Esfahan, Iran

In popular Sufism (i.e. devotional practices that have achieved currency in world cultures through
Sufi influence), one common practice is to visit or make pilgrimages to the tombs of saints,
renowned scholars, and righteous people. This is a particularly common practice in South Asia,
where famous tombs include such saints as Sayyid Ali Hamadani in Kulob, Tajikistan; Afāq Khoja,
near Kashgar, China; Lal Shahbaz Qalandar in Sindh; Ali Hajwari in Lahore, Pakistan; Bawaldin
Zikrya in Multan Pakistan; Moinuddin Chishti in Ajmer, India; Nizamuddin Auliya in Delhi, India;
and Shah Jalal in Sylhet, Bangladesh.
Likewise, in Fez, Morocco, a popular destination for such pious visitation is the Zaouia Moulay Idriss
II and the yearly visitation to see the current Sheikh of the Qadiri Boutchichi Tariqah, Sheikh Sidi
Hamza al Qadiri al Boutchichi to celebrate the Mawlid (which is usually televised on Moroccan
National television). [citation needed]

Miracles[edit]
Main article: Karamat
In Islamic mysticism, karamat (Arabic: ‫ کرامات‬karāmāt, pl. of ‫ کرامة‬karāmah, lit. generosity, high-
mindedness ) refers to supernatural wonders performed by Muslim saints. In the technical
[144]

vocabulary of Islamic religious sciences, the singular form karama has a sense similar to charism, a
favor or spiritual gift freely bestowed by God. The marvels ascribed to Islamic saints have included
[145]

supernatural physical actions, predictions of the future, and "interpretation of the secrets of
hearts". Historically, a "belief in the miracles of saints (karāmāt al-awliyāʾ, literally 'marvels of the
[145]

friends [of God]')" has been "a requirement in Sunni Islam." [146]

Persecution[edit]
Main article: Persecution of Sufis
See also: Sufi–Salafi relations
Persecution of Sufis and Sufism has included destruction of Sufi shrines and mosques, suppression
of orders, and discrimination against adherents in a number of Muslim-majority countries. The
Turkish Republican state banned all Sufi orders and abolished their institutions in 1925 after Sufis
opposed the new secular order. The Iranian Islamic Republic has harassed Shia Sufis, reportedly for
their lack of support for the government doctrine of "governance of the jurist" (i.e., that the
supreme Shiite jurist should be the nation's political leader).
In most other Muslim countries, attacks on Sufis and especially their shrines have come
from Salafis who believe that practices such as celebration of the birthdays of Sufi saints, and dhikr
("remembrance" of God) ceremonies are bid‘ah or impure innovation, and polytheistic (Shirk). [147][148][149]

At least 305 people were killed and more than 100 wounded during a November 2017 attack on a
mosque in Sinai. [150][151]

Prominent Sufis[edit]
Abdul-Qadir Gilani[edit]

Geometric tiling on the underside of the dome of Hafiz Shirazi's tomb in Shiraz
Abdul-Qadir Gilani (1077–1166) was a Persian Hanbali jurist and Sufi based in Baghdad. Qadiriyya
was his patronym. Gilani spent his early life in Na'if, the town of his birth. There, he pursued the
study of Hanbali law. Abu Saeed Mubarak Makhzoomi gave Gilani lessons in fiqh. He was given
lessons about hadith by Abu Bakr ibn Muzaffar. He was given lessons about Tafsir by Abu
Muhammad Ja'far, a commentator. His Sufi spiritual instructor was Abu'l-Khair Hammad ibn Muslim
al-Dabbas. After completing his education, Gilani left Baghdad. He spent twenty-five years as a
reclusive wanderer in the desert regions of Iraq. In 1127, Gilani returned to Baghdad and began to
preach to the public. He joined the teaching staff of the school belonging to his own teacher, Abu
Saeed Mubarak Makhzoomi, and was popular with students. In the morning he
taught hadith and tafsir, and in the afternoon he held discourse on the science of the heart and the
virtues of the Quran.
Abul Hasan ash-Shadhili[edit]
Abul Hasan ash-Shadhili (died 1258), the founder of the Shadhiliyya order, introduced dhikr jahri (the
remembrance of God out loud, as opposed to the silent dhikr). He taught that his followers need not
abstain from what Islam has not forbidden, but to be grateful for what God has bestowed upon
them, in contrast to the majority of Sufis, who preach to deny oneself and to destroy the ego-self
[152]

(nafs) "Order of Patience" (Tariqus-Sabr), Shadhiliyya is formulated to be "Order of Gratitude"

(Tariqush-Shukr). Imam Shadhili also gave eighteen valuable hizbs (litanies) to his followers out of
which the notable Hizb al-Bahr is recited worldwide even today.
[153]

Ahmad al-Tijani[edit]
Ahmad al-Tijani Abu al-ʿAbbâs Ahmad ibn Muhammad at-Tijânî or Ahmed Tijani (1735–1815), in
Arabic ‫( سيدي أحمد التجاني‬Sidi Ahmed Tijani), is the founder of the Tijaniyya Sufi order. He was born in a
Berber family, in Aïn Madhi, present-day Algeria and died in Fez, Morocco at the age of 80.
[154][155][156]

Bayazid Bastami[edit]
Bayazid Bastami is a very well recognized and influential Sufi personality. Bastami was born in 804
in Bastam. Bayazid is regarded for his devout commitment to the Sunnah and his dedication to
fundamental Islamic principals and practices.
Bawa Muhaiyaddeen[edit]
Bawa Muhaiyaddeen (died 1986) is a Sufi Sheikh from Sri Lanka. He was first found by a group of
religious pilgrims in the early 1900s meditating in the jungles of Kataragama in Sri Lanka (Ceylon).
Awed and inspired by his personality and the depth of his wisdom, he was invited to a nearby village.
Since that time, people of all walks of life from paupers to prime ministers belonging to all religious
and ethnic backgrounds have flocked to see Sheikh Bawa Muhaiyaddeen to seek comfort, guidance
and help. Sheikh Bawa Muhaiyaddeen tirelessly spent the rest of his life preaching, healing and
comforting the many souls that came to see him.
Ibn Arabi[edit]
Muhyiddin Muhammad b. 'Ali Ibn 'Arabi (or Ibn al-'Arabi) (AH 561 – AH 638; July 28, 1165 –
November 10, 1240) is considered to be one of the most important Sufi masters, although he never
founded any order (tariqa). His writings, especially al-Futuhat al-Makkiyya and Fusus al-hikam, have
been studied within all the Sufi orders as the clearest expression of tawhid (Divine Unity), though
because of their recondite nature they were often only given to initiates. Later those who followed his
teaching became known as the school of wahdat al-wujud (the Oneness of Being). He himself
considered his writings to have been divinely inspired. As he expressed the Way to one of his close
disciples, his legacy is that 'you should never ever abandon your servant-hood (ʿubudiyya), and that
there may never be in your soul a longing for any existing thing'. [157]

Junayd of Baghdad[edit]
A manuscript of Sufi Islamic theology, Shams al-Ma'arif (The Book of the Sun of Gnosis), was written by the Algerian Sufi master Ahmad al-Buni during the 12th century.

Junayd of Baghdad (830–910) was one of the great early Sufis. His order was Junaidia, which links
to the golden chain of many Sufi orders. He laid the groundwork for sober mysticism in contrast to
that of God-intoxicated Sufis like al-Hallaj, Bayazid Bastami and Abusaeid Abolkheir. During the trial
of al-Hallaj, his former disciple, the Caliph of the time demanded his fatwa. In response, he issued
this fatwa: "From the outward appearance he is to die and we judge according to the outward
appearance and God knows better". He is referred to by Sufis as Sayyid-ut Taifa—i.e., the leader of
the group. He lived and died in the city of Baghdad.
Mansur Al-Hallaj[edit]
Mansur Al-Hallaj (died 922) is renowned for his claim, Ana-l-Haqq ("I am The Truth"). His refusal to
recant this utterance, which was regarded as apostasy, led to a long trial. He was imprisoned for 11
years in a Baghdad prison, before being tortured and publicly dismembered on March 26, 922. He is
still revered by Sufis for his willingness to embrace torture and death rather than recant. It is said
that during his prayers, he would say "O Lord! You are the guide of those who are passing through
the Valley of Bewilderment. If I am a heretic, enlarge my heresy". [158]

Moinuddin Chishti[edit]

A Mughal-era Sufi prayer book from the Chishti order

Moinuddin Chishti was born in 1141 and died in 1236. Also known as Gharīb Nawāz "Benefactor of
the Poor", he is the most famous Sufi saint of the Chishti Order. Moinuddin Chishti introduced and
established the order in the Indian subcontinent. The initial spiritual chain or silsila of the Chishti
order in India, comprising Moinuddin Chishti, Bakhtiyar Kaki, Baba Farid, Nizamuddin Auliya (each
successive person being the disciple of the previous one), constitutes the great Sufi saints of Indian
history. Moinuddin Chishtī turned towards India, reputedly after a dream in which Muhammad
blessed him to do so. After a brief stay at Lahore, he reached Ajmer along with Sultan Shahāb-ud-
Din Muhammad Ghori, and settled down there. In Ajmer, he attracted a substantial following,
acquiring a great deal of respect amongst the residents of the city. Moinuddin Chishtī practiced the
Sufi Sulh-e-Kul (peace to all) concept to promote understanding between Muslims and non-
Muslims. [citation needed]

Rabi'a al-'Adawiyya[edit]

Depiction of Rabi'a grinding grainfrom a Persian dictionary

Rabi'a al-'Adawiyya or Rabia of Basra (died 801) was a mystic who represents countercultural
elements of Sufism, especially with regards to the status and power of women. Prominent Sufi
leader Hasan of Basra is said to have castigated himself before her superior merits and sincere
virtues. Rabi'a was born either a slave or a servant of very poor origin, released by her master
[159]

when he awoke one night to see the light of sanctity shining above her head. Rabi'a al-Adawiyya is
[160]

known for her teachings and emphasis on the centrality of the love of God to a holy life. She is said
[161]

to have proclaimed, running down the streets of Basra, Iraq:

O God! If I worship You for fear of Hell, burn me in Hell, and if I worship You in hope of Paradise,
exclude me from Paradise. But if I worship You for Your Own sake, grudge me not Your everlasting
Beauty.

— Rabi'a al-Adawiyya

She died in Jerusalem and is thought to have been buried in the Chapel of the Ascension.

Major Sufi orders[edit]

Main articles: Tariqa and List of Sufi orders
"Tariqat" in the Four Spiritual Stations: The Four Stations, sharia, tariqa, haqiqa. The fourth station, marifa, which is considered "unseen", is actually the center of the haqiqaregion. It is the essence of all four

stations.

The term Tariqa is used for a school or order of Sufism, or especially for the mystical teaching and
spiritual practices of such an order with the aim of seeking ḥaqīqah (ultimate truth). A tariqa has
a murshid (guide) who plays the role of leader or spiritual director. The members or followers of a
tariqa are known as murīdīn (singular murīd), meaning "desirous", viz. "desiring the knowledge of
knowing God and loving God". [162]

Bektashi[edit]
Main article: Bektashi
The Bektashi Order was founded in the 13th century by the Islamic saint Haji Bektash Veli, and
greatly influenced during its fomulative period by the Hurufi Ali al-'Ala in the 15th century and
reorganized by Balım Sultan in the 16th century.
Chishti[edit]
Main article: Chishti Order
The Chishti Order (Persian: ‫ )چشتيہ‬was founded by (Khawaja) Abu Ishaq Shami ("the Syrian"; died
941) who brought Sufism to the town of Chisht, some 95 miles east of Herat in present-day
Afghanistan. Before returning to the Levant, Shami initiated, trained and deputized the son of the
local Emir(Khwaja) Abu Ahmad Abdal (died 966). Under the leadership of Abu Ahmad's
descendants, the Chishtiyya as they are also known, flourished as a regional mystical order.
Kubrawiya[edit]
Main article: Kubrawiya
The Kubrawiya order is a Sufi order ("tariqa") named after its 13th-century founder Najmuddin Kubra.
The Kubrawiya Sufi order was founded in the 13th century by Najmuddin Kubra in Bukhara in
modern Uzbekistan. The Mongols had captured Bukhara in 1221, they committed genocide and
[163]

killed nearly the whole population. Sheikh Nadjm ed-Din Kubra was among those killed by the
Mongols.
Mawlawiyya[edit]
Main article: Mawlawiyyah
The Mevlevi Order is better known in the West as the "whirling dervishes".
Muridiyya[edit]
Main article: Muridiyya
Mouride is a large Islamic Sufi order most prominent in Senegal and The Gambia, with headquarters
in the holy city of Touba, Senegal. [164]

Naqshbandi[edit]
Main article: Naqshbandi
The Naqshbandi order is one of the major Sufi orders of Islam, previously known as Siddiqiyya as
the order stems from Mohammad through Abū Bakr as-Șiddīq. It is considered by some to be a
"sober" order known for its silent dhikr (remembrance of God) rather than the vocalized forms
of dhikr common in other orders. The word "Naqshbandi" (‫ )صصصصصصص‬is Persian, taken from the name
of the founder of the order, Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari. Some have said that the translation
means "related to the image-maker", some also consider it to mean "Pattern Maker" rather than
"image maker", and interpret "Naqshbandi" to mean "Reformer of Patterns", and others consider it to
mean "Way of the Chain" or "Silsilat al-dhahab".
Nimatullahi[edit]
Main article: Nimatullahi
The Ni'matullāhī order is the most widespread Sufi order of Persia today. It was founded
[citation needed]

by Shah Ni'matullah Wali (died 1367), established and transformed from his inheritance of
the Ma'rufiyyah circle. There are several suborders in existence today, the most known and
[165]

influential in the West following the lineage of Dr. Javad Nurbakhsh who brought the order to the
West following the 1979 Revolution in Iran.
Qadiri[edit]
Main article: Qadiriyyah
The Qadiri Order is one of the oldest Sufi Orders. It derives its name from Abdul-Qadir Gilani (1077–
1166), a native of the Iranian province of Gīlān. The order is one of the most widespread of the Sufi
orders in the Islamic world, and can be found in Central Asia, Turkey, Balkans and much of East
and West Africa. The Qadiriyyah have not developed any distinctive doctrines or teachings outside
of mainstream Islam. They believe in the fundamental principles of Islam, but interpreted through
mystical experience.
Senussi[edit]
Main article: Senussi
Senussi is a religious-political Sufi order established by Muhammad ibn Ali as-Senussi. Muhammad
ibn Ali as-Senussi founded this movement due to his criticism of the Egyptian ulema. Originally from
Mecca, as-Senussi left due to pressure from Wahhabis to leave and settled in Cyrenaica where he
was well received. Idris bin Muhammad al-Mahdi as-Senussi was later recognized as Emir of
[166]

Cyrenaica and eventually became King of Libya. The monarchy was abolished by Muammar
[167]

Gaddafi but, a third of Libyan still claim to be Senussi. [citation needed]

Shadiliyya[edit]
Main article: Shadhili
The Shadhili is a Sufi order founded by Abu-l-Hassan ash-Shadhili. Ikhwans (Murids - followers) of
the Shadhiliyya are often known as Shadhilis. Fassiya a branch of Shadhiliyya founded by Imam
[168][169]

al Fassi of Makkah is the widely practiced sufi order in Saudi Arabia, Egypt, India, Sri Lanka,
Bangaldesh, Pakistan, Malaysia, Singapore, Mauritius, Indonesia and other middle east countries. [170]

Suhrawardiyya[edit]
Main article: Suhrawardiyya
The Suhrawardiyya order (Arabic: ‫ )سهروردية‬is a Sufi order founded by Abu al-Najib al-
Suhrawardi (1097–1168). The order was formalized by his nephew, Shahab al-Din Abu Hafs Umar
Suhrawardi.
Tijaniyya[edit]
Main article: Tijaniyyah
The Tijaniyyah order attach a large importance to culture and education, and emphasize the
individual adhesion of the disciple (murīd).
[169]

Symbols associated with the Sufi Orders[edit]

 

The symbolic emblem of the Naqshbandi Sufi Order

Seal of the Chishti Order

Grave of Ma Yuanzhang, the Sufi Grand Master, in China

Allah's essence within a disciple's heart, associated with the Sarwari Qadri Order

Mirror calligraphy, symbolizing the Sufi Bektashi Order of the Dervish

 

Symbol of the Mevlevi Order

Safaviyya star from ceiling of Shah Mosque, Isfahan

A symbol from the Mughal Empire: an amulet comprising magic squares, Quranic verses (including Al-Baqara 255 (Throne Verse) (2:255) running around the frame), and invocations to God,
with a depiction of Zulfiqar at the center

Reception[edit]
Perception outside Islam[edit]

A choreographed Sufi performance on a Friday in Sudan

Sufi mysticism has long exercised a fascination upon the Western world, and especially its
Orientalist scholars. Figures like Rumi have become well known in the United States, where Sufism
[171]

is perceived as a peaceful and apolitical form of Islam. Orientalists have proposed a variety of [171][172]
diverse theories pertaining to the nature of Sufism, such as it being influenced by Neoplatonism or
as an Aryan historical reaction against "Semitic" cultural influence. Hossein Nasr states that the [31]

preceding theories are false according to the point of view of Sufism. [31]

The Islamic Institute in Mannheim, Germany, which works towards the integration of Europe and
Muslims, sees Sufism as particularly suited for interreligious dialogue and intercultural harmonisation
in democratic and pluralist societies; it has described Sufism as a symbol of tolerance
and humanism—nondogmatic, flexible and non-violent. According to Philip Jenkins, a Professor at
[173]

Baylor University, "the Sufis are much more than tactical allies for the West: they are, potentially, the
greatest hope for pluralism and democracy within Muslim nations." Likewise, several governments
and organisations have advocated the promotion of Sufism as a means of combating intolerant
and violent strains of Islam. For example, the Chinese and Russian governments openly favor
[174] [175]

Sufism as the best means of protecting against Islamist subversion. The British government,
especially following the 7 July 2005 London bombings, has favoured Sufi groups in its battle
against Muslim extremist currents. The influential RAND Corporation, an American think-tank, issued
a major report titled "Building Moderate Muslim Networks," which urged the US government to form
links with and bolster Muslim groups that opposed Islamist extremism. The report stressed the Sufi
[176]

role as moderate traditionalists open to change, and thus as allies against violence. News [177][178]

organisations such as the BBC, Economist and Boston Globe have also seen Sufism as a means to
deal with violent Muslim extremists. [179]

Idries Shah states that Sufism is universal in nature, its roots predating the rise of Islam and
Christianity. He quotes Suhrawardi as saying that "this [Sufism] was a form of wisdom known to
[180]

and practiced by a succession of sages including the mysterious ancient Hermes of Egypt.", and
that Ibn al-Farid "stresses that Sufism lies behind and before systematization; that 'our wine existed
before what you call the grape and the vine' (the school and the system)..." Shah's views have [181]

however been rejected by modern scholars. Such modern trends of neo-Sufis in Western countries
[49]

allow non-Muslims to receive "instructions on following the Sufi path", not without opposition by
Muslims who consider such instruction outside the sphere of Islam. [182][183]

Influence on Judaism[edit]
This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements
consisting only of original research should be removed. (July 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

See also: Jewish philosophy

Both Judaism and Islam are monotheistic. There is evidence that Sufism did influence the
development of some schools of Jewish philosophy and ethics. In the first writing of this kind, we see
"Kitab al-Hidayah ila Fara'iḍ al-Ḳulub", Duties of the Heart, of Bahya ibn Paquda. This book was
translated by Judah ibn Tibbon into Hebrew under the title "Ḥōḇōṯ Ha-lleḇāḇōṯ". [184]

The precepts prescribed by the Torah number 613 only; those dictated by the intellect are
innumerable.

It is noteworthy that in the ethical writings of the Sufis Al-Kusajri and Al-Harawi there are sections
which treat of the same subjects as those treated in the "Ḥovot ha-Lebabot" and which bear the
same titles: e.g., "Bab al-Tawakkul"; "Bab al-Taubah"; "Bab al-Muḥasabah"; "Bab al-Tawaḍu'"; "Bab
al-Zuhd". In the ninth gate, Baḥya directly quotes sayings of the Sufis, whom he calls Perushim.
However, the author of the Ḥōḇōṯ Ha-lleḇāḇōṯ did not go so far as to approve of the asceticism of the
Sufis, although he showed a marked predilection for their ethical principles.
Abraham ben Moses ben Maimon, the son of the Jewish philosopher Maimonides, believed that Sufi
practices and doctrines continue the tradition of the Biblical prophets. See Sefer Hammaspiq,
"Happerishuth", Chapter 11 ("Ha-mmaʿaḇāq") s.v. hithbonen efo be-masoreth mufla'a zo, citing the
Talmudic explanation of Jeremiah 13:27 in Chagigah 5b; in Rabbi Yaakov Wincelberg's translation,
"The Way of Serving God" (Feldheim), p. 429 and above, p. 427. Also see ibid., Chapter 10
("Iqquḇim"), s.v. wa-halo yoḏeʾaʿ atta; in "The Way of Serving God", p. 371.
Abraham Maimuni's principal work is originally composed in Judeo-Arabic and entitled " ‫כתאב כפאיה‬
‫ "אלעאבדין‬Kitāb Kifāyah al-'Ābidīn ("A Comprehensive Guide for the Servants of God"). From the
extant surviving portion it is conjectured that Maimuni's treatise was three times as long as his
father's Guide for the Perplexed. In the book, Maimuni evidences a great appreciation for, and
affinity to, Sufism. Followers of his path continued to foster a Jewish-Sufi form of pietism for at least
a century, and he is rightly considered the founder of this pietistic school, which was centered
in Egypt.
The followers of this path, which they called, interchangeably, Hasidism (not to be confused with the
[later] Jewish Hasidic movement) or Sufism (Tasawwuf), practiced spiritual retreats, solitude, fasting
and sleep deprivation. The Jewish Sufis maintained their own brotherhood, guided by a religious
leader—like a Sufi sheikh. [185]

In popular culture[edit]
Music[edit]

Friday evening ceremony at Dargah Salim Chisti, India

In 2005, Rabbi Shergill released a Sufi rock song called "Bulla Ki Jaana", which became a chart-
topper in India and Pakistan. [186][187]

Literature[edit]

A 17th-century miniature of Nasreddin, a Seljuk satirical figure, currently in the Topkapı PalaceMuseum Library

The Persian poet Rumi, who was born in present-day Afghanistan, has become one of the most
widely read poets in the United States, thanks largely to the interpretative translations published
by Coleman Barks. Elif Şafak's novel The Forty Rules of Love is a fictionalized account of Rumi's
[188]

encounter with the Persian dervish Shams Tabrizi.[189]