Fluid Flow Operations

Theory
UNIT –I

Fundamentals of Fluid Flow Operations

A. Fluids and properties of fluids, Newton’s law of viscosity

pressure and temperature dependence, introduction to
rheology of fluids, types of flow, lines to describe the flow,
The basic equation of fluid statics, pressure-depth
relationship, pressure forces on surfaces, pressure
measurements.

B. Engineering applications of fluid flow operations, pressure

measuring devices, rheological classification of fluids
UNIT –II

Momentum and Energy Balance Equations

A Mass and energy balance equations, Bernoulli’s

equation; variable head and variable area meters.

B Flow measuring devices

UNIT –III
Dimensional Analysis and Boundary Layer Theory

A Fundamental dimension of quantities, dimensional

homogeneity ,Reyleigh’s method and Buckingham’s π
method, concept of hydrodynamic boundary layer,
growth over a flat plate, change in nature of boundary
layer, and different thicknesses of boundary layer, drag
on flat plate, coefficient of drag and its variation

B Physical significance of dimensionless numbers,

hydrodynamic, thermal and concentration boundary
layers
• UNIT –IV
Flow through Conduits
A Shell balance based solutions for laminar flow
through circular tube (Hagen Poiseuelle
equation), on inclined plane, through annular
space, Concept of Reynolds number; transition
and turbulent flow in pipes, Darcy-Weisbach
equation, friction factor chart.

B Different pipe fittings and valves

UNIT –V

Transportation of Fluids

A Minor losses and major losses in pipes, concept of

equivalent pipe, series and parallel pipe systems,
cavitation and water hammer, transportation of fluids,
centrifugal pump.

B Compressors, fans and blowers

 References
Text Books
1. “Unit Operations in Chemical Engineering”, McCabe
W.L. and Smith J.C.,McGraw Hill, 7th edition, 2007.
2. “A Textbook of Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics”, Bansal
R.K., Laxmi Publications, 2005.

Reference Books
1. “Process Fluid Mechanics”, Den M.M., Prentice Hall,
1998.
2. “Fluid Mechanics-Fundamentals and Applications”,
Yunus A.Cengel and John M. Cimbala;, Tata McGraw
Hill, 2006
 Laboratory
List of Practicals

Determination of viscosity.
• Reynolds experiment to determine laminar and turbulent flow.
• Flow through packed bed

Flow through venturimeter

Flow through orifice meter
• Flow through pipe fitting

Determination of friction factor
• Verification of Darcy’s law
 Characteristics of centrifugal pump

Verification of stokes law

Calibration of rotameter

Varyfication Of Bernoulli theorem
• Computer based solutions for fluid flow problems
 Lesson Plan
Lecture Unit No. Details of topics planned References
No.
1 1 Introduction

2 1 Fluid definition and properties, continuum R.K. Bansal

hypothesis
3 1 Newton’s law of viscosity, pressure and McCabe&
temperature dependence Smith, Bird&
Stuart
4 1 analogy with heat and mass transfer, applications RC-1,
of fluid mechanics in chemical engineering
5 1 Rheological classification of fluids McCabe&
Smith,
6 1 Types of flow, lines to describe flow R.K. Bansal
7 1 Fluid statics, fundamental equation of fluid R.K. Bansal
statics
8 1 gauge and absolute pressure, pressure R.K. Bansal
measurement by simple and differential
manometer
9 2 Mass balance equation: equation of McCabe& Smith,
Bird& Stuart
continuity
1 2 Momnetum balance equation McCabe& Smith,
Bird& Stuart

11 2 Momentum balance equation McCabe& Smith,

Bird& Stuart

12 2 Energy balance on a fluid McCabe& Smith,

Bird& Stuart

13 2 Bernoulli equation McCabe& Smith,

Bird& Stuart

14 2 Numerical based on Bernoulli’s equation R.K. Bansal

15 2 Variable head and variable area meters R.K. Bansal,

McCabe&
Smith
16 2 Variable head and variable area meters R.K. Bansal
17 3 Fundamental dimension of quantities, R.K. Bansal
dimensional homogeneity

18 3 Problem solving by Buckingham’s Pi R.K. Bansal

theorem
19 3 Problem solving by Rayleigh’s method R.K. Bansal

20 3 Concept of hydrodynamic boundary layer, R.K. Bansal

growth over , a flat plate, change in nature
of boundary layer
21 3 Nominal, displacement, momentum and R.K. Bansal
energy thickness

22 3 Examples for different velocity profiles

23 3 Drag on flat plate R.K. Bansal

24 3 Coefficient of drag and its variation R.K. Bansal

25 4 Shell balance based solutions for laminar R.K. Bansal,
McCabe& Smith
flow through circular tube
26 4 Shell balance based solutions for laminar R.K. Bansal,
McCabe& Smith
flow through inclined plane
27 4 Shell balance based solutions for laminar R.K. Bansal,
McCabe& Smith
flow through annular space
28 4 Numerical R.K. Bansal,
McCabe& Smith

29 4 Concept of Reynolds number; transition R.K. Bansal,

McCabe& Smith
and turbulent flow, in pipes
30 4 Applications in heat and mass transfer R.K. Bansal,
McCabe& Smith

31 4 Darcy-Weisbach equation, Moody R.K. Bansal,

McCabe& Smith
diagram for obtaining, friction factor
32 4 Numerical R.K. Bansal,
McCabe& Smith
33 5 Major losses in pipelines R.K. Bansal,
McCabe& Smith
34 5 Minor losses in pipelines R.K. Bansal,
McCabe& Smith
35 Numerical R.K. Bansal,
McCabe& Smith

36 5 Pipes in series and equivalent pipe R.K. Bansal,

McCabe& Smith
37 Numerical R.K. Bansal,
McCabe& Smith
38 5 Pipes in parallell, cavitation R.K. Bansal,
McCabe& Smith
39 5 Centrifugal pump, NPSH R.K. Bansal,
McCabe& Smith
40 5 Numerical on centrifugal pump R.K. Bansal,
McCabe& Smith
 Practical Marks
• Total 100 Marks : 8 – 10 Experiments

• Attendance: ???? Marks

• Timely submission: ???? Marks
• Involvement in lab work: ??? Marks ( May be
assessed by oral exam or test)

(Continuous Evaluation No External Examination)

What is fluid?????

• Substance which can

not permanently
resists the distortion
• When external force
is applied it readily
undergoes
deformation
• Readily undergoes
shape change
Fluid definition and properties,
continuum hypothesis
 What is Fluid?????
• A fluid, such, deforms continuously when acted
on by shearing stresses of any magnitude
• Substance which can not permanently resists
the distortion
• When external force is applied it readily
undergoes deformation
• Readily undergoes shape change
• When atoms or molecules are free to flow past
each other they are called fluids.
• a substance consisting of particles that change
their position relative to one another.
Fluids can be ……

liquids,

or gases!
 Fluid

• Fluids essential to life

– Human body 65% water
– Earth’s surface is 2/3 water
– No human can survive without air
 Classification of fluids
• Based on state of Matter
– Liquids and gases
• Based on temperature effects
– Compressible and incompressible
• Based on viscosity
– Newtonian and NonNewtonian
 Fluids Mechanics:
Statics vs Dynamics
 Fluid Mechanics
• Fluid Mechanics is omnipresent (present every where)
– Aerodynamics
– Bioengineering and biological systems
– Combustion
– Energy generation
– Geology
– Hydraulics and Hydrology
– Hydrodynamics
– Meteorology
– Ocean and Coastal Engineering
– Water Resources
– …numerous other examples…
 Sports
Water sports Cycling

Auto racing Surfing

 Continuum Hypothesis
• All materials, solid or fluid, are composed
of molecules discretely spread and in
continuous motion.
• However, in dealing with fluid-flow
relations on a mathematical basis, it is
necessary to replace the actual molecular
structure by a hypothetical continuous
medium, called the continuum.
 Continuum
• In a continuum, the physical variable at a
point in space is the averaged value of the
variable in a small sphere.
• How good is the assumption?

3x1010 molecules of air

10-3cm
 Properties of Fluids
• Density
• Weight
• Specific volume
• Specific gravity
• Buoyancy
• Vapour pressure
 Density

• Is the mass per unit of volume of a

substance
• or mathematically ρ = M / V
Which cube is denser?

Cube 1 Cube 2
 Weight
• Gravitational force exerted by a given
mass of fluid
• Weight is the product of mass and
acceleration due to gravity
• W = m. g (Unit: N)

• Specific weight: Weight per unit volume

 Specific Volume
• Specific weight = weight per unit volume

ν = specific volume = 1 / ρ
 Specific gravity
• Specific gravity = Ratio density (sp. wt) of
the fluid to the density (sp wt) of reference
fluid at std. conditions
(usually 20 °C and 1 atm)
Sp gravities of some of the substances
 Buoyancy
Buoyancy: a force that acts upward on an
object submerged in a liquid or floating
on the liquid’s surface

How does a fish swim through

the weight of all the fluid?
 Buoyancy

Weight of fish
↓

↑
Buoyant force!!
 Vapor Pressure
• Vapour pressure is the pressure exerted
by vapour. E.g. the H2O(g) in a sealed
container.
 Vapor Pressure
• When the vapour pressure is equal to the
atmospheric pressure (Patm), the push out
is enough to overcome Patm and boiling
occurs
• Thus, water will boil at a temperature
below 100 °C if the atmospheric pressure
is reduced
 Vapor Pressure
8000
7000

Vapor pressure (Pa)

6000
5000
4000
3000
liquid 2000
1000
0
0 10 20 30 40
Temperature (C)
What is vapor pressure of water at 100°C? 101 kPa
Connection forward to cavitation!
 Example
1. One lit oil weighs 9.6 N. Calculate specific weight,
density and specific gravity of the oil
• Sp. Wt. = Wt/Volume = 9.6/1x10-3
• = 9600 N/m3
• Density = Mass/ Volume = 9600/9.81
• = 978.8kg/m3
• Sp. Gravity = Density of oil/Density of water
• = 978.8/1000 = 0.9788
 Example
2. Calculate sp. Wt of one lit petrol of sp gravity 0.7
Sp. Gravity = Density of Petrol/Density of water
Density of petrol = Sp gravity x 1000 = 0.7 x 1000 = 700 kg/m3
Density = Mass/ Volume
Mass = Density x Volume = 700 x 1x 10-3 = 0.7 kg
Wt = Mass x g = 0.7 x 9.81 = 6.867 N
Sp wt = Wt/ Volume = 6.867/1 /10-3 = 6867 N/m3
OR
Sp wt = Densiy x g = 700 x 9.81 = 6867 N/m3
 Example
• Calculate sp. Wt, sp vol, sp gravity of
liquid having volume 6 m3 and wt 44 kN
• Newton’s law of viscosity,
• Pressure and temperature dependence of
viscosity
 Viscosity
• Viscosity is a property that represents the
internal resistance of a fluid to motion.

• Ethanol
• Water
• Honey
• Sludge
• Slurry
• Pastes
 Newton’s Law of Viscosity

Velocity Gradient
= ∆U/∆Y
Velocity gradient
 Newton’s Law of Viscosity
Shear stress acts tangentially to the
surface (F=tangential force).
∆X
F

A
F
shear force
τ=
tangential area
 Newton’s Law of Viscosity
• Newton’s law of viscosity states that
“Shear stress is directly proportional to velocity
gradient”

τ α ∆U/∆Y
τ = −µ ∆U/∆Y
Unit of µ
µ = Viscosity of the fluid Kg/m.s
Poise
Pa.s
1 Poise = 1g/cm. s
 Role of Viscosity
• Statics
– Fluids at rest have no relative motion between
layers of fluid and thus du/dy = 0
zero and is
– Therefore the shear stress is _____
independent of the fluid viscosity
• Flows
– Fluid viscosity is very important when the fluid
is moving
 Kinematic viscosity ν
• The ratio µ / ρ appears in many equations.
• Kinematic viscosity ν (pronounced: new)
µ
ν=
ρ

• Gases: Viscosity increases with

increasing temperature, why?
• Liquids: Viscosity decreases with
increasing temperature, why?
 Kinematic viscosity
• Units
• m2/s
• Stokes =cm2/s
 Temperature and pressure
dependency of viscosity
• Viscosity will also change with pressure -
but under normal conditions this change is
negligible in gasses
• High pressure can also change the
viscosity of a liquid. As pressure increases
the relative movement of molecules
requires more energy hence viscosity
increases
 Temperature and pressure
dependence of viscosity
Viscosity of Newtonian fluids depends only on
temperature and pressure
∆E  To − T 
µ(T, P) = µ0 exp   exp β( P − Po )
R  To T 

Whereµo:viscosity at To and Po
(reference temperature and pressure)
∆E: activation energy for flow
R: gas constant
β:material property [m2/N]
Kinematic Viscosity of Water vs. Temp

Temp (oC) Viscosity (m2/s)

0 1.79 x 10-3
10 1.31 x 10-3
-3
20 1.00 x 10
--4
30 7.97x 10
-4
40 6.5 x 10
-4
50 5.55 x 10
 What is Rheology??
• Rheology is the science of flow and
deformation of matter
• Describes the interrelation between
force, deformation and time.
• It describes the resistance of a
material to flow.
• The term comes from Greek rheos
meaning to flow.
 Rheological properties of fluids
• Viscosity
• Shear stress
• Shear rate
• Flow index
• Consistency
• Yield stress
 Rheological Classification of fluids
• Gives relationship between shear stress and
shear rate
• This relationship is very important
• Processability, aging effects, power
requirements, transport characteristics and
much more information is obtainable from the
detailed knowledge of rheology of the fluid
• Helps to Design/select equipment such as pumps,
pipelines, extruders, mixers, heat exchangers
etc
 Rheological Classification of fluids

• Newtonian fluids
The shear rate is directly proportional
to shear rate [linear relationship]

• NonNewtonian fluids
– Time Independent
– Time dependent
Rheological Classification of fluids
Newtonian Fluids: Dynamic Viscosity
Shear stress

τ
µ=
γɺ
µ = Slope of line

SI Unit: Pascal-second Shear rate

Newtonian Fluids
Shear
stress

Shear rate

Examples:
• Water
• Milk
• Vegetable oils
• Fruit juices
• Sugar and salt solutions
Typical Viscosities (Pa.s)

 Asphalt Binder --------------- 100,000

 Polymer Melt ----------------- 1,000
 Molasses ---------------------- 100
 Liquid Honey ----------------- 10
 Glycerol ----------------------- 1
 Olive Oil ----------------------- 0.01
 Water -------------------------- 0.001
 Acetic Acid -------------------- 0.00001

Courtesy: TA Instruments
 Non Newtonian fluids:
Time independent rheology

Shear stress

Non Newtonian
Fluids Shear rate
 Examples
• Bingham plastic fluids
Tooth paste
Tomato paste

• Dilatant (Shear thickening)

Liquid Chocolate
Sludges
• Pseudoplatic
Suspensions
Polymer solutions
Blood
 Pseudoplastic fluids
Their apparent viscosity decreases with
increase in shear rate

τ K γɺ n n −1
µa = = = Kγɺ n<1
γɺ γɺ
Apparent Viscosity

Shear Rate
Why Shear Thinning occurs
Unsheared Sheared

Aggregates
Anisotropic Particles align break up
with the Flow Streamlines

Random coil
Polymers
elongate and
break
Shear Thinning Behavior

 Shear thinning behavior is often a result of:

 Orientation of non-spherical particles in the direction of
flow. An example of this phenomenon is the pumping of
fiber slurries.
 Orientation of polymer chains in the direction of flow and
breaking of polymer chains during flow. An example is
polymer melt extrusion
 Deformation of spherical droplets to elliptical droplets in
an emulsion. An industrial application where this
phenomenon can occur is in the production of low fat
margarine.
 Breaking of particle aggregates in suspensions. An
example would be stirring paint.
Model parameters for different types of fluids

Yield stress?

τo = 0
0<n<1

Shear stress n=1

1<n

Shear rate
 Yield stress?

• When stress is less than yield stress,

material does not flow. It behaves like a
solid
 Mathematical Model
• Herschel Bulkley
Model:
τ = τ0 + k (du/dy)n

k = Similar to vis cos ity

n = Power law parameter
τ o = Yield stress
 Time dependent rheology

Thixotropic Rheopectic

Apparent Viscosity
Apparent Viscosity

Constant shear rate

Time
Time
 Visco elastic fluids
• Viscous + Elastic
Elasticity deals with mechanical properties of elastic solids (Hooke’s Law)

δL

Stress, σ Strain, γ = δL/L

Examples of viscoelastic foods:
Almost all solid foods and fluid foods containing
long chain biopolymers
• Food starch, gums, gels
• Grains
• Most solid foods (fruits, vegetables, tubers)
• Cheese
• Pasta, cookies, breakfast cereals
• Egg yoke
 Ideal fluid
• Viscosity??????????
• ZERO
Types of flow
• Compressible Flow and Incompressible Flow
– Temperature effects on flow
– Liquids
– Gases
• Steady and Unsteady Flow
– Change in Flow variables with time
– Variables like velocity, temp, pressure etc.

Steady Flow

Unsteady Flow
• Uniform and Non-uniform Flow
– Flow parameters through the flow field
– Change in both magnitude and direction

Uniform

Nonuniform
• Steady and Uniform Flow
• Steady and nonuniform Flow
• Unsteady and Uniform Flow
• Unsteady and nonuniform Flow
• Laminar and Turbulent Flow
– Fluid particles follow well defined path
– Same relative position at successive C/S
– Role of viscosity
– Formation of eddies, fluctuations in
velocity, mixing etc
– Transition flow ????

[Reynolds's Experiment, Reynolds's No.]

• Rotational and Irotational Flow
• One, Two and Three Dimensional Flow
– Flow variable varying in one dimension
– Are function of two or three dimensions
• Potential Flow
Incompressible, steady and uniform
Lines to describe the flow
 Stream Line
• A Streamline is an imaginary curve drawn
in a flow field such that is everywhere
tangent to the instantaneous local velocity
vector.
Streamline Spacing

Velocity ?????????
 Streamtube
A streamtube consists of a bundle
of streamlines

Fluid within a streamtube must

remain there and cannot cross the
boundary of the streamtube.

In an unsteady flow, the streamline

pattern may change significantly
with time.⇒ the mass flow rate
passing through any cross-sectional
slice of a given streamtube must
remain the same.
 Pathlines
• A Pathline is the actual path traveled by
an individual fluid particle over some time
period.
 Streaklines
• A Streakline is the
locus of fluid
particles that have
passed sequentially
through a prescribed
point in the flow.

• Easy to generate in
experiments: dye in
a water flow, or
smoke in an airflow.
 Comparisons
• For steady flow, streamlines, pathlines, and
streaklines are identical.
• For unsteady flow, they can be very different.
– Streamlines are an instantaneous picture of the
flow field
– Pathlines and Streaklines are flow patterns that
have a time history associated with them.
– Streakline: instantaneous snapshot of a time-
integrated flow pattern.
– Pathline: time-exposed flow path of an individual
particle.
 Equipotential line
• The line having same potential for flow of
fluid
• Potential????
• The flow takes place from high potential
point to low potential point
• Stream lines and equipotential line are
normal to each other
• Flow takes place along with stream lines
and is perpendicular to equipotential lines
Fluid Statics

M. P Deosarkar
Department of Chemical Engineering
Vishwakarma Institute of Technology, Pune-37
 Fluid statics
• Fluid statics deals with non-flow situations--fluids
at rest.
• A static fluid is one which does not move –its
velocity and acceleration are everywhere zero
• The fluid particle is subjected to two quite
different types of forces per unit area depend on
– Relative position of molecules near the surface (Pressure)
– Relative average motion of the particle (stress)

• For static fluid there is no relative motion

• Pressure is basic property of static fluid
 Definition of Pressure
Pressure is defined as the amount of force exerted
on a unit area of a substance:

force N
P= = 2 = Pa
area m
 Direction of fluid pressure on
boundaries

Furnace duct Pipe or tube

Heat exchanger

Pressure is a Normal Force

(acts perpendicular to surfaces)
It is also called a Surface Force

Dam
 Pressure
• Units of pressure is N/m2, which is called a
Pascal (Pa).
• Since the unit Pa is too small for pressures
encountered in practice, kilopascal (1 kPa
= 103 Pa) and megapascal (1 MPa = 106
Pa) are commonly used.
• Other units include bar, atm, kgf/cm2,
lbf/in2=psi.
 Pressure
• Other units include bar, atm, kgf/cm2,
lbf/in2=psi.
• 1 bar = 105 Pa = 0.1 MPa = 100 kPa
• 1 atm = 101,325 Pa = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325
bars
• 1 kgf/cm2 = 9.807 N/cm2 = 9.807 × 104 N/m2
= 9.807 × 104 Pa = 0.9807 bar = 0.9679 atm
• 1 atm = 14.696 psi.
• 1 kgf/cm2 = 14.223 psi.
 Absolute, gage, and vacuum
pressures
• Actual pressure at a given point is called
the absolute pressure.
• Most pressure-measuring devices are
calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere,
and therefore indicate gage pressure,
Pgage = Pabs - Patm.
• Pressure below atmospheric pressure are
called vacuum pressure, Pvac=Patm - Pabs.
Absolute, gage, and vacuum
pressures
Bourdon Gauge
 Fluid Statics
• Two points at the same elevation in a
continuous fluid at rest are at the same
pressure.
• The pressure varies from height to
height
 Fundamental Equation
• Consider stagnant mass of
static fluid in a column of
c/s area S

• Consider different planes as

shown

• The pressure at any plane is

uniform but varies from
height to height Pa≠ Pb

• Consider the volume element

of height dZ at height Z
from the bottom
Fundamental equation
• The different forces acting on it
are:
i) Upward pressure force = PS
ii) Downward pressure force = (P+ dP)S
iii) Downward gravity force = ρ dZ S g

As the volume element is static the net

force acting on it must be zero
Net upward force –Net downward force = 0
PS - (P+ dP)S - ρ dZ S g = 0 ------(1)
 Fundamental Equation
• PS - (P+ dP)S - ρ dZ S g = 0 ------(1)
• PS – PS - dPS - ρ dZ S g = 0
• - dP - ρ dZ g = 0 ------(2)
•
------(3)

Integrating the eq. 3

Integrating between planes a and b
Liquids are incompressible i.e. their density is assumed
to be constant:

When we have a liquid with a free surface the

pressure P at any depth below the free surface is:

Po is the pressure at the

P = ρgh + Po free surface (Po=Patm)

By using gauge pressures we can simply write:

P = ρgh
 For compressible fluids
• The density is not constant hence integration of
equation 3 will be :

• Where density of the compressible fluids is given by

 Pressure head
This is the pressure energy expressed in terms of
height of liquid column
Hydrostatic Forces on Plane
Surfaces
• On a plane surface,
the hydrostatic forces
form a system of
parallel forces

• Atmospheric pressure
Patm can be neglected
when it acts on both
sides of the surface.
 Examples
• What are the gauge pressure and absolute
pressure at a point 3 m below the free
surface of the liquid having specific gravity
1.53 if the atmospheric pressure is equivalent
to 750 mm of mercury? The specific gravity
of mercury is 13.6 and density of water is
1000 kg/m3
 Answer
• Density of mercury = 13.6* 1000 = 13600 kg/m3
• Atmospheric pressure head = 750 mm Hg = 0.75 m Hg
• Patmospheric = 0.75 *13600*9.81 = 100062 N/m2
• Pressure due to 3 m height of liquid = 3*1530*9.8
• = 45028 N/m2

• Gauge pressure = 45028 N/m2

• Absolute presure = 145090 N/m2
 Examples
• Calculate pressure due to column of 0.3 m
of:
a) Water
b) Oil of specific gravity 0.8
c) Mercury of density 13.6 g/cc
 Answers
a)2943 N/m2 b)2354 N/m2 c)40025 N/m2
Pressure measurement by
using Manometers
 Manometers
• Manometers are defined as the devices used for
measuring the pressure at a point in the fluid by
balancing the column of the fluid by the same or
another column of fluid.
 Manometers
• Manometers are classified as
 • Piezometer
Simple Manometers
• Simplest form of manometer
• Consists of a glass tube
inserted in vessel or pipe
and other end extends
vertically upward
• The pressure at any point is
indicated by the height of
liquid above that point
• P=hρg
– Simplest, measure gauge
pressure only, not suitable for
negative pressure, moderate
pressure range, not suitable
for gases
– Tube diameter and height
• U Tube Manometer
• Consists of a glass tube bent
in U shape
• One end is connected to the
point of which pressure is to
be measured and other end
remains open to atmosphere
• The manometer is filled with
a liquid known as manometric
liquid of higher density
• Choice depends on pressure
range
• Commonly used:
– Mercury, CCL4, water etc.
 • Pressure at point 1
U Tube Manometer P1 =PA + h1ρ1 g

• Pressure at point 2
PB
P2 =PB + h2ρ2g

• As per hydrostatic eqm

P1 =P2
h
2 PA + h1ρ1 g = PB + h2ρ2g
PA
h
1 PA - PB = h2ρ2g - h1ρ1 g
1 2 If h2-h1 = h3
PA - PB = h1(ρ2 -ρ1)g – h3ρ2 g
Single Column Manometer • Modified form of U
Tube Manometer
• Shallow reservoir
having C/S area
about 100 times that
of tube is one leg
• For any change in
PA pressure the change
in the liquid level in
the reservoir is
negligible
• Pressure is indicated
approximately by
level of liquid in other
reservoir
• How??????
 Single Column Manometer
• h2 ρ2 g + Patm = h1 ρ1 g + ∆h ρ1 g + PA

• PA = h2 ρ2 g - h1 ρ1 g - ∆h ρ1 g PA

• A = C/S area of reservoir

• a = C/S area of Tube
∆h A = h2 a Very small
Can be neglected

∆h = h2 a/A

• PA = h2 ρ2 g - h1 ρ1 g
Differential Manometers
U Tube Differential Manometer
Apply the basic equation of static
fluids to both legs of manometer,
realizing that P2=P3.

P2 = Pa + ρ b g ( Z m + Rm )
P3 = Pb + ρ b g ( Z m ) + ρ a gRm

Pa − Pb = gRm ( ρ a − ρ b )
Inclined tube manometer

Pa − Pb = gR1 ( ρ a − ρ b ) sin α
Inverted U-Tube Manometer
• Pressure at Point 1
PA – h1ρ1g – h2ρ1g
ρ
2 • Pressure at Point 1
1 2 PB – h1ρ1g – h2ρ2g

• Pressure difference
ρ PA – PB
1
= h2 (ρ1 - ρ2 )g
PA PB
 Examples
A simple U-tube manometer is installed across
an orifice plate. The manometer is filled with
mercury (specific gravity = 13.6) and the
liquid above the mercury is water. If the
pressure difference across the orifice is 2
atm, what is the height difference (reading)
on the manometer in m of mercury ?

Answer: 1.639 m