eCAADe2014 Volume2

eCAADe 2014
Fusion
Volume 2
Volume 2 - eCAADe 32 | 1
Editor
Emine Mine Thompson
Department of Architecture and Built Environment
Faculty of Engineering and Environment
Northumbria University
1st Edition, September 2014
Fusion - Proceedings of the 32nd International Conference on Education and research in Com-
puter aided Architectural Design in Europe, Newcastle upon Tyne, England, UK, 10-12 Septem-
ber 2014, Volume 2. Edited by Emine Mine Thompson. Brussels: Education and research in
Computer aided Architectural Design in Europe; Newcastle upon Tyne: Department of Archi-
tecture and Built Environment, Faculty of Engineering and Environment, Northumbria Univer-
sity.
ISBN: 9789491207068 (eCAADe)
Copyright © 2014
Publisher: eCAADe (Education and research in Computer aided Architectural Design in Eu-
rope) and Department of Architecture and Built Environment, Faculty of Engineering and En-
vironment, Northumbria University.
Cover Design: Northumbria Graphics
All rights reserved. Nothing from this publication may be produced, stored in computerised
system or published in any form or in any manner, including electronic, mechanical, repro-
graphic or photographic, without prior written permission from the publisher.
2 | eCAADe 32 - Volume 2
eCAADe 2014
Fusion - Data Integration at its best

Volume 2
Proceedings of the 32nd International Conference on Education and research in
Computer aided Architectural Design in Europe
10-12 September 2014

Newcastle upon Tyne, England
Department of Architecture and Built Environment
Faculty of Engineering and Environment
Edited by
Emine Mine Thompson
Volume 2 - eCAADe 32 | 3
4 | eCAADe 32 - Volume 2
Theme
Fusion- Data Integration at its best
This is the second volume of the conference proceedings of the 32nd eCAADe conference,
held from 10-12 September 2013 at the Department of Architecture and Built Environment,
Faculty of Engineering and Environment, Northumbria University in Newcastle upon Tyne,
England. Both volumes together contain 130 papers that were submitted and accepted to
this conference.
The theme of the 32nd eCAADe conference is Fusion- data integration at its best.
All quests for data integration in architecture and the construction industry lead ultimately
to FUSION, a synthesis of knowledge that transcends mere combination. FUSION is the
dream of a knowledge system that will enable multiple sets of data, in manifold formats, to
be presented in a unified view. This conference is exploring the possibilities for advanced
levels of data integration in the service of the representation and management of the natural
environment, and the design, visualisation and making of the built environment. These
proceedings are presenting the contributions which explore the elusive goal of FUSION in
architecture and related fields.
The second volume of the proceedings contains 65 papers grouped under nine sub-themes
(Generative Design- Parametric Modelling, Material, Collaboration and Participation, VR, Spatial
Analysis, Shape, Form and Geometry 2, BIM, Design Tool 2 and Smart and Responsive Design).
Emine Mine Thompson
Theme - Volume 2 - eCAADe 32 | 5

Sponsors of the eCAADe 2014 Conference
Autodesk
Bentley
6 | eCAADe 32 - Theme - Volume 2

Acknowledgements
Welcome to the 32nd proceedings of eCAADe in Newcastle upon Tyne, England - exactly fif-
teen years after the last eCAADe conference in England we are very happy to welcome you
back.
The idea of bringing the eCAADe conference to Newcastle dates back to October 2010. Since
then there have been many structural changes at Northumbria University and although many
unexpected things took place, the conference organisation was one of the constant threads
of life’s tapestry during this time.
Over the last four years many people helped to make this conference possible and it is my plea-
sure to acknowledge and thank them here. First of all, I would like to thank all Associate Deans
for Research and Innovation, initially Prof David Greenwood, and later on Prof Fary Ghassem-
looy, and then Prof John Woodward who supported the idea very enthusiastically. Also a huge
thanks goes to Margaret Horne (Director of Built Environment Visualisation Centre), Peter Bea-
cock (Director of Architecture), Ruth Dalton (Head of VRV Group) and Kevin Thomas (Head of
Architecture and Built Environment) for allowing time and space so that the organisation pro-
cess runs smoothly and for their trust and understanding.
Secondly, the previous conference organisers Henri Achten and Rudi Stouffs passed on their
experience and knowledge without hesitation - Thank you! Financial support was generously
provided by Autodesk and Bentley Systems and Northumbria University.
I would also like to thank to eCAADe council. The Council was very supportive from begin-
ning to the end and gave help with many aspects of the organisation. Both Presidents José
Duarte (until 2013) and Johan Verbeke (since 2013) encouraged and gave full support during
the organisation. Also, Bob Martens, as liaison with the conference host, and Nele De Meyere,
Acknowledgements - Volume 2 - eCAADe 32 | 7

as administrative support, provided vital input.
This year, authors were challenged with the use of two different submission systems. Initially,
for the abstract submissions we utilised the OpenConf system which ran smoothly and we
thank Martin Winchester for his support on this. For the full paper submissions, Gabriel Wurzer
and his team allowed us to test-drive the ProceeDings tool in its Beta version. This is has been
a learning curve both for the ProceeDings team and for the organisation team. Although there
might still have some little issues to iron out, ProceeDings tool is a fantastic aid to the confer-
ence organiser. A huge thanks goes to Gabriel Wurzer, Wolfgang E. Lorenz and Gerda Hartl
who worked so hard to put together these proceedings; your efforts are highly appreciated.
The call for extended abstracts generated 240 submissions. With the help of the eighty-five
international reviewers, each submission was double-blind reviewed by three reviewers. 152
extended abstracts were accepted for full paper submission. Regrettably some authors with-
drew from submitting the final paper and eventually 130 papers made it to publication and
presentation. I thank and congratulate all the authors for their hard work and support on us-
ing the ProceeDings tool and finalizing their papers. I also owe a huge thanks to the reviewers
(see the reviewers list), who volunteered their time in order to assess the submissions.
For the third year in a row eCAADe is publishing two volumes of proceedings. We believe this
shows the growing interest for the eCAADe in general and also the continuing development
of computing and its reflection in architecture and design education and research. This year
another new approach with regards to the proceedings was evaluated: an option to provide
the proceedings as either electronic copy only or both hard and electronic copy. It is our belief
that this was a successful trail with the almost 50/50 divide on the request for the proceedings
(42% requesting electronic copy and 58% requesting both).
As the chair, I had support from the organisation committee, especially James Charlton, Ruth
Dalton, Andy Dunhill, Julie Clarke, Sara Walker, Bob Giddings, Minnie Fraser, David Green-
8 | eCAADe 32 - Acknowledgements - Volume 2

wood, Brian Agnew, and Oliver Jones. I further want to give my thanks to the Faculty Re-
sources Team, in particular Sue Ralph and the University Event’s team Shelley Brunsdon and
Marta Pyrek for their great assistance. Since 2010 the NewcastleGateshead Convention Bu-
reau, part of NewcastleGateshead Initiative provided excellent assistance for the conference
as well.
During the conference we had session chairs who led the twenty-five presentation sessions
and the student volunteers who assisted everybody throughout the conference - Thank you
all!
I am also very grateful to our Keynote Speakers; Christian Derix (Director of the Computational
Design Research group of Aedas Architects), Dr Andrew Hudson-Smith (Director of the Centre
for Advanced Spatial Analysis – CASA at The Bartlett, University College London) and Professor
Stephen Lockley (Chair of Building Modelling at Northumbria University and Research and Edu-
cation director of the BIM Academy).
A further special thanks also goes to Robert Aish (Bartlett School of Architecture and Visiting
Professor, University of Bath) and Professor Tom Maver (Research Professor, Mackintosh School
of Architecture and Emeritus Professor, University of Strathclyde) who arranged and co-chaired
the Rountable Session on “Design Computation in Practice” with the roundtable participants;
Shajay Bhooshan (Zaha Hadid Architects), Cobus Bothma (Kohn Pedersen Fox), Christian Derix
(Aedas Architect), and Francis Aish (Foster and Partners) who deserves my sincere thanks and
acknowledgements.
Finally I want to thank to my family for their understanding, patience and support over the last
four years while I was busy with the organisation of this conference.
eCAADe 2014 Conference Chair

Dr. Emine Mine Thompson
Acknowledgements - Volume 2 - eCAADe 32 | 9

Organisation Committee
Andy Dunhill
Bob Giddings
Brian Agnew
David Greenwood
Dawn Whitton
James Charlton
Julie Clarke
Lawrence Hughes
Minnie Fraser
Oliver Jones
Ruth Dalton
Sara Walker
10 | eCAADe 32 - Acknowledgements - Volume 2

List of Reviewers
Sherif Abdelmohsen, Ain Shams University, Egypt Harald Gatermann, HS Bochum University of Ap-
Henri Achten, Czech Technical University in plied Sciences, Germany
Prague, Czech Republic Evelyn Gavrilou, University of Thessaly, Greece
Asterios Agkathidis University of Liverpool, United Bob Giddings, Northumbria University, United
Kingdom Kingdom
Brian Agnew, Northumbria University, United Thomas Grasl, SWAP Architects, Austria
Kingdom Paul Greenhalgh, University of Northumbria,
Seraphim Alvanides, Northumbria University, United Kingdom
United Kingdom David Greenwood, Northumbria University,
Aleksander Asanowicz, Bialystok University of United Kingdom
Technology, Poland Christiane M. Herr, Xi'an Jiaotong-Liverpool Uni-
versity, China
Claudio Benghi, Northumbria University, United
Kingdom Lawrence Hughes, Northumbria University,
United Kingdom
Andre Brown, University of Liverpool, United King-
dom Mustafa Emre İlal, Izmir Institute of Technology,
Gulen Cagdas, Istanbul Technical University Fac- Turkey
ulty of Architecture, Turkey Umit Isikdag, Beykent University, Turkey
Gabriela Celani, University of Campinas, Brazil Angie Johnson, Northumbria University, United
Kingdom
Tomo Cerovsek, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
Oliver Jones, Northumbria University, United
James Charlton, Northumbria University, United Kingdom
Kingdom
Anja Jutraž, University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Ar-
Julie Clarke, Northumbria University, United King- chitecture, Slovenia
dom Matevz Juvancic, University of Ljubljana, Faculty of
Birgul Colakoglu, Yildiz Technical University, Architecture, Slovenia
Turkey Anetta Kepczynska-Walczak, Lodz University of
Ruth Dalton, Northumbria University, United Technology Poland, Poland
Kingdom Joachim Kieferle, RheinMain University, Germany
Bauke de Vries, Eindhoven University of Technol- Erik Kjems, Aalborg University, Denmark
ogy, Netherlands Michael Knight, University of Liverpool, United
Halime Demirkan, Bilkent University, Turkey Kingdom
Dirk Donath, Bauhaus University Weimar, Ger- Tuba Kocaturk, University of Liverpool, School of
many Architecture, United Kingdom
Andy Dunhill, Northumbria University, United Volker Koch, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology,
Kingdom Germany
Dietrich Elger, Koopx Architects Engineers, Ger- Branko Kolarevic, University of Calgary, Canada
many Jose Kos, Federal University of Santa Catarina ,
Antonio Fioravanti, Sapienza University of Rome, Brazil
Italy Alexander Koutamanis, Delft University of Tech-
Thomas Fischer, Xi'an Jiaotong-Liverpool Univer- nology, Netherlands
sity, China Andrew Li, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Pia Fricker, ETH Zurich, Switzerland United States
List of Reviewers - Volume 2 - eCAADe 32 | 11

Thorsten Loemker, ZAYED University Dubai, Johan Verbeke, KU Leuven, Belgium
United Arab Emirates Spela Verovsek, University Of Ljubljana, Slovenia
Alireza Maheri, Northumbria University, United Sara Walker, Northumbria University, United King-
Kingdom dom
Earl Mark, University of Virginia, United States Dawn Whitton, Northumbria University, United
Bob Martens, Vienna University of Technology, Kingdom
Austria Jerzy Wojtowicz, Warsaw University of Technol-
Jane Matthews, Curtin University, Australia ogy, Faculty of Architecture, Poland
Tom Maver, Glasgow Schol of Art, United Kingdom Stefan Wrona, Faculty of Architecture Warsaw Uni-
David Mcguinness, Northumbria University, versity of Technology, Poland
United Kingdom Tadeja Zupančič, University of Ljubljania, Faculty
AnnaLisa Meyboom, University of British of Architecture, Slovenia
Columbia, Canada
Volker Mueller, Bentley Systems, Incorporated,
United States
Michael Mullins, Aalborg University, Denmark
Marc Muylle, University of Antwerp, Belgium
Herman Neuckermans, KU Leuven –University,
Belgium
Rivka Oxman, Technion, Israel
Mine Ozkar, Istanbul Technical University, Turkey
Burak Pak, KU Leuven University, Belgium
Giuseppe Pellitteri, Dipartimento di Architettura -
Università di Palermo, Italy
Chengzhi Peng, University of Sheffield, United
Kingdom
Frank Petzold, TUM, Germany
Nuno Pinto, The University of Manchester, United
Kingdom
Ahmad Rafi, Multimedia University, Malaysia
Rabee M. Reffat, Assiut University, Egypt
Alan Richardson, Northumbria University, United
Kingdom
Peter Russell, RWTH Aachen University, Germany
Gerhard Schmitt, ETH Zürich, Switzerland
Davide Simeone, Sapienza University of Rome,
Italy
Martijn Stellingwerff, TU Delft, Netherlands
Rudi Stouffs, TU Delft, Netherlands
Kjeld Svidt, Aalborg University, Denmark
Emine Mine Thompson, Northumbria University,
United Kingdom
Bige Tuncer, Singapore University of Technology
and Design, Singapore
Jos van Leeuwen, The Hague University of Applied
Sciences, Netherlands
12 | eCAADe 32 - List of Reviewers - Volume 2

Keynote Speakers
Christian Derix
Christian Derix is director of the Computational Design Research group of Aedas Architects, which he
founded in 2004 in London, UK. CDR develops computational simulations for generative and analytical
design processes with an emphasis on spatial configurations and human occupation. Derix studied ar-
chitecture and computation in Italy and the UK and has researched and taught the subject at various
European universities since 2001. Currently he is associate professor at IE University Madrid and visiting
professor at the University of Sheffield. The work of CDR has recently won award commendations for
their Spatial Simulation framework at awards such as the 2010 Presidents Medal for Research in Practice
of the Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA), the 2011 Italian Compasso d’Oro for algorithmic design
and user participation in industrial design for the VITA Shelving System or the Centre for Tall Buildings
and Urban Habitat’s (CTBUH) 2012 Innovation award for the computer-activated responsive façade of
the Al Bahar towers.
Andrew Hudson-Smith
Dr Andrew Hudson-Smith is Director of the Centre for Advanced Spatial Analysis (CASA) at The Bartlett,
University College London. Andy is a Reader in Digital Urban Systems and Editor-in-Chief of Future In-
ternet Journal, he is also an elected Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts, a member of the Greater London
Authority Smart London Board and Course Founder of the MRes in Advanced Spatial Analysis and Visu-
alisation at University College London . He is also course founder of the new MSc in Smart Cities and
Urban Analytics and the MRes in Smart Cities. His research focus on location based digital technologies
and he has been at the forefront of web 2.0 technologies for communication, outreach and developing
unique contributions. His research can be found at Digital Urban website. Finally, he is Editor of the
Open Journal of the Internet of Things.
Stephen Lockley
Professor Stephen Lockley is currently chair of Building Modelling at Northumbria University. From 1998-
2002 he was the director of the Construction Informatics Research Centre and Chair of Architectural In-
formatics at Newcastle University and has worked in industry as research and development director for
the RIBA (Royal Institute of British Architects) Enterprise division between 2002-2007. He has returned to
academia and his work now is in the area of the next generation of computer aided construction, Build-
ing Information Modelling (BIM), in particular researching and developing innovative software tools for
construction and design. He is a director of BuildingSmart UK and Ireland and sits on the British Stan-
dards Committee B555 for Construction Information. He is also research and education director of the
BIM Academy.
Keynote Speakers - Volume 2 - eCAADe 32 | 13

14 | eCAADe 32 - Keynote Speakers - Volume 2
Contents
5 Theme
7 Acknowledgements
11 List of Reviewers
13 Keynote Speakers
21 Generative Design- Parametric Modelling

23 Structurally Evaluated Shaping Process
Lukáš Kurilla, Henri Achten, Miloš Florián
29 The Challenge of the bespoke
Martin Tamke, Gregory Quinn, Henrik Leander Evers, Anders Holden Deleuran,
Christoph Gengnagel
39 pCOLAD: online sharing of parameters for collaborative architectural design
Hans J.C. Hubers, Michela Turrin, Irem Erbas, Ioannis Chatzikonstantinou
49 Approaching Sentient Building Performance Simulation Systems
Kristoffer Negendahl, Thomas Perkov, Alfred Heller
61 Integrative Computational Design Methodology for Composite Spacer Fabric
Architecture
Taichi Kuma, Moritz Dörstelmann, Marshall Prado, Achim Menges
71 Deceptive Landscape Installation
Asterios Agkathidis, Tuba Kocaturk
81 Morphogenesis and panelling, the use of generative tools beyond academia.
Domenico D'Uva
89 Timing and spacing in Architecture
Hassan Abdel Salam Elbanna
97 The Red Queen Hypothesis
Paolo Alborghetti, Alessio Erioli
107 Emphatic Lines
Daniel Baerlecken, Sabri Gokmen
115 Material
117 Multi-layered Breathing Architectural Envelope
Andreas Lund Larsen, Isak Worre Foged, Rasmus Lund Jensen
123 Material Fusion
Kostas Grigoriadis
Contents - Volume 2 - eCAADe 32 | 15

131 Performative Wood
Baris Cokcan, Johannes Braumann, Sigrid Brell-Cokcan
139 Material Performance of Solid Wood
Marie Davidova, Martin Šichman, Martin Gsandtner
145 Erratic
Daniel Norell, Einar Rodhe
153 Ray 2
Marie Davidova
159 BackToBack
Marcin Wójcik, Jan Strumiłło
169 Affordable Complexity
Michail Georgiou, Odysseas Georgiou, Theresa Kwok
179 Designing Resilient Buildings with Emergent Materials
Martina Decker, Andrzej Zarzycki
185 Thinking about sound and space
Dorothea Kalogianni, Richard Coyne
195 Composing musical geometry with sonic objects
José Luis Menegotto
205 Collaboration and Participation

207 System for customer participation in the design process of mass-customized
houses
Krystian Kwieciński, Jan Słyk
217 Assessment of Building Performance Using Computational Intelligence:
Focus on the Disabled and Elderly
Tijjani Zubairu, Sevil Sariyildiz, Ozer Ciftcioglu
227 Trust within AEC virtual teams
Annie Guerriero, Guillaume Gronier
237 Do (not) sketch into my sketch
Kateřina Nováková, Henri Achten
245 Crowdfunding as a Collaborative Design Tool
Matthias Kulcke
251 VR
253 New Virtual Reality for Architectural Investigations
Anette Kreutzberg
16 | eCAADe 32 - Contents - Volume 2

261 From BIM to VR
Mikael Johansson, Mattias Roupé, Mikael Viklund Tallgren
271 Space Perception in Virtual Environments
Miguel Sales Dias, Sara Eloy, Miguel Carreiro, Elisângela Vilar, Sibila Marques, Ana
Moural, Pedro Proênça, Joana Cruz, Jorge d'Alpuim, Nelson Carvalho, António
Sérgio Azevedo, Tiago Pedro
281 Spatial Analysis

283 Multidimensional Comparative Analysis for the Classification of Residual
Urban Voids
Anna Laskari
293 Augmented Visibility Graph Analysis
Tasos Varoudis
303 Rapid Data Collection using Automated Model Generation and Performance
Evaluation
Sven Schneider, Martin Bielik, Dirk Donath, Michel Triemer, Julia Tschetwertak,
Alexander Hollberg
313 Shape, Form and Geometry 2

315 Digital fabrication of a brise-soleil using fractal geometry as generative
system
Maycon Sedrez, Rafael Meneghel, Gabriela Celani
327 A Grammar for Shelters
Afonso Maria de Castro Fernandes Abreu Gonçalves
337 More than a Computational Tool
Mohamed S. Ibrahim
347 Towards a Formal Representation for Description Rules
Rudi Stouffs
357 Towards controlled grammars
Thomas Grasl, Athanassios Economou
365 Evolution of an Instrumental Architecture
Isak Worre Foged, Anke Pasold, Mads Brath Jensen
373 BIM
375 Building Information Deduced
Martin Tamke, Morten Myrup Jensen, Jakob Beetz, Thomas Krijnen, Dag Fjeld
Edvardsen

385 A Universal Format for Architectural Program of Requirement
Ehsan Barekati, Mark Clayton
395 Moving Beyond CAD: A Systems Information Model for Electrical and
Instrumentation Engineering Design
Peter E.D. Love, Jingyang Zhou, Jane Matthews, Brad Carey, Chun-pong Sing
405 The architectural design process: an intuitive modeling in BIM's parametric
design
Vasco Alexandre Pereira , Alexandra Paio
411 The Unbearable Lightness of BIM
Ivana Vinšová, Dana Matějovská, Henri Achten
417 The Truth Is In The Model
Andreas Dieckmann, Peter Russell
427 Thinking the BIM Way
Magdy M. Ibrahim
437 Applying BIM to Sustainable Performance Evaluation in Design Projects: An
Educational Approach for Architecture Programmes
Zaid Alwan, Peter Holgate , Paul Jones
445 The Fusion of BIM and Quadruple Net Value Analysis for Real Estate
Development Feasibility Assessment
Mark J. Clayton, Geoffrey Booth, Jong Bum Kim, Saied Zarrinmehr
455 BIM-based Parametric Building Energy Performance Multi-Objective
Optimization
Mohammad Rahmani Asl, Michael Bergin, Adam Menter, Wei Yan
465 Reasoning Spatial Relationships in Building Information Models using Voxels
Tsung-Hsien Wang
473 A BIM-based Framework for Assessing Architectural Competition Entries
Sherif Abdelmohsen
485 Use cases for configurable building information model visualization
Helga Tauscher, Raimar J. Scherer
495 Data Fusion Using Geographic Managed Objects
Erik Kjems
505 A Model for a Distributed Building Information System
Tasos Varoudis, Panagiotis Patlakas
515 Understanding technological interoperability through observations of data
leakage in Building Information Modelling (BIM) based transactions
Kieran A. J. Stapleton, Barry J. Gledson, Zaid Alwan

525 Combining Augmented Reality and Building Information Modelling
Fabian Danker, Oliver Jones
537 Design Tool 2

539 Parasitic Ecologies
Zeta (Georgia) Kachri, Sean Hanna
547 Visual Dataflow Modelling
Patrick Janssen
557 From Point Clouds to Definitions of Architectural Space
Martin Tamke, Ina Blümel, Sebastian Ochmann, Richard Vock, Raoul Wessel
567 Evolutionary multi-criteria optimization for building layout planning
Reinhard Koenig, Matthias Standfest, Gerhard Schmitt
575 Smart and Responsive Design

577 Responsive Architecture
Omar Al Faleh
587 Grow: Generative Responsive Object for Web-based design
Davide Ventura, Matteo Baldassari
595 Botanics and Parametric Design Fusions for Performative Building Skins
Salma El Ahmar, Antonio Fioravanti
605 Interaction with a Kinetic Folded Surface
Filipa Osório, Alexandra Paio, Sancho Oliveira
613 Lighting Design
Ellen Kathrine Hansen, Michael Mullins
621 The Psychology of Buildings
Henri Achten
629 Index of Authors

Generative Design- Parametric
Modelling
Structurally Evaluated Shaping Process
Decision-making support in structural design
Lukáš Kurilla1 , Henri Achten2 , Miloš Florián3

1,2,3
FA CTU in Prague
1
http://kurilluk.net 2 http://molab.eu 3 http://studioflorian.com
1
mail@kurilluk.net 2,3 {achten|milos.florian}@fa.cvut.cz
This paper deals with possibilities for evaluation and visualization of structural
solutions created in the conceptual design phase. The goal is to support
transparency of structural analysis results, and to support architects'
decision-making by providing them with opportunity to compare different
structural solutions. Research will be implemented into the developed software
tool, with the aim to support architects in the shaping process and to teach them
to better understand form and forces.
Keywords: performance-based design, early stage of design, decision-making

support, structural analysis, multi-criteria evaulation
INTRODUCTION However, the problem which less experienced users

Common structural analysis tools are designed to may face is how to interpret the results correctly, and
cover a wide range of structural reviews with em- find the right solution, it means to make a change
phasis on their accuracy and detail. They are usually which will solve the problem identified by the anal-
very complex tools which require expert knowledge. ysis (see figure 1).
However, these tools are not suitable for modelling
Figure 1
and evaluating more design alternatives needed in
Design process:
the conceptual phase of the architectural design pro-
analytical tool
cess.
To provide more freedom while modelling the
core of a structural analysis tool (the solver) is linked
to an architectural modeller. For Rhino3D there
are tools (plug-ins) like Karamba[5], Millipede[3] and
Scan-and-Solve[4].
After consulting with a structural engineer and
after becoming familiar with the rules of forming an-
alytical models, it is possible to create an analytical
model, change it, and gain analysis feedback directly
in the modeller.
Generative Design- Parametric Modelling - Volume 2 - eCAADe 32 | 23

Figure 2
Design process: a)
interactive
evolutionary
algorithm, b)
proposed
decision-making
support
In seeking how to solve the problem, many users use analyse it in the Grasshopper (GH) environment. The
the available optimizations. But inexperienced users user of Donkey, compared with the above mentioned
might trust blindly in founded optimal results that IEA approach, gets much more freedom in creating
may not fit their preferences. parametric models (see figure 2b).
An example of successful symbiosis between a It is also my aim to support architects' decision-
user and an optimization algorithm in the design pro- making during the shaping process in the concep-
cess is the Interactive Evolutionary Algorithm (IEA), tual design phase, which is absent in the above men-
which includes not only a quantitative criteria, but tioned tools. My proposed decision-making method
also a hard-to-code, qualitative criteria (aesthetic is based on the comparison of alternatives stored in
user preferences) (von Buelow 2009). This process the field of solutions. In contrast to the IEA approach,
also supports users' creativity during the design pro- the field of solutions is created directly by the user.
cess by showing different alternatives and parallel This way, the user becomes more aware of actions
scenarios (Soddu 1998). Each possible alternative is (model changes) and reactions (analysis feedback)
evaluated so the user can compare all alternatives. which leads to a better understanding of the struc-
This way the user can deduce the relationship be- tural behaviour of the structure (a learning process
tween form and structural performance (see figure based on "guess and check" method).
2a).
The educational aim of this IEA application can EVALUATION AND VISUALIZATION
be seen in the project TopoStruct (Muller 2011),
Evaluation
where shape-grammar is used to provide variability
The motivation for the proposed decision-making
of design alternatives, that allows one to compare de-
method is the IEA approach where visual represen-
sign solutions both within and between typologies.
tation of a structural form is also supported with cal-
A sophisticated system of generating solutions
culated evaluation criterion - the fitness value. The
on the algorithm side brings restrictions in modelling
total weight of the structure is usually used as a fit-
freedom.
ness value. In the case of IEA the weight, besides
My research draws inspiration from both of the
the production costs, reflects also the stress in the
approaches mentioned above. I have created a soft-
structure, because the analysis calculates an optimal
ware tool, Donkey[2], that like Karamba or Millipede,
profile area for each element of the structure. This
allows the user to create an analytical model and
approach can be easily used only in statically deter-
24 | eCAADe 32 - Generative Design- Parametric Modelling - Volume 2

Figure 3 mined structures.
Profile Resistance However, more modelling freedom brings stat-
Ratio: a) ically indeterminate structures, where the profile
overloading value, needs to be defined in an analytical model before
b) efficiency a structural analysis is run. The profile can be opti-
mized with an iterative method.
What value can be used to reflect the stress in
these structures and be clearly interpreted, to be
transparent and easily understandable?
For this purpose the value which informs about
profile usage considering loading conditions was
chosen. It is calculated as von Mises criterion divided
by the yield stress of a material. It is also the value
used in the tools mentioned above. Karamba named
Figure 4 it as Unitialization value, we call it a cross-section, or
Visualization of Profile Resistance Ratio (PRR).
Profile Resistance The resulting value of the PRR is at the interval
Ratio: a) in 2D from 0.0 to +∞. When the value is greater than 1.0
graph, b) on (100%) an element of the structure is overloaded.
problematic Which further values do we have to take into ac-
efficiency axes count?
The other evaluation criteria for the IEA are also
displacement (contradictive value to PRR), numbers
of nodes, and members of the structure. It is also im-
portant to consider the stability of the whole struc-
ture (buckling for each elements is usually included
in the PRR value).
Visualization
In my previous paper I dealt with the questions of
overall evaluation of structures composed of a com-
bination of elements (Kurilla 2013). Structural engi-
neers basically take into consideration a maximum
value for the entire structure. This way problem-
atic solutions are not explored, and learning process
based on solving them is not supported. I introduced
a method which divides PRR value into a pair of val-
ues: Overloading (representing maximum - penal-
ization value) and Efficiency (representing arithmetic
average of values' distances from 100%) see figure 3. Dividing PRR value into two values allows one to
This method facilitates a better comparison of alter- store solutions created during the design process
natives and also allows to explore problematic solu- into the 2D graph (see figure 4a). This way it is pos-
tions. sible to visualize and compare different solutions. By

selecting alternatives from the graph (circles), a user Figure 5
can preview and explore previously designed solu- Proposed
tions. This approach was implemented into Donkey visualization of
and tested in the design process. Testing shows two structural
drawbacks to this approach (see figure 4b): evaluation: a)
efficiency, b)
• Problematic alternatives selection and visual- overloading, c)
ization (overlapping circles, inefficient use of stability, d)
the space) displacement,
e)maximum
• Only possible to clearly visualise one criterion allowable
- PRR displacement
The visualization of a number of criteria is a topic of

multi-objective optimization.
There are various methods which fit for different
data visualization and also for a different comparison The resulting value is a dimensionless coefficient rep-
process. The most common methods of visualization resenting a multiple of the actual load at which the
are: path value, chart bar, spider web, etc. (Miettinen particular structure loses stability. If the coefficient is
1998) within the domain from 0 to 1 the structure is unsta-
For our purposes the chart bar method was cho- ble (a lower number means greater loss of stability). If
sen, which, together with path value, are easy meth- the coefficient is negative (< 0), the structure is not at
ods to interpret. risk at all of losing stability (mostly simple structures).
BASIC visualization aimed at inexperienced users In ADVANCED visualization, more experienced
shows three basic criteria: PRR, displacement and sta- users can add custom criteria. Additional criteria can
bility. be chosen from results of analysis, boundary condi-
To visualize PRR criterion, it is possible to use two tions or parameters of the model.
chart bars lying opposite each other. The one ori- For example when the user wants to extend the
ented on top represents a positive vale - efficiency. information gained from the PRR, he can add axial
The other oriented down represents a negative value forces and moments into the visualization. To deal
- overloading. This logical orientation can also be with a cost of the structure the weight value or the
used for visualizing other values (see figure 5). number of elements and nodes might be added.
DISPLACEMENT has a negative impact on the Using the method of visualization described
structure, and this is why its chart bar will always be above, it is possible to visualize and compare a num-
oriented down. To assess structural resistance, it is ber of alternatives. The possibility to sort solutions
necessary to check if displacement is smaller than the by different criteria helps to support users' decision-
limit defined in the code. The limit value is repre- making during the shaping process and to tune the
sented in the graph as a bold horizontal line (see fig- parameters of the model. Only the alternatives with
ure 5e). The limit value varies depending on struc- the same initial point (same boundary conditions) are
tural types. This is why it can be set by the user. useful to compare. Otherwise, results can be con-
The next value is STABILITY of the whole struc- fusing. For example, in the figure 6, the user com-
ture. (It is currently calculated only for a structure pares different heights of the arch (H 2, 4 and 6). All
consisting of beam elements.) created alternatives are stored in the field of solu-

Figure 6
Decision-making
process supported
by structural
evaluation
Figure 7
Secondary
exploration of the
field of solutions
tions and evaluated. Then the user chooses a dis- and there are many more other possibilities depend-
placement as a sorting criterion to sort the alterna- ing on the user's knowledge and creativity.
tives in ascending order. The second alternative has
a smaller displacement, which is why it was chosen, FUTURE WORK AND CONCLUSION
and becomes a starting point for the next design de- Thanks to storing alternative solutions in the field
velopment. This way the user can also determine size of solutions throughout the design process, the sec-
profiles, explore more innovative and complex forms, ondary exploration of the field of solutions can also

be interesting (see figure 7). It can be done by Miettinen, K. 1998, Nonlinear Multiobjective Optimiza-
an interactive selection of different solutions by the tion, Splinger Sience + Business Media, LCC, New
user, or by filtering solutions by model parameters York
Mueller, C. and Ochsendorf, J. 2011 'An Interactive Evo-
or boundary conditions. This secondary exploration
lutionary Framework for Structural Design', 7th In-
might enable the user to compare alternatives be- ternational Seminar of the the Structural Morphology
tween different initial points (different design con- Group (SMG), IASS Working Group 15, London, UK, pp.
cepts). 1-6
The aim of my further research is to test the ben- Soddu, C. 1998 'A Natural Generative Design', Generative
efits and drawbacks of this method in the design Art'98, Milano, p. 35
[1] http://www.oofem.org/
process through case studies. For this reason the
[2] http://donkey.kurilluk.net/
proposed method will be implemented into the tool [3] http://www.grasshopper3d.com/group/millipede/
Donkey. [4] http://www.scan-and-solve.com/
The proposed method shows possibilities of [5] http://www.karamba3d.com/
evaluation and visualization of structural solutions
created in the conceptual design phase. This visu-
alization supports a transparency of analysis results
and interpretation, providing the architect with the
ability to compare different structural solutions. This
way, by the manual creation and exploration of multi-
ple solutions, the architect can learn to better under-
stand the relation of form and forces in the structure.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors thank Ladislav Svoboda and Bořek
Patzák for cooperation and developing MIDAS and
OOFEM[1] tools. We also gratefully acknowledge the
endowment of the MOLAB and FA CTU in Prague
under project SGS13/153/OHK1/2T/15. We would
like to extend special thanks to Justína Kurillová and
Arthur Smith. Finally we would like to thank Matěj
Lepš, Jan Zeman and Jan Novák from Faculty of
Civil Engineering and Martin Pospíšil from FA CTU in
Prague for their consultations and collaboration.
REFERENCES
von Buelow, P. 2009 'A comparison of methods for us-
ing genetic algorithms to guide parametric associa-
tive design', In Proceedings of the International Asso-
ciation for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS) Sympo-
sium 2009, Valencia, p. 11
Kurilla, L., Achten, H. and Florián, M. 2013 'Scripting De-
sign Supported by Feedback Loop from Structural
Analysis', Proceedings of eCAADe 2013, Delft, pp. 51-
60

The Challenge of the bespoke
Design, Simulation and Optimisation of a Computationally Designed
Plywood Gridshell
Martin Tamke1 , Gregory Quinn2 , Henrik Leander Evers3 , Anders Holden Deleuran4 ,
Christoph Gengnagel5
1,3,4
CITA - Royal Academy of Fine Arts, Schools of Architecture, Design and Con-
servation 2,5 KET - Universität der Künste Berlin
1,3,4
cita.karch.dk 2,5 http://www.arch.udk-berlin.de/gengnagel
1,3,4
{martin.tamke|heve|adel}@kadk.dk 2,5 {g.quinn|gengnagel}@udk-berlin.de
The Dermoid project, a series of three plywood grid shells, navigates at the
interface between parametrically designed architectural spaces and the efficiency
and resourcefulness of the simulations that are necessary in order to build them.
It highlights the increasingly common challenges and conflicts which occur in
building practice ranging from design to fabrication and highlights approaches
that facilitate implementation in multiple scales of material, element and
structure.
Keywords: Simulation, Bespoke Fabrication, Material Behaviour, Complex

Modelling, Bending Active
THE RELATION OF PARAMETRIC DESIGN vic 2003) depends greatly on the models, that are
AND SIMULATION used for the simulation of the designs performance.
Frederic Migrayou coined in 2003 the term "digital Where simulations might be understood as tools that
Figure 1 chain" (Migrayou 2003) for workflows that link the
The Dermoid III digital design space with the fabrication of architec-
demonstrator in tural objects. Where this definition was related to
May 2013 in the level of geometry, current research is venturing
Melbourne into workflows in design, which take material and
structural behaviour into account (Schwinn 2013).
Though different methods of simulation might be
used, all provide a means to predict and evaluate
the behaviour of a building structure in the design
phase. Repeated feedback from simulation is used to
improve the design. However the validity of this per-
formance based approach towards design (Kolare-

Figure 2
FE Simuation, Build
Prototype, 3D Scan
- A snapshot of the
wide reaching
spectrum of
modeling in the
Dermoid project
can be readily applied in design, they are often only computational form-finding and production tools
providing reliable results in a quite narrow set of are here linked to structural analysis and in order
framing conditions. These are often directly depend- to integrate material behavior in the design with
ing on the datasets and assumptions, which form the the production of bespoke structural elements. The
base of the simulation model. In the case of sim- project provides hence a rich ground for the discus-
ulating material behaviour, the underlying data for sion of principal approaches in design, simulation
material properties is for instance found through re- and testing of bespoke material systems (Lafuente et
peated tests on standardised material samples. A al. 2012; also see figure 2).
precise simulation becomes a seemingly challeng-
ing task the more complex a structure becomes, the MATERIAL SYSTEM
more individualised elements interact and finally the Where material is often seen as stiff and bound to
more a structure diverges from an existing well un- a defined geometry, the Dermoid series nurtures an
derstood structural typology - all of which are recent understanding of material as pliable and adaptive.
tendencies in architectural research, even more com- Using strategies of Active Bending, as described
plicated through the use of novel composite con- by Lienhard (Lienhard 2012), exclusively planar ply-
structions and materials. wood elements of 4mm material thickness curved
A further challenge emerges through size, as to form curved T-profiles. The flanges of the curved
the simulation of large systems does not scale lin- "S-beams" are elastically bent and locked in position
early and forces modellers to use more and more ab- by means of entirely reversible mortise joints. Two
stract underlying models. In consequence the re- of these S-beams are then connected to one other
sults of simulation are becoming seemingly inappro- through pinned tenon joints forming a bifurcating
priate and can hardly provide good quality feedback base element referred to as a wishbone (Fig.3).
about the performance of a design. The question Extensive experimentation led to refinement of
emerges how simulation can be effective and effi- the tolerances in sizing and spacing of teeth and per-
cient in projects that want to make use of the inno- foration. Other parameters such as allowable bend-
vations of the digital chain on material and construc- ing curvatures for a given plywood thickness and zip-
tion level. per configurations were also explored in depth dur-
ing early development (Fig.4). The prototyping led
PROJECT finally to a near annihilation of tolerances in the fabri-
The three Dermoid demonstrators (Burry 2013, cation and construction system, which was reflected
Tamke 2012; see e.g. figure 1) explore the potential in the space of parameters in the design system.
of a novel interplay between structure, construction,
production, assembly and material. The streamlined

Figure 3 DESIGN: GENERATIVE APPROACH
Two s-curved The multitude of concurrent parameters that influ-
plywood elements ence the form-finding process of the Dermoid de-
form the base for sign system prohibits a procedural computational
reciprocal beams approach (Tamke 2012). An investigation of the
that are collected in Dermoids system displays two types of parameters,
a hexagon pattern. those that have a high level of reciprocal relation,
Dermoid III had such as the amount of elements, the boundary con-
textile infills, that ditions and the elements geometry, and parameters
were knitted that are only depended on a single (higher level )
bespoke to the size parameters, such as the detailing or curvature of a
of the size of the beam. These parameters could usually be abstracted
hexagons they were as min and max values. Following this categorisa-
positioned in. tion the overall design system could be devised in a
design system, where geometry with a high level of
Figure 4
abstraction was generated, and a production system
Zipped connection:
that took the data and created detailed fabrication in-
Birch ply flange and
formation. A workflow was devised that integrates
web with matched
the parameters from construction and material with
perforations in the
in a geometry oriented design environment. The in-
flange and teeth on
tention was that a lightweight approach could em-
the web for a dry
bed the crucial material and construction parameters
friction joint
in the design stage, while it allowed for the explo-
ration of the constructions potential to create com-
plex surface topologies. The lightweight approach
should as well enable an easy exchange with high
end structural analysis, whose underlying Finite Ele-
ment approach is not suitable for design interaction.
DESIGN SYSTEM Form-finding Input Geometry

The design intention for a surface manifold is cap-
The third Dermoid provided an opportunity to re-
tured using a technique inspired by patch mod-
develop the surface manifold formfinding and de-
elling in industrial design and CGI. Here a network
sign workflow used in previous Dermoids, which con-
of curves representing surface topology and bound-
sisted of a diverse chain of platforms, including Maya,
ary curves is constructed. Through evaluating the
Nucleus, Rhino, Grasshopper, MEL, VB and C. This led
surface topology a configuration of a hexagonal
to an inflexible and slow design process with little op-
polylines is manually configured ("Cells"). During
portunity for the intended design iteration or refine-
simulation the boundary curves act as rails con-
ment (Davis et al. 2011). The current design tool is in
straining the naked perimeter of the Cells configu-
contrast integrated within a single Grasshopper defi-
ration ("RailsEndCurves"). To match the Cells and
nition implementing Python, RhinoCommon and the
RailsEndCurves a second set of curves is constructed
Kangaroo physics engine (Fig. 5). On both a technical
("RailsStartCurves). This three layered configuration
and design level this has led to a more robust, flexible
form the geometric input for the parametric and dy-
and streamlined workflow.
namic formfinding system.

Figure 5
The formfinding
input and process.
From top left: 1) A
Cells configuration
and the
RailEndCurves. 2)
The derived mesh
manifold and
RailStartCurves. 3)
Cells ID, vertex
normals coloured
by polarity and
tweened RailCurves
in their initial state.
4) The dynamic
mesh prior to forces
with curvature
analysis on. 5) The
perimeter
vertices/particles
are pulled to the
RailCurves. 6) The
RailCurves tween at
50%. 7) The
RailCurves tween at
100%. 8) Shell
forming forces
applied at 50%. 9)
Mesh Manifold and Beam Graph Topology the downstream generation of the reciprocal beams Shell forming forces
The principal geometry type for the formfinding and a graph is generated which maps each unique Cell applied at 100%.
reciprocal beam network process is a polygon mesh. edge to its corresponding mesh vertices. This data 10) The mesh faces
These can describe topologically complex manifolds structure is subsequently processed using an algo- are adjusted to
not possible using single NURBS surfaces and are rithm which flips the edge direction to achieve the become more
suitable for particle-spring based simulation, with Dermoid style negative/positive connectivity polar- equilateral. 11) The
mesh vertices as particles and mesh edges as springs. ity. derived reciprocal
Meshes furthermore carry along additional informa- geometric network.
tion used downstream such as vertex normals and Physics Based Lightweight Simulation 12) A simple
colours. The initial manifold mesh is generated using A primary goal in the Dermoid project is to explore two-layered S-curve
the Cells polyline vertices with an additional vertex bidirectional modelling techniques which enable ex- beam design.
at the centre of each Cell polyline. A uniform triangu- plicit top down user control and self-organizing bot-
lated mesh is thereby constructed which ensures pre- tom up emergent processes within a unified de-
dictable dynamic behaviour during simulation. For sign space. The integration of light weight dynam-

ics simulation engines within CAD environments is Shell Forming Forces
a promising path for such design spaces (Deleuran, Forces which induce curvature onto the mesh mani-
Tamke and Thomsen, 2011). In the current design fold. Here two forces are applied to the vertex parti-
tool the Kangaroo physics engine is linked with the cles. 1) A gravitational force applied along the Z-axis
input geometry in an interactive real-time formfind- of the world space, simulating the catenary principle
ing system. Here the manifold mesh is discretized as of the inverted hanging chain made famous by An-
particles and springs and a multi-layered system of toni Gaudi. 2) An inflation force applied along the
dynamic constraints and forces is generated. The ar- vertex normals of the mesh, simulating internal pres-
chitectural design aim of the Dermoid manifold is to sure analogous to the inflation of a balloon. The first
resolve spatial conditions through a self-supporting, force results in a mesh which tends to inherit mainly
topologically complex manifold with displays inher- compressive forces while the second tend to result in
ently smooth curvature and structurally mainly com- more aesthetically pleasing curvature. During simu-
pressive forces. This directly dictates which forces lation the user is free to mix the two forces.
to use and how to combine them. These may be
grouped into four overall categories: Attractors
Forces which operate using attraction or repulsion
Surface Properties principles as a function of distance. A force is applied
Forces which determine the intrinsic and local be- to the vertices/particles sitting on the naked mesh
haviour of the mesh manifold. This includes the perimeter. Here a power law is applied which forces
springs keeping the mesh together. These are de- the particles to repel each other if they get within a
fined be their stiffness and rest length. Additionally a certain distance. This results in an even distribution
force is applied which operates on the mesh triangles of beams along the manifold boundary.
and attempts to keep these equilateral, in turn result-
ing in relatively equiangular hexagonal cells. This is Output and Reciprocal Beam Geometry
not only desirable aesthetically but also ensures fairly The user may activate several modes of visual and nu-
consistent beam connection angles. Finally a Lapla- merical analysis. This includes visualising the model
cian smoothing force is added on top of this, taking topology (cells, normals, edge polarity and IDs) and
out any mesh extremes and ensuring an even mesh. evaluating the mesh manifold (curvature and local
extremes causing irregularities). Similarly the user
Geometric Constraints may activate the component which computes and
Constraints defined by the simulation input geome- visualises the reciprocal beam construction geome-
try. The naked vertices/particles along the perimeter try. The reciprocity is achieved by placing a plane
of the mesh are subjected to a force "pulling" them on the midpoint of each cell edge perpendicular to
to their assigned RailsEndCurves. Additionally the the mesh surface. By rotating each plane and in-
rail curve endpoints are treated like anchors, mean- tersecting it with its neighbours the reciprocal net-
ing that any vertex/particle which is coincident with work emerges. Using the inherent geometrical data
a curve endpoint will be completely fixed to this po- of the mesh and the described Beam Graph, this com-
sition in space while the remaining perimeter parti- ponent allows the user to input an angle of beam
cles are free to move along the rail curves. During rotation, a minimum number of beam neighbours
simulation the user may interpolate between the set and a maximum beam connection angle. Using this
of RailsStartCurves and RailsEndCurves, moving the data the component computes a range of geomet-
mesh from its initial perimeter state to the perimeter rical and auxiliary data which may be used down-
defined by the RailsEndCurves. stream to design a plethora of reciprocal beam de-
signs.

Figure 6
The Dermoid
module has a high
number of
changing
geometric
parameters in the
system. Attempts
were made to
maximise the
number of slave
and minimise the
number of parent
parameters.
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 3) Computational and empirical modelling

The high geometric variation in the system cou- The geometric variation in the system coupled with
pled with unknown mechanical properties of the ply- the unknown mechanical properties of the plywood
wood, along with a tight schedule required a fast and complicated the ability to find a quick and effective
effective way to simulate the complex structure while method of simulating the structure. Using the finite
also making attempts to improve the structural de- element simulation package Sofistik, various mod-
sign of the Dermoid. elling techniques were considered:
Our work resulted in three parallel strategies that
can serve as good practice at the interface of design Simplified surface mesh (Fig. 7). Pros: Geometry
development and analysis. transfer between grasshopper and Sofistik easier to
script, High detail possible. Cons: Excessive compu-
1) Controlling Variables tational demand, Millions of elements, Large effort
The large amount of geometric and mechanical vari- for low accuracy.
ation in the Dermoid design is visualised in Fig.6.
Simplified beam mesh (Fig. 8). Pros: Reason-
A conscious design choice was made to reduce the
able geometry scripting, Computationally reason-
number of independent variables in the system and
able, Easy to apply loading. Cons: Errors in simplifi-
where possible to define all geometric properties as
cation hard to judge, Unknown composite action be-
child of a set of very few parent variables.
havior.
2) Approximation of structural typology Simplified equivalent spring model (Fig. 9). Pros:
Although structures such as the Dermoid do not ad- Simulate the behaviour not the thing, Computation-
here to established structural typologies, an approx- ally simple, Don't have to worry about complex inter-
imation is still possible. In the case of the Dermoid, actions. Cons: Slightly more time needed for geome-
the structural definition of an elastic timber grid shell try definition, SW load definition, Simplifications may
was used as a way of interpreting and improving its go too far.
structural behaviour.

Figure 7 Final Simulation Model
Simplified Surface The Dermoid III was finally simulated by means of an
Mesh equivalent spring model in order to produce a sim-
plified and a computationally undemanding repre-
sentation of the tripod modules based on a few sim-
ple empirical tests (Fig. 10) instead of simulating in
detail the complex material behaviour and all of the
jointing interactions (friction, slippage, plastification,
buckling etc.).
Figure 8
Results showed that in comparison both the
Simplified Beam
beam FE model and the simplified spring model were
Mesh
highly accurate for in-plane deflections (Fig.11). For
out of plane deflections however, both simulations
were inaccurate with the spring model having the
largest overall error (Fig.12).
Attempts were made to modify the spring model
in order to improve its accuracy for out-of-plane de-
flections. Additional rotational springs combined
Figure 9 with complex restraints and releases were able to
Simplified significantly improve the accuracy of the simulation
equivalent spring (Fig.13).
model
FABRICATION
The two dimensional production data for laser cut-
ting is directly derived from the data generated in
the design system. Jointing details, offsets for mate-
rial thickness and beam-beam intersections are com-
puted on the fly during the generation of the produc-
Figure 10 tion. The necessary knowledge and the adjustment
Image overlay of of the interplay opf design and production system
the equivalent FE was developed through extensive prototyping on
spring simulation the fabrication machines (Tamke, Hernández, Deleu-
and the physical ran, Gengnagel, Burry & Thomsen, 2011).
test specimen. The fabrication data tool was creating a unified
design and production tool within a single Grasshop-
per definition (Fig.5), thus being able to check and
control the integrity and buildability of the individual
beam production drawing in real time while design-
ing the overall shape of the shell
The global accessibility of digital production ma-
chinery allowed the team to generate the fabrication
data in Europe and cut the parts in Australia. The pro-
duction was initiated through a calibration process

in which the machine specific tolerances were de- ASSEMBLY
termined, which informed the digital fabrication sys- While the production of several hundred bespoke
tem. Here after the production in Sydney took place plywood elements was fast the assembly of those
without flaws. took a longer period. This as previous Dermoid in-
stallations had assembly teams that constituted of Figure 11
persons involved in the design and programming Comparison of
of the piece and of novices. The assembly team in beam and spring
Australia constituted almost completely of the later. model in-plane.
This required a substantial learning effort to compre- Both represent the
hend the numbering system of elements, modules physical tripod with
and subassemblies and their assembly and compli- accuracy.
cated the understanding of the implication of assem-
bly process and structural behaviour. A better coordi-
nation of efforts between design and assembly team
would have helped to ease the erection of the several
hundred bespoke elements.
Figure 12
Comparison of
beam and spring
model out-of-plane.
Both simulations
are inaccurate with
the spring model
having the largest
error.

Figure 13
a) original simple
spring model
comprising of rigid
links and linear
springs only, b)
modified spring
model with
improved accuracy
but with additional
rotational springs, EVALUATION the Villum Foundation and the Danish design Week
restraints and A paragraph that evaluates the overall behaviour of 2011. The Dermoid demonstrators 1-3 had a core
releases. the structure in comparison to the simulated one team from CITA (Martin Tamke, Anders Holden Deleu-
(laser scan) ran, Aron Fidjeland, Mette Ramsgard Thomsen) and
SIAL (Mark Burry, Jane Burry, Andrew Wilson) which
OUTLOOK was collaborating with a wide set of members from
The results of this project should be understood as a CITA and SIAL, as well as the Structural Morphology
contribution to the ongoing debate on design strate- Group at UDK in Berlin (Christoph Gengnagel, Gre-
gies with mass customised elements and offer a tem- gory Quinn, Elisa Lafuente Hernandez) and students
plate for the resourceful and efficient generation and from Copenhagen and Melbourne.
simulation of complex systems. While the digital de-
sign chain suggests a consistently high level of nu- REFERENCES
meric precision the Dermoid project demonstrates Burry, J, Burry, M, Tamke, M, Thomsen, MR, Ayres, P,
that the complexity of a intended complete simu- Leon, AP, Davis, D, Deleuran, A, Nielson, S and Ri-
lation in the design process places a disproportion- iber, J 2012 'Process Through Practice: Synthesizing
a Novel Design and Production Ecology', Proceedings
ately high demand on resources. This leads to a note
of the 32nd Annual Conference of the Association for
of caution against the risks of over-parameterisation, Computer Aided Design in Architecture (ACADIA), San
the value of considered and insightful global design Francisco , pp. 127-138
and development of details as the need to establish Davis, D, Burry, J and Burry, M 2011 'Untangling Paramet-
computational methods and approaches that work ric Schemata: Enhancing Collaboration Through
with tolerances. Modular Programming', Proceedings of the 14th Inter-
national Conference on CAAD Futures, Liège
The project points however at the benefits of
Lafuente Hernández, E, Tamke, M and Gengnagel, C 2012
softer structures for architectural application. While 'Structural Post-optimisation of a computationally
softer structures may not withstand the rigor of the designed Plywood Gridshell', Conference Proceed-
existing building codes, it can be argued that it is ings IASS- APCS Symposium: From Spatial Structures
right to question the level of redundancy and its im- to Space Structures, Seoul
plied waste in the structures that we build today. Kolarevic, B 2003, Architecture in the digital age: design
and manufacturing, Spon Press., New York, NY
Lienhard, J, Alpermann, H, Gengnagel, C and Knippers, J
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 2012 'Active Bending, A Review on Structures where
The series of Dermoid installations is an outcome of Bending is used as a Self-Formation Process', Pro-
the collaboration of CITA and SIAL on the base of the ceedings IASS- APCS Symposium, Seoul
Migayrou, F (eds) 2003, Architectures non standard: expo-
VELUX Visiting Professor Programme 2009- 2010 of
sition, Ed. du Centre Pompidou, Paris

Schwinn, T and Menges, A 2012 'Machinic Mor-
phospaces: Biomimetic Design Strategies for the
Computational Exploration of Robot Constraint
Spaces for Wood Fabrication', Proceedings of the
32nd Annual Conference of the Association for Com-
puter Aided Design in Architecture (ACADIA), San Fran-
cisco, pp. 157-168
Tamke, M, Lafuente Hernández, E, Holden Deleuran, A,
Gengnagel, C, Burry, M and Ramsgard Thomsen,
M 2012 'A new material practice - Integrating de-
sign and material behavior', Proceeding of Sympo-
sium on Simulation for Architecture and Urban Design,
Orlando

pCOLAD: online sharing of parameters for collaborative
architectural design
Hans J.C. Hubers1 , Michela Turrin2 , Irem Erbas3 , Ioannis Chatzikonstantinou4
1,3
Faculty of Architecture, Delft University of Technology, PO Box 5043, 2600 GA,
Delft, The Netherlands
2
Faculty of Architecture, Delft University of Technology & Faculty of Architecture
at Yaşar University 4 Faculty of Architecture at Yaşar University, University Street,
No:35-37, Ağaçlı Yol Bornova, İzmir, Turkey
1,2,3
{j.c.hubers|M.Turrin|I.Erbas}@tudelft.nl 4 i.chatzikonstantinou@yasar.edu.tr
Simultaneous interdisciplinary architectural design from the very start of a

project faces challenges in properly sharing information across disciplines. This
research developed a method and related digital tool to improve collaborative
design and aimed at making selected information to be shared faster and more
transparently. The method consists of developing alternative parametric solutions
for different parts of the design in such a way that crucial parameters form a link
between these parts. The digital tool has been developed for Grasshopper and
permits synchronic (real-time over the Internet) and a-synchronic sharing of
these parameters. The design alternatives are evaluated with specific criteria,
pros and cons in an Internet Forum and discussed via a video-conferencing tool.
Decisions are then taken in a collaborative manner through voting. The paper
describes the method based on a case study.
Keywords: Parametric, collaborative, design, plug-in, stadium
INTRODUCTION edge and experience of all stakeholders at this

Collaborative architectural design is simultaneous in- beginning.
terdisciplinary design from the very start of a project.
It is also called co-design or concurrent engineer- Despite these important reasons, still there are no
ing. There are several reasons for collaborative de- generally accepted methods to support collabora-
sign (Hubers, 2009). The two most important are: tive architectural design teams at the very start of a
• The big influence of decisions in the begin- project. Current BIM principles are mostly intended
ning of the design process on the cost/quality for advanced phases of design; the early stage of de-
ratio of the final product. sign is mostly based on geometric modellers that do
not support interdisciplinary collaboration. This re-
• The potential contribution through knowl- search aimed at developing a collaborative method

for early design phases. Considering the large diffu- Table 1
sion of parametric design and its potentials in forcing Advantages of BIM
the formulation of design goals and abstract design (Adapted from
models (Turrin, 2014), this research intended to cou- Eastman et al.,
ple concurrent engineering and parametric design. 2008, p. 321)
The objective of this work is to find out if a collab-
orative architectural design team would work faster
and more transparently if they could share crucial pa-
rameters, both synchronically (real-time over the In-
ternet) and a-synchronically.
The research questions were:
1. How can a collaborative design process be fa-
cilitated in a parametric design setting?
2. What is the best format for the parameters

and their values? Earlier PhD research developed a method and
prototype for collaborative design in virtual real-
3. Where should the parameters be stored?
ity with multi-player game development software,
4. Which system to use for multiuser real-time where team members worked at different versions of
updating? the building concept (Hubers, 2008). They could par-
ticipate in, comment and evaluate each other's ver-
5. Which system to use for discussion and vot- sions. That research had to conclude that the tools
ing? worked fine, but that the proposed method didn't
work, mainly because the advisors lacked knowledge
6. Use existing Grasshopper components or
about conceptual design and 3D software. It was pro-
plug-ins or make our own in VB.net?
posed to develop interconnected parametric soft-
The methods used to answer the research questions ware and use video conferencing and an internet fo-
are literature study, software prototyping and a case rum. Team members should use their own familiar
study. The literature study was used to answer ques- software. It has been demonstrated that full para-
tion 1, especially to find the state of art in BIM, collab- metric design has many advantages for collabora-
orative and parametric design. tive design (Hubers, 2010). An important one is that
changes can be processed until the end of the de-
sign process because the design can be regenerated
BIM
within minutes.
Recently Building Information Modelling (BIM) was
introduced. The BIM handbook of Eastman et al.
gives a good overview of the advantages of BIM (East- PARAMETRIC DESIGN SOFTWARE
man et al., 2008). Benefit 9 in Table 1 'Earlier collab- Parametric design software is CAD software in which
oration of multiple design disciplines' is in the Con- objects and their attributes remain variable. E.g.
struction execution/coordination phase and thus not the width of an object is stored in a variable "W"
collaborative design as defined in this research. The and not in a constant "10". When the value of
challenge is to develop methods and tools for col- "W" changes, the object and it's connections up-
laborative architectural design in the concept design date. This can be very efficient in collaborative
phase. design, where often changes in the design have

Figure 1 to be modelled in order to be evaluated with the
Design process software of other team members. There are sev-
(redrawn from eral parametric software applications already: Digital
Lawson (2006)) Project/Catia (Gehry Technologies), Generative Com-
ponents/Microstation (Berkley), Grasshopper/Rhino
(McNeel), and Autodesk is developing Dynamo for
Revit. For this project Grasshopper was chosen be-
cause it is widely used in universities.
Three principles of parametric modelling are re-
called here following, since relevant for the work de-
scribed in the paper. The first one is the need of read-
ability of the model, including its parametric defini-
tion and geometric associations, to be achieved by
means of well-structured and ordered components.
The second one is the need to avoid redundancy.
This means that the same parameters should not be
Both sub processes, creation and evaluation,
(re)defined on different places, because if the values
should become better and faster, because a collabo-
of those parameters have to be changed, it is easy to
rative design team is expensive. As explained above,
overlook some occurrences, leading to discrepancy
this could be the case if linked parametric solutions
in the solution. The third one is the need of prop-
can be developed for complex buildings that are to
erly choosing the input parameters and the paramet-
be designed several times with anticipated differ-
ric logic. This is because the input parameters have
ences. The project developed a method and a soft-
large impact on the solution space of the model and
ware tool to support this.
therefore on the design alternatives that can be actu-
Figure 2 ally generated. Different geometric associations may
Overview of the lead to the same output geometry, but some may be
pCOLAD method more appropriate for the design process than others.
Preliminary understanding which ones are more ap-
propriate is important since revising the parametric
logic may imply rebuilding the model (with conse-
quent loss of time).
THE PROPOSED APPROACH

An extensive study of the work of Foqué, Shön, Akin,
de Jong and van der Voort, Moughtin et al., Stelling-
werff and Hamel, to name but a few exponents, leads
to the conclusion that the two most relevant pro-
cesses in collaborative architectural design are the it- THE METHOD
erative development and evaluation of alternatives The method addresses the workflow across vari-
in accordance with criteria (Hubers, 2008). This is ous disciplines during the design process. In or-
confirmed by the standard work of Lawson (2006), der to overcome issues related to limited software-
provided that creation is seen as the combination of interoperability, it proposes to share information via
analysis and synthesis (Figure 1). exchange of parameters next to occasionally ex-

change of geometry. In order to avoid overflow of interdisciplinary agreement, through explicit evalua-
interdisciplinary information, it tries to structure pri- tions and consequent expression of preference from
orities based on which information can be selected the point of view of each discipline. This leads to a
before being shared (Figure 2). decision making process based on voting.
According to the proposed workflow, each dis-
cipline works on an individual parametric model, in THE TOOL
what can be named "private space" of the workflow; Based on the method described in the previous sec-
while a core model and a set of selected information, a tool is proposed. The tool is structured based
tion are shared across all disciplines, in what can be on the following parts:
called "public space". The private space consist of in-
dividual models including individual geometric mod- • A text file stores all the records of the shared
els and individual parameters. Individual models re- parameters in the public space.
fer to the core model as main reference, but can be
used to freely explore a number of parametric design • A plug-in named pCOLAD for the parametric
alternatives, without necessarily sharing these explo- modeller which manages the records by writ-
rations (geometry and parameters) with other disci- ing/retrieving and editing records, associates
plines. A user may in fact wish to have some totally each record with the user that contributed it
private space in which can be experimented with and collects the voting when required.
new parameters without bothering the other team
members. The public space consists of a core model • An on-line application is used for synchroniza-
including shared geometry and shared parameters. tion.
While the geometry of the core model is updated
only once in a while, shared parameters are meant to • A forum is used for supporting interdisci-
be the main stream of interdisciplinary communica- plinary communication and debates.
tion, according to the logic described here following.
Information that is actually relevant for other disci- Rhino and Grasshopper were chosen as parametric
plines should be shared in the public space, by means modeller. Dropbox was chosen as a real time file
of parameters. Specifically, during individual explo- update platform for synchronization, because it is
rations, as soon as the parameters of a user become widely used for multiuser real-time collaboration. Af-
a more consistent choice, then the team members ter some successful tests it was decided to use Black-
may need to be "informed" about this. The public board Collaborate for discussion and voting. The rea-
shared space mainly consist of parameters and their sons for this choice were that up to six video connec-
values. The latter are to be interpreted at the private tions can be displayed simultaneously, desktop and
user space, after of course appropriate "binding" in application sharing works good and it is available on
the private space, which is a responsibility of each the LAN of the university with good support. Black-
user. In this respect, there is not a single state in the board Discussion Forum is used for listing the criteria
public space. There are multiple co-existing states and pros and cons of the alternatives.
and each user is free to (partially) apply them to their Before the tool could be programmed several
models, contribute new ones and comment. On the questions had to be answered. What is the best
other hand, for reference, a master state should be format for the parameters and their values? Where
maintained, including all the shared parameters of should the parameters be stored? Which system
the project and their values. The master state in the to use for multiuser real-time updating? Given that
public space should be chosen based on common Rhino and Grasshopper were chosen to implement
the tool, should existing Grasshopper components or

plug-ins be used or should new ones be made? The menting on the parameter sets.
*.csv (Comma Separated Values) format was consid- After a first demo and hands-on exercise the ver-
ered, because it is easily readable in a spread sheet sion in vb.net was chosen. The main reasons were
and in Grasshopper. But also the *.json (Javascript that this prototype had more functionalities and was
Object Notation) format, because it can easily be more flexible in the connection to the parameters in
linked to a parameter class and allows for multiple the solutions.
levels of data nesting. Later it was found that Re-
vit also uses a text file for shared parameters, how- FINAL RESULT
ever with even less information about the parameters The developed prototype consists of three cus-
than pCOLAD. Still it could be interesting for further tom components in the Grasshopper environment.
developments. pCOLLECT collects information about a parameter in
Because an overview of the parameters was the private Grasshopper solution and outputs it to
needed with several interaction possibilities it was pSHARE in the *.csv format. pSHARE combines all
decided to develop two alternative approaches with the pCOLLECTs output with in the *.csv file and pro-
MS Visual Studio. One in vb.net and one in C#. The vides editing functions. The pPARAM component is
first one used a ListView that displayed the informa- used to get a shared parameter from the output of
tion in the shared *.csv file. The second used a Grid- pSHARE (Figure 3). Some of the important functions
View that displayed user-generated parameter sets, of pSHARE are:
each containing a user defined set of parameters in
the Grasshopper solution. In another GridView the • Warning if somebody changed the shared
shared parameters of the selected set were displayed. *.csv file while pSHARE is active. And forcing
The sets were stored in *.json format also on Drop- to start over again. This is necessary in order
Box. Extra GridViews were added for voting and com- to avoid overwriting information that is not
yet shared.
Figure 3
Some functions of
pCOLAD in a still
from the
Blackboard
Collaborate
recording

• Blocking of parameters in the output if team middle of the Netherlands, in the polder. It is part
members don't agree with a parameter value. of a competition where the brief says that the main
ice rink should have 15.000 spectators. The focus is
• Display in red the changes since last time the on the tribune and the roof. During the test some
shared *.csv file was loaded. This was realised changes in the brief were simulated: e.g. because of
by copying that file from the DropBox to a lo- information about the concurrent designs the num-
cal path and comparing it with the last copy. ber of seats should be augmented to 20.000. It was
This also solved the problems when several asked to imagine that the team members belong to
team members worked at the same time with different commercial companies. They don't want to
that file. give away their parametric models into which much
• The standard attributes of parameters are: time and knowledge is invested. In this research it
Comments, Parameter (name), New Value, was assumed that they only want to show (intermedi-
Obstruction, Old Value, Owner, Importance, ate) results during Blackboard Collaborate meetings
Date, Author. The latter two were used to gen- and share some crucial parameter values. Mostly,
erate a history of sharing. parameters referred to independent variables of the
parametric models (type 1); however, also output val-
• Later also adding or removing attributes to ues (type 2) and geometric entities (type 3) were used
parameters through pCOLLECT+ was made as parameters shared via pCOLAD. In order to test
possible. The consequence was that mapping limits and potentials, participants were asked to not
became necessary if those attributes were not exchange geometric models and not load geometry
recognized as existing attributes. in the geometric core model until the end of the test.
The architect started with a concept for the tri-
• Of course some fool proofing is needed. E.g. bunes. Since it is an important demand to have seats
to check if a parameter name is already used, with good view on the ice rink, the seats are repre-
because the name is used by pPARAM to find sented as points on curves which are projected on
the attributes of the parameter in the pSHARE the tribune. This makes it possible to have a visual
output. control on the number of seats. The tribune is made
by a sweep using the circumference of the ice rink as
A CASE STUDY a rail and a section line made of threads of 1m and
The prototype of pCOLAD was evaluated with the augmenting rises starting with 45 cm as a profile.
collaborative design of a hypothetical Ice Stadium,
Figure 4
used as a test case. For the test, the design focused
Calculation of the C
on a limited amount of interdisciplinary design re-
value
quirements. An architect focused on design of the
tribunes, a structural designer on the roof's structure,
an envelope designer on the roof's cladding and a cli-
mate designer on the optimisation of PV panels ver-
sus daylight openings. Two weeks before the test de-
sign a demo of 45 minutes was given of the whole
system and a hands-on training with the design of
a tent for also 45 minutes. A very short brief was
mailed some days before the first meeting on Black- The augmentation of every rise is such
board Collaborate stating that a consortium of build- that the formula of good view at the top row
ing companies is designing an Ice Stadium in the (C=D(N+R)/(D+T)-R) has a value of at least 9cm (Fig-

ure 4), which is the space between the line from the a maximum yield. Due to the limited time, daylight
eyes of two spectators to the nearest border of the effect could not be quantified. The focus was put
skating rink at the eyes of one in front. on the PV panels: the module area, module orienta-
Later it was changed into calculation with a vi- tion, module inclination, type of PV and yearly sum
sual basic script of the rise of every row, such that the of global horizontal radiation of the location were the
C-value of every row is 9cm. This resulted in a much parameters to calculate annual yield in Excel. The first
lower tribune. Paths and entrances are subtracted three of these parameters were the crucial parame-
from the seats. The remainders are divided in equal ters to be collected and shared with the other stake-
parts of at least 60cm per seat. Then as a check the so- holders. A data link was made in Excel that updates
lution counts these parts. If there are not 15.000 or a every minute to the shared parameters in the *.csv
little more, then the number of rows can be adapted file and warns through conditional formatting in red
with a slider. Paths are planned such that no more when values of the selected parameters change. For
than 25 seats are on a row. The gross number of seats the roof envelope of course the structural system is
and the net value (so paths, entrances and facilities important (Figure 8). The architect imagined trusses
subtracted) are shown in the model as text (Figure 5). in symmetrical diagonal standard steel tubes with a
maximum length of 12m, then designed by the struc-
Figure 5
tural designer. Instead of interfacing the trusses and
First sharing of
the envelope based on numeric parameters, only the
parameters by the
top curves were shared via pCOLAD and the *.csv file.
architect
But how to put a curve into a *.csv file? The architect
suggested to give the curves a name and a value con-
sisting of x,y,z of as little points as possible that could
be used to regenerate the curves. By separating the
x,y,z values with forward slashes (/) a text string is
made that represents a curve. In Grasshopper a Split
String component can then be used to get the points
again as input for an Interpolation Curve component
to regenerate the curves. In this way, the curve could
serve as a shared parameter. This exemplifies type 3
(geometric parameters).
All this makes a changing height, width and During the first meeting in the Blackboard Dis-
length of the tribune, which of course is important cussion forum also the starting criteria were set: Cost,
for the roof structure. So as a start these output val- Ease of construction, Good sight from everywhere,
ues are the crucial parameters that were shared. Optimum balance of electricity use versus daylight-
This exemplifies type 2 (output parameters). The ing, Sustainability in general; specific aspects of in-
number of rows and the dimensions of the rink are door climate control were not included for the test.
examples of independent input parameters (type 1). The second meeting the consequences of augment-
For the climate design the main targets were ing to 20.000 seats and a presumed maximum span
identified as maximizing indirect daylight, because of the trusses of 125m were discussed (Figure 8).
direct light would have a negative effect on the ice. It
also reduces electricity use for lighting. At the same
time a maximum of PV panels should be placed with-
out casting shadow on each other, with optimal in-
clination and orientation to produce electricity with

Figure 6
Alternatives A, B
and C.
Figure 7
Alternatives 1, 2
and 3.
natives: A) Regular; all rows same total height, B) ver- Figure 8

tically chopped; in order to keep within 125m width, Combination of
C) inclined chopped; in order to accommodate 36 de- Trusses and cut-off
gree PV panels on the roof (Figure 6). To be combined tribune
with 1) PV/Glass units, 2) PV panels in width direc-
tion 3) PV panels in length direction (Figure 7). And
also a decision had to be made if the roof should be
flat. After some calculations it was obvious that C3
would be best for PV, but not for the indoor climate
(a-symmetric conditions for skaters) and also it would
not be possible to use standard 12m tubes for the
trusses. After investigating all pros and cons related
to the criteria, that were set at the start, B3 with a flat
A solution would be to chop off the sides of the
roof was chosen through voting and worked out in
tribune and add more rows to the ends. This leads
the next week. B3 was then parameterized based on
to a kind of bathtub form. The architect was not sat-
additional independent parameters, some of which
isfied with the kink in the top border and later used
were shared (type 1) and discussed during the third
a rounded form for the Boolean difference operation
meeting.
that was used for the chopping off.
During the fourth and last meeting, all geomet-
Based on the inputs regarding tribune and
ric parts were loaded into the core model, from the
trusses, the design of the envelope tested the use
individual models of each discipline; and the overall
of pCOLAD in case of (simplified) design alternatives.
result was assessed by all stakeholders.
For the PV panels on the roof it was found that an
angle of 36 degree and orientation 5 degrees to the
south would be best with windows facing north with DISCUSSION OF THE CASE STUDY
louvers in between. After several discussion threads Despite average satisfaction of the participants re-
in the Blackboard Discussion Forum and some e- garding the workflow and the advantages of linked
mails there was a choice to be made between alter- parametric solutions through shared pCOLAD, the
state of the design at the fourth meeting highlighted

a number of problems. A first major problem con- change of parametric models across different disci-
sisted in the parts not properly fitting together due to plines was unanimously considered to be avoided,
wrong reciprocal position in the Cartesian space (Fig- often updating the geometric core model with ge-
ure 9). A second major problem consisted in a num- ometry (in this case, baked from Grasshopper) was
ber of basic design criteria not being met. This re- considered necessary by part of the team. In this sce-
garded especially the criteria not explicitly prioritized nario, the core model would serve also as support for
into design priorities as focus of the test. This could interdisciplinary design exploration and brainstorm-
also be due to the fact that three team members ing. The team also believes that pCOLAD forces the
could only spend four half days on the case study. team to think carefully about what the crucial param-
A questionnaire was filled in by the team members eters of the design are. It is impossible to measure the
just after the first demo and hands-on exercise and effect of that, but it is to be expected that it also has
also within some days after the last design meeting. a positive effect on the quality of the design.
It contained 45 questions. Most important were: Is
getting started easy? Was it easy to start a discussion CONCLUSIONS
about a parameter? Will the method and prototype The goals of the pCOLAD project were: Develop a so-
lead to faster decisions? Will the method and pro- lution for synchronic (real-time) and a-synchronic col-
totype lead to more transparency? Were too many laborative architectural design over the Internet with
or unnecessary actions avoided? Is synchronic (real- shared parameters in Grasshopper/Rhino and other
time) and a-synchronic collaboration working well? software.
The score after the test design was much lower on The research questions were:
these questions than before, even mostly negative.
The comments show that this is due to the misunder- 1. How can a collaborative design process be fa-
standings about the meaning of the parameters. cilitated in a parametric design setting?
The meaning of parameters regards the under-
standing of the geometric properties that are param- 2. What is the best format for the parameters
eterized within the design. This meaning should be and their values?
univocal for all team members. In the test case, this
3. Where should the parameters be stored?
aspect emerged as problematic. The use of sketches
and email helped, but not enough. Improving the
4. Which system to use for multiuser real-time
support in agreeing on the meaning of parameters
updating?
was identified as necessary in the method and tool.
The exchange of geometry was the most dis- 5. Which system to use for discussion and vot-
cussed aspect already during the test. While ex- ing?
Figure 9
The parts don't fit.

6. Use existing Grasshoppercomponents or showed too many misunderstandings, causing mis-
plug-ins or make our own in VB.net? fits on the crucial moment when the models were
put together. A solution could be found in develop-
And the answers are: ing an ontology and/or the possibility to attach hand
sketches or other geometric representations with an-
1. A method was developed with sharing pa- notations to the pCOLAD form where the parameters
rameters, but it should be improved. Sharing and their attributes are displayed.
of geometry and better explanation of what a
parameter means was mentioned.
REFERENCES
2. The pCOLAD *.csv format that was used was EASTMAN, C., TEICHHOLZ, P, SACKS, R and LISTON, K
found adequate for the required tasks. It in- 2008, BIM Handbook, Hoboken, Wiley, New Jersey,
U.S.A
cluded fields for comments, parameter name, HUBERS, JC 2008, Collaborative architectural design in vir-
new value, obstruction, old value, owner, im- tual reality., Ph.D. Thesis, Delft University of Technol-
portance, date, author. Of these, the fields ogy, The Netherlands
of obstruction and importance were not used, HUBERS, JC 2009 'Collaborative design in Protospace 3.0',
and new attributes were not added. WAMELINK, H., PRINS, M. & GERAEDTS, R. (eds.) Chang-
ing roles; new roles, new challenges,. Delft: TU Delft
Faculty of Architecture Real Estate & Housing
3. We needed a simple file storage system to
HUBERS, JC 2010 'Collaborative parametric BIM', BEN-
store and update the csv file. We made use of NADJI, A., SIDAWI, B. & REFFAT, R. (eds.) ASCAAD con-
Dropbox, which functioned well. In principle, ference 2010. Robert Gordon University, Scotland
a system based on pCOLAD could be setup in LAWSON, BR 2006, How designers think, Architectural
most real-time file sharing platforms. Press/Elsevier, Oxford
TURRIN, M 2014, Performance Assesment Strategies, a
4. pCOLAD sends warnings when the *.csv file computational framework for conceptual design of
large roofs, Ph.D. Thesis, Delft University of Technol-
is updated by somebody else and forces to
ogy, The Netherlands.
start over again to avoid conflicting informa-
tion. That worked well. Also changes since
last update were coloured in red.
5. Blackboard Discussion board was used. And

that worked rather well, though at the end un-
der time pressure much of the communica-
tion was done by mail. Printed the forum con-
tained 15 pages A4.
6. Developing a solution using standard GH

components was found very constraining.
That is why a prototype was developed in C#
and in vb.net. Finally custom components
were developed in vb.net.
The goals were met, the tools of pCOLAD worked as

expected, but the method should be improved. The
test of pCOLAD with the design of an Ice Stadium

Approaching Sentient Building Performance Simulation
Systems
Kristoffer Negendahl1 , Thomas Perkov2 , Alfred Heller3
1,2,3
Technical University of Denmark, Department of Civil Engineering
1,2,3
http://www.dtu.dk
1,2
{krnj|alfh}@byg.dtu.dk 3 s103520@student.dtu.dk
Building designers make decisions in early design stages that have large impact
on building performance, including those of energy-, daylight- and indoor
environment performance. Building performance simulation (BPS) tools can
support the designer, in making better decisions, by providing the performance
consequences of design choices. However BPS tools often require deep technical
knowledge and is too time consuming to use to effectively support the design
exploration in the early design stages. To solve this challenge, the current paper
proposes: Sentient building performance simulation systems, which combine one
or more high precision BPS tools to provide near instantaneous performance
feedback directly in the design tool. Sentient BPS systems are essentially
combining: 1) design tools, 2) parametric tools, 3) BPS tools, 4) dynamic
databases 5) interpolation techniques and 6) prediction techniques as a fast and
valid simulation system for the early design stage.
Keywords: Building Performance Simulation, Parametric modelling, Visual

Programming Language, Database, Responsive system, Integrated Dynamic
Model
INTRODUCTION human with a computer could be far superior to ei-

Human intelligence is superior in developing abstrac- ther a human alone or a computer alone.
tion, creativity and imagination while computers are While a computer is significantly more intelligent
superior in calculation, data analysis, and information when it comes to chess tactics, a human is signif-
retrieval. icantly more intelligent when it comes to strategy.
Let computers handle the tactics, setting up simula- This is the case for building design, yet we failed to
tions of multiple solutions, analyzing results and show- employ the tactical skills of computers to support us
ing the consequences, while humans handle the strat- in our strategy of designing buildings.
egy. Based on this assumption, a computer sup-
This is the fundamental idea behind the game ported building performance prediction and decision
of Advanced Chess [2]. Advanced chess is a human- making system will be suggested. A prototype im-
computer symbiotic partnership that demonstrates a plementation of the system, focused on daylight per-

formance feedback, is employed to explain the pro- ing designer can handle every aspect of building per-
posed concept of sentient building performance sim- formance evaluation in one go: Designing with struc-
ulation systems. Due to the narrow time frame affil- tural optimization in mind, contemplating life cycle
iated with early design stages combined with vari- assessments, balancing building energy with indoor
ous challenges of integrating BPS tools in building environment, etc. But why shouldn't the building de-
design, a sentient BPS system has to be optimized by signer do this? Why is the designer limited to the de-
different means, which is presented and discussed in sign tool when all this "knowledge of performance"
this paper. is out there to just be simulated, evaluated and taken
into consideration? This article describes a way to ap-
BACKGROUND proach some of the primary obstacles in the merging
Building design is done on basis of geometrical rep- of the design tool with the BPS by describing an im-
resentations in design (CAD) tools while performance plementation of a simple sentient BPS system.
evaluation is carried out aided by building perfor-
mance simulation (BPS) tools. The actual stage is EXISTING SYSTEMS LACKS RESPONSIVE-
to get these tools to work together in an integral NESS OR PRECISION
system. With the introduction Building Information Two different approaches of linking BPS with design
Modelling (BIM) and visual programming languages tools are dominating. The first approach is coupling
(VPL), the integration of design tools and BPS tools, at highly detailed and complicated BPS environments
model level, has improved significantly (Negendahl. to the design tools. These systems may be able to
2013). This tendency is strongly implemented in the calculate the performance to a very precise degree,
design tool Rhino [8] and belonging visual program- well beyond the information level of a building de-
ming language (VPL) Grasshopper [3]. Grasshopper sign in its conceptual stages. In general, these BPS
coupled to a BPS (e.g. DIVA [9] and/or Energy+ [4]) tools needs large computing capacity and will take
have the ability of strategic scripted parameter vari- long time to simulate. The first approach is of this
ations in user defined models. This reduces simula- reason often much slower than the second approach
tion time dramatically, as each new design proposal and in some instances such system will block the dy-
is automatically simulated by the runtime coupled namics of the design process.
BPS tool. The second most dominating approach seek to
Additionally the introduction of VPLs has maximize responsiveness by either linking simplified
changed the way engineers and architects think of BPS or implementing user defined scripts acting as
building design. The parametric capabilities have BPS (Klitgaard et al. 2006). Ideally the right im-
generated everything from architectural manifests plementation and powerful computing power will
to multi criteria optimization methodologies. Most allow super-responsive live performance feedback
importantly the concept of parametric models is giv- from the BPS. This approach lacks precision and may
ing building designers the "tool" that matches their in worst case make performance evaluations on in-
continuously altering idea of a building in the early correct assumptions that again can lead to the very
design stage (Burry. 2013). Combined with BPS, VPLs opposite of an improved building performance.
are capable of assisting and informing the building
designer in every thinkable building related perfor- VALIDATED TOOLS, VALIDATED INPUT
mance. DATA, VALIDATED USERS
While BPSs, VPLs and design tools are in a pro- Souza (Bleil de Souza, 2012) argues that validity of
cess of unification, the road to full integration is still modeling and calculation assumptions depends not
far ahead. It is today highly improbable that a build- only on the level of competency but also on the pur-
pose of modeling. In this sense, a good model de-

Figure 1
Implementation of
a simple sentient
BPS system. Rhino
a) is dynamically
coupled through
Grasshopper b) to
DIVA c) over an
intermediate results
database d) with
interpolation
features e). A
prediction
algorithm f ) shifts
and sorts yet-to-be-
calculated queued
data g) before the
DIVA receives it.
pends enormously on the experience of the modeler, terpolation algorithm that makes it feasible to sim-
which comes from practical knowledge and contex- ulate less solutions and still provide the building de-
tual understanding of the subject in order to solve signer with fast and precise results (from one or more
similar problems. Valid operation and BPS tool in- building BPS tools). The idea is essentially to con-
put requires competent simulation experts or "sim- struct a result database containing building perfor-
ulationists" as Souza calls them. mance feedback data needed to accompany the de-
signer's own solutions. The system further reduces
INTRODUCING SENTIENT BUILDING PER- the number of solutions needed to be simulated, as
it observes user activity and adjusts the BPS tool to
FORMANCE SIMULATION SYSTEMS
simulate and improve interpolation precision. To ef-
Sentient, also meaning consious and responsive ex-
fectively do this, the system attempts to predict the
presses an almost - human-like behavior. How-
space of interest of the building designer while uti-
ever interesting (and frightening) an awakening con-
lizing multivariate interpolation capabilities of the
sciousness in our computer companions are, the abil-
system. Essentially the system presents building per-
ity of a machine to respond to building designers de-
formance feedback of solutions that is of interest to
mands is what is important to us in this article. Sen-
the designer for decision making in the early design
tient BPS systems are suggested as a highly respon-
stages, in a very efficient way.
sive alternative to building designers who are either
Sentient BPS systems are built by recognizing the
using simple proximate BPS tools or complicated but
need to separate the building designer and the sim-
slow BPS tools in early design exploration.
ulationist in the early design stages. The system de-
The sentient BPS system is based on paramet-
taches the complexity of the BPS environment from
ric modeling procedures, which decreases the deci-
the building designer. The building designers re-
sion space into a finite size. The system utilizes a
quests (design solutions) for performance evaluation
database structure combined with a multivariate in-
are sent to a separated (web) performance simula-

tion environment containing a results database, see matters. To grasp the scale of multidimensional re-
Figure 1. The feedback is visualized, or otherwise sult databases, consider a room with three variables:
handled directly in the building designers' own en- its height h, its width w, and its depth d. The variables
vironment , Rhino [8], in a way that fits the build- each have variable resolution of 10, meaning the vari-
ing designer. The simulationist will take part in the ables may be defined in 10 different unique states.
system by creating the object relations and (para- The total amount of combinations, c of solutions that
metric) variables necessary to get meaningful results need to be simulated adds up to:
from the BPS. During the design process, the simu-
lationist only job is to maintain the building perfor- c(rw , rh , rd ) = 103 = 1000 combinations (1)
mance environment (see Figure 1). The sentient BPS
system can therefore support the validity of perfor- If each simulation takes 5 minutes in average to simu-
mance feedback required for any building project. late with a BPS tool, it will take 3.5 days to construct a
Sentient BPS systems can combine one or more result database. Now imagine we add two more vari-
high precision BPS tools and provide near instanta- ables to the equation, again each with a variable res-
neous performance feedback directly in the design olution of 10. We end up with almost a year of sim-
tool, hence providing the best of both worlds; speed ulation time to construct the results database, which
and precision. The concept of sentient BPS systems is is not feasible.
based on a further development of a student project The solution is to limit the simulations to the
performed by Perkov (Perkov. 2014) at the Technical problems that actually are worth investigating. Seen
University of Denmark. from a design point of view the decision space is un-
limited. But since computer power and time are
limited factors (particularly in early design stages),
THE RESULTS DATABASE
how and where does the designer limit the decision
It was first suggested by Sullivan (Sullivan et al., 1988)
space?
that large number of building energy simulations
The process of limiting the decision space can be
saved systematically in database could provide fast
separated into two different system approaches on
feedback of energy performance. Such database is
designing with performance as seen in Figure 2:
capable of giving responsive answers to multiple cri-
teria but required either very large databases or very • A system that supports a space of solutions,
simple buildings to get meaningful answers. Caldas Figure 2a)
notes that these kinds of approaches generates data
that do "only apply to solutions that are close to those • A system that supports a space of interest,
simulated, what's makes them of limited use in an ar- Figure 2b)
chitectural design domain" (Caldas, 2001). Nonethe-
less, at the time of Sullivan's and Caldas' consider- A system that finds the "space of solutions" is a
ations were written, much development have been system which seek to aid the designer to find solu-
done in the field of databases and computing in gen- tions that complies with predefined performance cri-
eral. It may still not be feasible to construct univer- teria e.g. annual building energy consumption (Pe-
sal databases, comprehending every thinkable com- tersen, 2011). The designer usually in one way or an-
bination of variables. But it can be feasible to make other "pick out" a specific solution from an enumer-
a finite subset of solutions as a database lookup that ated list of permitted solutions within the space of so-
takes a very specific design concept into considera- lutions. The system is allways limited of predefined
tion. performance criteria.
When constructing a database of solutions, size A system supporting the deductive search to-
wards solutions: the "space of interest", allows the de-

Figure 2
Decision space:
Here illustrated in
relation to two
performance
metrics, each dot
represents a
specific solution.
Space of solutions
a) is defined by all
solutions that
conform to the
requirement of a
certain
performance
criteria, here
performance 1 and
2. Space of interest
b) is defined by the
building designers’
interest in certain
solutions related or
unrelated to the
performance
criteria 1 and 2. The
complete and
pareto optimal signer search through the solutions that may or may designer use the BPS tools, or with a simulationist in-
decision spaces c), not comply with certain performance criteria. Typ- volved, how does the designer and the simulationist
d) are shown for ical design tools (e.g. Rhino) as well as parametric use the BPS tools in the system?
comparative tools (e.g. Grasshopper) support deductive search of It surely should not be the BPS tool, or the as-
purposes. interest, usually with focus on the geometrical rep- sisting simulationist, that defines the design direc-
resentation of layout, functions, visual appearances tion, but the designers own choices in what is worth
etc. Criteria of these types of qualitative objectives investigating. In this regard, the sentient BPS sys-
may be unknown to the designer until the designer tem aligns itself with the approach of space of inter-
suddenly uncover a solution that fits in a greater holis- est. However, sentient BPS systems may be used to
tic whole. Through a web of moves, designers discover narrow down the decision space by utilizing prede-
the consequences,implications, appreciations and fur- fined performance criteria as required by the space
ther moves. Within these moves, phenomena are un- of solutions framework. The sentient BPS system em-
derstood, problems are solved and opportunities are ex- ploys the parametric capabilities of a VPL to define
ploited. (Souza. 2012) A system based on the space the space of interest, thus narrowing down the open
of interest is therefore limited by predefined interest design problem into a smaller finite decision space.
criteria. The real question is, when adding a BPS tool Aided by a VPL, this can be done in numerous ways:
to any of the two system approaches, how does the
• The building designer (and simulationist) may

focus purely on an (optimization of ) expected variables and their resolutions will define the amount
performance. of unique combinations in the model as it was men-
tioned earlier.
• The building designer and the simulationist
A variable resolution is the amount of unique
may define a coordinated reduction of the de-
states a given (parametric) variable has. The variable
cision space, seeking to advance various per-
is an enumeration of numbers, which does not need
formance related and unrelated objectives.
to be sequential or based on integers. An example is
• The building designer (and simulationist) may shown in Figure 3; let a variable be represented by a
choose to setup a parametric model on the slider that can be set in state [1..7], the variable res-
sole purpose of finding a particular desired olution of the slider is 7. A system may have more
geometric form and use the BPS results to val- than one slider or any other collection function of
idate the geometry as "good enough". variables (navigational controllers, lists, arrays, etc.).
Each individual variable has a individual variable res-
In the prototype sentient system discussed in this olution. We now introduce a concept of variable reso-
article, the simulationist and the building designer lution levels to further reduce the amount of solutions
are collectively reducing the decision space by em- needed to be simulated. The idea is to make precise
ploying parametric model scripted in Grasshopper performance simulations on strategically selected so-
[3]. The only clearly defined objective is to improve lutions within the space of interest, then estimate the
daylight factor conditions in a room model. Other rest of space of interest with minimum amount of er-
objectives such as aesthetics, layout and qualitative rors. The variable resolution level of any given sentient
use of daylight is unknown to the users in the be- BPS system is basically all the unique combinations
ginning of the modeling process, however, aided by of every variable states divided by the number of fin-
the sentient BPS system the objectives becomes ap- ished simulations (per coupled BPS tool), defined as
parent during the design exploration with the para- follows:
metric model. There are no criteria or predefined Variable resolution level; has a number of vari-
rules, others than the limitations based on the im- ables v > 1 where each variable resolution r > 0,
plemented parametric definitions and the paramet- for every resolution r in the sequence i of variables
ric boundaries in the variables used in the model. vi :
rv1 · rv2 · . . . · rvi
PREDICTING THE SPACE OF INTEREST ∑ (2)
Predictions of building designer interest is a rather (number of simulations completed)
unexplored subject while predictions of the (space
of ) solutions has been thoroughly investigated e.g. Essentially the variable resolution level indicate how
by (Pedersen, 2006; Shi & Yang, 2013). Framing the much of the space of interest have been covered by
space of solutions is defined by very accurately de- simulated results. A high variable resolution level
fined objectives, and in terms of building perfor- means few simulations is completed by the coupled
mance, the objectives have to be defined in a way BPS tool (in relation to the total number of poten-
that BPS tools can understand. Predicting the user in- tial solutions), while a variable resolution level = 1
terest is very different, simply because the user often means every possible variable state combination has
does not know what he or she is interested in to be- been simulated. As it follows, the number of vari-
gin with. The objective is an exploration in itself why ables and their resolution will affect the variable res-
objectives are likely to be unclear and fuzzy. The con- olution level quite substantially. An ideal model will
cept is to utilize embedded information of the para- have a minimum required number of variables each
metric variables present in the model. The amount of with lowest possible variable resolutions to cover the

Figure 3
The prediction
algorithm uses
variable states (here
represented on
sliders). The slider
in the bottom left
shows a variable
resolution of 7 and
its current state is 5.
The three weight
functions are
illustrated to the
right.
space of interest quickly in the design process. Min- over the entire the space of interest. The idea with
imizing variables and resolutions, however can be this function is to gradually improve the overall dis-
rather difficult when the building designer have not tribution of simulations, in the space of interest, by
yet decided all the design objectives. Of this rea- an incremental expansion variable resolutions.
son an interest prediction algorithm has been imple- Weight-function, t is a variable listener function,
mented, hence to further reduce the needed simu- which essentially is a timer function that reads the
lations, to cover the actual interest space within the particular variable states of navigational controllers
boundaries of the defined variables and their resolu- (aka. sliders) embedded in Grasshopper. Basically
tions. the listener function identifies the state of every vari-
An interest prediction algorithm is implemented able and how long time it remains in that state.
on the basis of a continuous weight factorization of The highest weight is given to the variable with the
the yet-to-be-simulated unique data combinations. fewest alterations, which arguably must be the pre-
There are basically three weight functions in the preferred state of interest of that particular variable.
diction algorithm; s, t, w (shown in the right side of Weight-function, w is a simple overwrite-
Figure 3). function that favorably alters the weight of a given
state on a given variable. It gives the building de-
Weight functions s, t and w signer an option to alter a specific request (design
Weight-function, s is given to all variable states but solution) to become more important than all other
distributed flat out semi-random by utilizing a se- requests queued for simulation. The exact combina-
quence of primes (Figure 3). Imagine all states is tions of variable states are sent directly to the BPS to
distributed in a sequence, where every third state is perform an analysis based on that specific request.
weighted less than every fifth, every fifth is weighted weight sj , tj , wj [0..1], as follows: For every
less than the seventh etc. In this way the system is variable state in the sequence j :
set in a progressive loading-state that helps to get
"rough" and faster interpolations "evenly" distributed weight(j) = sj + tj + wj (3)

The sum of the weights of each parameter is con- and height of a window), the user asks the system
tinuously updated while the building designer uses to look for 648 individual results from the database.
the system. As seen in Figure 1 g) the effect of the If the corresponding combination of x and y is ab-
prediction algorithm is a reordering of the yet-to-be- sent in the database, the system sends the request
calculated queued database. The consequence of us- over to Matlab. GridDataN in Matlab then constructs
ing the prediction algorithm is a more efficient use of 648 individual hyper-surfaces corresponding to the
simulation power, as the requests from the building number of measurement points (and not the amount
designer is automatically taken into account. of simulations already performed). Each individual
red dots in Figure 3, however, are representing the
INTERPOLATION CAPABILITIES OF THE separate simulations already performed of the same
measurement-point in space. The interpolations are
SYSTEM
performed 648 times from on each of these hyper-
Well before the results database is complete, it is pos-
surfaces and in theory the 648 individual measure-
sible to interpolate results by using multivariate in-
ment points could be a product of 648 different BPS
terpolation techniques. In the prototype implemen-
tools. While the system is utterly scalable, the 648
tation seen in Figure 1, the choice was to use the
points are just used as an example to represent the
GridDataN from the native Matlab [10] library. Grid-
daylight factor distribution in a room, the mind blow-
DataN fits a hyper-surface of the form y = F (x) to
ing flexibility and scalability of the system is hard to
the data in non-uniformly-spaced vectors. When a
describe. However useful and interesting multivari-
request is sent to the interpolation algorithm it will
ate interpolations are, the very fact humans cannot
automatically perform a linear interpolation between
comprehend higher levels of multi-dimensional op-
the continuous and sequential simulations in the re-
erations, makes interpolations risky to use in practice.
sults database.
To ensure that interpolation is not performed
over discontinuities the user has to state which DISCUSSION
of the input variables are continuous and discrete, When focusing on the multivariate interpolation in-
thus sending compliant data to the interpolation cluded in the prototype sentient BPS system, the real
algorithm. The interpolation feature is simply a challenge is to minimize the errors of interpolation.
method to give fast feedback of the results "yet-to- As with any approximate method, the utility of multi-
be-simulated". While it is strictly not required in the variate interpolation cannot be overextended. While
sentient BPS system, the interpolation algorithm can various techniques exist in error minimization (e.g.
give the building designer faster and more detailed Lagrange multipliers for Kriging (Vapnyarskii, 2010)),
feedback with fewer simulations, but it also intro- we have simply attempted to quantify the errors that
duces an element of uncertainty into the system. can occur in multivariate interpolation. The reason of
The user may get fast feedback from an incom- this, as it follows, is to show where to expect large er-
plete results database as illustrated in Figure 4. In rors and accordingly seek to avoid them.
the prototype implementation the performance met- In Figure 5 is shown the process of estimating
rics is daylight factors. Here interpolation was per- the error from GridDataN in the system. The errors
formed over 648 individual results when a request is are calculated by subtracting the interpolated results
sent from the user. Each of these 648 results corre- with the actual simulated results. To simplify it fur-
sponds to 648 measurement-points of daylight fac- ther the numerical value of this difference is used to
tors in a planar grid. This means every time the user estimate the effect of simulation variable resolution
sends a request with a new set of variable states (in levels, equation (2).
Figure 4, two dimensions, x and y, representing width Errors of the simple case of the two-dimensional

Figure 4
The interpolation
process of using
GridDataN, here
showed with a
two-dimensional
interpolation F(x,y),
where x is the width
and y the height of
a window. F
represents the
performance metric
daylight factor [%]
in 648
measurement-
points (seen as
colors on a plane).
The red dots
represent a unique
product of
simulation from interpolation are shown in figure 6. It is seen in the vary much from one solution to the other. Nonethe-
DIVA. The blue dot upper left corner that even two exact simulations less estimating daylight factors of 2% or below was
represents the" vary due to stochastic variations in simulation tool reasonable precise even with a fraction of the simu-
lookup" procedure DIVA. Based on two previously discussed variables lations done.
handled by the x,y, each variable has a resolution of 9, which follows When a higher resolution level is analyzed
interpolation a variable resolution level of: (9 · 9)⁄80≈1. (9 · 9)⁄35 = 2.25, the errors rises accordingly. From
algorithm. The interpolation performs reasonably well, the various test performed with the system, it was
however errors tend to accumulate near the window, found that variable resolution levels should not ex-
thus affecting the highest result values. The reason ceed the level 10, since it generated too great er-
is associated with the inter-dimensional increasing rors to be a useful guide to the designer. Neverthe-
numeric variations in the larger values, which means less much work still need to be done in quantifying a
more simulations may be needed where changes general assumption of error levels, number of para-
Figure 5
The absolute error
of interpolation is
simply the absolute
value of
interpolated result
subtracted from the
actual simulated
result.

Figure 6
The absolute error
of interpolation
related to the
resolution level
(higher level means
fewer simulation s
available for the
interpolation
algorithm).

metric variables and variable resolutions. General- this particular variable does not matter for the user,
ization is further problematic when relationships be- the system does not know the difference of inter-
tween variables have strong oscillations or disconti- variable importance. This results in significantly more
nuities. This suggests that, it may be advantageous to simulations with e.g. greenish glass, and thus giving
attempt to script additional relations between vari- the results of the combinations with all other vari-
ables, particularly in the case of abstract problems for ables based on this color. Greenish glass poses no
which the topology of the input and output spaces physical major significance for e.g. thermal perfor-
may not be clear a priori, as to produce a relationship mance and building energy consumption. However,
which is as smooth as possible. if the color green was somehow associated to the
In the prototype system, the discontinuities of window pane g-value, the thermal performance and
variables have to be identified by the user. In most energy consumption will be very much affected by
cases, e.g. variables such as number of windows, type the choice of state. Of this reason it is suggested in
of glazing, and enumerations in general, the user can future research to implement a variable importance
easily identify the discontinuities, however, in some function.
cases e.g. where geometry "jumps" from a state to
another, the discreteness can be difficult to identify. FURTHER STEPS TOWARDS SENTIENT BPS
While only weight-function t autodidact seeks to
SYSTEMS
predict the user interest, weight-function w is more
Regression is concerned with modelling the rela-
of a service for the designer to validate, or refine his or
tionship between variables, but unlike interpolation
her own intuition of the building performance. The
methods, regression does not need a continuous
inclusion of weight-function w was found necessary
stream of results data to function (although, regres-
in providing the user a feel of control over the model.
sions are often constructed on vast amounts of em-
Weight function s was found necessary to include
piric data). Regression can iteratively be refined by
into the model because it helped the interpolation al-
using a measure of error in the predictions made by
gorithm to get enough data to make the multivariate
the model. Regression methods are a work horse
interpolations distributed more uniformly in the vast
of statistics and in future sentient systems regres-
space of interest. The function also acted as a contin-
sion may be a natural next step for improved inter-
uous generalist refiner for the result database, thus
dimensional estimations of building performance
counteracting the weight function t. If the model
simulation results.
was left completely unattended the weight function
One of the most promising directions towards
s makes sure every combination of every variable-
sentient BPS systems may be found in the fast grow-
state is pulled through the coupled BPS tool.
ing field of machine learning. Of the various direc-
The actual interesting weight-function t is in-
tions in research some popular methods are men-
credibly simple as a concept and in its implementa-
tioned; neural networks, Gaussian processes, sup-
tion. The impression that a preferred state is likely
port vector machines, nearest neighbors, however
to stay the same throughout the design process is
there are many others. The way the prototype sen-
quite reasonable, however in many real situations
tient system interpolates between the multidimen-
this might not be the case.
sional results, and gradually becomes more certain
A user might not alter a variable simply because
over time, can be compared to many implemented
the variable is of less importance to the user. This
machine learning concepts. However, the proposed
could be the color-tone of a window pane or some-
prototype system cannot be classified as a machine
thing else of minor interest, in terms of larger build-
learning system, of the simple reason that a hypoth-
ing design perspective. While this preferred state of
esis set (training data) is not a necessity for the system

to work. Machine learning may very well be used to Thesis, Technical University of Denmark.
further improve the prediction of user preferred solu- Perkov, TP, THP 2014, Metode til kontinuerlig præciser-
tions, thus further narrow the the amount of simula- ing af simuleringsresultater, Master's Thesis, Techni-
cal University of Denmark.
tions needed. Nonetheless, the problem with many
Shi, X., XS and Yang, W., WY 2013, 'Performance-driven
machine learning algorithms are they often need vast architectural design and optimization technique
amounts of data to train the system effectively [7]. from a perspective of architects', Automation in Con-
This needs to be addressed in future sentient BPS sys- struction, 32, pp. 125-135
tem builds. Pedersen, F. Ø., FØP 2006, A method for optimizing the
performance of buildings, Ph.D. Thesis, Technical Uni-
versity of Denmark.
CONCLUSION [1] www.autodesk.com/products/autodesk-simulation-
Sentient BPS systems are yet to be seen as a sta- family/features/robot-structural-analysis
ble and agile implementation. Much work is needed [2] www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Chess
in the area of predicting building designer requests. [3] www.grasshopper3d.com
[4] www.apps1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/energyplus/energyplus_-
Better, more adaptable multivariate interpolation
about.cfm
methods needs to be utilized. Additional features [5] www.encyclopediaofmath.org/Lagrange_multipli-
e.g. feedback of suboptimal directions will be highly ers
beneficial for the sentience of the system. Neverthe- [6] www.bentley.com/GetGC
less, the implementation of "sentient", also meaning [7] www.rtw.ml.cmu.edu
"responsive", BPS systems promises the building de- [8] http://www.rhino3d.com
[9] http://diva-for-rhino.com
signer a fast feedback with valid results.
[10] http://www.mathworks.se/products/matlab
REFERENCES
Bleil de Souza, C, BDS 2012, 'Contrasting paradigms of
design thinking: The building thermal simulation
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Klitgaard, Jens, JK, Kirkegaard, Poul Henning, PHK and
Mullins, Michael, MM 2006 'On the Integration of
Digital Design and Analysis Tools', Digital Architec-
ture and Construction, South Korea, pp. 187-196
Negendahl, K., KN 2013, 'Building Performance Simula-
tion in the early design stage: An introduction to In-
tegrated Dynamic Models', Submitted to Automation
in Construction, ., p. .
Caldas, L., LC 2001, An evolution-based generative design
system: using adaptation to shape architectural form,
Ph.D. Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Burry, M., MB 2013, Scripting cultures: Architectural design
and programming, AD Primers
Sullivan, R, RS, Arasteh, D, DA, Papamichael, K., KP and
McCluney, R., RMC 1988, 'An indices approach for
evaluating the performance of fenestration systems
in nonresidential buildings', ASHRAE Transactions,
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Petersen, S., SP 2011, Simulation-based support for inte-
grated design of new low-energy office buildings, Ph.D.

Integrative Computational Design Methodology for
Composite Spacer Fabric Architecture
Taichi Kuma1 , Moritz Dörstelmann2 , Marshall Prado3 , Achim Menges4
1
Stuttgart University, Germany 2,3,4 Institute for Computational Design,
Stuttgart University, Germany
2,3,4
http://icd.uni-stuttgart.de
1
tai.kuma.0902@gmail.com 2,3,4 {moritz.doerstelmann|marshall.prado|
achim.menges}@icd.uni-stuttgart.de
Spacer fabrics are 3D warp-knitted fabrics, which have a volumetric structure.

Together with the capacity to differentially stretch and contract, these materials
allow three dimensional which is specific to spacer fabrics. The authors present a
computational design methodology which enables the generation of form based
on these material characteristics and local, regional and global material
manipulations. Such a process can not only generate functional surface
articulations, but also control the forming of spatial textile geometries. As a resin
infused composite structure the spacer fabric can serve as architectural
construction and building envelope. This new methodology to develop fibrous
and textile morphology is contrary to a traditional hierarchical design process,
which is based on a linear strategy from design to implementation. The
investigation methods are based on analogue material experimentation and
integration of the materials behaviour into a computational design process. Such
a feedback process can unfold potential material morphologies and performances
of spacer fabric as an architectural material.
Keywords: Integrative computational design, Fibre composite structure, Spacer

fabric, Material Computation, Form Finding
INTRODUCTION brous and textile morphology and to explore the

The authors present a design and fabrication potential applications in the architectural field.
methodology for a fabric structure composed of 3D This research is strongly related to a series of
warp-knitted fabric, which can be solidified by resin form-finding experiments by Frei Otto. Similar to the
for structural rigidity after the geometry is defined Frei Otto experiments, the research started from a se-
by manipulations. Composite structures utilising ries of physical experiments. Both areas of research
fibrous fabrics are already widely used, especially find the material form as a state of equilibrium of in-
within automotive and ship building industries. This ternal resistances and external forces. While most of
paper proposes a new methodology to develop fi- Frei Otto's form finding processes use abstract model

scale material representations to find the global mor- tween the physical model and the computational
phology of a system. (Menges 2007); the aim of this model helps in understanding of the material sys-
research is to explore a design methodology for a tem, which is related to not only morphology but
specific material. This methodology is based on ma- also to performance. Although, physical experimen-
nipulation of the fabric in order to simulate, design, tation is a good way of intuitively manipulating the
and fabricate architectural structures. These local, re- material, in order to quickly explore design poten-
gional, and global manipulations, differ in scale and tials while abstracting the material system's charac-
purpose and are interrelated within the material and teristics and constraints, a computational method is
global system. In this sense the manipulations do not appropriate. This research therefore analyses the ma-
only generate a surface articulation, but also control terial both physically and computationally which can
the global geometry. unfold potential material morphologies and perfor-
mance.
INTEGRATIVE COMPUTATIONAL PROCESS Contrary to a traditional architectural design pro-
Computational tools can extend design possibilities cess, which follows a linear logic from design to im-
by the integration of structural analysis and digi- plementation, this process has a reciprocal informa-
tal fabrication criteria. Exchanging information be- tion structure (Figure 1). Even though initial geom-
etry is used as an input to control the architectural
Figure 1
Integrative
Computation
Design Process

intent and scope, the final geometry emerges after scale, even though the system has interesting geo-
several iterations of the computational tool and fab- metrical or performative aspects. Since this research
rication process. The geometry is updated according focuses on elastic and continuous material, dynamic
to integration of the information from physical exper- relationships between local and global form can be
iment, computational simulation, structural analysis, maintained in the fabrication process. However, the
and fabrication constraints. As a result, this process application of textile material is still limited in archi-
can generate architecture which is embedded with tectural field mainly because of its structural prop-
more information than conventional architecture. erty. Therefore, the research initially starts to look at
spacer fabric which has the scalability because of its
Figure 2 property (Figure 2).
Spacer Fabric The pile, a three dimensional parallel ordered ar-
rangement of monofilaments between the top and
bottom mesh of the spacer textile, adds thickness to
the fabric structure. In contrast to two dimensional
fabrics the strong filaments in the pile provide a rel-
ative amount of compressive strength and bending
stiffness while the textile remains very lightweight
(Knecht 2006). Also, this material has the capacity to
differentially stretch and contract through geomet-
ric deformation, which offers the possibility to drape
Figure 3
the spacer fabric over complex double curved sur-
3D Spacer Textile
faces with no need for seams or cut patterns (Menges
Composites / Nico
2009). Architectural applications of spacer fabric
Reinhardt / 2007-08
have already been explored in research at the Depart-
HfG Offenbach
ment for Form Generation and Materialisation, by the
co-author at HfG Offenbach. One example involves
the design and fabrication of double-curved furni-
ture, which required five-axis CNC milled moulds.
Another example instrumentalizes local form-finding
processes in order to differentiate continuous 3D tex-
tile glass fibre composite surfaces (Hensel et al 2008)
(Figure 3). A series of local manipulations provide
structural depth, and create complex emerging sur-
face articulations. Moreover, the spacer textile has
MATERIAL SYSTEM: SPACER FABRIC variations of weaving pattern, thickness, and elas-
The integrative design process is based on a specific ticity for several usages. Although the majority of
material system. By analysing the material character- spacer fabrics are made from polyester it is possible
istics of the spacer fabric carefully, the new potentials to manufacture glass fiber spacer fabric. These fabri-
of the material system can be unfolded. This creates cation parameters allow the production of very thick
a bottom-up approach for the architectural design. glass fiber spacer textiles that would be suitable for
On the other hand, to become a useful building el- large scale applications. Based on the methodologies
ement the material needs to have scalability. Other- of these precedent researches, and the potential for
wise, the application is limited to furniture or pavilion performative material applications the possibility of

using spacer fabric in an architectural proposal is de- generating form. Pinches with opposing directional-
veloped, by integrating form generation with struc- ities that are equally distributed on the fabric, such
tural design and fabrication methods. The novelty as horizontally and vertically oriented pinches, main-
of this research is that the combination of local, retain a thickened local deformation though the effec-
gional and global manipulations controls the geom- tive global deformation of each individual pinch is
etry without any formwork. negated creating a globally flat geometry.
Figure 4
PHYSICAL EXPERIMENTS This is a figure
Through physical prototyping, a catalogue of form-
generation strategies for the fabric manipulations
was developed for local, regional, and global ma-
nipulations. These manipulations are achieved by
pinching various points of the spacer fabric and con-
necting them with plastic cable ties which partially
squeezes the textile. This contraction of either the
top or bottom mesh results in a bending deformation
of the three dimensional fabric structure. First, each
manipulation is applied manually. Second, accord-
ing to the deformation of each pinch, successive ma- Figure 5
nipulation are determined iteratively through a com- Local Manipulation
putational tool. Finally, this process shows the rela- (multiple pinches)
tionship between the 2D pattern of pinches and the
resulting 3D geometry.
There are three different steps of material manip-
ulations for generating form. First, global system ar-
ticulation, such as rolling, twisting or hanging, the
fabric can be approximately transformed to specific
3D geometry. Second, based on this geometry, the
fabric is locally manipulated to further control the
surface and increase structural depth. By accumulat- Based on the pattern which is locally deformed
ing locally differentiated manipulations, the spacer and globally flat, a density difference is applied to the
fabric can be transformed into complex geometries. pattern in this experiment. The pattern is manipu-
The process of physical experimentation and compu- lated by only pinching the top layer of fabric. The
tational simulation are conducted simultaneously as used fabric sheet is 1.4m by 0.5m with a thickness
both processes inform each other. of 1.5cm. The pattern of manipulations is denser in
the center than the peripheral area. Thus the amount
MANIPULATIONS of deformation in the center part and the peripheral
Local Manipulation area become gradually different. Because of the vari-
Due to the material continuity, elasticity and stiffness ation in density, the overall geometry deforms glob-
even a single pinch affects the global geometry (Fig- ally as well (Kuma 2013). This creates an arch like
ure 4). The larger the pinch width is, the more de- shape, with the top forming the inside of the arch
formation both locally and globally. This means the (Figure 5). Although, it supports the self-weight in
pinch size and directionality are decisive factors for this scale, it is not rigid enough to keep the geome-

try at a larger scale. In this sense, manipulations only Regional Manipulation
provide the tendency to define the global geome- Regional manipulations are controlled by the inter-
try though, these accumulated local manipulations action of multiple local pinches (Figure 6). The fab-
have the potential to partially reinforce the geome- ric between pinches is deformed if the distance be-
try in a global model. More decisive manipulations tween manipulation points is within a range deter-
are needed to accurately determine the global geom- mined by the stiffness of the material. This gener-
etry. ates a larger deformation than one which is gener-
ated by the individual local manipulations. There-
Figure 6
fore, regional manipulation can easily connect the
Regional
deformations in the global geometry and generate
Manipulation
a "flow" of surface articulation (Figure 7). Using this
(single pinch),
technique of continuous deformation, the curvature
can be smoothly controlled. Regional manipulation
can also reinforce the global geometry by thicken-
ing the surface and distributing weak points to avoid
continuous fold lines in the structure.
Global Manipulation
Compared to local and regional manipulation, global
manipulations change the geometry dynamically.
Figure 7
For example, even one single long-span pinch can
Regional
deform the entire geometry by connecting strategic
Manipulation
points together. Hanging the fabric is also a method
(multiple pinches)
of global manipulation. Since spacer fabric has cer-
tain weight, the effect of pinching manipulation can
be emphasized by gravity (Figure 8). Global manipu-
lation can deform global geometry more efficiently,
using fewer manipulations. Consequently, local and
regional manipulations are used to modify and rein-
force the base geometry crested from global manip-
ulations (Figure 9).
Figure 8
Global COMPUTATIONAL SIMULATION
Manipulation Based on this physical prototyping, the 3D form is
(hanging) simulated using a live physics engine. In this ap-
proach, the entire knitted pattern is translated to a
system of particles and springs, and the elasticity of
the spacer fabric is controlled by variables such as the
stiffness and rest length of these springs. In addition,
two meshes, consisting of particles and springs for
top and bottom layer of the spacer fabric are used
to show curvature changes. By applying additional
springs to this setup, the geometry is relaxed and

the simulation provides the approximate geometry STRUCTURAL INTEGRATION
of the manipulation. The relevant variables are deter- In addition to this form generation system, struc-
mined by comparing physical models with the com- tural analysis is utilized in the design system, and
putational simulation. Likewise, the computational integrated with form generation to calibrate the
process is tested iteratively to find a way of control- structural contribution of both the overall curvature
ling geometry. According to the output geometry and the local undulations resulting from local textile
of relaxation, the successive manipulation points are gathering (Menges 2009). First, the physical model
defined by analysing the curvature of mesh in the shows how the local undulated pattern contributes
digital model (Figure 10, 11). By using this simulation to the global geometry by using load case tests. Sub-
tool, pinching patterns can easily be tested compu- sequently, it is analysed by computational tools using
tationally to examine the potential deformation in a a finite element method (FEM). Generally, based on
physical model. principal moment lines and force flow lines, the fab-
ric can be reinforced by differentiated pinching pat-
Figure 9
terns.
Global
Manipulation +
FABRICATION Regional
Robotic Integration Manipulation
The fabrication process incorporates existing fibrous
composite technology and digital fabrication meth-
ods. For added speed and accuracy, the hand pinch-
ing manipulation can be replaced by the 6 axis
robotic arm in the fabrication process. In this devel- Figure 10
oping scenario, a series of fabric manipulations are Computational
applied robotically and interactively. For example, Simulation of
the robot finds the successive pinching points on the Spacer Textile by
complex surface by using a 3D scanning and image Physics Engine
processing method (Figure 12). 3D Scanning data is (local manipulation)
then analyzed computationally. Iteratively, a com-
parison between the in-process geometric state of
fabric and guide geometry is utilized to detect the
area with the highest deviation in terms of the cur-
vature. Subsequently, the necessary manipulation is
calculated for this area and is applied to the fabric ei-
ther in a manual process, a robotically assisted pro-
cess, or in a potentially fully automated robotic fab- Figure 11
rication process (Figure 13). This iterative process is Computational
repeated until the fabric is transformed into a form Simulation of
within a specific range of deviation from the guide Spacer Textile by
geometry. This adaptive robotic process can increase Physics Engine
speed, tolerance and redundancy of fabrication. (regional
manipulation)

Figure 12 fabric finds it form through several steps of manipu-
Robotic lations. Subsequently the resin in the fabric can be
Manipulation cured by controlling the temperature or by treating
integrated with 3D with UV-light.Alternatively the soft and flexible hap-
scanning tic nature of the material can locally be maintained
through selective resin infusion. This allows for the
integration of interior design features and structural
design.
ARCHITECTURAL APPLICATION
The potential in this fibrous spacer fabric reinforcing
Figure 13 process is the development of a self-supporting en-
Information Flow closed structure without use of extensive formwork
for Robotic in which there are many architectural applications.
Fabrication New architectural tectonics can be generated with
complex spatial arrangements utilizing the specific
character of spacer fabric (Figure 14, 15) . The emerg-
ing surface articulations can be instrumentalized to
modulate performative criteria such as structural re-
inforcement, acoustics and thermal regulation. Espe-
cially the characteristic soft light conditions and re-
ciprocal relation between structural depth and light
transmission have the potential to create stunning in-
terior qualities. As a building envelope in particular,
this new fibrous design methodology explores an ar-
chitectural potential to create a weatherproof, habit-
able space in a large scale.
Figure 14
Prototype_A
Structure by Spacer
Fabric
Matrix Application
Spacer fabrics can be infused with resin and solidified
into the controlled geometry. This can be done either
before or after adding the manipulations. Currently
the resin is applied in a manual process during the
physical experiments. Potentially the fabrics can be
pre-impregnated with resin before applying the ma-
nipulations and stored at cold temperatures, slowing
the catalyzation process. After the resin infusion, the

Figure 15
Prototype_B Space
by Spacer Fabric
CONCLUSION als forming behavior through gradual transitions in

The research demonstrates the potential design mesh size and variable stiffness through controlled
methodology of spacer fabric architecture by inte- monofilament density. The possibility to fabricate
grating physical prototyping, computational simula- customized multi-material spacer fabric would allow
tion and automated fabrication processes. Further local enhancement and integration various material
research will focus on fabrication of a 1:1 demonstra- performances, such as structural reinforcement, light
tor and the development of a fully automated fabri- transmission and insulation properties. This could
cation process. Since the manufacturer of spacer fab- also apply for the integration of soft electronics into
ric has limitations for material sizes that can be pro- the fabric.
duced, modularity of elements for larger scale appli- Further fabric customization could not only in-
cations and on-site assembly may be considered. The clude material variations but also allow individual
robotic fabrication process could potentially produce fiber arrangements within multi-axial spacer fabrics.
mass-customised components, which will be assem- Such a material would enable further structural dif-
bled, for various architectural demands. ferentiation through anisotropic fiber reinforcements
Full control over the fabrics production param- and achieve a higher degree of material efficiency.
eters and their integration into the computational This architectural design and fabrication
design process could expand the material systems methodology could combine the soft and light ap-
capacity. This could allow variations in the materi- pearance of textiles, increased functional integration

and highly efficient lightweight construction into
novel atmospheric and performative tectonics in ar-
chitectural design.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research was mainly conducted in Institute for
Computational Design, University of Stuttgart. And,
the spacer fabric was sponsored by Heinrich Essers
GmbH & Co KG / Essedea GmbH & Co KG.
REFERENCES
Brebbia, C.A, de Wilde, W.P and Blain, W.R 1988
'Computer Aided Design in Composite Material
Technology', Computational Mechanics Publications,
Southampton
Gay, D, Hoa, S.V and Tsai, S.W 2003 'CompositeMaterials:
Design and Applications', CRC Press, London
Hensel, M and Menges, A (eds) 2008, , Form Follows Per-
formance: Zur Wechselwirkung von Material, Struktur,
Umwelt, ArchPlus No. 188, ArchPlus Verlag, Aachen
Kuma, T 2014 'Shrink Film Architecture', Rethinking
Comprehensive Design: Speculative Counterculture,
Proceedings of the 19th International Conference of
the Association of Computer-Aided Architectural De-
sign Research in Asia CAADRIA 2014, Kyoto, p. pp.
181–190
Menges, A 2007 'Computational Morphogenesis – Inte-
gral Form Generation and Materialization Processes',
Proceedings of the Third International Conference of
the Arab Society for Computer Aided Architectural De-
sign, pp. 725-744
Menges, A 2009 'Integral Computational Design for
Composite Spacer Fabric Structures: Integral Pro-
cesses of Form Generation and Fabrication for Sand-
wich Structured Composites with 3D Warp-Knitted
Textile Core', Session 09: Modes of Production -
eCAADe 27, pp. 289-298
Menges, A (eds) 2012, Material Computation – Higher In-
tegration in Morphogenetic Design, Architectural De-
sign, Vol. 82 No. 2, Wiley Academy, London

Deceptive Landscape Installation
Algorithmic patterning strategies for a small pavilion
Asterios Agkathidis1 , Tuba Kocaturk2

1,2
Liverpool School of Architecture, University of Liverpool
1
http://www.liv.ac.uk/architecture/
1,2
{asterios.agkathidis|t.kocaturk}@liv.ac.uk
This paper reflects a collaborative, research led design project, aiming to explore
the potentials offered by incorporating parametric / generative tools and
performative lighting simulation software in order to design and fabricate a small
pavilion for the School of Architecture. The Deceptive Landscape pavilion was
designed in the framework of a masters level, research led, and collaborative
design studio. During its intense 12 weeks schedule, student teams were asked to
explore and apply generative / parametric tools such as Rhino and Grasshopper,
in order to design and later construct a small pavilion, with a theme of their
choice. In addition, each team was asked to optimise their design proposal by
embedding environmental software plug-ins (e.g. DIVA for Rhino) in their design
process, thereby aiming to re-inform their parametric models and set
performance targets. Finally each team was expected to propose a file to factory
fabrication technique, following all constrains of a limited, predetermined
budget. The most convincing and consistent proposal, was then chosen for
fabrication. The finalised project serves as verification of the effectiveness of the
design system and teaching methods used.
Keywords: generative design, parametric design, pavilion installation,

fabrication,
INTRODUCTION metric tools and environmental simulation software

This paper is a further example of seeking to incor- in one single generative design tool. In addition, we
porate research through design and fabrication of are investigating how such an approach can be in-
1:1 realized construction as described in the Tree- corporated into an educational, postgraduate design
Structure canopy project, co-developed by the au- studio environment, by engaging students into re-
thor (Agkathidis and Brown, 2013) for the West- search, development, application and assessment of
endGate tower in Frankfurt upon Main. It serves performative / generative design tools into architec-
three different, but complimentary aims; firstly to ex- tural design. Finally, it is exploring innovative ped-
plore the possibilities occurring by combining para- agogical methods, linked to collaborative teaching

and learning strategies in digital integrated design. levels of familiarity and interests in the wider spec-
In this framework, our main research questions trum of design (e.g. technical, theoretical, manage-
can be summarized as follows: ment).
Our main response to tackle these pedagogical
• How can we link parametric / generative mod-
challenges was, firstly, through the preparation of
elling methods (e.g. through Panelling tools
the brief, and secondly, through a rather experimen-
for Grasshopper) with environmental simula-
tal approach we attained in the structuring, distribu-
tion (e.g. through DIVA) in order to continu-
tion and management of the 3 distinct dimensions
ously inform the design process with regards
of learning - individual, distributed and guided - in
to sustainability criteria and performance?
the context of a highly technology-mediated design
• How can such an approach be coupled with studio. On the distributed level, creative, technical
CNC (computer numerically controlled) fabri- and intellectual expertise were distributed to provide
cation parameters, embedded in a parametric support and inspiration for students engaged in a
system? group design project. On the individual level, stu-
dents were encouraged to steer their own learning
• How effective is the pedagogic approach that process and become self-aware of their own learning
we took in making these innovative links be- experiences. The guidance was provided by the tu-
tween design/optimization/fabrication in ar- tors acting as "curators" instead of "instructors". In
chitectural technology education? other words, instead of dispensing knowledge, we
aimed to create spaces where students could build,
PEDAGOGICAL APPROACH explore and connect different knowledge elements
The project described in this paper is one of the 10 and skill sets. In this regard, our role was to pro-
group design projects developed in the context of vide interpretation, direction, provocation and guid-
Arch 423 Design studio module in the MA in Architec- ance as and when necessary. For example, students
ture masters course in the School of Architecture, at were expected to follow the online video tutorials of
the University of Liverpool. One of the challenges we Rhinoceros and Grasshopper (provided on the course
faced throughout the studio was to embed a rather web-site) as part of their individual learning, at the
complex computational design challenge in a design pace and order suggested by the tutors, at the begin-
studio module with very specific learning outcomes, ning of the semester. The first few weeks were front-
with students who have very little or no prior knowl- loaded with theoretical lectures and seminars where
edge of computational design and no prior experi- all students were engaged in highly interactive dis-
ence with parametric design tools, within a 15 credit cussions on the subject matter to form the founda-
module, with only 2 hours contact time per week. tional intellectual basis that was deemed minimum
Therefore we had to come up with a rather innova- to build before they got engaged in any tool-driven
tive pedagogical approach to make sure to comply design activity.
with the predefined learning outcomes, and at the Although this studio module could be consid-
same time to deliver some of the necessary theoret- ered as a typical "parametric design studio", in terms
ical knowledge, concepts and practical skills to the of its content and the design methodology ad-
students so that they could feel confident to tackle vocated throughout the semester; we deliberately
the design challenge. Another issue we needed to avoided too much emphasis on the "tool" aspect in
consider carefully was the fact that a majority of the the formulation of the brief; but rather put the em-
students were international students coming from phasis on an "informed" design process. Therefore,
various different educational backgrounds (e.g. ar- the parametric design process had been introduced
chitecture, engineering design, interior design) and

as a means (instead of an end) in identifying, select- were not only limited to the "display" of the design
ing, optimizing, selectively sharing, controlling and artefact/information produced, but were also utilized
linking parameters (information) in a the design of a to "personalize, share, reflect and display what they
pavilion. The design, development and production (each group) have learned and produced collectively.
of the pavilion had been emphasized as a collabora- Therefore, the learned elements (knowledge) dis-
tive design task, to be conducted as a team-work, played in the digital portfolios were required to be
with team members who were assigned both in- structured and interlinked in such a way that differ-
dividual and group tasks for this particular design as- ent learned elements could be compiled, organized,
signment. The design teams were composed of 3 represented and shared selectively. At key times dur-
members, acting as; ing the semester, students were asked to share their
wikis in conversations with their tutors and peers.
• Design Architect
• Manufacturing and Sustainability Consultant CREATING A GENERATIVE DESIGN SYSTEM

The Deceptive Landscape pavilion was conceived as
• Knowledge and Communication Manager an algorithmic patterning field, controlled by a set
of point attractors, determined by paths of the users
Instead of starting the task of pavilion design by trajectories. It is a design approach similar to the
solving "design problems" imposed by the instruc- one described in the "InfoMatters" research project
tors (through the brief ); the students were expected (Biliria, 2011). In this case however, all attractor-
to define cross-disciplinary challenges and possible points were determined by using the Paneling Tools
problems, collaboratively, and then try to bring inno- for Grasshopper plug-in. Thus, a generative design
vative solutions through associative and parametric tool was developed, able to associate the visitors
modelling (thinking). In addition to the theory and movement path trajectories to variable degrees of
knowledge acquired through formal lectures, i.e., the field's density, aiming to achieve different zones
know-what and know-how, group-design learning of light intensity, as well as the users visibility-visual
experience enabled the students to identify cross- deformation, hence deception. It is a Grasshopper
disciplinary objectives and thereby develop know- script (Figure 1), based on the "c-cluster" grid and the
why knowledge in a situated context. "pt-PointAttractors" components.
In addition to the design task, the second part The visitors walking path trajectory, defined by
of the assignment focused on the creation, represen- the designer, acts as the main parameter of deforma-
tation and sharing of new design knowledge by the tion allowing the grid to transform its density, its size,
students. Each design its height as well as the diameter of the units forming
group were asked to create an online digital port- it (Figure 2). In that way, various iterations associated
folio (embedded into Blackboard and set as wiki- to different path scenarios could be explored.
sites for each individual group) to manage, coordi- In order to materialise the field and achieve dif-
nate and document their team interaction during the ferent degrees of light intensity, visibility and visual
life-cycle of the design process. The digital portfo- deformation, the team decided to use transparent,
lios of each group were composed of both individ- acrylic tubes. Through their cylindrical shape, ra-
ual and team input. The students were required to dius, material property and arrangement (e.g. vari-
use multi-modal representations, to articulate both able density and height), they appear to disrupt the
the knowledge they have acquired throughout the visitors vision, visibility and perception while walking
"collaborative" design process and the relationship of / standing in it and looking to the outside, or the
this knowledge to the evolution of the design arte-
fact. In other words, the use of the digital portfolios

Figure 1
Generative GH
script using
paneling tools
LINKING GENERATIVE DESIGN SYSTEMS Figure 2

WITH PERFORMANCE Transformable grid
In order to determine and assess the different il- / trajectory system
lumination intensity occurring by the grids chang-
ing density, the team decided to integrate the DIVA
for Rhino plug in, a Grasshopper component, able
to simulate solar radiation maps and glare effects
among others. Unlike the Geco-Ecotect plug-in for
Grasshopper as explained in the "Bio Inspired Re-
sponsive Facade System" research paper (Dutt and
Das 2013), DIVA doesn't require the use of an addi-
tional software package (e.g. Ecotect) and runs en- Figure 3
tirely through the Rhino / Grasshopper interface (Fig- Visual deformation
ure 4). It promises faster and more accurate simula- achieved by acrylic
tion results and therefore it was preferred. tube
An additional base surface was added in the 3D
model, in order to specify the footprint of the as-
sessed area. The extruded pipe units deriving from
the previous script (Figure 1), were then connected to
the "material" Grasshopper component and then to
other way round. In addition, the three-dimensional the GM slot of the "DIVA Daylight" component. This
installation, could act as a visual filter, blurring or dis- was then connected to a "colour graph", which visu-
torting people and objects in it or behind it (Figure alises the variable daylight intensity of the parametric
3). The accumulation of all lighting and visual effects grid (Figure 5).
was expected to produce visual and spatial decep- All simulations indicated a graduate change in il-
tion. lumination intensity moving from the outer bound-

Figure 4
DIVA daylight
analysis component
for Grasshopper
Figure 5 ary towards the centre, with the most dense areas be-
Solar radiation map ing the darkest. The footprint's shape proved to be
by DIVA, square foot another relevant factor, hence an elongated rectan-
print, dense grid gular shape and a wider grid of pipes, appeared to
produce similar but less extreme illumination effects
(Figure 6).
In order to intensify the illumination variabil-
ity even more, we used the solar map as a guide
to form the installation's third dimension. By using
the "image sampler" component in Grasshopper, the
image map (Figure 6) was translated into a three-
dimensional extruded surface, where the high lumi-
Figure 6 nance areas (red colour) would be translated into
Solar radiation map the minimum height value (400mm), while the low
by DIVA, luminance areas (green colour) into the maximum
rectangular foot height value (2000mm) (Figure 7). All pipes were
print, reduced then trimmed according to the three-dimensional
density grid nurb surface.
EQUILIBRIUM BETWEEN FORM, PER-

FORMANCE, CONSTRUCTION COST AND
SAFETY REGULATIONS
The final design, was realised as an equilibrium be- meters were essential in determining the installa-
tween form, desired illumination performance, con- tion's final footprint, its height as well as the pipes di-
struction cost, assembly efficiency, as well as the ac- ameter and wall thickness.
tual location and safety requirements. All these para- The choice of the actual tube type, had a crucial

impact on keeping our expenses within the limited square), was quickly abandoned due to health and
budget. After going through an intensive market re- safety regulation requirements. The installation was
search we chose clear acrylic tubes with 70mm diam- allocated on an internal terrace, protected from pos-
eter and a wall thickness of 2mm. The pipe, proved sible vandalism and destruction instead. Neverthe-
to be stable enough to stand upright in all desired less, the chosen location would offer similar daylight
dimensions as well as wide enough in its diameter conditions to the location initially preferred, hence
to produce an optical deformation effect by looking appropriate for its assessment. In addition, the final
through it (Figure 3). position would be in a crossroad between the two
main building wings, hence visitors would be almost
Figure 7
forced to walk through it and interact with it. The in-
Solar radiation map
stallation's parametric model, proved to be a useful
translated into
tool, allowing us to iterate the impact of the differ-
three dimensional
ent footprints and location's daylight parameters, in
surface
order to finalize the installation (Figure 8).
FABRICATION AND ASSEMBLY TECH-

NIQUES
In the early project stages, two main fabrication tech-
niques were examined and evaluated in relation to
their feasibility, construction cost and desirable ef-
fect. Option one would consider, the use of trans-
parent or translucent acrylic tubes, assembled on
an MDF timber platform. Acrylic tubes are a stan-
dardised product, offered in various diameters and
Figure 8
lengths, parameters which can be embedded in the
Visualization of final
initial generative Grasshopper script, thus inform the
installation using
design and optimisation process. Similar tubes have
Vray for Rhino
been used in the " Bulgari Pavilion" for the Abu Dhabi
Art 2012 project, designed by NaNA [1].
In addition, option two would consider the pos-
sibility of using a non-standardised product, such as
tubes, which could be rolled together out of PVC
sheets, as shown in the "Tubular Framework" design
project (Ljubas 2010). In this case, the component
sizes can be completely flexible, however each pipe
unit has to be "unrolled" and CNC cut out of PVC
sheets and then rolled up in a tubular shape. De-
spite the fact that the second option was less expen-
The installation's final footprint (1918mmx 3760mm) sive than the first, it was quickly abandoned due to
was strongly related to its actual location, a factor its higher complexity in fabrication and assembly.
which proved to be highly unstable through the en- In order to minimise the amount of different pipe
tire design process. Our initial intention of placing lengths, as well as the total number of them required,
the piece on a public outdoor area (e.g a park or a we have customized all pipe-components into nine.

As the standard pipe is produced in 2000 mm long assembly joints between tube and boards.
units, the final pieces were designed as complimen- Option 1, would examine fixing the tube on a
tary fragments of the same 2 meter long pipe, reduc- 25mm plywood board, by using a timber ring joint,
ing their total number into 92: screwed on the board, pressing the tube upright.
17 x (2m) + 21x(1.8m) + 16 x (0.4m+1.6m)+ 15 x Option 2 would examine the use of a double lay-
(1.4m+0.6m) +13 x ( 0.8m + 1.2m) + 7 x (1m*2) + 2 x ered base, composed out of two 25mm MDF boards.
(0.4m*5 ) + 1 x (1.2m+0.4m*2) =92. Each height has The tube would be stuck into a CNC routed hole.
been highlighted with a different colour (Figure 9). Finally, option 3 would examine 200mm box solu-
tion, where the pipe would be fixed in its two bases
Figure 9
(Figure 10). Eventually option 2 (a double layered
Final pipe
25mm MDF board sheet) proved to be the simplest,
components
most inexpensive and yet very stable, fulfilling all cri-
teria mentioned. Each pipe's footprint, was routed
a few millimetres smaller than the 70mm diameter,
thus a perfectly stable fit was achieved. No glue, or
other stabilising components were necessary. The fi-
nal base (1918mmx 3760mm) is composed out of 6
Figure 10 boards, held together by interlocking joints (Figure
3 different joint 11). Each pipe's height, was engraved next to its foot-
options print, thus easy assembly could be ensured and mis-
takes avoided.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

In retrospect to the entire design, fabrication and as-
Figure 11 sembly process, many valuable outputs may be de-
Installation's base rived. Starting with the attempt to integrate the
components DIVA component into the algorithmic patterning
Grasshopper script, it proved to be a valuable design
tool, which successfully combines design driven pa-
rameters with performative (e.g. environmental sim-
ulation). The designer is able to re-inform his ini-
tial design approach with the simulated data and
achieve performance coherent outputs.
The solar radiation simulation, appears to corre-
Considering the installation's base, following param- spond with the actual performance of the final instal-
eters where crucial for its final definition: stability, lation. Diva, proved to be a useful tool, easy to use
material cost, simplicity in assembly, aesthetics, as and respectably fast in simulating, especially in com-
well as the capability of reassembly, thus it could be parison to the Geco plug-in for Grasshopper, which
re-informed with further components (eg. led lights requires Ecotect as a simulation software, a parame-
and cables). We have examined three different ma- ter which increases the amount of RAM needed, thus
terial solutions including PVC foamex boards, birch slows down the process. However in both cases, cal-
plywood and MDF sheets in various sizes and thick- culation speed is always inversely related to simula-
nesses. In addition we have assessed thee different tion precision. In addition, the Grasshopper script de-

veloped for this project (Figure 1+2), could be eas- Figure 12
ily modified or extended, thus be applied in order to Installation blurring
design facades, canopies, other shading devises, as its suroundings
described at the "Performative Topologies" research
paper (Castorina 2012), however, as one integrated
design tool, or even for environment friendly urban
solutions, similar to the Generative Components and
Smart Geometry design tool by Bentley (Mueller and
Smith 2013).
However, it proved difficult to predict the visual
deception / deformation effects. This effects were
relying more on rendering and visualization plug-
ins, such as Vray, than the solar radiation simulation,
where the conflict between appealing and realistic
visual effects became evident.
By embedding parameters linked to fabrica-
tion, such as density of the grid, pipe radius, pipe
height and footprint of the base into the generative-
performative system, we were able to continue work-
ing on the project, despite the existence of uncertain
parameters (such as the actual site) and re-inform the
Figure 13
process with precise cost estimations.
People interacting
The integration of a real scale project in the de-
with the installation
sign studio's brief, proved to be a success, which mo-
tivated the students and introduced them into an en-
tirely new set of skills, which are usually excluded
from the design studio educational process, such as
the consideration of cost calculation, materiality, fab-
rication and assembly. The adaptation of such skills
in the students portfolio and CV, is expected to have
positive influence in the students employability.
Furthermore, the entire pedagogical approach,
including the three different student roles in every
team, as well as the use of digital portfolios, encour-
aged students to learn from each other and improved
their collaborative skills.
Never the less, the project stimulated the
school's contacts to the architectural industry and
served as an engine for the emergence of further re-
search questions, which shall be addressed in future
research projects.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT and SmartGeometry: Situates Software Develop-
Our great acknowledgments go to the School of ment', in Brady, P and Peters, T (eds) 2013, Inside
the Arts Research Development and Initiatives Fund, SmartGeometry, Expanding the Architectural Possibil-
ities of Computational Design, Wiley, Wiley, pp. 142-
who has trusted me with this grant; the teaching
153
team of the Computer Aided Architectural Design [1] http://www.archdaily.com/318538/bulgari-pavilion-
Project module, coordinated by Dr. Tuba Kocaturk nana
and tutored by Asterios Agkathidis and Alejandro
Veliz Reyes during the winter semester 2013-14 as
well Zhang Yidan, Ye Zhou, Wu Xiaoyun who devel-
oped this pavilion proposal.
In addition we would like to acknowledge all MA
students participating in the CAAD module in the
year 2013-2014, for their effort, team spirit and hard
work, Stuart Carroll, Michael Baldwin, Stephen Bret-
land and Aleksandar Kokai from the LSA's workshop,
as well as our guest jurors Professor André Brown.
and Mr. Michael Knight.
The online multimodal and reflective representa-
tion of design process in this collaborative design stu-
dio setting has been implemented as part of an on-
going research project funded by Higher Education
Academy (HEA).
REFERENCES
Agkathidis, A and Brown, A 2013, 'Tree-Structure
Canopy: A Case Study in Design and Fabrication of
Complex Steel Structures using Digital tools', Inter-
national Journal of Architecture and Computing, 11,
p. 87–104
Biloria, N 2011, 'InfoMatters, a multi-agent systems ap-
proach for generating performative architectural
formation', International Journal of Architecture and
Computing, 03, p. 205–222
Castorina, G 2012 'Performative Topologies: An Evo-
lutionary Shape Optimization Framework for Day-
lighting Performance Coupling a Particle-Spring
System With an Energy Simulation Tool', ACA-
DIA2012, San Francisco, pp. 479-490
Dutt, F and Das, S 2013, 'Computational Design of Bio In-
spired Responsive Architectural façade System', In-
ternational Journal of Architecture and Computing,
04, p. 613–633
Ljubas, A 2010, 'Tubular Framework', in Agkathidis, A
(eds) 2010, Digital Manufacturing in Design and Ar-
chitecture, BIS, Amsterdam, pp. 56-59
Mueller, V and Smith, M 2013, 'Generative Components

Morphogenesis and panelling, the use of generative tools
beyond academia.
Case studies and limits of the method.
Domenico D'Uva
Politecnico di Milano - Department of Architecture and Urban Studies
http://www.dastu.polimi.it/
doduva@gmail.com
The increasing complexity in architectural design brought a parallel evolution of

tools for shape generation and management. Digital tools which better fulfil this
need are the generative design software.The aim of this work is finding and
testing real life uses of generative design software beyond academic edges. The
specific target is transform a complex surface into a similar surface mostly made
of flat panels.As a testing ground it has been chosen the support in construction
of complex shapes made with ordinary and well known tools. The combination of
software used is Rhinoceros, with its plugin Grasshopper, and a couple of
opensource add-on, Lunchbox and Paneling tool. The cases are listed from the
simplest to the most complex, and the first four are solved with the automated
procedure, the fifth, manually. Based on the cases studied it is possible to confirm
that the method is applicable to the majority of the complex surfaces.
Keywords: Generative, Panelling, Discretization
INTRODUCTION shape. The first family of tools is composed of all soft-

The increasing complexity in architectural design ware able to document and optimize the design pro-
brought a parallel evolution of tools for shape gen- cess. In this family it is included Building informa-
eration and management. Digital tools which bet- tion Model. The second family, which is of main in-
ter fulfil this need are the generative design software. terest for the aim of this work, is composed by all the
Defining clearly this term is quite tough, because it tools that create shapes which is not wholly foresee-
is a new area in computer science, which lacks of able from the beginning of the process. Among these
cornerstone literature, that unifies terms and meth- equipments which populates architectural design, it
ods shared by the whole scientific community. A seemed important to understand the difference be-
brief framing is needed to understand the core of tween the tools only used for generating shapes, for
this issue. The starting step in framing digital tools the sake of complexity itself, and the tools which give
is the distinction between tools that document the a factual support in the form-generating process. At
design process and tools that eventually generate this time the use of generative design tool meant as

a shape generator, not only as a design documenta- the thought shape starts to be distorted.
tion is limited to some top-notch architectural firms
and academia. METHODS
The case studies, which were the proving ground
OBJECTIVE for these topics are five well-known buildings, which
The aim of this work is finding and testing real life were designed in a time span from 2004 to 2008. At
uses of generative design software able to manage the time of their design, the generative tools were
shape complexity without using front end tools. The software with a steep learning curve, because they
specific target is transform a complex surface into a were made by explicit scripting only, which knowl-
similar surface mostly made of flat panels. As a test- edge was much more limited than today in archi-
ing ground it has been chosen the support in con- tecture field, and available only to highly specialised
struction of complex shapes made with ordinary and firms. Today the issues related to these buildings may
well known tools. The combination of software used be solved with ordinary tools, even without explicit
is Rhinoceros, with its plugin Grasshopper, and a cou- coding.
ple of open source add-on, Lunchbox and Paneling The method applied starts from the understand-
tool. The choice of leaving outside direct scripting ing of the architectural shape, made by the analysis of
solutions is due to the adherence to the vast majority the geometrical features. The process of form finding
of professional design activities, where it is not com- is useful to gain a complete control over the possible
mon. A recent market analysis, reported that in Italy issues that the surface may encounter. All the geo-
the use is limited below 10% for the BIM solution, metrical analysis is held using Nurbs geometry, be-
and an astonishing 61% has absolutely no knowl- cause of the easiness in edit the primitives. Once the
edge of it. The Generative Design solutions are even shape has been completely defined it has been nec-
less common than BIM. Among the few who are ca- essary to transform Nurbs into Meshes because these
pable of, for the purpose of this work it has been con- are the standard entity to feed the numeric control
sidered a common task, the need to discretize com- machines, which manipulates the numeric control
plex surfaces into simple planar panels. For the pur- machines, which created the final shape. This op-
poses of this paper, the name of this procedure will eration is completed through the use of the add-on
be meant as panelling. The need for this operation is software abovementioned, which accomplished in
generated by the fact that a built facade, made up of most of the case the transformation required. Start-
curved panels is a much harder task, than constructing from complex non standard surfaces, the output
ing the same shape with planar elements, in term of is a series of flat panels, which gave the perception of
costs and construction issues. This process of dis- curvature once it has been assembled all together.
cretization is aimed toward the optimization of pan- The different complexities of the surfaces in case
els in terms of differentiation, curvature and cost. The studios has been accurately chosen to produce dif-
procedure aims at grouping panels into similar ele- ferent results and feedbacks which showed the limits
ments by reducing the curvature as much as possible, of this method. For four cases over five this process
up to the result of having most of the flat panels. It is had developed acceptable solutions, but the last and
fundamental to control these processes to reduce the more complex case, has created issues that had to be
problem connected with surfaces complexity, with- solved manually.
out creating new issues. It is evident that the dimen-
sion of the panels has a strict relation with the cost, CASE STUDIES
as the edges increases in size, so the cost is reduced, The case studies have been graphically rendered and
but this can be brought up to a certain point where analyzed through a thesis the Faculty of Architecture

in Politecnico di Milano, whose the author was the su- analyses the key transverse section and the main lon-
pervisor and the student is Elisa Beretta. gitudinal section which both are paramount to de-
The case studies are: fine the shape. The first section is composed by the
junction of a golden ratio arc with a circular arc. The
1. New Trade Fair by Massimiliano Fuksas second section is all composed of portions of circular
arcs of different radii. Once the surface is created with
2. The Sage Gateshead by Norman Foster
the given edge curves, there are holes to be applied
3. Swiss Re tower by Norman Foster along the bottom edges, created by the projection of
rotated parabolas and a free-form curve. The pan-
4. Peek and Cloppenburg department store by elization process aim at the subdivision of the main
Renzo Piano roofing structures into quadrangular panels. The tool
used in this case is Paneling Tools, which gives a cer-
5. Kunsthaus by Peter Cook. tain flexibility in the giving panel a given direction. In
fact the paneling is driven by two main perpendicular
The Rho Fair by Massimiliano Fuksas is a large com- directions.
plex mainly used for Exhibition purposes; the analy-
Figure 1
sis has been focused on the roofing structure toward
The Sage
the eastern entrance. The morphogenetic process
Gateshead. Analisys
starts with the geometrical decomposition of the top
of Gaussian
and of the bottom boundary curves that edge the
curvature
roofing. These curves are made by the smoothing of
two circular shapes by arc of circumference which re-
sults into a couple of ovoid shapes. These two curves,
rotated around a centric axial, are linked by profile
curves, which creates a vortex. Once all the curves
that create the edge have been pointed out, the sur-
face has been laid out by a sweeping operation. The
next step has been the panelization in flat triangles,
which has been made through Lunchbox. This pro-
cess wasn't applied in a uniform way, but the surface
has been grouped in areas by similar curvatures. The
planar areas was subdivided through the projection
of specific lines. The single-curvature and double-
curvature areas have been subdivided into diamonds
(and then triangles) with the use of Lunchbox. The
automatic procedure was impossible to be applied in
the junction areas between the curved and the pla-
nar areas, therefore the panelization has been made
manually.
The Sage Gateshead by Norman Foster, as shown The first direction is created by a stream of parallel
in figure 1, is a musical center which faces the river lines with a given distance among them. The sec-
Tyne and it is made by a large roofing structure which ond direction is created by a polar array of lines with
covers three auditoriums. The case analysis has been a given angle of 5 degree among them. The intersec-
made on this structural element. The morphogenesis

tion between these two streams of lines gives quad- The fourth case study is the Peek & Cloppenburg de-
rangular shapes which subdivide the whole surface partment store in Koln, Germany, designed by Renzo
in flat quadrangular panels. Piano, see figure 3, whose roofing is made of verti-
The Re Swiss tower, see figure 2, is a high-rise cal wooden bands, having an in shape of arc, rais-
building located in London, designed by Norman ing to 28 meters. The morphogenesis is based on
Foster, which is a higher step in the complexity scale the searching of guide rails along which the pro-
parameterized by other case studies analyzed. The file curves generate the main surface. Once the rail-
morphogenesis starts from the generation of the pro- ings have been found, the next step is the division
file curve, made by different circular arches linked of the binaries into 3 areas, where the resulting sur-
each other by a geometric relation between their faces have homogeneous curvature. This step is
centers. The resulting profile is revolved around the paramount for the surface construction, because the
axis of the building, to generate the draft surface. location of the edge changes completely the final
This facade is splitted each floor by the array of lev- output in complexity and construction issues. The
els by which the building is composed. Each floor profile curves are portion of ellipses, which are split-
is then holed by equilateral triangles, which creates ted in sub-ellipses in the diverse areas and changed
the landmark bands which characterize the façade. in dimension proportionally to the railings. When the
The paneling is solved through Lunchbox, subdivid- ellipsis have been all defined the resulting surface is
ing the surface into rhomboid panels with an auto- a loft through the diverse ellipsis, grouped in the dif-
matic process. ferent areas. The paneling operation in this case was
direct; Lunchbox gave as output the complete con-
Figure 2
trol of the shape, generating quadrangular panels, in
Swiss Re. Final
a single step and without additional functions, see
Results
figure 4.
The very last case, the Kunsthaus in Graz, see
figure 5, required a completely different approach
in comparison with the other analyzed buildings. It
was impossible to define a unifying geometry for
the whole surface, because it belongs to non stan-
dard building family. The morphogenesis based on
the sole geometry was impossible, because refer-
ence researches have pointed out that the building
to be generated by complex non-standard geomet-
rical tools. Therefore, the first step was to represent
a similar structure, an ellipsoid, and it was brought
through the translation of surface control points to-
ward a similar final shape to the real building. Af-
ter this direct modification it was necessary to apply
a smoothness algorithms, as the Catmull-Clark algo-
rithm, to preserve the curvature. Then, both Lunch-
box, both Paneling Tools plugin have been unsuc-
cessfully used, to panelize the surface. So, the exit
strategy to this problem has been the division of the
surface into smaller areas. The separated areas were

Figure 3
Peek and
Cloppenburg. Left.
Surface
morphogenesis.
Railing in red.
Profile sections in
Black. Right. Loft
creation
Figure 4
Gaussian curvature
analysis. In green
flat surfaces.
Positive and
negative curvature
(Red and blu
colours ) means
curvature different
from zero

Figure 5
Kunsthaus Graz.
Structural output.
easily discretized into flat panels, then the junction on the cases studied it is possible to confirm that the
areas have been panelized manually. method is applicable to the majority of the complex
The procedure works for receiving as an input a surfaces.
complex surface, giving as output a series of flat pan- Figure 6
els, chosen by dimension, number and shape. If the Kunsthaus Graz.
results are not satisfactory, it is necessary to repeat Limit of
the procedure, until the panels are correctly shaped. panelization
The balance point between curvature and shape of method. Manual
the panel would be achieved with some reiterations paneling area in
of the procedure, which is far from being optimized. red.
A possible solution of this issue is the use of evo-
lutionary solvers applied to the panels generation.
One example of this tools is Galapagos. But this work
hadn't taken this last step because it seemed unuse-
ful to parameterize a subtle feeling, as the perception
of the shape with tools which had not reached a sat- The results have been achieved through the
isfying level of stability and diffusion. use of two different software, Lunchbox and Pan-
eling Tools. Both have been proved to be easy to
RESULTS AND LIMITS OF THE METHOD use, but Lunchbox is more friendly, because it pro-
The cases are listed from the simplest to the most vides straightforward results. Paneling tools, despite
complex, and the first four are solved with the auto- the slightly more complex procedure, provides more
mated procedure mentioned before. The sole Kun- flexibility in defining of panels with specific aspect
sthaus, see figure 6, was analyzed with the panel- and specific location in the facade. The advantages
ing software and the process didn't manage to re- of this method are summed up in the easiness of the
duce completely the surface into flat panels. Based process, which is completely automated in most of

the cases analyzed, giving the opportunity to all of
the designers to cope with a once complex task. The
limits of this procedure start from the obvious con-
straint given by the shape complexity, which is intrin-
sic with the dimension of panels and the necessity
to understand wholly the geometric morphogenesis,
otherwise the panelization process is not straightfor-
ward. The aforementioned limits can be managed
with this method, whose output is a geometric sur-
face component. More complex constraints should
be considered, as material and construction technol-
ogy, but it was chosen to frame this work to geomet-
rical and perceptive aspect which are easily manage-
able within wide spreading tools. The economic con-
straints would force the choice of larger uniform pan-
els clashing against the architectural need to have a
perceived shape as near as possible to the architects'
desiderata. The perception issue is paramount in
most of the cases, if we consider large-funding build-
ings. If, instead we consider more sober buildings
( with more limited funding) the possibility to cope
easily with complexity is a leap forward in the free
use of these architectural components once opened
to top notch firms only.
REFERENCES
M., L. 2014, 'Il Bim, questo sconosciuto', Giornale
dell’Architettura, 1(114), p. 8
Migayrou, F. and Mennan, Z. 2003 'Achitecture non Stan-
dard', Proceedings of the Architecture non Standard,
Paris

Timing and spacing in Architecture
Architecture with motion
Hassan Abdel Salam Elbanna

Alexandria University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture
muzarc@gmail.com
It is a fact that the Animation and architecture have common and strong bonds in
various forms. According to animators, and architects as well, there are two main
and vital concepts which are the basics of animation, these are Timing and
Spacing. The paper represents an analogy between animation and architecture
focusing on these two concepts. So, in the following sections we discover the
relation between animation and deforming geometry in architecture. By looking
through the history and theory of architecture we find many architects' attempts
to apply animation as a concept within their forms. This paper will review what
pioneers have achieved in designing through animation. At the end of the paper a
case study is being analyzed by showing how the concept of animation is applied
to an existing building due to the research's main points.
Keywords: Architecture, animation, timing, spacing
INTRODUCTION ing the concept of animation to deform geometry. In

As previously mentioned in Ching's book "Architec- addition to the cutting edge tools that are included
ture: Form, Space, and Order" the basics of form into animation software's, these tools can be used to
and how they developed in an animated process. help designers to achieve their goal with the final re-
Ching (2008) have mentioned that Point, Line, Plane, sult and help in evaluating and selecting the best re-
and Volume are the basic design elements; when we sults. This paper is a trial to include some animation
animate points we get lines, when we animate lines theories to get fast, flexible, and handy results with
we get Planes, and consequently when planes are an- geometry deformation.
imated we get volumes as shown in (Figure1). Ani-
Figure 1
mation as a discipline relates transformation of form
animation of design
over time. Everything around us is moving or de-
elements (Ching,
forming during a certain time segment. When we
2008)
look in natural and artificial systems as shown in (Fig-
ure 2), we find an animation and different state ev-
ery second. A lot of contemporary designers used
the concept of animation to express their forms. The
variations resulted from different methods of apply-

ANIMATION IN ARCHITECTURE FORMS
From the very basics of design elements to the so- Figure 2
phisticated Architectural Forms; architects have tried Anatomy of Motion
to apply animation in different works. First we should [7]
explain more about animation meaning. Artistically,
Animation is the process of creating a continuous
motion and shape change illusion by means of the
rapid display of a sequence of static images that min-
imally differ from each other. Animation is a term
that differs from, but is often confused with, motion.
Where motion implies movement and action, anima-
tion suggests animalism, evolution, growth, actua-
tion, and vitality. Many theories had explained the
animation process especially the twelve principles of
animation that are established by Walt Disney as be-
ing declared in the following section.
The Twelve principles of animation

Timing and spacing are two of the twelve animation
principles that have been established by Walt Disney,
and the nine old men at Disney studios. These prin-
ciples are squash and stretch, anticipation, staging,
straight ahead and pose to pose animation, follow Figure 3
through and overlapping action, slow-out and slow- frame by frame in
in arcs, secondary action, spacing with timing, exag- the timeline (by the
geration, solid drawing and appeal [1]. These prin- the further concept, or 'dimension', of Time". (Thomp- author)
ciples helped to achieve believable looking cartoons, son, 1917, 1961, p. 15.).
and still working until nowadays. Timing means how
long it takes something to happen or not happen; FRAMEWORK
which means different actions can happen or stay at Animation software platforms provide a number of
the same action for a determined time, while Spac- tools that enable controlling the change of form by
ing is Frame by Frame displacement of the moving the time, they incorporate three basic elements:
elements within a certain time as shown in (Figure 3);
and that describes the movement whether it is at the • A time keeping tool.
same speed or slow at the beginning or in the mid-
dle, or in the ending of the time amount given to that • Transformation tools.
movement, but how animation principles can be ap-
plied to Architectural forms."To terms of magnitude, • Control tool
and of direction, must we refer all our conceptions of
Form. For the form of an object is defined when we Since Motion implies movement and actions. There
know its magnitude, actual or relative, in various di- are many words written about the motion in Archi-
rections; and Growth involves the same conceptions tecture. Giedeon, Ferstegen, Jomakka, Lynn try to de-
of magnitude and direction, related to scribe, and classify the relation between motion, and
architecture (Gorczyca, 2013). Motion is considered

Figure 4
Villa Savoye (Le
Corbusier) and
Guggenheim
Museum (Wright)
[6].
to be one of the important factors of contemporary ANIMATED FORMS BY ARCHITECTURE PI-

ways of expression in architecture. Motion can be ONEERS
expressed in architecture in two ways (Lynn, 1998), Many architects have applied animation concepts to
First way is static; it is based upon fixed relationship their Forms; for instance Siegfried Gideon's Mecha-
between functional program and the user. Multipli- nization takes Command and Space, Time, and Ar-
cation and sequencing of static frames is used to in- chitecture that established the relationship between
troduce the idea of "Dynamic Architecture".Second Architecture and time; that worked as the primary
way is dynamic, and it resists the separation of form concern of twentieth Century Architectural theory
from its animating forces.Form is perceived in a space and design.Le Corbusier also tried to lift his buildings
of virtual movement and force rather than within an above the ground to allow the natural nature con-
ideal equilibrium space.Instead of a fixed prototype, tinuity, and used animation with opening sizes and
flexible models are created; which rather a poten- light sources. Frank Lloyd Wright in Guggenheim an-
tial of mutable variables. This concluding what is imated the circulation and we can notice the reflec-
named as "performance envelop". A shift in technol- tions of the circulation on the Form of the museum.
ogy is necessary to achieve that, but also it requires a Spirals are a beautiful shape; they have marvelous
shift in sensibility from reduction to combination to curves and convey energy and motion as shown in
compose time based topological designs.In the 20th (Figure 4). Not only that, they are a truly efficient
century early works architects used some methods form used in nature, and we see them so many places
to express movements like: inclined planes, accel- in our everyday lives. Frank Gehry, Zaha Hadid, and
eration of facade rhythm, and aerodynamic curves. Greg Lynn have their own applications of animation
Those methods remained almost unchanged, but on Architectural forms. Greg Lynn Sees the thing that
expanded according to technology development to makes animate geometry so exciting and problem-
come up with buildings that animate themselves, atic to architecture is that it is the last discipline to
and interactively respond to user needs.Applying the incorporate an ethics of motion into its thinking.
concept of Timing and Spacing gives the designer There are two methods for the modeling of
the ability to reshape animation, and deformation se- movement in architecture; the first involves Proces-
quence along the building sion, and the second involves Superimposition. The

processional method has two alternatives; the first in illustrating the emotional state of an object; it is
is the idea that Giedeon developed that makes the the varying speed of the movements. Spacing is the
time is built into form as memory. The second strength of the effect of expressions or statements;
model is associated with Colin Rowe in his text Trans- it could happen evenly; for example when a cluster
parency: Literal and phenomenal, the literal trans- from the form is shifted along one axis by evenly dis-
parency meant amount of translucency that the ma- tributed Force, or according to a certain weight map
terial has; hence the phenomenal transparency is im- that controls the strength of force effects; it worked
printing deeper formal space on surface, phenom- as a filter.
enal time may include "shearing", "Rotating", and
"shifting" operations. Animation is based on non- Performance envelope
linear, dynamic motion techniques; motion here is By modeling the potential of multiple variables as
defined by interacting vectors that unfold in time. what is often referred to as a "performance enve-
Contemporary Animation uses interacting forces and lope" a series of possibilities can be designed from
vectors within an open temporal sequence rather which particular configurations are "instanced". Sim-
than sequences of key frames. Form can be con- ilarly, multiple independent interacting variables can
ceived in a space of virtual forces rather than within be linked to influence one another through logical
an ideal equilibrium space of stasis. For example dis- expressions. Expressions are statements that define
crete point coordinates define an object in ideal static the size, position, rotation, direction or speed of an
space. The trajectory relative to other objects, forces, object will by looking to other objects for their char-
fields, and flows defines an object immersed in an ac- acteristics. Suggested Timing can control the length
tive space of forces, the modeling of architecture in of expressions or statements affected by force fields.
afield populated by forces and motion is dependent Timing also can describe the time in which geome-
on the development from previous theory of stasis. try is being subjected to different kinds of forces, can
Many architects have critiqued static models, such also defines the weight of an object. Timing plays
as processional sequencing. "Statics does not hold an essential role in illustrating the emotional state of
an essential grip on architectural thinking as much an object; it is the varying speed of the movements.
as it is a lazy habit or default that architects either Spacing is the strength of the effect of expressions
choose to reinforce or contradict for lack of a better or statements; it could happen evenly; for example
model" (Lynn, 1998).Performance envelope By mod- when a cluster from the form is shifted along one axis
eling the potential of multiple variables as what is of- by evenly distributed Force, or according to a cer-
ten referred to as a "performance envelope" a series tain weight map that controls the strength of force
of possibilities can be designed from which partic- effects; it worked as a filter.
ular configurations are "instanced". Similarly, multi-
ple independent interacting variables can be linked RIGGING THE BUILDING
to influence one another through logical expressions. Rigging is a commonly used term by CG character an-
Expressions are statements that define the size, po- imators, and designers. Rigging is meant to be the
sition, rotation, direction or speed of an object will corner stone between the idea that creates the char-
by looking to other objects for their characteristics. acter, and the final attitude of the character with all
Suggested Timing can control the length of expres- its personality aspects as shown in (figure 5). Within
sions or statements affected by force fields. Timing the sketch and concept, and the final result behavior,
also can describe the time in which geometry is being It simply consists of main three stages:
subjected to different kinds of forces, can also defines
the weight of an object. Timing plays an essential role

Figure 5 1. Creating a bone system.
A perspective of
LAVA's Snowflake 2. (Enveloping or skining) linking bones to the
tower [2]. skin or outer surface.
3. Creating special controls, and sliders to make

it easy while animating, and deforming.
Characteristics before rigging

In characters it is easy to know where to put joints
Figure 6 as we already know thier placement in the origi-
Rigging of a nal character. In buildings joints will represent the
character [5]. primary major action, and deformation; this can be
change of direction horizontally, or vertically, it could
be change of expression language, or even change of
materials.
Figure 7
The fractal shape of Enveloping the rig
the Tower inspired Enveloping or skinning the rig is simply linking the
from the Snow bone system to the surface of geometry. In this stage
flakes in nature [3]. the interaction between bone system and geometry
is defined.
Adding Controls
To automate and simplify the actions and reactions
of for the building, special controls is added. These
controllers will help the designer to apply (The Tim-
ing and Spacing sliders) to decide the placement of
deformer or action, and the density of the effect upon
the geometry.
The snowflake geometry was interpreted as
CASE STUDY shapes with a fractal nature of edges as shown in
This is a presentation about the parametric setup of the following (Figure 7).The complete model is con-
LAVA's Snowflake tower. The parametric definition is trolled by eight typical snowflake configurations,
based on the concept of a "Snowflake". The Model al- with a specific on a central spine. The central spine
lowed designers to tweak the tower design on both defines the height of the tower, the number of floors,
micro and macro scale. Apart of just studying the and the floor height as shown in (Figure 6) .Due to our
width of balconies or radius of the core, they were hypothesis: The vertical spine represents the bone
also able to generate completely different shapes as system, or the creation structure. In this case we
shown in (figure 6). have one bone for the spine, if we intended to twist
the tower we should have added more bones.The
snowflake section represents the plan unit as shown
in (Figures 8).

The core of parametric modeling is the definition Figure 8
of basic plan unit, and the deformers that affect the the eight controller
plan unit. Skinning stage in the case of snowflakes of the tower [4].
tower will be regular, but with a curvilinear nature as
shown in (Figures 9,10).
Seven control parameters permits to generate a
wide range of plan shape variations. This is the start
of the 3rd stage rigging for the tower. These are the
sliders, or controls that will generate the final result.
For example (p1, p2) are the balcony positions, while
(r1, r2) are the balcony radius, and (e1, e2, e3) are the
extension for balconies as shown in (Figure 11). IT
shows the different results we can achieve by chang-
ing the parameters along the spine. So that we have
the same spine, the same plan, with a number of de-
formers, and parameters but with different variations
and different stages of animation.Due to Timing and
Spacing sliders are made for each parameter to con-
trol the position of each parameter (timing), and to Figure 9
describe the change of shapes along the spine (spac- Rigging of the
ing). Tower [4].
CONCLUSION
Timing and spacing can be applied to architecture to
produce new strategies for deforming and manipu-
lating architectural geometry in a sophisticated man-
ner.Timing can control the change of Forces that oc- Figure 10
curs to the geometry, while Spacing can be applied Different section at
in two different models: different levels of
the tower that have
1. Control the weight of deformations upon cer- a unique shape and
tain cluster of the geometry deciding points parameters [3].
of high density, and points of low density; and
this is similar to its effect on animation.
Figure 11
Variations of the
same controllers [4].
2. Spacing can apply different deformations to

different spaces according to their functions

or placement or any other variables can the
designer make as an input.
REFERENCES
Darlene A., Brady 1997 'The Mind', ACADIA 1997 Confer-
ence Proceedings, Ohio (USA), pp. 85-93
Mechael A., Ambrose 2009 'Spatial and Temporal Se-
quence: Film, animation and design theory - toward
a constructed morphology', Proceedings of the Arab
Society for Computer Aided Architectural Design (AS-
CAAD), Manama (Kingdom of Bahrain), pp. 165-168
Achten, Henri 2001 'Normative Positions in Architectural
Design - Deriving and Applying Design Methods',
19th eCAADe Conference Proceedings, Helsinki (Fin-
land), pp. 263-268
Ching, Francis D. K. 2008, Architecture: Form, Space, and
Order, 3rd Edition, Wiley, US
Dounas, Theodoros 2009 'Animation as a Framework for
generative Design', In (Proceedings of eCAADe 2009),
(Turkey), pp. 213-215
Gorczyca, Adam 2013 'A Motion as a Modern Way of ex-
pressing Architecture', Proceedings of the 7th Euro-
pean Architectural Endoscopy Association Conference,
Montpellier, France, pp. 73-81
Holland, Nathaniel 2011, Inform Form Perform, Ph.D. The-
sis, University of Nebraska
Lynn, Greg 1999, Animate Form, Princeton architectural
press, New york
Riad, Mahmoud May, 2009, Architecture: Music, City, AND
Culture, Ph.D. Thesis, Faculty of the Graduate School
of the University of Maryland
[1] http://minyos.its.rmit.edu.au/aim/a_notes/anim_-
principles.html
[2] http://www.architecturenewsplus.com/projects/685
[3] http://www.grasshopper3d.com/photo/
snowflaketower4-1/prev?context=album&albumId=
2985220%3AAlbum%3A22665
[4] http://www.l-a-v-a.net/
[5] http://docs.unity3d.com/412/Documentation/ Man-
ual/AssetPreparationandImport.html
[6] http://www.galinsky.com/buildings
[7] http://thecreatorsproject.tumblr.com/post/
26495396059/vintage-strobe-light-photographs-are-a-
beautiful

The Red Queen Hypothesis
Chemotaxic stigmergic systems and Embodied Embedded Cognition-based
strategies in architectural design
Paolo Alborghetti1 , Alessio Erioli2

1
none 2 Università di Bologna
2
http://www.unibo.it/docenti/alessio.erioli
1
paolo.alborghetti@gmail.com 2 alessio.erioli@unibo.it
The Red Queen Hypothesis is a research project on parasitic architecture,

developed as a case study application of knowledge inherited from the fields of
stigmergy-based systems, swarm intelligence and Embodied Embedded
Cognition. The project aims to provide a possible answer to the increasing
demand for the redevelopment of abandoned post-WW2 buildings in northern
Italy, proposing an alternative to preservation logics in through strategies based
on intrusion, adaptation and growth focusing on the relationships between
different systems (host/parasite) and innovative fabrication techniques.
Implementing such approach in a non-trivial way entails enabling access to
increasing degrees of complexity and self-organization in the computational
design approach while keeping the whole process coherent throughout its
unfolding.The case study is an abandoned factory in Bergamo (which has become
an urban landmark for a socially intricate community) a multi-agent system
based parasitism strategy was implemented as design process for its
transformation and reuse as spaces for community and cultural expression.
Keywords: Stigmergy, Multi-agent systems, Architecture, Computation,

Parasitism
"Well, in our country," said Alice, still panting a little, INTRODUCTION AND PREMISES
"you'd generally get to somewhere else-if you run very The Red Queen hypothesis is an hypothesis in evolu-
fast for a long time, as we've been doing." tionary biology that derives from the dialogue re-
"A slow sort of country!" said the Queen. "Now, here, ported in the introductory quote which proposes
you see, it takes all the running you can do, to keep in that the struggle organisms face in order to adapt,
the same place. If you want to get somewhere else, you evolve and spread is not just aimed to gain repro-
must run at least twice as fast as that!" ductive advantage, but it's also a basic prerequisite
Carroll, L. - Through the Looking-Glass and What for survival while facing similarly evolving opposing
Alice Found There, chapter 2 organisms in an ever-changing environment. These

kind of interspecies dynamics emerge in ecosystems ation will be explored and filtered in the first phase,
at the scale of the community (or biocoenosis - as while the second phase will introduce an expansion
coined by Möbius, 1877), where several species com- strategy by means of soft bodies adaptation on the
pete for the resources of a common habitat. altered factory space.
Parasitism is one of the strategies by which such
Figure 1
struggle is successfully carried on; it's a non-mutual
Plesiometa argyra
symbiotic relationship where a system (parasite) ex-
webs in normal
ploits resources from another system (host) in order
state (left) and
to thrive and proliferate; the original system is not
under the influence
destroyed and becomes an extension of the parasite
of the
system. Since the two involved systems are very dif-
Hymenoepimecis
ferent from each other in structure and organization,
argyraphaga
the parasite "hacks" into the host system creating a
parasitic wasp
communication interface that mimics the host's in-
(right)
ternal organization. Such interface has a very impor-
tant role in establishing the communicative capacity
and systems interactivity, and it can reach great so-
phistication. Hymenoepimecis argyraphaga is a para-
sitic wasp that lays its eggs inside the Plesiometa ar-
gyra spider (Figure 1) and hacks its web-spinning be- CONTEXT
havior by injecting it with a toxine that hacks its ner- The chosen case study is a former factory in the city
vous system in order to build a specific web structure of Bergamo, the ex-OTE (Figure 2). Built in 1950 and
to protect the larvae when they'll hatch (Eberhard, abandoned in the 90es, it belongs to a series of fac-
2001). The success of this strategy of hacking and tories that were built along the Seriana Valley (along
control implies a comprehension of the host's system the Serio river - Bergamo, Italy) following the rail-
by the parasite. It is important to notice that the para- way expansion in the area at the beginning of the
site changes the way the spider builds webs; in other 20th century and that are now abandoned. The cur-
words, construction is a rule-based process involv- rent widespread cultural trend in Italy for this kind
ing constructor agents and material systems and out- of building and spaces is to give them the status of
comes can be changed by literally re-programming heritage and thus calls for a low-impact refurbish-
the agents. There are two other important factors to ment; the flip side of the coin is that the permanence
parasitism that are relevant for architectural applica- of a substantially unchanged rigid system (such as
tion on our case study: the identities of the parasite a former factory structure, spaces and distribution)
and the host remains separate and perceivable and constitutes in itself an obstacle in spatial organiza-
the original system isn't destroyed and becomes an tions for strategies and architectures that can address
extension of the parasitic system. much better contemporary issues.
In our case however there's no inherent active The social and cultural environment is quite
construction behavior in the hacked object (the fac- problematic, with continuous struggle to establish
tory), the simulated parasitic system will alter the spa- a community-based cultural and recreational life, as
tial and structural system of the factory by means the basic spaces and structures to house and em-
of two populations of agents competing for its re- power these kind of activities is sorely lacking. The
sources in a two-phases process. Competition-driven factory is an ideal candidate for its sheer size and lo-
spatial organization patterns of intrusion and alter- cation, but its spatial structure (comprised of a cen-

Figure 2
Context: the ex-OTE
factory in Bergamo
tral square open space hall and a transversing volume (or lead to an emergence of ) cooperation or com-
which cuts parallel to one side close to its edge) isn't petition. Our intention was to go beyond the sheer
quite fit for the task. collaborative bearing of single swarms and tap into
There are embryos of art and writing culture and the spatial formation qualities (which are essential
DIY culture, but they need to be nurtured in appro- in defining the resource distribution network topol-
priate spaces: heterogeneous yet continuous spaces, ogy) of processes triggered only by the competition
that can offer a variety of differentiated qualities of two or more populations sharing a common habi-
while still grant information and physical exchange tat, which in this case is the parasitized host. Thus,
among each other. These are the kind of evaluation our simulation involves two populations of parasites
and filtering criteria that will be adopted in the pro- (simulated as stigmergy-based multi-agent systems)
cess of driving the spatial explorations towards a pos- competing for the host's resources.
sible convergence. Starting from the theoretical premises in Jones
(2010), the classical multi-agent system model theo-
SIMULATION FRAMEWORK rized by Reynolds and comprised of the basic local
Multi-agent based simulations emulate the behav- rules of cohesion, separation and alignment was ex-
ioral qualities of swarm systems by interaction rules tended with chemotaxic stigmergy, the capacity of
among individuals and/or between an individual and perceiving and react to chemical gradients of con-
its environment; such rules can be aimed towards centration (Figure 3).

The parasites-host interface that tightly con- Figure 3
nects the involved systems throughout the several agent rules: classic
phases of the design process by allowing continuous swarm behavior
data flow integration and communication, is imple- model from
mented via an environmental information substrate Reynolds (left) vs
through which all the involved systems are able to stigmergic model
communicate. This form of communication is well from Jones (right)
known in biology as stigmergic behavior: it is typi-
cal in communal species (such as ants and termites)
and it works through the release in the environment
and eventual detection of a chemical agent called
pheromone, which in our case will be translated as a
number representing a concentration in specific lo-
cations. Since our environment was modeled as a
Figure 4
discreet 3-dimensional non-isotropic voxel field with
Stigmergic
chemical gradients encoded as tensor data in each
grammars
voxel, not just chemical concentrations but multiple
layers of information such as solar radiation, stress
and any other pervasive information the designer
might consider relevant can be stored in any point of
its discreet grid.
The global environment is thus coded as an an-
tiobject, a computational object that reverses the
foreground/background relations by becoming an
active subject in the computation (Repenning, 2006),
that carries and computes multiple discreet informa-
tion in each of its voxel cells, doing most of the heavy-
lifting in the computational process. It acts as com-
mon substrate for data exchange through which the
multi-agent systems and the host are communicat-
ing by just reading/writing on it. The information in
the environment is then simulated as a chemical el-
ement that diffuses and evaporates with a change-
able rate: by changing its concentration, diffusion
and evaporation rates, along with the agents capac-
ities to detect and react to it as well as the intensity
of such reaction (whom correspond to the three ba-
sic actions involved in behavioral ecology: sensibil-
ity, reactivity, irritability) it is possible to affect the
outcomes and explore the global system expression
range. The environment is also readable as a map
of the driving factors for adaptation, which emerges
through indirect coordination. Agents can selec-

tively read and write data from it and change their be- other one; this is the way the pheromone field acts as
havior accordingly: such continuous feedback loop communicative substrate for inter- and intra-agents
allows for indirect coordination among agents sys- population relationships and helps calculation avoid-
tem and intercommunication among different agent ing heavy neighbor search and proximity calcula-
systems within the same environment. Building the tions. The saved computational power is not used for
design process upon a common information sub- the purpose of speed but in order to increase the size
strate makes it also possible to coherently embed and of the populations involved or the resolution of the
correlate relational properties of agents, morpholog- architectural outcome. The multi-populated system
ical generation, spatial negotiation and organization grows along the Z axis, casting material and mutually
protocols, providing also sound information for the avoiding each other's trails networks on each loop.
fabrication phase (which is possible but not yet de- The 2.5D simulation was chosen as a simplified ini-
veloped at this stage of the research). tial setup that allowed two important features: simu-
The potential of the chemotaxic approach for late growth by deposition over time and extract iso-
spatial negotiation, emergent pattern formation and value surfaces (or isosurfaces - surfaces that describe
integrated tectonics has then been probed through a the boundary of space with the same data value) of
series of digital simulations on a multiplicity of scales volumetric and spatial organization from the voxel
ranging from massing and volume morphogenesis to space.The choice of two populations is motivated by
surface tectonics and discretization. the fact that each population tends to grow until it
The simulations are built upon a common frame- fills the whole space or encounters a constraint (like
work, called stigmergic grammar (Figure 4, 5): each a competitor) or inhibition (resources depletion): the
agent perceives pheromone deposition from its pop- two populations will tend to fill the whole space as-
ulation mates, but consumes pheromone from the signed by mutually and continuously negotiating the
Figure 5
Simulation samples:
stigmergic
grammar on spatial
negotiation and
volumetric growth
on surfaces

reciprocal boundaries, resulting in patterns of spatial ior of the organisms) are an integral part of cognitive
subdivision that emerge over time. It is then possi- processes: body, world and brain form a system and
ble to consider one of the two populations' resulting together they are responsible for the emergence of
occupied volume as a void, forming an inner space intelligent behavior as a system property.
that creates new continuous networked connections
Figure 6
within the existent factory space.
Softbody module
generation and
DESIGN IMPLEMENTATION structure
The stigmergic grammar has first been applied to
the scale of the existing building. Initial informa-
tion extracted from the site analysis such as main ac-
cess points and possible flows through the area, were
passed to the agent system in the form of spatial
information data as inputs parameters and system
constraints. A series of simulations was performed
(extracting isosurfaces from the density values field),
producing a taxonomy of outputs, a catalogue of
possible spatial configurations among which choose In the attempt to encode the same kind of 3-
by means of criteria based on spatial continuity, per- factor system for the exploration of adaptive mor-
meability and connectedness in order to feed the phological capacities, a further simulation step was
next generation of simulations. implemented by introducing softbody modules (Fig-
The designer exerts different levels of control ure 6, 7). Softbodies are adaptive morphologies built
over the bottom-up emergent process: although by instantiating agents on the vertices of discrete
he/she does not impose the final outcome, once a re- spring-based mesh lattices (coded via Verlet integra-
lation and understanding of the affects produced by tion). The agents are influenced through gradients
changes in input parameters is established, he/she of spring stiffness and particle forces by continuous
has the possibility to affect the self-organization ca- pheromone interaction. Agents instanced on ver-
pacity of the multi-agent system by exalting/inhibit- tices are also obliged to relate to agents/mesh ver-
ing system expressions and qualities that emerge tices neighbor, avoiding mesh collapse (which was
from the simulation, or channel it towards pre-traced often happening with non-manifold meshes). Here
design trajectories (i.e. making it work on a designed data flows directly from the agents' sensor-based
morphology). perceptual system to the body configuration; in-
Embodied Embedded Cognition (EEC) is a philo- formed topologies produce shapes layouts that in
sophical theoretical position that states the emer- turn affect the information pattern, its distribution
gence of conscious and intelligent behavior as an in- on the softbody itself and the environment, feed-
terplay between brain, body and world. Contrary to ing back into the agent system until eventually a
the cognitivistic approach (according to which cogni- stable configuration is reached. The final configura-
tive systems are purely brain based to whom bodies tion was chosen after series of simulations on a wide
act only as input-output devices) it considers embod- range of mesh samples; those simulations evidenced
iment (topology and organization of the body and its that closed manifold meshes (deriving from genus 2
internal milieu as influential on higher cognitive pro- meshes), led to an interesting compromise between
cesses) and embeddedness (physical interactions be- designer's control and systemic variation in terms of
tween body and world constrain the possible behav- outcomes. At a smaller scale, thanks to the develop-

Figure 7
Taxonomy of
softbody
configurations and
exploded view of
the selected one
ment of a custom strategy for mapping 2D simulation "weight" (in mesh modeling, weight refers to the rel-
to 3D topological space through undistorted projec- ative importance of a vertex during an operation; in
tions, the surfaces intricate tectonics are the result of our case the weight was represented in a scale form
multiple populations of agents acting influenced by black to white). During each loop agents read the
several parameters, including inherited-endogenous data directly from the mesh vertices, and translate
(such as performative ones) and intentional (designer it into behavioral outcome (including feeding back
decisions) ones. a change in the same data that was read). Propri-
eties and parameters of the agents cognitive system
Figure 8
was assigned to each weight layer, with the precise
Softbody
intent to avoid direct control on agents movements,
information layers
but only influence their environment perception and
stored as vertex
consequently the way they translate perceived and
colors
embedded data into structured configurations, like
spatial layouts, matter organization and structure for-
mation.
Competitive behavior once again allows for the
definition of an intricate double system of interlock-
ing elements, creating fibrous based material sys-
tems in two different ways: the first based on matter
accumulation through additive deposition (compli-
Mesh vertices acted as tensor space, embedding ant with contemporary additive manufacturing pro-
two different information layers derived form solar cesses) and the second based on non-woven net-
radiation analysis and FEA structural stress analysis works methodologies.
(both mapped as RGB values map; Figure 8). A third The purpose of the Red Queen Hypothesis is to
layer (again, there is potentially no limit to the num- investigate alternative proposals in the topic of build-
ber of information layers embedded) was added up ing redevelopment through parasitism; in order to
to let the designer influence and drive intention- explore such strategy it is necessary to introduce in
ally the growth process by painting mesh vertices the computational design process access to increas-

Figure 9
Tests on different
values of diffusion,
growth and other
core parameters
show the potential
for variety and
control over the
interlocking system
Figure 10
Photos of 3D
printed model
showing inner
space articulation
and the structural
surface's
interlocking pattern

ing degrees of self-organization and potential emer- ternational Conference on Object-Oriented Program-
gent behavior. Continuous data flow processing ming Systems, Languages, and Applications, Port-
empowered by cognitive capacities of multi-agent land, Oregon
systems that are influenced by body consciousness
(which is also a pivotal argument for AI cognitive pro-
tocols) can provide such access with very promis-
ing potential that, although it needs further investi-
gation, already delivers interesting outcomes on the
aesthetic, tectonic and spatial levels. (Figure 9, 10).
AKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank families for contin-
uous moral support, classmates and colleagues for
providing constructive critics . Special thank goes
to the open-source community, which helped during
the development , sharing knowledge, technical sup-
port and free software distribution.
REFERENCES
Eberhard, W G 2001, 'Under the influence: webs
and building behavior of Plesiometa argyra
(Araneae: Tetragnathidae) when parasitized by Hy-
menoepimecis argyraphaga (Hymenoptera, Ichneu-
monidae)', Journal of Arachnology, 29(3), p. 354–366
Hamann, H 2009 'Pattern formation as a transient phe-
nomenon in the nonlinear dynamics of a multi-
agent system', MATHMOD 2009 – 6th Vienna Interna-
tional Conference on Mathematical Modeling Volume
I Issue: 35, ARGESIM and ASIM, German Simulation So-
ciety, Vienna, pp. 913-921
Jones, J 2010, 'Characteristics of Pattern Formation and
Evolution in Approximations of Physarum Transport
Networks', Artificial Life, 16(2), pp. 127-153
Von Mammen, S, Jacobs, C and Brebbia, C 2008 'Swarm-
driven idea models - From insect nests to modern
architecture', Eco-Architecture 2008, Second Interna-
tional Conference on Harmonisation Between Archi-
tecture and Nature, Winchester, UK, p. 117–126
Möbius, K 1880, 'Die Auster und die Austernwirtschaft
(tr. The Oyster and Oyster Farming)', U.S. Commission
Fish and Fisheries Report, -, pp. 683-751
Ramos, V 2002 'Self organized stigmergic document
maps: environment as a mechanism for context
learning', Actas del Primer Congreso Español de Algo-
ritmos Evolutivos y Bioinspirados, Mérida
Repenning, A 2006 'Collaborative Diffusion: Program-
ming Antiobjects', OOPSLA 2006, ACM SIGPLAN In-

Emphatic Lines
Surface structuring based on Walter Crane's pattern making methods
Daniel Baerlecken1 , Sabri Gokmen2

1,2
Georgia Institute of Technology
1
daniel.baerlecken@coa.gatech.edu 2 sabrigokmen@gatech.edu
The paper introduces a method for structuring and ornamenting double-curved

geometry, which is developed through the lens of Walter Crane. Crane's method
for pattern making is based on underlying scaffolds and infill patterns for two
dimensional surfaces. The presented research uses his method and applies it
through digitals means to three dimensional surfaces. The scaffold is used to
solve the problem of curvature: it creates flat facets. This approach is tested
through a prototypical installation at the Musee d'Jurassien d'Art and d'histoire
using aluminium sheet metal and water-jet cutting, but can also be transferred to
other architectural applications.
Keywords: Tendrils, Patterning, Making, Facets
INTRODUCTION applies a similar approach to both - the scaffold and

This paper presents a new form of digital pattern the pattern - as an application for structuring a three
making over architectural surfaces by looking at Wal- dimensional surface.
ter Crane's notion of figures and scaffolds. In "Line The discussed research approach has been stud-
and Form" Crane states that the "law governing ex- ied through a prototype, which was exhibited at the
tension of design over surface" is build upon "em- Art Museum of Moutier. The paper discusses the
phatic structural lines" (Crane, 1900). A "satisfactory computational approach towards combining three-
pattern" has to be developed based on constructive dimensional scaffolds and applying tendril patterns
lines that can either be integrated into the design as onto a three-dimensional surface. By developing
a motive or concealed by placing the primary pat- Crane's technique as a parametric and recursive in-
tern over those lines. The scaffold allows for varia- filling algorithm, the paper aims to bridge between
tion and richness: it is not perceived as a restriction. organizational tiles and logarithmic figuring as a way
Ornament and structure are equal and can in some to achieve continuous patterns on tectonic surfaces.
cases (gothic structures and ornamentations) reach
a state of full integration. W. Crane applies his ap- PATTERN MAKING
proach to friezes, ceiling decorations, wallpaper - in In wallpaper designs, patterns are primarily orga-
short: to two dimensional pattern making, which is nized by laying out a repetitive lattice to subdivide
based on a rectangular or triangular grid within cer- surface into smaller areas that are later replaced by
tain boundaries (Figure 1). The presented approach figures. Such an approach is evident in Walter Crane's

Figure 1
Left: Walter Cranes'
diagrams showing
designs for tendril
designs based on
scaffold, Right: Our
algorithm that
converts any
polygon shape into
triangles then
tessellates it with
veins.
designs that often utilize a grid-like tessellation to the placement of twig figures over the triangulation
control the pattern propagation and interrelation of using a recursive algorithm (Figure 2). As a result, the
tiles (Figure 1). This grid is further subdivided into uniformity, continuity and overall distribution of pat-
triangles to produce alternating repetitions of fig- tern figures could be maintained and controlled.
ures and interlocking relations. Although these sub- The algorithm begins by subdividing any type
divisions mainly follow orthogonal scaffolds, triangu- of polygonal tile into triangular patches by joining
lar scaffolds could enable the extension of this tech- edge curves to the center of the tile (Figure 2). These
nique to any type of polygonal subdivisions. For in- triangles are used to sample random points within
stance any shape could be achieved by joining trian- the boundary with predefined or parametric density
gle patches of various sizes together. Similarly, any factors. Once the points are acquired the figures
polygonal shape could be subdivided into triangles are placed starting from the midpoints of the edge
to convert the non-uniform shape into a number of curves of the tile using a recursive algorithm. Each
smaller triangular tiles. As a result, Crane's rule based figure is placed using two end points and a start-
pattern making technique could be extended to any ing deviation to define an arc. If this arc is above a
type of polygonal tiles, or triangulated surfaces that certain curvature threshold, then the arc is extended
could be explored using digital tools. logarithmically to be turned into a twig figure. For
The relationship between triangulation and fig- subsequent points this operation is repeated, until
uring produces various challenges on the notion of all the points inside the tile have been connected to
digital pattern making. For instance, since the adja- the figures. For the selection of the points the clos-
cency of tiles and the figures to be placed on top of est point with nominal deviation trajectory is cho-
the triangulation become more dynamic the end re- sen that maintains the overall aesthetic of the pattern
sult can disturb the continuity and regularity of pat- while colonizing the tile space with figures.
tern. To solve this issue our paper introduces another There are various advantages of using triangu-
dimension to scaffolding using an approach similar lations to define this form of recursive figure place-
to Poisson sampling (Bridson, 2007) and recursive fig- ment. Firstly triangles define a plane in both two and
ure placement. Rather than placing figures directly three dimensions, since its corner points remain flat
inside triangle patches, the triangles will be used to in any configuration. This enables the algorithm to
generate uniform point clouds that define the num- be easily extended for tiles in three dimensions. Sec-
ber of figures. These points are then used to define ondly, the overall triangle subdivision prevents con-

Figure 2
Stages of the vein
distribution script.
Figure 3
Testing the script
on different
tessellations. While
the effect of the
orthogonal grid in
rectangle tiles (left)
remain visible in the
end pattern, in
hexagonal (center)
and voronoi (right)
tessellations the tile
edges become
harder to notice.
struction of accidental intersections among figures boundary lines to connect shared edges of tiles. This
that might disturb the overall pattern. Thirdly, this approach maintains the overall continuity and cur-
technique is applicable to any type of polygonal tes- vature of figures. The resulting continuity and con-
sellations. Since any polygon shape could be subdi- figuration of the pattern tends to blur the polygonal
vided into triangle patches the algorithm could be di- edges by overrunning boundaries with figures.
rectly applied to orthogonal, triangular, hexagonal or In this algorithm the point sampling is achieved
Voronoi tessellations (Figure 3). Finally, the algorithm by using a uniform radius to distribute point clouds
begins figure placement from the midpoint of tile inside triangle subdivisions. However, the point sam-

Figure 4
Parametric
application of the
script using
different point
attractor
placements over
the tile space
pling prior to figuring also enables using different pa- started testing various triangle based mesh surfaces
rameters to control the density and distribution of to apply our twig distribution algorithm. Although
pattern. For instance, by using multiple point attrac- the patterns could be generated this way, the pro-
tors it is possible to create gradual variations of point duced triangles cause various problems. Firstly, the
density radii for different tiles. While the whole al- amount of cutting out of the triangle pieces causes
gorithm progresses in the same fashion, each tiles the final pieces to bend and lose their initial structural
gets different amounts of bifurcation and tendrilling rigidity. Secondly, using triangle pieces results in a
due to their distance to attractors that change the ra- lot of fabricated pieces and joints to be managed to
dius of point sampling (Figure 4). While the attrac- construct a three dimensional surface. Because of all
tors could be positioned in any location over the tiles these issues we decided to convert our mesh surfaces
to control the density of points, the continuity of the into planar facetted panels by traversing through sur-
pattern is still maintained with S-figures on bound- face information using surface normals to define flat
aries that occur in low density areas. polygons (Baerlecken et.al 2013). This approach rec-
ognizes the curvature of the surface and converts it
DYNAMIC SCAFFOLDING into open edged planar tiles rather than reducing the
To test the dynamic relationship between the bifur- complexity and approximating fully-connected flat
cating figures and scaffolding tessellations we further pieces (Cohen-Steiner et.al. 2004). This way the con-
expanded our implementation to work on three di- tinuity and curvature of the input surfaces are main-
mensional tiles. Our initial idea was to use the gener- tained while reducing the amount of pieces to be fab-
ated lines as patterns that will be cut out of flat metal ricated.
sheets to create a figure-ground relationship. We Although any surface could be converted into

flat polygonal tiles, the discontinuity of edge joints connections and water jet tolerances for cutting out
between separate pieces produces a structural prob- the pattern. Prior to the fabrication process a script
lem that needs to be solved in the fabrication pro- was written, which numbered each part and added
cess. While the curvature stays continuous among flanges to each module. Since the scaffolding does
the tiles, the edges of the tiles appear neither not maintain edge connectivity, the flanges and the
collinear nor parallel to facilitate joints. To solve this placement of holes become essential to determine
issue we have defined an arbitrary centroid within the physical placement of each module: not all parts
the overall form that is used to extrude flanges from are lining up, but all holes need to match to avoid
tile edges. This way each tile is connected to the adja- bending and deformation of the structure.
cent tiles using single fasteners on flange holes (Fig- The design went through multiple iterations to
ure 5). The flange holes are defined at an optimal dis- fine-tune the number of parts with the visual appear-
tance away from the input mesh surface. ance of the prototype. A conflict between design and
After the flat Voronoi tessellations are acquired economics of fabrication had to be resolved: the de-
in a three dimensional model, the vein distribution sign was enriched by more parts and more tendrils,
algorithm is run over planar pieces by defining a con- whereas the fabrication would save time and mate-
struction plane at the center of each tile. This way rial (the aggregate material of the water-jet) by the
the same two dimensional approach could be ap- use of bigger parts and less patterned elements. Fig-
plied to three dimensional flat tiles. Once the figures ure 7 shows 3 variations ranging from 2000 facets
are placed over the geometry, they are grouped with to 500. Also, the initial intention was to further ar-
each tile, later to be used as cutting patterns out of ticulate the vein curves as leaves, but this produced
metal sheets. more cutting time that couldn't be achieved within
the time frame of the project. Instead the vein pat-
PROTOTYPING AND FABRICATION terns were chosen to be cut directly out of the metal
The design of the prototype was highly influenced by sheets to save fabrication time, while keeping the
the digital process of preparing the digital file for fab- abstract aesthetics of the vein figures. Vein figures
rication as well as by the constraints of the fabrica- were scripted as open Nurbs curves and not as closed
tion process. The structure was planned to be fab- curves. The advantages here were that instead of
ricated through water-jet cutting of 1 mm thick alu- four curves per tendrils, only one curve had to be
minium sheeting. The first series of mock-ups tested cut, as well as that the programming of water-jet was
the approach as surface prototypes to check the joint much quicker and less predicated to errors of switch-
Figure 5
An early test model
shown from
different angles. On
the right: the folded
flanges on tile
edges are used to
construct the whole
installation.

Figure 6
diagram shows
different options for
faceting with 1011
parts (left), 2034
parts (middle) and
550 Parts (right)
Figure 7
fabrication test with
individual part (left)
and different
assemblies (middle
and right).
Figure 8
geometric scaffold
for planar surfaces
(left), digital
scaffolding and
patterning (middle),
prototype (right)

ing between interior and exterior cuts, since it was al- ments, which form a suspended structure through
ways a cut on the center of the line. aggregation of planar facets. Relief becomes space,
Each massing iteration was developed using the the single-sided surface is doubled into interior and
method of mesh relaxation: the underlying mesh ge- exterior, solidness becomes thinness. A Semperian
ometry went through a tensile structure simulation Stoffwechsel, a change of matter, takes place, where
with a certain number of fixed mesh points. The fixed one material is informed by the properties of an-
points were in most cases placed on the perimeter of other. Tendrils, which are cut out of the individual
the geometry under the assumption that they per- facets, grow within the artefact as well as within the
form as anchor points to the ceiling. Holes were cre- surrounding space through shadows that are cast
ated as part of the flat mesh tessellation, before the through the openings (figure 8).
relaxation process was applied. The mesh relaxation
was based on the Grasshopper plugin Kangaroo in CONCLUSION
some cases in combination with mesh typology mod- In this paper we presented a way to generate pat-
eller to create a more interesting base mesh. In order terns over 3-dimensional meshes borrowing some of
to achieve a visual interesting, non-uniform faceting the historical ideas of scaffolding and figure place-
pattern the meshes needed to show transformation: ment. By looking at Crane's notion of pattern mak-
uneven distribution of points with fields of different ing the paper questions how a digital Arts and Crafts
densities was aesthetically desirable. could be created that define a dynamic relation of
pattern and form. This notion considers computation
FINAL DESIGN and fabrication as main determinants for the imple-
The final model contains less than 500 parts and the mentation of certain rules that lead the production of
ornamentation of the tendrils was limited to certain ornamental architectural surfaces.
areas. Using multiple point attractors the tendrils Future research could focus on building skin for
only grow in a certain proximity to the attractor and large scale buildings. The use of facets allows to in-
are eliminated in other areas. Again, this allows sav- corporate a concept of cheapness into the design
ing time within the fabrication process, but also en- as an active design principle and not as a post-
riches the complexity of the artefact. rationalization process. The application to other ma-
The final design was a part of an exhibition held terials such as pre-cast concrete panels, laminated
at the former villa Becher, which was built at the glass panels and double-layered rainscreen facades
turn of the twentieth century. The musee Jurassien has to be studied to understand each materials po-
d'art et d'histoire is characterized through its orna- tential and constraints. For example the use of pre-
mentations, painted ceilings, wooden panelling and cast panels with highly expensive moulds seems to
stucco works. Those characteristic structures would postulate an approach with more repetition and in-
have been almost destroyed during the restoration telligent use of tiles - an idea that is very present in
in 1995, if the department of building protection of Crane -, whereas the use of laminated glass would en-
the city Bern had not intervened. able more pattern variation.
In reference to the history of the building we Another very promising application could be
designed an installation, which shows an interpreta- found in interiors. Especially interiors of hospitality
tion of one of the existing baroque ceiling motives. could be enriched by highly ornamented tilings. This
The room, even though located in the old building, application would be a literal return to Crane as those
is one of the few rooms without such pre-existing surfaces tend to be flat and two dimensional and re-
ornaments. The stereometric stucco cast is trans- quire intelligent methods of tiling and studies of cor-
ferred into a tectonic form of polygonal metal ele- ners, boundaries and edges.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The project was designed by BFR lab, Daniel Baer-
lecken, Matthias Frei and Judith Reitz in collabora-
tion with Sabri Gokmen. The fabrication of the proto-
type was executed at the Digital Fabrication at Geor-
gia Tech and supervised by Jake Tompkins.
REFERENCES
Baerlecken, D and Gokmen, S 2013 'Gemming: Archi-
tectonics of Facets', SIGraDi 2013 [Proceedings of the
17th Conference of the Iberoamerican Society of Dig-
ital Graphics - ISBN: 978-956-7051-86-1] Chile - Val-
paraíso 20 - 22 November 2013
Bridson, R 2007 'Fast Poisson disk sampling in arbitrary
dimensions', ACM SIGGRAPH. Vol. 2007
Cohen-Steiner, D, Alliez, P and Desbrun, M 2004, 'Vari-
ational shape Approximation', ACM Transactions on
Graphics, 23(3), pp. pp. 905-914
Crane, W 1900, Line and Form, Dodo Press

Material
Multi-layered Breathing Architectural Envelope
Andreas Lund Larsen1 , Isak Worre Foged2 , Rasmus Lund Jensen3
1,2,3
Aalborg University
1
alla09@student.aau.dk 2 iwfo@create.aau.dk 3 rlj@civil.aau.dk
A multi layered breathing envelope is developed as a method of natural

ventilation. The two main layers consist of mineral wool and air permeable
concrete. The mineral wool works as a dynamic insulation and the permeable
concrete as a heat recovery system with a high thermal mass for heat storage.
The performance of the envelope is simulated and put through an optimization
process. The impact of a design system on the architectural potential of
Performance -based design was investigated.
Keywords: Architectural Envelope, Performance-based architecture, Air

permeable concrete
INTRODUCTION through to ventilate the building. When the air is

This study seeks to articulate an architectural enve- moving through a porous media in the wall it will
lope and investigate its capacities to regulate the function as a dynamic insulator. The dynamic U-
indoor environment through a composition of per- value can be calculated by a function of airflow ve-
meable materials. In recent years the requirements locity, when velocity increases the U-value decreases
for low energy consumption for buildings has in- (Taylor, et al. 1996). The dynamic insulation works
creased rapidly. A lot of solutions to this issue fo- by air obtaining the heat from the conductive ther-
cus on separating the indoor environment from the mal flux and creates a contra-flux and thus preheat-
outdoor with more insulation and increased air tight- ing the inlet air; this principle is shown on Figure 1.
ness of the building envelope, where the envelope is The opposite of contra-flux is pro-flux this occurs if
often perceived as a static boundary. This study at- the airflow has the same direction as the thermal flux
tempts to perceive the envelope as a dynamic transi- resulting in decreasing dynamic U-value.
tion between environments where one environment Multiple field testing has been conducted in or-
can benefit from the other. The goal is to create der to document the effect of breathing envelopes
an air permeable envelope as a method for natural and dynamic insulation. In a study by Mohammed
ventilation. From this, the work focuses on the ar- S. Imbabi (Imbabi, 2005) a breathing wall panel was
chitectural language of performance-based design tested in a "Breathing wall test cell". The dynamic in-
while enhancing the atmospheric and thermal envi- sulation was shown to work as an air pollution filter
ronment by means of modulating the form and ma- besides the function as air supply source and heat ex-
terial of the envelope. changer. The energy saving of heating and cooling
The type of building envelope is also called a for dynamic insolation compared to conventional in-
"breathing envelope", which basically is a wall orien- sulation are first demonstrated significantly when ap-
tated to the outdoor environment where air is pulled plying a heat recovery system to the exhaust air.
Material - Volume 2 - eCAADe 32 | 117

Most of the work regarding dynamic insulation of the patterning in relation to a multi layered breath-
is based on mechanical ventilation to control the air ing envelope. Physical design models of different de-
flow. This can pose challenges, in an experimental signs are casted in both scale 1:1 and 1:10. The pur-
study by A. Dimoudi et al. (Dimoudi et al. 2004) a pose is to get an understanding of the materiality and
breathing envelope construction was tested under appearance of the patterning on the interior surface
real weather conditions in a test reg. The experiment created by the design system and to get a more spa-
showed that the weather conditions like wind have a tial notion of the design. A computational system is
large impact on behavior of the air flow and thus the developed, with the purpose to calculate the perfor-
performance of the envelope. mance in order to evaluate the specific design. And
Low outdoor temperatures can cause the inlet air to optimize towards les temperature difference be-
of a breathing envelope to be well below room tem- tween the wall surface and the room by manipulating
perature. This doesn't seem to cause relevant prob- the wall surface.
lems due to relative low air flow velocity. But an in- Figure 1
creasing air flow velocity results in a drop in temper- Principle of
ature of the interior wall surface (TAYLOR, et al. 1998). contra-flux. Inlet air
In a study of the thermal comfort in rooms with dy- is preheated by the
namic insulation by Guohui Gan (Gan. 2000) an is- heat transmitted
sue with interior surface temperature well below the through the wall.
room temperature was demonstrated to cause ther-
mal discomfort.
The envelope is a multi-layered breathing enve-
lope, which means that all the layers are air perme-
able to some extent. The external layer is a perfo-
rated screen which purpose is to shield the insolation
layer from exposure to external damages like rain and
physical interaction. The insolation is a fiber-based
media like rock wool and functions as the main dy-
namic insulator. The final layer consists of air perme-
able concrete and is the interior layer, which means Figure 2
it is also the interior visible material. This will also The order of the
function as a dynamic insulator but the main func- material layers of
tion is heat recovery and heat storage. This is possi- the envelope.
ble because air permeable concrete is a porous ma-
terial, which is both highly conductive and has a high
thermal mass. (Wong, et al. 2007)
From this a strategy of modulating the interior
envelope surface by patterns creates a design sys-
tem that articulates and enhances the thermal per-
formance of the envelope.
METHOD
Experiments are conducted to examine both the en-
vironmental performance and the visual expression
118 | eCAADe 32 - Material - Volume 2

Envelope description speed and temperature, all other weather conditions
The tree layers of the envelope serves different func- is discarded. The weather data is DRY Copenhagen
tions for the performance and is arranged as illus- reference year for the period 07/01 - 11/01. For the
trated in Figure 2. The protective exterior screen is in internal environment the heat gains and the CO2 pol-
this study not detail more than being highly air per- lution from people is calculated for at situation with
meable. The two main layers is the insolation and the 0,04 persons per cubic meters room and a metabolic
concrete layers which in combination holds the pos- rate of 1,2. In the usage time 08.00 - 16.00 the internal
sibility of achieving very low dynamic U-values by the loads is 100% of the calculated and 10% at any other
insolation layer and grate heat recovery and thermal time.
storages by the air permeable concrete. To make concrete air permeable the void frac-
tion between the aggregates is utilized to the forma-
Figure 3
tion of interconnected air channels through the ma-
Theoretical setup
terial. Rounded aggregates bound together by ce-
for the
ment bridges, leaving free air channels. The recipe
investigation.
and procedure used in this study is developed by
Daniels et al. (Daniels et al. 2011).
Computational system
The computational system is based on the
"Schematic of an integrated performance-
based/driven architectural design platform" de-
scribed by Xing Shi (Shi, 2010). It consists of a looping
process between simulation, evaluation, optimiza-
Figure 4
tion and generation (refer to Figure 5). The simula-
Arrangement of the
tion starts with inputs from the weather data and the
segment for the
calculated internal loads. The generated envelope
thermal simolation
surface geometry is put through a series of opera-
of the envelope.
tions to split it up in smaller pieces and is translated
into numbers to feed into the equations of the sim-
ulation. In Figure 4 a representation of the arrange-
ment of thes smaller pieces is shown for a section of
the wall. Each cube is a volume fraction of the enve-
lope. The segments is used to calculate the tempera-
ture change through the envelope by calculating the
transmition between each segment for each time
step.
The simulation outputs the CO2 concentration
and the room temperature in a graph as a func-
The setup used for the development of the enve- tion of time. A simulation will simulate for a pe-
lope is as illustrated on Figure 3 consisting of three riod of 5 days for a winter situation. The results will
zones; an internal environment, an external environ- then be analyzed and converted to a fitness num-
ment and a wall section between the two. The exter- ber to feed into the evolutionary algorithmic soft-
nal environment is defined by wind direction, wind ware Rhinoceros Grasshopper plugin Galapagos de-

Figure 5
Flow chart for the
simulation and the
optimization
process
veloped by McNeel, in order to generate a new de- rectangles are returned. It can be towards a point
sign to be analyzed. The generation is based on a or a curve as illustrated on Figure 7. The patterning
design system input outlining the boundaries for the is determining where on the wall there is a poten-
design. The final output is then a design with corre- tial for enlargement of the surface area. It is the de-
sponding performance simulation results. gree of subdivisions and the oscillation in depth of
the pattern that determine the area and the subse-
Design system quent performance of the envelope segment. Mov-
The design system is based on a simple set of rules. ing each face of the subdivided surface perpendicu-
A rectangular surface is split into two. A division on lar with a distance defined by a function of sinus and
the center of the longest edge does this. These two thus oscillating the wall surface create the depth of
new surfaces return as new inputs to be subdivided. the patterning.
Creating a pattern of fragments as the rectangles gets
smaller as illustrated on Figure 6. The pattern can be RESULTS
varied by not returning some of the rectangles caus- It can be seen that giving different inputs to the de-
ing them to stop subdividing. The patterning can sign system outputs designs of different character-
be controlled by different methods selecting which

Figure 6
Logic of the
subdivision for the
design system.
Figure 7
Example of designs
for two different
selection methods.
istics. The transparency in the selection of subdivi- perature. As the performance of the envelope is
sion is largely affected by the method. The selection linked explicitly to the patterns created, a merge be-
method with curves, see Figure 9, almost draws the tween architectural surface articulation and ventila-
curves on the wall with the patenting and thus the tion modification is evident. This allows for an archi-
system of selection becomes easy readable. For com- tectural method where a designer has rich opportu-
parison the point selection method, see Figure 8, ap- nities to express both visual and thermal perceptions
pears more random and without a visible geometric simultaneously as an integrative design approach.
logic. Still, if looking thoroughly on the pattern and
understanding the design system, the point distribu- DISCUSSION
tion can be read. This clear relation between inputs A multilayered breathing envelope with a light
and appearance of the design gives the designer a weight dynamic insulator and a heavy layer for heat
large amount of control of the end resultant. recovery seems to be a promising source to en-
The simulation indicated a good possibility for ergy efficient natural ventilation. The optimisation
using a multi layered breathing envelope as a of the patterning showed only small improvements.
method for natural ventilation, thereby reducing the To achieve improved results a local variation of the
need for mechanical ventilation systems. Further- concrete layer thickness could be introduced, as the
more, the optimisation process of the interior enve- simulation indicates this to be a determining factors.
lope surface showed only minor change in the ther- Some aspects like vapor diffusion in the construction
mal performance and primarily in the relation be- and solar gains were discarded to simplify the study.
tween the surface temperature and the room tem-

This may reveal some challenges and benefits. Fur- quantifiable and physical performances." (Shi, 2010)
ther studies must be carried out in order to identify This study suggests that the aesthetics is as large a
the possible challenges related to above-mentioned factor in performance-based architecture as it is to-
alterations of the studies performed. Xing Shi sug- day, but approached in a new way. The architect's
gests that performance-based architecture leads to role is to construct and guide the algorithm by means
of designing the inputs and the framework for the
computational process. Figure 8
1:10 scale model of
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS a patterning design
The execution of the physical experiments in the towards points.
present study was only possible thanks to the ma-
terial sponsors: DanSand A/S, Aalborg Portland and
BASF.
REFERENCES
Dimoudi, A, Androutsopoulos, A and Lykoudis, S 2004,
'Experimental work on a linked, dynamic and venti-
lated, wall component', Energy and Buildings, 36, p. Figure 9
443–453 1:10 scale model of
Guohui, G 2000, 'Numerical evaluation of thermal com- a patterning design
fort in rooms with dynamic insulation', Building and towards curves.
Environment, 35, pp. 445-453
Hyldgård, C E, Funch, E J and Steen-Thøde, M 2001,
Grundlæggende klimateknik og bygningsfysik, For-
laget Aalborg universitet, Denmark
Imbabi, M S 2005, 'Modular breathing panels for energy
efficient, healthy building construction', Renewable
Energy, 31, pp. 729-738
Nørgaard, J, Daniels, O 2011, Air Permeable Heat Exchang-
ing Concrete, Master's Thesis, Aalborg University
SHI, X 2010, 'Performance-based and performance- Figure 10
driven architectural design and optimization', Fron- 1:1 model of a
tiers of Architecture and Civil Engineering in China, section of a
4(4), p. 512–518 envelope design.
Stampe, O B 2000, Varme- og klimateknik. Ventilation-
steknik, Danvak, Denmark
Taylor, B J, Cawthorne, D A and Imbabi, M S 1996, 'Ana-
lytical Investigation of the Steady-State Behaviour of
Dynamic and Diffusive Building Envelopes', Building
and Environment, 31(6), pp. 519-525
Taylor, B J and Imbabi, M S 1998, 'The application of dy-
namic insulation in buildings', Renewable Energy, 15,
pp. 377-382
Wong, J M, Glasser, F P and Imbabi, M S 2007, 'Evalua-
tion of thermal conductivity in air permeable con-
"a paradigm shift from focusing on form and aesthet-
crete for dynamic breathing wall construction', Ce-
ics to emphasizing the balance between traditional ment & Concrete Composites, 29, pp. 647-655
concerns of architectural design and the building's

Material Fusion
A research into the simulated blending of materials using particle systems
Kostas Grigoriadis
Royal College of Art
http://www.rca.ac.uk/students/kostas-grigoriadis/
kostas.grigoriadis@network.rca.ac.uk
Parallel to the early development and recent widespread usage of composite

materials in building and manufacturing, the concept of functionally graded
materials (FGM) was initiated and developed as far back as the 1980s. In
contrast to the composite paradigm, where layers of materials are glued and
'cooked' together under high pressure and temperature to form laminated parts,
FGM are singular materials that vary their consistency gradually over their
volume. In direct link to their increasing use in fields adjacent to architecture, the
scope of the paper is to explore a possible design route for designing with FGM.
Of a limited number of available CAD software where material properties can be
graded, the intent of the design for a materially graded windbreak module is to
utilize particle systems as a technique for simulating fields of interacting,
information-loaded material point sets that can be fused together in a gradient
manner.
Keywords: Functionally Graded Materials, Particle System Elements
INTRODUCTION sulting in reductions of approximately ten kilos in the

Background- Airplane Part Additive Manu- overall weight of the aircraft. In addition, there was
facturing also zero wastage in the raw material used for man-
Recent developments in the aerospace industry have ufacturing the part, as "to produce one kilo of metal,
indicated that the use of three-dimensional printing you use one kilo of metal - not 20 kilos" [1].
results in weight and cost reductions, as well as in Apart from the use of single materials, when de-
improved structural performance of airplane compo- scribing the departure of General Electric (GE) from
nents that are fabricated as singular pieces. Although using traditional manufacturing methods and to 3D-
still at its nascent stages, the use of additive layer printing airplane parts, LaMonica (2013) mentions
manufacturing in instances like the nacelle hinge of that GE engineers are starting to investigate how the
an Airbus A320, typically consisting of welded or material palette used in the printing process can be
bolted components, reduced the weight of the actual expanded. "A blade for an engine or turbine, for ex-
part from 918g to 326g (Tomlin and Meyer 2013), re- ample, could be made with different materials so that
one end is optimized for strength and the other for

heat resistance" (ibid., p.59). principle only be scaled down to a certain divisible
degree. Effectively, the implications that arise firstly
Multi-materials in Architecture have to do with the binary design procedures being
This gradual shift towards the use of multi-materials superseded and secondly with the idea that taking
by the world's largest manufacturer of jet engines, into account material properties is innate to 'n-ary'
as well as the capability to manufacture bi-materials design thinking.
even by conventional manufacturing methods, sug- In this light, what the paper investigates is the
gests that as the environmental and performance departure from the use of conventional CAD soft-
benefits are becoming more evident and their use ware that use boundary representation geometries
more prevalent, their application in architecture is to represent volume and space and the search for
only a matter of time. As Wiscombe (2012) sug- alternative methods of designing with material gra-
gests, "for architecture, [...] multi-materials open up dients. Following the selection of an appropriate
the greater possibility of being able to not only cus- tool, the method is applied to the design of a graded
tomize structural rigidity but also create variable ma- windbreak element, with the objective being to use
terial responses to structural, environmental and aes- multi-materials that will increase the structural per-
thetic criteria all at the same time" (ibid., p.5). formance of the piece, enabling as a result the re-
Other recent research initiatives similarly indi- duction in the overall amount of material used in the
cate that the transfer of the idea of graduating ma- windbreak.
terials from fields such as aerospace engineering to
the construction industry can enable savings in both NATURALLY OCCURRING AND MANMADE
energy and material quantities, while eliminating the
MULTI-MATERIALS
formation of weak points in the places that parts
would connect in a conventional manner (Federal In- Manufactured Functionally Graded Materi-
stitute for Research on Building, Urban Affairs and als
Spatial Development 2011). Researchers in Japan solved the problem of very
high stresses building up in the connection between
Design Implications parts of different materials used in hypersonic space
With the application of multi-materials in architec- planes, as far back as 1984, by developing a new type
ture, there are some ensuing problems relating to the of material that would vary its properties continu-
way modules or even larger building parts are de- ously over its volume. Consisting in that instance of
signed. The line and the plane that delineate spatial ceramic that would gradually fuse into steel, these
boundaries have typically been the main representa- materials were termed functionally graded materials
tion tools of a design thinking that revolved around (FGM, Figure 1).
the creation of enclosure in binary sequences of void
Figure 1
and infill. What the idea of graduation is tied to, how-
Image of a
ever, is the expansion of this binary condition into an
functionally graded
open ended field of ternary, quaternary, quinary... 'n-
According to Mahamood et al. (2012), the main areas material consisting
ary' (each one representing a solid material), as well
of application of FGM currently are in the aerospace, of a stainless steel
as the decimals that are placed between for instance
medicine, defense, energy and optoelectronics fields rich end on the left
the ternary and the quaternary that represent the ar-
as well as in areas such as "cutting tool insert coat- and a silicon
eas of fused materiality. This means that as well as
ing, automobile engine components, nuclear reactor carbide rich part on
absolute values there are "(finitely or infinitely many)
components, turbine blade, heat exchanger, Tribol- the right (Ruys et al.
degrees of partial truth"(Hájek et al. 1995, p.), which
ogy, sensors, fire retardant doors, etc." (ibid., p.3). 2000).
in this case however, are finite since matter can in

On an industrial manufacturing level and at (ibid., p. 9082) (Figure 2). It is relevant to note that in
scales that relate to architecture, Schmidt et al. (2012) these two instances muscle-bone and dentin-enamel
describe their technique of accumulative roll bond- form a material entity in which graded-boundary ma-
ing in which aluminum sheets are sprayed with an terial subsets are contained.
aqueous solution that consists of copper particles
Figure 2 at 33.3% concentration with a feed velocity and
"Histologic distance that are incremented in order to design
cross-section of a "graded materials by particle reinforcement" (ibid.,
tooth showing the p. 1009). The sheets are recursively roll- bonded to-
enamel and dentin, gether in order to fabricate a sandwiched material
with enamel consisting of copper particles gradually placed in lay-
lamellae and ers within the aluminum sheet. The advantage of
enamel tufts this technique is that the material property gradient
visible" [2] can be distributed in a way that can be "directly op-
posed to the gradient in loading condition" (ibid., p.
1009), therefore having a direct impact on the struc-
tural performance and amount of material used in
the sheet.
Naturally Occurring FGM

Although artificially manufactured only a few
decades earlier, the use of FGM has been the main
way that elements connect in nature where accord-
ing to Rawlings (2002) "it is interesting to note that
with a few exceptions, [...] interfaces [...] are not DESIGNING WITH GRADIENTS
abrupt, but graded" (ibid., p. 1038). This grading Available CAD Techniques
occurs as it is the optimal way for parts of dissimilar When it comes to designing with material gradients,
structural characteristics to connect together avoid- according to Knoppers et al. (2005) and Oxman
ing the use of excessive amounts of material at the (2011), there are four main options of "mathematical
area of the interface. In the human body, places such models to describe FGM structures" (Knoppers et al.
as the point where muscle and bone are attached, 2005, p.40). Namely these are Voxels, FEM elements
an FGM that gradually alters its consistency from os- used for Finite Element Analysis, Particle system ele-
seous to fibrous provides the ideal transition for the ments and Vague Discrete Modeling (VDM) elements.
forces building up at the junction to dissipate. They go on to specify the characteristics of each one
Elsewhere in the body as Henriques et al. (2013) of the techniques, as well as the limitations that they
state, teeth consist of enamel and dentin that are two pose.
distinct materials that have elastic moduli of approxi- Voxels are volumetric data sets that are the three-
mately 60 and 20 GPa respectively. The two materials dimensional equivalents of pixels used in digital im-
"are bonded by dentin-enamel-junction (DEJ) where ages. The problem of very large volumes of data pro-
the Young's modulus changes linearly from that of cessing and storage required when voxels are used to
enamel to that of dentin, thus reducing dramati- design graded information with accuracy, poses the
cally the stress in the enamel when loads are applied main practical limitation. Finite Elements are mainly
and acting as a natural functionally graded material" used in mechanical engineering and are utilized to
perform numerical analyses, as well as to visualize the

manner in which structures bend, twist or deform in the role of the designer is in configuring the simu-
order to optimize the design of industrial parts. In ad- lation set-out and affecting variables (emitter place-
dition to being fairly inaccessible to designers due to ment, attractor forces etc.). Additionally, in regards
the high level of scientific knowledge required, FEM to the second argument of the particles not having a
elements have also large memory requirements and fixed state, according to DeLanda (2011) it is the point
require very big data processing capabilities. Vague with every dynamic system, that there are instances
discrete interval modelling is a technique in which in the evolution or playing-out of the system in time,
the shape of a product is not completely defined where a certain state of equilibrium is reached. This is
but can exist as one instance of many possible forms something that effectively cancels out the argument
between two boundary domains. Knoppers et al. of particle system elements perpetually altering their
(2005) state that the VDM method is still under devel- state.
opment, while it has the same limitations of intensive The scope, therefore, of the design exercise that
computational requirements. Lastly, particle system follows has been to reinstate and explore particles as
elements are "objects that have mass, position, and a valid technique for generating fields of interacting,
velocity, and respond to forces, but that have no spa- material information-loaded sprites that can be set-
tial extend" (ibid., p.40). The main limitation of the out, emitted and affected by forces in a manner that
particles is the absence of coherence and the con- enables their gradient blending.
stant changing of their positions within the simula-
tion environment. Lastly, according to Oxman (2011) Functionally Graded Windbreak Module
an additional problem to all four methods is the ab- The graded windbreak module is a design for an in-
sence of a unifying software environment that would dustrial type wind fence that is typically deployed in
allow for editing, as well the integration of various sites of very high wind speeds, with some of its func-
platforms for analysis and modelling. tions being among others to prevent soil erosion, re-
duce wind loads on sensitive components and pre-
The Case for Particle System Elements and vent the dissipation of stored material at exposed in-
the Simulation of Materials dustrial sites. Consisting of aluminium or steel parts,
The majority of the aforementioned software pack- the clad material of the wall system needs to be
ages that allow for the description of material com- up to 20% porous in order to partially allow wind
position and heterogeneity operate by importing ge- through the structure, avoiding that way any turbu-
ometries within the specific CAD environment and lence caused as a result of it being completely solid.
using the interface of the program in order to as- In this regard, the design intent has been to uti-
sign materiality. This model of designating mate- lize particle systems in order to simulate the genera-
rial distribution consists of initial scientific analyses of tive blending of aluminium that is typically used in
stress areas, loads etc. that then inform the manner windbreaks and copper that would be targeted in
in which gradients are mapped on the pre-designed specific areas for a more efficient structural perfor-
components. mance of the wall. The design development involved
A first differentiation of particle system elements initially conducting a computational fluid dynamic
from this workflow is that material properties are as- (CFD) simulation of the wind flow around a standard
signed to the particles themselves, with the system four meter high by six meter long wall that would ta-
then being simulated over time and the eventual for- per in section from bottom to top. The wind was sim-
mation attained being (partly) self-'designed'. In this ulated for velocities of 90 kilometers per hour and a
case material behaviour and resulting formation are pressure map indicated the load distribution on the
intrinsically linked and relationally generated, while surface of the wall (Figure 3).

of parameters that can be controlled in the program,
Figure 3 distance, density, temperature and viscosity are in-
CFD wind flow puts that have SI units, while others such as pressure
study around a and surface tension have physical property attributes
standard wall but not physical values (Kirkegaard et al. 2008). In
module in plan terms of the latter, it has been deemed sufficient that
(top) and pressure these could acquire values relative to one another for
map elevation of the two materials. Molten copper for instance, has a
wind loading surface tension at 1140 degrees centigrade of 1,120
(bottom). dyne cm−1 and molten aluminium at 700 centigrade
of 900 dyne cm−1 (Farn 2006), which would effec-
tively mean that although no direct assignments of
these values could be made, the two fluids in the
simulation would need to have an approximate ra-
tio of 1 to 0.625 in their surface tension values. With
this in mind, for the rest of the parameters the liq-
uid temperature for copper was set to 1,200 centi-
grade (1473 Kelvin) and for aluminium to 660 centi-
grade (933 Kelvin), both slightly above the melting
points of the materials. The density and viscosity of
the two were also attributed: copper at 1,200 de-
grees centigrade has a density of 7,898 kg/m3 and its
kinematic viscosity at the same temperature is equal
to 0.0312 m2 · s−1 , while for aluminium the values
at 660 degrees were at 2,375 kg/m3 for density and
0.01379 m2 · s−1 for kinematic viscosity. In terms of
the placing of the material emitters in the container
that the materials would be poured in, this followed
the CFD pressure map analysis, with the copper emit-
ter placed at the bottom of the simulation where the
loads would be highest and the aluminium emitter at
the top part with the least amount of loading condi-
tions. Lastly, attractor daemons with negative values
were set at equal distances within the container, in
Particle Simulation Set-out
order to allow for the formation of openings in the
Informed by the research on aluminium sheet rein-
wall so that excessive wind turbulence behind it is
forcement by Schmidt et al. (2012), aluminium was
avoided. The simulation was eventually ran and ter-
used in the simulations as the base material for the
minated at the point where the openings covered an
structure of the wall, with copper reinforcement at
area equating to 15% of the total wall area.
the areas of high tensile load. A particle simulation
was set up in the fluid dynamics program Realflow,
Visualization of Material Fusion
with the intent being to assign the material proper-
Although the use of particle system elements is an
ties of the two substances in their molten form in or-
appropriate method of designing with direct mate-
der to simulate their blending digitally. Of a series

rial properties, the output of the simulation is a field melt Shader' can then be applied on the overall mesh
of point elements that cannot be visually evaluated and individual sub-materials (the number of which is
or rendered. The way the particle clouds are visual- corresponding to the number of fused particle sys-
ized in the specific program is by applying a polyg- tems) input that correspond to the per-face data val-
onal mesh on the points and reading the cloud as ues, attributing therefore the appearance of fused
an enclosed volume. The actual gradient proper- materials to the mesh (Figure 4).
ties of the particle cloud are then mapped on the
mesh as colours, which however are for preview pur- CONCLUSION
poses only. In order to acquire higher quality results
Discussion of Results
and also access the particle data values, integration
According to their research on the design of graded
with the 3D graphics software Maya was necessary.
materials Schmidt et al. (2012) indicate that over
When a Realflow mesh is computed from more than
a distance of 500mm, areas on the sandwich alu-
one fluid particle systems, there is information stored
minium sheet that consisted of 0.5 volume percent of
about the values of each polygon face that can be re-
copper had an ultimate tensile strength of 200MPa,
associated using the Blind Data editor interface when
while areas at the other end of the sheet of 0.15 vol-
the mesh is imported in Maya. A mental ray 'Realflow
Figure 4
The output of the
simulation at frame
79, with the
openings covering
approximately15%
of the total wall
area. The copper
particles region is
shown in dark red
and the aluminium
in grey.

ume percent had 140MPa. This would mean that size of material gradient. As this proves that differen-
using their graded material accumulative roll bond- tiating the characteristics of the material distribution
ing technique, a 65% increase in strength at the over the volume of an FGM is already possible, fur-
opposing parts of the aluminium/copper sheet was ther research is to be made in order to apply princi-
achieved. Based on this model, and the fact that the ples from the enthesis and other connections found
copper distribution on the design would occupy a rein the human body in order to inform the distribution
gion of 2000mm it would be envisaged that the ten- of the particles at the locations where materials fuse
sile strength increase from the bottom of the wall together in the simulation.
and towards the top would be much higher than Lastly, further accuracy in controlling additional
65%. What this meant was that using a functionally parameters of the materials would be required.
graded material consisting of aluminium and copper These parameters would include decreasing the tem-
that have been blended together in a graded forma- perature of the molten substances over time so that
tion enabled an increase in the tensile strength of the the materials 'cool down' and solidify, layering the
wall, allowing therefore for an overall reduction in the aluminium and copper in an alternate manner in
material used. order to resemble the roll bonding process more
closely and also testing out different container mor-
Summary phologies in order to achieve better structural stabil-
As the use of components consisting of fused multi- ity of the wall piece.
materials is becoming more prevalent in various in-
dustries, the scope of the paper has been to demon- REFERENCES
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[1] http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-
24528306
[2] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enamel_tufts

Performative Wood
Baris Cokcan1 , Johannes Braumann2 , Sigrid Brell-Cokcan3
1
Institute for Structural Design and Timber Construction, TU Vienna | IIArchitects-
Int 2,3 Association for Robots in Architecture
1
www.iti.tuwien.ac.at 2,3 www.robotsinarchitecture.org
1
cokcan@2architects-int.com 2,3 {johannes|sigrid}@robotsinarchitecture.org
This research builds upon projects from both university and practice to explore
new approaches on how the multifunctionality, flexibility, and performance of
wood can be utilized to inform new approaches towards both design and
fabrication. The following projects use physical prototypes to bend wood just
within its tolerances, design with the high precision of multi-axis robotic
fabrication in mind, and finally inform the shape of a large free-form structure
through material properties.
Keywords: wood, high-performance material, CNC, robotic fabrication,

geometric design
MOTIVATION oping plug-ins and add-ons for Computer Aided De-

Wood is one of the traditional materials in architec- sign (CAD) systems that approximate behaviour or
ture, but has gone through significant developments provide feedback/simulations of the fabrication pro-
over the centuries and is now perceived as a high- cess. We identified three distinctive ways of ap-
performance material. It has evolved from being proaching materiality as a design driver for complex
used for dome-like huts at the beginning of mankind spatial structures:
to industrialized, pre-fabricated housing, but is still
the subject of significant research, resulting e.g. in
• A material-based approach via physical exper-
highly durable wood composite materials, or new
imentation with material properties, which is
strategies for forming wood. In this paper we will
a well-established method dating back to the
focus on the performance of wood in terms of the
earliest buildings.
transfer from digital to physical 3D space in architec-
tural design and education, and its inherent multi-
functionality - from the "natural" behaviour of bend- • A semi-automated fabrication approach by
ing to the use of high-end CNC (Computer Numeric adapting recent CNC technologies for trans-
Control) fabrication methods. ferring between virtual and physical space.
WOOD AS DESIGN PARAMETER

Material has become an important design factor. In • A pure digital approach where material rele-
our research-based teaching we try to incorporate vant properties are simulated right at the be-
material properties in the design process by devel- ginning of a design process.

Designing through Material Experimenta- torsion at the main girder. Therefore, in order to de-
tion fine the three-dimensional spatial structure, the stu-
The design studio Bending without Breaking - taught dents established a simple design principle by divid-
at TU Vienna's Institute for Structural Design and Tim- ing a planar wooden plate into eight strip segments
ber Construction - experimented with a canopy struc- by offsetting a sequence of squares. For the third di-
ture of over 5 by 5 metres and a diagonal of 7 metres mension each second quadratic strip was bent in the
to span the main entrance of the Künstlerhaus in Vi- opposite direction of the previous strip, resulting in a
enna (see figure 1). The main challenge was the phys- sequence of positive and negative curvature.
ical behaviour of a wide-span structure and its com- Comparable to the paper cutting tradition of
plex bending in two directions. A solution was found Kirigami (Jackson 2011) the three-dimensional space
through the analysis of the industrial process of fab- structure of a manta ray is generated out of a sin-
ricating glue laminated girders that was adapted by gle plane, hovering across the visitors´ heads. The
the students to produce a large scale structure. Ini- canopy is supported by 2 columns, its spine consist-
tially, the plan was to create a rib structure out of ing of a reinforced comb interleaved with the plate
precisely CNC-cut wood elements that would control strips.
the shape and bending of the form within tight toler- Each strip consists of two layers of plywood,
ances. However, this would have required more ma- which are glue laminated to control and stabilize the
terial and resulted in additional weight and increased form of the manta strips; additional bolts secure the
Figure 1
Installation
"Bending without
Breaking" at the
entrance of the
Künstlerhaus
Vienna

form. The compensation of the material bounce back width of the panel, in that case about 1 by 1 metres.
and as such the geometry of the form-giving mould The only locally available CNC machine capable of
for the cold forming process were explored by the fulfilling these requirements was one of the Associ-
students via trial and error and re-used for all 16 ation for Robots in Architecture's KUKA KR16 robots
strips. For the bending, a wooden offset form was with an attached milling spindle. In a common work-
generated and two layers of plywood strips - each flow, the students would have to create a threedi-
one 5 by 2.5 meters - and placed on top of it. To mensional model in CAD software for every part, cal-
ensure that the wood bends without breaking, each culate the toolpaths using a Computer Aided Man-
strip was cut 5mm deep, normal to the bending di- ufacturing (CAM) software, and then simulate the
rection. robotic fabrication in a special robot-simulation en-
Now, it became possible to force the strip into vironment (Brell-Cokcan and Braumann 2010). How-
position and to fasten it with screws spaced at a dis- ever, we managed to streamline the fabrication pro-
tance of approximately 20cm (see figure 2). The final cess by creating a parametric system in Grasshopper
assembly of all wooden elements was performed on- that would generate all necessary cuts and directly
site at the Künstlerhaus within 36 hours moving from connects with KUKA|prc (Braumann and Brell-Cokcan
the outside to the inside. For every strip, 4mm toler- 2011). This plugin for Grasshopper provides a di-
ance was added to ensure that the central element rect interface that converts parametric toolpaths into
would fit, despite any tolerances that result from the a format that the robot can understand, while also
assembly or the bending. simulating the robot's kinematic movements. Due
to the large extents of the single wood panel, even
Adapting CNC Technologies for a Virtual to the robot's large workspace was insufficient to create
Physical Design-Transfer all cuts. Therefore, we developed a semi-automated
Another project of the design studio experimented workflow that contained all robotic toolpaths. After
with an intelligent strategy for creating a 3D struc- each cut, a comment in the robot code would instruct
ture by selectively cutting a single, laminated, planar the user by how far the panel has to be advanced, be-
wood panel. The lamination is done by inserting a fore starting the next operation.
layer of fibre-glass fabric between the wooden layers. This resulted in a complex system of varying,
Joints are created by selectively removing wooden mathematically calculated cut-angles forming a self-
material, while leaving the inner fibre-glass layer in- interlocking, flexible joint system that allows the
tact, which would then act as a hinge. By control- transformation of a flat panel to a spatial structure,
ling and shaping the amount of removed material, facilitating both fabrication, transport, and mounting
axis limits for each hinge are defined, finally result- (see figure 3).
ing in a complex, self-interlocking system with flexi-
ble hinges. Materializing the Fabrication Process
This project was again inspired by Kirigami and Once the scale changes from small scale canopy
relies on a seamless transfer from digital to physi- structures or objects to large scale free-form struc-
cal space, informed by machinic cutting conditions tures as below, the data flow from digital design to
in combination with a flexible joint system. In this fabrication gains even greater importance. Realized
design, the geometry of the joint system has to be large scale wooden constructions such as the Centre
accurate, with the cutting angles precisely defined Pompidou in Metz by Shigeru Ban (Scheurer 2010) or
within the code, requiring accurate CNC machining Metropol Parasol in Sevilla (Lepik and Santner 2011)
with a multi-axis machine that can process cuts of have in common that CNC fabrication was of great
-45 to +45 degrees in a workspace of at least the importance for the overall production process.

Figure 2
Construction
drawings of the
two-dimensional
cutting pattern
(above), material
deformation
experiments (lower
left), layered
bending process
using glued
plywood plates
(lower right)

However, what we believe to be still missing in
Figure 3 their design to fabrication process are the material
Flexible joint properties of wood which have not been considered
system with as an active design parameter.
laminated plywood Both projects show that CNC technology was
panels and milling used to mill the finishing surface of all structural glue
of angled laminated girders and to adapt the structure in high
connection parts precision to the geometrically changing conditions
of a freeform surface. The special properties of wood
that allow it to be bent (see ""Designing through Ma-
terial Experimentation") have not yet been encoun-
tered in large scale construction. Instead industry is
aiming to achieve high precision, even though wood
is an inhomogeneous, anisotropic material.
The fabrication process of milling a wooden lat-
tice structure to be inserted into a steel and concrete
structure (as seen in the Metropol parasol project) is
not too different from common steel construction,
with the only difference being that a softer material
was milled to overcome the geometric deviations be-
tween the structure and the freeform surface. While
processes like CNC cutting, milling or waterjet cut-
ting can be interchanged according to the type of
material used, wood with its inhomogeneous prop-
erties has got the potential of adding a value to the
design to production process that is discussed in the
Düzce Teknopark large scale project (see figure 4).
ACTIVATING MATERIAL TOLERANCES IN

THE DIGITAL DESIGN TO FABRICATION
PROCESS
An approach towards informing wooden freeform
surfaces with digital tools is the use of mathemati-
cal algorithms for "planarizing" a freeform façade. In
this project, in contrast to the previous educational
projects, the performance of wood has to be virtu-
ally prototyped before the building process. How-
ever, even state of the art software for processing
a digital surface is not enough to design a proto-
typical full scale architectural project, requiring addi-
tional plugins, custom-tailored for that project. The
resulting applied research into analysing and inform-
ing material specific requirements, as well as the dig-

Figure 4
Scale-model of the
free-form Düzce
Teknopark design
ital performance of customized CAD will be further would allow the geometrical "flattening" of such a
discussed in this paper, as our full-scale application of surface, though at the expense of more complicated
these techniques for a freeform technology centre in knots and connection length.
Turkey has been greatly influenced by having the ma- One of the first challenges in the Düzce
terial inform the fabrication of the physical output. Teknopark project was therefore the topological and
The core element of the Düzce Teknopark is its outer geometrical optimization of the building's shell. As
shell, which was designed and optimized to offer a software tools, the CAD tool Rhinoceros, the para-
balanced layout of public and private areas as well metric modelling plugin Grasshopper, and the ge-
as high ecological and environmental performance, ometric optimization software Evolute Tools were
while visually representing the dynamic and innova- used. The latter software was specifically developed
tive research that is happening inside. Thus, the shell for processing complex surfaces (Eigensatz et al.
is geometrically a double-curved freeform geometry. 2010), but does not provide an automated solution
While such surfaces are nowadays easy to construct for such geometries, instead requiring careful inter-
in CAD software, they are highly complicated to turn action with both the geometry and the software's
into constructible, large-scale geometries, as - unlike parameters. Evolute works similar to a physics solver,
single-curved surfaces - they are not developable, re- where different weights are attached to certain prop-
quiring threedimensionally shaped façade elements, erties. The software then performs calculations, until
instead of simple 2D-cut parts. Only triangulation an equilibrium state is achieved where the defined

forces are in balance. However, such a process greatly rial to apply to the whole structure, but rather where
depends on the quality of the initial, rough geometry, each material could be potentially applied. Using a
which is then refined and adjusted until it best ap- custom software tool within Grasshopper, we anal-
proximates the given freeform surface. We therefore ysed the mesh that was previously optimized within
developed customized tools within the parametric Evolute and assigned zones to each panel that sig-
modelling environment Grasshopper that allowed nify the allowable selection of materials. The final
us to accurately adjust and fine-tune the generation choice of all the available materials was finally made
of the initial mesh. This data was then processed according to building requirements such as interior
in Evolute, to generate a mesh that would create lightening, heat load, and aesthetics (see figure 6).
equilateral elements that are as evenly spaced and
as planar as possible. However, these forces work CONCLUSION
against each other, as evenly spaced elements may The Düzce Teknopark project confronted us with the
sacrifice their planarity and the other way around. highly complex problem of segmenting a double-
As mentioned above, a mathematically exact pla- curved surface into constructible elements. In our
narity of such a surface could only be achieved with previous wooden projects that were made in an ed-
triangulation. We therefore had to precisely evalu- ucational context, we explored the possibilities of
ate the physical properties of the materials of the taken advantage of material properties and efficient
external shell to establish the maximum allowable CNC fabrication. Especially the Manta project shows
amount of unplanarity for each material, as e.g. glass that complex shapes often do not have to be sub-
can only be bent by 0.8 millimetres per metre, while tractively fabricated, but can actually be produced
the wooden components allow up to five times as by relatively simple means, if one considers the ma-
much transformation (see figure 5). As the double- terial properties - without even requiring CNC ma-
curved geometry is not symmetrical, the results of chines. In the case of the Düzce Teknopark, this ap-
the optimization process greatly differ depending proach enables us to intelligently assign construction
on the local geometry, with very planar elements in materials over a complex surface according to their
geometrically nearly single-curved areas, but quite material behaviour. As the curvature and geomet-
unplanar elements in areas with significant double- ric properties change fluently along the surface, this
curvature. Therefore, the question is not which mate- process does not lead to an erratic shell, but rather to
Figure 5
Optimization and
Analysis: Top view
before (left) and
after (middle) mesh
optimization in
Grasshopper,
planarity analysis in
Evolute (right): blue
is within required
glass planarity
tolerances

Figure 6
Interior view of the
wooden
construction of
Düzce Teknopark
a performance-based design where geometric prop- ing 1:1 projects. Bending without Breaking has been
erties can be read from the outside. designed by Anton Putintsev, the laminated wood
At the moment, construction of the concrete structure by Benedikt Bernthaler.
foundation in Düzce are starting. Once finished, new
measurements will be taken and the current digital REFERENCES
model adapted to the physical realities of the con- Braumann, J and Brell-Cokcan, S 2011 'Parametric Robot
struction site. Ideally, we will then be able to link the Control: Integrated CAD/CAM for Architectural De-
geometric data to a CNC machine for a fluid design to sign', ACADIA 2011 Proceedings, Banff, pp. 242-251
fabrication process that not only takes the geometry, Brell-Cokcan, S and Braumann, J 2010 'A New Parametric
but also the material constraints into account. Design Tool for Robot Milling', ACADIA 2010 Proceed-
ings, New York, pp. 357-363
Eigensatz, M, Kilian, M, Schiftner, A, Mitra, N, Pottmann, H
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS and Pauly, M 2010 'Paneling Architectural Freeform
This research has been supported by the Austrian Re- Surfaces', Proc. SIGGRAPH 2010
search Fund (FWF) through the PEEK project Robotic Jackson, P 2011, Folding Techniques for Designers, Lau-
rence King Publishers, London
Woodcraft (AR238G21). We want to thank our stu-
Lepik, A and Santner, A (eds) 2011, Metropol Parasol,
dents for their hard work and enthusiasm and the Hatje Cantz Verlag, Stuttgart
head of the Institute for Structural Design and Tim- Scheurer, F 2010, 'Materialising Complexity', Architectural
ber Construction Prof. Wolfgang Winter for foster- Design, 80, pp. 86-93

Material Performance of Solid Wood:
Paresite, The Environmental Summer Pavilion
Marie Davidova1 , Martin Šichman2 , Martin Gsandtner3

1
FA CTU, Prague / Collaborative Collective
2
PhD research fellow, FA STU, Bratislava / Oximoron
3
Profesor Assistant, AAAD, Prague / PhD research fellow, Angewandte, Vienna
1
www.fa.cvut.cz/En 2 www.fa.stuba.sk/english 3 www.umprum.cz/en
1
marie.davidova@fa.cvut.cz 2 sichman@oximoron.sk 3 gsandtner@vsup.cz
The Paresite - The Environmental Summer Pavilion designed for reSITE festival,
is a möbius shaped structure, built from torsed pine wood planks in triangular
grid with half cm thin pine wood triangular sheets that provide shadow and
evaporate moisture in dry weather. The sheets, cut in a tangential section,
interact with humidity by warping themselves, allowing air circulation for the
evaporation in arid conditions.The design was accomplished in Grasshopper for
Rhino in combination with Rhino and afterwards digitally fabricated.This
interdisciplinary project involved students from the Architectural Institute in
Prague (ARCHIP) and the students of the Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences
at the Czech University of Life Sciences Prague (FLD CZU). The goal was to
design and build a pavilion from a solid pine wood in order to analyse its
material properties and reactions to the environment and to accommodate
functions for reSITE festival. The design was prepared within half term studio
course and completed in June 2013 on Karlovo Square in Prague where it hosted
1600 visitors during festival weekend.
Keywords: Material Performance, Solid Wood, Wood - Humidity Interaction
RESEARCH QUESTIONS • A second topic is the question of how to cre-

In this work, we are reporting on the research behind ate parametric model of the design and pro-
the Paresite pavilion (produced for the reSITE festival duce CNC fabrication data, leading up to the
2013 in Prague, figure 1): question: Can parametric design cover all
the design tasks? Section 'Design Process in
Grasshopper for Rhino 5'.
• The main area of our occupation lies in the
material performance of solid wood: Wood - • To finish, we ask ourselves over the structural
Humidity - Temperature Interaction (section possibilities of CNC fabricated design (see sec-
'Material Performance'). tion 'Structural Design').

Figure 1
pareSITE
(photo courtesy of
Wágnerová, 2013)
MATERIAL PERFORMANCE its ability to bend, it was agreed to use green wood
The tradition of building wooden summer pavilions for the structure.
has been established in many architectural schools. The Environmental Summer Pavilion is based on
The most striking examples have been created at the concept of wooden oriental screens so called
the AA School of Architecture in London and at the 'mashrabīyas' (figure 2). Mashrabīyas absorb mois-
Institute for Computational Design - University of ture during the night when the relative humidity of
Stuttgart. Usually, they are built from ply-wood. On air is very high and release moisture whilst providing
the contrary, the project is aimed at experimenting shadow during the arid conditions of sunny summer
with the material performance of solid wood. The days. The performance of 'mashrabīyas' has been ex-
strength in the torsion of the planks and the humidity plored by Michael Hensel. Hensel writes:
- wood interaction has been explored. 'Mashrabīyas are multi-functional elements that
The form of pavilion does not allow subdivision control light penetration, airflow, privacy and views,
into planar surfaces, but anisotropic properties of the while operating on a synergetic relation between or-
material support torsion. Several prototypes of the namental pattern and material distribution' (Hensel
triangles with different plank thicknesses and mois- 2011).
ture content were sampled. The angles of cuts hold
the boards' torsion together in the joint. Because of

Figure 2 Design and by Steffen Reichert and Achim Menges at
Mausoleum of ICD University of Stuttgart. Most of the contempo-
Sultan Oljeitu, rary research has been done on laminated veneers to
Sultaniyeh in Iran reach the highest performance of the material. Such
(photo courtesy of structures have the best performance, but since the
the WADE Photo pavilion served for a festival in public space, they
Archive [2]) would have been too fragile.
In case of this pavilion, the air circulation was
supported by warped triangles cut in tangential sec-
tion (figure 3). Warping in tangential section gener-
ates so called "cup" across the fiber (Knight, 1961).
It has been observed that most warping occurs on
the plates in rhombus shape. Considering material
waste, this figure in the project was replaced by two
triangles.
DESIGN PROCESS IN GRASSHOPPER FOR

RHINO 5
The studio course Environmental Summer Pavilion
was focused on generative concepts and algorithmic
mechanisms for creating performance-based and in-
teractive design systems. It was open to architects,
designers and anyone interested in learning gener-
ative and algorithmic design techniques based on
graphical algorithm editor - Grasshopper.
The students learned from the basics to ad-
vanced coding and implemented several Grasshop-
per plug-ins to the design process. LunchBox plug-in
from the author Nathan Miller was used to design En-
vironmental Summer Pavilion. The plug-in contained
algorithmic geometry, panelling tools, structure and
powerful utilities. It became the main tool to finish
and create better workflow for the final definition.
For the initial surface it was decided to use a
möbius surface with its logic of closed and vertigi-
nous continuity. After the best spatial concept and
the area solution was found, the final surface of two
Wood - humidity interaction systems have their layers was developed. The first layer contained static
origin in traditional Norwegian panelling and fur- structure presented by triangular tilling creating tor-
ther on they were explored by Asif Amir Khan at sional hexagon loops over the surface. The second
the AA School of Architecture with a veneer based layer was again a triangular tilling that was cracking
screen. The research on performative wood is held by each triangle of the first layer of the initial surface.
Michael Hensel at the Oslo School of Architecture and The after effect of cracking was used to obtain a star

Figure 3
Torsed Structure
with Responsive
Skin
(photo courtesy of
Zapletal, 2013)
generated in Lung Box than edited in Rhino 5 after- Figure 4

wards offset in Grasshopper. The ends of the surfaces pareSITE
had to be connected in Rhino 5 manually and the (photo courtesy of
structure was loft between those two offset surfaces, Zapletal, 2013)
through the panelling tools from Lunch Box (figure
5).
Figure 5
Offset of Möbius
Stripe
(photo courtesy of
Davidová, 2014)
perforation generating under diverse angle positions

different views through the Pavilion (figure 4).
Due to the geometry of möbius stripe, the struc-
ture was not easy to generate. The initial surface was

Afterwards the main problem was, that the planks as particles or differently sized clusters could be pre-
in the structure were torsed. That time Grasshopper fabricated indoors and easily assembled on site later
couldn't unroll into plains. The planks were unrolled (figure 7). However, certain level of imprecision due
and constructed back into objects manually in Rhino to twisted geometry of planks was to be expected.
5 while the component, written by Tudor Cosmatu for Bolt connections allowed for a later distribution of
unrolling in planes was found on Grasshopper3d fo- imprecision throughout surrounding structure, mak-
rum. ing it less disturbing. Each plank and joint (accept rim
For the reason, that the structure could not be parts) was doubled, providing additional strength
generated other way than offset (möbius geometry) necessary for the use of green solid wood. Struc-
the model of the pavilion was imprecise, not respect- ture, once assembled, was covered by smaller 5 mm
ing the width dimensions of the planks. But it worked thick pine wood triangles creating moisture-reactive
well for the generation of the fabrication data that skin. These triangles were made using HOMAG Ven-
were adjusted in Rhino 5 manually. ture 06S 3-axis milling machine. washers, hiding the
metal overlay.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Figure 6 Triangular grid was chosen for the construction of
Production of möbius shape because of its ability to mimic curva-
Triangles with tures and stability features. Grid was offset inward
Torsed Planks thus defining shapes of planks which are generally
(photo courtesy of perpendicular to the surface of möbius stripe.
Davidová, 2013) The shapes of planks were not planar, and they
could not be generated as such while keeping gen-
eral perpendicularity to the surface. Hypothetically,
to achieve planarity, all of the joints axes would have
to intersect in one point. In case of möbius stripe,
parts where joint axes would be parallel with the sur-
face would occur, making planks parallel too, and
therefore weakening rigidness of whole structure.
Figure 7 The experiment had therefore to deal with
Ribs twisted planks which introduced new set of forces
(photo courtesy of into the structure. Due to rather unpredictable and
Davidová, 2013) complex nature of these forces, decision was made
to encapsulate these into triangular particles (figure
6), preventing unwanted accumulation and interac-
tions. Planks were cut by Hundegger Speed-Cut 3
cnc saw, and put together to form triangular parti-
cles. Each particle consisting of three twisted pine
20mmX150mm planks was connected by 0,6 mm
metal sheet overlay on whole length of connecting
edge tightened by screws. These particles were after-
wards connected with each other by 4 m8 bolts and
large washers, hiding the metal overlay.
System presented good manufacturing options

CONCLUSION erating precise Grasshopper model. This fact leads
Thanks to the material performance of untreated to the conclusion that the parametric modelling still
solid wood, the pavilion generated pleasant environ- have limits for designing experimental structures.
ment for its visitors in hot days of the festival. The skin The combination of physical, parametric and dig-
reacted to the humidity changes as was observed on ital modelling tools might be necessary in the design
the samples. During the night the sheets were bent and fabrication drawings process.
inwards while warped outwards in the day time. The The use of solid untreated wood allowed for sig-
relative humidity along the pavilion was higher com- nificant budget savings, making the price of all ma-
pared to the other places covered with asphalt. terial, CNC cutting/milling and transport less than
This effect in its full performance takes time till 5000 euros, and for creating structure with no built
the initial stresses from the tree trunk disappears. in chemical agents.
Therefore the structure has to be ready at least one The pavilion serves as a prototype for further
month before the expected performance. development of industrial solutions for performative
Torque forces locked in triangles preloaded them screens.
and added rigidity, proving advantages of solid
wood. Underlying structure proved to be rigid ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
enough to sustain 200 kg weight on the highest not The project was accomplished with the kind sup-
directly supported point (figure 8). Such load bear- port of Skanska, Eurodach, Faculty of Forestry and
ing capability was necessary for the public exposure Wood Sciences at the Czech University of Life Sci-
of the pavilion (vandalism, children climbing, etc. ences Prague, Lesy České republiky, reSITE, ARCHIP,
...). However we experienced some problems in very Collaborative Collective and Oximoron. We also like
shallow joints after the winter season. This also could to thank all the students who took place in this,
be for the reason of using green wood at initial stage. namely: Yuliya Pozynich, Jason Nam, Alena Repina,
(Dinwoodie 2000) Daria Chertkova, Yana Vaselinko, Mikkel Wennesland,
Dan Merta, Daniela Kleiman, Liv Storla, David Lukas,
Figure 8
Christopher Hansen, William Glass, Jiří Šmejkal, Mi-
Structural Stability
lan Podlena, Josef Svoboda, Tomáš Pavelka, Miroslav
Test
Runštuk, Ladislav Rubáš, Radim Sýkora, Anna Srpová,
(photo courtesy of
Ivana Kubicová, Gabriela Smolíková, Karel Ptáček, Jan
Novák 2013)
Matiáš, Tomáš Mišoň, Lukáš Růžička, Jan Hyk, Marian
Loubal, Jan Dostál, František Juhász and Jakub Vyk-
oukal
REFERENCES
Dinwoodie, JM (eds) 2000, Timber, Its Nature and Be-
haviour, E and FN Spon, London
Hensel, M 2011, 'Performance-oriented Architecture and
the Spatial and Material Organisation Complex',
FORMakademisk, 4(1), pp. 3-23
Knight, E 1961, The Causes of Warp in Lumber Seasoning,
The structure itself was dynamic and it found its sta-
Western Pine Association, Oregon
ble state which a bit differs from the digital model. [1] http://www.grasshopper3d.com/forum/topics/unroll
Furthermore, the project itself is disturbing the con- [2] http://patterninislamicart.com
cept of digital fabrication by the impossibility of gen-

Erratic
The Material Simulacra of Pliable Surfaces
Daniel Norell1 , Einar Rodhe2

1,2
KTH Royal Institute of Technology, School of Architecture
1,2
http://norellrodhe.se
1,2
{dnorell|einarr}@kth.se
This paper examines how designers can invigorate designs with a sense of
liveliness and indeterminacy through manipulation of pliable materials. Two
approaches to material manipulation are defined and juxtaposed in the paper:
The control associated with Frei Otto's elegantly tensioned membranes and the
noise associated with Sigurd Lewerentz's intensely material brick walls. These
historical approaches become pertinent in relation to current opportunities
offered by material simulation software in architecture. Simulation may be used
to increase control over the materialization of design, but is at the same time a
way to introduce the noise of real-time, real-world experiments into digital
design. The paper presents this discussion in parallel with documentation of the
research project 'Erratic', a recent installation carried out by the authors'
practice Norell/Rodhe. Constructed from polyurethane cold foam, the project
combines analogue experiments with digital simulations to target architectural
qualities like mass, figuration and relief.
Keywords: Control, Material manipulation, Material simulation, Noise, Pliable

surfaces
INTRODUCTION material simulation increasingly offers the designer

The dynamic nature of materials can provide a start- the opportunity to manipulate dynamic materials
ing point for architectural design. Current ap- "live" within the computer (Carpo 2014). Simula-
proaches to material manipulation in architecture tions present new disciplinary challenges as certain
seem to fall squarely into two distinct categories. aspects of real-world experiments with materials may
Materials are either considered useful in the design cross the border between analogue and digital de-
process because they can exhibit computational be- sign mediums. This paper presents a research en-
haviour, or, alternatively, because their nonlinear be- quiry into the nature of these issues in digital de-
haviour and materiality can challenge the formal con- sign through the installation Erratic, a project carried
trol and smoothness associated with digital design out by our practice Norell/Rodhe. The project play-
practice at large (Carpo 2012). In addition, digital fully explores the tension between geometrical con-

trol and materials that behave erratically (Figure 1). MATERIAL MANIPULATION: CONTROL VS.
It positions the material simulacra - the images of NOISE
materiality - that digital simulation can produce as a Two distinct approaches to material manipulation
"real" materiality with architectural implications be- are of particular importance to this paper. The first
yond structural engineering. approach is best exemplified by the form-finding
techniques used by Frei Otto. Otto conceived of
several projects such as the German Pavilion at the Figure 1
1967 Montreal World Fair by using models in which Erratic installation
stretched membranes created elegant forms that at the Aalto
were in pure tension (Figure 2). The resulting geome- University Digital
try could subsequently be accurately translated into Design Laboratory,
a cable net construction (Otto & Rasch 2006, p. 93- Helsinki, 2013.
99). In this approach, the architect effectively gains
geometrical control of form by manipulating a mate-
rial surface informed by forces or other external influ-
ences. The second approach is no less common, but
perhaps less talked about. It typically involves cus-
tom designed manufacturing processes that inten-
tionally let go of geometrical control. By amplifying Figure 2
and partially controlling by-products that may arise Form-finding study
in real-time interaction between materials, machines, for the German
environments and craftsmen, the architect can pro- Pavilion at Expo
duce new material sensibilities. Sigurd Lewerentz, in 1967 in Montreal
his design for St. Mark's church in Stockholm, Swe- (1965) by Atelier
den, devised a predecessor to such contemporary Frei Otto with Larry
processes (Figure 3). The bricklayers on the building Medlin. Photograph
site were instructed to only use whole, uncut bricks by Atelier Frei Otto.
and unusually thick mortar joints to absorb any vari-
ations in the construction. This inevitably created a
lot of excess mortar that was smeared over the brick- Figure 3
work instead of being removed, creating an ambigu- Brick wall detail, St
ous conglomerate of bricks and mortar with an in- Mark’s Church
tense materiality (eds Flora, Giardello & Postiglione (1960) by Sigurd
2002, p. 310-331). Lewerentz.
Although different in many respects, what these Photograph by
two examples have in common is their reliance on authors.
manipulation of materials. In the first approach, the
aim is geometrical exactitude and translatability. The
opposite is true for the second approach, where the
aim is to add noise by introducing something that
cannot be reduced to exact geometries. While Lew-
erentz did represent each individual brick in draw-
ings, he did not attempt to draw the smeared mor-

tar, something that would have been difficult and re- can materialize anexact forms, but are unable to han-
dundant. Instead, he designed the material process dle inexact forms.
behind it.
The idea that material processes may add a sense THE DYNAMICS OF EXCESS MATERIAL
of indeterminacy to conventional digital design pro- Since its inception in 2012, our practice has inves-
cesses has recently been under some debate. In an tigated material processes that negotiate between
essay titled "Digital Darwinism: Mass Collaboration, noise and control throughout a number of works. Be-
Form-Finding, and The Dissolution of Authorship", yond process and translation, this interest of ours is
Mario Carpo notes that many of today's digital de- simultaneously a pursuit of formal and material sensi-
signers are keen to let go of control as long as it can bilities. Dynamic material processes can target qual-
be attributed to nature itself (Carpo 2012, p. 99). In ities like figuration, relief and texture in novel ways.
his reading, the devolution of agency to a material As in form finding, these qualities come about when
may simply be a revival of old ideas of emergence materials are subjected to forces and influences, but
and vitalism. Our interest in control and noise does the objective is not limited to finding optimal struc-
however not lie in authorship, but in the translation tural forms. In our view, materials may also be delib-
from representation to materialized design. Noise, in erately manipulated to other, more qualitative ends,
this context, might be defined as anything that dis- such as lending character and idiosyncrasy to archi-
torts an exact translation. Lewerentz's brick wall is tecture and design.
arguably no less intentionally designed than a regu- After an invitation from ADD, The Aalto Univer-
lar brick wall - in fact the opposite is probably true. sity Digital Design Laboratory in Helsinki, Finland, we
Rather, it is an example of how architects may deal decided to develop Erratic, an installation that would
with noise and inexactitude as an approach to de- concretize some of these ideas. The research for Er-
sign. ratic began in 2012 with a series of analogue stud-
As this research deals with manipulation of ma- ies based on a sewing technique known as furrow-
terials rather than pure forms, it is important to dis- ing. In furrowing, fabric is gathered and point wise
tinguish between forms that can be reduced to ex- constrained to a foundation stay, creating a deep re-
act geometries and those that cannot. Exact forms, lief of swirling grooves (Wolff 1996, p. 9). Two spe-
as described by Greg Lynn, are those that can be re- cific aspects of furrowing seemed particularly rele-
duced eidetically (Lynn 1993). A sphere, for instance, vant to us. Firstly, it is a technique that is based on
is exact because it is ideal - it is exact in measure and the dynamics of excess material as opposed to the
contour, visually fixed, and identically repeatable. In- minimum of material associated with form-finding
exact forms, on the other hand, are those that can- techniques like catenary curves and minimal surface
not be reduced because their contours cannot be membranes. Though computational in nature, it reg-
described. They are non-ideal, impure, vague and ularly produces formal features that are inconsistent
amorphous. Anexact forms, finally, are those that with the logics of form-finding, like creases, wrinkles
can be locally described geometrically, but cannot and buckles. Secondly, it produces an abundance
be wholly reduced to an exact form. A traditional of noisy materiality (the meandering surface) with a
way of dealing with inexact forms in architecture is minimum of geometrical input (the precise position
to describe the material process in a set of instruc- of each constraining point).
tions - push, pull, smear, pour, mix, brush, etc. - rather In Erratic we decided to constrain the surface to
than to provide a geometrical description. This is an underlying point grid instead of the foundation
what Lewerentz did, and it is what many architects stay that is commonly used in furrowing. This means
still do as most standard digital fabrication processes that the surface can bend inwards or outwards be-

tween each constraining point and that there is not ful. NURBS surfaces might suffice to describe geome-
a single optimal state for any given configuration of try locally, but it is generally difficult to maintain con-
points (Figure 4). Consequently, the surface will not tinuity across adjacent surface patches. Subdivision
necessarily be organized the same way if an experi- surface algorithms solve this issue since they provide
ment is repeated. Minor asymmetries in the exper- simultaneous control of several surface patches, but
iment will determine the result (Figure ref.). In or- their logic of refinement is largely at odds with the
der to move beyond the scale of garments, our ex- logic of manipulating actual fabric. Adding a detail,
periments with furrowing focused on materials with like a wrinkle, to a subdivision surface essentially in-
a high bending stiffness, like felt and polyurethane creases its area and resolution locally. Manipulating
cold foam. These materials are pliable - they are sup- a piece of non-elastic fabric in a similar way is funda-
ple enough to be bent repeatedly without breaking, mentally different in that no material is ever added,
but they are not particularly elastic (Figure 5). it is just redistributed by means of pushing, pulling
and constraining. The surface area stays constant no Figure 4
matter how much articulation is added to the piece. Diagrammatic
In turning our furrowing experiments into a full- sections showing
scale installation, it had increasingly become clear variable results of
that scale models and mock-ups were too time con- constraining
suming to work with for the purposes of designing a process.
complete piece. Further, there was a need to quantify
and describe the project to fabricators and collabora- Figure 5
tors. Knowing the pitfalls of both NURBS and subdivi- Partial mock-up for
sion surfaces, we instead looked to digital simulation Erratic installation
of materials. using polyurethane
Material simulation is increasingly becoming cold foam, scale 1:1.
common practice in various fields, ranging from
chemistry and structural engineering to character an-
imation. For the development of Erratic, we opted
to use a particle-spring based software for simula-
tion of textile behavior. Here, each edge in a dense
mesh acts as a spring of (more or less) fixed length,
much like a stitch in a piece of fabric. Points in the
mesh can be moved and constrained, much like in
the process of furrowing. This presents significant
change in how a pliable surface can be conceptual-
ized in the computer. To a certain extent, it makes it
possible to work with digital geometry as if it was a
finite chunk of material rather than an infinitely ex-
tendable surface. Design can happen "live" as the
MATERIAL SIMULATION: FROM SURFACE chunk can be manipulated in real-time. This meant
TO CHUNK that we could sustain a similar design process across
In architecture, the use of digital geometry to model analogue and digital design mediums, rather than re-
the range of curvatures associated with textile mate- lying on a simplified geometric description in the dig-
rials has often been suspended altogether in favour ital realm. Within current digital design practice, this
of analogue models. The reasons for this are plenti-

Figure 6
Snapshots from
digitally simulated
constraining
process: A spheroid
mesh constrained
in 200+ points.
has been described as a shift from form defined by cise definition of material characteristics on the other
pure mathematical objects, to form guided by mate- hand. Points were selected in zones based on a script
rial structure (Carpo 2014). that targeted surface curvature in order to expedite
In order to match the nature of our furrowing the process and quickly get a diversity of results. A
experiments, parameters in the simulation software series of design variations was developed inspired by
like bend, stretch and compression resistance, were the articulation and massing of erratic blocks. Each
adjusted towards a pliable material that produced erratic was given its own character based on relief, hi-
smooth, swelling curvatures as a result of the con- erarchy, scale and posture. In the form of 3D-printed
straining process. For several reasons, we decided to study models for the installation, these design vari-
work with a closed spheroid as a starting point. A ations also had a quality all of their own since they
closed surface reads as a solid and creates an ambigu- reproduced the formal outcome of the constraining
ity since it does not reveal its thickness. More impor- process, but suppressed other sensory input such as
tantly, when inserted into a space, a solid becomes texture and color (Figure 7).
a freestanding object rather than a semi-flat surface
that works as a floor, wall or ceiling. This provides an ERRATIC INSTALLATION
opportunity to extend its architectural qualities from In science, it has become important to distinguish
texture and relief to figural massing. Given these between real-world experiments and simulations
preferences, we devised a basic design process. An aimed at mimicking those experiments (Winsberg
irregular topological volume - essentially a sack - was 2010). In keeping with this terminology, our ana-
constrained in hundreds of points that were pulled logue studies of furrowing would qualify as exper-
towards the centre (Figure 6). Design decisions lay in iments and be epistemologically distinct from the
which points to select on the one hand, and the pre- digital simulations that we undertook in parallel. Ini-
Figure 7
Elevation and
section drawing of
digitally simulated
Erratic model (left).
3D-printed Erratic
study models,
created with digital
material simulation,
12 x 12 x 12 cm
each (right).

tially, this distinction seemed sensible as analogue constrained surface became 0.625 when constrained.
mock-ups and scale models took precedent over Less would make the piece look flat and unarticu-
early tests with digital simulation. However, as de- lated, where as a more would risk turning the fur-
sign work for the installation was increasingly carried rows into folds, something that would visually re-
out using simulation, the distinction became more veal the surface thickness and remove the ambigu-
ambiguous. Finally, in constructing the actual instal- ity between surface and solid. A defining feature of
lation at ADD in Helsinki, both analogue mock-ups many of the early erratic studies we had done was
and digital models worked as simulations, since nei- their hierarchy between wildly different densities of
ther of them had targeted the exact properties of the constraining points. Some areas were densely grid-
material or scale of the piece. Given the nature of the ded and the resulting furrowing read almost as tex-
installation, we had anticipated that it would be diffi- ture in relation to the mass as a whole. Other areas
cult if not impossible to match simulations to already as large as a couple of meters across were left with-
carried out experiments with exactitude. Instead, we out points, resulting in bulbous protrusions that ap-
focused on getting a for construction purposes ac- proached the scale of the piece as a whole. Defining
ceptable match by incrementally fine-tuning digital the minimum and maximum distances between two
parameters and material properties in parallel. Dis- constraining points as well as the thickness and den-
tinctions between experiment and simulation on one sity of the foam was done in relation to these charac-
hand and analogue and digital on the other thus be- teristics. The minimum distance between two points
came less important as neither took precedent over has to be able to comfortably fit a wrinkle, i.e. two
the other. layers of material. The maximum distance has to be
The Erratic installation is sited in a double height defined in relation to the properties of the foam so
gallery and café space at ADD. Its roughly fits in- that long spans can be managed without unwanted
side a 2.8 m cube, making it considerably larger than buckling.
the furniture that surrounds it, but at the same time The positions of the constraining points had to
smaller than a house. The first step in the fine-tuning be matched by an inner armature supporting the
process was to narrow down our selection of pliable piece. Given that visitors would never actually see
materials in relation to the sizing of the installation. this armature, we decided to keep its manufactur-
Polyurethane cold foam was chosen for two reasons. ing rather simple. We found that an irregularly sub-
It is a strong, lightweight and pliable material that, divided cube with extension struts of varying length
when constrained, can support itself for large dis- could approximate the location of most constraining
tances. This was crucial, since we wanted to lend the points (Figure 8). The cube was constructed from reg-
piece a sense of hierarchy by giving its articulation ular lumber, while the extension struts and joints be-
sudden shifts in scale. Further, since polyurethane tween strut and surface had to be metal in order to
cold foam is a homogenous and isotropic material, handle the violent battle of forces between the two.
thickness and density could easily be customized in To emphasize the tension between the rigid arma-
dialogue with our fabricator in order to improve cor- ture and the turbulent furrowed surface, these con-
respondence between digital simulations and ana- straining points were not covered or hidden. In a
logue experiments. frontal view the observant reader can see how they
Another important step was to fine-tune the dis- align into an orthogonal grid, where as they disap-
tribution of constraining points. Based on the sim- pear when seen obliquely (Figure 5 & 9).
ulation studies we decided to gather the constrain-
ing points with a global scale factor of 0.625, mean-
ing that a point-to-point distance of 1 on the un-

Figure 8
Erratic elevation
drawings showing
relationship
between digitally
simulated model
and armature (left).
Typical elevation of
Erratic armature
(right).
Figure 9 was a lot of room for styling once the surface was
Close up view of connected to the armature. The length of individ-
Erratic installation ual struts was gradually fine-tuned to shape larger
at the Aalto gestures as well as to remove unwanted concavities.
University Digital Finally, the porous polyurethane surface was pow-
Design Laboratory, dered with plaster powder, changing its materiality
Helsinki, 2013. from yellowish foam into a lustrous white surface akin
to the 3D-printed Erratics displayed in the accompa-
nying exhibition (Figure 9).
CONCLUSION
Constraining large-scale pliable surfaces can bring
supple and sensuous qualities associated with textile
Overall, the installation consists of a wooden ar- to an architectural scale. Digital simulation prior to
mature with 200 metal struts connected to a cus- construction is likely a necessity in this endeavour,
tom designed 50+ kilo, 50 sq m, 30 mm thick sack since sheer size prohibits full-scale mock-ups. Pliable
of expanded polyurethane cold foam. Using ADD's materials like polyurethane cold foam present new
onsite overhead crane the sack was gradually low- challenges to designers as they are more flexible than
ered over the armature and connected step by step most building materials, but at the same time more
in order to avoid heavy point loads on singular con- rigid than textiles. Further, the use of material simu-
straining points (Figure 10). Point-wise constrain- lation software in Erratic suggests that the dynamic
ing the surface to the armature was a scripted op- nature of these surfaces can be sustained across dig-
eration, where each point on the grid had a num- ital and analogue design mediums. The virtue of
bered counterpart on the surface in order to achieve the simulated massing studies for the installation was
the desired amount of furrowing. However, there not their local accuracy but the degree to which they

Figure 10
Polyurethane sack
lowered over
armature and
connected to struts.
aided the design of specific characteristics, like pos- REFERENCES

ture, hierarchy and relief. Simulation in this context Carpo, M 2012, 'Digital Darwinism: Mass Collaboration,
is not necessarily an attempt to increase exactitude Form-Finding, and The Dissolution of Authorship',
and close the gap between digital geometry and ma- Log, N/A(26), pp. 97-105
Carpo, M 2014, 'Breaking the Curve: Mario Carpo on Big
terialized design. Instead, it presents an opportunity
Data and Design', Artforum, 52(6, Feb 2014), pp. 168-
to introduce aspects of "live" into the digital design 173
process in ways that are consistent with real-time ma- Flora, N, Giardiello, P and Postiglione, G (eds) 2002, Sig-
nipulation of an actual chunk of material. Partially a urd Lewerentz 1885 1975, Electa Architecture, Milan
real-time experiment and partially a representation, Lynn, G 2004 (1993), 'Probable Geometries: The Archi-
a simulation is difficult to position in relation to the tecture of Writing in Bodies', in Lachowsky, M and
Benzakin, J (eds) 2004 (1993), Folds, Bodies and Blobs:
conventional distinctions between drawing and ma-
Collected Essays, La Lettre Volée, Brussels, pp. 79-94
terialization of design. As in the case of Erratic, the Otto, F and Rasch, B 2006, Finding Form: Towards an Ar-
noise of real-world experiments may in this way find chitecture of the Minimal, Axel Menges
its way into architectural representations. Winsberg, E 2010, Science in the Age of Computer Simu-
In science, simulations require extended and lation, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and
continuous use in order to gain credentials. Eric London
Wolff, C 1996, The Art of Manipulating Fabric, Krause Pub-
Winsberg argues that "Simulation practices have
lications
their own lives: They evolve and mature over the
course of a long period of use (...)" (2010, p. 45). It
is largely still to be seen how we architects can and
will incorporate material simulation into our practice
as well as into our discipline.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Erratic was exhibited at The Aalto University Digital
Design Laboratory in Helsinki between September
19 and October 17, 2013. The project was developed
with funding from the research environment Archi-
tecture in the Making at Chalmers University of Tech-
nology, Department of Architecture in Gothenburg.
Project Design: Norell/Rodhe. Team: Daniel
Norell, Einar Rodhe, Hseng Tai Lintner, Stefan Sved-
berg, Axel Wolgers. Fabrication: Emballageteknik AB.

Ray 2
The Material Performance of a Solid Wood Based Screen
Marie Davidova
PhD research fellow at FA CTU / member of Collaborative Collective
http://www.fa.cvut.cz/En
marie.davidova@fa.cvut.cz
The wood - humidity interaction of solid wood has been tested through
generations on Norwegian traditional panelling. This concept has been further
explored by Michael Hensel and Steffen Reichert with Achim Menges on plywood
and laminates in basic research. Plywood or laminates are better programmable
but they are less sustainable due to the use of glue. This research focused on
predicting the performance of solid wood in tangential section which is applied to
humidity-temperature responsive screen for industrial production. With the
method Systems Oriented Design, the research evaluated data from material
science, forestry, meteorology, biology, chemistry and the production market. The
method was introduced by Birger Sevaldson in 2007 with the argument that the
changes in our globalized world and the need for sustainability demands an
increase of the complexity of the design process. (Sevaldson 2013)Several
samples has been tested for its environmental interaction. The data has been
integrated in parametric models that tested the overall systems. Based on the
simulations, the most suitable concept has been prototyped and measured for its
performance. This lead to another sampling of the material whose data are the
basis for another prototype. Ray 2 (figure 1) is an environmental responsive
screen that is airing the structure in dry weather, while closing up when the
humidity level is high, not allowing the moisture inside.
Keywords: Material Performance, Solid Wood, Wood - Humidity Interaction,

Environmental Performance, Parametric Design, Prototyping
BACKGROUND the upper edge, just below the joint where they overlap.
Larsen and Marstein (2000) introduced traditional In dry weather, the lower board ends bend outwards,
Norwegian panelling cut in a tangential section of allowing dry air into construction. In wet weather the
solid wood. They explain the principle on the exam- boards close again".
ple of Traditional wooden panelling in boathouses, Further on Larsen and Marstein (2000) complain
Nordmøre, Norway: "The boards are nailed towards that such craft skills have been forgotten and con-

Figure 1
Ray 2 Prototype
temporary panelling is designed to not allow such lication: "Study by Asif Amir Khan commenced from
performance. an analysis of pine cones and the way they open and
This challenge has been taken by contemporary close in relation to changes in the relative humidity
basic research which focuses on plywood and lami- level, which informed the design of full scale prototype
nates. Plywood and laminates are allowing greater of a screen that deploys the selforganisational capacity
performance and are more controllable than solid of thin timber sheets under changing humidity condi-
wood but my ongoing Life Cycle Assessment analy- tions" (Hensel and Menges 2006).
sis, in cooperation with Vladimír Kočí from the Insti- In 2007 Steffen Reichert, under the leadership of
tute of Chemical Technology, is leading to the answer Achim Menges, introduced their Responsive Surface
that the use of solid wood is more sustainable due to Structure. The project was further developed into
the use of glue in plywood. several prototypes. Reichert's and Menges's research
In 2004 Asif Amir Khan at the AA School of Ar- focuses on laminated veneers which are far too frag-
chitecture presented his screen based on pine plies ile for industrial solution but reach very good perfor-
which was published in the Morpho - Ecologies pub- mative capacity. They address the programming of

wood behaviour by the arrangement of the compos- Michael Hensel and Defne Sunguroğlu Hensel at the
ite: "The dimensional change of wood is directly pro- Oslo School of Architecture and Design. In 2010 stu-
portional to changes in moisture content. Hence, a spe- dent Linn Tale Haugen examined the potential of ply-
cific increase in moisture content will always result in wood. She developed a double curved surface out
the same swelling or shrinking dimensions of a partic- of the combination of veneers directions. Hensel
ular piece of wood. However, in combination with an- explains it as follows: "In a typical laminate consist-
other synthetic composite, this linear dependency can ing of an odd number of layers, the layers are rotated
be expanded to achieve highly specific yet diverse shape so as to utilize the fibre direction to stabilize the lami-
changes. In other words, the veneer-composite ele- nate. Likewise, in a laminate with an even number of
ments can be physically programmed as a material sys- layers, the fibre direction of the various layers can be
tem to perform different response figures in various hu- utilized to warp the laminate in a controlled way. Sin-
midity ranges. For example, the ICD's experiments in a gle or double curvature can be attained with a specific
climate chamber have shown the following. Using the fibre direction in the different layers and with the re-
same veneer as a starting point, two veneer-composite lated directions caused by the swelling and shrinkage
elements can be produced - one entirely straight and from the moisturizing and drying of the wood. It is then
the other acutely curved at a humidity level of 40 per no longer necessary to derive such curved elements by
cent. When relative humidity rises to 70 per cent, the ini- means of machining, such as routing, which results in
tially straight element will change to an acutely curved a large amount of off-cuts or sawdust, or, on the other
shape as mentioned above, while the other will be- hand, the costly production of moulds" (Hensel 2011).
come straight. Exposed to the very same environmental Mark Weston and Dan Greenberg (2013) de-
changes, the two test pieces geometrically respond in veloped composite wooden Microloop panels that
exactly the opposite way" (Reichert and Menges 2012). serve as a passive lighting control: "This research is
In my observations on the samples, such be- centered on a novel perforation technique for flat, bi-
haviour can be also controlled by the wood moisture material sheets which are carefully attached at elon-
content when the wood is cut. Also the material is gated tabs, but arranged to slide past one another just
not fully programmable - approximations have to be slightly when mechanically actuated. The movement of
done. the two sheets causes the tabbed attachments to bend
In 2008 Matthew Hume at the Centre for Ar- into endless recursive material loops which appear to
chitecture and Situated Technologies Department of erupt from the face of the panel; the resultant microloop
Architecture, University at Buffalo in New York pro- perforations allow diffused light to pass through the
duced a humidity responsive screen called Warped panel while maintaining visual privacy and blocking di-
which is based on plywood. The screen seems to be rect light".
very solid. Omar Khan refers to the project in his text Except Weston and Greenberg (2013), who claim
in Architectural Design: "Warped (2008) examines the the industrial production strategy, the mentioned
elastic potential of wood grain as it responds to mois- projects are basic research not covering the complex-
ture. Taking existing plywood as the starting point, the ity of application. Instead they perfectly study the
project develops elastic plywood cells that do not re- possibilities of the performance of the composites
sist moisture but use it to perform work. Some convinc- in the depth of material science. While Weston and
ing surfaces using these cells have been developed that Greenberg (2013) follow the production, their expla-
demonstrate how a small expansion at the scale of the nation of the sun shadings doesn't follow the build-
wood grain can be multiplied to mutate large architec- ing's overall performance. It seems that the shading
tural surfaces" (Khan 2011). has rather aesthetical reasons presenting the wood
Since 2008 Responsive Wood Studio is held by performance. Furthermore, it is not clear in which cir-

Figure 2
Map of Shrinking
and Warping of
Different Local
Wood Species (data:
Němec 2005)
cumstances the complete closure is wanted, not al- ships. It is due to the vertical arrangement of cells
lowing any sunlight into the building. in timber and to the particular orientation of the mi-
The conducted research has been done on lami- crofibrills in the middle layer of the secondary cell
nates or plywood not considering the environmental wall between tangential and longitudinal shrinkage.
impact of the use of polyurethane glue. And due to a) restricting effect of the rays on radial
plain, b) increased thickness of the middle lamella on
MATERIAL PERFORMANCE OF SOLID the tangential plane in comparison with the radial
plane, c) difference in degree of lignification between
WOOD
the radial and tangential cell walls, d) small difference
According to Hoadley (1980) wood always remains
in microfibrillar angle between the two walls, and e)
hygroscopic (Hoadley 1980). Which means that it is
the alteration of earlywood and latewood in the ra-
adsorping or releasing water in relation to relative hu-
dial plane, which, due to the greater shrinkage of late-
midity and temperature.
wood, induces the weaker earlywood to shrink more
Based on that fact the wood shrinks, swell or
tangentially than if it would be isolated, between
moves and warps. If the wood always remains hy-
tangential and radial section (Diwoodie 2000). From
groscopic, I expect, that it also remains warping,
green wood to air dried, the pine shrinkage is 6,8%,
though Skaar (2011) explains the hysteresis effect.
3,8% and 0,201%, and swelling is 5,72% 3,04% and
That means, that the wood is less hygroscopic after
0,076%, in tangential, radial and longitudinal section,
the first desorption from the green wood when the
respectively (Němec 2005, also see figure 2). Reaction
initial resorption is the lowest (Skaar 2011).
and juvenile wood may shrink even 2% in longitudi-
Wood shrinks and swell or moves in relation to
nal section from green wood to oven dry (Glass and
relative humidity based on the specie and the grain
Zelinka 2010).
orientation. The greater shrinkage is associated with
Diwoodie (2000) specifies three cases of mois-
greater density (Glass and Zelinka 2010). Dinwoodie
ture flow in timber. Which is a) free liquid water in
explains that wood is anisotropic in its water relation-
cell cavities giving rise to bulk flow above the fibre

Figure 3 saturation point, b) bound water within the cell walls
Concept „Sponge“ - which moves by diffusion below the fibre saturation
Parametric Model point, c) water vapour which moves by diffusion in
the lumens both above and below the fibre satura-
tion point. Generally, the pines are much more per-
meable than the spruces, firs or Douglas fir (Diwoodie
2000).
The effect of change in moisture content, and
thus of movement in wood that differs in different
Figure 4
section, is warping. There are four cases of warping.
Concept „Ray“ -
a) The most common warping occurs in the tangen-
Parametric Model
tial section, a cup, which is caused by higher shrink-
age on the left surface, b) a bow, which is not that
common, occurs for the reason that the grain that is
closer to pith shrinks more in the longitudinal direc-
tion, c) a crook, which is caused by reaction wood, d) a
twist, that is caused by the spiral grain (Knight 1961).
Figure 5
Hoadley demonstrates, that the wood cut in tan-
Concept „Ray2“ -
gential section from the centre of the tree warps
Parametric Model
more than the boards cut from its border (Hoadley
1980). This fact was proved on my prototype of Ray
2 which is using such condition for generating water
resistant system.
Figure 6 THE DEVELOPMENT OF RAY 2

System „Ray2“ - From the analysis of the forest management and ma-
Layering terial science, the pine wood was selected as the
most suitable for the task. Several samples of differ-
ent shape and thicknesses were measured for its per-
formance. This data has been integrated into para-
metric models in Grasshopper for Rhino 5 of two se-
lected concepts. The airing gap for 10%RH and 21°C
was simulated for both cases.
System Sponge (figure 3) was water resistant in Thanks to the Hoadley's (1980) demonstration, that
case of sudden rain but according to the simulation the wood from the centre of tree trunk warps more
it was failing in its performance. Also its interdepen- than the wood from its border, the system Ray 2 (fig-
dency could generate huge problems due to wood's ure 5) was developed. This fact enabled the overlap-
uneven behaviour. ping on the diagonals' crossing, by its layering (figure
System Ray (figure 4) avoided such problems but 6).
it failed to be water resistant in case of sudden rain. The system was further on prototyped. It was
In this case, the moisture would enter the structure, found out that it behaved in similar way as the simu-
then it would close and keep it inside. lation but the moisture content of cut wood was not
considered. The structure closed just in the case of

extremely high humidity level. Samples cut in differ- REFERENCES
ent moisture content were recently measured to suit Dinwoodie, JM (eds) 2000, Timber, Its Nature and Be-
the task. haviour, E and FN Spon, London
Hensel, M 2011, 'Performance-oriented Architecture and
the Spatial and Material Organisation Complex', Figure 7
FORMakademisk, 4(1), pp. 3-23 System „Ray2“ -
Hensel, M 2013, Performance-Oriented Architecture: Re-
thinking Architectural Design and the Built Environ- Prototype Detail
ment, John Wiley and Sons, Winchester
Hensel, M and Menges, A (eds) 2006, Morpho-Ecologies,
AA, London
Hoadley, RB 1980, Understanding Wood: A craftsman's
Guide to Wood Technology, The Tauton Press. Inc,
New Town
Knight, E 1961, The Causes of Warp in Lumber Seasoning,
Western Pine Association, Oregon
Larsen, KE and Marstein, N 2000, IJAC, Conservation of
Historic Timber Structures: An Ecological Approach,
Reed Educational and Profetional Publishing Ltd,
Oxford
Menges, A (eds) 2012, Material Computation, Higher Inte-
CONCLUSION gration in Morphogenetic Design, Willey, London
The data integration of physical and digital has to be Němec, J 2005, Dřevo - historický lexikon, Grada, Prague
Ross, JR (eds) 2010, Wood handbook-Wood as an engi-
involved in dealing with realistic context. The digital neering material, Forest Products Laboratory, Madi-
simulations can fairly help in evaluation of the con- son
cepts performance. But the attention has to be paid Skaar, C 2011, Wood-Water Relations, Springer-Verlag,
to the complexity of the simulation. The samples Berlin
fairly helped to evaluate the performance of the sys- Spiller, N and Armstrong, R (eds) 2011, Protocell Architec-
tem but the parametric model has to be confronted ture, Willey Academy, London
Stoufs, R and Sariyildiz, S (eds) 2013, Computation and
with the physical reality of the prototype (refer again Performance, Delft University of Technology, Delft
to figure 1). [1] http://www.systemsorienteddesign.net
Except of the wood's moisture content of cut
wood, that made the system close later than ex-
pected, the prototype performed in a similar way as
the simulation (figure 7). The system opened in dry
weather with the same results but it closed just in ex-
treme humid conditions. According to the observa-
tions it was caused by the cut of green wood. Lower
moisture content of wood has to be explored for fur-
ther development.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The project was accomplished with the kind support
of Defio, s.r.o.

BackToBack
A bio-cybernetic approach to production of solid timber components
Marcin Wójcik1 , Jan Strumiłło2

1,2
AHO, The Oslo School of Architecture and Design
1,2
{marcin.wojcik|jan.strumillo}@aho.no
This paper investigates the potential and implications of using naturally

occurring material phenomena as a connecting mechanism for solid timber
components. Proposed and discussed are connections based on anisotropic
shrinkage and geometrical variability of trees. Using the notion of material
agency in design, following the bio-cyberntic and biomimetic frameworks,
solutions are devised to reduce energy usage, environmental pollution and utilise
low-processed material. Finally, consequences of the fusion of the natural
(analogue) and the digital realms are discussed, with an example of a workflow
integrating inherent material traits with digital manufacture.
Keywords: material-oriented design, computational design, wood properties
Most material innovation emerges not in the making of THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

new materials but in transforming the way in which we Background
handle them. Wood in industrialised production. Wood has lost
market shares as a raw material for mass production
(Schröpfer 2011) processes as a result of its individualised characteris-
tics and difficult to predict behaviour. Variation and
heterogeneity of timber are seen as disadvantages in
INTRODUCTION construction, traits more and more dominant as in-
We propose to use naturally occurring material phe- creasing number of trees are characterised by small
nomena as a connecting mechanism for solid tim-
sizes and greater variability. Today, remanufacture of
ber components. In the presented experiments we
timber, i.e. the production of timber derived sheet
look at the anisotropic shrinkage of wood on drying
components and glulam beams, is a way to meet
and geometrical variability of trees as a potential that
the needs of modern economy. That is not without
could become a basis of an alternative, more sustain-
an impact on the environment. Processing a mate-
able joining method. We identify a fusion of the ma-
rial means energy expenditure and may have an im-
terial and digital domains as the key component of
pact on health risks posed by this material, and also
our approach. We set out our theoretical framework
on its recycling: The higher the degree of processing,
and its consequences, before we describe the exper-
the lower the potential for quick and unproblematic de-
iments in more detail and discuss the project's impli- composition (König 2011).
cations and further development.

Solid timber in construction and its sustainability Construction as interaction of matter, en-
today. Contemporary solid-wood building technol- ergy and information
ogy, primarily represented by cross-laminated timber The tectonic quality of architecture emerges from the
(CLT) must still be considered a recent invention, al- interplay between various factors, ranging from cul-
though it has matured since its appearance on the tural and environmental to relating to technology
market in the early 1990s. CLT production involves and materiality. In order to systematise the field, as
cross-lamination of planks or boards by means of well as to position our research, we follow a method-
polyurethane glue. Polyurethane is a synthetic poly- ology that renders construction as the interaction of
mer and as such it is non-biodegradable. CLT build- matter, energy and information exchanges, based on
ing systems rely on metal connectors for assembly systemic and cybernetic models. Using this method-
e.g. self-tapping screws, brackets, plates and bolts, ology, Christoph Schindler, architect, designer and
what is problematic for the three reasons mentioned researcher, proposed a periodization model for wood
below: construction that integrates fabrication with manual,
industrial and information technology. His model
1. Metal fasteners impede recycling of wooden brings out the way in which the manufacturing tech-
components due to the difficulty with nology radically reshapes the production of build-
partying-out in a demolition process, thus ings, as well as their construction, tectonics and ap-
only about 0.03% of industrial wood comes pearance (Schindler 2009).
from recycling. MATTER: material-oriented design - a historical
discussion. The approach to wood in construction
2. Metal fasteners penetrating wooden beams today is still affected by the spirit of the Scientific Rev-
in unheated rooms rust where their gal- olution and the Enlightenment. Spanish ship con-
vanised coating has been damaged by abra- structor Jorge Juan y Santacilia (1713-1773) wrote
sion upon entering the wood and the sur- in 1771: Toward the end of the last century (...) The
rounding wood rots due to condensation on Construction of Vessels was abandoned to mere Car-
the cold metal. These processes are delayed penters; and it was not considered that NAVAL ARCHI-
by using toxic, chemical wood preservatives TECTURE was based on a constant application of Me-
(Graubner 1992). chanics and Geometry, which are the most difficult
branches of Mathematics (Ferreiro 2007), expressing
3. During a fire, metal fasteners become red hot what Manuel de Landa, Mexican-American artist and
after only 15 to 25 minutes causing structural philosopher, calls the disregard for the linguistically
failure of the joints and quick collapse of the unarticulated knowledge of craftsmen about complex
building. The wood-to-wood joints guarantee material behaviour (de Landa 2001). De Landa's ob-
burning buildings a longer resistance than do servation is based on the notion expressed by James
metal-to-wood joints (Graubner 1992). Edward Gordon (1913-1998), British pioneer of mate-
rial science, of reducing design to a routine with the
invention of homogenised building materials that
For all these reasons, when the entire lifecycle of facilitated the dilution of skills, where manufacturing
the composite element is considered, eliminating can be broken down into many separate stages, each
the need for non-biodegradable chemicals and metal requiring a minimum of skill or intelligence (Gordon
connectors would substantially lower its environ- 1988).The mere carpenters, diminished by Santicilia,
mental impact by reducing pollution and the amount took advantage from the existing shapes of trees
of energy used in the process and improving recycla- or irregularities of grain in order to achieve supe-
bility of timber components.

rior strength and reduce labour. Accordingly, curved the scope of the designer's initiative (Ngo and Pfeiffer
wood could be more expensive than straight wood 2003).
up until the 19th century. This approach was only Modern Movement in architecture had a double-
possible given the condition of unarticulated knowl- sided approach to materiality. One lineage, that al-
edge of the craftsmen, transmitted through experi- lowed the material agency in design, can be traced
ence and not codified in a form required by indus- to Violet-le-Duc (1814-1879) who in opposition to the
trial production. The turning point in the wood con- Classicism saw architectural composition in relation
struction was the development of the Balloon Frame to the material made use of and the processes that can
in 1830s when the skilled carpenter was replaced by be applied to it (Viollet-le-Duc et al. 1990). In this vein,
the unskilled labourer (Giedion 1967). Late 18th cen- some Modernist architects allowed the material to in-
tury inventions of steam powered circular saws and form their design concepts: Adolf Loos (1870-1933)
rapidly cut nails from sheets of iron allowed a man arguing that each material has its own Formensch-
and a boy (...) attain the same results, with ease, that prache (language of forms), Frank Lloyd Wright (1867-
twenty men could on an old-fashioned frame (G. E. 1959) talking about the meaning of materials, Louis
Woodward in 1865 as cited in Giedion (1967)). As a Kahn (1901-1974) asking what do you want, brick?,
result, American cities like Chicago or San Francisco or Alvar Aalto (1898-1976) who saw wood viable for
have arisen from little villages to great cities in a sin- psychological and biological reasons. However, all of
gle year (Solon Robinson as cited in Giedion (1967)). them used a vague or soft notion of a culturally con-
Beyond the obvious economic gains, mechanisation ditioned material agency, metaphors (...) very diffi-
and standardisation of construction and develop- cult to use (...) as a basis for a more operational under-
ments in material science resulted in a shift of focus standing of the form-material relationship (Sandaker
to a more rational, abstract and analytically driven un- 2008). In other words they failed to provide any work-
derstanding of construction in structural design, e.g. ing method for material-oriented design. The sec-
iron provided the physical basis for a mathematically ond lineage, stemming from the Classical notion of
oriented formulation of design, thoroughly justified by form as independent of matter, verbalised by Bruno
science (Rinke 2010). Not surprisingly the manual Taut (1880-1938) as the ultimate dematerialisation of
craftsmanship came to a standstill. As a side effect, form, found its most famous expression in the 1924
by1930 (...) wood had been squeezed by manufactur- Schröder House by Gerrit Thomas Rietveld (1888-
ers of all its design potential (Giedion 1967). That is 1964): a messy hybrid of timber, steel, masonry and
reflected, for instance, in the writings of Le Corbus- reinforced concrete, but visually it appears to be com-
ier (1887-1965), criticizing in 1931 the use of hetero- posed entirely of coloured planes (Weston 2003). Pe-
geneous and doubtful materials, both from the po- ter Eisenman's (b.1932) notion of the cardboard ar-
sition of economy: Natural materials, which are in- chitecture as an antimaterial statement symbolically
finitely variable in composition, must be replaced by marked the final stage of the negation of materiality
fixed ones. (...) The laws of Economics demand their by the modernist architects in the 1970s. Since then
rights: steel girders and (...) reinforced concrete, are until the 1990s the architectural discourse problema-
pure manifestations of calculation, using the material tized history and philosophy rather than materiality.
of which they are composed in its entirety and abso- In the 2000s with rising ecological concerns on the
lutely exactly; whereas in the old-world timber beam one hand, and the post-postmodern need for realism
there may be lurking some treacherous knot, and the and post-digital need for quantifiable techniques and
very way in which it is squared up means a heavy loss evaluation (Borden and Meredith 2012) on the other,
in material (Le Corbusier 1986), as well as the design the focus was shifted towards the real. Under the ban-
potential: wood, being a traditional material, limited ner of digital materiality substantial effort has been

put to integrate digital or robotic fabrication into the formulated as maximising the project's effects and
design process, and it is legitimate to say as of 2014 affects, objective and subjective aspects, while min-
that robotic fabrication in architecture has succeeded imising time, material and energy expenditures. In
(...) in the synthesis of the immaterial logic of comput- this view, in currently prevailing approach to wood
ers and the material reality of architecture where the construction, formal and performative requirements
direct reciprocity of digital designs and full-scale archi- conflict the material efficiency and manufacturing
tectural production is enabled (Gramazio et al. 2014). logic.
However, the post-digital discussion about material- In our proposed approach, we understand the
ity has been dominated by mass-customisation and act of making as a negotiation between material po-
the part-to-whole relationship, where material traits tentials and fabrication constraints. In order to estab-
played a secondary role. In our view, a question that lish a theoretical framework to that end, we propose
remains a challenge for today stems from Viollet-le- to look at natural systems through the lens of bio-
Duc's notion of the form as a synthesis of the mate- cybernetics and biomimetics.
rial made use of and the processes that can be applied Frederic Vester (1925-1983), a German bio-
to it, posed in the context of the 21st century devel- chemist, ecologist and an originator of networked
opments. Is our technology mature enough to em- thinking that is based on systemic and cybernetic ap-
brace the material complexity? What kind of frame- proaches, opposes constructivist against evolution-
work and working methods could be applied today, ary types of management. In the former the system is
in order to harness material potentials? What can be produced at great expense of material and energy, in
learned from the mere carpenters, how a fusion of the the latter it emerges spontaneously at little expense.
analogue matter and the digital information process- The 4th rule of his eight basic rules of bio-cybernetics
ing can be achieved? Our project, taking on board outlines the strategy: exploiting existing forces in ac-
wood -- the ancient, heterogeneous and endlessly cordance with the ju-jitsu principle rather than fighting
variable material, is an attempt to take part in this dis- against them with the boxing method (Vester 2007).
cussion. That in turn resonates with the comparison of bio-
ENERGY: technological vs biological types of logical and technological systems as presented by Ju-
menagement. Despite the fact that architecture and lian Vincent, professor of biomimetics at the Univer-
engineering are just two aspects of one thing (Heinz sity of Bath (Vincent et al. 2006). Vincent argues, that
Isler as quoted in Larsen and Tyas (2003)) the two our technology kills the information of raw materials,
disciplines take into account different criteria and by reducing, melting, dissolving, homogenising, thus
systems of values. Therefore the notion of perfor- achieving random material with no intrinsic informa-
mance has two different meanings for them. For en- tion, further moulded, cast, turned, joint with a sub-
gineering performance is a quantifiably measured ef- stantial expense of energy to make the material or-
ficiency, expressed as the highest load-bearing for dered with imposed shape and structure for the final
the lowest weight, whereas for architecture the no- product. Conversely to technological systems, bio-
tion is more elusive and consists of a wide range of logical systems use information rather than energy
design approaches (for more in-depth discussion see to solve technical problems. In live organisms infor-
(Sandaker 2008)). Moreover, strategies orientated tomation, stored in DNA, is used to drive specific reac-
wards minimising cost, maximising performance or tion at the cellular level and self-assemble structures.
the performance to cost ratio yield different design Conversely to nature, where shape is cheap but ma-
trajectories and solutions (Russell and Gero 2014). In terial is expensive, in engineering, material is cheap
order to establish a value system for our project, we and shape (resulting from energy-intensive processing)
adhere to a principle, where a design goal could be is expensive, says Vincent, and points to our ability to

tap abundant and cheap fossil fuels during the Indus- quired to perform these joints. (...) The personal instruc-
trial Revolution as a key turning point in our relation- tion given to carpenters during their training allows for
ship with nature. the transfer of a body of three dimensional and proces-
INFORMATION: fusion of the analogue and the sional information that flattens out in the form of two-
digital. However it would not be easy for us to trigger dimensional drawings (Schröpfer and Lovett 2011).
reactions at the cellular level in wood, our project is Similarly, the details of our connection, the precise
a test-bed through which we attempt to investigate dimension of the incisions, were not executed based
what role information plays in the design process on a fixed set of drawings, but in a process of deter-
when the focus is shifted towards the dynamic mate- mining digital machining paths, resultant of the tool
rial behaviour. This approach calls for different infor- (shape, radius, feed speed, rpm etc.) and material
mation transfer than traditional architectural meth- parameters, verified through physical testing. These
ods. Neither two- or three-dimensional representa- paths could neither be reused for another connection
tions are capable of capturing and communicating nor fully prepared in advance. Even if the same tool
processes and changes in time, nor the state-of-the- setup was preserved, the material parameters would
art Building Information Modelling (BIM) programs constantly change in time, resulting in different in-
could be helpful in this regard. BIM, a shared knowl- cisions, cut for instance in wood of different density
edge resource for information about a facility forming or moisture content. In case of wood, where no two
a reliable basis for decisions [1], has been introduced pieces are alike, all pieces vary at all structural lev-
in order to provide a platform for data exchange be- els, what results in impossible to compute behaviour,
tween stakeholders and is fine tuned to the stan- a question of tolerances becomes highly relevant as
dard design process, where a change of material state well. Trying to make the elements snuggly fit, we
in time is of little importance to the design deci- strived to leave the necessary tolerances allowing for
sions. As our standard methods of representation are an easy push-in and catch-in - only possible to deter-
lacking content regarding change, sequence and tol- mine by a physical trying and error process.
erances, equally the building culture is unlikely to be Another problem we faced was the amount of in-
able to fill in the gaps with experience (Schröpfer and formation necessary to efficiently deal with the mate-
Lovett 2011), result of our earlier described divorce rial and to be able to compute the machining paths.
with craftsmanship. We face a similar challenge to While trying to capture geometrical characteristics of
that of the Jørn Utzon's (1918-2008) Sydney Opera our pieces we realised that the contact 3D scanner
House (completed in 1973) or the Frank Gehry's (b. with an articulated arm suits our purpose better than
1929) fish-shaped canopy for the 1992 Olympic Vil- the non-contact active 3D scanner. The type of in-
lage in Barcelona, where the two-dimensional repre- formation required to establish the important geo-
sentations were more complicated than the shapes metric features for our connections could be boiled
themselves, what triggered the integration of asso- down to a few numbers (boles and stumps diameters
ciative software in the design process. In an at- and coordinates of two axial points for each stump),
tempt to find a reference for information transfer in as opposed to thousands of coordinates in the point
other form than two- or three-dimensional represen- cloud. Keeping the information to minimum was the
tation, our approach takes inspiration from the tra- only strategy enabling successful computation of the
ditional Japanese joinery methods. The attempts to machining paths.
graphically describe many of the primary connections
in Japanese joinery in the Western method of ortho-
graphic projections (...) fall short of being able to con-
vey the complexity of the sequence of operations re-

THE BACK-TO-BACK SYSTEM 2. Wet-in-wet. The connecting mechanism
Project description based on green wood anisotropic shrinkage.
The proposed connecting system attempts to ac- Various incisions were CNC-cut to test how
commodate two contradictory needs: to yield as uni- the tangential shrinkage on the active side of
form and smooth component as possible and to min- the panel would tighten on the passive side.
imise the processing of the material. For the whole 3. Stumps-in-boles. The connecting mechanism
boles of trees are longitudinally split and the straight- based on scanning stumps and inserting
cut faces exposed, while the unprocessed backs are them into corresponding CNC-drilled holes in
used to connect the pieces. the opposing bole. Stumps are crushed to
separate the fibres and increase their flexi- Figure 1
bility prior to inserting them into the holes. Three BackToBack
As greenwood dries the holes should shrink design paths
thereby increasing the connection strength.
For paths (1) and (2) Norway spruce, and For path (3)
birch wood, were used. In all cases wood was pro-
cessed while still green.
Dry-in-wet
This project demonstrates and tests how the green
wood shrinkage activated on drying could be used
for tightening on dry wood elements.
Various series of incisions were cut at a 45° angle
to the halved-log axis on the bark side. As the inserts
dry pine boards were used (Figure 2). The resulting
empty space inside of the panel could be used for
thermal insulation, e.g. by means of injecting cellu-
lose fibre insulation.
It has been assumed that the oblique orientation
of these incisions would harness the natural shrink-
age in green components and make them cling on
the dry inserts. In order to investigate the distribu-
tion, geometry and dimensions of these incisions and
inserts various variants were tested.
Wet-in-wet
This project demonstrates and tests how the
anisotropic shrinkage activated on drying could be
Three design paths were followed (Figure 1): used for producing all-wood connections in solid
wood panels. In Norway spruce, depending on au-
1. Dry-in-wet. The connecting mechanism based thor, tangential shrinkage amounts to between 4%
on green wood tightening on dry wood while (Dinwoodie 2000) - 7.8% [2], radial to 2% (Dinwoodie
shrinking. Dry wood inserts were fitted into 2000) - 3.6% [2] and longitudinal to <0.1% (Din-
the receiving incisions in green wood. woodie 2000) - 0.3% [2] (Figure 3).

Figure 2
The BackToBack
dry-in-wet concept
Figure 3
Orthotropic
shrinkage in Stumps-in-boles
Norway spruce This project demonstrates and tests how randomly
placed stumps of branches could be used to pro-
vide connection between opposing layers of halved
round timber boles. A birch sample was halved along
the longitudinal axis. The sample with a projecting
branch stump was 3D-scanned. By means of a com-
puter script this information was subsequently trans-
lated into the position and angles of the hole to be
drilled in the paired element by a tiltable drill press.
The stump was successfully forced into the result-
ing hole (Figure 5). During the experiment it was
determined that since the branch stumps have ran-
dom spatial angles and possess a significant stiffness
it would be impossible to force more than one such
stump into a correspondingly inclined hole lest their
spatial angles were identical or almost identical. One
Various series of waving and straight incisions were way to overcome this is to increase the elasticity of
CNC-cut perpendicular and at a 45° angle to the the stumps. We achieved this by crushing the stumps
halved-log axis on the bark side, in order to produce in a carpenter's vice. The final result proven to be
the active elements of the panel. Their width after a failure: as branches shrunk more than the corre-
drying should shrink and cling on the receiving ribs sponding hole in the bole the connection has loos-
resulting from the identical incisions cut parallel to ened its snug fit after some time. This means the solu-
the log axis on the corresponding passive elements tion would only be possible while working with dried
of the panel (Figure 4). material, characterised by a higher modulus of elas-
Various patterns of the incisions and resulting ticity, thus not providing the sought synergy in the
ribs have been manufactured in order to test their process.
shrinkage and resulting connection.

Figure 4
The BackToBack
wet-in-wet concept.
Tests of various
incision patterns.
Figure 5
Stumps-in-boles.
From 3D scan to
tiltable drill press
and assembly
FURTHER DEVELOPMENT be used for additional insulation. The wet-in-wet sce-

The BackToBack project is currently at its early stage nario would be suitable for internal partitions or as a
and various paths of further development are consid- load-bearing leaf of an insulated wall.
ered. Our initial tests indicate that only design paths All presented examples result in flat panels of
1 and 2: dry-in-wet and wet-in-wet are worth pursu- even external surface. It remains to be answered how
ing. the wood-behaviour based connections could be fur-
The presented panels are designed to be used as ther exploited architecturally by application of ge-
structural elements and double as exposed surface. ometry, e.g. for their formal and aesthetical appeal,
This biologically inspired approach -- in nature often self-support, sound or light-wave reflection or atten-
single material serves multiple functions -- saves en- uation.
ergy, production time and money potentially spent It would be possible to manufacture curvilinear
on additional finishes. While it would be difficult panels of ruled geometries, controlling the curva-
to meet the present day thermal requirements with ture by the geometries of the incisions, not spending
wood only without increasing the wall thickness to more production time, material or energy than while
40-50 cm, the dry-in-wet panel is more suitable for producing flat panels of the same size (Figure 6). This
external walls as it provides internal space that could line of thinking opens new prospects: when shape

becomes cheap, to paraphrase Vincent, what would (Richard Burton, Frei Otto and Buro Happold, 1988).
the implication for design and architecture be? Combined with the BackToBack method it could en-
able an effective way of producing curved timber
Figure 6 panels.
Using the
BackToBack REFERENCES
method production Borden, G and Meredith, M (eds) 2012, Matter: Mate-
of both panels rial Processes in Architectural Production, Routledge,
would require the London
same amount of Le Corbusier, . 1986, Towards a New Architecture, Dover,
New York
time, material and
Dinwoodie, JM 2000, Timber: Its Nature and Behaviour, E
energy & FN Spon, London
Ferreiro, LD 2007, Ships and Science: The Birth of Naval Ar-
chitecture in the Scientific Revolution, 1600-1800, MIT
Press
Giedion, S 1967, Space, Time and Architecture: The Growth
of a New Tradition, Harvard University Press, Cam-
bridge, Mass.
Gordon, JE 1988, The Science of Structures and Materials,
Scientific American Library, New York
Gramazio, F, Kohler, M and Willmann, J 2014, 'Author-
ing Robotic Processes', Architectural Design. Made by
Robots, May/June 2014(229), pp. 14-21
Graubner, W 1992, Encyclopedia of Wood Joints, Taunton
Another line of development includes the applica- Press, Incorporated
tion of juvenile wood in the form of roundwood thin- König, H 2011, 'Wood-based Construction as a Form
ning material. That -- except of being a byproduct of Active Climate Protection', in Kaufmann, H,
of the forest management -- has several advantages Nerdinger, W, Kühfuss, M and Grdanjski, M (eds)
over sawn timber: 2011, Building with Timber: Paths Into the Future,
Prestel Pub, Munich, pp. 18-23
• 40% lower embodied energy. de Landa, M 2001, 'The Case of Modelling Software',
in Salazar, J (eds) 2001, Verb Processing, Actar,
Barcelona, pp. 131-142
• Self-replenishment over a much shorter pe- Popovic Larsen, O and Tyas, A 2003, Conceptual Structural
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Furniture, Princeton Architectural Press
Rinke, M 2010, 'The Infinitely Shapable Structure. Struc-
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tural Iron and the Decontextualization of Construc-
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sequences, Verlag Niggli AG, Zürich
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Rethinking Comprehensive Design: Speculative Coun-
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terculture. Proceedings of the 19th International Con-
the material beyond its proportional limit, as featured ference on Computer-Aided Architectural Design Re-
in the Hooke Park workshop building in Dorset, UK

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Thesis, ETH Zurich
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and Pahl, A-K 2006, 'Biomimetics: Its Practice and
Theory', Journal of The Royal Society Interface, 3(9),
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[1] http://www.buildingsmartalliance.org/index.php/nbims/faq/
- faq1
[2] http://www.fpl.fs.fed.us/documnts/fplgtr/fpl_-
gtr190.pdf

Affordable Complexity
'God's Eye' - Sukkahville 2013
Michail Georgiou1 , Odysseas Georgiou2 , Theresa Kwok3

1,2
[ARC] University of Nicosia, HUB Design and Engineering Platform 3 HUB De-
sign and Engineering Platform
1,2
{georgiou.mi|georgiou.o}@unic.ac.cy 3 theresa.kwok@hub.com.cy
The paper presents a novel approach on the design of complex forms by

re-formulating the relationships between form, structure, material, fabrication
and construction. It is proposed that current design models are supplemented by
feedback-enabled frameworks, integrating material properties, fabrication
constraints and construction logistics. As such, a series of input parameters
based on industry standards, filtered through physical testing and digital
simulations, feed a central computational model. The outcome is weighed against
a set of objectives towards an optimum design solution which embodies
construction logic while ultimately opposing costly inflated ad-hoc solutions.
Within the above framework and as part of a broader research conducted at
[ARC], this paper illustrates a design methodology implemented at the case study
of 'God's Eye', winning entry of Sukkahville 2013 International Design
Competition. It is further supported that a high tech, interdisciplinary design
process based on efficient material assemblies allows for a complex, yet efficient
end result, through low tech affordable construction.
Keywords: material-based design, design process, construction logistics,

interdisciplinary design, computational design
INTRODUCTION computer-aided design and manufacturing, in place

Form has evolved from the continuum to the dis- of machinery for repetitive production and assembly.
creet; from a unified system, incorporating material In such context, the sacrifice of humanizing variety
logic into form, to the department of form from struc- and form complexity in the interests of efficiency was
ture and their study as separate systems. no longer required (Mitchell 2004).
Elaborated code standards posing new analytical Eventually, a bottom up approach, founded on
difficulties, demanding architectural briefs and the material logic and integrated professional knowl-
architect-engineer segregation shaped the years that edge was predominantly succeeded by ways of
followed. The end of the millennium was marked by materialization, production and construction which
the vision of mass customization through the use of were strategized only after the form was been elabo-

rated, leading to top-down engineered, material so-
lutions that often juxtapose unfitting logics (Fleish- Figure 1
mann and Menges 2011). Even though such exam- 'God's Eye' Toronto
ples have demonstrated the desired degree of com- Canada
plexity, they turned out to be highly inefficient and
expensive once they had been sold to a sufficiently
funded client and entered the building phase; dis-
similar Façade Panels needed to be curved in two di-
mensions or undergo exhaustive optimisation to ap-
proximate planarity, while large numbers of slightly
differentiated joints dramatically increased fabrica-
tion and construction logistics (Scheurer 2009).
Recently, a number of researchers have sup-
ported that architecture is currently in a historic pro- Figure 2
cess of returning to its structural and material sources Structure-
through material-based design and fabrication. Such membrane
a return calls for re-formulating the relationships be- interdependent
tween form, structure, material, fabrication and con- system
struction and re-considering our models of design
(Oxman 2012).
Within the above framework, this paper aims to
present a case study that re-examines the design
process and realization of complex forms. Feedback
mechanisms allowing decision making are driven by
physical testing, computational simulations and in-
dustry constraints. This bottom up approach inte-
grates material properties, jointing technology, fab- The design consists of a pair of interweaved doubly
rication constraints and construction logistics, while curved surfaces, forming a central vaulted enclosure
the outcome is constantly evaluated against a series (focal point) which corresponds to a small roof open-
of design criteria. The result is an interdisciplinary, ing. The spiraling configuration of the project re-
high tech design process assisted by advanced com- sults in two entrances/exits enabling the visitor to
putational tools, allowing for low tech affordable progressively experience a protected space (Figure
construction while fundamentally opposing the cri- 3). Despite its scale, the structure manages to com-
tique of digital architecture's favour towards form. bine the elements of surprise and interaction thus
further enhancing the overall experience of the user.
PROTOTYPE The choice for a woven cladding highlights the idea
The Prototype Structure, 'God's Eye' (Figure 1), was of shelter, family and bonding whereas the proposed
the winning entry of Sukkahville 2013 International materials (recycled corrugated cardboard and recy-
Design Competition. The competition called for clable UPVC pipes) underline the ideas of affordabil-
design proposals on a temporary pavilion pertain- ity, ephemerality and fragility, fundamental require-
ing affordable housing. 'God's Eye' was among the ments of the competition brief. Key constraints that
six shortlisted entries invited to be constructed in drove many design decisions during the project's de-
Toronto, Canada on September 2013. velopment phase were cost-effectiveness, construc-

Figure 3
'God's Eye'
Structure Plan
tion efficiency, and transportability, given that the weaving recycled single-sided corrugated cardboard
project was aimed be realized 9000 km away from strips of variable widths on the secondary structural
the base of its designers. Material assemblies en- system.
countered in textile and weaving have been adopted Finally, a set of jointing techniques and custom-
early-on and have been in the core of the project's made joints were developed and constructed during
development process. As such the characteristics of the design process to respond to different needs and
lightness, elasticity and suppleness have been de- performing criteria.
terminant factors in selecting materials and defining The realized pavilion weighted less than 100kg
their organizational logic. with a total footprint ranging at 17.5 m². The to-
The pavilion was accordingly developed as a tal cost of materials was approximately 350€. The
structure-membrane interdependent system (Figure complete structure was hand-carried from Cyprus to
2). The structure (Primary and Secondary) was made Canada in three sports equipment bags weighting
out of recyclable locally produced (Cyprus) UPVC (EN less than 25kg each. Construction time was less than
61386-21:2004) electrical conduit pipes, bent in place 16 hours over two days by a team of two students and
and secured using custom-made metal and acrylic three faculty members.
digitally fabricated joints. 32mm width pipes were
used for the primary structure and 16mm width pipes INFORMATION WORKFLOW
were used for the secondary structure. The form was A great challenge for designers today is to integrate
achieved by instrumentalising the bending forces in- the physical behavior of materials and their struc-
duced on the pipes as defined by a computational tural and geometrical characteristics in computa-
model. tional models that enable full control over their so-
The membrane, serving structural (diaphragm) lutions (Fleishmann and Menges 2011).
and sheltering purposes, was realized by inter- Such an informational model was produced us-

Figure 4
Computational
Model
ing a core parametric definition in Grasshopper 3D The above information workflow is illustrated in
[1], a parametric extension plugin of Rhinoceros 3d the diagram below and further explained in the fol-
(Figure 4). The model was used throughout the lowing pages (Figure 5).
design and construction process, continuously fu-
eled with information originating from testing par- Figure 5
allel simplified physical and digital models from and Information
to which there was a direct transition. Affordabil- Workflow Diagram
ity, Constructability and Transportability posed great
challenges for the research team that addressed lo-
gistics management extensively to respond to the
above areas. The ability to adapt and design based
on industry standards (sizes and profiles), without
compromising form complexity was critical in meet-
ing the budget and achieving a lightweight, easily
transportable, structure. As a result, research on ma-
terials was conducted early-on and a selection of lo-
cally available resources along with their properties
was documented. The pallet of materials became
part of the input parameters feeding the computa- MATERIALITY AND PERFORMANCE SIMU-
tional model. The main design objectives were there- LATION
fore defined by the same nature of the design prob- Through early physical prototyping, it became ev-
lem. As such, cost, weight and aesthetics, became ident that the bending performance of the struc-
the evaluation criteria for the outcome of the process. tural elements was a major factor in the geomet-
Filtering each design solution against the above stan- ric form-finding process. Due to the slenderness of
dards enabled constant revisiting of the input param- the PVC tubes, relatively low forces induced large
eters which resulted in further testing and develop- deformations and a significant increase in stiffness.
ment of the solution. Once a sufficiently fit outcome This "bending active" (Lienhard et al. 2011) behav-
was achieved, the computational model facilitated ior is based on the elastic deformation of initially
the production of construction information and doc- straight elements and their ability to store bending
umentation. induced stresses, or bending pre-stress. Such a de-

sign method even if rarely used nowadays, was uti- taken as a measure to determine the materials' phys-
lized as a governing principle in the design of tim- ical properties. During these tests, the relation of
ber gridshells, a great example being Frei Otto's Man- the tubes' curvature to the destabilizing load, or the
heim Multihalle (Happold and Liddel 1975). Experi- "lift force" was determined. These tests recorded the
menting with locally produced, non-structural UPVC tube's modulus of elasticity and yielded the mate-
material however became a new challenge for the rial's bending capacity. Furthermore, the data ex-
design team as such use was not previously docu- tracted from the experiments fed an analytical ex-
mented. To record the UPVC tubes performance, an pression (Figure 6) associating change-in-height to
approach of integrating physical tests and computa- length-of-chord of the main structure. This expres-
tional design (both numerical and linear approxima- sion would be used as a geometric relation informing
tion methods) was followed. our parametric model, instantiating a digital form-
At first, a number of physical tests were under- finding process (Figure 7).
Figure 6
Bending
deformation -
Analytical Equation
Figure 7
Analytical
Form-finding

In order to understand the stress distribution of come. Therefore all the information relating to the
the structural elements and in conjunction with the design of the membrane was included in the core
approximation model, a simplified analysis was per- parametric model. This had also allowed the explo-
formed, in which the initial force required to deflect ration of a large number of different weaving pat-
the tube was used as input parameter (Happold and terns aiming to achieve the desired aesthetic com-
Liddel 1975). The method was based on inducing plexity (Figure 9). Due to the varying sectional cur-
a support displacement on beam-element models vature of the pavilion, the membrane's adaptation
and performing a third-order analysis in FEA software to shape needed to be controlled. This was en-
(Figure 8). However, as the geometric model evolved abled using custom written scripts that could pro-
into a more complex geometry, this method proved duce variable-width cardboard strips responding to
to be inadequate and lost convergence. In an im- the changes of the structures' curvature. To facilitate
proved approach, a set of pre-stressed elastic cables construction, the strips were grouped in five sets of
were used to apply the desired de-stabilizing forces different widths, rationalizing without compromising
on the two ends of each tube. the appearance of membrane. (Figure 10)
Figure 8
FABRICATION AND LOGISTICS FEA Verification -
Jointing techniques and connection design were de- Un-deformed shape
terminant factors in achieving the desired degree of (left) & Deformed
complexity while maintaining affordability and con- shape (right)
structability. Such jointing strategies were therefore
considered early on and repeatedly revisited during
the development and testing phases of the project.
As such, material selection was partly based on facil-
As the shape of the pavilion evolved through digi- itating construction in terms of simplifying the con-
tal prototyping and physical testing, its structural ca- nectivity of constituent parts. In the light of the
pacity and lateral stability needed to be verified at above, UPVC pipes presented an advantage, as their
all steps. To overcome an arduous modelling pro- in-build socket enabled the formation of continuous
cess, usually featured in analyzing complex geomet- members, as well as closed loops. Similarly the choice
ric problems, structural modelling capabilities were of corrugated cardboard was partly determined by its
incorporated in the core parametric model. In order availability in rolls, enabling the production of con-
to achieve interoperability between the parametric tinues cardboard strips. Finally weaving itself was
model and the FEA, a developed API plugin [3], (Geor- based on frictional forces, eliminating the need of
giou et al. 2011) was exploited. joints between the secondary structure and card-
board strips.
PATTERN EXPLORATION AND SHAPE While the above strategies have effectively re-
duced the number of possible joints, the proposal re-
ADAPTABILITY
quired connectivity solutions between the structural
The membrane was constructed using stripes of cor-
members of the pavilion. Given the tight develop-
rugated cardboard unrolled in the desired length, in
ing timeframe, precise analytical expressions of such
order to fit the exact geometry, and interwoven in-
connectivity would not have been possible. Addi-
between the secondary elements of the structure. In-
tionally, fixed joints would have altered the pavilion's
corporating the parameters forming the outer sur-
shape depending on their rigidity and would impose
face in the global computational model was essen-
a far more rigorous design process. As a result, ro-
tial for controlling and optimizing the developed out-

Figure 9
Weaving Patterns
Exploration
Figure 10
Adaptation to
curvature
tational freedom was accounted for in the analytical ware stores to form a two way 360-degree joint. A
models. Such an assumption would also require its similar detail was used to develop a 3-way structural
physical counterpart; a joint enabling rotation on 2- joint to connect the bracing arches to the main struc-
axis. This was resolved by combining pairs of plumb- ture of the pavilion. In this case three clamps were
ing pipe clamps using set screws, found in local hard- welded together to form a co-planar 3-way fixture,

the only non-rotational type of joint featured in the In terms of construction information, cutting pat-
prototype (Figure 11). terns for the cardboard strips were managed by the
The notion of joint rotational freedom was also computational model taking into account the exact
adopted for the secondary structure. As revealed weaved lengths. A similar process was applied for the
by the computational model, the complex shape UPVC pipes, where cutting and marking schedules
yielded a large number of different connection an- were generated for all the primary and secondary
gles which would be impossible to design and fab- structure parts. This enabled waste elimination and
ricate within the available time and budget. A uni- simplified the construction process. Finally, auto-
versal, innovative joint combining commercial UPVC mated processes were used for packing the structure
Tee joints and digitally fabricated acrylic parts, was and meeting transportation requirements (size and
designed and evolved to both meet the single and weight).
double axis rotation requirements (Figure 12).
Figure 11
Two-way
360-degree joints
(left) & Three-way
fixed joints (right)
Figure 12
Universal UPVC +
digitally fabricated
acrylic joints

CONCLUSIONS
A fully informed computational model forms the
core of the design process presented above; by im-
plementing material properties and their organiza-
tional logic, the model allows minimization of analyt-
ical time and optimization of the end result through
the exploration of multi-objective solutions. Em-
bodied materiality, adaptation to industry standards
and a series of waste management techniques en-
able major cost reductions as opposed to custom,
post-engineered solutions. A jointing minimization
approach paired with a flexible, adaptable jointing
system that responds to the overall behavior of the
structure, decreases analytical time, fabrication and
construction logistics while accelerating the struc-
tural assembly process. Finally, aesthetic complexity
is achieved by allowing exploration of a considerable
variety of weaving patterns while effectively applying
them on the doubly curved form of the structure.
REFERENCES
Fleishmann, M and Menges, A 2011 'ICD/ITKE Research
Pavilion: A Case Study of Multi-diciplinary Collobo-
rative Computational Design', Proceedings of the De-
sign Modelling Symposium 2011, Berlin
Georgiou, O, Richens, P and Richens, P 2011 'Perfor-
mance based interactive analysis', Proceedings of the
Design Modelling Symposium 2011, Berlin
Happold, E and Liddel, WI 1975, 'Timber lattice roof for
the Mannheim Bundesgartenschau', The Structural
Engineer, 53(3), pp. 99-135
Lienhard, J, Schleicher, S and Knippers, J 2011 'Bending-
active Structures – Research Pavilion ICD/ITKE', Pro-
ceedings of the International Symposium of the IABSE-
IASS Symposium, Taller Longer Lighter, London, UK
Mitchell, WJ 2004, 'Complexity in Digital Age', Science,
New Series, 303(5663), pp. 1472-1473
Oxman, R 2012, 'Informed tectonics in material-based
design', Design Studies, 33(5), pp. 427-455
Scheurer, F 2010, 'Materialising Complexity', Architectural
Design, 80(4), pp. 86-93
[1] http://www.grasshopper3d.com
[2] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_program-
ming_interface

Designing Resilient Buildings with Emergent Materials
Martina Decker1 , Andrzej Zarzycki2
1,2
New Jersey Institute of Technology
1,2
www.njit.edu
1,2
{decker|andrzej.zarzycki}@njit.edu
This paper looks at two distinct approaches to kinetic façades and smart building
assemblies reminiscent of designs for the Institut du Monde Arabe and for
Hoberman's Simon Center. The first approach uses Arduino
microcontroller-guided kinetic components with a distinct assemblage of
elements, each performing a dedicated function such as sensor, actuator, or
logical processing unit. The second approach incorporates custom-designed
smart materials-shape memory alloys (SMAs)-that not only complement or
replace the need for electrically operated sensors or actuators, but also eliminate
a microcontroller, since in this arrangement the material itself performs
computational functions. The paper will discuss case studies that use physical
computing and smart-material models as vehicles to discuss the value of each
approach to adaptive design in architecture. Building on these observations, the
paper looks into conceptual aspects of an integrated hybrid system that combines
both computation approaches and unique opportunities inherent to these hybrid
designs.
Keywords: Adaptable designs, Arduino microcontrollers, Shape memory alloys

(SMAs), Smart materials, Programmable matter
INTRODUCTION This paper discusses a number of design and

Material science and computation emerge as the research initiatives that explore this intersection of
two most critical and formative drives of current de- new smart materials and electronic technologies.
sign practice. The impact of emerging smart mate- In particular, it focuses on emerging practices that
rial technologies with their unique properties is des- employ shape-changing materials and open-source
tined to redefine the built environment in the same electronic platforms.
way as it currently does within science, engineering, Furthermore, this paper addresses a number of
and product design. The ability to wire this new critical questions that frame current debate on adap-
matter-interconnect into a broader network-and pro- tive façades and architecture. What is a conceptual
vide memory, anticipation, and autonomous oper- framework for integrating smart technologies into
ability would extend its potent qualities into larger context-aware and interconnected buildings? What
structures such as a building or a city. are effective ways to interconnect electronic- and
material-based information processing (computing)?

What are the opportunities and challenges of au- MECHANICAL KINETIC FAÇADES
tonomous responsive façades and buildings? Early designs of kinetic and adaptive building in-
volved mechanized systems with some electrical and
GLOBAL CONTEXT sometimes electronic controls. They were the direct
Buildings are a significant contributor to the human legacy of the Industrial Revolution, which associated
carbon footprint, and they are responsible for 34% kinetic movements with mechanics and pneumatics.
of global energy consumption. The rapidly grow- Current state-of-the-art projects such as Hober-
ing energy demands of the increasing population in man's kinetic structures still build on this tradition
developing countries will create an even greater en- and on occasions introduce exotic materials such as
ergy demand, especially since some of the fastest- sensors and transducers. However, in their entirety,
growing cities are located in the world's warmest cli- kinetic designs continue to apply industrial and me-
mates (fig. 1). Alternatives to energy-intensive air chanical thinking to architecture. While these kinetic
conditioning systems are sorely needed. practices represent a successful and effective lineage
of design thinking, the future designs should also
take a full advantage of currently available material, Figure 1
information technologies, and science. Joseph Ribaudo,
Electronically controlled mechanical systems New Jersey Institute
provide the ability to centralize control and moni- of Technology |
toring. They are generally reliable, inexpensive, and Temperature and
easily maintained, particularly when made of mod- Energy Data for
ularized components. Standardization of elements India 2007/2010
is a critical part of the effective mechanical kinetic
designs.
On the other hand, mechanically based systems
require an independent energy source to power their
operations and usually are executed in a purely ac-
tuating role; without harvesting energy and feeding
it back into the system. This is a particularly signif-
icant limitation, since the nature of DC (direct cur-
rent) motors (utilized by kinetic façades) would nat-
urally lend itself to energy generation as well. Cer-
tainly, this would provide new challenges to design-
Dynamic and responsive features in the architec- ers, since most of current designs approaches do not
tural landscape hold promise for assisting in regulat- easy allow for this double role. However, this would
ing the interior climates of the built environment and allow adaptive façades to optimize not only energy
reducing the energy consumption of contemporary consumption but also energy generation.
HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning) sys- The adaptive façade of the Institute du Monde
tems. Kinetic façade systems that can mitigate solar Arabe in Paris (fig. 2) exemplifies the strengths and
heat gain in buildings have been studied and might limitations of mechanically operated designs. While
offer solutions to this problem of ever-growing com- this was an early successful example of a kinetic shad-
plexity. ing façade, it also became an effective case study for
what works and does not work with this approach.
Placement of shading on the interior side of the glaz-

ing significantly reduces its effectiveness from the INFORMATIONAL LAYER IN KINETIC
perspective of solar gains. While it prevents solar FAÇADES
glare and controls the amount of illumination, it of- A new generation of adaptive façades such as Hive
fers only minimal benefits for the reduction of heat Systems [1] (fig. 3) use information technologies ex-
gains. Once the sunlight enters the building, most of tensively to control individual building components
its energy is absorbed in form of heat, with little re- and to share information in between. In this case,
flection to the outside. the façade design is a system of interconnected pan-
els, with each of them working as a sensing and ac-
Figure 2
tuating element. Each component has an awareness
The detail of the
of its surrounding panels and freely shares data with
adaptive façade of
its neighbours. A significant advantage of this ap-
the Institute du
proach is its scalability. Removing an existing com-
Monde Arabe
ponent (taking it off-line) or adding a new compo-
nent (putting it on-line) is quickly recognized by the
rest of the system, and these new elements are im-
mediately incorporated into the entire assembly.
Additionally, the peer-to-peer communication
approach provides another layer of reliability and re-
siliency, effectively functioning as a decentralized ac-
tive organism. If any damage occurs to one of the
Figure 3 panels, the remaining panels continue to function.
Components of the Another project utilizing open-source electron-
Hive System. ics is the ICT Media Building, in Barcelona, Spain.
It uses a combination of pneumatic frit cushions
and Arduino-based microcontrollers to control so-
lar illumination and heat gains inside the building.
Since the pneumatic panels are installed in a double-
façade arrangement, they do not have the impedi-
ments of capturing solar heat present in the Institut
du Monde Arabe building.
The strategy used in the ICT Media Building al-
lows for individual addressability of each panel (fig.4)
and thus for individual control, communication, and
if need be, overwrite of its behaviour. These facil-
itate both localized and globalized controls. While
The tendency to place mechanically controlled
this project does not have the interconnected nature
screens on the inside-protected from the elements-is
of the Hive Systems, it could potentially follow a sim-
directly related to their reduced performance when
ilar route due to the analogous underlying informa-
exposed to weather conditions. This is due to both
tional technology framework. The Soft Façade for Ar-
the mechanical nature of the system and its central-
chitects [2] project demonstrates transitional think-
ized structure with single actuators controlling larger
ing in adaptable façade design where material per-
façade areas. Finally, while mechanical systems have
forms in parallel with mechanical and electronic sys-
a relatively long life span, they tend to wear off faster
tems. In the project, a series of sophisticated pneu-
than those made of non-mechanical parts.

matically activated soft panels are deformed to pro- emitted light, changes in colour, or electric currents.
duce various levels of wall opening apertures. While Since these materials are not unlike microcon-
this approach stands in the direct contrast to purely trollers that include programmable input/output pe-
mechanical solutions discussed earlier, and as such is ripherals, they have the potential to take over the
possibly more reliable, it still uses material in a purely function that these small computing devices have
actuating role. in contemporary kinetic façade systems. They have
been demonstrated to assist in controlling ventila-
Figure 4
tion, managing solar heat gain, and guiding daylight
Controls for the
deep into outbuildings.
individual cushion
The Smart Screen by Decker Yeadon LLC is an ex-
panel with Arduino
ample of a screen system that uses an artificial muscle
microcontroller and
consisting of shape memory alloys (SMAs) to control
the 7-bit DIP switch
solar heat gain (fig. 5). SMAs can be engineered to re-
for ID address.
spond to very specific activation temperatures by in-
troducing impurities to the nickel-titanium alloy. At
cold temperatures, the SMA can be deformed by me-
chanical means. Upon heating the metal, it will re-
turn to the original shape that it had before the sub-
sequent mechanical deformation.
The Smart Screen actuator features a spring set
that contains an SMA spring and a counter spring
Figure 5
made of a regular material. At cold temperatures,
Smart Screen
the counter spring overcomes the force of the SMA
Prototype III
spring, whereas at warm temperatures the SMA
Testing, Decker
spring is stronger, causing the mechanism to return
Yeadon LLC. The
to its original shape. SMAs call for carefully conceived
actuator design
environments to ensure that the smart material is not
consists of a shape
heated or deformed excessively, so that the material
memory alloy
can perform its tasks for millions of cycles without
spring (top) and a
material fatigue. These actuators can act as sensors
counter spring
and motors at the same time and do not need any
(bottom) that drive
computing devices. They can help regulate solar heat
KINETIC FAÇADE SYSTEMS WITH INTE- a piston in the
gain through glazing solely driven by ambient room
GRATED SMART MATERIALS middle of the
temperature.
Property-changing smart materials are a particu- actuator assembly.
By using a smart material motor as demonstrated
lar class of materials that can react to changes in The piston moves
in the Smart Screen setup, one actuator assembly can
their environment with a significant material re- the screen
drive the entire screen system. But SMAs can also
sponse that originates at the scale of molecules, openings to align or
be evenly distributed in a façade system and react to
the nanoscale. These fascinating materials are engi- misalign the
changes in room temperature directly where they oc-
neered at the molecular level to respond to inputs openings in the
cur. By using muscle wires made of SMAs, this inte-
such as photons of light, temperature differentials, screen.
gration can be easily achieved.
chemical substances, magnetic fields, or electricity.
In the screen design (fig. 6) by Adam Morgan
The output that is generated by these materials can
(New Jersey Institute of Technology), a muscle wire
range from changes in volume, shape, or fluidity to

can operate oculi akin to the façade design by Jean ate with a similar precision to that of the thermostat-
Nouvel for the Institut du Monde Arabe in Paris. A controlled environment.
single wire drives a set of two openings.
INTERCONNECTED SYSTEMS
Figure 6
The significant advantage of controller-based sys-
Screen Design by
tems is their ability to interconnect into a broader
Adam Morgan,
system that can share sensory inputs and propagate
Option Studio, New
information across the entire network. The neigh-
Jersey Institute of
boring cells can oversee the behavior of the individ-
Technology
ual adaptive components, and if need be, overwrite
local actions with global directives. This is enabled
by the individual addressability of each component-
controller, as is the case with Hive Façade Systems
and ICT Media Building. More importantly, this ad-
Figure 7 dressability parallels the conceptual framework of
Screen Design by the Internet of Things paradigm with IPv6 protocol
Gayatri Desai, that will allow for individually addressing every ele-
Option Studio, New ment in the build environment.
Jersey Institute of The immediate consequence of the intercon-
Technology nected building components is the ability not only
to share information but also to introduce perfor-
Figure 8 mance anticipation into the building. Since individ-
Hysteresis Loop in ual components are aware of conditions in the neigh-
Shape Memory bouring cells, they can preemptively adapt to emerg-
Alloys. ing circumstances. For example, with increased so-
lar gains being registered in one part of the build-
ing, spaces that are expected to be exposed to simi-
lar conditions within near future could be pre-cooled
or pre-conditioned. Similarly, during cold outside-
temperature periods, air humidity along the exte-
rior building perimeter could be lowered to minimize
curtain wall condensation before the outside tem-
Digital thermostats that are instrumental in con- perature drops. This also points to the building's abil-
trolling HVAC systems are programmed to display ity to subscribe to broader databases and forecasts to
a hysteresis that doesn't simply turn the heating or fine-tune its performance.
cooling systems on or off at a single specific tempera-
ture. In order to avoid a constant switching between COMBINING MICROCONTROLLERS WITH
on and off states, the thermostat is programmed to
SMART MATERIALS
maintain a specific temperature range. Similar, upon
The benefits of each approach, whether a kinetic
heating, an SMA actuator will trigger a material re-
façade element is driven by microcontrollers or by
sponse at a specific temperature and will go back
material motors, are intriguing. The computer-based
to its original state at a lower transition temperature
model gives us an extremely high degree of control
(fig. 8). This allows the material assembly to oper-
and lets us incorporate elements of machine learn-

ing. The system can evaluate information on the user, smart materials-only active when the need arises-is
anticipate behaviours, and adjust its performance ac- an attractive alternative to the traditional design ap-
cordingly. proach. It also provides a high level of reliability that
While the material-based approach resists being will be necessary for future, more complex buildings.
adjusted by a user, it offers an independent opera-
tion that can perform for millions of cycles without REFERENCES
the need of an energy source. Through the combina- Addington, M and Schodek, D 2005, Smart Materials and
tion of motors and sensors in one material, the actu- Technologies in Architecture, Architectural Press, Ox-
ators can be elegantly integrated into space-saving ford, U.K.
screen designs. Smart material-based assemblies are Beites, S 2013 'Morphological Behavior of Shape Mem-
not vulnerable to computer failure or to the attacks ory Polymers Toward a Deployable', Proceedings of
the 33rd Annual Conference of the Association for
of computer viruses or hackers. They are ultimately
Computer Aided Design in Architecture (ACADIA), pp.
autonomous-including the lack of need for an out- 121-128
side energy source-and easily scalable. They often Decker, M 2013, 'New Material Compositions', in Ng, R
continue to perform in conditions where purely me- and Patel, S (eds) 2013, Performative Materials in Ar-
chanical and electronic systems fail or demonstrate chitecture and Design, (Chicago: Intellect, University
reduced performance. of Chicago Press), p. 61–79
Doumpioti, C 2011 'Responsive and Autonomous Mate-
New approaches can be contemplated in which
rial Interfaces', Proceedings of the 31st Annual Confer-
the benefits of a microcontroller and a smart ence of the Association for Computer Aided Design in
materials-based intervention can be combined. Architecture (ACADIA), pp. 318-325
There are various strategies in which the two dis- Esquivel, G, Weiser, D, Hartl, D and Whitten, D 2013, 'A
tinct approaches can be integrated in one façade Shape Memory-Based Morphing Wall', International
system. The SMAs, for example, can be locally heated Journal of Architectural Computing, 11(3), pp. 347-
362
to their transition temperatures by running a current
Furuya, Y and Shimada, H 1990, Shape Memory Actua-
through the material. This would allow a microcon- tors for Robotic Applications , Engineering Aspects to
troller to take over and drive the kinetic functions. Shape Memory Alloys, Butterworth-Heinemann, 338-
Another approach could be to disengage the me- 345, London, U.K.
chanically based deformer that is essential in an SMA [1] www.hive-systems.com/
assembly. The decoupling mechanism could be con- [2] srfa2013.wordpress.com/
trolled by a microcontroller to completely overwrite
the material-based response.
CONCLUSION
The future adaptable designs will incorporate both
smart material and information technologies, con-
tributing to increased building performance and re-
siliency as well as to aspirations of zero-energy archi-
tecture. As we increasingly embed electronic chips
into the built environment and every aspect of our
daily lives, the question of reliance and of the re-
quired energy sources for these assemblies remains
to be addressed. The shift from purely mechani-
cal and electronic controls--energy hungry--toward

Thinking about sound and space
Recording people's emotional responses to spaces
Dorothea Kalogianni1 , Richard Coyne2

1,2
Edinburgh School of Architecture and Landscape Architecture: The University
of Edinburgh
2
http://richardcoyne.com
1
s1061902@sms.ed.ac.uk 2 richard.coyne@ed.ac.uk
In this paper we explore what EEG techniques teach us about people's responses
to environments. We explain two complementary projects: a sound art
installation in which a performer was rigged up with an EEG device and required
to sit for 30 minutes in a chair. Around him were positioned custom-made
instruments for generating electro-mechanical sounds. A screen behind the
performer showed a dynamic geometrical image that altered according to his
mood state and as picked up by EEG (engagement, meditation, frustration and
excitement), while a sound technologist operated the instruments. We used the
same sound sources for an experiment in which we tested people's responses to
sounds. We discuss the spatial implications of this work.
Keywords: EEG, brain, sound, space
In this paper we explore what EEG techniques EEG is primarily designed for the clinic and the
teach us about people's responses to environments. laboratory, but this emerging technology is being de-
At the eCAADe2012 conference Mavros and Coyne ployed to make game play more responsive, for de-
reported on their study into the implications of EEG tecting people's emotional responses to movies, mu-
for spatial representation (Mavros et. al., 2012). They sic, marketing campaigns and environments, and for
were also able to provide further empirical evidence assisted control of prosthetic devices and comput-
of the benefits of taking respite from busy urban life ers. These new techniques of brain representation
by moving through parkland (Aspinall et al, 2013). In can help designers understand how the behaviours
this paper we'll demonstrate the outcome of a more we observe correspond to brain activity and even to
speculative approach to using EEG in a spatial con- specific regions of the brain (Damasio, 1999). The
text. We connect to the interest surrounding innova- technology is new and poses challenges in terms of
tive technologies for understanding the brain using validation. We have been exploring how best to de-
a mobile electroencephalography (EEG) device for ploy the technology to provide meaningful results in
recording and visualizing some of the key frequen- the context of design.
cies propagated through the human nervous system
in response to emotional stimuli.

MONITORING EMOTIONAL RESPONSE Wearable EEG technology offers physiological in-
Recent developments in neuroimaging technologies put to a computing system (Picard, 1997). Physiologi-
and computational neuroscience offer insights into cal signals carry affective information from which sys-
some of the ways environments impact on brain ac- tems infer the emotional responses of those wearing
tivity (Lengen and Kistemann, 2012). People obvi- the technology (ibid, p.160). One of the first stud-
ously interact with their environments through all ies to monitor emotional responses outdoors using
the senses and through embodied activity, much of mobile EEG technology was conducted at the Uni-
which is perceived as an emotional response to a versity of Edinburgh by Aspinall et al (2012). More
place (Lengen and Kistemann, 2012). Damasio de- specifically, they used a low-cost a mobile EPOC EEG
scribes the physiological processes that are involved headset and a particular application (Emotiv's Affec-
in the generation of an emotional response. Par- tive Suite) that filters and translates raw EEG signals to
ticular regions in the brain communicate with the four variables indicating 4 affective states: engage-
rest of the body altering one's affective states (1999, ment, frustration, meditation and excitement (long-
p.46), a concern of those working in the field of envi- term and short-term). Their findings showed sig-
ronmental psychology (Mehrabian and Russell, 1974, nificant reductions in frustration when walkers tran-
p.3). Physical stimuli have a direct impact on people's sitioned from busy urban environments to green
emotions and an indirect effect on the behaviour of spaces.
that person within that specific environment, induc- The human sensorium is rich and varied. To sim-
ing actions of preference and avoidance (Mehrabian plify our test conditions we wanted our participants
and Russel, 1974, p.6). to have their eyes closed while listening to a reper-
Mehrabian and Russell summarize responses to toire of sounds. Using the auditory sense alone is
the environment in terms of pleasure, arousal, and what Schaeffer (1966) calls "the acousmatic experi-
dominance, and variations on these (Mehrabian and ence." Acousmatic (Chion, 1994, p.11) is a word of
Russell, 1974, p.19). All emotional reactions to any Greek origin that "indicates a noise which is heard
kind of situation are defined in connection with these without the causes from which it originates being
three responsive variables: pleasure, arousal and seen." The acousmatic experience shifts the attention
dominance. They explain that: "the feeling of bore- from any visible or tactile cues in space to hearing
dom or fatigue may be described as one that is low only, without the visual distraction of attending to
on pleasure, arousal and dominance. On the other its source: "Often surprised, often uncertain, we dis-
hand excitement may be characterized as an emo- cover that much of what we thought we were hear-
tional state of high pleasure, arousal and dominance. ing, was in reality only seen, and explained, by the
Anxiety and stress rate high on arousal but low on context" (Schaeffer, 1966 in Kane, 2007, p.17). There
pleasure and dominance. Relaxation, contentment is evidence that using the auditory sense alone in re-
and comfort rate high on pleasure and dominance flective environments is fairly reliable when judging
but low on arousal." (Thayer 1967; 1970, in Mehra- the qualities of a space. The size of the space, the dis-
bian and Russell, 1974, p.83). There is evidence that tance between the listener and the surfaces can be
pleasure, arousal and dominance represent the core estimated due to the reverberation time and the early
of any emotional human response independently of reflection time (Rumsey and McCormick, 2013, p.39).
the type of the environment or the sense stimulated. Researchers have identified the physiological re-
These emotional response variables are also associ- actions that take place when the brain responds to
ated with the physiological response mechanism of sound stimuli. Sound stimuli, which are sudden,
the human body, which again is common under any loud, dissonant, or fast in tempo, cause an auditory
stimulus-modality condition (ibid, p.17). sensation of arousal or unpleasantness (e.g. Berlyne

1971; Burt et al. 1995; Foss et al. 1989; Halpern et al. tive parameters, mapped in a range between 0 and
1986, in Juslin et al., 2008). It seems our perceptual 1 via OSC (open sound control) communication pro-
system is incessantly looking for changes or events tocol. We sent out the OSC messages to a custom ap-
in the environment. Change can be perceived as plication we developed in a visual programming lan-
"sudden or extreme sounds, sounds that change very guage application, Processing. The output (Figure 3)
quickly, or sounds that are the result of strong force" was then manipulated in real-time allowing visualisa-
(Juslin et al., 2008, p.564). These changes evoke high tion on a screen in various formats while the affective
arousal, which then drives the listener to direct their suite parameters were saved in a txt file.
attention to the particular sensory stimuli. It is im-
Figure 1
portant here to note that sensory dissonance implies
Screen capture of
a sense of danger and alarm (Ploog, 1992, in Juslin et
Emotive EEG
al., 2008).
contact points. The
Berlyne (1971 in Juslin et al., 2008) has investi-
diagram indicates
gated properties that induce arousal in music. His
that all sensors are
findings show that listeners prefer stimuli, which pro-
receiving data.
voke optimal levels of arousal. We could then gener-
alize and assume that the same would be expected
from other sounds as well. We should also bear in
mind that what is considered optimal for one listener
need not be the case for another, as it depends on the
specific situation (North & Hargreaves, 1997, in Juslin
et al., 2008), one's personality (McNamara & Ballard,
1999 in Juslin et al., 2008), and personal history.
METHOD OF STUDY
The headset consists of 16 sensors (14 plus 2 refer-
ence points), which record the EEG data from across
a participant's scalp (Figure 1, 2). The research team We created a set of 8 sound sources: 8 electro-
of Emotiv EPOC developed the Emotiv EPOC con- acoustic instruments. One of these was a Tibetan
trol panel, an application that among other suites in- Singing Bowl (Figure 4). It was created from a tra-
cludes the Affectiv Suite, which we used for the pur- ditional record player, a brass bowl, and a wooden
poses of our study. The Emotiv's Affective suite fil- paddle. A stationary microphone supports the pad-
ters and translates raw EEG signals to four variables dle, which then touches the side of the bowl. As the
indicating 4 affective state: excitement (long-term turntable platter rotates, a resonating sound is gen-
and short-term), frustration, engagement and med- erated due to friction. The sound shows continuous
itation. The headset has been successfully validated high frequencies representing the fundamental plus
against a medical grade headset (Badcock et al, 2013, overtones. The sound is characterized by multiple
Aspinall et al, 2012, Debener et al, 2012). transients and by grain. It also has a pulsation but
The USB receiver links the EEG headset to the overall is quite steady. The other sound sources in-
Emotiv EPOC control panel application wirelessly. cluded attachments to a piano soundboard, en elec-
We then recruited another application available from tromagnetic bow, a laser pointer on a turntable, wind
Emotiv EPOC, called Mind your OSCs. The latter sends chimes, a light sensor phasing theremin and a foot
out the affective suite values for each of the affec- operated piece of resonant wood shaped like a fish.

Figure 2
Participants in the
study wearing the
EEG headset.
Figure 3
Raw EEG output
from one of the
participants in our
study

We will describe the EEG performance first, and then The performance: visualising brain activity
the experimental study. The visuals in our installation are linked to the emo-
tional responses of an individual designated as a per-
Figure 4
former. In real-time the performer's emotions evoked
Tibetan Singing
by the aural environment are used and processed in
Bowl
order to generate corresponding visualizations. On
a technical level the EEG affective state parameters
are sent to the application in Processing. Others have
conducted similar research using the Emotiv EPOC
headset to generate experimental art. Prominent is
the work of Fraga et al (2013) from the Instituto de
Matemática e Arte de São Paulo. Fraga et al used the
Emotiv EPOC headset in order to retrieve the affec-
tive values of users so that to manipulate in real-time
Figure 5 arts oriented virtual reality environments. We felt
The hairy sphere that it would be necessary to develop different visual-
representation ization concepts in order to investigate and interpret
(based on Noise whether people can associate with and recognize the
Sphere by David emotions represented.
Pena) For the purpose of this investigation 3 differ-
ent visualization concepts were developed. The first
one employed a more organic approach. A hairy-like
spherical organism continuously rotates in the digital
space (Figure 5). The 4 affective states are expressed
via the different behavior of the hairs of the organism.
These behaviours attempt to imitate the responses of
ciliated protozoa, or other familiar organic forms.
The second concept that we worked on involved
simple geometrical forms, and changes in colour and
size. Once again we attempted to relate these 3 pa-
rameters to expressions of engagement, frustration,
Figure 6 meditation and excitement. For example since ex-
The EEG citement is experienced via a sense of arousal (Thayer
performance: 1967; 1970, in Mehrabian and Russell, 1974, p.83), for
experiencing our visualization we associated excitement with an
excitement (Brain effect which simulates explosion (Figure 6). The fur-
Drain, 2014). ther the boxes explode the higher the values of ex-
citement. Frustration uses a trembling effect (Figure
7). Frustration is often associated with a feeling of irri-
tation (Oxford University Press, 2010). Therefore hav-
ing a shaking geometry on the screen could repre-
sent this feeling.

The experiment: comparing responses to Figure 7
sound The EEG
The experiment involved 16 participants from performance:
amongst a cohort of PhD and design students. Each experiencing
participant followed the same protocol over 4 days, frustration (Brain
each participant was dealt with one after the other. Drain, 2014).
We spent 40 minutes with each participant. There
were three phases to each encounter. Each partici-
pant was given a short questionnaire in which they
were asked to describe in their own words what the 4
affective parameters (engagement, frustration, med-
itation and excitement) meant to them, i.e. what
synonyms come to mind. We noted this in each case.
Finally the third method of representation was Then came the fitting of the headset, and orientating
more numerical. We used a 5 cornered graph, in the participant to the protocol. For the next phase
other words a radar chart (Figure 8), that adjusted the partipant was blindfolded, sitting in a chair in
to the EEG parameters in real-time. This allowed the centre of a sound environment populated by
us a clearer visualization of the data that the audi- the sound sources. The experimenters played each
ence would find easier to interpret. This performance sound in succession for 20 seconds, pausing between
raised the profile of our work, provided a vehicle for each. We video captured the levels of the output pa-
learning about and testing the technology, and pro- rameters from the screen for later analysis. After each
vided material for the next phase of the project: the sound was played we asked each participant which
experiment with several human participants. of the four parameters applied most directly to their
experience while listening to the sound. They were
also free to use their own words to describe how they Figure 8
felt during the sounds' performance. The radar chart
During the analysis stage we visually inspected representation.
all of the visual output data and read off the 4 param-
eter values at a moment 10 seconds into the video.
We selected this moment in the time sequence as
that seemed to be the point at which the EEG effect
was most pronounced. This is a pilot study and we
selected the results from just 6 of the participants
on the basis of the reliability of the recording: the
sounds and the video capture were most accurately
synchronised.

Figure 9 The results are shown in figure 9. We averaged
Average values of the results from each of the participants for each of
the 4 affective the sound sources. There was a fair degree of agree-
parameters for ment on the EEG parameters. We have subjected the
every sound object. data to various tests, including a One Sample Wilkin-
son Signed Test. We also presented the 8 graphs to a
set of people to see if they could match the sounds
to the graphs, including a random set. The results
of these confirmation tests are inconclusive. The ex-
periment described by Aspinall et. al. employed a
form of high dimensional correlated component re-
gression analysis with M-fold cross-validation. This
is excellent at detecting significant patterns in such
data, and represents further work for our project.
A questionnaire completed by the audience
members at the end of the performance indicated
that most thought the mood of the sounds matched
the EEG responses as displayed on the screen and
most were moderately convinced we were able to
display people's actual emotions using EEG.
The descriptors
Loud sounds, sounds generated suddenly, and
sounds that have rapid temporal characteristics and
rapid change patterns produce higher levels of
arousal or feelings of unpleasentness in the listener
(Berlyne 1971; Burt et al. 1995; Foss et al. 1989;
Halpern et al. 1986 in Juslin et al., 2008). Low and
high pitched sounds raise arousal more readily than
sounds that are in the mid frequency range. Other
aspects of the stimuli such as novelty, surprise, com-
plexity, ambiquity and "puzzlingness" also influence
arousal levels (Berlyne, 1971, p.69).
We infer from our table that sounds of different
qualities induce different emotions. The sounds gen-
erated from the piano soundboard and the singing
bowl show low levels of engagement. We carried
out a spectral analysis of these sounds, which indi-
cated that they have either a full or a middle range
frequency spectrum. These sounds also exhibit slow
rhythmic characteristics and soft dynamics. At the
same time the sounds generated from the lazer mic
set up, the wind chimes, the light sensor and the

wooden fish, demonstrate high levels of excitement. as well as their emotional responses (Mehrabian and
These sounds have short attacks and releases, so they Russell,1974, p.8). The three physiological variables
invoke an element of surprise. They have a moder- (pleasure, arousal and dominance) at the core of all
ate or fast temporal pattern. They also show rapid the emotional responses, determine two main sets of
changes in frequency or loudness and some of them behavior in space: behaviours of approach (locomo-
show high frequencies. tion towards the stimulus) and behaviours of avoid-
Russell has demonstrated that physiological re- ance (Berlyne 1971, p.78). As Mehrab and Russell
sponses of arousal, pleasure and dominance corre- explain these behaviors refer to "physical approach,
late with people's verbal reports. Our experiments work performance, exploration, and social interac-
concur with these findings. Here are some of the de- tion" (Mehrabian and Russell,1974, p.8). Therefore,
scriptors offered by our participants for each of the such behaviours also have spatial implications.
sounds. Dominance and submissiveness relate to spa-
Sound 1: "Engagement," "Meditation", "Medita- tial concepts such as territoriality. Territoriality ex-
tion, also he knows this sound and it reminds him of presses the level of freedom for action in an envi-
Hollywood movies where people meditate (funny)" ronment (Mehrabian and Russell,1974, p.19). An-
Sound 2: "Meditation", "Close to meditation", thropologist Edward T. Hall introduced the theory
"Meditating", " "Sleepy" of proxemics to explain people's territoriality. He
Sound 3: "Frustration", "Tense, alert, frustration", distinguishes among three categories within prox-
"Surprise at the beginning and then boredom", "Gun- emics one of which, the pre-cultural, relates to physi-
shots, fear, frustration", "Annoying" ological responses (1969, p.95). Human beings, like
Sound 4: "Frustrated", "Boat about to depart, other animals, have a territorial response to space
nostalgic, meditation" through which they establish distances from one an-
Sound 5: "Isolation (feeling away from reality)", other (ibid, p.107). Hall (1969, p.108) added that peo-
"Calm," "Very relaxing," "Relaxing/meditation", "Child- ple are able to sense and perceive distance in a dy-
hood, nostalgic, old toy, meditation" namic way. According to him, people distinguish
Sound 6: " "Caught her interest", "Interesting, but four types of distance: intimate, personal, social and
a bit annoying, he is trying to hear the piano also at public.
the same time", "Death! Beethoven, frustration", "Ex- Pleasant environments are known to induce bet-
citement, makes you wake up and focus" ter conditions for social interaction, while hostile en-
Sound 7: "Frustration at the beginning, then nor- vironments on the other hand produce negative feel-
mal in general the frequency is annoying", "Frustra- ings. In general, environments with high arousal at-
tion and boredom", 'Very annoying" "A lamp that tract higher levels of human activity. This is also
doesn't work properly in a hospital, fear, frustration", seen in buildings. Depending on the environment,
"Something dominating" people choose to be in some parts of the building
Sound 8: "Claustrophobic, compressment", while avoiding other parts (Mehrabian and Russell,
"Stimulating / close to excitement", "Stimulating", 1974). People tend to seek for situations and stimuli
"Annoying but very anxious of how they produce that generate higher arousal levels (Mehrabian and
it, where it comes from", "Something pushing and Russell,1974, p.104). They also prefer environments
rushing you, annoying you" that induce relatively complex stimuli or moderately
novel ones (Mehrabian and Russell,1974, p.106).
DISCUSSION Studies into emotion build on evidence that is
Environmental psychologists affirm that environ- sometimes difficult to capture and verify. Do re-
mental stimuli affect the users' behavioural patterns, searchers just see what they want to see? Confirma-

tion bias refers in research to only seeing or selecting the relationship between brain research and ar-
ing evidence that fits a hypothesis or a belief (Nicker- chitecture. In our study we focussed on sound, but
son, 1998). It is common for people to want to main- there are implications for the whole sensorium and
tain beliefs that they have adopted, and this consti- people's perceptions of space.
tutes a form of bias. In particular, people choose pos-
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braindrain2014/category/video/

Composing musical geometry with sonic objects
José Luis Menegotto
Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro
jlmenegotto@poli.ufrj.br
This article relates an experiment linking two types of forms: geometric forms
generated from algorithms by mathematical functions and sonic forms generated
from algorithms and linked to the first. In order to formalize a graphical and
musical object called "sonic object", were used the following tools: the
environment of a graphic program, the C# language and the Midi-dot-Net
musical library. Diverse equations are used to generate the geometric shapes
which generate periodical, cyclical and circular movements. Other equations
used in the experiment are formulas adapted from the Edward Lorenz's Strange
Attractor. Current research into the problem of the generation of patterns of
movement, such as that of Jules Moloney, and research which deals with
algorithms which generate shapes, such as that of Robert Krawczyk, have been
taken as references and parameters for comparison for this work..
Keywords: Sonic Mandalas, Morphogenesis, Midi-dot-NET
INTRODUCTION sonic forms generated from algorithms and linked

The generation of geometric shapes using math- to the first. Diverse equations are used to gener-
ematical functions in algorithmic processes has ate the geometric shapes which generate periodical,
opened up a world of shape possibilities which seem cyclical and circular movements. Other equations
to have no end. On executing the algorithms the used in the experiment are formulas adapted from
computer produces a world full of spatial configu- the Strange Attractors by Edward Lorenz (Krawczyk
rations which express the variables, parameters and 2003). To these graphic organizations, which belong
formulas used. The images of trajectories, twists, to the spatial domain the stimulus of which reaches
loops, curves, inflections, spirals and spatial group- us immediately by means of the eyes, were associ-
ings which emerge from the generating process suc- ated the sonic events, which have audition as the par-
ceed in reminding one that beauty, order and sym- ticular channel of perception, temporal succession as
metry are intimately related. It is impossible not the development domain and movement as the fac-
to be moved when observing the images of the tor of composition. The complete perception of the
Shell, produced by Robert Krawczyk from the equa- compositions generated combines both channels of
tions derived from the Lorenz Attractors (Sherbini perception. In this way the intention is to explore the
and Krawczyk 2004). relationship between geometry and music. The work
The current work relates an experiment link- intends to contribute to the field of contemporary ar-
ing two types of forms: geometric forms gener- chitectonic projects with compositional elements of
ated from algorithms by mathematical functions and which the basis of expression is movement, interac-

tion and the confluence of the senses. Classic exam- 3. Capture and translation of the numerical co-
ples of this line of investigation are interactive mo- ordinates of the model to musical coordinates
bile surfaces. One project on these surfaces which with the Compo-Music syntax. For example
is currently at an advanced stage and widely known (:C4 :8th :dyn 20) represented the note Mid-
is the interactive panel project called Aegis Hyposur- dle C with the duration of an eighth and a dy-
face (Burry and Burry 2010). Mark Goulthorpe and namic of intensity Pianno.
the dECOi design practice created this installation for
the city of Birmingham's hippodrome. Goulthorpe 4. Creation of a LISP file with the sequence of
characterized Aegis as an 'alloplastic' spatial solution, translated coordinates
in other words, subject to reciprocal reactive trans- 5. Reading of the LISP file in the interface of the
formations between the environment and man, in Compo-Music to generate the MIDI file or the
contrast to solutions which create autoplastic spaces score.
(3). In the same line, the Dutch research group Hy-
perbody Research Group has been working on the Following the formalization of this space-sound
materialization of interactive walls in which strategi- translation mechanism, various sonic results were
cally placed sensors connected to actuating mecha- obtained which were called "pseudo-music" or orga-
nisms produce movements which give shape to the nized sounds. In spite of the fact that musical theo-
surfaces, providing architecture with new dynamic rists and morphologists consider music to be a ma-
elements to add to the formal repertoire. Current re- terialized shape for sounds organized according to
search into the problem of the generation of patterns specific rules, two reasons led us to add the prefix
of movement, such as that of Jules Moloney, and re- "pseudo" to express the sonic results obtained. In
search which deals with algorithms which generate the first place, the creation of the work began from
shapes, such as that of Robert Krawczyk, have been a starting point of minimum knowledge in terms of
taken as references and parameters for comparison mastery of the techniques involved in the reading of
for this work. music, its interpretation and composition. The sec-
ond reason is connected to the fact that the sonic re-
THE FIRST TECHNIQUE. THE MUSICAL BOX sults have been obtained as a consequence of a pro-
In previous years, work was carried out on the idea of cess which was not completely the result of human
translating numerical spatial coordinates into sound intention, as the control was, in a certain way, shared
events defined as musical notes. To this end a mecha- between the order given by the algorithms and the
nism was programmed which translated spatial coor- arbitrary choices of the translation criteria. In terms
dinates of geometric elements into musical sounds. of intentionality, it dealt with a process of generation
The mechanism, which was programmed in AutoLISP which was almost random. It was more of a search in
within the graphic environment AutoCAD, formed an the dark regulated by some ordering elements than
interface with the Compo-Music musical functions li- the result of decisions consciously taken by a cre-
brary. Using this connection, the Musical Box was ative will which theoretically imagines, writes and in-
conceived as a geometric-musical translation pro- terprets melodies, harmonies and counterpoints. In
cess. The Musical Box technique involves the follow- other words, the results are not due to a subject's cre-
ing steps: ative desire. At the time, an experiment of compar-
ative perception (geometry/pseudo-music) was car-
1. Creation of a 3D model in AutoCAD ried out by interviewing various groups of people.
The interviewees had to answer a questionnaire dur-
2. Graduation of the Cartesian axes with musical ing a session in which they were exposed to the im-
attributes (heights, durations and dynamics). ages of three states of the same geometric shape

(original, averagely deformed and highly deformed) discovering and providing a geometric explanation
while simultaneously the audio obtained from these for music nor finding an exclusive musical or sound
different geometric states was played. Identical mu- impromptu which characterizes each geometric con-
sical parameters (scales, tempos, instruments, etc.) figuration. Attention is focused on the imprecision of
were used to translate the three geometric states. movement as an element of expression and gestural
It was observed that using the translation method development.
programmed in the musical box, the aesthetic state
or the deformations applied to the geometric order- THE SECOND TECHNIQUE. THE SONIC OB-
ing of the raw material translated were irrelevant fac-
JECT.
tors for the formation of the identity of the sonic re-
On this occasion, sonic objects were programmed for
sults. This observation was based on the statistical
the AutoCAD graphic environment in the C Sharp lan-
counting of the responses given by the interviewees,
guage on the platform .NET using the library of mu-
who evaluated what they were seeing and hearing.
sical functions Midi-dot-Net. The first sonic object
The statistics led to the interpretation that the pre-
programmed is a circumference: a two-dimensional
vailing factor for the formation of the sonic identity
shape with a centre and radius. The first of these
of the translations was the combination of the pro-
properties was represented by a numerical pair of co-
grammed mechanism with the series of musical pa-
ordinates X and Y. The second property is a numeri-
rameters used. According to the concepts of Iannis
cal value which defines the size of the sonic object.
Xenakis (1992), one can say that this factor belongs
The circumference was filled with hatch which gave
to the domain "outside-time" and, from the results
the sonic object two more properties: colour and
of the experiment, one can also aggregate outside-
transparency, both represented by numerical values.
space, as the geometric order derived from and gov-
For colour, three channels from the band between
erned by spatial symmetries had a secondary or irrel-
0 and 255 were adopted. Each channel represents
evant role in the formation of the sonic result. It can
one of three channels of colours: Red, Green and
be concluded then that the correlation geometry-
Blue, or RGB. The transparency is represented by a
pseudo-music was weak or non-existent (Menegotto
numerical value between 0 and 100. The class of
2009).
the sonic element is complemented with properties
Therefore, coinciding with the observations of
which represent three musical attributes present in
the philosopher Roger Scruton, we recognized the
the library of musical functions Midi-dot-Net: Out-
difficulty in establishing equivalences between musi-
putDevice, Channel and Instrument. In this study,
cal movement and spatial movement. The first is un-
the other musical attributes, such as the pitch class,
derstood as the perception of the passage between
eighth, duration and dynamic, do not belong to the
the notes of a melody and the second understood as
sonic object, although this is responsible for execut-
movement in physical space. As Scruton has said it
ing them using its spatial position as the parame-
is a phenomenological truth that music moves but it
ter defining the note. The definition of the two-
is a truth that this does not correspond to a physical
dimensional sonic object was enlarged to permit it
reality (Scruton 1979). However, these observations
to evolve in three-dimensional space. It was trans-
do not impede one from continuing to experiment
formed into a sphere with the possibility of being po-
with new approaches to composition involving both
sitioned in any point of the space with the coordi-
geometry and musical sound. The programming of
nates X, Y and Z. Colour, transparency and musical
other interfaces, such as the sonic object proposed
attributes remain the same for the two-dimensional
here, intends to continue the work, while making it
and three-dimensional object. In the architecture of
clear that the new experiments do not point towards
the programmed system, the sonic object class in-

herited the properties and methods of a class called public byte ColorG {get {return corG
Basicas. This class contains specific functions for the ,→ ;} set { corG = value ;}}
graphic manipulation of the geometric elements in public byte ColorB {get {return corB
AutoCAD. The methods of the class perform diverse ,→ ;} set { corB = value ;}}
public OutputDevice MidiDev {get {
tasks, among which can be cited: requesting the in-
,→ return midd ;} set {midd = value
put of the numerical values; manipulating the geo-
,→ ;}}
metric elements in the database of the graphic file; public Instrument Instrumento {get {
changing the property of the colour, transparency ,→ return instrumento ;} set {
and spatial location of the object. ,→ instrumento = value ;}}
public class Sonicos : Basicas
public Channel Canal {get {return
{
,→ canal ;} set {canal = value ;}}
private Point3d cent;
public List <Channel > Canales {get {
private double raio;
,→ return canales ;} set {canales =
private double x;
,→ value ;}}
private double y;
public List <Instrument > Orquesta {
private double z;
,→ get {return orquesta ;} set {
private double t;
,→ orquesta = value ;}}
private int osti;
public List <DBObject > Identificador
,→ {get {return iden ;} set {iden =
private byte corR;
,→ value ;}}
private byte corG;
private byte corB;
public Sonicos(int m, Channel canal ,
private List <DBObject > iden;
,→ Instrument instru , Point3d p,
private OutputDevice midd;
double r, byte corR , byte corG , byte
private Channel canal;
,→ corB , int ostinato)
private Instrument instrumento;
{
private List <Instrument > orquesta;
MidiDev = OutputDevice.
private List <Channel > canales;
,→ InstalledDevices [m];
Canal = canal;
public double X {get {return x;} set
Instrumento = instru;
,→ {x = value ;}}
Centro = p;
public double Y {get {return y;} set
Raio = r;
,→ {y = value ;}}
ColorR = corR;
public double Z {get {return z;} set
ColorG = corG;
,→ {z = value ;}}
ColorB = corB;
public double T {get {return t;} set
Osti = ostinato;
,→ {t = value ;}}
Identificador = Cria_Sonicos(
,→ Centro , Raio , ColorR , ColorG ,
public Point3d Centro {get {return
,→ ColorB , Osti);
,→ cent ;} set{cent = value ;}}
}.....
public double Raio {get {return raio
,→ ;} set{raio = value ;}}
public int Osti {get {return osti ;}
,→ set{osti = value ;}} The sonic cloud
The sonic cloud (figure 1) is formed by the succes-
public byte ColorR {get {return corR sive appearance of a graphic unit composed of two-
,→ ;} set { corR = value ;}} dimensional sonic objects, positioned in a curved or-

Figure 1
Two moments of
the sonic cloud
dering which turns and moves in a linear fashion repetition. In order to define the quality of each note
in the horizontal and vertical directions. The values of the sound theme, the musical scales are used alter-
of the translation vector and the angles of rotation nately in the following order: chromatic, major, mi-
are stipulated randomly. All of the numerical ad- nor, pentatonic, scales of odd and even whole tones.
justments of the movements of translation and ro- The composition presented here did not make use
tation, as well as the definition of the parameters of of any specific rules from the tonal system or from
colour and transparency which each group of sonic the twelve-tone technique method. The duration is
objects acquires, form part of the aesthetic process randomly defined in a list of tempos which are trans-
of artistic choice of the final composition. The group- formed in milliseconds before being passed to the
ing of the sonic objects is ordered in circles of in- object which administers the duration of Threads of
creasing radius. The modes defining the evolution the system. The instruments chosen for the compo-
of the visual and sonic shapes which participate in sitions are also randomly defined within the set of
the compositions is an aspect of the process which is traditional MIDI instruments. In general, a subjec-
subject to continuous changes, being a key moment tive evaluation produced better auditory results for
of aesthetic choice. In the cloud study, the evolu- percussion instruments than for instruments whose
tion of the sonic phenomenon and the graphic phe- flow of sound is continuous, such as the string in-
nomenon is not synchronised although they share struments and wind instruments. This subjective ap-
the same temporal space. On hearing the result preciation led to the decision to use the piano, vi-
it can be clearly noted that there are moments in braphone, glockenspiel and other percussion instru-
which the graphic elements, evolving in an increas- ments. An observation of the configuration of a sonic
ing and continuous movement, lose the accompany- cloud shows that while visual evidence of formal ge-
ing sounds. These sound pauses were not intention- ometric ordering exists it is difficult to find. There
ally placed silences in the composition. The silent im- is the impression of a chaotic ordering which is not
age on the paper does not manage to express the governed by any rule. The greater density of red and
composition completely. It expresses only one part grey colours visible in the centre of the composition
of the composition sought. The unified and com- is perhaps the only visual evidence which manages,
plete result of the image and sound can be seen in a certain way, to suggest the presence of the reg-
at: https:sites.google.com/a/poli.ufrj.br/dc_menegotto ularity of the generating movement. In the auditory
In this exercise the sonic shape of the composition sphere, the cyclical repetition of the sonic theme can
is defined by uniform temporal segments which ex- reinforce the perception of the existence of an order
press the same cyclically repeated sound theme, al- which controls the generation. Nevertheless, the ob-
ternating the musical scales in each segment of the servation of the visual and sonic evidence requires at-

tention or the perception of the clues develops at dif- the qualities of the notes were defined in the follow-
ferent moments. ing way:
1. Abscissa X establishes the measurement of
Sonic Mandalas
pulsation and a value of the dynamic
The series of studies presented next differs from the
studies carried out with the clouds. Observing these 2. Ordinate Y defines the pitch class and a tonic
examples provides the certainty that there is a law note used as an initial reference, although
of movement. Configurations of this type, such as tonal system modulation rules are not applied
Crova's Disk and Naylor's PI Flowers were explored
by Krawczyk (1). Figure 2 presents the first three- 3. Height Z is translated to a value of an eighth
dimensional composition studied for this work which defining the tone of the note
responds to the following cyclical formula Figure 3 presents other 3D composition studied
public Point3d Circular(double x, which responds to the following formula
,→ double y, double z, double radio , public Point3d Lorenz_A(double x,
,→ double ang) ,→ double y, double z, double dis ,
{ double ang , double r, double s, double
double seno = System.Math.Sin(ang); ,→ b, double t)
double cose = System.Math.Cos(ang); {
double x1 = x + raio * cose; Lorenz lor = new Lorenz ();
double y1 = y + raio * seno; double seno = System.Math.Sin(ang);
return new Point3d(x1 , y1 , z); double cose = System.Math.Cos(ang);
} Point3d po = new Point3d (0.0, 0.0,
In order to form the Mandala the angle is incre- ,→ 0.0);
double xa = po.X + dis * cose;
mented at each cycle. The construction process of
double ya = po.Y + dis * seno;
the formal composition and its corresponding sonic double za = po.Z + dis * seno;
translation is initiated by the launching of sonic ob- double x1 = xa + lor.Calcula_dx(xa ,
jects to the space R3. Immediately, the algorithm ,→ ya , za , t, r, s, b);
makes a reading of the position X,Y,Z of each cen- double y1 = ya + lor.Calcula_dy(xa ,
tre and play a synchronized sound obtained by the ,→ ya , za , t, r, s, b);
translation of these numerical values to the qualities double z1 = za + lor.Calcula_dz(xa ,
of the pitch of the musical note. As the sonic objects ,→ ya , za , t, r, s, b);
are temporarily stored in a list, the sequential order return new Point3d(x1 , y1 , z1);
}
of which corresponds to the moment of generation,
the sequencing of the reading becomes an element In order to carry out the numerical translation mod-
which permits aesthetic choice and selection. The list ular congruents are applied in accordance with the
of points can be read sequentially n, n+1, n+2..., or necessary quantities for each case. For example, in
by producing some type of alternation or specially order to find the pitch class in the chromatic scale
programmed jump which will have an influence on was used 12 as modulus of congruence. To produce
the sonic result of the composition. In figure 2, two and distribute modular ostinatos, which maintain a
moments of the formal geometric and sonic evolu- constant pitch of the note, the modulus of congru-
tion are presented. During the translation process, ence must be 1. The Mandalas can be processed in
the transparency of the sonic object is connected to between 1 to 5 stages. Stages 2 to 5 reproduce the
the values of the dynamics. The translation criterion movement of stage 1 with some pre-programmed
of the centre coordinate is arbitrary. For these studies dislocation. The example of figure 4 shows a Mandala

Figure 2
Two moments of
the graphical and
sound evolution in
a circular Mandala
(1000 sonic objects)
Figure 3
Strange Attractor
Mandala (1000
sonic objects)

of circular movement in 5 stages in which each stage ods of exploration between the two forms of com-
is directed to a quadrant of the Cartesian system and position, whose raw materials and development do-
dimensioned with a factor of specific scale. mains are different: architecture/music, geometry/-
sound, space/time. In this way, we agree with the
observation by Steve Holl for whom the problem of Figure 4
comparison between architecture and music is: The Circular Mandala in
question would not simply be "how to compare?" but 5 stages (1000 sonic
what unmarked routes to investigate and what exper- objects)
iments to perform (Holl 1994).
The experiments with musical geometry permit
us to combine compositional procedures as well as
to accumulate observations with the aim of detect-
ing possible kinetic and sensorial relations. The de-
sign of the experiments faces us with the dilemma of
whether to focus our attention on the rigorous ob-
servation of the events or on the aesthetic decision
on the artistic configuration. We have mentioned the
difficulty in relating the physical movement to the
musical movement. This difficulty is observed, for ex-
ample, when trying to define the direction of a sim-
ple translation in musical terms. In spite of there not
being physically equivalent movements, it is difficult
to deny that music, in the same way as architecture,
has the capacity to stimulate and guide motor im-
CONCLUSIONS pulses. It is strictly in this sense that one seeks to ex-
The expectation of discovering a kind of invariable plore the movement understood as impulse or ges-
musical impromptu (outside-space) in the geomet- tural development. In the comparative observations
ric configurations had been discarded during the ex- between the geometric shape and its sonic evolu-
periments with the musical box. Since then, we have tion it is possible to note certain gestural or percep-
sought methodological pathways which permit bet- tive equivalence, especially in the examples with very
ter understanding of how to deal with the relation- characteristic geometric configurations as presented
ship between movement derived from the geomet- in the examples. However, this equivalence seems to
ric shape and movement derived from the musical be so subtle that we can understand it using the y-
form. The questions which arise are related to the Condition concept which Elizabeth Martin suggested
modes of modelling regularities and formal dynamic on the connection between architecture and music.
characteristics. In view of the current stage of devel- The y-Condition notion refers to the subtle phonetic
opments in kinetic architecture, it is believed that it transition between the letter i and the letter e in the
is important to understand how to order, relate and word "quiet" (Martin 1994). With the construction of
maintain some control between the dynamic archi- the mandalas formed by sonic objects we took up
tectonic elements and the musical events. Stating once more the research begun with the musical box.
that the objective was not to provide a geometric ex- Experimenting with the mandalas gave us the oppor-
planation for music does not mean abandoning the tunity to update the programmed system and com-
scientific treatment of the question, merely a change pare the results obtained with both methods. One of
of focus towards the problem opting for freer meth-

the advantages found with the programming tools Edition, New York
used in the studies presented, in which the C Sharp [1] http://mypages.iit.edu/˜krawczyk/rjkbrdg05.pdf
language and the Midi-dot-Net library were used, in- [2] https://sites.google.com/a/poli.ufrj.br/dc_mene-
gotto
stead of the AutoLISP language associated with the
[3] http://www.generativeart.com/on/cic/99/2999.htm
Compo-Music library, was the possibility to carry out
the sonic translations directly synchronised with the
graphic elements within the modelling environment.
This integration in the unified environment permits
geometric and sonic experimentation at the exact
moment of the conception of the project. It is be-
lieved that this possibility of integration, in addition
to benefitting the observations, permits an increase
in the range of questions. We hope that these ben-
efits can be transferred to the architectural project,
both in its aesthetic aspect, as well as being incorpo-
rated into aspects which relate to its functionality and
the sonic qualification of the space.
REFERENCES
Burry, Jane and Mark, BUR 2010, The new mathematics of
architecture, Thames & Hudson, London
Holl, Steven, HOL 1994, 'Stretto House', in Elizabeth Mar-
tin, EM (eds) 1994, Architecture as a translation of
music. Pamphlet n°16, Princeton Architectural Press,
New York
Krawczyk, Robert J., KRA 2003, 'Dimension of Time in
Strange Attractors', ISAMA/Bridges 2003 Conference,
Mathematical Connections in Art, Music, and Science,
Granada University, Spain
Martin, Elizabeth, MAR 1994, 'y-Condition', in Elizabeth
Martin, EM (eds) 1994, Architecture as a translation of
music. Pamphlet n°16, Princeton Architectural Press,
New York
Menegotto, José Luis, MEN 2009, A caixa de música. Con-
traponto formal entre a arquitetura e a música, Ph.D.
Thesis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, UFRJ
Moloney, Jules, MOL 2009, Designing kinetics for Archi-
tectural Facades: State Change, Routledge, London,
New York
Scruton, Roger, SCR 1979, Estética da arquitetura, Martins
Fontes, São Paulo
Sherbini, Khaled, Krawczyk, Robert J., SHE 2004
'Overview of Intelligent Architecture', Proceedings
of 1° ASCAAD International Conference, e-Design in
Architecture, KFUPM, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Xenakis, Iannis, XEN 1992, Formalized Music. Thought
and Mathematics in Composition, Pendragon Rev.

Collaboration and Participation
System for customer participation in the design process of
mass-customized houses
Krystian Kwieciński1 , Jan Słyk2
1,2
Warsaw University of Technology, Faculty of Architecture, Poland
1,2
{krystian.kwiecinski|jan.slyk}@arch.pw.edu.pl
The paper presents an undergoing research that aims at developing a system,

which will allow customer participation in a design of mass-customized houses.
The system will allow customers to self-configure a house in a preferred way in
relation to the site where it is going to be constructed and with a respect to the
prescribed architectural rules. Introducing customer participation in the design
process of mass-customized houses allows users to find out individual design
goals transforming the design process from being ill-defined into goal-oriented.
The proposed system for customer participation could become feasible
alternative to the traditional process of provisioning affordable houses improving
the living quality in these market areas where architectural knowledge is
unaffordable and missing.
Keywords: Housing delivery process, mass customization, customer

participation
INTRODUCTION From the 1920s, architects tried to apply mass

Housing architecture as a design discipline, shaping production ideas to solve the housing problems. The
human habitation, traditionally emerges as a result Törten housing development by Walter Gropius, Le
of close almost intimate cooperation of architect and Corbusier's Domino Houses at Pessac or Frank Lloyd
client. Starting from the Renaissance time, when the Wright's Usonian houses are examples of the designs
housing architecture emancipated and a convenient of affordable mass housing, which are using indus-
life became appreciated, architecture of human habi- trialization to lower the building costs (Duarte 2005).
tation began to be designed in a manner dependent Repercussions of those ideas are still visible today.
on the wishes of the owner (Słyk 2012). Moreover, the The evolution of housing architecture, influenced by
invention of perspective drawing allowed to present, mass production, resulted in the development of de-
evaluate and modify the design at the initial stage in sign processes, in which the end user has minor influ-
order to meet customers' needs. Until the 19th cen- ence on the design of the space he is purchasing and
tury, houses were designed individually in an itera- will be living in.
tive process fulfilling all demands of the clients. The The emergence of the society of knowledge,
beginning of the 20th century brought an increase in composed of prosumers can relink housing architec-
urbanization and industrialization which both had an ture to real inhabitants expectations. In order to in-
important impact on the design process. corporate customers' needs in a design process of
Collaboration and Participation - Volume 2 - eCAADe 32 | 207

mass housing new selling strategies have to be im- cades in relation to it. Therefore it was proved that it
plemented. One of such strategies, gaining nowa- is possible to automatically generate designs in cer-
days a lot of popularity in consumer goods market, tain historical style and gave a base for developing
is mass-customization, which allows to individually computer systems for newly invented architectural
customize products before they are industrially pro- designs.
duced. In order to adopt mass-customization strat- Idea of developing computer system for gen-
egy in housing, traditional design processes have to erating architectural designs was further developed
evolve allowing customer participation on a massive by Duarte (2001, 2005) who proved that it is pos-
scale. With help may come development of new sible to encode together with architect his design
computer systems allowing consumers to participate rules and translate them into computer program
in the design of their houses without individual sup- that eventually would allow generating designs in
port of the architect, just by fulfilling prescribed ar- his style. Description grammars and shape gram-
chitectural rules. mars were utilized for encoding intuitive set of rules
of Alvaro Siza's design system for patio houses at
BACKGROUND Malagueira. Integrated System developed by Benros
and Duarte (2009) permitted mass production of cus-
Design systems in housing
tomized housing based on Kingspan's building sys-
From decades architects have been inventing design
tem. For this purpose the ABC design system, in-
rules used in their practice. These rules are based on
vented by the Spanish architect Manuel Gausa, was
architects' professional knowledge and experience.
encoded into the computer program with a use of
Unfortunately most of them passed away together
parametric design. The system was designed to assist
with their creators. Hersey (1992) noticed that the
architects in the conception of dwellings and in the
idea that a recipe or algorithm can generate plans,
production of the corresponding construction doc-
facades, and designs for entire buildings goes back
uments but it also produced the framework for the
at least to the Roman architectural writer Vitruvius.
mass customization of housing.
According to Słyk (2012) algorithmic methodology
Research of Merrell, Schkufza and Koltun (2010)
existed in intellectual sphere ready to be effectively
showed that it is technically possible to develop soft-
consumed by the computer. It had to be just trans-
ware that would not only automate generation of
formed into computer language. Automatic gener-
new houses but could partly learn from architect's
ation of houses started to be explored in the archi-
works. Implemented method analyses architectural
tectural field already in the 70's with the advances in
programs from catalogues of residential layouts and
the computer science and emerging opportunities in
utilizes collected information to generate new archi-
computation.
tectural layouts in relation to desirable house require-
Early works in that field tried to prove that it
ments. Moreover, the external appearance of the
is possible to generate designs in certain historical
buildings emerges out of generated layouts, and can
style. The first attempts of automation of the de-
be customized in a variety of decorative styles spec-
sign process were shape grammars invented by Stiny
ified in a template, listing the geometric and mate-
and Gips (1971), which were later on utilized to de-
rial properties of every building element. This build-
scribe and analyse the style of Palladio (Stiny and
ing layout procedure was invented for the purpose of
Mitchell 1978). The idea of shape grammars explain-
computer graphics applications and therefore it was
ing the style of Palladian villas was further developed
idealized and does not take into account the myr-
by Hersey and Freedman (1992), who developed soft-
iad of site-specific and client-specific factors that are
ware called Possible Palladian Villas: The Program,
considered by architects. In a real world architectural
which generated not only building plans but also fa-
208 | eCAADe 32 - Collaboration and Participation - Volume 2

practice, house design processes are also affected by in creating mass customization system that would al-
the conditions related to the specific plot where the low customers to personalize their house in relation
building is going to be placed and client's personality to the site where it is going to be constructed.
and his individual needs.
Collected examples showed that inventing de- METHODOLOGY
sign rules and employing them in architectural prac-
Conceptual framework
tice is rooted in architectural design tradition. Nowa-
In order to offer designs that are adapted to the pref-
days architects supported by computer design sys-
erences of customers, they have to be involved in the
tems can encode their design rules both to explic-
design process (Niemeijer et al. 2010). To achieve the
itly record them and automatically generate possi-
goal of customer participation in the design process
ble outcomes. Such techniques might allow cus-
of mass-customized houses in relation to site condi-
tomer participation in the design process of mass-
tions, the system must accommodate two sources of
customized houses but invented systems have to be
input information: customers' requirements and in-
designed allowing for high level of customization of
formation about chosen site prescribed in national
the designs both by the users and in relation to the
GIS databases. Design of single-family house is a
chosen site localization.
complex task, which may be approached in many dif-
ferent ways depending on the typology of the house,
Problem statement user profile, localization of the site, and specific ar-
The majority of single family houses build in Poland
chitectural design strategies. Therefore based on col-
are not individually designed by architects, but are
lected initial information system should be able to
built based on the documentation from the cata-
provide different house types that could be later on
logues of typical houses. Such architecture gained
customized. Different mass-customized house types
popularity, mostly due to low prices of purchase, de-
should be developed independently based on indi-
spite the fact that often they do not suit local con-
vidual architect's design ideas. Additionally every
ditions of the plot or needs of future inhabitants.
house type should be supplemented with evalua-
Although evolution of pattern books into Internet
tion procedures that could help customers make fur-
web services with build-in advanced search tools
ther customization of every house typology. Those
can speed up the process of browsing through de-
evaluation processes would allow customers to learn
sign proposals, it does not guarantee user satisfac-
about architectural values of the customized house,
tion connected with finding desired design. To meet
optimize the design for its performance and verify
users' needs such websites are increasing number
its cost with estimated investment budget. Finally,
of available search criteria at the same time mas-
the system should be able to generate building doc-
sively developing various design solutions to cover
umentation prepared for manufacturing and assem-
all the possible solutions with predesigned alterna-
bly of the customized house.
tives. However those predesigned houses do not re-
This research is focused on investigating cus-
spond to specific site conditions related with the plot
tomer participation in one chosen building typology.
where they are going to be constructed and they of-
For that purpose, one of the most popular typologies
fer small level of flexibility for accommodating dif-
of an affordable, single-family houses built in Poland
ferent users' needs. Therefore the main motivation
was chosen. Those types of houses are character-
for this research is to investigate alternative method
ized by being one or two storey buildings, preferably
to offer customers affordable house designs, which
with gable roof, which corresponds to Polish rough
would be better adapted to their preferences and dif-
climate conditions and with integrated garage for ei-
ferent site conditions. Such alternative can be found
ther one or two cars. Hence the design system was

Figure 1
Existing models and
proposed model
created in a way that it produces competitive out- The ready-made documentation, despite being
comes, meeting similar esthetical expectations, but a compromise on the needs of investors, is chosen
at the same time improving adjustment of the design by many because of its price and possibility to see
to meet site conditions and individual user require- the visualizations and documentation at hand. Such
ments. method besides being relatively cheap is being fre-
quently chosen because it allows seeing the prod-
Existing models and proposed model uct before it is being sold. To meet different users'
Currently customers who wish to purchase building needs publishers are developing various designs to
documentation of a house face a dilemma whether cover all the possible solutions with predesigned al-
to have it designed by the architect or buy ready- ternatives. As a result customers find it difficult to
made construction documentation (refer to figure 1). choose the "perfect" house from numerous of types
Traditional process of acquisition of a house design presented in catalogues. They quickly tend to get lost
by direct cooperation with the architect is based on in the vast amount of possibilities and find it difficult
the thorough analysis of user's needs and specific to choose the solution that would fit all their needs.
site conditions. Such an analysis is a starting point Therefore such process is often very time-consuming
to provide design proposal, which is later on itera- and at the same time does not guarantee success.
tively being modified to fit users expectations. On Moreover, process of searching does not allow con-
the other hand this process is time consuming and it fronting designs with the plot where the building is
is hard to predict the final outcome at the beginning. going to be built and verify if it responds to local con-
Moreover, cost of architect's service is much higher ditions. Therefore buyers of such documentation fre-
then the cost of ready-made documentation, there- quently realize that they want to adapt chosen de-
fore majority of single family houses built in Poland sign to the specific site conditions and to have it re-
are constructed basing on a ready-made documen- designed when the building is being placed on the
tation. actual site plan. However, such houses are typically

designed in a way which is not intended to be easily posed. The configuration tools provide functionality
customized, therefore even small changes in the lay- to further customize the initial house design. User
out of the building usually require to have the whole has the ability to customize his house, from adding
building redrawn. or removing types of rooms, changing their size and
Advanced digital technologies create third pos- location, choosing pieces of equipment and furni-
sibility to obtain building documentation. Introduc- ture and finally changing the external appearance of
ing mass customization strategy through online tools the building and the materials from which it is built.
could not only respond to the need of purchasing a At every stage of setting up the house customer re-
house construction documentation at low price, but ceives information on the indicative cost of its con-
also to a series of needs currently being satisfied only struction, which helps to stay in line with budget lim-
by the individual projects: the ability to customize itations. The developed system allows for flexible dis-
home design to the land and to the individual pref- tribution of the functional program of the house, in
erences. Based on the collected information intro- relation to the external conditions and users prefer-
duced by the customer, the system could propose ences. The invented rules for positioning of the build-
few different building typologies ready for further ing on the site together with the rules for generat-
customization. By modifying the house design with- ing floor plans were supplemented with the rules for
out direct support of the architect, but only through generating building facade. All of these rules main-
following built-in design principles, users could fulfil tain certain level of interaction allowing users to cus-
their needs in relation to the proposed house, as well tomize many elements of the building. This resulted
as the need for self-creation. in a complex system with many interdependent rules,
which were grouped into three software modules re-
SYSTEM PROTOTYPE sponsible for different parts of the project: Site Plan-
ner, Home Planner and Facade Creator. All three
System flow
modules are interdependent and they exchange in-
According to Benros and Duarte (2009) integrated
formation between each other. Information from all
system should combine a design system, a build-
modules is intended to be collected in a Building In-
ing system and a computer system. The design sys-
formation Model, which allows not only for explo-
tem encodes the rules for generating customized de-
ration and visualization of the design, but also to ac-
signs and a building system specifies how to produce
celerate the creation of construction drawings and
them. Integration of this two systems is achieved
specifications.
by a computer system which is a software that en-
ables the easy exploration and visualization of solu-
tions, and automatically generates the information Site Planner
required for production using computer aided de- In Site Planner user starts participation in the design
sign and manufacturing. Therefore in order to create process by indicating location of the plot where the
system that would allow for customer participation building is going to be constructed. Site Planner col-
in the design process of mass-customized houses the lects from national GIS database information about
design system for chosen housing typology had to be chosen plot and analyses its special features: align-
invented first. The invented system is focused on cus- ment to the cardinal directions of the world, position
tomer participation, therefore design process is ini- of the access route and main entrance and urban pa-
tiated by customer who is indicating location of his rameters prescribed in the master plan. At this step
plot and functional program of the building. Infor- user also defines the initial home functional program,
mation provided by the customer is analysed and ini- chooses the size of the garage and defines the ridge
tial house design and its location on the plot are pro- orientation of the building. This information allow

Figure 2
Functional modules
representing
different rooms in
the building
Site Planner to estimate the initial dimensions of the could be either in a form of direct access, such as a
building, set plot development area and propose op- door, or an open wall or there could be no connection
timal arrangement of the house on the plot. Building when modules are separated by wall. Every mod-
is located in order to maximize indoor sunlight and to ule reacts responsively to its surroundings. Figure 3
create south facing outdoors, while the garage is lo- presents possible adjacent connections for the mod-
cated to minimize its shading area on the site and to ule of kitchen.
minimize access path to the building. As a result Site Home planner creates a framework for cus-
Planner determines building position on the plot, lo- tomers to participate in the design process of house
cation of major entries and exact location of the main layout, which due to various customers' needs is an
building axis. This information is transferred to the ill-defined problem. Therefore in order to provide
Home Planner where it is used for detailed distribu- customers with the designs that fulfil their needs,
tion of functional program, while Site Planer is con- they are invited to participate in the design process
stantly used in the background to verify the size of where they can individually verify their expectations
the house, its position in the development area and with provided capabilities. This participation process
its correspondence to the master plan regulations. should be finalized with a complete planar layout of
the spaces on each floor determining position of all
Home Planner the rooms and their surroundings. In order to guide
In Home Planner user can customize in detail the de- users through this process optimization goals and in-
sign of his house. The configuration tools allow mod- termediate task are being set. Spatial distribution of
ifying spatial distribution of home functional pro- functional modules takes place in relation to the ex-
gram. Size and location of every module represent- ternal and internal context. For this purpose the ori-
ing different rooms can be changed and all the mod- entation to the World coordinates (which affect in-
ules can be added or removed. All the modules are door sunlight) and the privacy gradient (which sug-
based on modular grid (Figure 2) of 60 by 60 cm and gests placing common areas, such as the living room,
have the same depth, which allows connecting them closer to the entrance, while private spaces, such as
together and flexibly reconfiguring. Type of this con- bedrooms farther away) are used. Moreover, Home
nection is pre-set for every module separately and it Planner uses few optimization technics, which allow

Figure 3
Possible adjacent
connections for the
kitchen module
for creating more rational floor plans. Optimization mation Model, which allows for exploration and visu-
is focused on diminishing the number of installation alization of the design, evaluation of the building for
shafts and for creating compact circulation scheme. its energy and environmental performance and esti-
When a planar layout of the spaces on each floor is mation of the final building cost.
completed, building layout is further developed by
adding more details. Home Planner is adding major CONCLUSION
entries to the building, which are placed at the ends The proposed system for customer participation in
of the circulation scheme axes and transferred to the the design process of mass-customized houses could
Facade Creator for customization of the facade. become feasible alternative to the traditional process
of provisioning affordable houses based on ready-
Facade Creator made documentation. The invented design system
Facade Creator allows user to individually compose was tested for possibility of designing small houses as
the facades of the house in relation to its roof pitch. well as middle-sized houses (Figure 4). The first four
User starts by placing building entries on the facade examples from the left present houses with identical
in the exact position taken from the Home Planner. functional program with approximately 100 square
These entries become then guiding facade openings meters of living area and with a garage for one car.
to which corners' guidelines are added. These guide- The last four examples illustrate the same principles
lines are used to generate possible localization of ad- but for the middle-sized house with approximately
ditional facade openings from which the user can 145 square meters and a garage for two cars.
choose the secondary facade openings based on his Invented system may give a solution for upgrad-
preferences. Chosen facade openings become guiding living conditions, site adaptation and architec-
ing facade openings and the whole process starts tural quality of widely popular catalogue houses.
from the beginning. Based on the invented set of Development of such system may improve the liv-
rules Facade Creator is able to create asymmetrical ing quality in these market areas where architec-
although internally consistent composition of the fa- tural knowledge is unaffordable, omitted and simply
cade. At the last stage user can choose the finishing missing. Introducing customer participation in the
materials from the predefined sets. design process of mass-customized houses allows
At the end of this process location of the entire users to find out individual design goals transforming
facade opening is transferred back to the Home Plan- the design process from being ill-defined into goal-
ner and marked on the floor plan layout. All that in- oriented. Therefore allowing people to influence the
formation is collected in parametric Building Infor- design themselves can improve level of their satisfac-

Figure 4
Exemplary system
outcomes
tion and adjustment of the design to their needs. Pre- The proposed framework for the development of
scribed in the system architects' design rules should the computer design tool integrates architectural de-
allow conscious and informative self-configuration of sign knowledge with customer willingness for partic-
houses. Therefore such tools may also give the op- ipation in the design of their homes. Hence, to test
portunity to indirectly educate the public, by letting the usefulness of the invented design system com-
them practically interact with the design rules. Con- puter software is being developed. Although the
figuration process should be conceived as a reiter- computer system, in a form of a mobile application
ative process of understanding contradictory condi- called Homepose (Figure 5), is still under develop-
tions, finding a solution, evaluation and deciding. ment, it is important to discuss, at this stage, its as-
sumptions and objectives in order to assure the rele-
vance of final outcome. It is not clear, at this point, if Figure 5
customers purchasing new houses will be interested Homepose mobile
and capable to individually participate in the design application
process of such spaces.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
An early version of this work was conducted dur-
ing Kwieciński's Master Thesis at Faculty of Architec-
ture at the Warsaw University of Technology. Spe-
cial thanks go to Kuba Cupisz, who has contributed
to this research by creating Homepose application.
REFERENCES
Benros, D. and Duarte, J.P. 2009, 'An integrated system
for providing mass customized housing', Automa-
tion in Construction, 18(3), pp. 310-320

Duarte, J.P. 2001, Customizing mass housing: a discursive
grammar for Siza‘s Malagueira houses, Ph.D. Thesis,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Duarte, J.P. 2005, 'Towards the mass customization
of housing: the grammar of Siza‘s houses at
Malagueira', Environment and Planning B: Planning
and Design, 32(3), pp. 347-380
Hersey, G.L. and Freedman, R. 1992, Possible Palladian vil-
las:(plus a few instructively impossible ones), The MIT
Press
Merrell, P., Schkufza, E. and Koltun, V. 2010, 'Computer-
generated residential building layouts', ACM Trans-
actions on Graphics (TOG), 29(6), p. 181
Niemeijer, R.A., Vries, D.B. and Beetz, J. 2010 'Designing
with constraints - Towards mass customization in
the housing industry', 10th International Conference
on Design & Decision Support Systems, Eindhoven
Stiny, G. and Gips, J. 1971 'Shape Grammars and the Gen-
erative Specification of Painting and Sculpture', IFIP
Congress (2), Ljubljana, pp. 1460-1465
Stiny, G. and Mitchell, W.J. 1978, 'The Palladian grammar',
Environment and Planning B, 5(1), pp. 5-18
Słyk, J. 2012, Źródła Architektury Informacyjnej, Oficyna
Wydawnicza Politechniki Warszawskiej, Warsaw

Assessment of Building Performance Using Computational
Intelligence: Focus on the Disabled and Elderly
Tijjani Zubairu1 , Sevil Sariyildiz2 , Ozer Ciftcioglu3
1,2,3
Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
1,2,3
http://toi.bk.tudelft.nl/designInformatics/
1,2,3
{t.o.zubairu|i.s.sariyildiz|O.Ciftcioglu}@tudelft.nl
The care for the elderly and people with disability increasingly demand more
ingenuity to undertake, especially as it relates to the built environment. The
impact of the physical environment on health has been widely documented. The
knowledge of the special needs/preferences of this vulnerable group of users
(people suffering from Alzheimer, autism, dementia and other similar disabilities),
for the purpose building of performance evaluation and subsequent improvements
is essential. The challenge is that their conditions, as exemplified by the loss or
impairment of their capacity to provide accurate/realistic information of their
building attributes' perceptions and preferences, make such knowledge
inaccurate to serve as basis for building improvements and designs. This paper
seeks to provide a scientific means for obtaining more accurate knowledge, which
when obtained normally can be misleading and non representational of reality.
The method adopted for this study is fuzzy-neural-network computation, a branch
of computational intelligence, to develop an all-encompassing knowledge based
building performance assessment model.
Keywords: Building-performance-assessment, Elderly, Fuzzy-neural-network
INTRODUCTION apparent with elderly and disabled, who are either

The environment accounts for the wellbeing of hu- permanently or temporarily suffering from health im-
man, in terms as part of social, cultural and health pairment as a result of ageing or disability, while the
measures. The built environment being largely what buildings do not take their impairment into account
defines the environment (building and surrounding) sufficiently.(Solar & Irwin, 2007)
is at the core of this wide term 'environment'. It
has lately become more apparent that the relation- Aim
ship between health and building is more far reach- The aim of this research is to reach optimal build-
ing than commonly perceived, as illustrated by sick ing performance, for enhancing health comfort of
'building syndrome', the user can be sick especially elderly and disabled people. An essential step to-
in public and institutional buildings as a result of the wards realizing this aim is developing a model for
impact of building on him or her. This effect is more the precision assessment of buildings' performance

from the standpoint of the group.From the scientific A manageable environment could contribute to the
viewpoint the work addresses the issue of how to mediation of a negative self-image. It can be claimed
bring into computational form the complex informa- that the social model of disabilities has detached the
tion on the performance of a building from stand- bodily experience from the physical environment.
point of elderly and disabled. In particular the issue of For good reasons, for instance to get away from the
coping with the soft nature of the knowledge being medicalization of infirmity, this model declares that
modeled is tackled. It demonstrates the suitability of disability is a social construction. The social model
neural computation for this purpose.The introduced of disability has its physical counterpart in the "in-
model will offer a factual platform for measuring the clusive design" paradigm. The latter is of course by
performance of buildings for this user group leading its physical nature closer to the body and its expe-
to better understanding of their needs, especially by riences. "Since there has been life on earth it is our
the following stakeholders: feet which remind us we are alive. We know we exist
when we feel it in the soles of our feet and all of us in
• Building designers and post occupation eval-
infancy begin by learning to walk" (Ando quoted in
uators
Frampton 2002:318)." (Gursel, I., et al., 2009)
• Care givers It is for these reasons that attempts are con-
tinually made to enquire about users' satisfaction
• Building facilities managers through performance assessment. Post occupation
evaluation (POE) is a common means for this in the
The adopted method, with the feature of adaptabil-
built environment. The results of the assessment
ity to most situations gives better and more realis-
help in keeping in tandem with changes by serving
tic representation of the satisfaction needs of the el-
as basis for solution(s).
derly and the disabled who are at cross road as to how
The task of dealing with the interest of elderly
there special needs can be understood and taken
and disabled people is particularly difficult due to the
care of as they battle with the challenges of their con-
different type of physical or mental challenges, lead-
dition(s). Situations associated with ageing and dis-
ing to expectedly large variance among the people's
ability. This instability is what this method will ad-
perception. It is this extra over challenges that this
dress adequately, thereby making it unique for both
research is focused at proffering solution(s).
pre and post occupation evaluation tailored to the
The features of neural computation that are de-
needs of elderly and disabled.
sirably needed for this class of study are that:
Designers of buildings that are be used by elderly
and disabled will benefit from this, as they will by this • It is able to deal with the complexity of
also have a means of understanding what they need environmental information, which is charac-
to adjust or upgrade in the building environment to terised by many attribute relations and non-
help bolster the satisfaction of their target group. linearity among the relations.
• It is robust and fault tolerant.
LITERATURE
Research Theory and Context • It is flexible. It can adjust to a new environ-
The following statements, as contained in studies ment by "learning"
of architecture, environment, gerontology and dis- • It can deal with information that is fuzzy,
ability research aptly captures the context of this re- probabilistic, noisy or inconsistent.
search:
"There is a risk that disabled persons develop The ability of the method to deal with the complex-
a negative self-image as a victim of the disability. ity of the environmental information provided by the

elderly and disabled is the motivation for its adop- • Psychiatric or emotional/motor co-ordination.
tion for this method for this research.(Hertz, Krogh,
& Palmer, 1991) These characteristics translate to emotion and mood
A neural tree structure is considered with nodes swing. This is one of the features that mark the group
of neuronal type that is a Gaussian function and it out as different from others. The ground for the spe-
plays the role of membership function. The total cial attention is thus hinged on their vulnerability
tree structure effectively works as a fuzzy logic sys- caused by their mental state.
tem having system inputs and outputs. In this sys- Attention is usually paid to the need to investi-
tem the locations of the Gaussian membership func- gate how central and the extent to which the follow-
tions of non-terminal nodes are unity so that the ing factors serve as basis for measuring and also their
system has several desirable features and it repre- impact on elderly and disabled persons' health:
sents a fuzzy model maintaining the transparency
• Outdoor environment
and effectiveness while dealing with complexity.
The model has transparent fuzzy modelling prop- • Indoor environment
erties and addresses complexity issues at the same
time.(Ciftcioglu, Sariyildiz, & Bittermann, 2007) • Security
Health and the Built Environment • Safety

Goldsmith, (1997) posited that the disabled is an
ambiguous term. It can mean, as it usually does, • Landscape - Garden
people with disabilities, those who got something
wrong with them, which a physician can describe. • Parking lot
That is the medical model. Or it can mean people
• Private rooms
whether or not they be 'medically' disabled, who are
in some other way disabled - who are financially dis- • Common rooms
abled, for example, or socially disabled, or 'architec-
turally disabled'. It is architecturally disabled people • General facilities
with whom this research is concerned. Those who
when using or attempting to use buildings can find Building performance assessment
themselves confronted by impediments which pre- Much research has been done in performance as-
vent them from doing so or allow them to do so only sessment. There have been so many propositions,
with difficulty and inconvenience. some based on geographical location, government
The research is but concerned with measuring etc. that it appears not much is left to do. However
the perceptions of features of a building as to under- in general the performance concerns crisp, engineer-
stand their effects on satisfaction of elderly and dis- ing variables such as energy, stress, and son on, while
abled, providing basis for optimal solution(s). soft aspects such as appreciation of a building have
The groupings of impairments are: been ignored largely. This is presumably also due to
the complexity of soft aspects. There has been an
• Physical or mobility problems imbalance in the focus of the assessment; there ex-
ists a gap in the focus, the neglect of perception and
• Sensory loss
assessment of spatial quality, in particular from the
• Long term health problems standpoint of the elderly and disabled people about
the built environment. (Lutzkendorf, T., and Lorenz,
• Co-ordination and intellectual impairment D.P., 2006).

Table 1
Questionnaires
response rating
values.
Gursel, I., et al (2009) explained that building per- computation).

formance assessment refers to the identification and The choice of this method is premised on its
quantification of the performative objectives that a novel strength of dealing with fuzzy information that
building is expected to satisfy, and the utilization of is conventionally considered not to be amenable for
means for the evaluation of the building in order to easy computation.
assess its lifecycle performance quality. The aim of The survey/data collection for this study were ob-
this approach is to enable the design and execution tained through the following means:
of buildings that are highly suitable for their occu-
pants, considering thermal, acoustical, visual, envi- 1. Observations
ronmental, safety-, comfort, and health-related as-
2. Open-ended Interviews
pects.
3. Structured questionnaires
METHOD & APPROACH
The research method adopted for this study is 'mixed' Visit and interactions with people in buildings fre-
- in that it combines both qualitative and quanti- quently used by elderly and disabled people offered
tative aspects. Expert knowledge, with statements the needed opportunity to gain comprehensive in-
from users, that are qualitative in nature is obtained sight through.
and analySed quantitatively using neural computa- Interview with the following experts and health
tion, effectively establishing a model. For this, in- care personnel helped to verify the structure of the
formation is obtained through observations, inter- model. Some other experts interviewed are: Geriatri-
views, and questionnaires. Advanced computational cians, Physicians, Nurses, Care home managers, Facil-
method of neural computation will be used for both ities managers, home care givers, and Designers.
analysis and model development. The use of neu- The questionnaires (a part of which is shown in
ral computational method to gain factual informa- Table 1) have five options with value ratings as indi-
tion from the complex mindset of the group is the cated in Table 2.
hallmark of this research. The information is charac- For these purpose fifteen experts were inter-
teriSed by 'volatility of mood and emotion' making viewed asking structured questions aimed at con-
understanding them so daunting that the simple sta- firming or disputing some of the observations/per-
tistical methods are inadequate. ceptions.
The core method adopted for this study is fuzzy The respondents to the main questionnaires (Ta-
neural network in the domain of computational intel- ble 1) are the elderly and the disabled who were to
ligence. The information used in the network analy- be randomly sampled for this study. A sample pop-
sis was obtained using qualitative methods of inter- ulation of 1000 people, grouped into 600 for the dis-
views, observations and questionnaires. It is safe to abled and 400 for elderly. The survey was carried out
say that dual methods are used for this research. The in Nigeria. The spread of the sample population took
main tool used being fuzzy neural network (neural cognisance of the different types of buildings. (Insti-
tutional and public buildings)

Table 2
Part of the
questionnaires.
(Input questions
corresponding to
Node 2 of the
model Tree).

( ) 2. The perception levels for each of the major at-
f (X) = wφ kX − ck2 (1) tributes are also shown on the right hand side
[ ]
1 ∑ (wi − 1) of the certification/assessment report - (figure
1
Oj = exp(− (2) 5)
2 i σj /wij
Figure 1
Equation 1 represents the cumulative end point Performance
value, these are obtained from the nodal transfers us- Assessment Neural
ing the transfer functions at each nodes. Tree Model (Figure
The transfer function Oj (equation 2) is applied 1 – Neural Tree
at each nodes sequentially. structure)
Where j is the layer number; i denote the i-th in-
put to the node; wi is the degree of membership at
the output of the terminal node; wij is the weight
associated with the i-th terminal node and the non-
terminal node j. The width of the basis function σ is Figure 2
used to measure the uncertainty associated with the Fuzzy Neural Tree
node inputs designated as external input X. The out- (Performance
put of i-th terminal node wi is related to X by the re- assessment model)
lation , where wij is the weight connecting terminal – Close-up 1
node i to terminal node j. It connects the output of a
basis function to a node in the form of an external in-
put. The centres of the radial basis functions are the
same as the input weights of that node, wij . (Cift-
cioglu, Bittermann, et al., 2007)
The rated values obtained from the question- Figure 3
naires, were clustered and then used as weights wi Fuzzy Neural Tree
in data analysis and computation.The algorithm used (Performance
in the computation takes the form of figures 1-4. assessment model)
– Close-up 2
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Table 3 shows part of the computation in excels work-
sheet. All the variables are combined relationally and
hierarchically using the fuzzy neural network compu-
tation algorithm. The fuzziness in the variable input Figure 4
data become stabilised and from the computation Fuzzy Neural Tree
the outcome for a typical building type - a psychiatric (Performance
hospital is presented in a final report sheet, in certifi- assessment model)
cation format. – Close-up 3
The features of the certification report are that:
1. The overall level of perception, in terms of rat-

ing is indicated

Table 3
Data Mining/Com-
putation (part of
the excel
worksheet)

Suffice it to say that with this certification report for- Figure 5
mat. The following decisions can be drawn very eas- Building
ily: Performance Model
Certification Report
• The building and its surrounding can be (Sample)
judged as being satisfactory or otherwise
• The contributing attributes to this satisfaction

level are clearly seen in terms of their contri-
butions to the final perception level.
• The attributes that are of utmost priority to

the target users become very clear and inter-
vention can be directed at them base on pri-
ority level.
The foregoing summation is preceded by data min-

ing processes and then used in the neural network
analysis towards developing assessment model as
explained below:
The research survey data was checked for in-
tegrity, consistency and generally transformed mak-
ing them usable for computation. Fuzzy logic prin-
ciple, a method within the computational intelli-
gence domain was used to develop algorithm for
data processing/learning to establish performance
output and user preferences. CONCLUSIONS
Specifically parametric values were determined It is concluded that the research outcome can be
from the data and used in the algorithm. The struc- used to determine how satisfied the users are with
ture of the algorithm takes after the Fuzzy Neural the building, the preferences indicated by the scores
Tree, Fig. 2. The survey data were first transformed can equally be used to upgrade areas of the building
and prepared in matrix forms; computations were with poor performance perception as represented by
carried out with the aid of Microsoft Excel/VBA. The low score in a value range of 0 - 1scale value.
neural tree input layer, consists of 88 input variables, It is important to note the following:
with about 1607 input range, the nodal sigma val- The current methods/means of obtaining knowl-
ues were determined based on the established algo- edge from building users, questionnaires, interview
rithm. The connecting weight values that represent and interactions require further research in collusion
professional knowledge serve as one of the variables with those working of human emotion research to
in the transfer functions used for node-to-node value see how emotion sensors can be used to acquire in-
transfer until the final output node, where the value formation from the study group. The results so ob-
obtained represents the overall performance of the tained shall be interpreted with utmost care as to
building assessed. separate factors contributing to moods and general

feelings that relate to buildings/surrounding envi-
ronment from other social factors that might be un-
related to the physical environment.
REFERENCES
Ciftcioglu et' al, O 2006 'Studies on visual perception for
perceptual robotics', Proceedings of the Third Interna-
tional Conference on Informatics in Control, Automa-
tion and Robotics: ROBOTICS AND AUTOMATION2006.
352-359., pp. 352-359
Ciftcioglu, O, Bittermann, MS and Sariyildiz, IS 2007 'A
neural fuzzy system for soft computing', 2007 An-
nual Meeting of the North American Fuzzy Informa-
tion Processing Society, ed. M. Reformat and M.R.
Berthold2007, pp. 489-495
Ciftcioglu, O, Sariyildiz, IS and Bittermann, MS 2007
'Building performance analysis supported by GA',
Evolutionary Computation, 2007. CEC 2007. IEEE
Congress
Goldsmith, S 1997, Designing for the Disabled The New
Paradigm, Architectural Press, Oxford, London
Gursel, I, Sariyildiz, IS, Akin, O and Stouffs, R 2009, 'Mod-
elling and visualisation of lifecycle building perfor-
mance assessment', Advanced Engineering Informat-
ics, 23(4), pp. 396-417
Lutzkendorf, T and Lorenz, DP 2006, 'Using an inte-
grated performance approach in building assess-
ment tools', Building Research & Information, 34(4),
pp. 334-356
Michail, GL 1997, Neural Networks and Optimization Prob-
lems - A Case Study: The Minimum Cost Spare Alloca-
tion Problem, Citeseerx
Schofield, H, Bloch, S and Victorian, F 1998, Health Pro-
motion, Family caregivers : disability, illness, and age-
ing, Victorian Health Promotion Foundation
Solar, O and Irwin, A 2007 'A Conceptual Framework for
Action on the Social Determinants of Health', WHO
Discussion Paper, pp. 1-77

Trust within AEC virtual teams
Analysis of different-place collaboration in architectural design
Annie Guerriero1 , Guillaume Gronier2

1,2
Public Research Centre Henri Tudor
1,2
www.tudor.lu
1,2
{annie.guerriero|guillaume.gronier}@tudor.lu
The virtual teams are largely encouraged by the recent technological devices
supporting different-place collaboration and suggest today new forms of
organization. This one is geographically dispersed and regroups all the
competencies required for the work to be done. In such a context, trust is
essential to guarantee the performance of team. It is indeed a necessary
component for initiating the work relationship and to overcome the inherent risk.
The capacity of the groups to communicate about the objectives and strategies as
well as to readjust them according to the context (i.e. reflexivity) is another
element important for the group's performance. This article suggests analyzing
these notions of trust and reflexivity within virtual teams in the context of an
academic experiment where students are geographically dispersed and have to
produce an architectural project.
Keywords: Trust, virtual team, different-place collaboration, social reflexivity,

task reflexivity, AEC (Architecture, Engineering and Construction)
INTRODUCTION advantages: it contributes to reduce time of produc-

The technology evolution, the nature of work which tion and travel costs, to make decisions more effec-
becomes more complex and dynamic, and the need tive and rapid, to reduce the informal exchange and
to become more and more competitive constitutes focalised the team members on the task to be per-
some elements which have encouraged a new form formed (Nader Ale et al., 2009).
of "work unit" inside the organizations: the virtual We suggest in this article to analyse two ele-
team. ments that we consider as predominant for guaran-
As Hertel (Hertel et al., 2005), we consider teeing a good performance of these virtual teams:
that virtual teams are composed of members who
"are geographically dispersed and coordinate their • Trust: This notion is associated to good ex-
work predominantly with electronic information pectations in the behaviour of the others
and communication technologies (e-mail, video- (Deutsch, 1962) and takes an important role
conferencing, etc.)". to initiate the collaboration and overcome the
This new configuration of work presents some risk inherent to the work relationship (Luh-

mann, 1988). use of technologies in order to mediate the commu-
nication. The nature of context of collaboration as
• Reflexivity: This notion allows characterizing well of the nature of the work are at the origin of di-
the capacity of a group to define its objectives, verse forms of virtual team.
strategies, and processes as well as to readjust Bell and Kozlowski highlight the characteristics
them during the collaboration (West, 2000). that can distinguish the different types of virtual
teams:
A first study has been conducted during the aca-
demic year 2011-2012. It has highlighted the rela- • "Temporal distribution": the work can be ex-
tionship between trust, reflexivity and group's per- ecuted by the virtual team in real time or dis-
formance (Gronier & al. 2012). A second study has tributed across time. The technology used by
been leaded during the academic year 2012-2013 in the team is important to be considered when
order to finely measure the dynamic and the relation- analysing this characteristic. Synchronous
ship between the concepts. This article will present communication technologies (e.g. videocon-
the results of this analysis. ferencing) allow the members to communi-
cate even if members are separated by long
COLLABORATION BASED ON VIRTUAL distances and time difference. While asyn-
chronous form of communication technology
TEAM
(e.g. e-mail) contribute to great temporal dis-
tribution even if the members are closely lo- Figure 1
calised. The nature of the task and the work- Virtual teams and
flow arrangement are also elements to be characteristics,
analysed. The need of real time exchange be- adaptation of (Bell
come more critical when the task is more com- and Kozlowski
plex and the required workflow arrangements 2002)
are reciprocal. By contrast, virtual team can
work in distributed time when the tasks are
less complex and dynamic, and workflow ar-
rangements are more sequential.
• "Boundary spanning": Virtual teams can cross

diverse types of boundaries: time and geo-
graphical boundaries, but also functional, or-
ganisational and cultural boundaries.
A lot of research works have contributed to char-
acterize the virtual teams (e.g. (Bell and Kozlowski, • "Lifecycle": the virtual teams are often short-
2002, Jarvenpaa and Leidner, 1999, Zolin et al., 2000). lived and created to perform a specific task.
Bell and Kozlowski (Bell and Kozlowski, 2002) iden- But when the task becomes more complex, it
tifies two major characteristics distinguishing virtual is preferable to maintain a continuous lifecy-
team from conventional team: spatial distance and cle and a stable team.
communication. Contrary to the conventional teams
that work in close proximity, the virtual team includes • "Member roles": the organization associated
members who are separated, sometimes by a very to the virtual team is often more flexible
long distance. Due to this geographical separation, than in traditional organisation. The roles at-
the members cannot interact in face to face and make tributed in virtual team are more dynamic and

the members have to adapt their actions ac- (Kramer, 1999):
cording to the variety of team situations.
• "Dispositional trust". This trust is associated
In the AEC (Architecture, Engineering and Construc- to the predisposition of the individual to trust
tion) activity (see figure 1), virtual teams dedicated or distrust. This predisposition is directly
to the design activity are confronted to a task with linked to people's beliefs about human na-
a high level of complexity. The workflow arrange- ture. The prior personal experience in situ-
ments are not predefined; they are sometimes recip- ations of trust relationships allows people to
rocal and sometimes sequential. The team members extrapolate general beliefs about others.
have multiple roles (i.e. associated to the task un-
der consideration, to the technological devices, etc.) • "Category-based trust". This trust is based on
as they contributed to different projects in the same internal characteristics of the individual, such
time, and they need to get used to diverse team sit- as culture and the group which he is involved
uations. The lifecycle is discrete. The team is com- in, etc. If we consider a building construc-
posed for performing a specific design task. The tion activity, this form of trust between ac-
members have not worked together before and it is tors coming from a same category is predom-
probable that they will never work again together. At inant. Architects, engineers or contractors
the end of the activity, the team is disbanded. The constitute 3 groups well marked inside which
boundaries are multiple because the members are trust naturally exists.
confronted to diverse practices and culture related to
the organizations involved in the project. The mem- • "Third party as conduits of trust". This type
bers are experts coming from diverse domains (e.g. of trust relies on the notion of reputation. If
architect, engineers, etc.) and are often coming from we consider a building construction activity,
different countries. The virtual team operates essen- teams are short-lived and consequently, repu-
tially in a distributed time based principally on email, tation plays an important role and determines
and digital platform for exchanging documents. Nev- an "a priori trust" based on exchanges with
ertheless the complexity of the activity requires some third parties.
interactions in real time based for example on video-
conferencing. • "History-based trust". This trust is based on
past successful references. If we consider
a building construction activity, experience
TRUST WITHIN VIRTUAL TEAM AND PER- coming from former AEC projects strongly
FORMANCE conditions trust.
We can see that virtual teams in AEC are associated
to complex work environments. As trust can be con- • "Role-based trust". This trust corresponds
sidered as a device overstepping the complexity of with a trust relative to the performance of
the environment (Luhmann, 1988), it has to be con- an actor according to the role that he plays
sidered as a predominant element for ensuring the within an organization. If we consider a build-
performance of the virtual team. Traditionally in lit- ing construction activity, roles are clearly de-
erature, the notion of trust is often associated to pos- fined. These roles generate precise expec-
itive expectations about the behaviour or intentions tations concerning competences and know-
of another person (Deutsch, 1962). how and condition trust relationships.
Diverse elements allow constructing trust inside
"traditional" organisations. Kramer identifies six el- • "Rule-based trust". This type of trust is based
ements as bases for constructing trust relationships on contractual mechanisms, rules, certifica-

tion organization or norms. In the AEC sec- tory, which is more stable and readjusted all along
tor, a large number of certifications progres- the collaborative relationship (Robert et al., 2009).
sively appear (e.g. certifications related to Swift trust is essential in AEC virtual teams to sur-
competence of actors, quality of the build- mount the risk inherent to this working context and
ing elements...), standard contracts (e.g. con- focuses the team on the common objectives related
tracts describing the mission of the stakehold- to the construction project. Two of the six elements
ers), norms (e.g. norms concerning the exe- referenced by (Kramer, 1999) and described above
cution of building elements). These certifica- are predominant for constructing swift trust: dispo-
tions strongly condition trust within an orga- sitional trust and category-based trust (Robert et al.,
nization. 2009). According to Meyerson (Meyerson, 1996), the
lack of personal information about the members of
Swift trust the team as well as the necessity to rapidly beginning
Trust appears as a necessary component for initiat- to work for respecting tight deadlines conduct peo-
ing the work relationship and to overcome the inher- ple to base trust on the category information to man-
ent risk (Luhmann, 1988). In virtual team, this risk age the risk and the vulnerability when they engage
is even bigger than people enter into a relationship in the relationship. People are consequently consid-
without the benefit of traditional rules of communi- ered as members of a category rather than people
cation in face to face, and moreover they are often (Robert et al., 2009). The behaviour of the members
engaged in collaboration without any anterior expe- is deducted from the practices generally associated
rience in common. Otherwise, the distance between to the categories.
the team's members make more difficult the applica-
tion of control mechanisms. Performance and reflexivity
"Swift trust" has been introduced by Meyerson Trust is a concept directly linked to the notion of per-
(Meyerson, 1996) for qualifying trust emerging in formance. When a person engage with another per-
temporary groups when people have to combined son, he or she has to overcome a "cooperation thresh-
their skill in order to perform a specific task in a tight old" corresponding to "a threshold value, above
deadline and when they have a limited history work- which it is possible to say that something or someone
ing together and will never work again together in 'is trusted,' below which it is possible to say that it 'is
the future (Meyerson, 1996; Jarvenpaa et al., 1999). not trusted." (Marsh, 1994). This threshold value is di-
These elements characterize the most part of the vir- rectly linked to the people and to the circumstances
tual teams in AEC sector. (Gambetta, 1990, Marsh, 1992). When the relation-
This context is not a priori favourable for the de- ship is engaged, trust is not definitely static but it is in-
velopment of trust and for initiating trust in the ini- tegrated in a dynamic process (Zolin et al., 2000). The
tial stages of collaboration. Teams have no anterior performance is regularly assessed in order to recon-
experience in in common and members have at dis- sider the trust level. If the performance is high, the
posal only a few information pieces on each other. trust value increases but if the performance is weak,
Consequently they cannot construct trust based on the trust value can decrease and the relationship can
the history of the relationship. Nevertheless, we can be deteriorated.
see that notably due to the tight deadlines a form of The notion of performance of the group has been
trust emerges rapidly and is adjusted all along the analysed by a lot of researchers (Salas et al., 2005,
relationship. This type of trust called by Meyerson Facchin et al., 2006, West, 2000). It appears that the
"Swift trust" enables to overcome risk and to initi- success of group depends on its ability to readily
ate collaboration. Swift trust is relatively fragile and adapt its actions to the changes that could appear
progressively evolves towards a trust based on his-

without the creation of conflicts (Facchin et al., 2006). distance (i.e. Sketsha developed by the University
The concept of "reflexivity" proposed by West refers of Liège, Belgium). They also use a document ex-
to "the extent to which group members overtly re- change platform to asynchronously collaborate (i.e.
flect upon, and communicate about the group's ob- CRTI-weB developed by the CRP Henri Tudor, Luxem-
jectives, strategies (e.g., decision-making) and pro- bourg). The Figure 1 describes the use of these 2 tools
cesses (e.g., communication), and adapt them to cur- all along the pedagogical experiment.
rent or anticipated circumstances" (West, 2000). In The collaborative process is composed of four
other words, to be effective, teams must respond to distinguished steps (Kubicki et al., 2009a), see figure
changing circumstances and environments in an ap- 2:
propriate way.
The authors distinguished between two aspects 1. "Initialisation": The students meets togheter
of the reflexivity (Facchin, 2008): in same place / same time and are informed
about the subject of the architectural de-
• Task reflexivity, which "is believed to enable sign exercice. Teachers constitues groups and
teams to develop optimal performance strate- students affects the roles inside their team
gies, to detect deviation from expected re- (e.g. Architecture expert, Environmental ex-
sults, and to adapt team functioning to chang- pert, Engineering expert).
ing demands",
2. "Different-place and asynchronous collabora-
• Social reflexivity, which "enables teams to in- tion". Students make use of CRTI-weB (i.e. a
tegrate divergent opinions and constructively platform developed by the CRP Henri Tudor
deal with conflict". (Kubicki et al., 2009b)) in order to exchange
documents between the stages of synchroni-
These two facets of the reflexivity considerably im- sation. They share the progress of their work
pact the performance of the group, and conse- to the other members of the group.
quently the trust inside the team. In virtual teams, the
group's ability of reflexivity is even more important 3. "Different-place and synchronous collabora-
than the distance between members makes commu- tion". A device of synchronous and multi-
nication more difficult. modal collaboration named "Virtual desktop"
allows the students to validate architectural
METHOD AND CASE STUDY and technical choices and coordinate the col-
Context lective activity. This device is composed of (1)
In order to analyse the development and the evo- a space of graphical work, (2) a sketch soft-
lution of trust in AEC virtual teams, we have con- ware developed by the University of Liège
ducted a survey during a pedagogical experiment (Safin et al., 2012), and (3) a videoconferenc-
where students have to collaborate at distance. This ing tool.
experiment regroups students from the University of
Liège (Belgium) and students from the National Ar- 4. "End". At the end of the exercise, students are
chitecture School of Nancy (France) during more or gathered a last lime on the same place in order
less 3 months in order to design a common archi- to present together the common result. A jury
tectural project. This experiment is called "Cooper- evaluates the quality of the produced archi-
ative Digital Studio". In the course of this period of tectural project and examines the process of
time, students make use of a virtual desktop based collaboration deployed by the students dur-
on a sketching tool to simultaneously collaborate at ing the experiment.

Figure 2
Collaboration
during the
pedagogical
experiment
"Cooperative Digital
Studio"
Survey questionnaire and data collection The questionnaire was available on line. A collection
The data collection has been carried out during the interface has been developed thanks to the software
academic year 2012-2013 in the framework of the LIMESURVEY. This software is hosted on the secured
"Cooperative Digital Studio". The students were in- servers of the CRP Henri Tudor. This configuration as-
vited to answer to a questionnaire during the exper- sures data security.
iment. This questionnaire is structured in two parts: In total 27 students divided in 6 groups have con-
tributed to this survey.
• "Trust analysis": this part relies on a survey
questionnaire including 15 questions based RESULTS
on (Mayer et al., 1995, Robert et al., 2009) en-
Analysis of trust
abling to measure trust between team's mem-
During the academic year 2011-2012, we had already
bers. This questionnaire has been submitted
deployed the questionnaire of trust assessment. We
5 times to the students at steps S1, S2, S3, S4,
had highlighted the relationship between trust and
S5.
group's performance.
The results of the academic year 2012-2013 con-
• "Reflexivity analysis": this second part aims firms this relationship. As seen in the figure 3, the
at measuring the task and social reflexivity groups with lower trust are associated to the lowest
based the Carter and West scale (Carter and appreciation, and reciprocally groups characterized
West, 1998) in this French version (Facchin, by a highest level of trust are associated to the best
2008, Facchin et al., 2006). This scale con- appreciations.
sisted of 16 items (8 for task reflexivity and 8 The analysis of graphs of trust all along the col-
for social reflexivity) that examine the extent laborative process (see figure 4) allows us to highlight
to which a team refines its objectives, strate- that when trust level is high and relatively stable (See
gies and team processes (Carter et al., 1998). Team 1 and 4) or progressively increasing until step 5
This questionnaire has been submitted four (See Team 3), the performance is high. Moreover, we
times to the students during the project, at can identify that in these groups the reciprocal opin-
the steps S2, S3, S4 and S5.

Figure 3
Analysis of trust and
performance
Figure 4
Analysis of trust:
detailed view by
team

ions on the distant teams (Nancy-Liège, and Liège- Liège-Liège) will be completely different. In the
Nancy) reflects a high and equilibrated level of trust. works of (Zolin et al., 2000), it appears that a config-
In the team where trust decreases progressively uration of team which is geographically distributed
until the step 5, the performance is lower. contributes to reduce personal communication. That
More generally, we can identify that trust at the consequently reduces perceived trustworthiness and
beginning is relatively high even if at this step stu- the level of trust appears as lower. In our experi-
dents have not a lot of information allowing them ment, we cannot really confirm this position but we
to construct trust. This observation is in line with frequently observe that the level of trust related to
the works of Meyerson (Meyerson et al., 1996) about the curves Nancy-Liège and Liège-Nancy are often
"swift trust". The context of this academic experiment lower. It is important to note that in the case of the
characterized by tight deadlines and the technologi- members coming from the University of Liège, stu-
cal devices for different-place collaboration is a chal- dents have an important common background due
lenge for students who are really motivated to pro- to the large history of the relationship inside the uni-
duced a common project. At this time (S1), trust is versity. In the case of the students coming from the
generally high and required for initiating the collab- Architectural School of Nancy, a lot of students are
oration. Then, student are confronted to the produc- coming from different schools in order to attend the
tion of the other members, to some communication master "Global design". The students construct trust
difficulty and trust is readjusted all along the collab- progressively based on the results. That can be an
orative process until the end of the experiment (S5). explication of the variation of the curves in certain
Before this experiment, we had imagined that groups (e.g. team 3).
behaviours within groups geographically dispersed
(i.e. curves related to Liège-Nancy and Nancy-Liège) Analysis of reflexivity
and the groups composed of members localised in With regard to levels of reflexivity (refer to figure 5),
same place (i.e. curves related to Nancy-Nancy and these vary according to the stages of the project and
Figure 5
Analysis of
reflexivity

are different from one team to another. We note that trust and reflexivity are increased, the performance
the team having obtained the best evaluation are is high. This conclusion consolidated the first results
those that have also seen their effectiveness as more obtained in our first study (Gronier et al., 2012).
important (G1, G3, G4). Similarly, the team having Nevertheless we have to consider that some lim-
obtained the worst assessment to review is one that its exist in our study: we have only one case study,
presents the lowest reflectivity rating (G2, G5). More- and 27 people and sometimes, we have only partial
over, it is also one whose reflectivity rating decreases answers. Moreover, the appreciation of an architec-
gradually at each stage of the project. tural project as value reflecting the group's perfor-
More precisely, this is the team 3 that has the mance can be questionable, because this apprecia-
score the more high reflectivity overall (M = 4.52), fol- tion can be subjective.
lowed by the team 1 (M = 4.46). Team 5 is one who These limits encourage us to formulate only ten-
has the lowest score (M = 3.43), just like the Group 6 dencies as well as formal conclusion. We expect now
(M = 3.98). conducting our survey in another case study includ-
The evolution of reflexivity is also an important ing more people to refine these tendencies and pro-
element of the performance of the teams. On aver- vide more formal conclusions.
age, the reflexivity for all teams decreased with steps
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Do (not) sketch into my sketch
A comparison of existing tools
Kateřina Nováková1 , Henri Achten2

1,2
FA CVUT Prague
1,2
www.molab.eu
1,2
{bruhokat|achten}@fa.cvut.cz
Various computer-aided sketch tools can be used to support architectural

designing (Tang, Lee, Gero, 2010) either individually in early stage of the process
or in communication. We focus on the second mentioned. The goal of this paper
is to give an overview of possible applications and mention the platforms which
are supported. We explore the advantages or disadvantages of the tools and
compare it with our newly developed application called ColLab sketch. With this
application we hope in increasing speed and ease of graphic communication on
one hand and testing architects demands on the other hand. We develop multiple
criteria for evaluating the tools, while believing this paper could be of use to give
a hint how to improve remote as well as co-located collaborative designing by
sketch. Architectural designing is a very sensitive topic when it comes to
sketching. Finally, we would like to compare the newly developed tool to this list
and suggest improvements or experiments that help its finalizing.
Keywords: sketching, collaboration, electronic devices, sketch applications
INTRODUCTION tects. This paper also shows criteria for evaluating the
Computer-aided sketch tools can be used to sup- tools. We believe the comparison could be of use to
port collaborative architectural designing (Tang, Lee, improve remote as well as co-located collaborative
Gero, 2010) and architectural communication by designing by sketch in architectural designing.
sketch. In this paper we would like to present an
overview of few possible applications and mention PREVIOUS RESEARCH
the tested supported platforms. We explore the Architectural designing is a very sensitive topic when
tools, which might be of a significant importance and it comes to sketching. Previous research (Gold-
compare it with our newly developed application schmitt, Ullmann) showed that sketching plays an
called ColLab sketch. With this application we hope important role in the early stage of designing. It is
in increasing speed and ease of graphic communica- also inevitable by architects cooperation and teach-
tion. We also want to show the tool can be modified ing (Cheng and Lane-Cumming, 2004) and last but
according to the constantly changing needs of archi- not least it significantly supports communication.

Segers at al. says: "Although traditional tools 6. GoToMeeting
continue to prove their usefulness in many archi-
tectural design processes, they are limited, as any 7. Talkboard [5]
tool, by their specific characteristics. Thus there is
a constant search for new tools that may have cer- 8. ColLab sketch [6]
tain new characteristics that may support particular DRAW.TO
aspects or components of architectural design pro- One designer and one developer from Melbourne
cess." (Segers, Achten and de Vries, 2000) Sketching is created the application called DRAW.TO in the be-
a traditional tool that has proved its value over cen- ginning of the year 2010. It is a free on-line collabo-
turies. The question is how to preserve its advan- rative sketch sharing application with the possibility
tages such as speed and intuitiveness while incor- of publishing pictures on social networks like Face-
porating it into computer-aided communicative and book or Twitter. The possibility of editing others pic-
collaborative process among architects. The aim of ture - forking is allowed. The size of the drawing area
this research paper is to bring an overview of possible is devoted to rather small devices like Smartphones,
existing tools that might be relevant and name their iPhones and iPads. The size restrictions are rather
features. We target at list of characteristics that an strict, together with the fact, that finger is used for
ideal tool should have. Finally, we would like to com- drawing. This causes this tool to be rather inprecise.
pare the newly developed tool to this list and suggest Better conditions can be found on devices with a pen.
improvements or experiments that helps its finaliz-
ing.
Figure 1
Example of test of
THE TOOLS sketch behavior,
A large number of sketch supportive tools can be drawn on Mac OSX
found on the internet. And there still might be a lack with Bamboo
of the one appropriate for architects' sketch commu- stylus: draw.to
nication and teaching. We made a selection of mul-
tiple applications currently available on internet and
an old one reported on in an article (Mynatt, Igarashi
1999) and we set several criteria in order to compare
them. We also tested these tools in terms of sketch
behavior (Figure 1) and tried to capture their strong
points and weaknesses.
Our goal was to position our new developed ap-
plication ColLab sketch among the existing tools. We
chose following applications to compare:
1. DRAW.TO [1]
2. QUEEKY Multidraw [2]
3. Flockdraw[3]
4. Flatland
5. Adobe Connect [4]

QEEKY MULTIDRAW FLOCKDRAW
On-line interactive tool Qeeky MultiDraw is a sketch This application was developed in 2009 and is pro-
collaborative application, where one or more partic- claimed to be free. For Mac users, though, it is
ipants can share the sheet and draw together. This not free (2.99Dollars). We assume that special plat-
web application is equipped by chat to communicate forms like iPad do not support flash and need a spe-
by word. It is not size restricted, which means it is cial version of the program, which must be payed.
of satisfactory dimensions on any device. The choice When purchased it still has serious size problems on
of filling in or leaving blank the password box when iPad like missing parts of the interface which are not
generating a new room offers the possibility of cre- shown: this stops the user from possibility of setting
ating a closed group sketch or public artwork where new sheet or generating new room. Also undo but-
anybody can participate. The participants can also ton is missing. To make it work we had to retype
record and replay their sketches. The disadvantage is the web address into the other devices search tool.
a quite long and unclear registration process plus we After that the tool acted satisfactory. The delay un-
came across some zooming problems causing impre- til lines could be seen on the users screen was less
cision. The tool gains up to one second delay when than 0,5s. Joining the same workplace by 2 people
becoming complicated. instantly was possible, the third was not accepted.
The tool was equipped by a quick chat. If working
Figure 2
like advertised, this application would have been of
Example of test of
a good use for architects quick communication. The
sketch behavior,
color choice bar would be great for multitouch im-
drawn on iPad with
plication, the users could fluently draw and change
Bamboo stylus:
colour. Flockdraw is an application with features clos-
Queeky multidraw
est to ColLab sketch.
FLATLAND
Discussion about Flatland was found in an article on
comparison of Computer aided tools for architectural
design by N.M.Segers at al. 2000. The application
was published in 1999 by E. Mynatt at al. and repre-
sents a type of collaborative tool that supports quick
Figure 3 sketching. A big whiteboard can be edited by a spe-
Example of test of cial pen, but apart of a few specialities like scaling or
sketch behavior, double line no interactivity is provided. We mention
drawn on Mac Book this already older tool in the context of dimensions
Pro with Bamboo of the device, which is in the size of a blackboard and
stylus: Flockdraw thus can be viewed by a collocated group of people.
Also the fast development of collaborative tools can
be tracked here. Flatland worked independently of
internet and thus no remote collaboration was en-
abled. Finally, Flatland gave us a proof of importance
of speed as a main criteria. It also emphasizes the size
of the drawing.

ADOBE CONNECT ing of the picture is easy, it doesnt offer Facebook or
This program is focused on providing users - the Twitter though.
team workers - a complex service from video and
Figure 4
voice streaming to filesharing and sketch. The prob-
Example of test of
lem is the size of the windows. When the number
sketch behavior,
of participants increases, the sketch surface remains
drawn on PG Labs
quite small. Also the speed of transmission of the
multitouch screen
sketches is not satisfactory when tested on PQ Labs
with finger: Adobe
multitouch screen in Value Lab (Nováková, Achten
Connect
2012). Adobe connect is flash based raster applica-
tion which might slow the drawing process. The ap-
plication has special modes for all platforms, where it
is incomparable with other on-line conferencing tool.
The cumbersome primary setting and the price (55
dollars/month) of the application makes it impossi-
ble to use just occasionally with somebody who is not
used to it like students. The advantage of this appli- Figure 5
cation is also the possibility of creating private new Example of test of
components, using the core of the application. sketch behavior,
drawn on iPad with
GoToMeeting Bamboo stylus:
Cheaper version of Adobe Connect is GoToMeeting Talkboard
by Citrix application (49dollars/month). The applica-
tion is focused on everything (teleconferencing, data
sharing, etc.) but sketching, which is though possi-
ble in limited way. Multiple platforms are supported:
you can work from Mac, PC, iPad, iPhone or Android
tablet. For us this tool must be mentioned because
one of GoToMeetings daughter applications special-
ized in drawing is Talkboard.
Figure 6
TalkBoard Example of test of
Most interesting for the purposes of sketch collabo- sketch
ration is Talkboard by Citrix released in 2013. It is a collaboration,
free whiteboard application for work on iPad. Talk- drawn on iPad with
board is configured only for iPad, so no multiplatfo- Bamboo stylus:
mality is offered. On the other hand drawing on iPad Talkboard
is most pleasant here, the tool is equipped with line
smootling and pressure simulating. The thickness of
the line is dependent on the speed of the stroke: the
faster you draw, the thicker the line is. For making
notes it is handy, for a sketch of a real scene the more
precise the sketcher needs to be and the slower he
drags, the less visible the line is. Exporting and sav-

ColLab sketch CRITERIA
The application we developed followed the princi- The quick set of criteria was derived from previous ex-
ple of learning by doing. We started by preparing periments and observation (Nováková, Achten 2012):
an empty interactive surface and added the functions architects need a fast and fluent sketch response.
the students desired until next meeting. After one They need a shared workspace to edit it in real time
year development focused on multitouch PQLabs de- and the possibility of fast save of the drawing. The
vice we changed from server based to web based color is not as important as the size of the stroke,
principle and oriented towards multi-platform tool. where the purpose of pre-set number of stroke-types
ColLab sketch has simple login and instantly visible differ from fluent changing, which is made possible
library, where sketch-storming takes place. It has no by multi-touch technology.
colours, but limitless variety of shades of grey. The Replay of the drawing is a function usable for
reason is the function of magic wand used by admin educative purposes, while background picture is re-
to see different contributers in colour. Multitouch is quired for architecture criticism. The easiness of log-
supported on multitouch devices, which uses ges- in process plays also a significant role.
tures in order to share or download sketches to work Since the architects are using many different
on them. types of devices the tool should be working on any
Figure 7 possible platform from large PQLabs multitouch col-
Example of test of laborative tables over Windows and MacOS desktops
sketch behavior, to iPads, Android and Linux mobile devices.
drawn on Cintique We also feel the importance of editable private
24HD with stylus in library of each collaborative session, where pictures
communication are saved for further purposes.
with iPad: ColLab Functions like chat or videoconferencing ser-
sketch vices may be incorporated into the drawing appli-
cation, where several disadvantages were described
during the experiments (reference omitted) like ca-
pacity demands or small sketch surface.
The new programming language HTML5 was
used to program web based drawing applications,
Figure 8 which makes them platform independent. The desk-
Example of test of top versions though are developed in various pro-
sketch behavior, grams: flash, MySQL + C etc. This makes communi-
drawn on Cintique cation complicated.
24HD with pen in We looked at other additional functions like chat
communication or video streaming added to the applications. We as-
with Mac book Pro: sume if all windows must fit onto one screen, the size
ColLab sketch of the whiteboard becomes of importance.
The option of archiving comes important to us,
where log-in allows multiple roles and users can edit
their sketches. Visible library with the possibility of
direct interaction within the drawing session seems
to us as a significant factor of the speed of the collab-
oration.

One of the most important characteristics is on- of several types of the tools. First of all we divided
line collaboration, where participants can draw into them in web tools and downloaded desktop tools.
one file synchronously. Second criteria was free or paid app. This we could
For architects, importing background picture divide into three categories: the expensive monthly
into their sketch board is relevant due to the need of purchased teleconferencing applications with extra
graphic reaction on existing or new designed works. service, sketch share applications which could be
In communication color is not as important as proper bought for up to 3 Euro and free sketching interac-
ratio of the background picture. tive collaborative tools.
Last but not least price of the application influ- We found no specific free sketch sharing col-
ences the possibility of its use for non profit purposes. laborative multiplatform application for architects.
The teleconferencing tools like Adobe connect po-
tentially fulfill their needs but they are cumbersome Table 1
and not easy to use by students. The sketch trans- Table of tools and
mission is not optimal as it works on raster based criteria
technology. Because of multiple windows there is
less space for sketching on the whiteboard, which
may be unpleasant when using small mobile device.
Other cheap applications are more easy to use, but
they struggle with multiple platforms, as they focus
only on one or two types of devices. Also in some
cases we found some important functionality miss-
ing, like "undo" button, "new sheet" or manipulating
and posting of ready sketches. Free applications have
rather good results: they are functional and able to
share sketches even on-line, usually they are miss-
ing the background option. In case of Queeky and
Flockdraw we noticed complicated registering sys-
tem and lack functionality on diverse platforms. Li-
braries exist but usually with no control over the pub-
lished sketches. Learning to use them may take sev-
eral hours. Additionally, Flockdraw is not supported Table 2
by Safari on MacOS, where it is impossible to start Issues from tool
drawing. We were able to run it with help of Firefox. testing
We feel that our new developed tool with its
functionality and multiple platforms operated can
find its position among low-cost or free web sketch
applications. The simple black and white back-
ground picture upload feature together with the role
IMPRESSION FROM BASIC TESTING (MA- assignment within sketch tool is unique among the
COS, IPAD, WINDOWS) compared applications.
We introduced some of the possible tools for sketch
sharing for architects with naming their advantages FUTURE WORK
and contras. The list of the applications is not com- Based on this comparison we look at the following fu-
plete, we tried identifying representative selection ture development. Log-in for example is an issue for

discussion. The access key for multiple users can be
varied with private login. In the case of pedagogic
purposes roles of teachers may be distinguished from
students roles. Also the question of physical devices
must be researched because it has crucial influence
on usability of the tools. We can already suggest, that
displays as small as smartphones or tables as big as
PQ Labs Multitouch may not be suitable for architec-
tural drawing and we might focus rather on devices in
the size of a tablet from A5 to A3. Now we have a pri-
vate independent application ColLab sketch, which
can be used for future research on electronic sketch-
ing.
REFERENCES
Cheng, NY and Lane-Cumming, S 2004 'Teaching digital
sketches', Design Communication Association’s 11th
Biannual conference in California
Elisabeth, MD, Igarashi, T, Edwards, WK and LaMarca,
A 1999 'Flatland: New Dimensions in Office White-
boards', CiteSeer
Goldschmitt, G 1994 'On visual thinking: the vis kids of
architecture', Elsevier
Nováková, K, Achten, HH, Treyer, L and Schmitt, G
2012 'Value Lab: Innovation in Teaching Visual De-
sign: There is Nothing to Wait for', Proceedings of
16th International Conference Information Visualisa-
tion, Montpellier
Segers, NM, Achten, HH and de Vries, B 2000 'A Compar-
ison of Computer-Aided Tools for Architectural De-
sign', Proceedings of the 5th Conference on Design and
Decision Support Systems in Architecture and Urban
Planning
Tang, HH, Lee, YY and Gero, JS 2010 'Comparing collab-
orative collocated and distributed design processes
in digital and traditional sketching environments: A
protocol study using function-behaviour – structure
coding scheme', Elsevier
Ullmann, DG, Craig, D and Wood, S 1990 'The importance
of drawing in the mechanical design process', Com-
puter & Graphics
[1] http://draw.to
[2] http://www.queeky.com
[3] http://flockdraw.com
[4] http://www.adobe.com/cz/products/adobeconnect.html
[5] http://www.citrix.com/products/talkboard/overview.html
[6] http://collab.bitwise.cz

Crowdfunding as a Collaborative Design Tool
Codefining the Variables for Mass Customisation Design Products
Matthias Kulcke
Hamburg University of Technology/
HafenCity University Hamburg
http://www.designfunding.com
matthias.kulcke@tu-harburg.de
Designfunding, defined here as a unique category of crowdfunding, is described

and explored regarding its potential to become an important collaborative design
tool for parametric design and mass customisation concepts. As it may serve,
among other aspects, the preliminary first-hand gathering of customer desires as
a basis for detailing a designer's conception of a design product, possibilities of
the integration of this tool into design-education are proposed and discussed. .
Keywords: Mass Customisation, Designfunding, Collaborative Design,

Crowdfunding, Parametric Design
INTRODUCTION will young designers and architects position them-

Crowdsourcing has already been explored by a lot of selves in the changing market and how can they use
enterprises as a method to optimize products by del- the development to their advantage?
egating designtasks to customers (Haderlein, 2012).
The information that can be gathered this way is val- 1. CROWDFUNDING DESIGN
ued to such a degree that some firms are willing Crowdfunding for designers of furniture and acces-
to pay for specialized services providing its collec- sories (here referred to as the subgroup design-
tion (Kotler, Kartajaya and Setiawan, 2010; Voß and crowdfunding or short: designfunding) is a special
Rieder, 2005). It is therefore one of the next impor- chapter in the short history of online crowdfunding-
tant steps to offer tools and strategies to future de- platforms as a vehicle of gathering financial and ideal
signers still learning the trade to take these tenden- support for the realization of product ideas. It has
cies and the integration of customers in the design- not yet reached mainstream as a marketing tech-
process into consideration while developing design- nique although crowdfunding and crowdinvestment
concepts. as a whole are on the rise, not only in North America
Not only furniture but also building parts like but also regarding its growing economic importance
doors, windows or glass-ceilings can already be or- in the EU (Lawton and Fairless, 2014). Nevertheless
dered and redesigned during an ordering process via the format has not gained a steady foothold with
user interfaces and special configurators on the web- customers as an online sales-tool in all the market-
sites of manufacturers (Piller, Piroozfar, 2013). Where areas one could think of applying it to and its explo-

ration as a unique way of initiating communication This contest was introduced to students of
and design-collaboration with customers is still at the the HafenCity University in the preceeding course
beginning. "Crowdfunding für Designer" (Crowdfunding for De-
signers). Strategies, pursued to improve the chances
1.1 Economic Significance and Potential of the participating designfundings, were the display
Crowdfundings aiming for the financing of a product- of prototypes in cooperating stores (stilwerk Ham-
series in the category of accessories and gadgets burg and Lokaldesign), setting up a designfunding-
for, in a lot of cases, popular brands in information- website [7], showcasing the designs and linking them
technology, have already been successful in the to the crowdfunding-platform (figure 1), as well as
past [1,5]. Designfundings labeled by the project- an accompanying special exhibition at the stilwerk
starters themselves or the administrators of the cho- Hamburg toward the end of the financing phases of
sen online-platform as belonging to the category of the projects.
design in general, as late as 2013 appeared not to
do this good over all (although there seems to be 2. CROWDFUNDING PHASES AND THE IN-
a tendency towards change [5,6]), especially if deal-
TEGRATION OF CROWDSOURCING IN ED-
ing with interior design objects (Kulcke, 2014). To
explore possible reasons as well as out of educa- UCATIONAL CONTEXT
tional interest, the author initiated in spring 2013, in The three phases of a crowdfunding, and thus for a
a cooperation with the Institute of Applied Building designfunding as well, are labeled broadly
Technology of the Hamburg University of Technology
• * Preparation or Pre-Campaign
(TUHH), the Hamburg Kreativgesellschaft mbH and
the Hamburger Möbelkooperation, the launch of a
contest under the label designfunding [4]. • * Starting Phase
• * Financing Phase or Fundraising

Figure 1
While some platforms don't require a starting phase Overview of the
it is mandatory on the regional platform Nordstarter contributions to the
(Hamburg) and the connected nationwide german contest [4]
site Startnext [2], which have been used in the con-
test. Especially when working with students this is
useful, because feedback from potential customers
and the dialogue with them can be initiated even be-
fore prototypes are built. It is this customer interac-
tion to which the potential educational value of de-
signfundings could be allocated first and foremost.
2.1 Preparation or Pre-Campaign

In preparation the content of the personalized
crowdfunding-page is developed and successively
uploaded; Nordstarter provides administrative feed-
back during this phase and also encourages ex-
change between campaigners through profession-
ally moderated events (crowdfunding-club). The

crowd, for better chances of success, should be pre- Now these interactions with supporters, already
gathered with the help of social networks like face- vital to designfundings in progress, might even be
book and twitter. extended and/or specified targeting something else;
the collection of substantial data as a base for de-
2.2 Starting Phase ciding upon fixed and variable parameters of the
In this phase project-starters go public and invite product/product-series. This goal is probably more
people to become fans of the project and the prod- likely to be reached if the initial product-concept in-
uct. Especially with students the question of intellec- cludes a mass customisation strategy, but it might
tual property arises and should be adressed by dis- also spawn from a designfunding that didn't aim for
cussing market-research and the options on how to mass customisation at first and is then changed ac-
protect ones claims. It is especially in this phase, that cording to customer responses pointing in this direc-
the project enters also a potential crowdsourcing- tion. Some designfundings even specify the design
phase. Since new products are developed, and some- of a future product-configurator as part of the cam-
times not even a first prototype has been produced paign goals [5] or promote mass customisation as a
before a first series is financed, the products adver- central marketing aspect and product feature [6].
tised in a crowdfunding-campaign are still subject to
change. This is not only due to the nature of the for- 2.3 Financing Phase or Fundraising
mat and of interest for professional designers and en- Even in the financing phase further relevant informa-
trepreneurs. It is also something educators should tion concerning final product appearance, favored
aim at, as part of teaching students to appreciate and or potential additional features and also customis-
use customer-interaction in the design-process and ability can be collected, by analyzing which product-
gain experience in this part of the game. configuration is preferably chosen from the list of
Elements that can be brought to the students' at- incentives presented to the customers who order
tention are for example: them.
And, since it is possible to list additional incen-
• Posting invitations to fans to make a contri- tives even while already in the financing phase, a
bution to the project-blog, considering the campaign-starter can react to, fine-tune and adjust
appearance and functions of the final prod- favored product-configurations, without having to
uct (these are automatically spread by email- alter a production; because production only starts af-
newsletter to those registered to the platform ter the fully financed designfunding has come to a
and who also chose to hit the fan-button of conclusion.
the project); To support students in the conception-phase as
well as while maintaining and improving their ideas
• Stating in the project description that a col- during the campaign, a facebook-page has been set
laborative design of the final product, in co- up under www.facebook.com/designfunding. Link-
operation with customers , is part of the aim; ing articles, ongoing designcrowdfundings and re-
lated videos as well as featuring illustrated hints, for
• Stressing in general the importance of team- example on how to work strategically with incentives
work as a basis for the campaign-strategy. to enhance the collaborative design-process and es-
tablish customer dialogue (figure 2), it strives to be-
This serves to motivate fans repeatedly to contribute come a forum for exchange of experience with de-
ideas and money to the project and at best to be- signfundings in the long run.
come customers by choosing the product itself as an
incentive for their monetary contributions.

3. LINKING MASS CUSTOMISATION, PARA- Figure 2
METRIC DESIGN AND CROWDSOURCING Illustration
As already stated, it makes a lot of sense to connect motivating to use
crowdsourcing via designfunding to the conception collaborative
of a parametric design. This is especially true, if the designfunding-
parametric design is aimed at the development of strategies
a mass customisable product or architecture. The
central question to be solved in parametric design is
which will be the variables and which will be fixed
parameters. This crucial question can be solved by
looking at the design-concept from the perspective
of future buyers.
Using graphic Makroprogramming in CAD
(Grasshopper and Rhino), students at the HafenCity
University Hamburg had to develop a parametric fur-
niture design for a shelf system in a course called
"Parametrisches Design" (Parametric Design) in sum-
mer 2013 held by the author. Furthermore it was
part of the project to design an accompanying user
interface for a future ordering process. To support
the completion of the task the students were also
introduced into the use of flow-charts and other in-
struments for the conceptional phase of computer-
software (figures 3 and 4).
Figure 3
In upcoming seminars the two approaches al-
Flowchart by
ready tested in "Parametric Design" and "Crowdfund-
ERASMUS-student
ing for Designers" will be linked even closer together
Nikolaios
in the students' project-work.
Gaitanopoulos
CONCLUSION
Especially designproducts for production in small
numbers by regionally active craftsmen and man-
ufacturers are suited for the described market ap-
proach and the parametric-design process sup-
ported by designfunding (figure 5), since cost-
intensive prototype production can be minimized
and focused on the most promising preconfigured
constellations in the case of a successful funding. Al-
though the recently released Indiegogo Hardware
Handbook advises campaigners to build works-like
and looks-like prototypes, it is, according to the con-
tributors, not vital for a campaign to build design-for-
manufacturing (DFM) prototypes [3]. This of course

Figure 4 a number of variables left to be chosen by customers
Shelfdesign by on the free market.
ERASMUS-student
Nikolaios REFERENCES
Gaitanopoulos Haderlein, A 2012, Die digitale Zukunft des sta-
tionären Handels - Auf allen Kanälen zum Kunden,
mi-Wirtschaftsbuch/Münchener Verlagsgruppe,
München
Kotler, P, Kartajaya, H and Setiawan, I 2010, Die neue
Dimension des Marketings – vom Kunden zum Men-
schen, Campus Verlag GmbH, Frankfurt am Main
Kulcke, M 2014 'Designfunding: An Inquiry-Tool for Mass
Customization', MCPC 2014, Aalborg, pp. 139-144
Lawton, C and Fairless, T. 2014, 'EU Hopes to Foster
Crowdfunding', The Wall Street Journal, 32(39), p.
1,16
Piller, F and Piroozfar, PAE 2013, Mass Customisation
and Personalisation in Architecture and Construction,
Routledge, New York
Voß, GG and Rieder, K 2005, Der arbeitende Kunde –
Wenn Konsumenten zu unbezahlten Mitarbeitern wer-
Figure 5 den, Campus Verlag, Frankfurt am Main
MC/Parametric [1] http://www.startnext.de/icrane
[2] http://faq.startnext.de
design in [3] http://landing.indiegogo.com/hardwarehandbook
designfunding [4] http://www.nordstarter.org/designfunding
[5] http://www.nordstarter.org/yunikue-fitted-bag
[6] http://www.startnext.de/comakeshoes
[7] http://www.designfunding.com
makes the technique also suitable for young design-

ers still involved in their studies, who are often not
equipped with the necessary budget to have a pro-
totype built, let alone testing a design-concept with

VR
New Virtual Reality for Architectural Investigations
Anette Kreutzberg
The Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts, School of Architecture
www.kadk.dk
anette.kreutzberg@kadk.dk
Visually decoding and evaluating digital 3D models in proper scale on screen

from within 3D modelling software can be quite difficult due to random
zoom-factors, Field of View (FOV) and eye height. Motion and interactive bodily
grounded examinations are helpful factors that can be enhanced with the use of
Virtual Reality (VR). The purpose of this phenomenological study is to address
these difficulties of perception of scale by introducing a Virtual Reality Head
Mounted Display (HMD) as an exploration tool and outlining possible ways of
utilising this tool in architectural teaching. To achieve the purpose findings of
perception of scale and distance; level of abstraction; navigation; and simulator
sickness will be discussed in relation to architectural investigation in VR. This
will be based on the experiences and findings during two workshops with
architecture students qualifying their conceptual designs with the VR HMD.
Keywords: Virtual Reality, Level of Abstraction, Oculus Rift HMD, Perception of

Scale, Simulator sickness
INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND AND METHODOLOGY

New VR Head Mounted Displays like Oculus Rift and First time experience with the Oculus Rift VR setup
Sony's Morpheus aimed at the consumer market are can be very overwhelming and immersive although
presently in development and might result in VR fi- the model immersed in might not be very photo-
nally succeeding as a wide spread medium. The in- realistic or "real". Occluding the real world makes
credible sense of presence and immersion in the Vir- the viewer surrounded completely by the VR environ-
tual Reality world will be made available for architec- ment. This is emphasized when turning the head and
tural simulations run on standard workstations and the vision doesn't reach the edge of any screen or vi-
gaming consoles as opposed to previous very ex- sual device - the model is all around.
pensive setups like CAVEs. This expected availabil- First reactions by most students were expres-
ity makes it interesting to explore the potentials of sions like: "Wow this is amazing". The fact that they
(re)using VR in architectural education as well as for could actually see large square pixels on the screen
professionals communicating architectural designs due to low resolution on the display screen did not
to customers or community. seem to distract or ruin the overall experience.
VR - Volume 2 - eCAADe 32 | 253

Workshops, exhibition, video recordings Technical and Practical Setup
and survey After previous workshops introducing game en-
When dealing with the architectural and bodily ex- gines as investigation tools for architectural design
perience of the city, VR makes it possible to realise (Kreutzberg 2011) we experienced the contradiction
the city's perspectival and spatial reality in real scale of students being very open to learning new digi-
1:1. During the initial workshop with 10 3rd year tal tools but then not having the time, commitment
architecture students (Bohn, Kreutzberg 2014), the or support to keep using these new tools in projects
VR setup was used to familiarise the students with after the workshops. It was therefore mandatory to
a route through their newly constructed imaginary keep the setup and use of the equipment as simple
city. A few students used the equipment extensively as possible.
to test different means of navigation and representa- The Oculus Rift Development Kit 1 (DK1) HMD was
tional abstractions while exploring the 3D city model. used directly together with SketchUp 3d modelling
An exhibition finalised the workshop, and the result- software through the WalkAbout3D plug-in. The
ing 3D city model was available for the public to ex- ease of use in connection with SketchUp was re-
plore in VR with the Oculus HMD in several sessions ally appreciated - no programming was needed, and
during a 14 days period, see figure 1. everything worked plug-and-play. 3D models were
investigated directly from within the 3D modelling
software or from the stand-alone application. Figure 1
Practical issues arose during the workshops since Visitor at the
only one HMD was available. Moving the equip- exhibition
ment between student workstations turned out to be exploring the tower
quite cumbersome and instead a laptop was set up as in the imaginary
"common investigation station" collecting the neces- city in VR.
sary files from the central school server and thereby
supporting the iterative creative design process, see
figure 2.
This setup also solved a problem with screen res-
olution: When the Oculus Rift HMD is connected to
a workstation, it is recommended to duplicate the
screens (the HMD and the computer screen) - and as
The second workshop, part of a 'Hybrid Villa' a consequence the computer screen resolution was
semester project with 11 2nd year architecture stu- reduced to 1280 x 800 pixels, making it difficult for
dents, focused on interior space perception. The students to continue working with their 3D models.
participants used VR to confirm space and volumes A protected environment was established to
in the initial design phase of a housing project. Stu- avoid unwanted interference: The mouse was locked
dents were video recorded while using the VR equip- (right click) and navigating controls were restricted
ment and interviewed at the same time about expe- to an Xbox360 controller. Fellow student observers
riences and findings. were asked to keep at a distance and not to touch ei-
A survey (made with Survey Monkey) was sent ther the person wearing the VR HMD or the equip-
out to participants of the workshops as well as other ment. Spoken communication was used extensively
students who were testing the VR equipment during during the VR sessions taking the form of interview
the same period. 20 respondents answered all or part and was recorded for later reference.
of the 40 questions regarding perception of scale; ab-
straction; navigation and simulator sickness.
254 | eCAADe 32 - VR - Volume 2

Figure 2 The Oculus Rift DK1 includes 3 sets of lenses, the
The 'common "A" lenses for normal to farsighted persons, "B" lenses
investigation for moderately near-sighted persons and "C" lenses
station' with a chair for very near-sighted persons, see figure 3. Only one
in front to help student required a change of lenses from A to C. The
stabilize viewing setup and calibration of the Oculus Rift to fit individ-
direction. ual inter-pupillary distances was easy and the result-
ing distance as well as the eye height was stored in a
personal profile. The head mounted devise was easy
to adjust for different head sizes but was not very
comfortable to wear. To obtain best stereoscopic ef-
fect the lenses were often felt to be too close to the
eyes. With a display screen resolution of only 1280
x 800 pixels shared between the two eyes the virtual
world was very rough and jagged.
The Oculus Rift DK1 hardware included a gyro-
scope, accelerometer, and magnetometer, see figure
4. The information from these sensors is combined
to determine the orientation of the user's head in the
real world, and to synchronize the user's virtual per-
Figure 3 spective in real-time.
The Oculus VR DK1 WalkAbout3d is an interactive 3d content viewer
HMD. capable of showing stereoscopic views, working as
a standalone program or as a SketchUp plug-in.
The plug-in distorts the visible area on the display
screen compensating the pinching error created by
the lenses, see figure 5.
For the general setup we selected: Controller
type (Xbox), screen size (Oculus = 1280x800) and side
by side stereoscopy. With the general setup in place
Figure 4 user input for each student could be limited to: First
Oculus Rift head scene selection, personal height, inter-pupillary dis-
tracking. tance and gender (for the avatar).
Figure 5
Pinch and barrel
distortion.

PERCEPTION OF SCALE AND DISTANCE IN the model on the computer screen. And besides this,
VIRTUAL REALITY I believe that the ability to move around in the project
The layout in most natural environments can be per- makes my continued work much more tangible, since
ceived through the use of nine or more sources of in- I now have a greater understanding of the project's
formation (Cutting, Vishton 1995). These nine cues: scale and shape."
occlusion, relative size, relative density, height in the Experiments with avatars were dismissed after a
visual field, aerial perspective, motion perspective, few try outs because the sense of immersion in the
binocular disparities, convergence and accommoda- virtual world was lost with a 3rd person view. Other
tion have different impact depending on their dis- means of establishing relative size were reference ob-
tance from the spectator. Within close range or "per- jects in the shape of human silhouettes and textures
sonal and action space" motion perspective, height with recognizable patterns.
in the visual field, binocular disparities and relative
size are important cues. Figure 6
Several studies of perception of space and dis- Pointing at issues in
tance in VR have found the impact of the same cues, the 3D model.
especially eye height (height in the visual field) and
avatars (relative size) to be important influences on
estimates of egocentric distances in VR (Leyrer, Linke-
nauger et al. 2011, Wartenberg, Wiborg 2003).
Our initial experiments with Oculus VR HMD
were performed sitting at a table, but the percep-
tion of the precisely calibrated virtual eye height did
not match the physical eye height and caused loss
of immersion, whereas standing up while navigat-
ing the virtual world in walk mode felt more natu-
ral.The eye height and head movement (motion per-
spective) were used extensively by students evaluat-
ing sizes and distances, see figure 6.
"I remember standing next to a building and try-
ing to assess if the height was appropriate, it worked
really well with the HMD. In particular evaluating the
tower in the virtual promenade, here I was sceptical
about the size (especially the height), but with the
Oculus VR HMD I could lean my head back to see the
top in a natural movement, and with that movement
I saw that the height was appropriate. It seems like
you can use this notion of leaning your head back to
Binocular disparities like stereopsis provides depth
assess the height of a building just like you do in the
information when viewing a scene with both eyes
real world".
and is achieved in VR by utilising 2 virtual cameras
Another student stated: "It was quite amazing
placed at the inter-pupillary distance of the user. Ac-
to see my 3D model in this way! It provided a com-
cording to Cutting (1997) stereoscopic depth cues
pletely different spatial understanding of the scale in
are especially relevant for spatial perception in "per-
the space I had created, in comparison to examining
sonal" space. Students measured their inter-pupillary

Figure 7 distance with a configuring utility provided from the
First iteration of a Oculus Developer site [1] for accurate stereoscopic
3D model without viewing.
coloured texture. 13 respondents answered questions in the sur-
vey about perception of scale in their own model. 11
students (84.62%) experienced different perception
of heights and distances viewing their model with
Oculus VR HMD compared to on screen in their 3d
modelling software. Only 2 students (15.38%) did not
experience any difference in heights and distances.
One student commented in the survey: "I have dis-
covered many things in my model, which I had never
seen otherwise. It was a really good tool to confirm or
Figure 8 dismiss ideas - if for example I was in doubt whether
Second iteration of my room sizes and ceiling heights were optimal."
a 3D model with 11 respondents placed reference objects in the
coloured texture. shape of human silhouettes in their model and all of
them ascribed these reference objects to have some
or great impact of perception of scale.
LEVEL OF ABSTRACTION
Architects are trained in reading 3D volumes from
lines only. Walking inside a 3D drawing, a model
without surface detail proved to be sufficient for gen-
eral observations and the flat coloured white surfaces
with hidden line shading worked really well with the
low resolution display screen. Several students were
inclined to clean up their models to remove unnec- "It enables a really good understanding of distances,
essary and disturbing lines from the surfaces. heights and depth and with improvements in future
Shadows would definitely have been helpful in versions we will probably be able to sense emotions
defining volumes and voids, but they were not stable and expressions in the model as well."
in motion producing heavy flickering and were there-
fore dismissed. Texture or colour on selected sur- NAVIGATION
faces provided better means of understanding com- Navigating in VR with a head mounted display oc-
plicated spaces, see figures 7 & 8. cluding the real world proved to be quite difficult;
16 respondents answered questions about ab- only experienced gamers felt comfortable with key-
straction in VR. 6 respondents (37.5%) applied colour board and mouse navigation blindfolded, figure 9.
or textures on selected surfaces of their model and 5 Other means of interacting with the VR envi-
of these claimed that texture or colour on selected ronment like game controllers, joy-sticks or body in-
surfaces provided better means of understanding teraction with Kinect were initially dismissed, since
complicated spaces. Only one respondent didn't ex- our setup was planned to be as simple as possi-
perience any difference in level of abstraction with or ble. As described earlier we started out using the
without textures. equipment sitting at a table. This was reconsid-

ered after a student tried to stand up while navi- ling the single button mapped for navigation. Only
gating, to mimic his own eye height. The benefits 2 (15.39%) respondents experienced difficulties con-
of immersion, by matching the physical eye height trolling rotation and forward movement.
to the VR eye height and avoiding double horizon Our experiments show that navigating VR space
confusion (Messing, Durgin 2005), compensated for blindfolded with a fully mapped game controller re-
the slight uneasiness or rather instability of standing quires practice, and with improved skills more func-
up, but made the keyboard and mouse navigation tions can probably be mapped to the available but-
even more difficult. A wireless Xbox360 controller tons successfully extending navigation and interac-
was mapped with all available functions. Holding tion possibilities.
the navigation device blindfolded in a standing pose
worked very well compared to handle keyboard and Figure 9
mouse but using multiple buttons without vision did First tryouts
not. Gamers used to hand held controllers could eas- navigating with
ily use many buttons for different tasks blindfolded, keyboard and
whereas non-gamers accidently pressed buttons and mouse blindfolded.
activated unwanted features.
Initially translation and rotation was mapped
separately using one button for each movement,
operated with left and right thumbs as in the de-
fault controller setup. To make navigation more pre-
dictable for non-gamers, the Xbox360 controller was
remapped to only support very basic functions, sim- Figure 10
plifying the navigation to only forward motion and Navigating the
left/right rotation, mapped to one single movable Xbox360 controller
button operated with the right thumb, see figure 10. with one button.
Some students then missed the possibility to
jump, strafe and move backwards, but accepted the
argument of trying to simulate real world movement
rather than first person shooter computer game nav-
igation.
18 respondents answered questions about nav-
igation in VR. 10 respondents tried to navigate with
keyboard and mouse. 2 (20%) of these respondents
had no difficulties at all navigating blindfolded, they
also considered themselves as experienced gamers.
7 (70%) respondents experienced some difficulties
navigating, they considered themselves as casual
gamers. 1 (10%) respondent had great difficul-
ties navigating with the mouse and keyboard blind-
folded, and had no prior knowledge of gaming.
13 respondents tried to navigate with the
Xbox360 controller. All 13 (100%) respondents were
comfortable with using the right thumb for control-

SIMULATOR SICKNESS Some of the sensory conflict issues we encountered
All benefits of Virtual Reality with HMD set aside, the during the experiments were hardware or software
issues of simulator sickness with the current Oculus related (the simulator) and could not be changed or
Rift DK1 need to be addressed. eliminated, they involved latency and lag, see fig-
Several theories of simulator sickness exist al- ure 11, binocular display, flicker, distortion correction
though none of them have highly predictable val- and screen resolution (Yao, Heath et al. 2014).
ues as to why it occurs or what triggers it. The most The provided Tuscan World Demo, see figure 12,
widely accepted theory of simulator sickness is the was dropped as an introduction and first try-out after
sensory conflict theory, according to which passive several students experienced severe simulator sick-
movement creates a mismatch between information ness, probably due to extreme head movements, as-
relating to orientation and movement supplied by cending stairs at high speed and vivid patterns in the
the visual and the vestibular systems, and it is this model. In the first workshop many of the students
mismatch that induces feelings of nausea (Reason, experienced simulator sickness and they did not feel
Brand 1975). comfortable using the equipment and resisted to use
it further.
Figure 11 We ensured that new users would be instructed
Extreme and fast in how to avoid the most obvious reasons we en-
head rotation countered for simulator sickness; keeping their head
provoked simulator centred and still when moving forward and espe-
sickness. cially when moving and changing direction at the
same time, only looking around when not moving
and avoiding exaggerated, sudden and fast rotations
of their head (the simulated task).
18 respondents answered questions regarding
simulator sickness. 8 respondents explored the Tus-
can World Demo. 5 (62.5%) of these respondents ex-
perienced severe simulator sickness, 2 (25%) experi-
Figure 12 enced a little simulator sickness and only 1 (12.5%) re-
The Tuscan World spondent did not experience any simulator sickness.
Demo with vivid 10 respondents only explored their own mod-
colours and els. 3 (30%) of these respondents experienced severe
patterns. simulator sickness, 4 (40%) experienced a little simu-
lator sickness and 3 (30%) respondents did not expe-
rience any simulator sickness.
9 (50%) of all respondents experienced less sim-
ulator sickness on subsequent sessions indicating
adaption and a possibility to reduce simulator sick-
ness by training.
Development Kit 2 (DK2), the newest develop-
Three categories of factors which are potentially in- ment version (shipping July 2014) of the Oculus Rift
volved with simulator sickness in virtual environ- HMD uses a low persistence OLED display to elim-
ments are those associated with the individual, the inate motion blur and judder, increasing the corre-
simulator, and the simulated task (Kolasinski 1995). spondence among the user's visual, proprioceptive,

vestibular, and motor systems hopefully significantly and knowing distances: The integration, relative
reducing simulator sickness. potency, and contextual use of different informa-
tion about depth', in Epstein, W and Rogers, S (eds)
1995, Handbook of perception and cognition, Aca-
CONCLUSION demic Press, San Diego, CA, pp. 69-117
The Oculus HMD is definitely a promising consumer Kolanski, EM 1995 'Simulator sickness in virtual environ-
market device for displaying and investigating archi- ments (ARTI-TR-1027)', Report for Army Research In-
tectural designs in VR. In our VR experiments stu- stitute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, Alexan-
dria, VA
dents experienced a better understanding of room
Kreutzberg, A 2011 'Game Engines as Dynamic Tools in
sizes and proportions than in their 3d modelling soft- the Design Phase', Proceedings of First International
ware on screen. Although plain models with flat Congress of Retevitruvio 2011, Bari, Italy, pp. 1585-
shading were sufficient in many cases, applying tex- 1593
tures to parts of the models increased the under- Leyrer, M, Linkenauger, SA, Bulthoff, HH, Kloos, U and
standing of scale and dimension especially in mod- Mohler, B 2011 'The Influence of Eye Height and
Avatars on Egocentric Distance Estimates in Im-
els with untraditional designs. Human representa-
mersive Virtual Environments', Proceedings of the
tions inset into the models also helped with reading ACM SIGGRAPH Symposium on Applied Perception in
the proper scale as did other well-known artefacts. Graphics and Visualization, pp. 67-74
Navigation was not intuitive and had to be trained. Messing, R and Durgin, FH 2005, 'Distance perception
Finally issues of simulator sickness were partly over- and the visual horizon in head-mounted displays.',
come by restricting the movement and by keeping ACM Transactions on Applied Perception (TAP), 2(3),
pp. 234-250
the sessions to a limited time of approximately 5 min-
Reason, JT and Brand, JJ 1975, Motion sickness, Academic
utes. press
Our experiments with the Oculus Rift VR head Wartenberg, C and Wiborg, P 2003, 'Precision of Exocen-
mounted display show great potential even with the tric Distance Judgments in Desktop and Cube Pre-
low resolution screen and latency problems in the sentation', Presence: Teleoper.Virtual Environ., 12((2)),
Development version 1 Kit used. Further studies pp. 196-206
Yao, R, Heath, T, Davies, A, Forsyth, T, Mitchell, N and
should focus on navigation and interaction as well as
Hoberman, P 2014, Oculus VR Best Practices Guide,
integration with different design software. The pos- Oculus
sibility of simulating natural human movement walk- [1] https://developer.oculusvr.com/
ing in a 360° tread mill seems promising and could
possibly limit cognitive efforts used for navigation. At
the same time this would free the use of handheld
devices for navigation to only pointing and other in-
teractions with the model.
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& Computers, 29(1), pp. 27-36
Cutting, JE and Vishton, PM 1995, 'Perceiving layout

From BIM to VR
Integrating immersive visualizations in the current design process
Mikael Johansson1 , Mattias Roupé2 , Mikael Viklund Tallgren3

1,2,3
Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden
1,2,3
{jomi|roupe|mikael.tallgren}@chalmers.se
This paper presents a system that allows immersive visualizations to become a

natural and integrated part of the current building design process. It is realized
through three main components: (1) the Oculus Rift - a new type of Head
Mounted Display (HMD) directed at the consumer market, (2) a real-time
rendering engine supporting large Building Information Models (BIM) that is, (3)
implemented as a plug-in in a BIM authoring software. In addition to provide
details regarding the implementation and integration of the different components
in our system, we present an evaluation of it from three different perspectives;
rendering performance, navigation interface and the ability to support fast design
iterations.
Keywords: Building Information Modeling, BIM, Virtual Reality, Real-time

rendering, HMD
INTRODUCTION 2005). With the ability to navigate freely through

During the design process of a building, it is im- 3D scenes from a first-person perspective, it is possi-
portant that all the involved actors understand, par- ble to present and communicate ideas regarding fu-
ticipate, communicate, and collaborate with each ture buildings in a way that facilitates understanding
other to obtain a high quality outcome of the de- among all involved parties, despite their background
sign process. Hall and Tewdwr-Jones (2010) highlight or professional expertise. While the use of this tech-
the communication difficulties between the differ- nology has been naturally limited in the past due to
ent stakeholders in the design and planning process. lack of available 3D data from the design process, the
Communication difficulties mainly occur as a result recent introduction of Building Information Models
of the different planning cultures, and because there (BIM) within the AEC field has opened up new pos-
is insufficient collaboration and information sharing sibilities. With the use of BIM the required 3D data
during the process. The most common problem is can be extracted from the architect's own design-
that the information is not presented in such a way environment, instead of creating it from scratch us-
that people can understand it. ing 2D-plans, elevations and sketches as a reference.
In this context, real-time visualizations and Vir- Because of this, use of real-time visualizations has
tual Reality (VR) have been shown to offer an effi- become more accessible in practice.
cient communication platform (Bouchlaghem et al.,

To further enhance user experience it is com- • Limited BIM-support: Even if created with vi-
monly advocated to take advantage of immersive sualization in mind, real-time constraints and
display technologies. Although real-time visualiza- stereo rendering often require the input 3D
tions have been shown to be useful per se, stere- data to be further optimized in order to be
oscopy, large screen and wide field of view all pro- fully functional in the VR environment. When
vide additional benefits. When comparing a non- considering BIMs this process typically be-
immersive (monitor) solution to a four-screen (3 walls comes even worse due to a large number of
and a floor) CAVE solution, Shiratuddin et al. (2004) individual objects and high geometric com-
found consistently higher ratings for the latter re- plexity (Dalton and Parfitt, 2013). In addition,
garding level of realism, ease of navigation, sense of many BIM authoring applications have limited
scale and overall suitability for design and decision- or missing support for materials and texture
making tasks. definitions when exporting 3D-data for visu-
In this context, Head Mounted Displays (HMD) alization purposes (Kumar et al., 2011).
also represents a viable option. Still, as avail-
In this paper we present a solution that overcomes
able alternatives (until very recently) have been ei-
the above mentioned limitations and allows immer-
ther low-cost-low-performance or high-cost-high-
sive VR to become a natural and integrated part of
performance devices (Dörner et al., 2011), CAVEs and
the design process. It is realized through three main
PowerWalls have emerged as the de facto standard
components: (1) the Oculus Rift Head Mounted Dis-
when it comes to immersive visualizations. When
play (HMD) - a comparably low cost device that sup-
considering practical applications, these types of so-
ports a large field of view, stereoscopic viewing and
lutions have been shown beneficial during the de-
physically rotation, (2) an efficient real-time render-
sign of hospital patient rooms and courtrooms, as
ing engine supporting large 3D datasets that is (3) im-
well as for design review sessions in general (Cas-
plemented as a plug-in in a BIM authoring software.
tronovo et al., 2013).
However, when considering the integration and
use of immersive VR within the actual design process, A PORTABLE SYSTEM FOR IMMERSIVE BIM
the current adaptation in the AEC field still suffers VISUALIZATION
from a number of limitations: Figure 1 shows the different components of our pro-
posed system: The Oculus Rift HMD, the real-time
• High cost: Even if the cost of display and PC
viewer application implemented as a plug-in in Revit
hardware has been rapidly decreasing over
Architecture and a so-called PowerPoint remote con-
the past years, fully or semi-immersive solu-
trol used as a navigation interface, all connected to a
tions such as CAVEs or PowerWalls are still ex-
lightweight laptop. In the following subsections we
pensive (DeFanti et al., 2011).
present and discuss these components in more de-
• Limited accessibility: Regardless of dis- tail.
play technology (e.g. immersive or semi-
immersive), the use of a specific room or stu- The Oculus Rift HMD
dio will naturally restrict visualization sessions In order to provide an immersive visualization en-
to a single location. Even if situated close to vironment our proposed system takes advantage of
the designers working environment it makes the Oculus Rift HMD. The Rift is a new affordable (ex-
the use of VR less accessible, both physically pected price range $300-$350) virtual reality device
and mentally. This immobility has also been directed at the consumer's market, mainly to provide
reported inconvenient for clients and other immersive experiences for videogames. Although
stakeholders (Sunesson et al., 2008). currently only available in the form of a Developer Kit,

Figure 1
System overview;
the Oculus HMD,
the Revit Viewer
plug-in and the
PowerPoint remote
control
it is expected to be available on the broad consumer enabled, followed by a full-screen post-processing

market during 2015. The device provides approxi- step. Obviously, these requirements put addition-
mately 100° field of view, stereoscopic 3D view and ally stress on the graphics hardware, which, in turn,
includes a gyroscope, an accelerometer and a mag- put high demands on a rendering engine to deliver
netometer to determine the orientation of the user's enough rendering performance to support an inter-
head in the real world. active experience.
As with any other stereo-providing display solu-
tion the 3d scene has to be rendered twice, once for The rendering engine
each eye. In the case of the Rift this is implemented An important property for any type of real-time visu-
by means of split-screen rendering, where the left alisation system is its ability to maintain a sufficiently
half of the screen corresponds to the left eye, and vice high frame rate. For typical desktop applications (i.e.
versa. With a full-screen resolution of 1280 x 800 pix- non-immersive) 15Hz is often considered a minimum
els, this gives an effective resolution of 640 x 800 per (Yoon et al. 2008), although 30 or 60 Hz is generally
eye. advocated in order to provide a satisfactory level of
However, although this approach to support interactivity. However, for HMDs, such as the Ocu-
stereo vision is conceptually simple, the actual ren- lus Rift, the minimum interactivity-demands are typ-
dering process is a bit more involved. Due to the ically higher, as physical interaction and display up-
lenses, which provide an increased field of view, a date becomes much more integrated. Ultimately, a
pincushion distortion of the image is introduced. To user's head movement should directly correspond to
cancel out this effect, the rendering has to be done an update of the display in order to reduce the risk of
at a higher resolution, followed by a post-processing potential conflicts between visual-vestibular sensory.
step that performs a barrel distortion. Preferably, an- In this context a minimum frame rate of 60 Hz is of-
tialiasing should also be enabled, as this greatly en- ten recommended (Adelstein et al., 2003), although
hances the image quality. higher values have also been proposed (Jerald, 2010).
So, in effect, even if the devices' resolution is When considering that the task of visualizing
"only" 1280 x 800 pixels, the actual rendering (rasteri- BIMs interactively is known to be a challenge in it-
zation) has to be performed at a much higher resolu- self (Steel et al., 2012; Johansson and Roupé, 2012),
tion (i.e. 2194 x 1371) , potentially with antialiasing the frame rate requirements posed by using an HMD

thus put very high demands on the rendering engine. The Revit plug-in
This, especially, as the 3D dataset has to be rendered Figure 2 illustrates how our viewer plug-in is inte-
twice every frame in order to support stereoscopic vi- grated in Revit from a user's perspective. With a BIM
sion, followed by a full-screen post-processing step. loaded in Revit the viewer is initialized from the Add-
To address these requirements we have devel- Ins tab, resulting in the real-time 3D visualization rep-
oped an efficient rendering engine that takes advan- resentation becoming visible in a new window. After
tage of two characteristics shared by typical building that a user is free to either navigate the model in a
models - high level of occlusion and frequent reuse typical desktop fashion using mouse and keyboard,
of identical building components. The engine, which or connect the Oculus HMD to experience the model
is described in more detail in (Johansson and Roupé, immersively.
2012) and (Johansson, 2013), uses an efficient occlu- From a programmers point of view the plug-
sion culling algorithm to restrict rendering efforts to in extracts the required 3D data through the Re-
visible objects only, and takes advantage of hardware vit C# API, which exposes the entire underlying BIM
instancing to render replicated building components database. To speed-up the data extraction process
efficiently. These two acceleration techniques com- and to keep the memory footprint low, we take ad-
plement each other and are essential in order to fulfil vantage of geometry instancing (i.e. that several
the requirements in terms of interactivity. However, identical components can share the same geomet-
we do not primarily use this rendering engine in a rical representation), which is an integral part of the
separate application. To support an integrated de- internal Revit database. Every time a unique geomet-
sign environment we have instead implemented it as ric representation is encountered for the first time, all
a viewer plug-in in Autodesk Revit. of its data is extracted. For all subsequent cases the
previously extracted geometry data is used in combi-
nation with a unique transformation.
Figure 2
The viewer plug-in
interface in Revit

Figure 3 For very experienced users that daily works with, and
System architecture navigates in, 3D models this does not necessarily
pose itself as a problem, however, for people with less
experience it can easily become a huge obstacle.
In order to allow for any type of user we have
therefore developed a very simple navigation inter-
face by means of a so-called PowerPoint remote con-
trol. As illustrated in Figure 4, a user can move for-
ward or back by pressing the corresponding buttons
on the remote control, with the direction of move-
ment being decided by the user's orientation of the
head.
Figure 4
The navigation
interface
As the rendering engine and the Oculus API is
written in C++, the different software components
needs to be connected through a C++/Cli bridge
(Heege, 2007). The complete architecture is illus-
trated in Figure 3 and also shows how the GUI-
module is separated from the actual plug-in, essen-
tially allowing us to run the viewer as a standalone
application on a system without Revit installed, with
identical interface.
Previous versions of the Revit API did not expose
material data such as colors and textures, making it
very difficult to use BIMs, without further treatment,
for visualization sessions related to aesthetics. Fortu-
nately, since version 2014, the API has been extended SYSTEM EVALUATION
with a Custom Export API, that facilitates the extrac- To illustrate the effectiveness of our proposed system
tion of material and texture data as well as texture co- we present an evaluation of it from three different
ordinates. Because of this, it is now possible to ex- perspectives - rendering performance, navigation in-
tract complete visualization models, with materials terface and the ability to support fast design itera-
and textures assigned, directly from the BIM author- tions. As test-model we have used a BIM received
ing software. from a real-world project, a ten-story office building
which is currently being built in Gothenburg, Swe-
The navigation interface den (Figure 2). The model is primarily an architec-
The use of an HMD makes traditional navigation in- tural model, with no Mechanical, Electrical or Plumb-
terfaces, such as ones with keyboard and a mouse ing (MEP) data present, however it does contain fur-
harder to master. As the user cannot see anything niture and other interior equipment (See Figure 5).
in the real world, even seemingly simple tasks, such The model was created in Revit Architecture 2013
as pressing a specific key on the keyboard or even and contains approximately 4,400,000 triangles, dis-
grabbing the mouse becomes much more involved. tributed over 15,000 individual objects.

ception appears during parts of both camera paths Figure 5
on the laptop system when antialiasing is enabled. Interior viewpoint
Although not by much (the lowest recorded frame at the third level of
rates are 52 Hz and 48 Hz, respectively) it is defi- the test-model
nitely below our target frame rate of 60 Hz. Still,
as antialiasing-capacity scale well with GPU perfor-
mance (which is not necessarily the case with 3D
model complexity due to driver overhead), we ex-
pect this particular issue to be solved by increasingly
faster GPUs. This, especially when also considering
that these tests were performed on a, at the time of
writing, two year old laptop.
Rendering performance Nevertheless, without antialiasing activated, our
The rendering performance test was performed on rendering engine can provide the required level of in-
two different computers, one workstation and one teractivity, even on a lightweight laptop system.
laptop. The workstation was equipped with an Intel
i7 3.06 GHz CPU, 6 GB of RAM and an Nvidia GeForce Navigation interface
GTX 570 GPU running Windows 7 x64. The laptop As part of a different, but related, research project
was equipped with an Intel i7 1.9 GHz CPU, 4 GB of we have performed an initial evaluation of the nav-
RAM and an Nvidia GeForce GT 620M GPU running igation interface with members of the on-site team
Windows 8 x64. On both system, two different cam- that is currently erecting the real building. This group
era paths was used; one interior at the third floor of of people included the site manager as well as five
the building, and one exterior at the ground-level in construction workers from different sub-trades (pip-
front of the building. The results from these tests are ing, ventilation, sprinklers, prefab and electrical). No
presented in Figure 6. To better illustrate the per- one, except for the site manager, had any previous
formance gain offered by our rendering engine we experience from working with, or navigating in, 3D-
also present performance results obtained when only models. While freely navigating and inspecting the
view frustum culling is enabled (i.e. only discarding digital representation of the building that they were
objects that are outside the cameras view frustum). currently erecting, they were asked questions regard-
The following abbreviations are used (and combined) ing how they felt that this type of interface could help
in the plots: OC for Occlusion Culling, HI for Hardware them extract information to support their daily work
Instancing, VFC for View Frustum Culling, and MSAA and what additional features they would like the sys-
for 4x MultiSample AntiAliasing. tem to have. Except for the electrical trade worker,
As can be seen in the plots, the use of additional they all expressed that this type of visual interface
acceleration techniques is vital in order to provide helped them to get a better understanding, not only
the required level of interactivity. With only view frus- in terms of specific details, but also for the project as
tum culling enabled (VFC) it becomes very difficult to a whole.
guarantee a minimum frame rate of 60 Hz, even on However, perhaps more interesting in this con-
the workstation system. In fact, for the given camera text, is the fact that we observed that all of them, in-
paths, not even 20 Hz can be guaranteed on both sys- cluding the electrical trade worker, were able to navi-
tems. gate in the model with ease. Based on our own previ-
However, with the combined use of occlusion ous experience we know that this is typically not the
culling (OC) and hardware instancing (HI) it is possi- case when inexperienced people are faced with the
ble to fulfil the interactivity demands. The only ex-

Figure 6
Frame rates for the
exterior (top) and
interior (bottom)
camera paths on
the workstation
(left) and the laptop
(right) system
(OC=Occlusion
Culling,
HI=Hardware
Instancing,
MSAA=4xMultiSample
AntiAliasing,
VFC=View Frustum
Culling).
task of navigating in a 3D-model using the keyboard modification of simple geometry. In contrast, our
and a mouse (i.e. mouse-look and WASD). examples are much more involved, as they include
operations on fairly complex objects that also affect
Design iterations other objects. For instance, when changing windows
The benefit of having the visualization environment to a type that is geometrically smaller or larger, the
closely connected to the BIM authoring environment geometry for the host object, the wall, needs to be
becomes especially clear when considering rapid de- recomputed in order for the opening size to match
sign iterations. To illustrate this we will provide two the corresponding window size. Although such func-
concrete examples applied to our test-model: one is tionality would have been technically possible to
the change of window types on one of the facades implement in our viewer, we have instead focused
and the other is the removal of two conference rooms on making the "conversion" from design-model to
on the third floor in order to extend the office land- visualization-model as fast as possible. In the case of
scape area. our test model, this process takes approximately 20
Although solutions have been proposed where seconds. That is, regardless of modification, the only
it is possible to modify architectural models directly time needed to produce a new version of the immer-
in an immersive environment (Schulze et al., 2014), sive visualization will be the time required to make
these systems typically only support insertion and the actual modifications in Revit, plus 20 seconds. For
repositioning of pre-made objects or creation and the examples described above this time corresponds

Figure 7
Before (left) and
after (right) rapid
design
modifications. Top
row illustrates
removal of
conference room.
Bottom row
illustrates change of
window types.
to 3 minutes and 2.5 minutes, respectively. In Figure sign environment this rendering engine has been im-
7, these two modifications are illustrated with "before plemented as a viewer plug-in in Autodesk Revit. Be-
and after" screenshots. cause of this, immersive design review sessions can
be performed directly in the BIM authoring software
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK without the need to export any data or create a sep-
We have presented a system that allows immersive vi- arate visualization model.
sualization to become a natural and integrated part In addition, we have presented an initial evalu-
of the building design process. By using the Ocu- ation of the proposed system with a BIM received
lus Rift HMD we are able to provide an immersive vi- from a real-world project. Regarding rendering per-
sualization environment without the need of a ded- formance, navigation interface and the ability to sup-
icated facility to host a PowerWall or CAVE installa- port fast design iterations, we have shown that it has
tion. In addition to greatly reduce investment costs, all the needed properties in order to function well in
this feature also makes the use of VR within a project practice.
become physically more accessible. As the technol- For future work we are considering several dif-
ogy is portable, clients and design team members ferent directions, including studies related to spatial
can take advantage of immersive visualization ses- understanding with HMDs, enhancement of the in-
sions without the need to travel to a specific location. teraction interface, investigation of benefits with our
To further address accessibility, we have devel- system in different contexts (i.e. design review, plan-
oped a rendering engine capable of managing large ning, on-site information extraction, etc.) as well as
and complex 3D datasets in real-time. As a result further research to improve rendering performance.
we can directly visualize large and complex BIMs, in
stereo, without the need to manually optimize or pre-
pare the input dataset. To support an integrated de-

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Space Perception in Virtual Environments
On how biometric sensing in virtual environments may give architects
users's feedback
Miguel Sales Dias1 , Sara Eloy2 , Miguel Carreiro3 , Elisângela Vilar4 , Sibila Marques5 ,
Ana Moural6 , Pedro Proênça7 , Joana Cruz8 , Jorge d'Alpuim9 , Nelson Carvalho10 ,
António Sérgio Azevedo11 , Tiago Pedro12
1,10,11
Microsoft Language Development Center, Lisbon, Portugal
1,2,3,4,6,7,8,9,12
ISCTE Inst. Universitário de Lisboa, ISTAR-IUL, Lisbon, Portugal
5
ISCTE Instituto Universitário de Lisboa, CIS-IUL, Lisbon, Portugal
1,10,11
http://www.microsoft.com/pt-pt/mldc 1,2,3,5,7,9,12 http://www.iscte-iul.pt
1,2,3,4,6,7,8,9,12
http://www.istar.iscte-iul.pt
1,10,11
{Miguel.Dias|t-nelc|t-serg}@microsoft.com
2,3,4
{sara.eloy|miguel_carreiro|elisangela.vilar}@iscte-iul.pt
5,6,7
{sibila.marques|ana_margarida_moural|pedro_filipe_proenca}@iscte-iul.pt
9,12
{jorge_alpuim|tiago_miguel_pedro}@iscte-iul.pt 8 joana-crz@hotmail.com
This paper focuses on the objective study of emotions, namely, fear induced by
architectural spaces, by sensing and statistically analysing some physiological
signals of users experiencing Virtual Environments (VE). For this, a virtual
building was designed considering the presence of stairs and ramps as
architectural elements that could affect users´ physiological states and perception
of fear of falling. Thirty-one older persons participated in this study and were
assigned to two experimental conditions (i.e., safe and unsafe conditions). Five
main locations (beginning of the stairs; neutral room; first descending ramp;
ascending ramp; and the middle of ascending ramp) were considered along the
participants' path, and heart rate (HR) was collected in the vicinity of those
locations. Results shown significant differences in HR activation among neutral,
beginning of stairs and middle of ascending ramp. Despite the fact that the effect
of condition was not fully verified for HR, participants reported more fear while
interacting with the unsafe condition, with significant differences between
conditions.
Keywords: Virtual environments, space perception, biometric sensing, emotion,

ambient assisted living, architecture design

INTRODUCTION back (physiological response) that s/he can correlate
This paper addresses the problem of the objec- with the users' potential behaviours in space.
tive assessment of emotions induced by architecture In this paper, we address specially the emotion of
spaces in its inhabitants, with an original contribu- "fear" for the specific condition "fear of falling", expe-
tion where we study a single emotion ("fear") sensed rienced by older people. Our study is being carried
by a particular user group (older persons), on a spe- out in the context of Ambient Assistive Living (AAL)
cific condition ("fear of falling"). In our approach, and by a team interested in technology-based solu-
we classify such emotional condition by objectively tions, as serious games and assistive technologies, for
sensing and statistically analysing some physiolog- older persons and disable citizens, to enable them
ical signals of older persons while walking through to live healthier, with more independence, mobility
pre-defined locations in spaces designed for an im- and safety. The presented research is a pilot study
mersive virtual environment (as opposed to a real in which the measurement of physiological reactions
space), in a lab setting, and correlate such classifi- aim to inform the architect's knowledge about users'
cation with subjective post-experimental question- emotion when confronted with specific building ele-
naires. ments and spaces and then bring that information to
Our research goes along with the principles set the design of buildings and other spaces. According
out by Hillier & Hanson (1984) about the existence to universal design strategies a space that is accessi-
of a strong link between the constructed environ- ble for older persons and people with disabilities is
ment and human behaviour. Other authors, namely inherently accessible also to citizens without disabil-
Ferreira et al. (2012), claim that it is possible to de- ities, allowing the space to be inclusive and comfort-
sign architecture spaces according to the emotions able for all. In this scope testing older persons ex-
that they can generate in the users and, further argue periencing a designed space in which architectural
that this strategy will maximize their psychological elements are part of the accessibility recommenda-
well-being. The study reported in this paper follows tions for buildings will give us the border levels of re-
also on our prior experimental work (Dias et al, 2014), actions.
where we´ve shown that physiological measurement
of user's perceptions while navigating in Virtual Re- Background: phenomenology, space per-
ality (VR) in a specially designed architectural space, ception and virtual environments.
can discriminate well bi-level cases, namely, "neg- Man's level of comfort increases as he controls the en-
ative" spaces (which induce emotions close to fear vironment that surrounds him. In architecture spaces
of heights, claustrophobia, sadness and frustration) that have the ability to defy our safety state, we have
from "positive" ones (which generate feelings of hap- accustomed ourselves to find elements with the aim
piness, pleasantness and confidence). to restore this protection level. If, for some reason,
This research falls in the broader goal of our these elements are not present in a space, our expec-
group of informing the architectural design process, tation is not confirmed, our conscience of the world
in its conceptual stages, of the emotions that the de- that surrounds us is awaken, and our senses and emo-
signed spaces induce in users. Our team´s intention tions arise (Merleau-Ponty, 1962). Our team recog-
is to address this problem via objective measurement nizes that stairways, ramps and its handrails are ar-
and statistical analysis of physiological signals while chitectural spaces and elements that may originate
the user experiences VR, from where we can deter- emotions and provoke feelings such as fear, namely,
mine the sensed emotion. We believe that this ap- the fear of falling, since they are related to the ba-
proach enables us to inform better design solutions, sic survival instincts and levels of wellbeing regard-
since it provides the designer with high-level feeding man's safety and comfort. Therefore, we took a

specific interest in studying the interaction of our tar- both the interaction in VE and in real space (e.g., Wit-
geted users (older persons) with those spaces and mer, 1996).
elements, in the framework of our VR experiments.
In fact, considering older persons, the perception of RESEARCH HYPOTHESES
space may be influenced by their increasingly lack of This exploratory research aims to investigate in a
mobility and walking speed as well as by their de- quantitative way the influence of architectural el-
graded sensory skills such as vision, hearing and at- ements (i.e., stairs and ramps, with and without
tention. This leads to the fact that, for older and also handrails) on the comfort of use of a built environ-
for disable people the difficulty to access buildings ment, namely considering the fear of falling reported
represent their major limitation (Foster et al., 1998). by older persons while using these architectural ele-
Falling is the type of accident that occurs more reg- ments.
ularly within older people and the fear of falling in- The main hypothesis considered to design this
creases with aging mainly because of the loss of mus- study is that architectural spaces activate emotional
cle strength (Melo, 2011) as well as leads to a de- reactions in its inhabitants and those reactions may
crease of the quality of life of seniors (Feder et al, be objectively classified by capturing physiological
2000). Some architecture elements like ramps and data (i.e., skin conductance, heart electrical activity).
specially stairs, are seen as construction barriers by Considering this, we´ve drawn as hypotheses:
the seniors which fear to fall in them (Tiedemann et H1) Facing selected architectural elements (i.e.,
al., 2007). stairs and ramps, with and without handrails), within
Emotions, like fear, are studied by several authors the virtual environment, will trigger a physiological
who are working on relating them with the physio- activation that can be measured by sensing the Heart
logical system (see Kreibig, 2010). Clearly studying Rate, that is significantly different from the same type
emotions and physiological activity, for the cases ad- of physiological data acquired from neutral parts (i.e.,
dressed in our research, in a real environment seems rooms), and that can be related to the emotion of
difficult and risky for older persons. However the "fear of falling" reported by Tiedemann, Sherrington
use of immersive Virtual Environments (VE), with real and Lord (2007);
time interactive behavior and depicting a real scale H2) The physiological activation based in Heart
experience (Whyte, 2002), enables older persons to Rate and the fear and anxiety of falling reported by
visualize and manipulate the real world representa- the participants, will be higher for insecure situations
tions (Aukstakalnis & Blatne, 1992), without compro- (i.e., when the architectural elements are presented
mising their safety. In this context, VR emerge as an without handrail/railings).
applicable computing technology that, by using sim-
ulation, interaction, artificiality, immersion and full- Methodology and experimental design
body immersion, sense of presence and networking, An experimental methodology was adopted with a
allows the study of all kind of architectural spaces in 2x6 mixed-design was considered to verify the hy-
a short period of time (Jansen-Osmann 2002). With potheses: i) A within-subject related to the archi-
the access to an immersive VR facility such as a CAVE, tectural factor (6 elements: neutral room, stairs,
the experience of architecture spaces approaches the ramp descending, middle of ramp descending, ramp
level of those of the real and physical world. When ascending and middle of ramp ascending); ii) A
using a VE to measure user's reaction to architecture between-subject related to the secure factor (2 ex-
spaces we need to ensure that people's behavior in perimental conditions called safe and unsafe condi-
the VE is the same as it would have been if they were tions).
in the real space. Studies have been done relating For the safe condition, a safety element (i.e.,

handrail or railing) was inserted in stairs and ramps was developed based on requirements defined on
presented in the VE. For the unsafe condition, the systematic brainstorming meetings by the research
safety element was not available. The dependent team. It was established the existence of neutral
variables were the physiological signals (i.e., heart rooms that would act as stabilizers of the participants'
rate - ECG, from where we derive the Heart Rate - HR) physiological signals, and that served as the baseline
and the perceived fear. The methodology and pro- for comparisons with participants' physiological sig-
cedures adopted for this study were in accordance nals when facing the studied architectural elements.
with the approved ethical standards of the respon- Thus, the designed VE consisted of: one first room
sible committee on human experimentation (ISCTE- with 30m long by 5.5m wide (neutral room 1 - Fig. 1);
IUL Ethics Committee) and with the Helsinki Declara- two flights of stairs with 12 steps each (0.28x0.18m)
tion of 1975, as revised in 2000. and 1.5m wide (Fig.2); one second neutral room (neu-
tral room 2) with the same characteristics of the first
Participants neutral room; two flights of ramps with 10m long
Participants were recruited at two community cen- by 1.5m wide and 20% slope (Fig.3); one horizontal
tres in Lisbon, as volunteers. However a financial in- plane with 1.5m wide by 10m long (Fig, 4) and a ramp
centive for improvements in the institution was com- with the same dimensions and with 40% slope (Fig,
bined. They were selected considering the following 4 and 5); and finally, a third neutral room (neutral
admission criteria: i) Having 65 years old, or more; ii) room 3) also similar to the first neutral room. Stairs
Having normal sight or using corrective lenses; iii) Be and ramps were designed according to standard con-
able to stand up without support for a long period struction regulations.
of time; iv) Do not have pacemakers; v) Do not suffer
from claustrophobia; vi) Do not suffer from dizziness. Figure 1
Before the experimental test, all participants Screenshot from
were asked to sign a Term of Consent. Participants' Neutral room
physical or mental conditions that would prevent
them from participating in a VR simulation were eval-
uated through self-report and direct observation by a
researcher and by a community centre psychologist.
Thus, thirty-one older persons, between ages 66
and 91 years old (Mean (M) = 78.5; Standard Devia-
tion (SD) = 7.2) participated in this study and were
randomly assigned to the two experimental condi- It was decided to use a grey concrete texture for all
tions. Due to issues related to data acquired by ECG walls that included a rectangular frame simulating
data sensor, data from ten participants were removed the concrete formwork. All floors had a grey scale
and the final sample was twenty-one older persons as well and a square pattern simulating floor tiles.
between ages 66 and 91 years old (M = 77.6; SD = 7.4), These finishings were selected to simulate a regular
randomly distributed across the experimental condi- environment. Lighting was also constant for all en-
tions. vironment with 5 light points inserted. All of them
with the same attenuation factor (linear/quadratic =
Designing the virtual environment 0) and falloff distance (25m).
For this study, a virtual building was developed in For the unsafe condition, the VE was presented
which participants were able to explore and expe- to the participants as described. For the safe con-
rience the studied architectural elements (i.e., stairs dition, handrails were inserted alongside stairs and
and ramps, with and without handrails). This VE ramps. Screenshots from the safe and unsafe condi-

tions can be seen at Fig. 2, 3, 4 and 5, respectively left questionnaire with images of the virtual envi-
and right. ronment in selected points (i.e., top of stairs,
For training purpose, it was developed another top of ramp, beginning of the plan and middle
VE, in which two neutral rooms were connected in a of the ascending ramp). A Likert-type scale
"L" shape. The same textures and navigational strat- (Likert, 1932) with seven points (1= nothing;
egy were used for this training environment so that 7=very much) was used to evaluate user's per-
users were already familiar with the process. ceptions of fear of falling.
Experimental settings • Sense of Presence - Some items from Pres-

A semi-immersive VR setup called PocketCave was ence Questionnaire (Witmer & Singer, 1998)
used for this experiment, in which images were pro- and from SUS questionnaire, based on the au-
jected on a 4m x 3m screen by a stereoscopic pro- thors' research Slater, Usoh & Steed (1994),
jector (DepthQ HDs3D-1), and visualized with active were applied to evaluate the sense of pres-
glasses (nVIDIA® 3DVision(TM)2). The observation ence.
distance (i.e. the distance between the observers'
eyes and the screen) was 3.50m. The virtual camera Experimental protocol
had 45° of horizontal field of view (FOV) and 33° of The experimental session was divided in two parts,
vertical FOV, approximately. Participants could nav- prospecting and experiment. For the prospecting
igate through the virtual environment using a joy- part, a researcher went to the community centre to
stick (Logitech Extreme 3D Pro) with a constant dis- talk with potential participants about the research
placement speed of 0.82m/s (Patel et al., 2006). Our goals, to collect their signature on the term of con-
approach requires the direct access to the software sent for the ones that fulfil the admission criteria and
engineering development life-cycle and code (being ask them to fulfil a demographic questionnaire. The
able to propose and develop handy features and im- study goals were only partially told to the partici-
provements) to serve the requirements of the exper- pants. For them, the main objective was to know
iment described in this paper. Therefore, instead of a their opinion about a new designed building. No ref-
market-standard software system, we used the CAVE erence was made about studying the fear of falling.
Hollowspace (Soares et al, 2010 ), fully developed and This omission aimed at preventing any influence on
maintained in-house by our research team. the data collected and related to this variable. This
first part occurred one week before the experiment.
Instruments for data collection In the experiment part, the participants were brought
The data for this experiment was collected using to the PocketCAVE room in our lab. The average du-
the following objective and subjective assessment in- ration of this second part was approximately 7 min-
struments. utes for the VR experience and 15 minutes for fulfill-
Objective assessment using non-invasive sen- ing the post-hoc questionnaires. At the beginning of
sors: Heart Rate - derived from ECG - three elec- the experiment, the researcher reminded the partic-
trodes, with 0.8cm of diameter, placed on users' chest ipant about the study's objectives. Each participant
with specific gel patches as indicated by Simões et was asked to remain standing in a pre-defined loca-
al. (2012). The sensor detects the electrical impulses tion (approximately 3.5 m away from the projection
generated by the polarization and depolarization of screen). The ECG sensors were installed on the partic-
the natural heart tissue. ipant at the same time that the researcher explained
Subjective assessment: that sensors would be used to collect data related to
their heart rate.
• Participants' Perception - a retrospective Participants started with a training session using

Figure 2
Left image shows a
screenshot from the
stairs for the safe
condition and right
image shows the
same stair for the
unsafe condition.
Figure 3
Left image shows a
screenshot from the
ramps for the safe
condition and right
image shows the
same ramp for the
unsafe condition.
Figure 4
Left image shows a
screenshot from the
horizontal plane
with the ascending
ramp for the safe
condition and right
image shows the
same horizontal
plane with the
ascending ramp for
the unsafe
condition.

Figure 5
Left image shows a
screenshot from the
ascending ramp for
the safe condition
and right image
shows the same
ascending ramp for
the unsafe
condition.
the VE developed for this purpose. During the train- ducted using the significance level set at .05.
ing, some explanations about the experiment and The participants' declared Perception of Fear of
the equipment involved were given. The main objec- Falling was assessed through a 2x4 mixed ANOVA
tives of the training session were: 1) familiarize par- with condition (i.e., safe and unsafe) as the between-
ticipants with the simulation setup; 2) allow them to subjects variable and, architecture elements (i.e,
practice the use of navigation and visualization de- stairs, ramp descending, ramp ascending and mid-
vices; and 3) homogenize differences in the partici- dle of ramp ascending, neutral space), as the within-
pant's performance using a joystick. subjects variable. The results showed significant dif-
For the virtual building experience, participants ferences in fear of falling between the two conditions
were randomly signed to one of the two experi- "safe" (M = 1.77; SD = 1.24) and "unsafe" (M=3.27;
mental conditions (i.e., safe and unsafe), in a bal- SD = 2.46). Thus, the ANOVA revealed a signifi-
anced way. Participants were instructed to navigate cant main effect of condition (F1,19) = 13.062; p =
through the building until reaching the end (as it 0.002; η 2 =0.41), with participants declaring less fear
was a controlled navigation, all participants followed in architecture spaces with handrails (safe condition).
the same path with the same field of view), and This result may indicate that when controlled process
that the simulation would automatically stop when of information (Schneider & Shiffrin, 1977) are active,
it ended. The virtual experience ended when partici- participants rationalize the information and are able
pant reached the third neutral room. to distinguish between secure and unsecure situa-
After finishing the VR experience, the partici- tions considering the presence of a safety element
pants were taken to a room in which s/he should an- (handrails or railings). In this way, the presence of a
swer to a post-hoc questionnaire. First, a retrospec- handrail overlap any difference in the perception of
tive experience was made showing screenshots of fear that could exist among the studied architectural
the VE and questioning about their feelings of fear. spaces. In fact, results show that users recognize and
After this, the presence questionnaire was applied. point out stairs and ramps without handrails as being
insecure places to be.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Regarding the objective assessment, HR (Heart
The main dependent variables were the participants' Rate) was derived from the ECG, through automatic
Heart Rate and participant´s declared Perception of detection of the heart R peaks and RR (peak to peak)
Fear of Falling considering the architecture spaces. intervals, followed by a manual inspection of the re-
Only participants with valid data (n = 21) were consulting HR signal. The HR was then analysed between
sidered for analysis. All statistical analyses were con- conditions (i.e. safe and unsafe) and between several

Figure 6
Mean Heart Rate
changes for
continuous sessions
with railings (R) and
without railings
(NR), during the
entire VR
experiment. Each
marker corresponds
an event
events (i.e. triggered at specific architectural loca- in these moments is highly sensible to the random se- (architectural
tions) marked throughout the VE. A simple one-way lection of subjects for the test sample. location) of interest,
ANOVA was performed and we used the HR change For the analysis of within-subjects variable (i.e., respectively and
(i.e. the difference between HR averaged 5 seconds architectural elements events depicted in Fig.7), orderly: the
before one event and the HR averaged 5 seconds af- there is very strong statistical significance (p<0.01), in beginning of the
ter the event), to measure the heart accelerations and the reported measures. In this case, we neglected the stairs; the entry to
decelerations, which are an indicator of arousal. safe/unsafe conditions due to the non-significance the neutral room;
For the analysis of between-subjects variable mentioned before. Significant high arousal was ob- the entry to the first
(safe/unsafe condition), we compared the 9 valid sub- served at the beginning of the stairs (p < 0.01) and at descending ramp;
jects from the no-railings (unsafe) condition with 9 the middle of the ascending ramp (p < 0.01) compar- the start of the
subjects chosen randomly from 12 valid ones from ative to the neutral room. In Fig.7, we can visualize ascending ramp;
the railings (safe) condition, for the sake of balanced consistent HR accelerations in the stairs' event and a and the middle of it.
analysis. Although we have not observed any statisti- slight but steady HR acceleration for both (railings/no The two vertical
cal significant differences between conditions in the railings) conditions. dot-lines highlight
precise events of interest, we have detected statisti- A Mann-Whitney test was used to verify differ- the precise
cal significance in two moments near those events, ences between conditions (safe and unsafe) in the moments where
by allowing a certain offset: 5 seconds before the en- four selected items of Witmer and Singer (1998) detected, through
try to the descending ramp (p = 0.04), which corre- questionnaire. No significant differences between our approach,
sponds to the third marker in Fig.6, where there is a conditions for any of the items was found (the de- statistical
distinct HR deceleration preceding a HR acceleration gree of naturalness of navigation: M=6.1, SD=1.3, significance
for the No-railings case; and 12 seconds afterwards (p p=0.460; rate of adaptation to VR experience: M=5.7, between
= 0.014) in a corner between two descending ramps, SD=1.5, p=0.219; awareness of the presence of de- conditions.
where, in Fig. 6, we observe a distinct HR decelera- vices: M=1.8, SD=1.8, p=0.062; distraction caused by
tion, for the railings condition, whereas the HR in the control devices: M=1.2, SD=0.9, p=0.209), with high
no-railings tends to be constant around this period. levels of presence declared by participants consid-
In a long time-window analysis (Fig. 6), the mean HR ering naturalness and adaptation to VR. That means
signal from the Railings seems to be out of phase with the participants had the same degree of presence in
the one from the no-railings, in several moments of both conditions, allowing us to conclude that the VR-
the experience. Therefore there is a distinct HR be- setup used for this experiment prevents that the re-
haviour between conditions; while in one condition sults could be influenced by differences in the sense
the HR is accelerating the other is decelerating. How- of presence.
ever, we acknowledge that the statistical significance

Figure 7 became more conscious about all aspects of the en-
Boxplot of the HR vironment, mainly the safety element (the handrail).
change between It could be mediated by the controlled information
the neutral room process, which made them reporting more fear con-
and locations: the sidering the lack of the handrail in whole condition
beginning of the instead of thinking about each architecture space.
stairs; the middle of These attained results correlating both (objec-
the neutral room; tive) biometry and (subjective) declared perception
the entry to the of fear of falling, allow us to conclude that the first
descending ramp hypothesis of this pilot study was partially verified.
(D-Ramp); the Results shown that when older users interact with
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK specific architectural elements as ramps and stairs,
beginning of the
The pilot study aimed at testing the way physio- there was a physiological reaction, reaching levels of
ascending ramp
logical measuring via Heart Rate analysis, can de- arousal with an intensity in the HR signal, that was
(A-Ramp 1); and its
scribe the fear of falling often sensed by older per- higher than the ones achieved with the experience of
middle (A-Ramp 2).
sons in specific architecture spaces (e.g. stairways a walk through a regular (neutral) room. The second
The outliers plotted
and ramps). It was hypothesized that when con- hypothesis was also partially confirmed since differ-
individually were
fronted with different architectural spaces and ele- ences were only undoubtedly verified when percep-
properly handled
ments, older users would have different physiologi- tion of fear of falling declared by the participants was
using the
cal activations and perceptions of fear of falling. In considered. The objective analysis did show some ev-
winsorising
this way, objective and subjective assessments were idence in the same direction, but we acknowledge
technique.
conducted to verify this assumption. that its statistical significance is highly sensible to
The results discussed in the previous section are the random selection of subjects for the test sample
in line with psychology literature which elects the and could not be fully confirmed. For older adults,
use of stairs as one of the most challenging tasks for architecture spaces without handrails are perceived
older users (Tiedemann, 2007). In fact, as verified in as more insecure, which can lead them to avoid this
this pilot study, the beginning of the stairs and the spaces. In this way, we can consider the handrail not
middle of the ascending ramp presented higher dif- only as a physical element for safety, but also as an
ferential arousal (relative to the neutral room) than element that diminishes the fear of falling and in-
the other studied architectural locations. When con- creases the self-efficacy, which tends to increase the
sidering the participants' declared perception of fear quality of life (Feder, Cryer, Donovan & Carter, 2000).
of falling, significant differences were found con- Our findings raises several interesting research
sidering safe and unsafe situations, with no influ- questions: i) Can the changes of psychological reac-
ence of specific architecture spaces (e.g. stairways tion caused by the fear of falling, be measurable by
and ramps). It could be related with the two types ECG sensors? ii) Is the psychological reaction to fear
of information process (Schneider & Shiffrin, 1977) of falling, influenced by being tested in a VR environ-
and our results are consistent with this theory, since ment and would it be different if tested in a real envi-
they show that the objective measures detected the ronment?
most instant and automatic answers and there is As for i) we do believe we are in the right track
no rationalization of the stimulus in the environ- and the promising results pave the way for further
ment. Thus, participants had physiological arousal experiments with a larger sample size. Additionally,
between architectural elements (stairs, ramps and complementary data from other physiologic mea-
neutral rooms). However, when participants were sures (such as from Electrodermal Activation - EDA,
asked about their perception of fear, probably they

Electroencephalogram - EEG, Skin Temperature and Foster, GT, Wenn, DEN and Harwin, WS 1998, 'Generat-
Respiration Rate) should be considered, in analysing ing virtual environments to allow increased access
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Medical Journal, 321, pp. 1007-1011

Spatial Analysis
Multidimensional Comparative Analysis for the
Classification of Residual Urban Voids
Anna Laskari
School of Architecture, National Technical University of Athens, Greece
anna.lascaris@gmail.com
Spatial configurations can be perceived through a variety of descriptions of their

physical form and structure. Each description can offer an autonomous
interpretation or be combined with others parathetically, in a logic of multiple
distinct layers. However it is asserted that meaningful information can be
extracted from a simultaneous view of sets of descriptions within a
high-dimensional structure. This paper investigates the possibility of conducting
a comparative analysis and classification of non-typical spatial formations based
on the synchronous view of multiple quantifiable spatial attributes.Under the
hypothesis of a reciprocal definition of spatial structure and occupation practices,
it is intended to identify distinct generic spatial types in order to subsequently
determine a range of suitable respective generic use types.This investigation
supports the formulation of strategies for the reactivation of unused, residual
urban voids, currently being addressed by the research programme titled
"Strategies to network urban interventions in the Metropolitan Centre of Athens".
The programme is carried out by the School of Architecture of the National
Technical University of Athens in collaboration with the Region of Attica, under
the scientific coordination of Professor Dr. Parmenidis (2013).
Keywords: multidimensional descriptions, generic spatial types, quantifiable

attributes, dimensionality reduction, classification
INTRODUCTION and explicit criteria. However, in many cases of non

The perception of physical space through multiple designed entities the terms need to be invented.
descriptions encompasses the conception of multi- This paper presents a methodology for describ-
leveled interpretations, evaluations, distinctions and ing and comparing such undesigned spaces, with
categorizations. Different criteria reveal different non-typical formal and structural characteristics, in
associations, corresponding to equally valid under- order to classify them into distinct types. These
standings of interrelations and categories. When are residual, unused or informally used open spaces,
dealing with designed artefacts, where ideology and whose classification can be described as a "type-2"
intentions are determinative, descriptions and dis- problem, according to Clark and Thornton's (1997)
tinctions can often make use of preconceived 'names' distinction. In such problems the regularities in the
Spatial Analysis - Volume 2 - eCAADe 32 | 283

data are not evident, as in "type-1" problems, but re- CONTEXT AND RELEVANCE
quire the re-interpretation and recoding of the data The purpose of the classification is to support a strat-
in order for the relevant patterns to become visible. egy for activating large sets of residual urban voids
Dealing with what Rittel and Weber (1973) de- by proposing possible distributions of new functions.
scribe as "wicked problems" where there is no defi- The list of uses is open and their correlation to spe-
nite formulation of the problem and "every specifica- cific spatial types is only indicatory, since there is no
tion of the problem is a specification of the direction unique or correct association between them. How-
in which a treatment is considered", there is no way of ever, different uses present variable spatial require-
defining a priori which features are the most relevant ments that can inform the selection criteria. These
to measure and predetermining the classification cri- were specified according to the following aspects:
teria.
The proposed method for describing non-typical • Spatial layout of activities (linear, around one
spaces is based on the quantification of multiple spa- or multiple centres).
tial attributes of different classes and their compar-
ison in a multidimensional feature space (Laskari et • Desired degree of connectivity to the street
al. 2008). Focusing on configurational characteristics network.
(Hillier and Hanson 1984), the attributes under mea-
surement refer mainly to metric, geometric and topo- • Duration (permanent, ephemeral, periodic).
logical features of the plans of the respective spaces.
The resulting types are referred to as 'generic' • Range of influence (building block, neigh-
spatial types (Badiou 2005) in the sense that they bourhood, city).
are not fixed and unambiguous categories directly
related to specific and describable architectural at- CASE STUDY
tributes such as morphological, typological or techni- The proposed method is being tentatively tested in
cal characteristics. They are considered as open and the area of Patissia, a dense neighbourhood of cen-
possibly interchangeable, loose groupings according tral Athens (figure 1). Patissia was selected as a rep-
to abstract degrees of similarity, indefinite and multi- resentative example of the prevalent type of urban
ply interpretable types related to perceptive qualities development in the 50-80's period that characterises
of space. most modern Greek urban settings.
Figure 1
The study case: the
area of Patissia,
central Athens (left).
Location and form
of urban voids
(middle, in gray).
The urban voids are
defined as
continuous open
spaces within the
blocks (right, in
red).
284 | eCAADe 32 - Spatial Analysis - Volume 2

Defining the Urban Voids Consequently, these spaces currently appear as
Initially all categories of voids, both public and pri- highly heterogeneous, fragmented, arbitrary, not
vate, that form the network of open spaces in the readily describable and yet very characteristic of the
urban fabric are taken into account. In the specific typical Athenian urban block. They are mainly unde-
area, three distinct hierarchical classes of such un- signed, almost random colligations of residual, dis-
built spaces are detected (figure 5, left): parate spaces that can be defined merely as the neg-
ative of built space. Their fragmented and ill-defined
• Streets (public). identity renders these spaces vague, almost non-
• Passageways (public), defined as parts of the describable and intrinsically open to multiple read-
street network, often paved, with limited ac- ings.
cessibility and length of up to two blocks.
METHODOLOGY
• Unbuilt spaces within the urban blocks (pub- The difficulty to describe these urban voids in ex-
lic and private, accessible or not). plicit terms doesn't allow for the designation of un-
ambiguous evaluation criteria for their classification
Whereas the first two classes constitute well defined into distinct types. This requires the definition of a
and quite uniform types, the third category encom- descriptive logic that would act on a procedural level.
passes highly differentiated spaces, requiring finer ty- The multiplicity of space is being perceived through
pological subdivision. a heterogeneous combination of discontinuous and
This paper focuses on the scale of the urban discrete partial definitions, each of which is viewed
block by investigating the definition of distinct types as a distinct descriptive dimension. It is therefore
within this third class of urban voids. attempted to capture the physical form and struc-
The urban block is abstractly viewed as a binary ture of space through these multiple dimensions by
configuration of built and open spaces. The elemen- gradually identifying, measuring and representing
tary component of the analysis is the 'urban void', them. This process comprises successive stages and
defined as the largest possible aggregation of con- the transition from one to the next involves respec-
tinuous open spaces within one block, as viewed in tive changes in the dimensionality of the representa-
plan, regardless of proprietary limits and other phys- tion space of the data.
ical boundaries such as fences, level differences, ge-
ological, structural or textural discontinuities (figure Selection of features: Identification and
1). measurement of quantifiable attributes
The conditions that formed these spaces In order to represent physical space through its mul-
throughout time comprise repetitive processes of tiple dimensions, the first step is to identify these di-
local spatial reconfigurations, aggregations and sub- mensions and define ways to quantify and measure
divisions and derived mainly from the implementa- them.
tion of specific building regulations and construction At this stage, the analysis focuses on the se-
routines that prevailed during the Greek construc- lection, recording and quantification of spatial at-
tion boom of the period between 1950 and 1980. tributes that are either related to predefined spa-
Gradually, these formations expand and get even tial requirements of the proposed functional types
more intricate by incorporating other kinds of un- or intuitively regarded as particularly significant for
built spaces, such as lightwells, frontages, remnants the description of the specific spatial configurations.
from relocations of the building line, oddments from It is intended that these attributes refer to quali-
expropriations, empty lots, yards, or other undefined ties of space that account for its multiple definitions
and disjoint residual voids.

while being independent from distinct morphologi- Scalar measures. Scalar attributes comprise arith-
cal, typological and technical characteristics. These metic measures that can be directly derived from
are abstract qualities referring to predicative prop- plans. These are intended to capture properties re-
erties of the unitary component seen as one, referring mainly to issues of size, metric proportions
lational properties deriving from its description as and quantitative expressions of openness or enclo-
a compound entity and procedural properties that sure with regard to the surrounding streets. Such
are formulated through experiential and perceptive measures are, for example, total area and perime-
processes. Such properties are considered to be ter length, footprint ratio, number of adjacent and
associated with fragmentation, complexity, coexis- contained buildings, number of openings to the sur-
tence of multiple scales, relation between parts, self- rounding streets, percentage of accessible perimeter
similarity, convexity, linearity or centrality, connectiv- length (figure 2).
ity, symmetry and rhythm. Geometric measures. Geometric attributes related
to the amount of fragmentation, multiplicity of Figure 2
scales, repetition and self-similarity are considered Example of scalar
to be adequately expressed by the fractal dimension measurements for
(Mandelbrot 1982) of the perimeters' shapes. The block 1651: void
measurement of fractal dimension has been widely area 119.73 sq.m.,
used by Bovill (1996) in the context of various archi- void to built ratio
tectural analyses. The method implemented for the 24%, void perimeter
calculation of fractal dimension is "Box-Counting", a 302.17 m., number
By combining different methods of shape and graphic method based on a repetitive process of lay- of open edges 0,
spatial analysis, sets of local and global spatial ating a grid of constantly decreasing scale over the im- surrounding
tributes expressing the above spatial qualities are be- age under measurement (figure 3). At each grid scale, buildings 14
ing quantified and measured. The measurements the number of cells that contain parts of the structure
are predominantly derived from plans through non- is counted and the fractal dimension is given by the
interpretative, algorithmic measurement methods. comparison between scales.
Topologic - syntactic measures. For the measure-
ment of topologic and syntactic attributes, such as Figure 3
spatial connectivity and convexity, a method for the Graphic calculation
description of properties of shape perimeter is im- of box-counting
plemented. This method, introduced and developed dimension
by Psarra and Grajewski (2000) offers a combination (Minkowski-
of local and global, sequential and synchronous ap- Bouligand
proaches of visual experience, by quantifying the dimension) for
convexity of shapes in terms of distribution of con- block 1651: Fractal
nectivity along the perimeter. Dimension 1.13
Following this method, the perimeter of each
shape is subdivided into segments of equal length.
From the subdivisions a complete graph is derived
Local attributes. Local features concerning each from which the number of connections that lie en-
spatial unit individually are being measured through tirely within the perimeter is calculated for each point
quantifiable scalar, geometric and topologic/syntac- and plotted on a graph (figure 4). From this graph,
tic attributes. a set of measurements is derived, corresponding to

global and local characteristics of shape, in terms of ery spatial unit is represented as a uniquely defined
stability and change, rhythm and repetition (Psarra point. The concentration or dispersion of points cor-
and Grajewski 2000, Psarra 2003). responds to a relative degree of association among
the represented spaces along all attributes simulta-
Figure 4
neously (Laskari at al. 2008).
Graphic calculation
The unified quantification and non-hierarchical
of connectivity
organisation of a variety of disparate and discon-
measures for block
nected spatial properties allows for the simultaneous
1651. Convex lines
incorporation and consideration of attributes of dif-
(left) and
ferent classes within the same system, encompass-
distribution of local
ing and overcoming the multiplicity, heterogeneity
connectivity along
and non-describability of the spaces under analysis
the perimeter
and renders them comparable in the framework of
(right). Total mean
an open system of quantified interrelations, without
connectivity (mcv -
compromising their singularity.
represented by the
Obviously, it is impossible to reduce space to a
red line) 23.57,
complete list of attributes. Only the actual physical
vertical standard
spatial object per se supports full dimensionality and
deviation (v-value)
exhibits the complete spectrum of possible descrip-
11.7, horizontal
Global attributes. In addition to the local mea- tions. The selection of a specific set of attributes, re-
standard deviation
surements concerning individual voids, their relation gardless of how many, is by definition an interpreta-
(h-value) 4.09
with the wider network of open spaces is also taken tive action, delimiting the field of possible readings
into consideration. of the represented spaces. In this sense, the repre-
The distinction of open spaces into hierarchical sentation of spaces through multidimensional vec-
types mentioned above is used in order to evalu- tors constitutes a process of preliminary dimension-
ate their spatial connections and create a weighted ality reduction and considerable data abstraction.
graph representing the network. The edges are la-
belled according to the hierarchy class of the respec- Dimensionality reduction: point distribu-
tive nodes and the overall connectivity of each indi- tion
vidual void is calculated from this graph. This mea- The produced multidimensional representation
surement accounts for the accessibility and connec- space may be mathematically defined, but it is not
tivity of the spaces under analysis on a neighbour- a straightforward task to directly visualise it in an in-
hood scale (figure 5). telligible and legible way. However, it is suggested
that mapping this high-dimensional space onto a
Multidimensional plot: feature space space of lower dimensionality, while maintaining the
The selection and measurement of a set of different metric and topological relations between the initial
types of spatial attributes enables the gradual defini- multidimensional vectors, could reveal patterns of
tion of each void through multiple, independent de- interrelations and enable the illustration of degrees
scriptions. Each spatial unit is perceived as a multidi- of similarity and difference between the represented
mensional vector, with each of its dimensions corre- spaces. According to Hanna (2011), "the use of high-
sponding to one of the features under measurement. dimensional input has been shown effective in re-
By plotting the quantities deriving from the mea- vealing types in artefacts at many levels of scale".
surements in a high-dimensional feature space, ev- At this stage, three different algorithmic meth-

Figure 5
Calculation and
visualisation of
distribution of
weighted
connectivity. From
left to right: Map of
open spaces:
streets (green),
passageways (blue)
and voids within
blocks (red).
ods for mapping and visualising multidimensional analytic and in a generative framework for the gen-
Weighted graph of
data are employed and compared. These are im- eration and classification of plans according to axial
open spaces.
plementations of Principal Component Analysis, Ko- graph spectra (Hanna 2007a, 2007b).
Calculation of
honen Networks and Particle-Spring Systems simula- According to Jolliffe (2002) "the central idea of
weighted
tions. principal component analysis is to reduce the dimen-
connectivity for the
Since the spaces under analysis are unlabelled, sionality of a data set in which there are a large num-
voids within blocks.
the selected methods are non-supervised. Although ber of interrelated variables, while retaining as much
Visualisation of
they express different approaches, coming from as possible of the variation present in the data set.
connectivity values
statistic analysis, artificial intelligence and compu- This reduction is achieved by transforming to a new
on the map.
tational physics simulation respectively, they all of- set of variables, the principal components, which are
fer the potential of preserving and revealing 'hidden' uncorrelated, and which are ordered so that the first
structures in the data by producing intelligible and few retain most of the variation present in all of the
meaningful visualisations of the system of relations original variables." These new, fewer variables are ar-
within the initial multidimensional dataset. tificial and purely computational. They account for
most of the variance in the initial variables without Figure 6
representing specific dimensions of the original high- Projection of the
dimensional space. high-dimensional
By plotting all measurements and projecting feature vectors onto
them on the first three Principal Components, a new, the three Principal
three-dimensional distribution of points is produced, Components.
that maintains the structure of relations amongst the
initial high-dimensional data (figure 6).
Kohonen Networks / Self Organising Maps (SOM).
Kohonen Networks are non-supervised Artificial Neu-
ral Networks that map multidimensional feature vec-
tors on two dimensions in a self-organising way (Ko-
honen 1995). This is done through the gradual adap-
Principal Component Analysis (PCA). Principal
tation of the synaptic vectors of the neurons consti-
Component Analysis, a technique of multivariate
tuting the map to the input space (Rojas 1996).
analysis (Duda et al. 2001), has been previously used
Self Organising Maps have been proved to be
for the classification of spaces in various implementa-
efficient in mapping high-dimensional spatial at-
tions. For example, Hanna has employed it both in an

tributes in several implementations. For example, a Each space is represented as a point-mass par-
self-organising map was used by Benoudjit (2004) in ticle. All particles are connected to each other in
order to create a space classification map on the base pairs via virtual springs whose rest length is set as
of human perception criteria, while Harding and De- the Euclidean multi-dimensional distance between
rix (2011) have used SOMs to classify spatial layouts the respective feature vectors of the connected par-
generated by a growing neural gas algorithm. ticles. The particles representing the voids are ini-
tially located in positions corresponding to their geo-
Figure 7
graphic location on the map, but under the exertion
Two-dimensional
of the forces of the springs tending to reach their rest
mapping of the
lengths, the system comes to a state of dynamic equi-
feature space by a
librium where the relative position of the particles
Self Organising
reflects associations among the represented spaces
Map.
(figure 8).
Figure 8
Particle-Spring
system simulation.
The particles move In the case of generic spatial types, the use
under the exertion of SOMs was considered to be particularly suit-
of the springs’ able, since, according to Derix (2006) they "offer the
tensions until they chance to explore relationships between properties
reach a spate of of objects that result in general categories of distinc-
equilibrium. tions" and the occurrence of recurring general pat-
terns "would indicate not just differences of feature
configurations but also point towards spaces that
share non-explicit qualities."
Presenting the measurements of each space as Classification: typology extraction through
multidimensional feature vectors to the neural net- clustering
work, we gradually get a two-dimensional distribu- All three methods used for dimensionality reduc-
tion of points whose distance from each other re- tion result in two or three-dimensional distributions
flects their proximity in the initial multidimensional of points, where closely related spaces are plotted
space (figure 7). closer together. In this sense, distance accounts for
abstract degrees of variance. Although this offers
Physics simulation of a system of particles and
a general visualisation of convergences and diver-
springs. This is not a dimensionality reduction
gences along all measurements, there are not yet ob-
method per se, but by enabling the spatial expres-
vious, well defined groups that would allow for the
sion of dynamic associations among multiple ele-
classification of the spaces into distinct types.
ments it can support the understanding of interrela-
In order for separate clusters to appear, the struc-
tions within complex data structures.
ture of relations among the points needs to be made
A Particle-Spring System simulation is employed
visible. The first step in this direction consists in gen-
for the visualisation of the associations of spaces in
erating a complete graph for each of the three distri-
multiple dimensions, taking into account all mea-
butions, by connecting all the points to each other.
surements simultaneously by treating them as com-
Each connection is assigned a weight according to
ponents of physical forces.
its length and weaker connections, corresponding to

longer distances between points are filtered out. The The graphs deriving from SOM and Particle-
second step refers to the actual cluster extrapolation. Springs produced equal numbers of clusters, with
Modularity is calculated for the resulting weighted the SOM exhibiting a more even distribution in terms
graphs and each cluster is considered to represent a of sizes, whereas the Particle-Springs gave few large
distinct "generic spatial type" (figure 9). clusters and an amount of single, unclassified points.
The graph generated from PCA resulted in fewer clus-
Figure 9
ters with a limited number of prevailing large group-
Clustering:
ings and many smaller clusters and single points (fig-
weighted
ure 9, 10).
connections (left)
Since the intention was to perceive general and
and graph
interchangeable generic spatial types and not unam-
modularity analysis
biguous distinct classes, all results can be considered
(right). Results for
as equally valid. Different groupings could support
PCA, SOM and
alternative distributions of generic functions and of-
Particle - Springs
fer a spectrum of possibilities within the same urban
respectively (from
planning strategy.
top to bottom).
Figure 10
Cluster distribution
and comparison of
results deriving
from the three
mapping methods.
Number of clusters
and population of
each cluster for
each method (left).
Correspondence of
clusters across
methods (right).
COMPARISON OF METHODS
The classification results deriving from the differ-
ent mapping methods appear to converge, with the
same combinations of spaces persistently forming
clusters. Most diversions from this pattern seem
to occur due to different cluster scales across dif-
ferent methods: larger groups from one method
correspond to merged smaller groups from another
method and most unclassified points correspond to
the same voids in all methods (figure 10, 11).

PRELIMINARY RESULTS AND CONCLU- In Badiou's words "the class of multiples which
SIONS are connected to the event will not be determined by
The proposed approach for classifying non-typical any of the properties which can be formulated in the
urban voids is based on the hypothesis that there are language of the situation" (Badiou 2005).
inherent properties of spatial structure which can be The difficulty of precise verbal expression of per-
measured and that abstract qualities related to spa- ceptive properties of spatial structure refers to non-
tial perception can be derived from their combina- discursive spatial attributes (Hillier 1996) related to
tion. generic features.
Following this hypothesis, the synchronous view In this sense, the resulting types, referred to as
of multiple attributes of a set of spatial representa- generic types, exhibit multiple identities and open-
tions could lead to the appearance of patterns reveal- ness to multiple interpretations, programmatic spec-
ing relations among the respective spaces, in terms of ifications and uses. Therefore, the assignment of
abstract degrees of similarity and difference. generic functional types to generic spatial types is
The relative position of each spatial unit mapped not a straight forward process. There is no unique or
in reduced dimensionality structures depends on a correct correlation but a wide range of equally fit pos-
set of intrinsic relations that cannot be discerned sible suggestions.
a posteriori and examined as distinct components For this task, the spatial types need to be in-
(Hanna 2007b). These relations are not expressed terpreted, lose their generic character and be ver-
through specific describable features but rather as bally described, acquire names and properties. Even
degrees of proximity through cohesion or dispersion though the initial selection of features according to
of points. This system of abstract interrelations does which the classification is performed is based on cri-
not explicitly reveal elements regarding the nature or teria regarding the perceptive character of the voids'
cause of the different degrees of conversion or diver- physical form and structure as well as spatial require-
sion among the initial data. ments of the proposed generic functions, the result-
By graphically mapping and visually examining ing types do not explicitly express them in a one-to-
the resulting types on the area plan (figure 11), there one relation. This means that the spatial types need
is a sense of accordance between the classification to be empirically post-evaluated. At a first level, the
and the perceptive impression of the respective voids same criteria can be applied. At a next level, exter-
in terms of similarity and differentiation. This intu- nal criteria, not necessarily connected to the phys-
itive validation can be attributed to different alloca- ical form of space, need to be taken into account.
tions of abstract spatial qualities within each type, For example, such criteria could refer to the present
such as openness, introversion, connectivity, acces- functions of the buildings surrounding each void, ar-
sibility, convexity, fragmentation, self-similarity, ho- chitectural typology of buildings, the existence or
mogeneity, symmetry and scale. These qualitative not of adjacent empty buildings that could also be
perceptive features are rooted in the concepts that reused, demographic characteristics of the specific
formed the selection criteria for the specific set of ini- block, the possibility of combination with other voids
tial attribute types and measurement methods, but in its proximity, environmental properties, propri-
they do not unequivocally derive from any one of etary issues etc.
them in isolation. In this context, the methodology for classify-
Consequently, distinct types do not explicitly ing non-typical spatial formations into generic types,
correspond to specific morphological, typological or based on multiple descriptions of their physical form
technical spatial characteristics; neither can they be and structure, acts as an open and generalisable
directly linked to any individual measurement. framework for setting out a strategy for the reacti-

Figure 11
Visualisation of the
types resulting from
PCA, SOM and
Particle - Springs
respectively on the
area map. Each
colour corresponds
to a type and
unclassified spaces
are shown in gray.
vation of urban voids in the metropolitan centre of works in architectural design: Artificial cognition of
Athens and other urban settings with similar generic spoace using neural networks with spectral graph
spaces. According to Badiou (2005) "as a general rule, theory', Design Computing and Cognition
Hillier, B 1996, Space is the Machine, Press Syndicate of
the multiple (and its sub-multiples) fall under numer-
the University of Cambridge
ous determinants" and in this sense, this framework Hillier, B and Hanson, J 1984, The Social Logic of Space,
is only meant to depict possibilities and not to set out Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
final and definite land use plans. Jolliffe, IT 2002, Pricipal Component Analysis, Springer
Kohonen, T 1995, Self-Organizing Maps, Springer
Laskari, A, Hanna, S and Derix, C 2008 'Urban identity
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Augmented Visibility Graph Analysis
Mixed-directionality graph structure for analysing architectural space
Tasos Varoudis
Bartlett School of Graduate Studies, University College London, UK
http://www.bartlett.ucl.ac.uk
t.varoudis@ucl.ac.uk
This paper introduces a new spatial analysis methodology based on visibility

graphs. Through various design elements architects can create configurations
where our visual field and the relations of spaces can be challenged in a
combinatorial game beyond the easily accessible and understandable boundaries
of the environment. This research explores the trans-spatial architectural
elements, transparencies and projected realities that playfully challenge visibility,
permeability and accessibility in built environment. The paper presents the
computational problem of analysing spaces that include 'augmented visibilities'
and areas with 'inaccessible but visible' locations, where dislocated
multi-dimensional overlaps frequently occur. Furthermore, proposes a new
'mixed-directionality graph structure' and the definition of 'Augmented Visibility
Graph Analysis' (AVGA) as a new spatial analysis methodology. AVGA
overcomes limitations of current visibility graph analysis theories and allows the
analysis of architectural and urban space that includes visuo-spatial overlaps,
hybrid configurations and multi-dimensional information. Finally, a series of
mathematical graph analysis measures and test cases associated with
observations and experimental data from real spaces is presented in order to
demonstrate AVGA.
Keywords: Visibility graph analysis, spatial analysis, architectural space, visual

accessibility-permeability, mixed-directionality graph
INTRODUCTION al. (2001) presented visibility graphs as a method

In architecture and urban design, visibility plays an of taking away from build environment a perma-
important role in defining relationships of spatial el- nent record of spatial configurations and relation-
ements, influencing movement and understanding ships. VGA revealed a series of meaningful charac-
of space around us. The concept of visibility graph teristics and correlations about architectural space,
analysis (VGA) and isovist analysis has had a long his- morphology, movement and social engagement.
tory in architecture and other disciplines. Turner et. While the analysis of a graph constructed by

inter-visible locations in space is widely used in spa- The concept of an 'isovist' (name originated from
tial analysis techniques, it has a number of limita- Benedikt, 1979), which has had a long history in var-
tions in order to enable the analysis of environments. ious fields of research including architecture, geog-
Spaces need to satisfy a number of constrains in order raphy and mathematics, is central to visibility analy-
to computationally and methodologically be anal- sis. An isovist is 'the set of all points visible from a
ysed correctly. That generates a number of situa- given vantage point in space and with respect to an
tions where without a radical simplification of the in- environment (Benedikt,1979, p. 47). Turner (2001) ar-
put plan, it is impossible to analyse a space. Firstly, gues that Isovists are an intuitively attractive way of
this can occur when, transparencies, half-height par- thinking about a spatial environment because they
titions and furniture can create spatial morpholo- provide a description of the space 'from inside', from
gies where a direct visible connection exists but the the point of view of users as they perceive, interact
equivalent movement route differs from the visible with it, and move through it.
line. Secondly, more recently visual augmentations Tandy (1967) introduced the concept of isovists
produced by ambient projections, displays and other for the analysis of landscape but it was Benedikt
digital elements, not only create pairs of locations (1979) who developed the method for the consider-
with non-matching visual and movement routes, but ation of architectural space. Tandy used isovists as
in most cases generate dislocated spatial realities a way to, '[take] away from the architectural space a
that distort the architectural morphology of the per- permanent record of what would otherwise be de-
ceived surrounding space. pendent on either memory or upon an unwieldy
Initially, this paper will demonstrate a number number of annotated photographs' (Tandy, 1967, p.
of situations that challenge the mapping of archi- 9). A similar concept has a long history in the form of
tectural visuo-spatial relations and morphologies to the 'viewshed' in the field of landscape architecture
mathematical graph models. Using the new set and planning (Amidon and Elsner, 1968; Lynch, 1976)
of visuo-graph relations a new 'mixed-directionality and 'inter-visibility' in computer topographic models
graph' analysis methodology and the 'Augmented (Gallagher, 1972).
Visibility Graph Analysis' (AVGA) will be introduced
enabling the analysis of many possible combina- Figure 1
tions of complex architectural typologies or multi- Example of an
dimensional models in both building and urban isovist, showing
scale. Finally, the new methodological and compu- visible space from a
tational advances will be used in two test cases that single point.
borrow spatial characteristics from a hybrid architec-
tural typology that challenged the visibility analysis
of the experimental space.
BACKGROUND
Visibility graph analysis (VGA) was developed by
Turner et. al (2001) based on space syntax theory
(Hillier and Hanson, 1984) and early foundation work,
Benedikt starts by considering the volume visible
such as that carried out by Thiel (1961), who at-
from a location and then simplifies this representa-
tempted to record the details of the visual experi-
tion by taking a horizontal slice (two dimensional)
ence through buildings or urban environments by
through the 'isovist polyhedron'. The resulting 'iso-
analysing the properties of spatial paths.
vist' is a single polygon without holes, as shown in

figure 1. The geometric properties, such as area and by both academics and practitioners through the
perimeter, are then considered and through this pro- open source and multi-platform 'depthmapX' spatial
cess the qualities of space, and its potential, are quan- network analysis software (Varoudis, 2012).
tified.
Figure 2
Benedikt noted that analysis of multiple isovists
Typical VGA
is required in order to quantify a whole configuration
performed by
and suggested that the way in which we experience
depthmapX
a space, and how we use it, is related to the interplay
depicting 'Visual
of isovists. This led to the development of methods
Integration' values
to calculate ìsovist fields' which record the individual
(Red=High,
isovist's properties for all locations in a configuration
Blue=Low).
by using contours to plot the way those features vary
through space. The closeness of the contours shows
how quickly the isovist properties are changing and,
according to Benedikt, this relates to Gibson's (1979)
conception of ecological visual perception with 'tex-
tured gradients'. Turner et al. (2001) suggest that through this
Configuration is defined in general as, at least, graph numerous local and global measures of spa-
the relation between two spaces taking into account tial properties that are likely to relate to perception
a third, and, at most, as the relations among spaces of the built environment can be taken and compared
in a complex taking into account all other spaces in with real life data of usage to 'shed light on the effects
the complex' (Hillier et al 1987, p 363). Turner et al of spatial structure on social function in architec-
(2002) argue that despite the appeal of Benedikt's tural spaces' (p. 104). Moreover, many studies have
isovist methodology its use in architectural analysis demonstrated a significant correlation between vis-
has been limited due to two reasons. The first is that ibility analysis measures and the way people move.
the geometric formulation of isovist measures means (Desyllas and Duxbury, 2001; Turner and Penn, 1999).
that they record only local properties of space, and While VGA overcame limitations of older studies
that the visual relationship between the current loca- of isovists, it is restricted to analyse spaces that only
tion and whole spatial environment is missed, includ- include fully obstructive walls or simple openings. In
ing the isovist's internal visual relationships. The sec- practice, researchers and practitioners in most cases
ond is that Benedikt did not develop any guidelines have to remove elements from the input drawings
on how to usefully interpret the results of the analy- or extend and block other elements before perform-
sis, meaning that there is no framework to show how ing an analysis. While architecture is full of com-
isovists relate to social or aesthetic factors. plex and interesting visuo-spatial phenomena like,
Turner et al. (2001) developed the Visibility depth augmenting hybrid configurations (Varoudis,
Graph Analysis (VGA) methodology that overcomes 2011, Varoudis et al., 2011), transparent or reflec-
the limitations they reported with Benedikt's theory. tive elements (Psarra, 2009), digitally linked office en-
The method draws from space syntax theory (Hillier vironments (Schnadelbach, 2007, 2012) and urban
and Hanson, 1984) and small worlds analysis (Watts displays (Fatah gen. Schieck 2005), the systematic
and Strogatz, 1998) and produces a graph of mutu- analysis of settings that include these elements is
ally visible locations in a spatial layout termed visibil- not possible with current theories and techniques.
ity graph. VGA (figure 2) was firstly implemented in Such elements introduce an added layer of a dislo-
Turner's 'Depthmap' software and is now widely used cated visual depth or destination information that
translate to a set of new spatial, visual and isovist

relations. Here we introduce a new methodology walkable space to be analysed. This continuous set
that describes these complex relations and a visibility of grid-cells depicted in figure 3 represent the nodes
graph analysis of architectural and urban space that (vertices) of the resulting visibility graph. Secondly,
can fully analyse them. given the set of final nodes, we must determine the
direct visibility relations between them to form links
AUGMENTED VISIBILITY GRAPH ANALY- (edges) in the graph. In order to add an edge, be-
tween two locations, to the graph, the two locations
SIS (AVGA)
must be directly inter-visible.
Visuo-Spatial Relationships, Overlaps and The edge formed in the traditional VGA analysis
Augmented Visibilities can only be an undirected link that represents a sym-
In order to describe the different visibility relations,
metrical visibility and accessibility relation between
the problem of visuo-spatial overlaps and multi-
the two locations. For any given pair of linked lo-
dimensionality of information in the visibility analysis
cations it is required that both ends of the link can
techniques, we first need to introduce the basic con-
be origins and destinations of movement and visual
cept and steps required in order to perform a visibility
rays. In addition the movement vector from and to
graph analysis.
the two locations must coincide with the visual ray
Constructing a visibility graph is a two-step pro-
that connects the two. Simply, you cannot form a link
cedure. Firstly, we select an appropriate set of loca-
with a location if you can see that location directly but
tion in space, according to some criteria, to generate
cannot approach it using the same route as the visual
the isovists locations. These locations will form po-
ray connecting the locations.
tential nodes of the graph (based on the selection
In reality, a number of different scenarios can oc-
process that follows). The most obvious approach
cur that cannot satisfy the origin-destination or direc-
to construct the isovists is to generate them at some
tionality restrictions of Turner's et. al. VGA. A number
regularly spaced intervals (figure 3). This implies that
of different scenario will be discussed here that form
the generating locations will be at points defined by
an example set of core ideas of visuo-spatial relations
some sort of grid. In practice we try to select a set
that can occur in space. These examples were cho-
of generating locations that provides an acceptable
sen because they can form the basis for more com-
`near-full' description of the space. Turner et. al.
plex combinations.
(2001) argues that if analysis is to relate to human per-
Figure 4 demonstrates a common layout inside
ception of an environment, then the resolution of this
a building. The first part depicts the un-directional
grid must be fine enough to capture meaningful fea-
visibility relations between four locations in space.
tures of the environment in human movement scale.
This is a typical graph representation in Turner's et.
In Turner's et. al. VGA, we then select the physical or
Figure 3
Example of grip
(left) and selected
locations for
analysis (right) in
depthmapX.

Figure 4
Example of
complex
visuo-spatial
relationships
('accessible' = O,
'augmented' = X)
Figure 5
Examples of
complex
visuo-spatial
relationships.
('accessible' = O,
'augmented' = X)
al. VGA, though the environment's affordances are An important difference between the original
more complex in this occasion. While in the left part visibility graph analysis and AVGA is that habitable
we see the un-directed origin-destination relations or accessible space can act as an origin and destina-
which form the foundation of a graph analysis, the tion of a visibility relation, while the augmented and
next two illustrations demonstrate the multi-layered multi-dimensional location can only be a destination
information that is omitted in traditional analyses. of visibility links. In AVGA we divide space into 'ac-
Multi-dimensional overlaps (grey regions) are gener- cessible' and 'augmented' locations (or nodes of the
ated when movement is obstructed (or not possible) analysis). The relation always originates from some
but a direct visible link is possible. In this case the 'accessible' location. Locations in the 'augmented'
two windows generate an overlapping space for each space, marked with 'X', are not allowed to form out-
of the location. The half-height partition also gener- going connections (become origins) with any other
ates a 'direct-inaccessibility' but gives a direct visual node in the systems. Some simpler examples are de-
hint about the destination. The same situation can picted in figure 5 where detours are required to reach
be described for the open space beyond the build- the destination but a direct visual hint is given. These
ing (through the windows) but its omitted here be- relations generate the need for directional link repre-
cause of the increased complexity. Other examples sentations in visibility graph analysis. When a visibil-
can include virtual spaces, CCTV cameras, ambient ity ray passes through or over certain elements the
interfaces that produce visual depth, and other phys- field of view is transformed to an added 'augmented'
ical of hybrid layouts that produce augmented visi- layer of information. The bases of AVGA is a multi-
bilities. A new 'augmented isovist' definition should dimensional definition of space with asymmetrical
include complex visual setting like the in the figures. relations. As illustrated in figures 4 and 5, a location

can exist in both 'accessible' (marked as 'O') and 'aug- Analysis and Measures
mented' (marked as 'X') space, layered on top of each With the graph representation of all spatial and visual
other. relations built we can now perform a set of analysis in
Based on this set of possible relation the AVGA al- order to extract some meaningful measures that take
gorithm generates all possible layers of information advantage of the mixed directionality visibility graph.
in a form of overlapping multi-dimensional grids (ex. The two most widely used visibility graph analy-
'accessible' physical space and 'augmented' space) sis measures are the node's 'Connectivity' and 'Visual
and then selects the appropriate sets of locations in Integration' values. The VGA measure of connectiv-
order to form the nodes of the analysis. Nodes can ity is equivalent with the degree of the node in graph
be marked as origin-destinations or just destinations. theory, thus represents the number of connections
The process of generating the nodes and the spatial (simple undirected links in Turner et. al. case) that the
categorisation is done through a series of ray-casting node has with other nodes in the system. Connectiv-
analyses and algorithms in order to find all possi- ity also relates to the size of the isovist at that particu-
ble visible augmented isovist locations in space and lar location. Because space in VGA is quantised based
their relations to others (i.e a location is only visible on a grid, connectivity can only approximate the iso-
through glass and not accessible etc). Material and vist size but the relation between the connectivity
object dimensions (i.e. height) play an important role value and the isovist size is linear. Visual integration
here. in VGA is directly linked with 'mean shortest path' of
a node. Turner et al (2001) describe the mean short-
Mixed-directionality Graph est path in the original implementation of visibility
The set of un-directed and directed relations and the graph analysis and its connection to Hillier and Han-
different sets of locations are then encoded into a son's 'integration'. Hillier and Hanson relate the visual
graph. The new graph representation is a mixed- accessibility of spaces, with the number of changes
directionality graph that has vertices (nodes) linked in direction, whereas in a visibility graph we can de-
with both undirected and directed edges (links). scribe the visual accessibility of every location in the
In AVGA the graph can hold a number of compli- spatial system through the number of steps. Visual
mentary information about the locations (vertices) mean shortest path is a representation that quanti-
and the links (edges) and can also form a multi- fies the visual accessibility of every location in a spa-
dimensional graph with vertices (or edges) that ex- tial system and it has a significant advantage over
ist on the same location or overlapping in other di- other analysis of spatial configuration. As the mean
mensions. A typical AVGA graph has nodes that can shortest path length measures configuration by con-
be identified by their 'location tag', like 'accessible' sidering all locations with respect to each other in
or 'augmented' and special tags like 'hybrid', 'virtual', the system, global relationships between locations
'reflected' or other. The edges apart from the direc- in the system can be explored. This is a noteworthy
tionality information can have added information like difference to the measure of connectivity. Users of
an 'edge description' tag. These added information spatial analysis techniques extensively use this sig-
help to form a more complete description of space nificant feature of the visibility graph to obtain an
and is relevant with future work, outside the scope of alternative spatial and morphological description of
this paper, but demonstrates the need for more open the build environment that departs for the previously
spatial representations in the analysis of architectural available technics of partitioning in terms of local ge-
space. ometric properties of visual fields as Benedikt does.
For this paper, instead of Hillier and Hanson's
Integration formula that is used by Turner et. al.

(2001) and is implemented in Depthmap (Turner, locations as an origin, the set of locations in 'acces-
2001) and depthmapX (Varoudis, 2012), we use the sible' space, and the full set of locations (nodes) as a
directly equivalent measure of graph closeness cen- destination. This is easily understandable as nodes
trality (Opsahl et. at., 2010) in order to relate bet- that represent 'augmented' locations are dead-ends
ter with existing graph analysis theories. AVGA uses of the graph, with incoming connections (graph 'in-
the term Visual Closeness Centrality when we want degree' greater that zero) and zero outgoing connec-
to identify and systematically describe global visuo- tions (graph 'out-degree'), and thus any path search
spatial relations and mean visual distances in archi- is useless.
tectural space. All three AVGA measures are demonstrated be-
Moreover, in the new augmented visibility graph low using test scenarios that derived from an estab-
analysis, 'connectivity' is specified as the total num- lished series of hybrid-space experiments (Varoudis,
ber of links (graph edges) a node has, this number in- 2011 and Varoudis et. al. 2011).
cludes links formed with both 'accessible' and 'aug-
mented' nodes (locations). Connectivity here repre- TEST SCENARIOS
sents the total visual information presented to the The novel test scenarios presented here derive from
user at a location but due to the more complex na- a series of experiments and research outputs about
ture of the new graph representation connectivity is the influence of visual depth augmentation in archi-
a complex measure. In order to describe the added tectural space. A detailed description and analysis of
spatial, transpatial or hybrid information in a location the significant results can be found in Varoudis (2011)
we need to define the measure of 'Hybrid Connectiv- and Varoudis et. al. (2011). These spaces were used
ity' for a node. Hybrid connectivity is the number of because they exposed a phenomenon that demon-
links formed with 'hybrid' nodes or locations and it strated the limitations of current spatial analysis and
is directly linked with the amount of 'directed' added understudying of complex spatial relations through
information that the new mixed-directionality graph graph analysis. The layouts include dislocated hy-
analysis produced. brid morphologies, spatial overlaps between layers
With all connectivity and directionality informa- of visuo-spatial information and restrictive one-way
tion assigned to each location in space we can now visual relations (through a digital link) , as depicted
determine all possible shortest paths in the graph. in the figure 6.
Shortest paths will then be used for the calculation The first layout hypothesises that, placing am-
of Visual Closeness Centrality (Opsahl et. at., 2010). bient projections so that they virtually link (one-
While in Turner's et. al. analysis, all possible pairs way) and extend one physical space towards another
of locations are used as origins and destinations of a real or virtual space and thus augmenting the visual
shortest-path search, AVGA uses only a subset of the depth, will influence the topological and visual rela-
Figure 6
First scenario -
Visual link, hybrid
configuration and
spatial overlaps

tions between spaces and as a result will affect the the hybrid architectural space used in the Varoudis
distribution of people's movement. The ambient pro- et. al. (2011) study. In this case the ambient pro-
jection is located either left or right at the corridor jection generates a digital augmentation through a
setting as figure 6 illustrates. While the results of skewed perspective projection. This hybrid setting
the experiment clearly showed a significant change challenges the visuo-topological relations by digi-
in movement patterns as a result of the virtual added tally bending the line of sight towards the skewed
depth (Varoudis, 2011); if we use depthmapX to per- dislocation environment 'behind' the wall. The com-
form a VGA analysis the values of connectivity and plex visual relations and the equivalent directional
visual integration will be symmetrically distributed, graph structure of this space are illustrated (simpli-
with no clues about the visuo-morphological differ- fied) in figure 8. These relations are encoded into a
ences between the physical and the hybrid topology. multi-directional visual link in the AVGA graph and
Figure 7 depicts the AVGA Connectivity and Hy- the result of the Connectivity and Hybrid Connectiv-
brid Connectivity of the space. A grey outline is used ity is presented in the figure 9. This scenario presents
to indicate the hybrid information space and the a stronger challenge in terms of the hybrid spatial
overlap produced by the video link and orientation overlap that extents the end of the corridor 'through'
of the projection. In this analysis the location of the the physical wall and over the room behind it. AVGA
ambient projection is the cross-over barrier between describes the complex morphological shift and what
the physical and the augmented space. The charac- the added analysed information produces. The Vi-
teristics of the new multi-directional graph model, in sual Closeness Centrality in figure 9 depicts the focus
terms of Connectivity and Hybrid Connectivity, are point of the hybrid setting near the end of the cor-
evident here, with the distribution of values concen- ridor. This location becomes the dominant location
trated in areas of high hybrid visual interaction near not only in local (immediate) properties but also in
the end of the corridor and more specifically the left global relations that extent behind the physical and
side. the virtual barrier. Similarly with the first case study,
The AVGA Visual Closeness Centrality that en- the AVGA results of the second space depict simi-
capsulates the global visibility graph relation of this larities with the results presented in Varoudis et. al.
space is presented in figure 7 and depict slight asym- (2011), where there was a significant shift of move-
metry to the left, but in this particularly small set- ment towards the right side of the 'T' shape. The hy-
ting, global relations cannot add significant amount brid spatial setting seems to work in favour of the
of information over the local Connectivity values. The right hand side of the corridor.
exploratory power of AVGA Visual Closeness Cen- The two test cases clearly demonstrate the anal-
trality is more suitable for more complex and multi ysis of the hybrid architectural spaces with the Aug-
layered environments where local relations between mented Visibility Graph Analysis. The augmented re-
spaces are combined to construct complex integra- alities transform the architectural morphology and
tion or segregation relation. Overall the AVGA results produce fluid visuo-spatial relations. While the hy-
of this space depict a similar trend with the results brid layouts can be seen as simple this was needed
presented in Varoudis (2011), where there was a sig- in order to better describe the new idea. Another
nificant shift of movement towards the left side of the reason for using these two studies is that the experi-
'T' shape although the purpose of this paper is not to mental results showed significantly different emerg-
statistically compare the two results but present the ing movement patterns, where a simplistic interpre-
new graph analysis. tation of a traditional VGA of the space would give a
The AVGA results of the second experimental lay- 50/50 distribution of movement.
out are presented in the figure 9, and are based on

Figure 7
First scenario -
AVGA measures,
Visual Closeness
Centrality,
Connectivity and
Hybrid
Connectivity. (Red
= High, Blue = Low)
Figure 8
Second test
scenario - Visual
link, hybrid
configuration and
spatial overlaps
Figure 9
Second scenario -
AVGA measures,
Visual Closeness
Centrality,
Connectivity and
Hybrid
Connectivity.
CONCLUSION plex relations challenged by visibility, permeability-

The paper presented a new methodology and ap- accessibility overlaps, discontinuities and trans-
plication of visibility analysis in architectural space. spatial morphologies. Current visibility or spatial
Rather than investigating the properties of a space analysis techniques use simple symmetrical relations
that is only surrounded by physical boundaries, as in order to analyse space with reduced complexity.
has been considered in the literature, the 'Aug- The presented AVGA eliminates the need for simpli-
mented Visibility Graph Analysis' is introduced and a fying building models before analysis. This improved
new mixed-directionality graph that enables the visi- methodology was demonstrated with the two hybrid
bility analysis of virtually any spatial configuration or architectural scenarios and the measures of Con-
multi-dimensional space. nectivity, Hybrid Connectivity and Visual Closeness
Architectural and urban settings engage in com- Centrality. The scenarios had a number of complex

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS as an agent-based system: an investigation into hu-
man pedestrian behaviour in the built environment',
The author would like to thank Prof. Alan Penn, Dr.
Environment and Planning B: planning and design, 29,
Sophia Psarra and Prof. Bill Hillier for the continuous pp. 473-490
inspiration and incredible discussions. Varoudis, T 2011 'Ambient Displays: Influencing Move-
ment Patterns', Lecture Notes in Computer Science,
Volume 6949/2011, Springer, pp. 52-65
REFERENCES Varoudis, T 2012 'depthmapX spatial net-
Amidon, E L and Elsner, G H 1968, 'Delineating landscape work analysis software', Open Source Project:
view areas: a computer approach', Forest Research http://varoudis.github.io/depthmapX/
Note, PSW-180, p. 180 Varoudis, T, Dalton, N S, Alexiou, K and Zamenopoulos,
Benedikt, M 1979, 'To Take Hold of Space: Isovist and Iso- T 2011 'Subtle interventions: How ambient displays
vist Fields', Environment and Planning B, 6, pp. 47-65 influence route choice in buildings', 29th eCAADe
Desyllas, J and Duxbury, E 2001 'Axial maps and visibil- Conference Proceedings
ity graph analysis', 3rd International Symposium on
Space Syntax

Rapid Data Collection using Automated Model Generation
and Performance Evaluation
A workflow for morphological studies of apartment floor plans
Sven Schneider1 , Martin Bielik2 , Dirk Donath3 , Michel Triemer4 ,

Julia Tschetwertak5 , Alexander Hollberg6
1,2,3,4,5
Bauhaus-Universtity Weimar 6 Bauhaus-University Weimar
1,2,3,4,5,6
{sven.schneider|martin.bielik|dirk.donath|michel.triemer|
julia.tschetwertak|alexander.hollberg}@uni-weimar.de
In this paper we propose a framework for accelerating the process of

data-collection from apartment floor plans. After describing the general
workflow and the criteria used for performance evaluation, we present a tool for
automated model generation and evaluation. To demonstrate the functionality of
this workflow we show examples, based on a preliminary test phase undertaken in
a seminar for master students.
Keywords: Data Collection, Apartment Floor Plans, Space Syntax, Automated

Model Generation, Automated Performance Evaluation
INTRODUCTION ables one to define design variables more purpose-

Morphological studies are a central topic of architec- fully. So far several studies already exist that focus
tural research. The objective of these studies is to on correlations between design variables (Steadman,
find correlations between design variables and per- 1983), correlations between directly measurable per-
formance criteria. Design variables refer to the met- formance criteria (Abshirini & Koch, 2013; Güney,
ric and topological properties of geometric elements. 2007; Hanson, 1998; Hillier, Hanson, & Graham, 1987;
This, for example, can be the number, position and di- Peponis, 2012) or correlations between directly mea-
mension of rooms, walls, doors or windows and their surable performance criteria and human behaviour
relationships to each other. Performance criteria re- (Franz & Wiener, 2008; Hillier & Iida, 2005; Sevtsuk,
fer to measures derived quantitatively from a certain 2010). To obtain meaningful results, it is necessary
configuration of these design variables. One can dif- to sample a large number of cases and to consider
ferentiate between criteria that can be directly cal- as many criteria as possible. The latter is motivated
culated from a configuration (such as the amount of by the fact that one cannot know in advance which
daylight in or the visual centrality of a room), and criteria are most important for certain research ques-
those that can only be empirically derived (all kinds tions as well as an awareness that the complexity of
of human behaviour). Knowledge of the relation- the environment and the human cognitive process is
ships between design variables and performance cri- such that the majority of phenomena we are exam-
teria is central to the process of designing, since it en- ining is the result of multiple variables acting simul-

taneously. Using advanced statistical methods with a range of performance criteria is the modelling of
a large number of variables places high demands on apartments. Generally speaking, apartment needs to
the sample size (Tanaka, 1987). be analysed at multiple scales. This is because the
The basic requirement for any data analysis is global characteristics of an apartment give us little
firstly data collection and secondly raw data pro- indication of how an apartment is experienced in a
cessing to clear and prepare the data depending on single room, or from a single point. Furthermore the
the particular analysis method. However, the collec- shape of an apartment is often dictated by its posi-
tion of a large number of datasets with many perfor- tion in a building, and its relationship to the urban
mance criteria is very time consuming. In particular, surroundings. For each of these scales, we can de-
the preparation of models and analysis of these mod- termine measures for several performance criteria. In
els requires various programs (e.g. drawing/model- this paper we will concentrate on the two smallest
ing in AutoCAD, spatial analysis in DepthMap, day- scales: the apartment and its individual rooms (see
light analysis in Daysim). In this paper we propose figure 1).
a framework for accelerating the process of data-
collection from apartment floor plans. After describ- Figure 1
ing the general workflow and the criteria used for Different levels of
performance evaluation, we present a tool for auto- scale (apartment,
mated model generation and evaluation. To demon- physically closed
strate the functionality of this workflow we show ex- spaces, convex
amples, based on a preliminary test phase under- spaces, analysis
taken in a seminar for master students. points)
MODELS FOR APARTMENT FLOOR PLAN

ANALYSIS Special care needs to be taken concerning the
The framework presented in this paper arose in the representation of space, because several measures
context of a study project concerned with the mor- derived later on in the process are based on the repre-
phology of apartment buildings. Apartment build- sentation. Since most of these measures will later be
ings represent one of the most common building correlated with different kinds of human behaviour
types worldwide. Consequently, this type of build- it is necessary to find representations suitable for de-
ing has a high economic and ecological impact, and scribing spatial properties that relate to human spa-
is therefore a relevant example for ascertaining a bet- tial experience. The entity "physically closed spaces",
ter understanding of the relationships between de- which refers to spaces bounded by walls and doors,
sign variables and a multitude of performance crite- is too limited when describing such properties. This
ria (social, economic and ecological). With regarding becomes obvious when one considers non-convex
to design variables, the main focus of our project is rooms such as L-shaped rooms or completely open
on the geometry of space. This focus is due to the fact plans: although these rooms can be described as
that the definition of the geometry is one of the most physically closed spaces they are experienced differ-
important steps in the design process because, com- ently from different positions. We therefore decided
pared to other variables (e.g. the material or color of to use two more representations for discretising the
surfaces), the geometry can't be changed that easily space of an apartment into single elements rather
after the building has been erected. than just modelling the shape of physically closed
A crucial step in order to be able to adequately rooms. The first representation is a convex space
investigate the influence of floor plan geometry on (Hillier & Hanson, 1984) while the second is a regu-

lar grid of points filling the entire space of the floor Accessibility
plan (in the following these points are referred to as By accessibility we understand the relationship be-
Analysis Points). Convex Spaces are spaces in a floor tween spaces. One important measure is how cen-
plan in which all points within the space are mutu- tral a space in a configuration is. Based on the
ally visible. Theoretically there are an infinite num- convex map we calculate the total number of steps
ber of convex spaces in an environment. To identify needed to get from one convex space to all the others
an analysable set of convex spaces (convex map) the (depth). To be able to compare floor plans with differ-
largest and most compact spaces are always used. ent numbers of convex spaces, the measure is nor-
In spaces with complex shapes, the creation of this malized by dividing by the number of convex spaces
convex map is sometimes ambiguous. However, for (Mean Depth). Additionally we calculate the num-
most interior spatial configurations it serves as a use- ber of convex spaces that have to be passed to get to
ful tool that has been used for many morphological each convex space, starting from the entrance (Step
studies. Depth from entrance). Based on this value, we can
Physically closed rooms as well as convex spaces easily identify how far each space is away from the
are still a very approximate way of discetretizing entrance (which represents interface to the exterior
space into single elements. The use of analysis points of an apartment).
makes it possible to take measurements for each Further measures are derived from a circulation
position in space. Furthermore it has the advan- diagram. The diagram is created based on the sight
tage that the generation of points is unambiguous. lines between doors. It represents the minimum
To link these different scales we created a database space necessary to access every room in an apart-
consisting of tables for each scale, whereby a ev- ment. To store this information in the DB and make it
ery apartment contains a list of IDs to single rooms accessible for spatial statistics, the lines of movement
/ convex spaces and analysis points and vice versa. are pixelated and stored as attributes of the analysis
This mutual links make it possible to use measure- points. Additionally measures such circulation area
ments of the analysis points to derive global char- per convex space, physical room and the entire flat
acteristics for larger scales, for example to calculate are derived.
global daylight characteristics (such as average, min-
imum, maximum, standard deviation) for each con- Visibility
vex space, physically closed room and entire apart- By visibility we mean criteria that characterize the vi-
ment the from the daylight measurements of the sual appearance of an apartment. For this we use
analysis points. the concept of isovists (Benedikt, 1979) to determine
what can be seen from certain points (such as the en-
PERFORMANCE CRITERIA trance) and how the shape of the area that can be
As stated in the introduction, morphological studies seen is structured (form factors of the isovist polygon
can have different purposes: to examine correlations such as area, compactness, occlusivity). The isovist is,
between design variables and directly derivable per- of course, only an abstract concept which does not
formance criteria and empirically derivable perfor- reflect the human field of vision, but enables us to
mance criteria. In the following we focus on criteria make general statements when the direction of view
which can be derived directly from the floor plan ge- is not known in advance. They have been widely used
ometry of an apartment. The list of criteria includes in psychological studies and have served as a useful
a variety of aspects ranging from accessibility, visibil- predictor for the experiential qualities of space (Franz
ity, daylight illumination to energy consumption and & Wiener, 2008; Stamps, 2009). For the analysis the
common quantities. floor plan is shown without doors. This is a common

convention in visibility analyses and helps to reveal glazing ratio of 30% and 90% (IWL30, IWL90). The
the potential that the floor plan geometry offers. IWLs make it possible to minimize the influence of
Besides the calculation of the visual properties windows on daylight performance and to more ade-
of single points in space, the relationships between quately investigate the impact of the spatial arrange-
these points are evaluated. Here we construct a vis- ment of walls and doors. Furthermore we can use it to
ibility graph (Turner et al., 2001) and then derive the compare different floor plans. In addition to the stan-
Visual Mean Depth from this graph, which indicates dard values (average, minimum, maximum and stan-
how easily a point in space can be seen from all the dard deviation) for characterizing the larger spatial
other points (the fewer changes in direction needed entities (convex spaces, rooms, apartment), we cal-
to see all the points, the more central a point is). Ad- culate the percentage of floor area with a DF below
ditionally we calculate the Visual Step Depth from en- 2% as an indicator of the amount of well-illuminated
trance. This measure shows how often one has to floor area in a space.
move and change direction to see other points in the
apartment. Energy Consumption
To complement the visual properties related to To investigate the impact of floor plan geometry on
the interior distribution of spatial elements, we de- energy consumption one needs to be aware that the
veloped a measure for evaluating views outside. To main influencing factors are heat loss through ex-
begin with a huge circle is created around the apart- terior walls and solar gains through glazing. This
ment and then the sections of the arc of this circle is mainly influenced by the window layout and the
that are visible are calculated for each analysis point orientation of the floor plan. To be able to com-
and totalled to ascertain the Exterior View Length. pare different floor plans and investigate the impact
The measure is normalized from 0 to 1 (whereby 0 of geometry on energy consumption, energy perfor-
refers to no view at all and 1 refers to a 360° view with- mance criteria (Heating/Cooling Demand) are calcu-
out obstructions). The measures are calculated for lated based on the same variants used for daylight
two variants of window layouts, firstly the original ar- analysis (OWL, IWL30, IWL90) with a standardized
rangement of windows (OWL) and an idealized win- material and fixed location (Erfurt, Germany). In addi-
dow layout whereby all exterior walls are assumed to tion to the original orientation these variants are ro-
be glazed (IWL). The latter makes it possible to assess tated in four directions (north, east, south and west)
the potential views that the arrangement of interior which produces energy consumption values for 15
and exterior walls can offer. variants per floor plan.
Daylight Common Quantities

To describe the availability of daylight in an apart- This category summarizes common measures, such
ment we use the daylight factor (DF). The DF makes as total area, effective area, number of rooms/con-
it possible to make general statements about the vex spaces, area of the single rooms/convex spaces,
brightness of points in space without considering ori- number of individually usable rooms (rooms without
entation. Since the availability of daylight is mainly a fixed function, i.e. not rooms such as bathrooms or
influenced by the layout of windows, we examine kitchens); length of exterior, neighbouring and inte-
the original window layout with the original ceiling rior walls. Based on these measures, we can derive
height (OWL) as well as two idealized window lay- secondary values such as building costs.
out variants (IWL). For the IWL we assume a fixed ceil- This list of measures is by no means exhaustive,
ing height of 2.7m and standardized window layouts but already illustrates how many criteria are influ-
(horizontal windows along the exterior walls) with a enced by the shape of the floor plan geometry, Fig-
ure 2 gives some examples. This shows how the de-

Figure 2
Different analysis
diagrams for one
apartment floor
plan

sign of a floor plan requires special care, along with the chosen method is suitable for the majority of floor
a good understanding of how these parameters in- plans, with minimal loss of information and minimal
fluence each other, and how they influence human time required for input. All the elements - exterior
behaviour. To ascertain meaningful correlations be- walls, neighboring walls, interior walls, convex space
tween the many different criteria, we need a large borders and doors - are represented by lines sepa-
number of samples. The problem here is that manu- rated in different layers. Windows are represented
ally evaluating the performance of a floor plan is very by boxes that intersect the exterior walls. These ele-
time-consuming. To assist in the process of data col- ments form the basis for the generative process that
lection we propose a tool that aims to automate this creates all the necessary models (see figure 4).
process as far as possible. This tool is described in the
Figure 3
next section.
Screenshot of the
FPAT toolbox (using
AUTOMATED MODEL GENERATION AND Rhino3D as the
PERFORMANCE EVALUATION modeling
Different models are required to calculate the dif- environment)
ferent performance criteria mentioned above. Ac-
cessibility analysis, for example, requires a convex
map while visibility analysis needs a 2D plan with
wall thickness. Daylight analysis requires a 3D model
with thickened walls while Energy Analysis requires
a simplified 3D model. Furthermore different vari- In a first step, all walls are represented as a graph
ants of the model are required (OWL, IWL30, IWL90). which is used to extract polygons that describe the
To automate as much as possible of the process of physically closed rooms and convex spaces. After-
model generation and performance evaluation we wards interconnections between convex spaces and
developed a tool called the "Floor Plan Analysis Tool- physical rooms are calculated in order to create a
box" (FPAT). The FPAT was implemented in Grasshop- topological graph and calculate its depth. For this we
per for Rhino (figure 3), because it provides a large use a toolset called Decoding Spaces-Components .
number of geometric modelling tools and an ever- The space that is connected to the entrance (for step
growing number of powerful analysis tools, making depth analysis) is recognized by door-lines that inter-
it easy to extend the FPAT in future. sect with the neighboring or exterior walls.
Because original floor plan data is often stored To generate the 2D plan, the boundaries of the
using different media, levels of abstraction and sym- closed spaces are offset according to predefined
bolic languages, it is very hard to process them fully thicknesses for each wall type (exterior, neighboring
automatically without any human interaction. In- and interior walls). This model is used to calculate
stead, we rely on human input to interpret an am- the usable area for each room/convex space. Using
biguous source of data but try to minimize the ef- a flood-fill algorithm a grid of analysis points is gen-
fort necessary to describe the apartment morphol- erated by filling the 2D plan, starting from the centre
ogy. To achieve this as effectively as possible, the user of a convex space. For each of these points isovists,
only needs to create an abstract representation of a graph measures, external view length and the day-
floor plan which is then used to generate the differ- light factor is calculated. Isovist Properties, Visual
ent models necessary for each analysis. Mean Depth and Visual Step Depth are calculated by
The level of abstraction is in our case a trade-off using the Decoding Spaces Components.
between accuracy and efficiency, which means that

Figure 4
Model generation
based on a
schematic floor
plan drawing.
For the daylight analysis, a 3D model is gener- takes between 5 and 15 minutes. Afterwards some
ated based on the thickened walls. Windows and additional metadata can be added manually (such
doors are substracted from the wall model using as year of construction, architect, geo-position, func-
Boolean difference functions. The idealized window tions of rooms).
layouts (IWL30 and IWL 90) are created by subtracting The major limitation of our current model is that
boxes, which are generated on basis of the exterior it currently only facilitates single-storey apartments.
wall lines. Based on these 3D models, the daylight On the one hand, this restrict the sample size of floor
analysis is undertaken using the radiance-based sim- plans that can be examined but on the other allows
ulation plugin DIVA . us to use a simple and efficient user interface that
For the energy analysis we generate a 3D zone does not require any complex modelling skills on the
model by extruding the room polygons and adding part of the user. Nevertheless the underlying gen-
the floor and ceiling surface to obtain a closed Brep erative and analytical model can be adapted in such
for every room. For the analysis we use the Energy- a way that it could be transformed to analyse multi-
Plus -based energy calculation plugin ArchSim . storey apartments.
Finally we implemented a means of data export
from Grasshopper to the database. The input geome- PRELIMARY TESTPHASE
try and the analysis results on the scale of the analysis The FPAT has currently been tested in a seminar with
grid, convex space and apartment are written into a 39 architecture students. In this preliminary test
CSV file. This is afterwards imported to the database. phase we collected 78 floor plans. Each student had
Nearly all the values and measures are generated au- to analyze two floor plans: one was the apartment
tomatically. Only the circulation diagram currently he or she lived in and the other an apartment taken
needs additional manual input. Depending on the from a well-known floor plan manual (Schneider &
size and complexity of a floor plan the whole process

Figure 5
Examples of floor
plans analysed by
students using the
FPAT.
Heckmann 2011). Figure 5 shows the analysis dia- CONCLUSION & OUTLOOK
grams for 8 different floor plans. The data was stored In this paper we presented a tool (FPAT) for enhanc-
in the database via a web interface, making it possi- ing the process of data collection for morphological
ble to read the CSV-file from the FPAT. Various items studies on apartment floor plans. The FPAT makes
of metadata were added manually via a web form. In it possible to calculate a multitude of directly calcu-
the context of the seminar the data was used to ex- lable performance criteria from a simple floor plan
plore the basic principles of knowledge discovery us- sketch. In future we intend to extend the FPAT to eas-
ing databases. The collected data was accessed via ily input empirical data for space use (such as loca-
MySQL queries and analyzed using simple statistical tion of different items of furniture, most liked places,
analysis (regression analysis). Students were able to time spent in certain locations, movement patterns).
investigate the influence of glazing area on daylight This data is crucial for Environment-Behavior-Studies
performance, the relationships between isovist prop- aimed at discovering relationships between directly
erties and apartment size and between accessibility calculable performance criteria and human behav-
and visibility. The results of this seminar will be part ior. To obtain a large amount of data on user expe-
of a further publication. riences, a crowdsourcing approach could be promis-
ing. In terms of its technical implementation, a free-
hand sketching approach combined with standard-
ized building information models offers huge poten-

tial (Langenhan et al, 2013). Hanson, J 1998, Decoding Homes and Houses, Cambridge
Besides benefitting academic research, the University Press, Cambridge
database can also be used by architects to search Heckmann, O and Schneider, F (eds) 2011, Floor Plan
Manual: Housing, Birkhäuser, Basel
more flexibly for floor plans. These can be searched
Hillier, B and Hanson, J 1984, The Social Logic of Space,
not just based on common quantities (such as num- Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
ber of rooms, size) but based on performance criteria. Hillier, B, Hanson, J and Graham, H 1987, 'Ideas are in
This opens up a completely new field of queries fo- things: an application of the space syntax method
cusing on the qualities that a floor plan offers. It to discovering house genotypes', Environment and
becomes possible to search for "floor plans with a Planning B: Planning and Design, 14, p. 363–385
Hillier, B and Iida, S 2005 'Network and psychological
visually central and naturally lit kitchen, where two
effects in urban movement', Proceedings of the 5th
rooms in the apartment offer a high degree of pri- International Symposium on Space Syntax, Delft, pp.
vacy" or "find apartments with three rooms, where 475-490
two of them cannot be seen from the entrance". Peponis, J 2012, 'Building Layouts As Cognitive Data:
Currently we are collaborating with the Chair Purview And Purview Interface', Cognitive Critique, 6,
of Usability from the Media Faculty at the Bauhaus- pp. 11-51
Sevtsuk, A 2010, Path and place: a study of urban geome-
University Weimar to design an interface for interact-
try and retail activity, Ph.D. Thesis, Massachusetts In-
ing easily with the database. One of the central ques- stitute of Technology
tions is how to deal with the vast amount of criteria Stamps, AE 2009, 'On Shape and Spaciousness', Environ-
in the search process. ment and Behavior, 41, p. 526–548
Steadman, P 1983, Architectural Morphology: An Intro-
duction to the Geometry of Building Plans, Pion Ltd
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Tanaka, JS 1987, '"How big is big enough?": Sample
This study was carried out as part of the FOGEB size and goodness of fit in structural equation mod-
(Green Efficient Buildings) research project funded by els with latent variables', Child Development, 58, pp.
the Thuringian Ministry for Economics, Labour and 134-146
Technology and the European Social Funds (ESF). Turner, A, Doxa, M, O, D and Penn, A 2001, 'From isovists
to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis
of architectural space', Environment and Planning B:
REFERENCES Planning and Design, 28(1), pp. 103-121
Abshirini, E and Koch, D 2013 'Visibility Analysis, Sim-
ilarity and Dissimilarity in General Trends of Build-
ing Layouts and their Functions', Proceedings of
Ninth International Space Syntax Symposium, Seoul,
p. 11:1–11:15
Benedikt, ML 1979, 'To take hold of space: isovists and
isovist fields', Environment and Planning B: Planning
and Design, 6(1), p. 47–65
Franz, G and Wiener, JM 2008, 'From space syntax to
space semantics: a behaviorally and perceptually
oriented methodology for the efficient description
of the geometry and topology of environments',
Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design,
35(4), p. 574–592
Güney, YI 2007 'Analyzing visibility structures in turk-
ish domestic spaces', 6th International Space Syntax
Symposium, Istanbul, p. 38:1–38:12

Shape, Form and Geometry 2
Digital fabrication of a brise-soleil using fractal geometry
as generative system
Maycon Sedrez1 , Rafael Meneghel2 , Gabriela Celani3
1,2,3
Unicamp
1,3
http://lapac.fec.unicamp.br/
1,3
{maycon|celani}@fec.unicamp.br 2 rafaelm.meneghel@gmail.com
Parametric design and digital fabrication are becoming ubiquitous tools to

contemporary architecture and imply a different design process. With this new
perception of the contemporary production we have designed a façade sun shade
using fractal geometry as a generative system. Fractals are complex shapes
generated with simple rules, so it is relatively easy to change the final geometry
when we work with parameters. The design process made possible the creation of
different options for the brise-soleil using parametric definitions. Some solutions
were physically modeled using rapid prototyping, which we consider an essential
tool in the contemporary design process. The whole process conducted to the
conclusion that architects need to incorporate a new set of skills when working
with digital fabrication. Keywords: fractal, design process, generative system,
digital fabrication.
Keywords: fractal geometry, generative system, digital fabrication, design

process
INTRODUCTION as a generative system for creating forms. The re-

Fractals are present in buildings of different historical turn of architects' interest in mathematics and geom-
periods, even before the publication of the seminal etry supported by digital technologies in the creative
work of Mandelbrot (1983): The fractal geometry of process and the production of complex forms has fa-
nature. But the use of fractal geometry in architecture vored the presence of fractal geometry in architec-
really started in the 80´s with Peter Eisenman (Ost- ture. The use of computer programming also con-
wald 2009). For Ostwald (2001), the appropriation of tributes to this design process, allowing iteration and
fractals by architects appeared after the year of 1978 recursion functions, which are some of the main char-
and continued through the 80s. In the 90s fractal ar- acteristics of fractals. In the search for complexity, ar-
chitecture had its decline due in part to the exhaus- chitects are designing and producing forms with dig-
tive use of the expressions "complexity theory" and ital fabrication, which has resulted in what has been
"chaos theory", and their many contradictions. Nev- called "new ornament" (Picon 2010, Picon 2013). In
ertheless, it is possible to see that some architects this context, fractals are an important component to
still use fractal geometry in their designs nowadays, be explored in the creative process.
Shape, Form and Geometry 2 - Volume 2 - eCAADe 32 | 315

Hypothesis and objective ilarity progression subdivided endlessly. One of the
The objective of this research is to explore fractals outstanding features of this geometry is that simple
parametrically in the design process, aiming a con- rules can generate very complex objects. Fractals are
temporary type of ornament, which is also the regenerated by a process called iteration, in which a
sult of a search for environmental performance and rule substitutes each segment by a similar object, in
the digital fabrication of complex forms. In the next other words, is the repetition of a block of actions in
sections we will explain what fractal geometry is and a computational program. Recursion is the reappli-
give examples of its uses in architectural design; this cation of a function to the result of its own applica-
will lead to the discussion of complex forms in archi- tion. In other words, it is the repetition of a process
tecture, design and production. Finally, we will ex- that results in auto similarity. In a recursive method
plain how digital design is enabling this new type of the solution of a problem depends of the solution of
ornament. The product of this research is an orna- smaller parts of the same problem.
mental façade designed with fractal geometry, which The Minkowski curve is an example of recursive
will be described in section Desing Method. It is first function in which an initiator is divided in four seg-
necessary to present the concept of DAD (Digital Ar- ments with the same size. The two segments in the
chitectural Design), as explained by Oxman (2008): middle are replaced by two squares; the first one
"new relations between digital form and digital pro- without the base and the second one without the
cesses are contributing today to the emergence of a new top, iteration 2 of Figure 1. The iterative process con-
conceptual vocabulary". This author proposes three tinues infinitely.
models of study: formation, generative and perfor-
Figure 1
mance models. In the present work we have explored
Minkowski curve.
the generative model, in which "shapes and forms are
the result of a generative process" (Oxman 2008). Ex-
amples of this model are evolutionary algorithms and
shape grammars. We have surveyed some examples
of how to explore fractal geometry as a creative tool
in the digital design process to guide our own exper-
iment.
Fractal Geometry
Fractal geometry arises from scientific research car-
ried out by the mathematician Mandelbrot in the
late 70´s. Mandelbrot found inspiration in the ge-
ometry of natural shapes, as stated in his famous
words: "clouds are not spheres, mountains are not
cones, coastlines are not circles, nor does lightning
travel in a straight line" (Mandelbrot 1983). Disposing
of fast computers with powerful graphic resources,
Mandelbrot started to simulate those objects digi-
tally.
A fractal is a mathematical object generated with
geometric rules and it can be linear or non-linear. One of the contributions of fractal theory to ar-
Fractal shapes can be generated by a system of sim- chitecture is to create geometric patterns with gen-
316 | eCAADe 32 - Shape, Form and Geometry 2 - Volume 2

erative rules. Some architects have used fractals in theory. However, "typology, composition and their
the design process of projects and were used as ref- symbolic potential presented far more pressing issues"
erences in the present research: SOM´s King Abdul (Picon 2013:25).
Financial Center (Katz 2012), Daniel Libeskind´s Vic- Today, behind the Hypermodernist philosophy
toria and Albert Museum Extension, Heneghan Pen´s (Picon 2013; Lipovetsky 2004), the new ornament in
Egyptian Museum, Jean Nouvel´s Louvre Abu Dhabi architecture is directly linked to the ubiquitous use
and LAB Architecture Studio´s Federation Square of computers and computation in the design pro-
(Burry and Burry 2010). In general, fractals can grow cess and production. As Picon (2013:26) observes:
in endless iterations, but, as seen in the above ex- "[i]t´s possible to generate textures and patterns with
amples, the number of iterations is limited when one previously unknown ease. Complex geometries have
wants to implement this geometry in design. become accessible to anyone who knows how to use a
An example of using fractals as a generative sys- computer". But it is not only the ease of instruments
tem in an architectural design studio taught by Pe- that has fostered the revival of ornament; there is
ter Eisenman was described by Yessios (1987). In that an interest to create complex surfaces and to en-
studio fractal geometry was chosen as a concept for hance the building envelope. The contemporary de-
the design of a biology center. Due to the difficulties tail plays a central role in the development of the
in implementing a graphic computer program back project and becomes even more significant when
then, the instructors had architecture and computer aided by digital fabrication. Picon (2013) adds that "
science students working together. The implementa- [t]he proliferation of developments in design software
tion of fractal algorithms in computer can be positive has enabled architects to experiment afresh with tex-
to the creative design process. Schmitt (1987:104) ture, color, pattern and topology". Emmitt, Olie and
explains how fractals can be useful: "[...] the use of Schmid (2004:16) also state that "[p]resently we are ex-
function oriented programming, and the application of periencing an enormous amount of technological de-
fractal algorithms in the description and generation of velopment, a race towards complete automation [...]",
design are important steps in understanding the design especially with the use of CAD and CAM resources
process". in the specification of architectural details. Digital
output allows manufacturing different parts with the
Ornament same efficiency as standard parts. The materials and
The understanding of detail in contemporary archi- manufacturing equipment are also more present in
tecture has changed in the last decades (Moussavi the design process of architects demanding a specific
and Kubo 2006; Picon 2013). During the Modernist detail.
period architectural detail was often designed in a The contemporary ornament has some typical
way to hide itself (Ford 2003), or, as explained by Pi- features as stated by Picon (2013): it usually appears
con (2013:23) "the tectonic proved far more important as superficial textures or patterns, and the movement
to the Modernist project than the scattered ornamen- of the façade becomes ornamental. The contempo-
tal elements that survived Loos´s condemnation". Still, rary program of the building also leads to a more
details and ornamentation did not completely disap- ornamented surface. According to Moussavi and
pear. The materials and effects produced by them Kubo (2006), contemporary architectural programs
(e.g. concrete molds) started to be part of the ar- with flexible spaces and façades without openings
chitectonic vocabulary of architects such as Mies Van enable greater attention to the ornament. For Schu-
Der Rohe, Le Corbusier and Oscar Niemeyer. During macher (2009), "[p]atterns might serve purposes of
the Post-modernism period the discussion about or- decorative enhancement, feature accentuation, cam-
nament became again very present in architectural ouflaging, totemic identification, semiotic differentia-

tion, or any combination of those. Architectural pat- lems and find new methods to solve them.
terns are a potent device for architectural articulation". Parametric design enables rapid exploration of
Kolarevic and Klinger (2008:12) believe that ma- solutions, because it is relatively easy to change the
teriality is one of the main characteristics of contem- input data or other parameters. Furthermore, the ar-
porary architecture: "[...] in contemporary architec- chitect acquires greater control over the models, an-
ture, materials and their inherent properties are often alyzing them from the initial stage (Kolarevic 2003).
fundamental points of departure for discovering and The contemporary methodologies of architectural
exploring new spatial possibilities (effects) and for de- design are in fact new methods in which the designer
signing different perceptions and experiences of archi- is immersed in computational environments. Archi-
tecture (affects)". Recently, contemporary architects tects working with these methods usually express the
have realized that digital information can be used whole cognitive design process (not only the final
in manufacturing and construction by sending files product), and explore parametric design and use pro-
to CNC cutting machines, for example. With digital gramming to create relations between objects (Tidafi
manufacturing it is possible to construct more com- and Iardonova 2006). The form can be also eas-
plex shapes and the ornamentation can result from ily modified by the manipulation of parameters and
geometric patterns and mathematical functions. each design alternative can be tested to respond en-
Gleiter (2009) concludes that the "[o]rnament vironmental, ergonomic, economic or structural de-
is practically the intersection or interface between the mands (Meredith 2008). The alternative for the form
technical and constructional processes that the mate- and the parameters definition will strongly depend
rial requires and the manual and creative processing on the architect's cognitive sensibility.
through the craftsman or producer. [...] In the or- In digital design the cognitive abilities can be en-
nament both the material-constructional and the an- hanced by the use of computational tools and math-
thropological aspects become one as visible presence". ematical and geometrical resources. These resources
The new ornament could be considered as a conse- may help to solve or organize very complex prob-
quence of digital tools and production equipments, lems (Terzidis 2006). It is important for the archi-
but also as a cultural response to a contemporary hy- tect to know how to make basic algorithmic oper-
permodern society demands. As part of the society ations like "arithmetical, logical, combinatorial, rela-
demands, the changes in technology have taken ar- tional, and classificatory arranged under specific gram-
chitecture to a high level of sophistication in terms of matical and syntactical rules" (Terzidis 2006:38).
digital fabrication. New technologies aid the design and fabrica-
tion/construction processes, offering new challenges
Digital fabrication to the designer. For example, nowadays it is com-
Architectural design has undergone major changes mon that parts of the building are fabricated indi-
since the 70´s. Those changes were required by the vidually and then assembled. The reduction of the
complexity of architectural programs and the need to construction time makes that kind of industrializa-
accelerate the design process. Recently the incorpo- tion valuable because different parts of the building
ration of algorithms in the architectural design pro- can be fabricated simultaneously. Iwamoto (2009:7)
cess is becoming ubiquitous (Terzidis 2006; Kolare- affirms that "[p]ractically speaking, because buildings
vic and Malkawi 2005). Algorithms can be generated are made from a series of parts, their assembly relies
using textual or visual computer programming, al- on techniques of aggregating and manipulating two-
lowing designers to establish a strict procedure that dimensional materials".
can be applied from concept to detail. Besides, al- As new equipments are being incorporated to
gorithms allow architects to better understand prob- the production of buildings - CNC machines, robotic

arms, 3D printing, and laser, waterjet and plasma cut- should be studied carefully and that any solution to
ting machines - the architectural forms demand new sun protection should allow for ventilation efficiency.
methods of design. These equipments are used by The curved façade of the building facing southwest
a large number of industry sectors, from bicycles to resulted in areas of lower solar incidence and oth-
airplanes, but are still new to construction. So, digital ers in greater need of protection according to the
fabrication demands from architects the knowledge season. This project was developed by two gradu-
of programming and to be aware of how and which ate and three undergraduate students for an elective
equipments will produce the design. The construc- digital fabrication class at Unicamp. The design pro-
tion of more complex forms in architecture is possible cess started with a main idea, then project and con-
with the use of digital tools and fabrication. cept references were researched.
The architectural premise was based on case
DESIGN METHOD studies and references of façades protection as the
In order to test a design process with the use of frac- muxarabiê or muxarabi, a type of façade element
tals from conception to production, a project was de- common in Arab architecture. The muxarabiê is often
veloped as a proof of concept. It consisted of a sun- constructed with a regular design; in our case we use
screen for the façade of a curved building that has a recursive fractal pattern that allows irregular varia-
been recently designed for Unicamp's main campus tions in the design.
in Campinas. A parametric model of the building The first step was to establish a parametric model
was developed with Rhinoceros (a 3D modeling soft- of the building for the preparation of analyses. Taking
ware) and Grasshopper (a visual programming en- the simplified virtual model as a basis, analyses were
vironment). The software 3DMax was used for ren- performed in Ecotect. Figures 2-4 shows the shaded
dering images. The equipments used to manufac- region and the area to be protected during the critical
ture the models were laser cutter machines (40w and period of 5pm in summer and winter respectively. In
100w) and a three axes CNC Router with a vacuum ta- winter it can be seen the diagonal shadow generated
ble. Since the building's structural design is still un- by the building itself.
der development, it was important to develop a para- The virtual model and the general project files
metric model for the façade, so that any dimensional were planned for the production of drawings for laser
change could be easily made. The advantages of de- cutting and to prepare a paper physical model. After
veloping parametric models for advancing the detail- the completion of the analysis of insolation and the
ing of a building whose dimensions are still not fi- construction of the model (figure 5), we discussed the
nal has been stressed by Sheperd, Hudson and Hines proposal for the façade.
Figure 2 (2011).
December 23th Grasshopper has an application that was impor-
(top), June 23th tant for this research: Hoopsnake, an add-on that al-
(bottom) . lows the creation of iterative algorithms. Hoopsnake
repeats an algorithmic procedure from a set number
of iterations. The component creates a copy of data
received from the user and stores it locally. This dupli-
cate data is made available via a standard output pa-
rameter. We also used Autodesk Ecotect software for
solar gain analysis, shading and thermal performance
in the preliminary analysis.
It was noted that the control of heat stroke

The initial idea was to divide the façade in mod- Figure 3
ules defined by floors and pillars, also creating a Summer 5pm .
division of the façade (Figure 6). Recursive itera-
tions could help to split the parameterized objects
into smaller parts where there is higher solar inci-
dence, creating more elements to produce shadows
or voids. So, fractal geometry proved itself useful
since it controls the iterations of elements at differ-
ent scales, creating an auto similar pattern. The pat-
tern variation obtained was associated with areas of
more or less need for light. Figure 4
At this time the project was still on a very ab- Winter 5pm .
stract level and we did not know how the fractal el-
ements would be materialized. However, any deci-
sion on how these elements could be implemented
could be made by changing the parametric model.
The first proposal for the façade was to divide it into
macro panels each floor and each structural axis in
a number of twenty-four. As can be seen in Figure
6 the proposed division intends to create diversity
in each panel on each floor of each module, and is
Figure 5
changed by the need for sun protection. That would
Photo of the model
reach a variation of design for individual macro pan-
in Heliodon:
els and there would be a wider range of possibilities
Summer 5pm .
for mounting the panels on the façade.
Then we began the creation of parameterized
fractal transformations with rotation and scaling of
shapes. Points associated with planes at the virtual
model served as coordinates to fractal generation.
Four alternatives for the use of fractal in manufactur-
ing the panels were created and are described herein
with a nomenclature to relate them to the Grasshop-
per components: lines, pipes, planes and cuts (Fig-
ure 7). The lines were the initial fractal shapes con-
structed by connecting specific points of the façade Figure 6
panels and were iterated upon parameters defined First idea sketch.
by angles and rotation axes. The pipes were built
with Grasshopper components of the same name,
and were created using the lines as a center and a
specified radius. Extrusion lines in a direction perpen-
dicular to the panel, in which they are contained, cre-
ated the planes. Finally, the subtraction of the pipes
of a plane created a porous design (Figure 7).

Figure 7 The lines undergoing transformations created
Lines, Pipes (top); patterns that were tested and changed. The left
Planes and Cuts lower region of the façade panels could be more
(bottom) open in relation to others, because of the shadow
produced by the building, as seen in previous anal-
ysis. Both alternatives, planes and pipes, were sim-
ulated (as a single panel) to test the projection of
shadow or light that would generate the pattern
inside the building (Figure 8). The third alterna-
tive, planes, could function also as a light tray, but
it would require a complex execution. The num-
ber of mating parts required would have been very
Figure 8
high, which would increase the difficulty of assem-
Rendering of pipes
bling and would increase the weight of the panels.
and planes shading
Another constraint of the overall design is that the
façade do not have many places for fixing the panels.
Regarding constructive issues, the planes option
would have a large number of parts and would be
Figure 9 too difficult to maintain. The pipes option was also
Algorithm drilling not selected because it would need tube bending
in Grasshopper and machines (calendering) and welding and we would
detail sheet with like to use manufacturing techniques that could be
holes tested in terms of prototypes using the available
equipment at the laboratory (3D printer, CNC ma-
Figure 10 chines and vacuum forming). The result of pipes in
Detail of the cut of a the façade would be similar to one of the reference
perforated plate designs, the Wuzhen Theater of Artech Architects. In
this case, the façade elements do not perform as pro-
tection of insolation, but is an ornamental pattern.
Then, based on another project reference, The
Orange Cube by Jakob and Macfarlane, we decided
to use perforated sheets. However, we noticed that
cutting the previously perforated sheets would not
be the best option. Tests with the CNC machine
showed that there would be problems with the defor-
mation of the plate. Furthermore, the designed cuts
would have a pattern of irregular edges. a part of the project, a parameter offset (in orange)
The solution was to cut the plates and then per- controls the border that will be on the edge exclud-
forate them. An algorithm that excludes drilling ing the holes in this region. Grasshopper sliders con-
holes within areas of cuts and its edge was created. trol the amount of holes and their dimension. We
This maintains the integrity of the planned design also wanted to solve the design of the cuts to avoid
and creates resistance on the edge of the hollow. Fig- the metal burr as seen in Figure 10. The plates as de-
ure 9 shows the code that controls drilling applied in signed may be manufactured by any provider with

Figure 11
Detail of 24 panels
with a fractal
varying for each
panel
Figure 12
Detail of 24 panels
with a single fractal
varying for the
entire façade
CNC machine tools. cade from the upper left corner to the bottom right
So we analyzed the execution of the panels. Fig- corner. In the lower left corner of the façade there
ure 11 is the design that varies randomly in each of is less solar incidence, so in this area we could con-
the twenty-four panels; Figure 12 is the design of a centrate more hollow panels. The team decided to
single fractal for the entire façade. One issue that selecte the option B that appears in red. With the fi-
could hinder the implementation were the parts that nal design set, we then started the adjustment of the
come loose due to the crossing of the figures (larger cuts. The models were produced at different scales
white areas in figure 11 and 12), and the lack of rigid- to study the relations of the project; with paper in a
ity of the plate caused by this geometry. This was no- laser cutting machine and aluminum on a CNC 3-axis
ticed during the process, but became more evident router (Figures 16 and 17).
when we produced a physical scale model made of The final proposal was designed, modeled and
laser-cut cardboard. In Figure 13 it is observed that tested again (Figures 15 and 16). Each of the 24
the red part would be lost and the orange corners macro panels were divided into 5 smaller panels, po-
would become brittle. This problem was solved with sitioned vertically, totaling 120 pieces. A detail of one
the implementation of a detail that eliminates cross- of the panels can be seen in Figure 17.
ings through the creation of an edge. Renderings (Figures 18 and 19) of one of the
rooms in the building at different times of the year
Figure 13
were produced, to check the visual effect inside the
Detail of the
building and also the expected reduction of solar in-
generated design
cidence without reducing lighting. Later, with the
problem and
definition of the type of windows, this model can be
solution
further tested and changed if necessary.
Having solved the problems of the "loose" parts,

lack of rigidity and drilling, some fractal alternatives
were generated changing code parameters (Figure
14). Finally we choose an initial form of eleven lines
that are generated on a diagonal that crosses the fa-

Figure 14
Five variations of
fractals with
different
transformations
Figure 15
Detail of the final
proposal
Figure 16
Physical model with
the final proposal in
laser cut paper

types would eliminate any problem of adjustment. Figure 17
After visits to manufacturing façade panels compa- Detail of one of the
nies it was possible to note that the completion of 120 panels needed
the process would have required more collaboration for the façade -
among professionals, probably involving engineers milled aluminum.
and manufacturers of metal panels. Finally, we con-
cluded that fractal geometry was indeed a tool that
contributed to the creative design process and that
could effectly address the contemporary ornament.
Figure 18
Detail of the
projection of the
light inside in
summer.
Figure 19
Detail of the
projection of light
DISCUSSION inside in winter.
In this study, algorithms were used at different stages
of the design process, in an integrated process that
involved the definition of the overall form and the
resolution of fabrication issues, back and forward.
The parametric environment allows the generation
of various alternatives from the same algorithm by ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
small changes in the data. In this way it was possi- We thank CAPES for Maycon Sedrez's PhD scholar-
ble to carry out a process of design with the contem- ship and FAPESP (Sao Paulo Research Foundation) for
porary approach described by Tidafi and Iordanova supporting the Laboratory for Automation and Pro-
(2006) that suggest that in addition to exploring dif- totyping for Architecture and Construction and this
ferent formal solutions, it is important communicate research (Process 2012/10498-3).
throughout the design process.
It is noteworthy that many necessary adjust-
ments in the project were perceived only with the
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A Grammar for Shelters
An exploration of rule-based designs in prefabricated and modular shelters.
Afonso Maria de Castro Fernandes Abreu Gonçalves

Faculty of Architecture of the University of Lisbon
http://www.afogoncalves.wix.com/home
afogoncalves@gmail.com
This work explores the possible use of the shape grammar formalism in
generating small/medium sized dwellings or shelters as a possible and effective
solution for shelter shortages that usually follows in the wake of a natural
disaster. The shelters are generated using a set of pre-fabricated elements that
add up to form a coherent and functional dwelling. The grammar exemplified
here, being a shape grammar, deals specially with generating the underlying
functional diagram and the floor plan of one possible solution based on a set of
typologies design a priori.
Keywords: Shape Grammars, Modular Architecture, Emergency Architecture
INTRODUCTION EVOLUTION OF MODULAR PREFABRI-

For the past few decades we have witnessed dras- CATED CONSTRUCTION
tic changes in the Earth's climate, often manifested During the 20th century several models for family
as natural catastrophes that leave countless people houses were proposed and developed based on the
shelterless in their wake. According to the Cen- concept of modular and prefabricated architecture.
tre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters As examples we have the Maison Dom-ino (1914)
(2013), it is estimated that, in 2012, 357 natural disas- by Le Corbusier, the "American System-Built Houses"
ters were triggered, affecting 124.5 million of people (1911) of Frank Lloyd Wright, Buckminster Fuller's
worldwide. The reality of these devastating events "Dymaxion" (1927) and "Wishita Houses" (1944-46),
calls for a dire need for architects and other built- the "Package House" (1941-52) develop by Walter
environment specialist, who have the tools, back- Gropius and the "Plas-2-Point" house designed by
ground and knowledge, to come forth with clever Marcel Breuer in 1943. After the 2nd World War
and creative solutions to the problematic housing we witness a renewed interest for prefabricated con-
shortages that follows these disastrous events. With struction in order to address the destruction that
this motivation, the work in progress here presented followed those tumultuous years. In France, Jean
explores an attempt at using computational meth- Prouvé studies several house models that were mind-
ods, namely shape grammars, as a viable approach ful of the environment and could be easily shipped
to quickly and intuitively generate possible designs and transported to the location. The "Maison Trop-
of shelters. ical" (1949) is one such example. Contemporary to

Prouvé's work are the "Loustron Houses" (1948) man- In Portugal, there have also been a few ex-
ufactured by the Lustron Corporation in the USA. amples like the "Modular System" (2003-07) by Ar-
In Northern Europe, Scandinavian countries quiporto and the "Treehouse" (2005-2008) by Ap-
were exploring modular and prefabricated architec- pleton & Domingos. Both are based on a modular
ture with a predominant use of timber. One of the system which coordinates different multi-functional
best examples is perhaps the "Moduli 225" (1969-71) modules that can be added or removed based on the
by Finnish architects Kristian Gullichsen and Juhani client's desire.
Pallasmaa. The construction of this modular system
is based on a cubic 225 cm structural module com- THE SHELTERS - COMPONENTS, ASSEM-
posed of timber pillars and beams to which modu-
BLY AND TYPOLOGIES
lar panels are connected. The panel system was pro-
Like the Moduli 225 construction system mentioned
grammed with different variants in mind for the walls,
in the previous section, the shelters here proposed
floors and ceilings and the different possible combi-
are based on a modular system composed of a tim-
nations of panels allowed for several configurations
ber portico structure to which panels can be easily
and typologies within this 225 cm grid. For its struc-
added or removed. All components are treated as
tural system, versatility, ease of transport and on-site
individual and prefabricated elements that can be
assembly the construction system used in this shape
easily packed, shipped and assembled. The inten-
grammar is heavily influenced on the Moduli system.
tion was to design a flexible and functional program
During the last decades there have also been
based on the "do it yourself" model.
many interesting examples worth mentioning that
show a more ecological concern and seek to answer Figure 1
the new paradigms in the way we inhabit spaces and The three possible
buildings. A notable example is the "System 3" house modules
presented in MoMA's 2008 exhibition entitled "Home
Delivery: Fabricating the Modern Dwelling". The Sys-
tem 3 was a prototype that showcased a more rig-
orous design and the potential of new fabrication
methods. It was composed of two main modules -
a functional module with a kitchen, a bathroom and
technical/storage area and a living module. These
modules were fabricated separately and easily trans-
ported and assembled together on site. The portal frame results from the modular co-
Previous to the "System 3" house, Shigeru Ban ordination between beams and pillars, (both with
designed the first of three "Furniture Houses" (1995). a 16x16 cm section), designed to form a modular
This house combines the concerns of earthquakes structure with a minimum and maximum span of 192
with the possibilities of open space, thus resulting cm and 272 cm respectively. Hence, the structural
in a construction system where vertical furniture as- beams have two dimensions that limit the size of
sumes the role of structural elements. The furniture the modular system. The beams connect to the pil-
units - cabinets, closets and bookshelves - act as spa- lars through means of concealed fittings that are of
tial dividers. This house proved to be a creative and easy access to allow the structure and modules to be
effective way of building cost-efficient houses with changed at any give time. The combination of these
considerable reduction of produced waste and con- elements it is possible to obtain three different struc-
struction time. tural modules of 192x192x257 cm, 192x272x257 cm

and 272x272x257 cm, from hereafter addressed as The second stage of assembly is to place and
"small", "medium" and "large" modules respectively connect the floor and wall panels to the beams in the
(figure 1). desired orientation. The connections, although con-
The vertical and horizontal panels don't serve a cealed, remain accessible if the user one day wishes
structural purpose and as such can be placed and re- to take the structure apart or add more modules or
moved easily at any given time depending on the change the existing ones. This is also the stage at
user's desire and needs. The vertical panels are which all technical installations are provided so as to
grouped in different categories depending on what make the shelter habitable. Once all the vertical pan-
function they serve in the system. There are exte- els are in place and the interiors are terminated then
rior and interior opaque panels, doors and windows the structure can be completed by placing the top
panels and lattice panels, some of them with differ- structure, assembled in a similar way as the bottom
ent variations. The combination of these elements structure. With the top beams in place the wall pan-
also allows several different facades and inner space els are locked in place.
configurations. The horizontal panels are grouped in The modules are topped with the roof to pro-
floor panels, with two variants, and ceiling panels. vide sunlight protection and make the whole struc-
The sloped roof is seen as an individual element ture weatherproof. The roof structure is composed
mounted over the main structure. Although a sepa- of wood stubs, fixed on top of the pillars, roof struts
rate structure, the roof is still dependent on the pri- that join together by means of lap joints and OSB
mary modular system. Its structure is based on the (Oriented Strand Board) roof panels that receive a
principles of traditional construction and material- coating membrane.The assembly process and corre-
ized through prefabricated modular structural struts sponding numbers can be seen in figure 2.
and stubs that rest directly on top pf the pillars..
The possibility to change the structure and mod- Shelter Typologies
ules was a determinant premise to this project since For this grammar one basic typology of shelter was
it is predictable that in some cases these shelters, designed that serves as starting point for the genera-
which are thought to act as immediate and tempo- tion procedure that allows the grammar to form more
rary dwellings , may in time acquire a more perma- elaborate typologies. Having into account the possi-
nent nature if the occupants decided they wish to ble number of inhabitants for these shelters, this ba-
turn these shelters into a permanent home. In that sic typology is intended for one person or possibly a
case, additional modules can be added to enhance couple, and represents what is considered the most
the basic shelter and increase it's comfort and space. basic and compact solution while still maintaining a
favorable level of comfort, living space and function-
Assembly ality. This basic T0 typology (figure 3) is composed
The whole assembly process starts with building the of a multi-purpose living area that can also serve as
skeletal portico frame structure, which rests directly sleeping accommodations, a small kitchen, a small
over the foundations. The concrete foundations are bathroom and a technical/storage area. Because the
laid on site and need to be carefully planned before- system is modular and possible to be changed at any
hand to abide by the same grid layout of the shel- given time, it is possible to obtain more complex ty-
ter. Using the appropriate connectors, the pillars pologies simply by adding more modules for bed-
are mounted over the foundations and the bottom rooms, balconies, porches or patios or by expand-
beams screwed onto them to form the basic struc- ing existing ones. There is in fact no restriction of
tural frame. At this point, the connectors for the ver- size or number of modules for each functional area
tical panels can also be placed. although the small module is the most conditioned

Figure 2
Stages of assembly
in the number of functions it can assume. However, is the generation of designs, extensively used in ar-
it is still flexible enough to be used for bathrooms, chitecture to describe forms and the interactions be-
kitchens, storage compartments, corridors, porches tween them in different algebras (Stiny 1989). We
or simply as extensions to existing areas. can also enhance these devices by attributing
In order to introduce versatility into the sys-
Figure 3
tem, several simulations were conducted, each one
The basic T0
testing different layout configurations that could be
typology
generated from the basic T0 typology and grew in
complexity, size and destined number of occupants.
From these tests the first set of rules that generate the
functional structure, deal with adjacency/connectiv-
ity rules, number of cells for each functional zone and
location of the components, were extracted.
THE GRAMMAR
The formalism of shape grammars is specified in
greater detail in Stiny (1980) but briefly explained it is
a way of describing a computational procedure, start-
ing with an initial shape, possibly labelled, to each
rules are recursively applied to transform one shape
into another. This 4-tuple - set of shapes, labels, rules
and initial shape, forms the basic structure of a shape
grammar. One useful application of such formalism

variables to the elements that define them, thus cre- Stage 2: Interior layout and functional zones.
ating parameterized shapes that describe families of From the initial shape, the rules in this stage (figure
shapes. Functions can then apply real values to these 5) progressively add additional modules for the other
variables. functional areas, thus defining the desired interior
The shape grammar that follows deals with gen- layout. These adjacency rules are determined by the
erating floor and site plans of modular shelters. Since connection between zones and with label dot-slash-
it is composed of shapes, labels and weighted lines it dot. The rules 1, 2 and 3 deal with expanding the
works in the algebras U22 , V22 and W22 . The gram- technical zones in order to obtain the expanded ver-
mar incorporates a system composed of a set of ele- sion of the basic typology. Again, each space is iden-
ments that form the vocabulary of shapes to be used, tified with a color - red- living areas; green - kitchen;
the spatial relations between these elements and the blue - bathroom; grey - technical areas; orange - bed-
shape rules that act upon the spatial relations and rooms; dark grey - porches/balconies; brown - gar-
place each element in its correct position. The way dens/patios - and a · to indicate the position of ad-
it is structured follows the order of assembly of the jacent spaces. The instances of the labels D and d
shelters, that is to say it starts by defining the under- again serve to indicate the dimension of each side for
lying functional structure with all corresponding ad- later use in the grammar.
jacency and connectivity rules and then starts plac- In some rules, the · is progressively erased to stop
ing the elements in the same order they need to be further generation of areas. The last two rules in this
placed on-site to complete the shelter. stage erases the labels · and dot-slash-dot so that no
A design for a shelter may be generated in the adjacent areas can be added from this point onward.
following seven stages: Only after the functional diagram has been gener-
ated correctly can these labels be erased.
1. initiation
Figure 4
Initial shape 2. interior layout and functional zones
Figure 5 3. bottom structure and floor
Rules for
generating the 4. wall paneling
functional diagram
5. top structure and ceiling
6. roof
7. termination
Stage 1: Initiation. The initial shape of this gram-

mar is the functional diagram of the basic T0 (figure
4) from which every designed typology is defined,
withe the label dot-slash-dot being used to indicate
the connectivity between zones and the · indicat- Stage 3: Bottom structure and flooring. After the
ing the direction in which additional modules can be functional layout has been generated the next rules
placed in further stages of this grammar. The labels add the bottom structure (figure 6), consisting of the
d and D are used to indicate the length and width of foundations, pillars, bottom beams and floors, placed
each side since the shared wall of two modules must in this order. The first schema (rules 71 to 74) starts
have the same size.

adding the foundations at each corner and intersec- ciate one of the two possible flooring panels with a
tion of the previously drawn rectangles, that define specific color - wooden floors for living areas, bed-
the functional areas, and the pillar connectors on top rooms and porches/balconies and tiled floors for all
of them. Placing the pillars comes next and these technical areas. For the garden modules, because
need to be place straight on top of the foundations they don't have a floor or bottom structure, rule 130
(rule 75). The label |− indicates the possible location merges the sides of these spaces. Only exterior areas
of the beams which are placed with rules 77 and 78. shaded brown can have their sides merged. The last
When a beam is added this label is erased. Any re- two rules eliminate spurious lines that are no longer
maining instances of the label are erased with rule 79. needed in the design.
Stage 4: Wall panelling. The rules for this stage (fig- Figure 6
ure 7) add the wall panels to fill the spaces in be- Rules for placing
tween the pillars. The first panels to be placed are the bottoms
the door panels wherever an instance of the label − structure and floors
intersects the beam's outlines (rules 133 to 141). All
other connection labels are then erased so that no
more door panels can be placed (rules 142 and 143).
The bottom wall connectors are placed afterwards
over the beam t-sections (rule 144). The remaining
panels come next and although the choice of rules
for placing these panels can be somewhat arbitrary
they still need to follow certain conditions. For exam-
ple, the opaque panels with insulation and window
panels can only be placed between the exterior and
interior zones and lattice panels can only be placed
when both sides are interior or exterior. When adja-
cent spaces share the same function and no panel is
to be placed between them, rules 154 and 155 place
boards to level the floor and conceal the beam con- Figure 7
nections. Rules for placing
At this point there is a choice to generate a com- the door and wall
plete floor plan or to continue applying rules to get panels
a complete site plan. If we desire to get just the floor
plan then rules schema 156 to 160 are applied. These
rules mark the top beams (rules 156 and 157) and roof
line (rules 158 and 159) with dashed lines and also
eliminate all spurious geometry and remaining labels
To aid the placement of wall panels in upcoming so that no other rule can be applied and the design
stages, rules 80 to 114 place a label Ext and Int in- is complete. If, however, we choose to continue with
dicating which side of each module is exterior and the grammar and carry on generating the site plan
which is interior. These labels remain in the design then the aforementioned rules are not applied and
for later use. The rule schemata 115 to 129 associate we move on to the next stage.
a floor panel for each space. Because each functional Stage 5: Top structure and ceiling. This grammar
area is shaded with a different color the rules asso- makes use of weighted lines as indicate which ele-

ments are be sectioned by the top horizontal plane. where ΣD is the sum of all D-length sides and Σd is the
In order for the forthcoming elements to be visible sum of all d-length sides. The angle 1.40º is the slope
on the ground plan the first rule schema defined in angle. Afterwards, rules place the transverse and lon-
this stage (figure 8) erase this section plane, which gitudinal struts for both lengths, in the same order
translates in changing the representation method of these need to be joined together - transverse struts
all the elements placed before this stage (rules 163 to first and longitudinal next (rules 192 to 199). Here a
172). Rule 173 then adds the top wall connectors and label − is also placed to define the limits of each roof
spurious lines are once again eliminated (rule 174). panel (rule 200). From this top view the roof over-
Afterwards, the next rules add the top beams in the laps with existing geometry so rules 201 to 204 are
same way the bottom beams were added, once the defined to trim the geometry that is concealed.
corresponding pillar connectors have been placed The next rules are for placing the rain gutter on
(rules 176). The final part is to add the ceiling pan- the side for which the roof slopes to (rules 205 to
els over the interior zones, covering the floor patterns 208). The gutter is also defined in modular sections
(rules 184 to 188). with a predetermined size. The last rules of this stage
delete lines and geometry that is once again being
Figure 8
concealed or no longer needed in the grammar.
Rules for placing
the top structure Stage 7: Termination. At this stage the generation
and ceilings of the shelter is terminated, leaving only to erase
the remaining labels, D and d. Only shelters that
have been correctly generated may have their labels
erased. The entire process and result of applying the
Figure 9 rules of this grammar to the initial shape can be seen
Rules for placing in figures 11 and 12.
the roof
FINAL OBSERVATIONS
The paper shows the design and application of a
work in progress shape grammar capable of generat-
ing modular shelters, based on the manipulation of
three different modules and independent elements
that are configured in different layouts to form dif-
Figure 10 ferent typologies and spaces. The ultimate intention
Termination rules was to explore how digital tools such as shape gram-
Stage 6: Roof structure and roof panels. The rules mars could present a viable way to rationalize the de-
of this stage (figure 9) start placing the connectors sign process and quickly generate several solutions
on top of the pillars (rules 189 and 190). Placing the based on an initial brief, as well as produce drawing
supporting stubs come next and because of the roof representations of said solutions to be used in later
slope the total height of each stub changes through- project stages and to aid the manufacturing process.
out the structure. Resorting to the trigonometric re- It would be interesting to couple this shape gram-
lation between length and height, the formula for mar with a descriptive grammar to enhance this user-
calculating this height is: based rule model. From an initial design brief, a set of
h = tan 1.40(D + d) (1) heuristics would be used to translate the brief into a
design solution (Duarte 2005). Another addition that
could help the visualization of the grammar would be

Figure 11
Rule application
process

Figure 12
Rule application
process (continue)

to explore how these modules and elements relate to Stiny, G. 1980, 'Introduction to shape and shape gram-
each other in the third dimension, possibly by gener- mars', Environment and Planning B: Planning and De-
ating isometric models of the shelters. sign, 7, pp. 343-351
Stiny, G. 1989, 'What is a design?', Environment and Plan-
It is important to note that the scope of focus was
ning B: Planning and Design, 17, pp. 97-103
both to showcase a modular system for construct-
ing shelters and also to explore the application of
shape grammars in rationalizing the design and as-
sembly stages of modular-type dwellings.. For this
reason and since this is still a work in progress, the
design here presented may not have been described
extensively enough and several changes remain to
be made and some questions tackled. The dimen-
sions, construction details, materials and typologies
here exemplified mean only to provide a base for the
shape grammar and the definition of the rules. It was
also not possible, due to time restrictions, to include
in this grammar furniture and fittings in the gram-
mar, consider possible site restrictions, adaptability
to particular building regulations, introduce energy
efficient solutions or technical installations and infra-
structures .These were nevertheless taken into con-
sideration for defining the dimensions of the mod-
ules and guarantee the grammar could not gener-
ate spaces that are too small or inappropriate for the
functions they serve.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work started being developed for the Shape
Grammar course lectured at the Faculty of Architec-
ture of the University of Lisbon. The author would
thus like to acknowledge and thank the guidance
and comments of professors José Pinto Duarte and
Luís Romão that much contributed and motivated
the work here presented.
REFERENCES
Duarte, J. P. 2005, 'A discursive grammar for customiz-
ing mass housing: the case of Siza’s houses at
Malagueira', Automation in Construction, 14, p. 265–
275
Guha-Sapir, D. and Hoyois, Ph. 2013, Annual Disaster Sta-
tistical Review 2012: The numbers and trends, CRED,
Brussels

More than a Computational Tool
Design Competence Development using Shape Grammars
Mohamed S. Ibrahim
Alexandria University, Egypt
mohsobhy77@gmail.com
Development of competence has been one of the major issues and goals of
modern academic design and engineering education. The research assumes that
a rule based reasoning approach could aid in the development of the design
competences within the design studio. Support by its application in design and
computational courses, the implemented tool is loosely based on the concept of
grammatical design and shape grammars. The potential of implementing such
methodology is explored by investigating its pedagogical applications as well as
evaluating the possibilities of applying such methodology in the studio structure.
The argument is supported by examples from the author's work with beginning
and advanced design students from different design schools.
Keywords: Shape Grammars , Pedagogical Grammars, Design Competence,

Design Capacities
INTRODUCTION sic design abilities typically addressed indi-

It has been discussed by various authors that there is vidually (Kovacevic 2008). Design pedagogy
a need for, and has been a gradual shift from learning consequently is either Skill or Knowledge -
design contents to building up design competence in based (Van Doorn et al., 2008, Salama, 2005).
various contexts. Approaches to develop design competences
According to Horváth (2006) the word 'compe- typically addressed knowledge and skills dis-
tence' expresses the comprehensive capability to do jointedly.
something in an effective and successful way; it also
refers to a purposeful set of behaviors that enable • The ASK model: Inspired by Vinke's definition
achieving goals. Developing design competences of competency (2003) as " the ability of an in-
enables future designers to work efficiently in geo- dividual to select and use knowledge, skills,
graphically dislocated collaborative design environ- and attitudes that are necessary for effec-
ments. Nowadays, three distinctive views on the de- tive behavior in a specific professional, social
velopment of these competences can be identified: or learning situation", attitude" was the third
component to be added to form the Attitude,
• The reductionist views: assumes that design Skills and Knowledge (ASK) model(Bakarman,
competence is nothing more than a set of ba- 2011).

• The holistic view: seeing design competences (iii) trust, (iv) motivation, and (v) open mindset. To-
as a synergetic construct of generic human gether they provide the good basis for a designer's
capacities (Horváth, 2006). Accordingly, de- attitude, which support designers in Design problem
sign competence is assumed to be a com- solving.
bination of five capacities: capabilities, atti- Design knowledge. is a body of specific knowledge
tude, knowledge, skills, experience (figure 1a). relevant and necessary for the particular field of de-
In design education, students should be able sign whether procedural or declarative. The proce-
to equally develop all the five capacities in a dural (know how) part of the knowledge goes be-
well-balanced education curriculum. They are yond concrete design cases, involving both formal
methodologically strongly connected, pro- (codified) design knowledge and informal (tacit) de-
viding the problem solving resources for design knowledge stemming from intuition, experi-
sign competence. ence and educated guesses. It involves the integra-
tion of different cognitive skills concerned with de-
DESIGN COMPETENCE: THE HOLISTIC sign thinking and creative problem solving, creating
VIEW CONSTITUENTS no clear boundaries between "knowledge" and the
Design Capabilities. are natural capacities talents fourth constituent "Skills"
abilities that enable us to act as designers. They man- Design skills. are various abilities that enable stu-
ifest in different forms such as Intelligence, Imagi- dents to do design actions well(Horváth, 2006). De-
nation, Creativeness, inventiveness, artfulness, tech- velopment of design skills asks for practical training,
nicality, pragmatism, and productiveness (Horváth, which involves correct application of design meth-
2006). These capabilities are innate(Van Doorn et al., ods, effective use of design tools and creating virtual
2008), but can be developed through many years of and physical objects. Unlike capabilities, skills devel-
focused learning and practice. The possibility of de- opment can be achieved in shorter periods with prac-
velopment is higher if the level innate capability is tical training.
reasonably high.
Design experience. means the familiarity gained
Designer's Attitude. is seen as the relation between from seeing and doing things in the course of acting
the designer and the design profession (Horváth, as a designer. Experience also means the feeling and
2006). Attitudes influence the performance of the de- reflections obtained in relation to designing and de-
signer in various way, his way of thinking, acting and signs.
seeing concerning the design tasks. Van Doorn et al.
(2008) concluded that attitude is a combination of
five main elements: (i) communication, (ii) reliability,
Figure 1
a- Holistic view on
interacting
capacities of design
competence
(Horváth, 2006), b-
the modified
holistic view

OUR MODIFIED VERSION OF THE HOLISTIC the implementation opportunities of CAAD tools in
VIEW developing aspects of the students' design compe-
In our research, we believe that professional experi- tence.
ence is not a separate element that can be studied or The research assumes that a rule based reason-
developed disjointedly. Professional experience ining approach could aid in the development of the de-
corporates all four constituents accumulatively built sign competence especially Procedural Knowledge,
up, providing expert designers with the specific mas- Skills and Attitude within the design studio. Support
tery needed to complete the design task successfully by its application in design, the implemented tool is
and effectively. loosely based on the concept of grammatical design
"Clearly, part of the development of expertise lies and shape grammars.
in the accumulation of experience. Something that
distinguishes experts from novices is that the experts Why CAAD & grammar?
have been exposed to a large number of examples Computational models and methodologies aided the
of the problems and solutions that occur in their do- researches in the field of design studio teaching with
main"(Cross, 2004) its unexplored theoretical prospective. Computa-
In education therefore, experience is considered tional design is based on more than just algorithms;
the melting pot for all design capabilities, knowl- behind the conception of generative design systems
edge, attitude and skills; a third dimension of time there are many design theories, methods and mod-
and efforts that gradually shape the students design els as well as reasoning systems that contributed to
capacities (figure 1b) , training them toward the most offer more than images, data or software. Address-
effective professional practice they can. ing the vagueness and indeterminacy of the design
process outstood and motivated the search from the
design education perspective. Knowing more about
DEVELOPING COMPETENCE IN DESIGN ED-
natural design reasoning processes would pave the
UCATION way for modes of enhancing teaching it in the de-
Development of competence has been one of the sign studio. These generative systems developed de-
major issues and goals of modern academic design sign methods that are able to effectively transmit a
and engineering education. Our literature study comprehensive codex of design knowledge, includ-
revealed that the holistic approach was adopted ing procedural knowledge about how to design and
mostly in product design courses (Horváth, 2006, how to reason about designing. This consequently
Van Doorn et al., 2008, Kovacevic, 2008) , other ap- helped developing very useful models that interpret
proaches were implemented in architectural design design and problem based reasoning in a very com-
curriculums including ASK and the reductionist ap- prehensive and understandable way.
proach (Bakarman, 2011, Salama, 2005). Shape grammar has been brought into design
The educational contents and pedagogical ap- education in various forms supported by its success
proach of these courses were designed accordingly, in analyzing and synthesizing design (Knight, 1999).
focusing on each generic capacity respectively. In many instances it has been introduced as a gener-
Different tools including conventional and creative design methodology during design computa-
ative Studio methods, questionnaires, interviews and tion classes, and in other occasions it has been high-
special projects were used and implemented with lighted as a design methodology in specific design
the involvement of different universities and indus- projects through design studio work. Supported by
trial companies. its potentials in the design studio, the research as-
In this paper we followed our modified version of sumes that shape grammars could aid in the devel-
the holistic view. We concentrate more on studying

opment of much of the target design capacities. the outcomes of four years of design and grammar
teaching.
Reasoning for Design Knowledge develop- The argument is supported by examples from
ment the author's work with students in both:
Building up the students capabilities especially
knowledge base process first was suggested to be • The Beginning design studioThree shape
handled on two levels with both reasoning opera- grammars workshops were carried out as
tions part of the coursework of first year students
(Ibrahim et al., 2010, Ibrahim et al., 2011,
• Building Expertise/Declarative knowledge:A Ibrahim et al., 2012). The application of these
Pop-up (or Bottom-up) cognitive system of workshops took place in four universities from
reasoning that corresponds to Similarity - three different countries (Strathclyde Univer-
based (Precedents-based) ones. This could sity, Glasgow; Beirut Arab University, Beirut;
be achieved by exposing students to specif- Alexandria University, Alexandria; Cairo Uni-
ically crafted cases of design (Kalay, 2004) versity, Cairo).During the four years, these
to expand their visual experience and pro- workshops were conducted with objectives
vide them at the same time with the base specially tailored to fit with the design studio
knowledge on which they will draw in fur- ILOs.
ther academic years. This will be harvested
later in more advanced studio levels, by teach- • Shape Grammars courseUnlike the beginning
ing students the use prototypes, precedents, studio, this pedagogical experience was with
analogies and metaphors in solving design advanced students in a more specific sub-
problems under the similarity-based reason- ject: introduction to shape grammar (Cairo
ing method, thus providing them with a start- University, Cairo). The course was originally
ing point from which to develop their new de- planned to develop the students' generic and
signs. analytical capacities .the author was able to
conduct more grammatical experiments, an-
• Developing Skills/Procedural Knowledge: Im-
alytical and synthetic projects, enriching the
plementing a top-down instructive cognitive
teaching experience with different category
system of reasoning in the design studio that
of focused examples
may corresponds (roughly) to the rule-based
systems, may help leading students during
their design work to the process of designing
Design Capabilities development
The students' development of capacities like system-
in a concise and stepwise manner. According
atic thinking, creativity or balanced comprehension
to the very special nature of the design prob-
for example could not be precisely addressed, mea-
lems, the implemented methods should be
sured or judged due to their abstract nature. Typi-
re-drafted to ensure that it will remain open
cally, it requires many years of focused learning and
(probably less defined).
practice.
One of the preliminary approaches to ensure
DEVELOPING COMPETENCE : THE GRAM- a more efficient capabilities development in design
MATICAL APPROACH schools is a well-designed admission policy. Within
The application this selection stage, students with higher level of in-
In order to explore the effect of grammatical design nate capabilities are been selected to increase the
on competence development, the research reviews probabilities of effective development.

Figure 2
a- Kalay's major
components of the
architectural design
process. (Kalay,
2004) b- The
extended Synthetic
SG process.
For grammars, what is more promising is that devel- motivation, people tend to work harder on the task
oping capabilities could be achieved via design exer- at hand and therefore tend to be more successful in
cises that focus on a part of the entire design process. performing the task(Atkinson, 1999).
To some extent, shape grammars' scenarios cap- One of the key conditions of motivation is to es-
ture the layout of the design process and adjust stu- tablish a balance between challenges (perceived ac-
dents to it. According to Kalay (2004) and Law- tion opportunities) and skills (perceived action ca-
son (2006), there are three major components of the pacities).(Nakamura and Csikszentmihalyi, 2002). Ac-
heuristic architectural design process that was for- cepting and encouraging the use of intuitive deci-
mulated in the 1960s. In this cyclic non -linear net- sions and abilities is helpful in integrating more com-
work process , Kalay (2004) (figure 2a) proposed an- plex yet adequate design challenges. This is why in-
other parallel phase of "communication" that tops stead of dictating the design subjects, many gram-
the three intertwined phases of "Analysis", " Syn- matical studios (including ours) adopt a different ap-
thesis" and "Evaluation". The operations of cogni- proach to achieve such balance, allowing students to
tion, production and evaluation are embedded in the select their grammar projects subject upon their own
shape grammars scenarios (figure 2b) especially the choice, supported only by a preliminary research.
synthetic process in a way that enables students to Once selected then finalized, their choices re-
develop a good understanding of and control over flected their own interests, personalities and most of
their own design capabilities. all revealed an essence of enjoyment and motivation
within the teamwork (figures 3 and 4).
Designerly Attitude development Communication. "Architects don't explain their ser-
Motivation. "when in flow, the individual operates at vices well.. In general architects are not good at putting
full capacity" (Nakamura and Csikszentmihalyi, 2002) over what they do.. They've (Architects) got a vision in
Research has shown that performance and mo- their head which we can't see, it might be a fantastic vi-
tivation can mutually affect each other. With high

sion... but it's no good if we can't see it" a client inter- and solutions with clear graphical or verbal presenta-
view, (Nicol and Pilling, 2005) tion.
In one of the workshop, students were required
to formulate the consistency of their design ap- Figure 3
proach, so they varied in their ways of expressing the The Mousetown
language using narrative or graphical presentation characters grammar
or a mix of both of them. Some stated the general (Students: Jailan,
(and sometimes specific) design preferences embed- Sandra &Maria ,
ded in their project, described as a like and dislike list Cairo University)
of strategies (figure 5a), design aspects, geometrical
forms, etc . others offered a step by step recipes for Figure 4
their formal or conceptual design process (figure 5b). The Mini cooper
They were also required to rationalize, to make grammar (Students:
modifications based on a thoughtful and rational M. Hammad, M.
evaluation of the original language's choice of ele- Fouad &Samar ,
ments and rules. This means that the decision of ac- Cairo University)
cepting or rejecting the language (or part of it) is not
taken upon personal preferences; it is only built on a
logical basis. This debate creates a kind of interesting
conversation between both students' languages .
An example for good communication of ideas Figure 5
could be seen in the same workshop. In figure 6, a- a graphical
Laura mentioned that her language involved the for- presentation of the
mal expression of movement in design, giving an like and dislike
example from her projects. Paulina was required design preferences
to evaluate then transform her friend's language; (Student: Jonathan
she questioned her rationale, asking "If it's about Dawson-Bowman)
movement, why dance space (in an ongoing project) b- a rule-based
strictly defined?" description of the
Open mindsets. Design is a creative process. This language(Student:
means that designers should experience the world Claire, Strathclyde
from an open perspective, treating all experience University)
as new, as something that cannot be taken as
Figure 6
granted(Van Doorn et al., 2008).
(Rationale: Laura
Within the design studio, the author bene-
Petruskeviciute,
ficiated from the grammars' non-determinacy to
Criticism: Paulina
demonstrate this open perspective concept in an-
Narusevicuite,
other workshop.
Strathclyde
As the grammar's concept is mainly about mak- Students were given 2D shapes, they were then
University)
ing tacit knowledge explicit(Bruton and Radford, asked to draw at least 4 different readings for the
2003), A pedagogical grammar therefore could bene- shape and its basic elements with at least one 3D in-
fit from manifesting this implicit knowledge in a more terpretation of which. To extend and modify the ex-
explicit way; helping students communicating ideas isting design they have to extract its basic elements

and work with basic geometric operations to create
their new designs (figures 7 and 8).
They were trained to change perception several
Figure 7 times and enjoyed proposing different ways of see-
Experimentation ing. After the workshop, each group was asked to
with Shape present their final ideas. Their attention was drawn
grammars-Seeing to the interesting fact that there were no two iden-
Shapes Workshop tical designs presented, even though they all began
(Cairo University) from the same shape. It was easier then to demon-
strate that design problems are often complex ill-
structured problems and there is no single answer to
them.
Knowledge development
The knowledge repository (Procedural). As syn-
thetic grammar depends on the selection of vocab-
Figure 8 ularies and rules that promise to solve certain design
Seeing Shapes problems, the selection lays on the designer's expe-
Workshop rience, his knowledge repository and more on the
(Alexandria level of "expertise" accumulatively acquired and de-
University) veloped during the solution of similar problems in
education and practice. Developing this kind of ex-
pertise is one of the main aims of the architectural
studio, especially on the undergraduate level; this de-
velopment is normally planned to occur over a com-
parably extended period of time (figure 9). It is easier
for advanced students to begin experimenting with
grammatical designs at the final year, and is thus too
early for the beginners to build their synthetic gram-
Figure 9 mar implementations upon their limited and insuffi-
Elementary School cient level of expertise.
(Students: Omar
Ashraf, Omar Design Skills development
Shafeek, Heba el The analytical skills. To develop analytic grammars
Kady, Nouran Bahaa means to be able to extract common features of a
&Noha Fawzy, Cairo wide range of designs, a very critical and systematic
University) process of comparison and analysis that should at the
end reveal the hidden variety of common vocabular-
ies , details of conditioned or non-conditioned rules,
as well as their sequence of application (figure 10).
Such analytical skill is thought to be less developed in
novices than in graduates or post graduate students.

Figure 10
The Ketchup Bottle
Shape grammars
(Students : Aya
Fahim& others,
Cairo University)
Such process not only motivated the students' abil- Figure 11

ity to see and make respectively, it also developed Face Analysis and
flexibility in design, an analytical awareness as well as Grammar
confidence to take design decisions (figure 11). The Generation (the Ray
analytical skill allows them to build their proposals on Ban Grammar)
a creative assimilation of the existing information and (Students : Ahmed
the circumstances of the current situation. Khalifa,Aley Nabeel,
Design (formal) skills. The grammar development Hatem Essawy,
and application stages expose some of the main de- Mohsen Rizk
sign strategies, principles and even simple compo- &Mohamed Galal,
sitional operations. The implicit teaching of these Cairo University)
issues makes the methodology more relevant for
teaching composition and visual correlation. It is also
thought to be very significant for the studio's project
based approach, as the implementation stage of syn-
thetic shape grammars involves a playful "making"
process (figures 12, 13 and 14).
CONCLUSION
The goal of this paper is to gain insight into the possi-
bilities of using shape grammars to support the stu-

dents design competence. The design studio and Our experiences showed that:
shape grammars course were used to verify our as-
sumption with short and long term projects. • Shape grammars has the potential to improve
and develop many design capacities espe-
cially knowledge & skills.
Figure 12
Form manipulation • with focused and continuous training, work-
- synthetic grammar shops and grammatical projects can con-
(The armchair) tribute significantly to the development of at-
(Cairo University) titude and capabilities as long as the imple-
mented grammar model remains open and
less determined.
Our final conclusion is that grammar , if combined

with other conventional and creative pedagogical
tools and projects ,could provide us with a compre-
hensive & livable model. A model that targets the
Figure 13 diversity of the constituents and aspects of the stu-
Form manipulation dents' design competences in a more effective way.
- Seeing Shape
workshop (Freshers,
Strathclyde
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Figure 14
edge:(ASK) a New Model for Design Education', Pro-
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- Doing Shape ciation
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demystified, Architectural press
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of flow', Handbook of positive psychology, -, pp. 89-
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Francis
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sign Studies, 25(5), pp. 427-441
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tural pedagogies: An argument for creating hu-
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junior employee', Interim report, retrieved September,
15, p. -

Towards a Formal Representation for Description Rules
Rudi Stouffs
National University of Singapore / Delft University of Technology
http://www.arch.nus.edu.sg/
stouffs@nus.edu.sg
This paper explores a generalized specification for descriptions and description

rules, on the basis of an extensive overview of applications of description
grammars in literature. The aim of this research is to establish a formal
representation for description rules and the implementation of a grammar
interpreter that supports the specification of description grammars, discursive
grammars or, in general, shape grammars including textual descriptions.
Keywords: Description rule, description grammar, shape grammar,

representation
INTRODUCTION themselves, would "likely have to be worked out on a

"Designers work with descriptive devices of many case-by-case basis". More than thirty years later, quite
kinds. These may be spatial or symbolic" (Stiny 1991, a few researchers have adopted the idea of a descrip-
p.171). Descriptions may serve to compare designs tion function or scheme, often specified as a descrip-
to find similarities and descriptions can sometimes tion grammar, in conjunction with a shape grammar,
be generated. Shape grammars have been used for to qualify designs both spatially and descriptionally.
both: they are a formal rewriting system for produc- As such, we have a number of examples that we can
ing languages of shapes. When we are describing draw generalizations from in order to attempt to es-
architecture, we are both interested in the descrip- tablish a formal representation of descriptions that,
tion of the specific architectural object and in its re- if not all, will support a significant number of these
lation to other, similar architectural objects. While examples.
shape grammars have been extensively used for this An elaborate literature study revealed 116 publi-
purpose, shape descriptions of architectural objects cations (and reports) referencing Stiny's paper, 37 of
are lacking, as Stiny (1981, p.257) noted, "main de- which actually include the specification and/or illus-
tails of the functional elements comprising designs tration of a description scheme of a textual nature,
in these languages are provided in the informal, ver- referring to 16 distinct accounts. Due to space con-
bal descriptions of the shape [rewriting] rules used." straints, we present only a subset of these sixteen
Stiny proposed to augment a shape grammar with accounts. Next, we briefly describe these descrip-
a description function in order to construct the in- tion schemes and their use, present an inventory of
tended descriptions of designs. He also illustrated the representational components prescribed in these
the application of a description function with designs schemes, propose and illustrate a generalized spec-
made up of blocks from Froebel's building gifts. Stiny ification for descriptions and description rules, and
(1981, p.258) indicated that the formal representa- touch upon its representation.
tion of descriptions, together with the descriptions

DESCRIPTION SCHEMES AND THEIR ILLUS- user and site data and a designing grammar using
TRATIONS the design brief(s) to generate designs in a particular
Brown et al. (1996; also, Brown and Cagan 1997) style. Both programming grammars and designing
consider a description function that generates pro- grammars utilize description grammars, though only
cess plans for the manufacturing of objects manufac- the designing grammar complements the descrip-
turable by a given process. The objects themselves tion grammar with a shape grammar. Duarte and col-
are generated by a parametric attributed set gram- leagues apply discursive grammars, among others,
mar, but redefining the grammar instead as a shape to the Portuguese housing program guidelines and
grammar (with constraint specifications) would not evaluation system (PAHP) and the houses designed
impact the description function as such. Separately, by the architect Alvaro Siza at Malagueira (Duarte
Brown (1997) exemplifies volume calculation as a de- 2001), to urban design (Beirão 2012) and to hous-
scription function for a grammar specifying a lan- ing rehabilitation (Eloy 2102; also, Eloy and Duarte
guage of stepped grooved shafts. in press [1]). Descriptions, in these applications, take
Agarwal (1999; also, Agarwal et al. 1999) consid- various forms. Duarte (2005b; also, 2001) presents
ers a description function that yields cost expressions the Malagueira grammar, separately, as a designing
or equations that can be evaluated to reveal the cost grammar only. Here, descriptions represent func-
of a design as the design develops through the gen- tional zones and their adjacency relations.
eration process. This can be used to provide feedback Stiny (2006) presents description rules for Palla-
on how design changes affect the cost and thus pro- dian villa plans that count the number of rooms and
viding feedback on the generation process; but it can assign plans to equivalence classes and explores the
also be used to guide the generation process by cost use of such descriptions to set goals to guide and
preferences or constraints. control the design process. Ahmad (2009; also, Ah-
Li (2001; also, 2004) applies a description func- mad and Chase 2006) proposes to augment a shape
tion to the specification of a shape grammar for grammar with a style description scheme based on
(teaching) the architectural style of the Yingzao fashi the concept of semantic differential to map the style
(Chinese building manual from 1103). The descrip- characteristics of shape rules. Al-kazzaz (2011; also,
tions that are generated are taken from the anno- Al-kazzaz et al. 2010) considers descriptions in shape
tated Yingzao fashi (Liang 1983) and, similarly to grammars for hybrid design, where the descriptions
Stiny's (1981) illustration of description functions, the provide feedback on rule application based on com-
descriptions reflect on the spatial elements that con- parisons between the generated design and the an-
stitute the design and the way these are combined. tecedents in the corpus. Additionally he considers a
Li considers various descriptions (nine in total, spec- user guide specified as sets of antecedent labels.
ifying measures and descriptions of width, depth, Finally, Stouffs and Tunçer (in press) consider a
height), as well as drawings (seven, from plan dia- description scheme in the context of the generation
gram to plan, section and elevation), in parallel. of historical architectural typologies, generating an
Duarte (2001; also, 2005a) considers a discursive instance of the typology of classical period Ottoman
grammar to incorporate a shape grammar, a descrip- mosques of the architect Sinan from an ontological
tion grammar and a set of heuristics, at least from a description thereof. Descriptions come in two forms,
technical viewpoint. The use of heuristics is intended as an XML specification and as a set of labels.
to constrain the rules that are applicable at each step
of the design generation. From an operation view-
point, a discursive grammar combines a program-
ming grammar generating design briefs based on

REPRESENTATIONAL COMPONENTS OF cost, among others, with various mathematical op-
DESCRIPTIONS AND DESCRIPTION RULES erations, including division and exponentiation. Al-
Few of the publications investigated offer specific, most all authors consider numbers, and operations
detailed examples that give insight into the construc- on numbers, as part of more complex descriptions.
tion and manipulation of descriptions and descrip-
tion rules. All avoid the question of implementation Enumerations
with respect to the general application of descrip- Duarte (2001; 2005b), Ahmad (2009), Al-kazzaz
tions and rules, although Duarte and Correia (2006) (2011), Beirão (2012), Eloy (2012) and Stouffs and
explain how to implement specific examples. In par- Tunçer (in press) all consider enumerations of terms,
ticular, Duarte and Correia describe the implemen- for example, denoting functions, spaces, qualifica-
tation of a description grammar where the descriptions, rule labels, ontological terms, etc. Distinct from
tion rules are specifically encoded (hard-coded) to strings (as addressed below), enumerated terms are
handle custom description structures. Duarte et al. fixed − though a description rule may replace one
(2012, p.84) identified the lack of a (general) descrip- term by another −, they always form separate enti-
tion grammar interpreter as one of two reasons for ties in a tuple when collected in a description, and
adopting a different strategy considering an ontol- they generally do not contain any special characters.
ogy to represent urban program formulation rules While almost all enumerations are grammar-specific,
and an ontology editor as the rule interpreter, the Duarte (2001) proposes an enumeration of 'true' and
other reason being the complexity of the urban for- 'false'.
mulation problem.
Below we inventorise the representational com- Lists
ponents that each of the accounts prescribes. Primar- Next to integers, Stiny (1981) considers coordinate
ily, these are numbers with operations of sum, dif- pairs, tuples (of fixed length) of coordinate pairs
ference, etc., strings with the concatenation opera- (specifying the boundary points of (linear) open-
tion, and lists of any of these components, including ings or of spaces or 'rooms'), sequences (of variable
lists of lists, with various list operations. Lists can also length) of coordinate pairs, sequences of tuples of co-
serve to represent points or vectors, segments, etc. ordinate pairs, and an adjacency matrix, all of which
Stiny (1981) considers descriptions containing can be represented as lists, of fixed or variable length
multiple sections separated by the '#' symbol. Oth- (Stiny (2006) only considers pairs of integers). Li
ers consider multiple descriptions handled in parallel (2001) considers both tuples and sequences of in-
(e.g., Li 2001; Duarte 2001). While all schemes con- tegers, and triples of textual descriptions (strings).
sider (a) textual description(s) to be specified in paral- Duarte (2005b) considers a sequence of tuples com-
lel to the shape description(s), Beirão (2012), instead, bining entities of different types: an integer, terms
considers multiple instances of a description, each (from an enumeration), and a set of terms (from the
linked to a particular shape 'object'. same enumeration). Brown et al. (1996), conversely,
consider a tuple combining sequences of numbers,
Numbers a sequence of terms (from an enumeration), and a
Stiny (1981; 2006), Li (2001) and Beirão (2012) all consequence of pairs of (either) integers or terms, next
sider descriptions as integers for counting, with op- to a number. Duarte (2001) maps out a large num-
erations of addition, subtraction and/or multiplica- ber of parallel descriptions, considering tuples, se-
tion. Brown (1997), Duarte (2001), Al-kazzaz (2011) quences, and nested variations thereof, of various
and Beirão (2012) consider descriptions as real or types, including mixtures of numbers, terms (enu-
floating-point numbers, expressing area, volume and merations and strings) and tuples/sequences. We
will denote all nestings of tuples and/or sequences

as structured lists, because these can generally be ements within a list are separated with commas or
considered as having a predefined tree structure of semicolons. Sometimes, enclosing brackets are omit-
tuples, sequences, and their entities, where entities ted at the top level of the tree structure and, in a few
within a sequence are commonly of the same type, cases, separation marks as well, leaving only spaces
though entities in a tuple may have different types. to separate the entities.
Among all description schemes, there are very few
exceptions to this rule. Among the schemes here re- Sets
viewed, Ahmad (2009), Beirão (2012) and Eloy (2012), Brown et al. (1996) also consider a set notation, us-
similarly, consider structured lists of various kinds. ing curly brackets, though their set is in other ways
Stiny (1981) considers an append operation on indistinguishable from a variable-length list. Duarte
lists, simply using a space to separate the list and the (2005b), Al-kazzaz (2011) and Stouffs and Tunçer (in
element to be added. Though not explicated as op- press), on the other hand, use sets for their ability to
erations, he also considers retrieving the last coordi- identify and remove individual elements from a set
nate pair of a list, determining the number of distinct without having to be concerned with the size of the
coordinate pairs in a list, retrieving the distinct num- set or the ordering of the elements in the set. Eloy
ber of adjacent coordinate pairs in a list, retrieving (2012) uses a variable-length list notation in the ab-
loops of coordinate pairs in a list, etc. All these op- stract specification of the various, parallel, descrip-
erations, and others, are not specific to lists of coor- tions, but omits the list and identifies only the indi-
dinate pairs and can easily be generalized to lists of vidual elements of concern in the specific descrip-
any type, and provided as functions to be applied in tion rules. A set representation is undoubtedly more
description rules. Brown et al. (1996) consider oper- appropriate here. Duarte (2001) considers tables as
ations to retrieve the first element or elements from fixed descriptions, containing dimensional and cost
a list and to prepend one or more elements to a list, information. Here too, each table can be represented
using a shorthand notation borrowed from logic pro- as a set, of triples, where each triple specifies the row
gramming in which an initial number of elements of and column indices and the corresponding cell value.
the list, separated by spaces, is followed by a separa-
tor '|', and then a parameter for the remainder of the Strings
list. Additionally, they consider a function to reverse Li (2001) and Stouffs and Tunçer (in press) both con-
a list, so as to allow the list to be operated upon from sider textual descriptions that can be represented
the back as well. Duarte (2001) also uses an append as strings with operations of concatenation and re-
operation on lists but, additionally, considers an ad- placement. Li considers as a description a triple of
dition operation on tuples that have the same struc- strings, each describing a specific aspect, that to-
ture (i.e., length and entity types). Adding two tuples gether form a single statement about the building
adds the respective entities: if both entities are nu- style. Stouffs and Tunçer consider an ontological
meric they are summed, if both entities are enumer- description in the XML format represented as a sin-
ated terms they must be identical, if one entity is a gle string that is built up through description rules.
(variable length) list, the other is appended to this list, Both description schemes necessitate the ability to
if both entities are tuples then addition is applied re- parametrize parts of the string and rebuild the string
cursively. from these parts and additional, explicit writing. Li
Parentheses, angle brackets and square brack- (2001) omits any quotes, any explicit concatenation
ets are all used as enclosing brackets to identify lists, operator, and distinguishes parameters only through
even by the same author(s), though parentheses are the use of italics. Stouffs and Tunçer (in press) use
never used in the case of a list of variable length. El- quotes to identify explicit text from parameter speci-
fications and use the '.' as concatenation operator.

Other schemes also consider entities that can be rep- where the entity in question is identified by a param-
resented as strings. For example, the enumerations eter in a description rule that, otherwise, leaves this
of terms mentioned above. Duarte (2001) considers other description unchanged, such that this param-
names of people as an entity type, and Brown et al. eter can be referenced in the description rule where
(1996) consider labels for tuple entities to improve its value is needed.
readability. Brown et al. (1996), Brown (1997) and Agar-
wal (1999) consider description rules explicitly ref-
Conditionals erencing shapes and shape rules. Of course, all au-
Li (2001), Duarte (2001), Beirão (2012) and Eloy (2012) thors consider description rules to apply in conjunc-
all consider conditional specifications that addition- tion with shape rules. Such conjunction may imply
ally constrain rule application and cannot simply be dependencies. For example, Duarte (2001; 2005b),
captured in an explication of the left-hand side of the Beirão (2012) and Eloy (2012) consider shape rules
rule. For instance, a rule may apply in a number of dif- and description rules to use the same labels. Further-
ferent cases that correspond to different values for a more, they consider conditionals (see above) to ap-
single description entity. Short of specifying different ply concurrently to both shape and description rules.
rules corresponding the different values, which could The dependency is thus implied in the conditional. In
work in the case of an enumeration but would fail in contrast, Stiny's (1981) description rules are specified
the case of a real numeric interval, conditional spec- as independent of the shape rules. Though they col-
ifications may allow a parameter to be constrained lect coordinate pairs specifying boundary points of
beyond a single value. For example, Duarte (2001), (linear) openings or of spaces or 'rooms', made up of
Beirão (2012) and Eloy (2012) present numerous ex- blocks from Froebel's building gifts, the relative co-
amples where parameters can take a limited set of ordinates of subsequent coordinate pairs are hard-
values. Li (2001) and Eloy (2012) both consider nu- coded in the description rules, considering a distance
merical conditions constraining one numeric value in of one between adjacent boundary points. On the
function of another numeric value, or values, all part other hand, Brown's (1997; and similarly, Brown et al.
of the same description. Note that Brown et al. (1996) 1996) description rules for volume calculation require
also consider rule variants that include conditional the conjunctive shape rule to provide values for the
specifications but these can easily be captured in a diameter and length of the section when adding a
further explication of the left-hand side of the rule. new section to the shaft, and values for the diame-
ter of the section and the width of the groove, when
References adding a circumferential groove to a section of the
Li (2001) and Stiny (2006) consider description rules shaft. While Agarwal's (1999) cost equations make
referencing the current value of other, parallel, de- explicit reference to characteristics of the shape un-
scriptions, in the specification of the right-hand-side der rule application, such as its dimensions, these are
of the description rule. For example, having one not evaluated during rule application. However, in
description count the number of rafters, another order to provide feedback on how design changes af-
description describes the disposition of the beams, fect the cost during the generation process, the cost
including the resulting number of rafters. Duarte equations must be able to be evaluated on the corre-
(2001) similarly considers description rules referenc- sponding shape at any time.
ing other parallel descriptions, however, including
only a specific entity rather than the entire value of Others
the other description into the specification of the The inventory above is not complete. In fact, it would
right-hand-side of the description rule. Duarte (2001) likely require a rewrite of the respective schemes, or
sorts this out through conjunctive description rules

an in-depth reflection from the scheme's author(s), to and description rules offered in the schemes pre-
identify all variations within the schemes. In this resented above. Before we address the actual repre-
spect, it should be noted that Al-kazzaz (2011) offers sentation, we will outline the components of a gen-
no explication of description rules, describing them eralized specification for descriptions and descrip-
only conceptually. Lacking even a detailed expla- tion rules. Obviously, descriptions must be allowed
nation, we can only guess at how the rules might to include numbers, strings, lists and sets (of de-
be explicated. Below, we list other representational scriptions). Additionally, description rules must be
components encountered that merit mention, even allowed to include various operators and functions
if briefly. as well as variables, acting as parameters, and refer-
Both Stiny (1981) and Duarte (2001) define an ences to values specified elsewhere (e.g., values of
'empty' entity, respectively denoted e and nil. Such other descriptions, including shape descriptions, and
entity may denote zero, an empty string, an empty values of variables defined in conjunctive description
list, or even a tuple of zeros (e.g., zero vector). Li rules). Within the left-hand-side of a description rule,
(2001), Duarte (2001; 2005b), Beirão (2012) and Eloy such references must form part of conditionals on
(2012) also adopt the symbol 'Ø' for empty lists. variables. We forego user input values and references
Li (2001), Duarte (2001; 2005b), Beirão (2012) and within descriptions − as opposed to description rules
Eloy (2012) allow rules to request or necessitate user − here.
input. Specifically, Li (2001) and Beirão (2012) iden-
tify a series of variables for input by the user, the Numbers
input for which can be provided beforehand or, if Numbers can be integers or floating-point numbers;
missing, at rule application. In the case of Duarte operators on numbers are addition ('+'), subtrac-
(2001; 2005b) and Eloy (2012), however, the same tion and negation ('−'), multiplication ('*'), division
rule might be applied more than once, with differ- ('/'), modulo ('%') and exponentiation ('ˆ'). The usual
ent input values, therefore necessitating user input operator precedence rules apply and parentheses
at rule application. can be used to override these rules. Numerical ex-
Brown et al. (1996) and Duarte (2001) both con- pressions can be extended to include other math-
sider functions as part of description rules that are ematical operators as functions, e.g., square root
specific to the grammar under consideration. In the ('sqrt') and trigonometric functions. Though we do
case of Brown et al., these functions are themselves not intend to support logical expressions, observing
expressed as description rules, though not necessar- Duarte (2001), we assume the keywords 'true' and
ily operating on the same or similar descriptions. In 'false' to represent 1 and 0, respectively.
the case of Duarte, these functions are not explicated,
and seem to be an indication of description rules that Strings
are too complicated to express otherwise. Without Strings must be quoted, using double quotes; the
going into detail, we would like to note that Knight only operator on strings is the concatenation oper-
(2003) proposes functions encoding algorithms to be ator ('.'), though it also serves to identify substrings
embedded in description rules. in the matching process. Thus, we adopt Stouffs and
Tunçer's (in press) notation for machine readability,
A SPECIFICATION FOR DESCRIPTIONS though Li's (2001) notation would be preferable from
a human reader's point of view. We envision that the
AND DESCRIPTION RULES more explicit notation can always be parsed and pre-
Our aim is to establish a formal, generalized repre-
sented in the latter format, if desirable. We reserve
sentation of descriptions that, if not all, will support
unquoted terms, i.e., identifiers, for variables (within
a significant number of the variations in descriptions
description rules) and references. Thus, enumera-

tions are not explicitly considered (except for 'true' Variables
and 'false', see above) and, if appropriate, must be Variables are specified as identifiers and defined
used as (quoted) strings. within the left-hand-side of the description rule,
where, as a parameter, each is matched onto an en-
(Structured) Lists tity, list of entities or part of a string. Duarte (2001), in-
Lists include specifications of points, vectors and line stead, suggests variables to be prefixed with a ques-
segments. As mentioned above, most authors show tion mark, though he only applies this convention
quite a variety in how lists are identified with (or with- during matching, and may reuse the same name
out) enclosing brackets and separation marks. Con- within the same rule with different intention. When
sidering that descriptions must be human-readable, reused in the right-hand-side of the description rule,
foremost, there is no reason not to support such vari- the variable refers to the matched item. For example,
ety. In order to avoid any ambiguities that may arise, the description rule a → a − 1 applies to a numer-
we suggest disambiguation rules to mimic as much ical description and subtracts one from the numeri-
as possible how we, humans, might interpret such cal value; the rule "central_dome ".s → "arch central_-
situations. As an example, a minus sign separating dome ".s prepends "arch" to a string, but fails if the ex-
two numerical entities, the first one of which might isting string does not start with "central_dome"; the
be represented as a variable, should be interpreted rule s1." arch ".s2 → s1." arch ".s2 leaves the existing
as such, specifying a subtraction, even when it might string unchanged, but ensures that "arch" is already
be possible to consider it instead as a unary negation present within this string.
within a list of (at least two) numbers, with separation
marks omitted. Unable to go into more detail within Conditionals
the space of this paper, we must acknowledge that We propose a shorthand notation for conditional
such mimicry might imply some subjectivity. specifications incorporated within the left-hand-side
Operators on lists are append, prepend, and of the description rule, adding a question mark im-
addition. Brown et al. (1996) suggest a nota- mediately following the definition of the variable,
tion borrowed from logic programming, uniquely for trailed either by a set of admissible values or a con-
prepend. Instead, we borrow from regular expres- ditional expression referring to a previously defined
sions the ability to collect any number of elements variable (see below for an example).
from a list in a variable by adding a postfix '*' or '+' to
the variable specification, denoting a list of zero, one Descriptions and sets
or more, respectively, one or more elements. In this Most authors consider unique, parallel descriptions.
way, we do not play up prepend over append. The Stiny (1981), instead, considers a single description
absence of a separation mark identifies an append or with multiple sections, each separated by the ' # '
prepend operator. In order to distinguish the entity symbol. Beirão (2012), on the other hand, considers
to be appended or prepended from the list, we in- multiple instances of a description, each linked to a
tend to rely on the structural similarity of the entity to particular shape 'object'. Others consider sets of de-
the entities within the list, in a similar way we humans scriptions.
would do so. Lists of equal length and corresponding For parallel descriptions, we intend to rely on
entity types can also be added ('+'), following Duarte the sortal grammars framework (Stouffs 2012), which
(2001) (see above). considers a compositional approach to the represen-
Additionally, we consider e and nil as entity tational structures underlying (augmented) shape
placeholders, i.e., denoting an empty entity, whether grammars, allowing for a variety of grammar for-
zero, an empty string or an empty list. malisms, including parallel grammars − at least to
some extent −, to be defined and explored. Particu-

larly, the sortal grammars framework currently sup- to any single data entity, e.g., point or line segment,
ports parallel grammars on condition that the par- but with the addition of conditionals, such could be
allel design descriptions, including spatial ones, do achieved. This reference system could be further ex-
not specify rules to apply under the same transforma- tended to provide access to the variables defined
tions. In practice, therefore, sortal grammars do not within the left-hand-side of a conjunctive rule.
(yet) support parallel shape descriptions, as shape
rules commonly apply under a similarity transforma- EXAMPLES
tion. However, omitting transformations on textual Here, we present a limited number of examples il-
descriptions, they would support parallel textual de- lustrating the reformulation of rules and descriptions
scriptions, even in conjunction with a shape descrip- from the schemes presented above into our pro-
tion. Such is sufficient for our investigation. Note that posed generalized specification.
the association of descriptions to shapes, in support Stiny (1981, p.263) includes a description func-
of Beirão (2012), can also be achieved within the sor- tion g5 affecting four description components:
tal grammars framework (Stouffs 2012).
a1 ← (x, y); where (x, y) is the last coordinate pair
It is straightforward to support descriptions with
in the sequence of coordinate pairs a1
multiple sections, as Stiny (1981) suggested. Any
a2 ← p; where p is the number of distinct coor-
special character that will not be confused for any
dinate pairs in a1
other purpose, such as the '#' symbol, can be used
to separate sections within a description. Variables a3 ← q; where q is the number of distinct sets of
must be defined to match within a single section, adjacent coordinate pairs in a1
e.g., #a1#a2# will match a description specifying two a4 ← droomse; where rooms is a (possibly
components. empty) list of the rooms defined by a1
We support sets through the ability to specify a Adopting the rule notation a → b, and specifying the
set of instances of a single description. That is, sets full description function, we write:
cannot occur within a unique description, but any de- g5: #a1#a2#a3#a4#a5#a6#a7#a8# →
scription can exist as a set. Similar to a shape rule, a #last(a1)#length(unique(a1))
description rule applying to a set of descriptions only #length(unique(segments(a1)))
needs to specify the subset of those descriptions that #loops(a1)#a5#a6#a7#a8#
are affected by the description rule. where a1 through a8 define eight variables corre-
sponding to the eight sections in the description and
References last(), length(), unique(), segments() and loops() are
The sortal grammars framework (Stouffs 2012) cur- predefined functions operating on a list and result-
rently offers a functional description that allows the ing in, respectively, its last element, its length, a list
formulation of functional expressions to perform cal-
of its unique elements, a list of pairs such that the ith
culations over data queries on descriptions, includ-
pair is made up of the ith and (i+1)th elements of the
ing spatial ones. The calculation is continuously up-
operand list, a list of lists identifying the loops in the
dated upon alterations of the descriptions involved.
operand list.
With some modifications, this can support the de-
Li (2001, p.34) includes a description rule B46,
scription of (cost) equations as exemplified by Agar-
with conditional specification, affecting two entities
wal (1999). Data queries are specified by the name of
from the triple description of the building style:
the description and of a predefined property of this
B46: For a1 + a2 = v
description, e.g., the vector position of a point or the
a1 in front, a2 in back → a1 abutting a2
length of a line segment. As such, it is not specific
b3 → with c − 1 columns

This is a grave simplification of the actual rule opera- R9(Z1): {"ya", "sl"} → {}
tion. The value for v can be taken from the first entity where a* and b* determine any number of 'rectan-
in the triple; the value for c from the third entity in the gles' that may precede or follow the 'rectangle' under
triple; the second entity contains addition text. Tak- rule application within the total list of 'rectangles' yet
ing into account the necessary expansions, we write: defined.
B46(b): v."-rafter building" b.", ".a1."-rafter beam in
front,".a2?=(v − a1)."-rafter beam in back" A REPRESENTATIONAL STRUCTURE FOR
"with ".c." columns" →
DESCRIPTIONS
v."-rafter building" b.", ".a1."-rafter beam
While the descriptions here considered are textual in
abutting ".a2."-rafter beam" "with ".(c − 1).
nature, in order to support the matching of descrip-
" columns"
tions, a different representational structure may be
where B46(b) refers to rule B46 applying to descrip- more appropriate. While description rules may be
tion 'b', enclosing brackets and separation marks for specified in a textual manner by the author of the
the triple are omitted, variables v, b, a1, a2 and c rule, and stored as such, within the shape/descrip-
match diverse substrings, a conditional specifies a2 tion grammar interpreter, a tree structure represen-
to be constrained as equal to the value resulting from tation will be used for both descriptions and the left-
v − a1, and 1 is subtracted from the value of c in the hand-side of description rules, in order to support the
right-hand-side of the rule. matching of both. Tree leaves consist of literals and
Duarte (2005b, p.358-360) presents a description variables, where literals represent numeric and string
rule R9 depicting the case in which the outside zone entities that serve as constraints in the matching pro-
is dissected into yard and sleeping zones: cess, and variables specify parameters that can be
R9: <F1; fb, fr, ff, li; o; Z> → matched to entities and tree substructures. Addi-
<F1; fb, fr, ff, li; ya, sl; Z − {ya, sl}>, tionally, conditions can be imposed on variables to
ya, sl ∈ Z = {required zones}; further constrain matching. Non-leaf nodes repre-
where the label 'F1' indicates the 1st floor stage of sent lists and string concatenations. In the case of a
the derivation; fb, fr, ff, and the labels 'li' − living list, each entity may correspond to a child node or a
room − and 'o' − outside zone − identify the func- single 'variable' leaf node may imply a collection of
tions associated with adjacent rectangles at the back, zero, one or more entities from the list. Similarly, in
right, front, and left side and with the rectangle cur- the case of a string concatenation, the non-leaf node
rently under rule application; the labels 'ya' − yard − should match a single leaf node, expressing the ac-
and 'sl' − sleeping zone − identify the functions of tual string to be matched.
the resulting rectangles; and Z is the set of required
zones. Additional control conditions constrain the CONCLUSION
correspondingly resulting functions for the 2nd floor We have presented a generalized specification for de-
stage, though the rule itself only applies to the 1st scriptions and description rules with the aim to estab-
floor stage. lish a formal representation for description rules to
We suggest to split the description correspond- support a large variety of applications of description
ing the first and second floor and, necessarily, con- grammars. For this purpose, we have included an ex-
sider the set Z as a separate description as well. We tensive overview of description schemes found in lit-
write: erature and developed our specification on the basis
R9(F1): a* <fb, fr, ff, "li", "o"> b* → of these schemes. The ultimate aim of this endeavor
a <"sl", fr, ff, "li", "ya"> <fb, fr, "ya", "li", "sl"> b is to facilitate the exploration, development and im-
plementation of description grammars. Active devel-

opments are a formal representation for descriptions Duarte, JP 2005b, 'Towards the mass customization
and description grammars, and an implementation of housing: the grammar of Siza's houses at
within the sortal grammar framework. Malagueira', Environment and Planning B: Planning
and Design, 32, p. 347–380
Duarte, JP, Beirão, JN, Montenegro, N and Gil, J 2012,
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Towards controlled grammars
Approaches to automating rule selection for shape grammars
Thomas Grasl1 , Athanassios Economou2

1
SWAP Architekten 2 Georgia Institute of Technology
1
www.swap-zt.com 2 www.coa.gatech.edu
1
tg@swap-zt.com 2 economou@coa.gatech.edu
An approach to automating the rule selection process of shape grammars is

introduced. A shape grammar interpreter is extended by a computational
framework to allow the rule selection to be executed by agents. Hereby each
agent is based on a different paradigm taken from the field of artificial
intelligence. The results are compared.
Keywords: Shape grammar, Rule selection, Conflict resolution
INTRODUCTION Extensive enumeration and goal directed genera-

Which rule to apply, when, where and how is a de- tion. Both approaches can be easily found in litera-
cision the user of a shape grammar is continuously ture (Stiny and Mitchell, 1978; Flemming, 1981; Kon-
confronted with. In most cases the designer selects ing and Eizenberg, 1981; Cagan and Mitchell, 1993;
a rule either to playfully explore the solution space Schmidt and Cagan, 1997; Wonka et al., 2003).
offered by the grammar or to systematically explore Complete design catalogue enumeration is in-
how this rule helps approach a desired state of the teresting because it points to significant questions
system. Historically this may partly be due to the lack pertaining to the evaluation of the grammar: How
of computer implementations, and hence the lack of strict or expressive is the grammar? Given some con-
situations where automation of the rule selection can straints, what is the approximate number of possible
easily be achieved. However, recently shape gram- solutions? Are some rules more productive than oth-
mar implementations have received increased atten- ers and how? Enumerations need not be restricted
tion (Grasl and Economou, 2013; Grasl, 2012; Strobbe to the complete language specified by the gram-
et al., 2013; Correia et al., 2012; Jowers and Earl, 2011; mar. They can also be given for any desired subset
Trescak et al., 2009). of the complete set of designs specified by the gram-
This has resulted in several projects that either mar. For example, an enumeration of all possible 5 x
implement specific grammars or that can be used 3 grid configurations of dimensionless Palladian de-
to create and edit grammars. In any case there is signs can be ad-hoc filtered to provide the complete
a system with data structures and working memory catalogue of all 5 x 3 Palladian plans with a central
which can be introspected by rule selection algo- T-room, or conversely expanded to provide the com-
rithms. Here such methods of automating the rule plete catalogue of all Palladian plans with a central
selection process are investigated. T-room up to an n x m grid systems. Clearly, enumer-
The methods are divided into two approaches: ations are interesting only when the results are small.

Bigger numbers are useful only to the extent they FRAMEWORK
give a sense of the upper boundary of the set of pos- GRAPE is extended by a framework to support rule
sibilities specified by the grammar. Smaller numbers selection agents. The agents all use the same inter-
are useful because they allow an actual, constructive face to communicate with the shape grammar en-
and meaningful visual encounter with these possibil- gine, but each is based on a different paradigm from
ities. the field of artificial intelligence. Agents are not
Goal directed design generation is essentially an omniscient. They do to not have absolute knowl-
attempt to reduce the grammars solution space and edge about what is happening in the environment
filter out only those solutions that are of interest. As (GRAPE), rather a sensor-actuator design (Figure 1)
above, such generation may readily point to signif- as described by Russel and Norvig (2013) was imple-
icant questions pertaining to the evaluation of the mented. For example, if a user selects a rule, then
grammar: Are there specific optimization criteria to the agent can perceive a change in the state of the
control the derivation of the shapes? Are these crite- derivation and it could reason about what caused the
ria inherent in the formulation of the grammar or ex- state change, but it will not directly know which rule
ternal to it? Can they be introduced ad hoc and at any was applied. This has several advantages. For one
time during the design process or are they required the agents are more robust and independent, for ex-
to be specified in the onset of the grammar? And ample they can take over from a manual derivation
as above, goal directed generation techniques may at any time. Additionally the results are more easily
be given for any desired subset of the complete set transferable to other systems.
of designs specified by the grammar. For example,
Figure 1
the needs of a given geometry of a site, a given area
The common
requirement, and a given orientation may severely
sensor-actuator
influence the generation and fitness of possible Pal-
agent design
ladian plans within this design context. More pro-
foundly such design contexts profoundly affect the
choice of the rules that lead to the making of the can-
didate designs. Clearly, grammars guarantee well-
formed output. Generating a semantically meaning-
ful result is mostly left to the user, so this is one of the
tasks assigned to the program controlling the rule se-
lection.
The well-known Palladian grammar (Stiny and
Mitchell, 1976) will be used to demonstrate concepts
in this paper. The demonstrated solutions are im-
plemented as an extension to the shape grammar
application GRAPE (Grasl and Economou, 2013a and
2013b), thus it is important that they are applicable
to arbitrary grammars. Ideally no domain knowledge
should be hard coded into the rule selection system. The sensors available to the agents are inquiries
This will sometimes require solutions to be scriptable, which are answered by the shape grammar engine.
other times it may be sufficient to use dedicated con- How they are answered is essentially opaque and
trol rules. not of further interest to the agent. GRAPE is based
on graph grammars, so the application has paral-

lel representations of the grammars derivation. One AGENTS
graph representation and another based on shapes. The following is an overview of the different agents.
The framework offers an interface through which the Each is based in a different technological approach
agent can inquire on things like the number and loca- and they may follow different goals in selecting the
tion of labels, lines and so forth. Essentially mirroring rules.
what a human user can perceive through her eyes.
More complex and perhaps domain specific Extensive Enumeration
queries can take on the form of rules. They can be Enumeration of possibilities has always been an im-
edited through the editor just like the shape gram- portant part of shape grammars and of design com-
mars actual rules. These logic or control rules can putation in general. An early example is the counting
be used to determine whether a specific condition of Palladian plans by Stiny and Mitchell (1978).
is met or to return results. Generally they follow the Coming up with a definite number is however
schema not always as straight forward as it might appear at
first glance, even if the symmetry of the final deriva-
x→x (1)
tion is disregarded and all isomorphisms are counted
(Economou and Grasl, 2012). There are two issues:
That is, a rule that does not make any changes to the Firstly, there are mostly several ways to apply a rule
derivation, and is only used to determine whether at any given time, and secondly, results can be iden-
a pattern can be found and in extension how many tical despite a different order of rule application. So
matches are found. Moving domain specific queries applying the same rules twice can lead to different re-
to the grammar is one possibility of keeping the sults, and applying different rules, or the same rules
agent free of domain knowledge, thus enabling each in a different order, can lead to the same result.
agent to be configured to work with any grammar. Some enumerations can make use of specific fea-
The only actions available to the agent are the tures of a given grammar, but here an all-purpose
application of a rule and the undoing of such an ap- tool is required. A grammar can be seen as a tree
plication. This is sufficient for the agent to generate graph, the initial shape is the root, each rule appli-
a derivation and to adopt a try and error approach if cation is an edge and every derivation is a leaf. So a
appropriate. The agent can apply a rule, analyse the straightforward approach is to devise some mecha-
result and undo the rule application should it have nism of traversing the tree and writing out all deriva-
led down a dead end. tions, possibly limited to a specific subset. This will
Chase (2002) has outlined various strategies of most likely lead to numerous duplicates, which will
dividing the work between the user and the com- have to be filtered out in another step. It is a brute
puter. Options range from fully manual paper and force approach and potentially computationally ex-
pencil operations to fully automated design genera- pensive, but perhaps the only viable one if it is to be
tors. applicable to all grammars.
Likewise the agents here offer various levels of Here a backtracking algorithm (Knuth, 2011) was
support and interactivity. Some will generate entire chosen, it is essentially a depth first search with some
derivations if given a chance, others will only select additional rules to prune the search tree in order to
the next rule in order to help a user that has got stuck, reduce running time. To configure the agent it must
again others will only observe the user interacting be passed three bits of information.
with the system and will only intervene if the user
leaves some predefined boundary. • A sequence of rules to execute before starting
the enumeration
• A set of rules over which to enumerate

• A condition that designates a solution
Figure 2
It then offers a mechanism for cycling through the so- All solutions for a 5
lutions, generating the derivations on the fly. Dupli- by 4 grid with a
cates are filtered out by comparing a prospective so- T-shaped space and
lution to a database of already found solutions. five spaces in total
The following configuration will be used as an ex-
ample:
• The sequence of rules to generate a 5 by 4 grid
• All rules of the collapse phase
• If the central label is marked E and the layout

consist of exactly five spaces, then a solution
has been found
The results shown in figure 2 are necessarily rem-

iniscent of "Counting Palladian plans" by Stiny and
Mitchell (1978), but it is interesting to note that arbi- Figure 3
trary conditions can be defined to filter the solutions Exemplary results
even further. for probabilistic
It is difficult to provide an estimate of the num- agents using (a)
ber of derivations that is general enough for all gram- naïve randomness
mars. Instead a percentage is given, quantifying the and (b) weighted
amount of the solution space that has already been randomness
searched. In general the agent has proven to be a
useful tool to quickly get an idea of the possibilities
offered by a grammar, or by a subset of the gram-
mars rules. Time complexity can be an issue, but
by restricting the agent to the subset of interest, re-
sults can mostly be achieved within reasonable time
frames.
Goal directed generation

In many ways goal directed generation is the more
interesting problem. The aim will mostly be to gener- Palladian grammar is shown in figure 3a. The deriva-
ate meaningful and good results, instead of just well tion cannot progress because certain obligatory rules
formed ones. This will mostly require some domain are not executed or are called in the wrong order.
knowledge, making it difficult to provide general so- The performance of such a rule selection strategy
lutions. largely depends on the structure of the grammar.
Probabilistic approaches. One fairly easy way of se- Given enough time the agent can improve upon fig-
lecting rules is to use a random number generator. ure 3a, and will eventually select the required oblig-
The result of a naïve, purely random approach of se- atory rules to continue the derivation. Nevertheless
lecting fifteen rules for the this agent can be seen as the worst case scenario; ob-

viously all following agents should outperform it. Palladian grammar and its cleverly constructed rules.
Two steps up is to use sequenced and weighted Still the derivation suffers from a lack of doors and
randomness (Figure 3b), which means creating a sean unconventional layout that most likely would not
quence of pools out which to select rules and to have pleased Andrea Palladio, things that are hard, if
assign a different probability to each rule. The se- not impossible, to control with shape rules alone.
quence will most likely be based on the structure of Genetic algorithms. Here two different approaches
the grammar, the weights can be based on intuition are proposed. If it is possible to describe a fitness
or on an analysis of the body of work a grammar is value, including a method to determine the fitness
attempting to model. The generation is then essen- of a derivation, then an automatic approach can be
tially to pick a variable number of rules from each taken. Again state labels can be used to hold infor-
pool. This approach can easily be formalized, to en- mation relevant for calculating the fitness. Figure 4
able the designer to control the generation, either shows a sequence of individuals taken from the ge-
through a user interface or via a simple scripting lan- netic algorithm agent. The goal was to find individ-
guage. The City Engine software uses a similar mech- uals based on a 5 by 3 grid with eight rectangular
anism (Wonka et al., 2003). spaces, one complex space and a portico.
Such an approach of course has little intelligence Alternatively one can chose a user guided ap-
above that embedded in the rules themselves. The proach; here the user manually selects the most
derivation in figure 3b is complete, and even better promising derivations from a given set to be used as
results can be achieved with this approach, but this parents for the next generation. The human eye acts
is mainly thanks to the well devised phasing of the as the fitness function, similar to Richard Dawkins'
Figure 4
Nine individuals
taken from a
sequence of
generations (top
left to bottom
right). The goal was
to find individuals
based on a 5 by 3
grid with eight
rectangular spaces,
one complex space
and a portico.

(1986) biomorph application described in 'The Blind Figure 5
Watchmaker' only that several individuals can be se- Some results from a
lected as the parents for the next generation. Again rule based agent
this is a good all purpose, easy to implement method,
which can be used to explore a grammars solution
space. It also has a nice level of interactivity.
A certain amount of logic may also be embed-
ded in the mapping from genotype to phenotype,
such as guaranteeing that obligatory rules are exe-
cuted. Currently the mapping is hard coded, but it
is fairly straightforward to implement a generic map-
ping and then to offer the designer control over this
phase via a user interface. Several mappings are pos-
sible. Currently the genome is a string of bits. Some
bits determine whether or not a rule is to be applied,
other bits are decoded to integers and are used to se-
lect the appropriate match. Obligatory rules can be
activated by setting the appropriate bits and declar-
ing them immutable.
Rule based systems. This is an especially intriguing
approach for shape grammars, since the control logic Generally rule based systems are used to determine a
would be based on a similar paradigm as the shape reaction to a given state. Here the state is the state of
grammar rules themselves. Depending on the exact the derivation in combination with the target values.
implementation of the shape grammar interpreter, This enables random derivations with an extra layer
the control logic could even use the same underlying of intelligence.
mechanisms. For example, GRAPE is based on graph Figure 5 shows some such derivations. Here a
grammars, which can easily be adapted as the engine parallel, topological representation (Duarte, 2005) is
for a rule based system. maintained throughout the generation. It can be
For this project it was decided to merge the two used to overcome some of the problems encoun-
systems into one graph grammar, this facilitates the tered by the weighted random generation. For ex-
inspection of the shape grammar using control rules, ample, this rule selection logic can guarantee that
to decide which action to take next.
• the doors added to the floor plan connect all
In order to obtain varying results, first a set of
the rooms
parameters is randomly generated. These determine
things like the size of the grid, whether a portico • the grid has an appropriate size
should be attached and whether there should be an
• the proportions are satisfying
I-shaped space or not. These parameters are then
used to guide the agent's actions. The creation of an • or that the provisions formulated by Stiny and
I-shaped space requires several rules to be selected in Gips (1978) are satisfied.
the right order and to be applied to the right match,
Extensive Enumeration 3
so some reasoning will become necessary. A back-
ward chaining technique is used to find the appro- AFTERWORD
priate rule sequence for such cases. Grammars themselves are impressive devices with
enormous generative capabilities based on a finite

and mostly simple set of rules. This generative abil- Kanach, S (eds) 2012, Xenakis Matters: Contexts, Pro-
ity does not come without its toll. The famous sen- cesses, Applications, Pendragon Press
tence "Colourless green ideas sleep furiously" coined Flemming, U 1981, 'The secret of the Casa Giuliani Frige-
rio', Environment and Planning B, 8(1), p. 87 – 96
by Chomsky nicely illustrates the complexity and am-
Gips, J and Stiny, G 1980, 'Production systems and gram-
biguity inherent in such settings. Execution of rules mars: a uniform characterization', Environment and
can result in syntactically correct, yet semantically Planning B, 7(4), p. 399 – 408
ambiguous sentences. Clearly, the meaning of the Grasl, T 2012, 'Transformational Palladians', Environment
sentence is fixed only with respect to a context that and Planning B: Planning and Design, 39(1), pp. 83-95
validates its usage. The same sentence that is use- Grasl, T and Economou, A 2013a, 'From topologies to
shapes: parametric shape grammars implemented
less in the context of a particular kind of prose may
by graphs', Environment and Planning B: Planning
be very useful in some other context when it is used and Design, 40(5), p. 905 – 922
to illustrate humour, intended pans and/or aspects Grasl, T and Economou, A 2013b 'Unambiguity', Proceed-
of wordplay. Pairing grammars with rule selection ings of eCAADe 2013, Delft, pp. 617-620
logic is an attempt to address this issue. Rule selec- Jowers, I and Earl, C 2011, 'Implementation of curved
tion logic fixes the conventions of rule application shape grammars', Environment and Planning B: Plan-
ning and Design, 38(4), pp. 616-635
and clarifies questions pertaining to the selection of
Knuth, DE 2011, The Art of Computer Programming, Addi-
rules and the when, where and how these rules may son Wesley
be applied in a design setting. In addition this pair- Koning, H and Eizenberg, J 1981, 'The language of the
ing rule of grammars and rule selection logic helps to prairie: Frank Lloyd Wright', Environment and Plan-
show the generative strength that lies in grammars. ning B, 8(3), p. 295 – 323
The presented agents nicely show how even Lee, HC 2006, The Development of Parametric Shape
Grammars Integrated with an Interactive Evolution-
some simple mechanisms of rule selection can lead
ary System for Supporting Product Design Exploration,
to fairly sophisticated results. More sophistication is Ph.D. Thesis, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
needed for truly engaging results and they require Russell, S and Norvig, P 2013, Artificial Intelligence: A
a fair amount of tailoring and domain knowledge to Modern Approach, Prentice Hall, New Jersey
succeed. Schmidt, LC and Cagan, J 1997, 'GGREADA: A graph
grammar-based machine design algorithm', Re-
search in Engineering Design, 9(4), pp. 195-213
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shape generation by shape annealing', Environment Stiny, G and Mitchell, WJ 1976, 'The Palladian grammar',
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grammar-based design systems', Automation in Con- Environment and Planning B, 5(2), pp. 189-198
struction, 11, pp. 161-172 Strobbe, T, De Meyer, R and Van Campenhout, J 2013 'A
Correia, R, Duarte, J and Leitao, A 2012 'GRAMATICA: A Generative Approach towards Performance-Based
general 3D shape grammar interpreter targeting the Design', Computation and Performance – Proceedings
mass customization of housing', Digital Physicality - of the 31st eCAADe Conference, Delft, pp. 627-633
Proceedings of the 30th eCAADe Conference, Prague, Trescak, T, Rodriguez, I and Esteva, M 2009 'General
pp. 489-496 shape grammar interpreter for intelligent designs
Dawkins, R 1986, The Blind Watchmaker, W.W. Norton & generations', Proceedings of the Computer Graphics,
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Duarte, J 2005, 'Towards the mass customization 235-240
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Malagueira', Environment and Planning B: Planning
and Design, 32(3), pp. 347-380
Economou, A and Grasl, T 2012, 'Spatial Sieves', in

Evolution of an Instrumental Architecture
Isak Worre Foged1 , Anke Pasold2 , Mads Brath Jensen3
1
Aalborg University & AREA 2 AREA 3 Aalborg University
1,3
www.create.aau.dk 2 www.studio-area.net
1,3
{iwfo|mbje}@create.aau.dk 2 anke@studio-area.net
The paper illustrates the architectural capacities of combining computational

methods, such as genetic algorithms, acoustic simulation and parametric
modeling, with material properties and a simple spatial programme in the
developing of a performative and aesthetical sound based architecture. The
paper presents a new architectural working method, a developed digital model
and a resulting 1:1 pavilion. The work emphasizes and finds deep architectural
potentials by combining material, spatial and human aspects into the formation
of an aesthetical and performance oriented architecture.
Keywords: Evolutionary Computation, Acoustic Analysis, Acoustic Pavilion,

Environmental Architecture
INTRODUCTION acoustics are formed too. For the creation of archi-

Architectural spatial sensation is partly defined by its tectural form and material application, the presented
sonic environment. That is, it's acoustic properties work is based on an evolutionary computation strat-
and the activities that are performed in this space. egy, paired with an integrated acoustic simulation to
While poor acoustic properties have its substantial ef- allow a direct feedback between the evolution of for-
fect on spatial quality, it is rare, besides large concert m/material and evaluation of acoustic performance.
halls, that spaces undergo evaluation of their sound Previously, Sato et al. has shown a model in which
based properties. In addition, when evaluation is acoustic simulation of reverberation time is directly
performed it is commonly as a post-design process paired with an computational search algorithm, by
rather than an active integrated factor for architec- modifying the overall spatial geometry in large tri-
tural creation. The architectural theorist Steen-Eiler angular planes determining the geometry of a con-
Rasmussen elaborates. cert hall towards a specified acoustic target. (Sato
"Can architecture be heard? Most people would et al. 2004). Similar studies of modifying large spa-
probably say that architecture does not produce sound, tial geometries by a computational search algorithm
it cannot be heard. But neither does it radiate light and has been shown in the transformation of an exist-
yet it can be seen. We see the light it reflects and thereby ing concert hall by Spaeth and Menges (Spaeth &
gain an impression of form and material. In the same Menges 2011) and in another concert hall study by
way we hear the sounds it reflects and they, too, give Pugnale (Pugnale 2009). The studies bear much re-
us an impression of form and material..." (Rasmussen semblance to the work by Sato, but induce more vi-
1964) sual design control as determined by the design pa-
Thus, when forming and materialising a space, rameters that can be included for design progression.

Figure 1
Schematic
diagramme of
simplified
geometric model
for multi-objective
reciprocal fitness
requirement
Figure 2
A. The primary
geometry defining
the overall space
form. B. The
secondary
geometry defining
the folding
structure allowing
differentiated
angling of the
panels as a variable
to alter sound rays
and to create
structural integrity.
C. Surfaces that
digitally can change
through three
absorption
coefficient states.
The state of the
surface
subsequently
informs the milling
pattern density of
the sandwich
element.

Another study of a concert hall, applying an agent- Parametric Model
based algorithm was explored by Lim, with partic- The space structure used is based on an origami
ular focus on the large roof reflectance to improve folded structure that is changeable at two levels
the distribution of sound across a deep space (Lim within the structure. The first (primary), figure 2(A), is
2011) in which a digital modelled ceiling change cur- the overall folding form of the structure that is con-
vature as a way to physical modify the expression and trolled in a series of control points forming a 'sim-
properties of the sound reflecting ceiling. In a dif- ple tunnel' geometry. The control points have free-
ferent scale, Peters et al has explored the architec- dom of movement in x,y,z axis, but without the abil-
tural model as related to acoustic properties, with a ity to overlap and collapse the geometry. The sec-
specific focus on the effect of patterning surfaces in- ond (secondary), figure 2(B), level is linked to the pri-
ducing specified sound scattering (Peters & Olesen mary structure, with a higher control point resolu-
2010). Contrary to Sato et al studying the overall tion. These control points have freedom of move-
geometry of the space, Peters is focusing on a wall ment in x,y,z axis, but without the ability to overlap
segments acoustic properties by predetermined de- or spatially 'dissolve' the folded logic of 'hill' and 'val-
sign patterns. In a later study Peters et al construct ley' points that ensure a folded geometry's structural
a 1:1 wall segment, exploring similar effects of scat- integrity of the origami organisation. The secondary
tering but with the intention of directing the sound level consist through this organisation subsequently
towards a singular point, and shield of another zone of a series of triangular reflective faces, figure 2(C),
with the same wall. The procedure between analy- which can be set to one of three states, each repre-
sis and modelling is iterative but not automated as a senting a different material property and thus differ-
looping design system (Peters et al. 2011). Thus, re- ent sonic absorption coefficients. The materials used
cent architectural acoustic studies related to the early are plywood with an absorption coefficient of 0.1 at
design phases appear to be approached on two dif- 500 Hz and foam with an absorption coefficient of 0.9
ferent scales, the large concert hall scale, predom- at 500 Hz. The materials are combined in sandwich
inantly focused on geometry, computational para- element with foam in the middle and plywood on
metric models and potentially linked between anal- both sides encapsulating the foam. The cross section
ysis and visual model with modification by search al- of the material make-up has a structural thickness of
gorithms, or small scale physical studies of compo- 43mm. By combining the materials, high structural
nents of singular wall segments towards surface ar- stability across the plates are created, with the im-
ticulations by segregated analysis and modelling ac- portant ability of changing absorption coefficients by
tivities. perforating the sound reflective inner surface of the
The hypothesis of this work is that a heteroge- space.
neous acoustic environment can be developed in the
early design phase through computation, so as to be- Acoustic Equations
come instrumental for the musician by the musicians Different architectural acoustic equations exist, with
spatial positioning. the simplest, however acknowledged, being the
Sabine equation, calculating the reverberation time
METHODS RT60, that is the time it takes sound to diminish
The studies are based upon the gathering of different from 60 dB. From this the Norris-Eyring equation
digital techniques; parametric modelling, spatial sim- is developed and to this work more important the
ulation and evolutionary computation. Combining Millington-Sette equation is developed that offers a
these techniques form the instrumental setup that higher resolution of the evaluated space as mate-
enable the design research investigations. rial definition is established to a more detailed de-

gree than the above two equations to which the for- progressively searches to improve the design (phe-
mer was applied in previous studies by the authors notype) based upon its genotypic mechanisms of se-
(Foged et al 2012). Important to this work is the abil- lection, crossover and mutation functions. Much lit-
ity of the Millington-Sette equation to separate differ- erature on the subject of evolutionary computation
ent material parts and their geometry, working with and genetic algorithms can be found from the au-
heterogeneous material and geometrical assemblies. thors John Holland, inventor of the genetic algorithm
Millington-Sette equation for architectural acoustics (1992a, 1992b) and David Goldberg (1988) who has
(RT = reverberation time, V = volume, Si = surface of studied and developed the techniques in various ap-
material, Ai = absorption coefficient of surface mate- plications, John Frazer (1995) who explored early ar-
rial): chitectural potentials. Martin Hemberg (2001) et al
has later developed a surface based approach as an
0.161 · V abstract method for organising space and Christian
RT 60 = ∑ (1)
(−Siln (1 − Ai)) Derix (2010, 2012) exploits the opposite concrete and
utility capacities for organisation of buildings and ur-
ban environments. A readily available solver, Galapa-
Acoustic Simulation gos, is chosen, developed by David Rutten [2] in the
From the Millington-Sette equations a specific acous-
framework of Rhinoceros and Grasshopper by McNell
tic simulation method is developed. This is done,
Software. This is chosen based upon the focus to de-
based upon the introduction of a 'listener plane'
velop a method for 'Evolution of an Instrumental Ar-
that is spread out horizontally within the paramet-
chitecture', rather than the tweaking of the crossover
ric space in the height of the audience ears. The
mechanisms within a genetic algorithm. Of impor-
Millington-Sette equation does not integrate specific
tance, however, is the development and description
acoustic properties at a specific point within a given
of the fitness function, based upon above simulation
space, to which we have integrated a ray-tracing
method and architectural acoustic intentions.
functionality that allows evaluation of the sound per-
ceived at the listener plane. Furthermore, this al-
Fitness function
lows tracing the sound pressure at the listener plane
The fitness function describes what to search for.
by the equations (G = sound pressure, r1 = distance
Without it, the algorithm would wander endlessly
from sound source, r2 = another distance from sound
without finding anything, whether being close or far
source, L1 = sound pressure at r1, L2 = sound pressure
from a good result. The nature of the fitness func-
at r2, AbsCo = material absorption coefficient) [1]:
tion is that it must be described with a single number
( ) value and thus a multi-objective search that intents
r2
L2 = L1 − 20 · log (2) to create more than one specific acoustic property
r1 within the same space is in need of a function that
dB = 10 · log (1 − AbsCo) (3) allows this. Furthermore, to stress the capacity of the
method, it is chosen to create two 'opposite' archi-
tectural acoustic properties within the same space.
Reverberation time and sound pressure level com- By having a position 'Beta' in one end of the 'tunnel'
bined serve as the acoustic simulation of the in- that searches for a short reverberation time, approx-
tended design space. imately 0.9 seconds (good for speech) and a position
'Alpha' in the other end of the tunnel that searches
Evolutionary Computation for a long reverberation time, approximately 1.4 sec-
An evolutionary algorithm is utilised in order to drive onds, (good for classical music) the positions search
the acoustic performance forward. This algorithms

would logically neutralise each other in the fitness computed results stabilise at 'Alpha' =1.4 and 'Beta'
function. The acoustics are evaluated from above de- = 0.2 after 700 iterations. Thus, from an initial start-
scribed simulation method in both positions and ining point of almost equal RT60 in both positions,
serted into the equation; the method clearly modifies the organisation of re-
(( ) ) flective geometry and material distribution causing
1 a multi-objective sound space to be evolved.
f =β + ·m (4)
α
Figure 3
Computed
So that when the reverberation time 'Alpha' increases
evolutionary
in the fitness function, it actually decreases in its
progression of the
acoustic description.
solution, with
The variables that can be altered in the genetic
reverberation time
algorithm are the x,y,z coordinates of the primary and
(0-1.4) in y-axis and
secondary geometric setup described above and the
iterations in x-axis
additional application of the material on the inside
(0-1000).
of the structure. As part of the fitness function de-
scribes the material absorption coefficient this too
can be a variable, which influences the performance
of the space. Two materials are chosen, wood and
Figure 4 foam, which have very different absorption proper-
Screenshot of ties, wood 0.1 and foam 0.9, at 500 Hz. Addition-
digital model with ally, a 'mix' between the two materials can be made
gray-scale through having a surface that is partly wood and
representation of partly foam. This causes the search space to move
the material from 3 dimensions, to 6 dimensions, by the 3 different
organisation of the material properties added to the x,y,z dimensions.
triangles, with black The generative model is run in two different
being high modes, a) search with all variables activated and b)
reflective, dark grey search with successive variables activated, by first The developed method and following experiments
semi-reflective and generating form and then generating material or- find that the combination of evolutionary computa-
light grey being ganisation. The search modes were processed on tion and acoustic simulation can be used as a strat-
absorbing sound standard computational laptop hardware. egy to evolve a sound oriented instrumental archi-
rays in red tecture based on spatial and material organisation.
RESULTS Furthermore, if design time is an issue, the work finds
Below chart illustrates the computed evolution of that the method can be divided into two successive
sound properties from the two positions, 'Alpha' and steps by first organising the space structure and sec-
'Beta' within the pavilion space on the listener plane. ond organising the material application, thus reduc-
The y-axis of the graph has reverberation time val- ing the 6 dimensional search space into two runs of
ues from 0-1.4, and the x-axis of the graph has iter- 3 dimensions. Additionally, this clarifies the effect of
ation time values from 0-1000. Below illustrated evo- the procedure in relation to each aspect (space and
lution chart is based on searching maximum RT60 material). However, it also may reduce the poten-
in 'Alpha' and minimum RT60 in 'Beta' to test the tial of finding a solution in the 6 dimensional solu-
acoustic boundary performance of the space. The tion space. Beyond numerical research based upon

Figure 5
Acoustic Pavilion
2012 as seen along
the harbour front in
Aalborg
the developed computational models were the pavil- ture. This structural pattern is continuous, but with
ion constructed in 1:1 in order to allow for quali- variation created by both designer and by the com-
tative analysis by the performing musicians. Based putational method allowing a dual authorship of
on post-play qualitative questioning, the musicians the final articulation. The material-spatial-occupier
found that the structure enhanced the reverberation (structure-sound environment-human) complex is
time and thus extended the instrumental capacities thus achieved through a visual articulated continu-
of the non-amplified instruments. Positioned in the ity with variations, offering tactile, audible and vi-
low reverberation end of the space, a musician noted sual aesthetics perceivable by positioning and re-
that the sound was clear, but without enough repositioning through the space.
verberation time. This can be interpreted as nega-
tive, even though in this particular case it is actually DISCUSSION
positive, in the sense that the musicians were, with- As setup of the research project a small architec-
out knowing, placed in the low reverberation end tural space was preferred due to the possibilities of
of the space.From an aesthetic design perspective, creating a 1:1 demonstrator with subsequent per-
the 2-level (primary, secondary) parametric model formance by musicians and audience. A first issue
opens for design intent influence, such as modifi- arises in the capacity of creating long reverberation
cation of element proportions, size, and change of times in very small spaces as the sound will need to
general form. Such factors can be both computably bounce several times to extend the audible period
and manually modified and thus the method moves to a desired level for classical music. Due to fab-
beyond a singular aim of engineering optimisation rication issues (fabrication accessibility and on-site
towards a more holistic model of architecture and modifications to a zero-tolerance geometry) wood
engineering as collaborative effort. Another aspect was chosen as the outer sandwich element structure
of architectural aesthetics is related to the repeti- and therefore reflective surface. Other materials with
tive organisation of triangles that forms the struc-

Figure 6
The pavilion as seen
from inside with
musicians
performing during
the three-day
culture festival.
Different levels of
perforation of the
wood surfaces are
detectable next to
the musicians
located in the low
reverberation end
of the space.
smaller absorption coefficients would be an initial the Acoustic Pavilion 2012. Also, we would like to
potential for improving the material capacity within thank the Institute for Architecture and Media Tech-
the study. This would allow greater abilities to differ- nology, Aalborg University and Realdania for finan-
entiate between low and high reverberation times for cial support that made realisation of the project pos-
different positions. The acoustic analysis takes into sible. The project was developed as a collaboration
account an audience filled space. This aspect could between AREA, BRATH and Aalborg University
be developed to allow for an empty, partial occupied
or filled space, which would directly affect the ab- REFERENCES
sorption of the rays bouncing of the floor area. How- Derix, C 2010 'Mediating Spatial Phenomena through
ever, the space was filled during the performances Computational Heuristics', ACADIA Proceedings 2010
and therefore little difference between the studies Derix, C 2012 'Implicit Space', eCAADe Conference Pro-
and the realised space was minimal. Nevertheless, ceedings 2012
one musician noted, somewhat humorously, that the Foged, IW, Pasold, A, Jensen, MB and Skoubou, EB 2012
'Applying Evolutionary Computation for Sound
reverberation time would be further prolonged and
Based Morphogenesis', eCAADe Conference Proceed-
improved if no audience were present allowing the ings 2012
sound to bounce of the concrete floor area. Frazer, J 1995, An Evolutionary Architecture, AA Press
Goldberg, D 1988, 'Genetic Algorithms and Machine
Learning', Machine Learning, 3, pp. 95-99
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Hemberg, M 2001, Genr(8), Master's Thesis, MIT
The authors would like to give a special thanks Holland, J 1992a, 'Genetic Algorithms - Computer Pro-
to Chris Strunck and Andreas Larsen and thanks grams that evolve in ways that resemble natural se-
to Rumle Petersen, Mathis Vittrup, Simon Rhode lection can solve problems even their creators do
Malm, Audun Wold Andresen for a tremendous ef- not fully understand', Scientific American, July, pp.
fort in helping with manufacturing and assembling 66-72

Holland, J 1992b, Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Sys-
tems: An Introductory Analysis with the Applications
to Biology, Control and Artificial Intelligence, Bradford
Book
Lim, J 2011 'Let ’ s Work Together A stigmergic Approach
to Acoustic Design', eCAADe Conference Proceedings
2011, pp. 396-403
Peters, B and Olesen, T 2010 'Integrating Sound Scat-
tering Measurements in the Design of Complex Ar-
chitectural Surfaces', eCAADe Conference Proceedings
2010, pp. 481-492
Peters, B, Tamke, M, Nielsen, SA, Andersen, SV and Haase,
M 2011 'Responsive Acoustic Surfaces: Comput-
ing Sonic Effects, Respecting Fragile Places', eCAADe
Conference Proceedings 2011, pp. 819-828
Pugnale, A 2009, Engineering Architecture - Advances of
a technological practice, Ph.D. Thesis, Politecnico de
Torino
Rasmussen, SE 1962, Experiencing Architecture, MIT Press
Sa, Sato, Hayashi, T, Takizawa, A, Tani, A and Kawamura,
H 2004, 'Acoustic Design of Theatres Applying Ge-
netic Algorithms', Journal of Temporal Design in Ar-
chitecture and the Environment, 4, pp. 41-51
Spaeth, A and Menges, A 2011 'Performative Design for
Spatial Acoustics', eCAADe Conference Proceedings
2011, pp. 461-468
[1] http://www.sengpielaudio.com/calculator-
distance.htm
[2] http://www.grasshopper3d.com/group/galapagos

BIM
Building Information Deduced
State and potentials for Information query in Building Information
Modelling
Martin Tamke1 , Morten Myrup Jensen2 , Jakob Beetz3 , Thomas Krijnen4 ,

Dag Fjeld Edvardsen5
1,2
CITA - Royal Academy of Fine Arts, Schools of Architecture, Design and Conser-
vation 3,4 Design Systems Group Department of the Built Environment Eindhoven
University of Technology 5 Catenda Norway
1,2
cita.karch.dk 3,4 http://www.ds.arch.tue.nl/ 5 http://catenda.no
1,2
{martin.tamke|morten.myrup}@kadk.dk 3,4 {J.Beetz|T.F.Krijnen}@tue.nl
5
dag.fjeld.edvardsen@catenda.no
In recent years, Building Information Models have become commonplace in

building profession. The extensive use and increasing experience with BIM
models offers new perspectives and potentials for design and planning. A recent
stakeholder study conducted by the authors of this paper show that in practice
models are no longer solely observed as culmination of knowledge in a 3d
representation of future built structures, but as a source of information in itself.
Experienced users of BIM want to Find Information within a model or across a
set of these and Compare models in order to evaluate states of a model,
differences in separate models or models from different point of time. Current
BIM tools support both modes only in a rudimentary form. This paper discusses
current modes of information query within and across BIM models, shows
beneficial scenarios for building and planning practice through customised
queries and exemplifies these on the base of a scripted tool. This customized
approach is used to test approaches for a machine-based assessment of Level of
detail and BIM-readiness in BIM models.
Keywords: Building Information Modelling, BIM, IFC, openBIM, Information

query, Data extraction
INTRODUCTION els offers new perspectives and potentials for design

In recent years, Building Information Models have be- and planning. A recent stakeholder study conducted
come commonplace in building profession. The ex- by the authors of this paper show that in practice
tensive use and increasing experience with BIM mod- models are no longer solely observed as culmination
BIM - Volume 2 - eCAADe 32 | 375

of knowledge in a 3d representation of future built BIM software. ArchiCad is the preferred one for archi-
structures, but as a source of information in itself. tectural modelling. 100% of the large building own-
Experienced users of BIM want to Find Information ers and facility managers use Revit for maintaining
within a model or across a set of these and Compare models, while they demand Revit and IFC files from
models in order to evaluate states of a model, differ- their contractors.)
ences in separate models or models from different This paper focuses on BIM files in the IFC for-
point of time. Current BIM tools support both modes mat, as our investigations show, that this format is
only in a rudimentary form. This paper discusses cur- predominantly used for the exchange of BIM data
rent modes of information query within and across amongst partners in the building profession. This
BIM models, shows beneficial scenarios for building might be due to the fact, that open standards (open-
and planning practice through customised queries BIM) are enforced in scandinavia through building
and exemplifies these on the base of a scripted tool. legislation. OpenBIM proves in practice to provide
This customized approach is used to test approaches the versatility needed to accommodate the require-
for a machine-based assessment of Level of detail ments of a wide range of stakeholders. More than
and BIM-readiness in BIM models. 50% of the interviewed stakeholders use IFC as ex-
change format with other partners (Tamke 2014). The
BIM IN BUILDING PRACTICE - SCANDI- versatility of the IFC format means on the other hand,
that 3D objects can be modelled and described in
NAVIA
many not prescribed ways. The data produced is
The paper is based on a survey among stakeholders
hence inconsistent and not on standardised level of
of the building industry in Scandinavia, conducted
quality. To overcome this issue, data producers and
in the frame of the European research project DU-
receivers make written agreements on structure and
RAARK (Tamke 2014). The stakeholders provided an
content of BIM models. However, in order to ac-
extensive dataset of over 150 BIM models in the In-
tually exchange data, stakeholders need to validate
dustry Foundation Classes (IFC) format, which we in-
whether the agreed standards, in respect to quality
vestigated in order to report on the current use of
and status of development, are met in the models.
3d information processing in architectural practice.
Scandinavia was chosen, as the building industry
here can be seen as forerunner in the digitalisation
Current modes of data inquiry in practice -
of their processes, as the government pushed for us-
From CAD to Information Modelling
Queries within BIM models are currently executed
age of open standards and the large public building
within planning environments, as Autodesk Revit or
owners required usage of open BIM in new projects
Bentley Microstation, in specialised tools, as Solibri
(wong 2009). Stakeholders are engaging in a practice
Model Viewer or Dalux BIM checker and in online
where BIM models are shared and edited collectively
based BIM platforms as Bimserver. All methods work
and geometric data is enriched with additional meta-
predominantly with predefined queries that cannot
data. The conducted study shows, that among those
be adopted to the stakeholder's individual BIM pro-
stakeholders, that actively use BIM, all hand over or
cesses. Domain-, stakeholder- and project-specific
is handed BIM models from partners (Tamke 2014).
queries would however be beneficial in order to ac-
The practices investigated in the study show a profes-
commodate the stakeholders specialising processes,
sional environment that uses a wide set of BIM tools.
which are guided by internal requirements and work-
(100% of landsurveyors use Revit to build BIMs from
flows:
point data, 60% of Architectural offices use Revit, 20%
Architects and engineers generate several
use Bentley Microsystem, 20% use ArchiCad. The in-
domain-specific models based on internal libraries
terviewed construction company use a wide range of
376 | eCAADe 32 - BIM - Volume 2

and enrich these in a collaborative way. The inves- sumption, expected life span of building parts, war-
tigated stakeholders use domain specific tools to ranty periods, building classification codes, and ex-
model the data, but use web based services such as ternal links to product specifications [10].
bimsync [11] and byggeweb [12] in order to coordi- Building Owners and Building Legislation pursue
nate their efforts. The models show big differences in scandinavia a quest for higher productivity in the
in information density, modelling approach, Level- building sector through digitalization. They demand
of-Development and -Detail. The stakeholder´s BIM the use of IFC for as-built documentation and com-
processes are shifting with ever-changing client de- petition proposals. Here, delivered IFC models are in-
mands and nature of projects. Exchange and colli- quired for quantities, volumes as well as sustainable
sion control of BIM are done via IFC exports when- performance through energy simulation tools.
ever the used software differs between stakehold- The disperse set of perspectives and approaches
ers. However, whenever the software environments towards models necessitates validation and monitor-
are identical, exchange takes place in native formats ing efforts through the query within or between IFC
(Tamke 2014). models and every step of a buildings development.
Construction companies are taking over the data
and refine these to a level ready for fabrication and Current means to derive Information from
assembly. Large stakeholders use fully 3D-based BIM - Quality Assurance and Quality Control
software applications such as TEKLA [13] and have We find that stakeholders query their model in order
developed standardized internal processes. As they to:
are responsible for the materialization of the design Find Information within a model or across a set
they need to implement rigorous quality checks for of these.
incoming data and often engage in re-modeling to Compare models in order to evaluate states of
comply with constructability. A seamless data ex- a model, differences in separate models or models
change via IFC is crucial for the stakeholders vision from different point of time.
of BIM. In order to assure interoperatibility of their in- Queries on BIM models require two steps in order
ternal software solutions, the interviewed company to create information meaningful for the user: data-
NCC [x] validated different BIM software and chose, extraction and data-analysis (Fig. 1).
despite trends of the general profesion, ArchiCAD as
Figure 1
internal modelling tool.
Steps in Query of
Building Owners and Administrators - Large cor-
information in BIM
porations dominate the market in Scandinavia. Their
models.
operation is engaging with digital Facility Manage-
ment processes (FM) that incorporate control and
maintenance of their building stock. FM is in its
essence operating in database, highly specific to the Data Extraction is today obscured to the user
building portfolio of the stakeholders. Hence tools behind preset tools and queries. Alternatives for
such as Dalux FM [15] offer highly customizable im- custom queries (Mazairac & Beetz 2012) as BimQL
plementations. The requirements of IFC models for (BimQL [X] is a query language implemented on
FM are different to those in the planning domain, top of Bimserver by Wiet Mazairac. Like its name
where stakeholders have a hard time to comply with suqqests it acts like SQL/Sparql, and less like other
FM tools' logic and level of development. Typical in- DSLs (Domain spesific languages), which are de-
formation kept in FM models are besides the geomet- signed to feel similar to human language.) or the pro-
ric properties: U-values for estimation of energy con- gramming language connected to the IFC import-
ing plugin for SketchUp exist. (The DSL connected

to the IFC importing plugin for SketchUp [x] is an-
other attempt to make navigating a BIM more human
friendly is. Using it, it is possible to write requests like Figure 2
"Sketchup.active_model.layers.collect{|l| l.name}" to Quantity take off
get a collection of all the names of the layers in the performed in Tekla
model.). The two mentioned approaches are how- Structure [1].
ever not directed to end-users, nor are they embed-
ded in the common BIM environments.
Data-Analysis on BIM information can use a
range of approaches that each have their limitations:
Figure 3
A) Basic Arithmetric Operations Clash detection in
Results are produced through counting in filtered Autodesk
datasets or the addition of object´s numeric data, for NavisWorks [2].
instance for quantity take off . This approach is highly
stakeholder- and model-agnostic, as metadata on 3D
objects is neither standardised nor obligatory. Sim-
ple queries, which add numbers from specific prop-
erty definitions, are hence in many cases not provid-
ing consistent results through sets of models. Re- Figure 4
search based tools as the IFC analyzer by Robert Lip- Rule based model
man (Lipmann 2010) investigate the IFC on the code checking with
level in order to determine their content (Fig. 2). Fur- Solibri [3].
ther analysis steps for instance for complianec check
are done external to the tool.
B) Comparison of Data
The presence of information is verified against a set
of data, i.e. through Boolean operations for Quality
Control of BIM, Model Revision Comparison or clash
detection (Fig.3). Tools validate the structure of the
Figure 5
model and the correct assignment of properties to 3d
Ecotect Analysis of
objects.
energy
C) Interpretation of Data Through Rule consumption based
Based Inquiry on Revit export in
The relation of data to each other is evaluated based gbxml format [4].
on rule sets (Fig.4) that can be imported from exter-
nal sources or created for project specific purposes.
E.g. the physical safety of building designs can be as-
sessed through measurements between object coor-
dinates. Algorithms check whether all components
are contained by a floor or columns are positioned on
load bearing structures.

D) Interpretation of Data Through Informa- compared and validated in batch mode, providing
tion Fusion. users with insights whether an upgrade of their soft-
Information that is not directly given from a single de- ware version changes files in an illegitimate way
scriptor in the 3d object is derived from the merge Facility management: FM software imports spe-
of information from several sources. This approach is cific object from Ifc files. These have to be present
able to inquire values for parameters that are more in Building services in predefined quality and setups
abstract as they relate information from within a and stem from multiple domain models of a build-
model to external tools and information, such as the ing. Changes to the building stock require often the
simulated energy consumption values (Fig. 5), the es- re-import of Ifc models besides an initial import.This
timated economic building costs or the experienced currently tedious process would be eased through
based timeframe for building phases. the assessment of all domain models and across mul-
tiple models that describe larger building complexes.
APPLICATION AND FINDINGS Building Performance assessment: building
Our investigation show a focus of existing tools on portfolios can be automatically assessed in order
predefined queries in single models. Users are not to run energy simulations in them and evaluate their
able to create their own data queries, nor are they energy or other performances in comparison to the
able to conclude on qualitative and process-related local average or the measured performance in reality.
aspects or compare and detect distinctions between This evaluation allows for targeted actions.
different models. A monitoring and validation of sin-
gle or multiple models could provide new perspec- TECHNICAL APPROACH
tives on data and process if implemented in the ar- In order to investigate the potentials we developed
chitectural workflow: an IFC-extractor to retrieve metadata from selected
Validation: the automated assessment could IFC files stored in bimsync as well as a batch friendly
provide stakeholders with insights into the qualities extractor script using the Bimserver API [5]. It gathers
and content of models. A uniform, reproducible tool basic information as number of floors, spaces, areas,
for the objective measurement of quality and prop- volumes, etc. This information is written into CSV files
erties IFC models on a large scale can emerge. and further processed using formulas in spreadsheet
BIM Maturity: The assessment of multiple Ifc files applications.
can provide an quantitative indicator for the BIM ma- The approach is based on the Bimserver API,
turity (Bilal Succar et al). Administration on govern- where the IFC model is mapped to Java classes. Rel-
ment or similar stakeholder level can collect and use evant information can be extracted through query-
the Ifc files that they constantly receive to extract ing the model for entities, properties and relation-
statistics and get a better picture of the current state ships. A big amount of information is not readily
of Ifc models in practice. The DURAARK project used available in IFC files, but has to be deduced. The
this approach to assess the state of Ifc implmeneta- overall floor area of a building can for instance be
tion in the Danish building industry. extracted by first collecting all entities of type "IFC-
Performance Management: The work progress SLAB" which is of ".FLOOR." type. and then for each
of workteams can be visualized through the inspec- of these through a walk on the relationship graph to
tion of the collection of BIM models and the project find the connected "IFCAREAMEASURE". As "IFCSIU-
hence more efficiently managed NIT" is as well collected takes into account that area
Archiving:: Digital Archiving of BIM files requires could be measured in for instance square meters or
the constant migration of these to the newest soft- square milimeters. Other measures extracted from
ware version (Beetz 2013). Multiple models can be the model are based on geometrical calculations on

the model (for instance getting the size of the bound- Several characteristics are used to judge the LOD of
ing box in world coordinates) or simply on counting the model:
the number of building components in the model.
AMOUNT OF INFORMATION: PROPERTIES
USE CASE: VALIDATION OF MODELS SETS AND VALUES
The coupling of batch processing of IFC files and Firstly, the amount of property sets and values is as-
data-fusion based approaches for the assessment sessed. The resulting metric is the average amount
of models provides theoretically means to evalu- of property sets and property values per product.
ate properties that are not directly provided by the This provides an indication of the amount of seman-
models. The automated detection of Levels-of- tics that is attached to the objects, or the extent to
Development (LOD) provides the case to evaluate which the model constitutes more than merely a set
this claim [6]. of geometries. However, this metric is susceptible
LOD can be seen as indicator of scales, as the to inconsistent, redundant or empty property val-
physical limits of information per spatial dimension ues. Some authoring tools for example emit prop-
that determined traditionally the architectural scale erty values with place-holder text along the lines of
do not exist for BIM. A considerable effort is put into 'Enter address here', which does not constitute any
the definition of amount of detail in distinct LODs. As meaning whatsoever. No attempt is made to filter
LOD does not have a single descriptor, references to out these property values. The amount of property
diagrams and descriptions (FIG 7) are made in order values, for a single product, is the sum of all IfcSim-
to describe a certain state in the digital work process. pleProperties related to the object either directly or
While some authors suggest an LOD definition on via either a number of IfcComplexProperty instances
base of single objects, our approach summarizes LOD or via an IfcTypeObject that is related to the object.
as an amalgamation of information per spatial unit. A AMOUNT OF INFORMATION: AMOUNT OF
simple formula for the estimation of the LOD would RELATIONS BETWEEN ENTITY INSTANCES
hence be the amount of information (i) per amount of Secondly, the amount of relations in general between
space (s) of the model: LOD=ia. Information is in this entity instances is counted. This gives an indica-
context understood as: the object itself, the objects tion of the parametric intelligence associated with
properties, the objects relationships and its geomet- the model. It is assumed that this value increases
rical representation. Space can be the area or volume throughout the refinement of a model. For this met-
of the overall model or spatial subdivisions, as floors ric, all subtypes of IfcRelationship are considered, ex-
or building program related partitions. The following cept for IfcRelDefinesByProperty instances, as these
paragraphs describe the technical approach and the are already considered as part of the metric outlined
underlying considerations. . above. Examples of the relationships typically en-
countered in IFC models describe concepts like con-
tainment, decomposition, connectivity and the as- Figure 6
signment of materials. Examples of LOD in
specific component
AMOUNT OF INFORMATION: DEDUCED types (floor slab,
FROM AVERAGE OBJECT SIZE inner wall).
On a geometrical level, the average object size is
checked to give an indication whether the model
consists of mainly coarse object or whether objects
are subdivided based on their covering, material or
other qualities.

AMOUNT OF INFORMATION: GEOMETRY - this paper only a simple Axis-Aligned Bounding Box
DEDUCED FROM AMOUNT OF VERTICES is constructed.
In addition, the amount of vertices is assessed to indi- Spatial area: deduced from amount of products
cate in what level of detail objects are represented in and building floor area
the file. This is estimated based on a tessellated ren- An alternative approach is to compare the
dering of the model as provided by IfcOpenShell [x]. amount of products to the floor area of the build-
Hence it is a function of the deflection precision for ing. However, determining this also is not unam-
the meshing of curved surfaces. biguous, and rather difficult, if no explicit semantic
property set data is available. Calculating the floor
SPATIAL AREA: DEDUCED FROM AREA IN- area from geometry can be convoluted when con-
FORMATION STORED WITHIN OBJECTS sidering all the different types of geometric shape
To further qualify the LOD, the aim is to relate the items, clipping representation and opening subtrac-
number of objects and points within those objects, tions, that can constitute the geometric representa-
to the spatial area that the building encompasses. tion of a product in an IFC model. Furthermore, false
In order to do so, several alternatives have been in- positives due to separating floor layers into structural
vestigated. On the one hand, information could be floors and finishes, combining different aspect mod-
derived from the property sets in the model. For els with structural and architectural floors, or mis-
example, the GrossAreaPlanned on a project level, labelling roof slabs as floors, overestimate the total
or to aggregate respective values for GrossArea or floor area. Most of these objections can be coun-
NetArea for all floor slabs or the GrossFloorArea tered with tailored heuristics and arbitrary thresh-
or NetFloorArea for interior spaces. However, nei- old values. For example for this purpose, in an at-
ther of these properties are populated consequently tempt to remove floor finishes, a minimum height of
enough, in the set of test models, to rely on them 5cm is enforced in order for something to qualify as
for comparative analysis. Therefore, an attempt is de- a floor. But, other than that, the impact of this aspect
scribed to infer this information from the geometrical is deemed negligible in this context.
representations of the products in the model.
SPATIAL AREA: DEDUCED FROM AREA PRO-
SPATIAL AREA: DEDUCED FROM BOUNDING VIDED BY IFCSPACES
BOX Alternatively, a way to derive floor area from the rep-
The most trivial approach would be to describe a resentation of IfcSpaces is presented, but also using
single bounding volume for the entire project. The this approach, as models with intersecting spaces are
upside of such an approach is that various aspect encountered, an overestimation of the building area
models can easily be combined, since the union of is to be expected.
two bounding boxes is easily computed and remains Spatial area: deduced from solid volume of the
fairly constant as long as the various aspect mod|els product representation
agree on a similar building envelope. Therefore such To obtain the floor area, from the shape rep-
an approach conforms to the intuition that merging resentation of a three-dimensional slab or space, a
various aspect models increases the level of devel- generic approach is used based on the solid volume
opment. On the other hand for the bounding vol- of the product representation. A boundary represen-
ume to be optimal, in the sense that is the minimal tation (BRep) is obtained by using IfcOpenShell [x],
volume that contains all parts of the model, is not an open source implementation of the IFC file for-
as necessarily trivial. Hence, often the bounding vol- mat that has conversion functions for most types of
ume provides an overestimation as it is susceptible IfcRepresentationItems. From this boundary repre-
to geometric outliers. In the explorations outlined in

sentation, the solid volume is calculated, which is di- finding is that the models have a relative consistent
vided by the magnitude of a vector that spans the level of information per stakeholders, this is however
two vertices of the longest vertical edge, to give the very different from that of other stakeholders, that
approximation of the horizontal area. Since this ap- claim to work in the same level of development. The
proach operates on the BRep rendering of the prod- profession is far from having a homogeneous under-
uct, it is agnostic to the way the shape of the product standing of level-of-detail. Apart from the possible
is defined, using for example a faceted BRep or swept influences of the algorithms that are underlying the
solid, and to the boolean operations that operate on extractor tool, the main reasons for unexpected re-
the volume as a result of clipping or opening subtrac- sults, and generally low data content of the models,
tions. might be because of:
Inconsistencies in the IFC model: Stakeholders
do not use the IFC format in a consistent way and the Figure 7
user's modelling skills not always sufficient to create BIM models with
optimal IFCs.. The usage is not dictated by IFC, hence low (left) and high
it is possible to make inconsistent models. (right) LOD [7].
Wrong declaration of IFC classes for objects: Ex-
ports from proprietary formats are not always true to
EVALUATION OF APPROACH ON A the IFC classes.
DATASET FROM STAKEHOLDERS Flawed modelling approach, e.g. some object
The described computational approach was tested types do not translate directly into the correct IFC
on the in the beginning described dataset of 97 ifc property sets.·
models from stakeholders. It comprises of IFC files in Minimal amount of object properties: Stakehold-
a mix of merged and individual domain models. The ers minimize the amount of attributes and metadata
models Level of Development on the levels from 0- to their own need.
5 were determined through a manual inspection by Domain models: BIM files that are produced for a
an expert (see Fig. 7). Most models were positioned specific purpose (domain models or models made for
on information level 3, 1 on level 0 and none above a specific kind of analysis) and hence do not contain
level 4. We correlated the information level to the ex- the usual building components.
tracted data from the dataset in order to evaluate the
data fusion based query of Ifc files (Fig. 8). The result
is incoherent. In general a higher linear correlation
DISCUSSION OF APPROACH
The inconsistencies within and between Ifc models
(0,09) between the extracted values and the assigned
are a major challenge for the proposed approach. It
information level for the numbers can be observed in
is the result of the versatility of the Ifc format. This al-
the information "Deduced Number of objects per cu-
lows on the other hand a project specific and hence
bic meters" than from any other one. However the
efficient approach towards the use of models in BIM.
diversity in modelling approach, amount of proper-
It allows furthermore for the description of buildings
ties given per object and other factors is reflected in
through domain specific models, typically Architec-
the datasets large spread in values. Potential outliers
ture, Building (structural), HVAC and others. Each
are present in every calculation of the linear correla-
of these models is characterized by domain specific
tion. A more conclusive result would likely appear in
objects that are owned by that domain, but some
a more homogeneous dataset.We find that the LOD
are of course shared (Structural engineers and archi-
is rising throughout the process of a group of stake-
tects both care about load bearing walls for instance).
holders from design to fabrication. This logic is how-
However the analysis of BIM models, as construction
ever broken, when a model shifts domain. Another

Figure 8
Graphical
representation of
data set.
cost estimation, Life Cycle Costing, Life Cycle Analy- Area. Here countries have to implement the building
sis, Indoor climate analysis and Energy performance energy directive, the exact way how to do this differs
analysis, requires non-domain specific information. between the member countries [8].
Energy performance analysis can be used to ex- In order to tackle this problem the Ifc consortium
emplify the challenges that versatile standards pose developed the concept of Information delivery man-
n relation to the validation of models. For a energy ual (IDM) [9]. For each implementation of the energy
performance simulation, certain information has to directive a (slightly) different IDM should not only be
be present in the BIM (thermal values for each of the developed, but also agreed upon and supported by
building components composing the exterior layer the widely used software applications and special-
and also a quite large set of other set of data). In ad- ized applications for energy analysis. IDMs have been
dition it is important for the localisation of this data developed, but as far as these authors know none of
through algorithms, that the information is stored in them are broadly adopted by BIM software. If a set of
the BIM in a pre-agreed or even standardised way. IDMs were agreed upon it would then be possible to
This is hard to achieve in the fragmentised building identify whether and to which of the IDMs an open
industry in the of for instance the European Economic BIM was compliant with.

POTENTIALS Lipman, R. 2010 'Developing Coverage Analysis for IFC
The creation of Building Information Models Files', Proceedings of the CIB W78 2010: 27th Interna-
throughout the lifecycle of buildings results in an tional Conference
Succar, B., Sher, W. and Williams, A. 2012, 'Measuring BIM
ever-growing resource of knowledge. The query of
Performance: Five Metrics', Architectural Engineering
the models through project specific algorithms pro- and Design Management, 3, pp. 120-142
vide new perspectives on data and create project and Tamke, M., Myrup, M. and Evers, H.L. 2014, Current State
workflow specific information. This information can of 3d Object Processing in Architectural Research and
be beneficial for a wide set of use cases from the vali- Practice, DuraArk deliverable 7.7.1, EU 7th Frame-
dation of data, monitoring of processes and building work Programme
Wong, A.K.D., Wong, F.K.W. and Nadeem,
portfolios, to the support of design decisions. This
A. 2009 'Comparative roles of major
paves the way for novel forms of collaboration that stakeholders for the implementation of
capitalize on the precise description provide for ar- bim in various countries', Changing Roles,
chitectural projects as the linkage of domains (Sheil http://changingroles09.fyper.com/uploads/File/
2014). The investigation of the current implementa- Final.KD.Wong-KW.Wong-Nadeem.pdf
tion of Ifc models in building practice, shows how- [1] http://www.aecbytes.com/review/2010/
TeklaStructures16-images/fig7.jpg
ever that the created data is highly volatile in quality
[2] http://img.brothersoft.com/screenshots/softimage/a/
and content, even for very similar projects. It can autodesk_navisworks-175054-1.jpeg
be expected that this fact will prevail in the future [3] http://www.archimag.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/
due to the versatility of the IFC format. IFC how- 01/Solibri_Screen_Shot_Space_Validation_
ever the only format that is information rich, collects Checking_Results_01.jpg
the building domain on a global level and is vendor [4] http://www.iit.edu/arch/events/images/
seminar7_3a.jpg
neutral and open. Rather than seeing the versatil-
[5] https://bimsync.com/developers/reference/api/1.0
ity of Ifc as a problem, that has to be counteracted [6] www.bimforum.org/lod
with standards and mandatory fields, the profession [7] http://www.bentley.com/da-DK/Products/
should observe Ifc as a chance to engage in com- MicroStation/hypermodels.htm
putational approaches to validate and create data [8] http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/
specific to projects, rather than projects compliant to EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX:32010L0031
[9] http://www.buildingsmart.org/standards/idm
norms.The validity of this approach is demonstrated
[10] http://www.kejd.dk/indkob-og-udbud/udbud/
in this paper, though lacking in detail. udbudsdokumenter/Bilag-til-enterprisekontrakten/
ikt-aftale/view
REFERENCES [11] https://bimsync.com/
[12] http://www.byggeweb.dk/cms/int/
Beetz, J., Berndt, R., Dietze, S. and Tamke, M. 2013 'To-
[13] www.tekla.com
wards the Long-Term Preservation of Building Infor-
[14] http://www.ncc.dk/en/
mation Models', Proceedings of the 30th International
[15] http://dalux.dk/flx/dk/produkter/daluxfm/
Conference on Applications of IT in the AEC Industry,
[16] http://www.bimql.org/
Beijing, China
[17] http://www.suplugins.com/ifc2skp.php
Beetz, J. and Mazairac, W. 2012 'Towards a Framework for
[18] https://aectechtalk.wordpress.com/2012/03/19/
a Domain Specific Open Query Language for Build-
project-lod-for-bim/
ing Information Models', EG-ICE Workshop on Intelli-
gent Computing in Engineering 2012
Carstad, M., Østergaard, I. and Høegh, P. 2011,
'Bim bliver hverdag', Bips nyt, 2, UBST, p. 22,
http://dalux.dudal.com/files/1/daluxbimchecker_-
i_bips_nyt.pdf

A Universal Format for Architectural Program of
Requirement
A prerequisite for adding architectural programming information to BIM
data models
Ehsan Barekati1 , Mark Clayton2

1,2
Texas A&M University
1
ehsan.barekati@tamu.edu 2 mark-clayton@tamu.edu
This paper is a report on authors' ongoing effort in creating a universal model for
architectural programming. Authors analyse three well-known formats for
architectural programming and devise a UML model representing each format.
The UML models are further analysed and compared to form a super UML model
that can bring together all the three formats under one roof and act as a universal
format for architectural programming (UFPOR). The results improve the
integration of architectural programming and BIM data models and are of value
to the software development field and architectural programing.
Keywords: Building Information Modelling, Data Modelling, Architectural

Programming, Interoperability
A UNIVERSAL FORMAT FOR ARCHITEC- INTRODUCTION

TURAL PROGRAM OF REQUIREMENT BIM technology has improved communication be-
A prerequisite for adding architectural programming tween the disciplines involved in built environment
information to BIM data models projects by providing a repository for the project in-
This paper is a report on authors' ongoing effort formation. Every discipline can access the most up-
in creating a universal model for architectural pro- dated status of the project and be informed on the
gramming. Authors analyse three well-known for- most recent changes made by other players (Eastman
mats for architectural programming and devise data 2008). Open source standards for BIM data models
models representing each format. The data models such as IFC give every discipline the opportunity to
are further analysed and compared to form a par- plug into the BIM model and share information with
ent data model that can bring together all three for- other disciplines (Björk, Laakso 2010).
mats under one roof and act as a universal format for While the benefits are abundant, there are some
architectural programming (UFPOR). The results im- required steps to join the platform. Disciplines can
prove the integration of architectural programming get connected to the BIM data models by providing
and BIM data models and are of value to the software a compatible internal data model. Providing such
development field and architectural programing. model is the first step toward BIM integration. While

data modelling is a standard procedure in informa- simplified UML class diagrams. UML is a widely ac-
tion technology, it can be rather challenging when cepted and ISO endorsed method for analysing and
the targeted discipline involves qualitative informa- documenting processes so that they can be imple-
tion or lacks a comprehensive ontology. Architec- mented as software (Bruegge, Dutoit 2004). We
tural programming is one of the key components of chose to include a simplified version of the UML di-
every design project that happens to fall into this cat- agrams to increase readability.
egory (Cherry 1999). Three distinct UML models are compared with
AIA defines a program of requirement (POR) as each other to distinguish the similarities and the dif-
"An organized collection of the specific information ferences. Through this step a UML model is proposed
about the client's requirements which the architects that can embed all the three UML models. We call this
need in order to design a particular facility." (Ameri- model the UFPOR (Universal Format for Program of
can Institute of Architects., Palmer 1981). There are Requirements).
different interpretations of this definition in Archi-
tectural, Engineering, Construction and Operation POR MODELS
(AECO) industry (Hershberger 1999). Exclusion of
Sanoff's Model
architectural programming information makes BIM
Sanoff describes a program as a statement of in-
data models fall short from the BIM core premise,
tent. He believes a program is a collection of de-
which advocates the inclusion of the whole lifecycle
sired set of events. In Sanoff's method Objective is
of design information. "Can we devise a structure
the key concept in organizing a program. Designers
that is comprehensive enough to embed all the ex-
try to achieve some objectives through the design
isting formats for architectural programming?" This is
and programmers contribute by setting the objec-
the question that this paper will answer.
tives. Sanoff believes "Management by objectives"
(MBO) would help the designer throughout the de-
METHODOLOGY sign. Sanoff introduces two more concepts besides
Among all the existing POR structures, the ones of- "Objectives" to articulate this six step cycle; "Activity"
fered by William Pena (Peña, Parshall 2001), Henry and "Performance Requirements." Below I will define
Sanoff (Sanoff 1977) and Donna Duerk (Duerk 1993) each of these three steps in more detail and explain
are chosen to represent a scaled collection of di- their relationship.
verse POR formats. These scholars are chosen based
Objectives. As we saw, objectives are the backbone
on the popularity and comprehensiveness of their
of this model. Sanoff looks at objectives in different
work. Our goal is to translate the text to object-
scales and believes they help an organization to:
oriented models. Object-oriented design is an ap-
proach in software design where a system is con- • Define its "purpose of existence"
ceptualized as a collection of interacting objects.
• Define areas of responsibility
An object is a group of related methods and vari-
ables that represent a unique entity (Bruegge, Du- • Evaluate accomplishments
toit 2004). Object-oriented design is the approach
• Clarify individual pursuits
selected by the de-facto and official standards in the
AECO industry. Representing POR structures through • Make personal views visible
Object-oriented systems is an important step in mak-
ing them interoperable with the existing BIM stan- Activity. Objectives can be defined without any di-
dards. rect environmental indication. In the context of an ar-
The object-oriented model is presented through chitectural project, we accomplish the objectives by
modifying or creating built environments. Activities

Figure 1 are our achievement plans. The concept of "Activi-
UML diagram that ties" is introduced to connect the objectives to a built
shows the five main environment. Activities describe how people utilize
classes along with spaces.
their attributes and Sanoff suggests breaking down each activity into
relationships. As sub-activities and also drawing an interaction matrix
you can see, every to discover adjacency and grouping requirements.
instance of the Sanoff defines a requirement as a quantifiable state-
Objective class has ment about a proposed behaviour. A requirement
references to other can be based on fact, intuitition, or assumption.
instances of the
Performance. Sanoff introduces the concept of per-
same type, defining
formance as a bridge between requirements and the
them as its children
built environment assessment. Performance is a pro-
and also a reference
cedure to calculate the attributes of the physical en-
to a parent instance
vironment to compare with the requirements posed
of the same class.
in the previous steps. Performance requirements are
This pattern is
supposed to answer to the users' needs.
known as
After developing a performance requirement, its
Composite pattern
performance criteria should be defined. Performance
in software • Activities describe how people would utilize
criteria are characteristics that will be used in evaluat-
engineering spaces.
ing whether the requirements are being met or not.
(Gamma et al.,
Summary of Sanoff model (A narrative descrip-
1995). • Several activities may reside in one physical
tion for UML model)
To convert the processes that we described to space or a single activity may occupy a group
UML diagrams, let's recite Sanoff ideas briefly. of spaces.
• A program consists of three interrelated sys-

• A requirement can be based on fact, intuitive,
tems. Objectives, Activities, and Requirement.
or assumption.
• Objectives can be broken into Sub-Objectives
and a priority value can be assigned to them. • Requirements are supposed to answer to the
users' needs.
• Each object should start with "To" and should
have a single result to accomplish.
• Evaluation techniques can rely on numerical
• To accomplish the result, a timeline should be techniques, simulation techniques, or a panel
added to an objective. of experts.
• Activities connect objectives to the built envi- From these bullet points we can identify four
ronment. major components (classes) in Sanoff's model Ob-
• Activities describe how people would utilize jectives, Activities, Needs, Requirements, and Perfor-
spaces mance Criteria (Figure 1).
• Activities can be broken down into sub-

activities.

Pena's Model 1. Function implies "what's going to happen in
Pena considers programming the architect's first and their building." It concerns activities, relation-
often most important task. Pena's model is simple ship of spaces, and people-their number and
and straight forward, yet yields tangible results. That characteristics, key words are people, activi-
is probably why this model is one of the most widely ties, and relationship.
used models within practitioners. Pena declares five
steps for programming. 2. Form related to the site, the physical environ-
Establish Goals, Collect and analyse Facts, Un- ment (psychological, too) and the quality of
cover and test Concepts, Determine Needs, State the space and construction. Form is what you will
Problem. see and feel. It's "what is there now" and "what
Pena defines four main areas, or as he calls them will be there." Key words are: Site, Environ-
design determinants, to structure the types of infor- ment and Quality.
mation needed to define a comprehensive architec-
tural program. Function, Form, Economy, Time. 3. Economy concerns the initial budget and
The design determinants are applied to each of quality of construction, but also may include
the five steps that we already talked about leaving consideration of operating and life cycle costs.
the programmer with a five by four table. Pena de- Key words are: Initial Budget, Operating Cost,
fines the scope of each of the key players: Life Cycle Costs.
1. Goals: What does the client want to achieve 4. Time has three classification-past, present and
and Why? future-which deals with the influences of his-
tory, the inevitability of changes from the
2. Facts: What do we know, What is given? present and projections into the future, Key
words are: Past, Present, Future.
3. Concepts: How does the client want to
achieve the goals? Summery Pena and Parshall model (A narrative
description for UML model). A closer look at Pena's
model reveals three main classes: People, Activities,
4. Needs: How much money and space? What
and Environment. Rows and column of Pena's table
level of quality?
are more appropriate to be considered as the proper-
ties of the classes than being the classes themselves.
5. Problem: What are the significant conditions Relationship, as the name describes is to explain how
affecting the design of the building? What classes relate to each other and cannot be taken as an
are the general directions the designer should independent class. Site is a special instance of envi-
take? ronment and Quality can be represented through the
attributes. All sub-categories of the Economy deter-
Pena believes only practical goals that can be minant are different aspects of "Cost" which can be
achieved through concepts should be part of the pro- applied as an attribute to all the base classes. Time
gram. Facts should be related to goals otherwise they has a similar story as it can be applied to the base
bring no value to the program. classes as an attribute.
Pena breaks down each of the determinants into
smaller parts. It is important for us to study all the Introducing the main three base classes
parts of the determinants since they will be essential Environment. Environment class represents any
parts of our data model. form of a built or natural environment that the

project is related to, or contains regardless of form Segregation (other activities.)
and scale. This would include the project site, neigh-
bouring buildings, existing facilities on site, roads, Duerk's Model
proposed departments, rooms and etc. The main Duerk's model is the most recent one out of the three.
attributes to represent an environment are: Name, Duerk defines architectural programming as "A sys-
Location, Number Geometry, Adjacent environment, tematic method of inquiry that delineates the con-
Cost, Growth, Parent environment, Children environ- text within which the designing must be done. It also
ment (Figure 2). defines the requirements that a successful project
must meet." She considers programming the first part
Figure 2
of the design process and holds the program re-
UML diagram
sponsible for fulfilling the future inhabitants' dreams,
representing Pena's
hopes, wishes and desires.
model
Analysis of the existing state. Existing state is the
context of the project and includes all the informa-
tion about site analysis, user profiles, codes, con-
straints and climate. Duerk uses design issues as the
main category for searching about the existing state.
She believes by using this method we can avoid col-
lecting more information that we know how to apply
or as she calls it "merely interesting facts."
Issues. Duerk defines an issue as "Any matter, con-
cern, question, topic, proposition, or situation that
demands a design response in order for the project
to be successful." She believes there are generic is-
sues (e.g. circulation, safety, territoriality, privacy,
image, and flexibility) that apply to every architec-
tural project, however, the priorities may be different.
Duerk considers Form, Function, Economy and Time
in Pena's model design issues.
Facts. Duerk defines facts as the objective informa-
tion about the site, climate, context and other verifi-
People. People class would represent all the people able measurements. Some of the facts may raise an
that would have an influence on the project. That in- issue and require a design answer. On top of the facts
cludes Users, Clients, Society, and etc. The main at- that are related to the project specific issues, there are
tributed to represent a group of people are: Number, some facts that are related to the generic issues and
Related People, Growth, Physical Characteristics, In- thus should be collected in any project.
tellectual Characteristics, Emotional Characteristics. Projection of the future state.
Activity. People are connected to the environments Solutions. Any potential design candidate in re-
through activities. Activities represent how and why sponse to an issue is a solution. At the most basic
people would interact with the environment. The level all the solutions take a physical form. Solutions
main attributes for activities are: Privacy level, Users, can regard different design topics to achieve their
Environment, Growth, Potential activities to mix with, goals. Some solutions can affect the used materials

whiles others would affect Lighting or Form. identifying the issues.
Values and Goals. In Duerk's model values are where Site. Site is a critical class since it provides all the in-
the people involved in a project including clients, formation on codes, climate and other specifications.
users, authorities can weigh in. Different people have Values. Values are qualitative statements that form
different values and require different solutions. To re- the identity of our clients and users. In Duerk's model
flect the values more systematically Duerk proposes we cannot propose any solution without considering
a method in which issues turn into goals by going the values.
through the filter of values. Based on this model the
Solutions. All the elements representing the future
project goals are directly or indirectly connected to
state can be represented through one class with a
an issue/value pair. The indirect route goes through
hierarchical order. Solutions are the result of pass-
parent goals. Duerk defines a goal as "A concise state-
ing the issues through the filter of values, therefore
ment of the designer's promise to the client about
each solution is related to one or more values. Each
the quality of the design in relationship to a partic-
solution can be broken down into smaller solutions
ular issue."
(children) and can be part of a bigger solution. Some
Performance requirement. Performance require- solutions can be measurable (performance require-
ments are associated with the goals and guarantee ments.)
that the qualities defined by the goals will be met in
the project. Each goal will result in several PRs. Duerk Figure 3
declares three characteristics for a PR, it should be: UML diagram
specific, measurable and operational. representing
Duerk's model
Summary of Duerk's model and base classes. Al-
though Duerk's model presents a more clear struc-
ture for a POR, it is rather challenging to propose an
object oriented system to capture all the data. Some
of the bold topics such as "Facts" and "Issues" look like
the base classes at first, but a more accurate inves-
tigation reveals that facts are the attributes of other
classes such as "User", "Context", and "Site" (Figure 3).
Issues are also a required attribute for the "Goals".
User. This class represents the needs, attributes, val-
ues and grouping of the users. In that sense, this
class represents not only facts, but also values. Each
instance of this class can contain sub-categories of UFPOR
users within itself. For example in designing a library UFPOR is a super data model that can encompass
while library visitors can be described through an in- the three models that we analysed in the previous
stance of the "User" class, it can also contain smaller chapter. We start with the similarities shared by all
groups that are defined based on their age such as the three models to form a solid foundation, then
"Children" and "Adults" where their specific charac- we cover the unique characteristics of each model
teristics will be described. through adding flexible and generic parts to our
Context. This class contains mainly qualitative infor- model.
mation about the context where the project has been By looking at Pena's, Sanoff's and Duerk's model,
defined. The attributes of this class are very helpful in we distinguish a lot of similarities. They all draw a

path from present to future, from where we are now are the main topic in a POR. We define a place as an
to where we want to be. They propose methods to entity that can host and contain people or other envi-
study the clients and where they are coming from ronments. By our definition a city is an environment
through their values, goals, and financial budget to because it can host buildings (other environments)
discover where they should go. and the people who live in that city. A bathroom or
They all also talk about similar topics. "Goal" a walk-in closet is also an environment because they
and its synonyms are ubiquitous in all models. All can temporarily host people. As you can see, our def-
models try to draw a path to clarify the big goals inition is scale independent. It is also not limited to
and break them down into attainable and measur- the ones that are built by human beings.
able requirements. They talk about "People" and try
to know them better. Users, clients, society and own- People
ers are all human beings with goals, values and de- People are the reason that we care for places. Peo-
sires that can contradict each other. All three meth- ple can take different roles in a project. Users, clients,
ods tried to propose different ways to discover differ- society, and authorities are all groups of people with
ent groups of people who are influential in a project. values, requests and powers. While they have dif-
They also talked about "Environments" whether ex- ferent roles, they share a lot of attributes. Similar
isting or proposed for future, whether as small as a to places, people can be broken into categories as
room or as big as a city. They all advocate studying well. "Users" of a school can be divided into students,
the existing environments such as the city in which teachers, and the administrative staff. Here are "Peo-
we are proposing a new project, the neighbourhood, ple" attributes based on the three models that we de-
project site, and existing structures in the site to un- fined previously.
derstand what we should add to this collection. They
also talked about "Activities" the interaction between Activities
people and environments. We cannot decide what Activities define the connection between the people
our buildings should be and what they should not be and the places. Activities are the reason why people
if we do not know how people would use the place make places and they are the main topic in a POR.
and interact with its components. All the models also We study people to know what they want to do (ac-
propose a hierarchy of goals, objectives and require- tivities) and then define places where those activities
ments. These are different ways to describe what can happen. Similar to the places and people, activ-
the project or a specific part of a project "Need"s to ities can be broken down into sub-activities. For ex-
succeed. An area requirement is what a room needs ample "Preparing food" as an activity can be broken
to operate successfully and a "Mission Statement" is into "Storing Ingredients," "Washing Dishes," "Cook-
what the whole project needs to succeed. ing" and some more activities. As you can see activi-
We identified four primary classes that are part ties are usually associated with a verb. Here are "Ac-
of all the three models that we studied. They may be tivity" attributes based on the three models that we
referred to with different names, but the concept is defined previously.
shared by all three major models that we studied in
the previous chapter. Needs
One of the main purposes behind a POR is to em-
power the clients to answer their needs. "Need" is
UFPOR BASE CLASSES
a special class in our model. Needs create a web
Environment where all parts of a POR get connected to each
The purpose of creating a POR is to design an envi-
other. We start with people and by discovering their
ronment. Environments, in their most generic sense,
needs proceed to activities, then by discovering ac-

tivities' needs we discover Environments. Detailed Assessor. For Nominal and Ordinal assessments in-
and quantified space requirements are attached to volved "People" should be mentioned. For Interval
environments as their needs. From the data mod- and Ratio assessments, an "Assessor" implementa-
elling stand point, a project mission (the largest need tion that defines the mathematical equations used in
of a project) and a required area assigned to a room the assessment should be referenced.
are both needs, even though they are at the two ends Corresponding IFC Attribute. For Interval and Ratio
of a tree structure. While large needs are hard to assessments, the corresponding attribute from the
measure, it is very easy to measure the success of IFC model should be mentioned, this attribute will be
smaller and quantified needs. That is why we analyse used by the assessor to set the result value.
and evaluate large goals that are hard to measure to
Corresponding Revit Attribute. For Interval and Ra-
produce smaller and more measurable goals. PORs
tio assessments, the corresponding attribute from
break down large and qualitative goals into smaller
the Revit model should be mentioned, this attribute
quantitative goals that are easy to measure, and then
will be used by the assessor to set the result value.
we can evaluate the success of answering the large
needs based on the success of their children needs. Result:. The assessment will produce several types of
Here are need attributes based on the three models results based on the assessment type and the result
that we defined previously. will be assigned to this attribute.
Assessment UFPOR Key Concepts

Needs may project their fulfilment assessment to To further define the three base classes that we just
their children needs either directly or by proposing define and identify their sub-classes and attributes,
Activities or Environments and defining their needs. there are some key concepts to keep in mind. Know-
Eventually we will face a tree structure of connected ing these key concepts will help us in defining the
needs. Fulfilment of each need should be either subclasses and their attributes.
directly or indirectly assessed. Direct assessment
happens through execution of the "Assessment" at- Time
tached to the need, and indirect assessment hap- By looking at every base class through the filter of
pens through evaluating the fulfilment of the child time, we can collect valuable data and in result make
needs. The assessment class contains the following confident decisions. It also helps us in identifying all
attributes. the sub-classes that need to be instantiated for ev-
ery base class. "User" is a sub-class of "People" in the
Type. The assessment can be based on Nominal, Or-
future, while "Client/Owner" is more related to the
dinal, Interval or Ratio.
present time. When it comes to "Place", we are deal-
Attribute under Assessment. ing with past, present, and future. While the exist-
ing structures represent the past, neighbours and the
THE ATTRIBUTE THAT IS BEING MEASURED site belong to the present time. The proposed spaces
Acceptance Criteria. Based on the assessment type, and departments which are the result of architectural
acceptance criteria should be defined. It can be a programming phase represent the future.
numerical range for Interval and Ratio types. For
Nominal and Ordinal assessments we rely on human Composition
judgement and an acceptance criteria should be de- Composition is a design pattern in object oriented
fined, for example it can be approval from both the design where instances of a certain type can form
client and users. parent-child relationships with each other and form
a tree structure representing the whole system. By

Figure 4
UFPOR UML
diagram

using the composition pattern we can theoretically Eastman, C.M. 2008, BIM handbook : a guide to building
model a building by using only one class (Environ- information modeling for owners, managers, design-
ment). Rooms will be defined as children of the de- ers, engineers, and contractors, John Wiley, Hoboken,
N.J.
partments and departments will be children of the
Gamma, E., Helm, R., Johnson, R. and Vlissides, J.
building. The same pattern can be used to create ac- 1995, Design Patterns: Elements of Reusable Object-
tivities and sub activities as well as creating a hierar- Oriented Software, Addison-Wesley Longman, Ams-
chical model for needs (Figure 4). terdam
Hershberger, R.G. 1999, Architectural programming and
predesign manager, McGraw-Hill, New York Figure 5
PEÑA, W and Parshall, S 2001, Problem seeking : an archi- UFPOR base classes
tectural programming primer, John Wiley, New York and their
Sanoff, H 1977, Methods of architectural programming, relationship
Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, Stroudsburg, PA
CONCLUSION
Figure 5 is the UML model representing all the main
base classes and their relationships. To simplify the
model, class methods are not added to the diagram
and only major attributes are shown. This data model
can be used as the base to create comprehensive
data models supporting a wide range of POR struc-
tures.
REFERENCES
American Institute of Architects and Palmer, M.A. 1981,
The architect's guide to facility programming, Archi-
tectural Record Books, Washington, D.C.
Björk, B and Laakso, M 2010, 'CAD standardisation in the
construction industry — A process view', Automa-
tion in Construction, 19(4), pp. 398-406
Bruegge, B 2004, Object-Oriented Software Engineering
Using UML, Patterns and Java, Prentice Hall
Cherry, E 1999, Programming for design : from theory to
practice, John Wiley, New York
Duerk, D.P. 1993, Architectural programming : informa-
tion management for design, Van Nostrand Reinhold,
New York

Moving Beyond CAD: A Systems Information Model for
Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering Design
Peter E.D. Love1 , Jingyang Zhou2 , Jane Matthews3 , Brad Carey4 ,
Chun-pong Sing5
1,2
Department of Civil Engineering, Curtin University, Australia
3,4,5
Department of Construction Management, Curtin University, Australia
1
plove@iinet.net.au
2,3,4,5
{jingyang.zhou|jane.matthews|brad.carey|michael.sing}@curtin.edu.au
Documentation errors have been identified as a significant problem within the

construction and engineering industry. Errors contained with contract documents
can contribute to loss of profit, reduced productivity, and cost and time overruns
as well as contractual disputes. Research has identified that as much as 60% of
variations in construction and engineering projects are a result of errors and
omissions contained within poor quality documentation. Using a case study,
errors, omissions and information redundancy contained in the Electrical and
Instrumentation (E&I) 'As built' drawings for a Stacker Conveyor is examined. A
total of 449 errors and omissions were identified within 42 documents. In
addition, 231 cables and components appeared once among the 42 documents; 86
cables and components appeared twice and 12 cables and components appeared
three times. As a result of the errors, omissions and redundancy, requests for
information (RFIs) are required. Retrospective analysis indicates that the indirect
cost of raising the RFIs to the contractor was estimated to be 8.93% of the cost of
the E&I contract. To address the problems of errors, omissions and redundancy,
it is suggested that there is a need to adopt an object orientated system
information model (SIM) for E&I engineering design and documentation. It is
demonstrated in the case study that the use of a SIM could bring significant
improvements in productivity and reduce the cost of engineering design.
Keywords: ‘As-Built’, CAD, DAD, systems information model, errors and

omissions
INTRODUCTION aided-design (CAD). When a change is required, a 2D

Graphical and written representations developed by drawing and each corresponding view require a man-
electrical engineers are typically represented in two ual update, thus a 1:n relationship exists. The modi-
dimensions (2D) and constructed using computer- fication of drawings can be a very time-consuming

and costly process. Furthermore, as drawings are and engineering documentation produced with all
invariably manually coordinated between views in the necessary information required for construction.
2D, there is a propensity for documentation errors There is a proclivity for contractors to be supplied
to arise particularly in the design of complex Elec- with incomplete, conflicting and erroneous docu-
trical and Instrumentation (E&I) systems, which may ments (Tilley et al., 1997). When a situation of this na-
comprise of hundreds of drawings that are not to ture arises, the standard form of communication be-
scale and have to be represented schematically. In tween the contractor and engineers is to raise a Re-
this instance, information is often repeated on sev- quest for Information (RFI). According to Tadt et al.
eral drawings to connect each schematic together. (2012) the purpose of an RFI is to identify and resolve
Consequently, the time to prepare the schematics issues on-site that require solutions to avoid poten-
can be a lengthy and tedious process, especially as tial contract disputes and claims. Moreover, Hanna
the design gradually emerges and individual docu- et al. (2012) suggests that RFIs are used to provide
ments are completed. Any inconsistencies that man- a systematic collection of the analysis and resolution
ifest between the documents require re-editing and of questions that arise before and during construc-
crosschecking before they are issued for construction. There has been empirical research that has ex-
tion. Omissions and errors in contract documents amined the nature of RFIs, particularly how they can
have been identified as major sources of rework and adversely impact productivity. For the purposes of
thus contribute to significant productivity losses be- brevity, readers are referred to Tilley et al. (1997), Tadt
ing experienced. For example, Love et al.'s (2013) (2012) and Love et al. (2013) for a detailed review of
analysis of 107 'As-Built' drawings of an electrical RFIs and subsequent emergence. However, the pro-
system for a stacker conveyor identified 449 errors cess of raising an RFI for a resource project that is pro-
and omissions, which required an estimated 859 ex- cured using an Engineering, Procurement, Construc-
tra man-hours to rectify and an additional cost of tion and Management (EPCM) contracting arrange-
AU$128,850 to the engineering design process. Stud- ment is described to provide a contextual backdrop
ies have indicated that between 50% and 60% of for the research that is presented.
change orders that occur in projects are attributable
to poor quality design documentation (Love et al., EPCM: REQUEST FOR INFORMATION
2006). Moreover, the costs of rectifying errors that An EPCM is a common form of contracting ar-
arise from the design and documentation process rangement used to deliver infrastructure, mining, re-
can potentially increase a project's cost by 5% (Gar- sources and energy projects. Under this form of ar-
diner, 1994). rangement, a client selects a head contractor to man-
The design and construction of resource and en- age the entire project on their behalf. The EPCM
ergy projects are complex and challenging and their contractor coordinates the design, procurement and
success is heavily reliant upon effective communi- construction work and ensures that the project is
cation between members of the engineering and completed in accordance with predetermined deliv-
construction teams. Good engineering design is ef- erables. Subcontractors are chosen by the EPCM con-
fective when it serves its intended purpose and is tractor, but they have a contractual agreement with
constructible within desired budget, time and safety the client. In the case of an EPCM project, the pro-
objectives (McGeorge, 1988). The ability to process of raising an RFI commences with a contractor's
vide a contractor with the information needed to en- site engineer identifying a specific problem with the
able construction to be carried out as required, effi- information that has been made available to them
ciently and without hindrance is a fundamental trait (Figure 1). It is important that the generated RFI is
of quality documentation. Rarely, however, is design succinct and clearly worded. The contractor's site en-

Figure 1 gineer will need to demonstrate that information is
RFI process missing and cannot be inferred from the available
documentation. Once the RFI is generated, it is dis-
tributed to the EPCM site engineering representative
who then forwards it to the design engineers. A re-
sponse to the RFI from the EPCM contractor can be
either a simple verbal clarification and may be con-
fined to the site or it may involve revision of the con-
tract documents to eliminate an error or omission. If
contract documents need to be revised, a draftsman
will amend the documents, then distribute to the de-
sign engineers for checking and approval who will
subsequently distribute to the document controllers.
Once the revised documents are catalogued, they
are invariably issued simultaneously to the EPCM and
contractor's site engineer. If the contractor consid- RESEARCH APPROACH
ers the response to the RFI requires additional scope Typically organizations are reluctant to allow re-
then there will be discussions about a variation be- searchers to examine the quality of documentation
fore the work is executed. If additional engineer- that has been provided to them due to reasons of
ing is required, then this may require a considerable commercial confidentiality and fear of potential liti-
amount of time and effort from the EPCM contractor gation. Documentation errors are a chronic malaise
to revise the drawings. Such additional costs are typ- and have become a 'norm' within the energy and
ically borne by the EPCM contractor. Depending on resource sectors (Love et al., 2013). Active engage-
the scale and nature of the RFI, site work may have to ments from industry professionals who have intricate
be temporarily suspended, which may result in non- knowledge of the problem are needed to tackle this
productive time (e.g., waiting, idle time) being expe- problem. Thus, a case study that utilizes a partici-
rienced. patory action research (PAR) approach was adopted
In fact, the contractor may also experience con- (Smith et al., 2010). In brief, PAR is: (a) participa-
siderable non-productive time, as they aim to under- tory; cooperative, (b) engaging organizational mem-
stand the nature of the drawings and schematics pro- bers and researchers in a joint venture in which both
vided due to the considerable amount of information equally contribute; and a way to balance research
redundancy that is often contained on them (Love and action. In this context, the research aimed to
et al., 2013). Such redundancy hinders the identifi- address both the practical concerns of the organi-
cation of errors and omissions, which further exac- zation, and the research goals (i.e. the quantifi-
erbates productivity. As a result of raising the RFI, cation and productivity impact of errors in design
changes in scope and/or subsequent rework may be documentation), by working collaboratively for a se-
required to address the issue that has arisen. Re- lected case study project. The characteristics of ac-
work in this case may not only be confined to the tion research are: an action and change orienta-
trade contractor, but also to the consulting engineer tion, a problem focus, an organic process, involv-
and EPCM contractor as documentation and the like ing systematic and iterative stages, and collabora-
will need to be modified when 'changes' are required tion with participants from within the organization
(APCC, 2003). (Smith et al., 2010). As practitioner involvement was
required, they were treated as both subjects and co-

researchers. By adopting this approach, theory re- has resulted in several expansion projects being un-
lated to design error and practice acted in congru- dertaken, such as the Port, which includes the devel-
ence. opment of additional outloading and inloading cir-
cuits, berths, ship loaders, reclaimers, stacker, train
CASE STUDY unloaders, conveyor and material handling systems,
Working in close collaboration with the participating transfer stations and power and control systems. The
organization, it was decided that a case study would Stacker Conveyor examined in this research is located
be required to quantify documentation errors and at the Port. The Port expansion cost AUD$486 mil-
their impact on productivity. The organization had lion, with AUD$59.3 million being dedicated to the
access to a significant amount of completed projects EPCM, of which approximately 35% ($20.76 million)
but due to issues of commercial confidentiality the was expended on the electrical related design and
selection of cases available was limited. Moreover, documentation.
within any given E&I package, the number of draw- The 106 drawings and the cable schedule for the
ings that are produced varies depending on its com- iron ore conveyor used in the study were denoted as
plexity and size. Thus, a small project with a com- being 'As Built'. The 106 drawings can be classified
plete set of drawings was initially required to gain an into four diagram types: (1) Block, (2) Schematic (3)
understanding of the 'problem' extent and to work Termination and (4) Layout. The 107 documents de-
through new issues that may have potentially arisen. scribe the function of the iron ore conveyer and its
The participating organization had been asked to affiliated equipment and facilities, which include 469
convert all CAD generated electrical 'As Built' draw- components and 589 cables. The 107 documents ac-
ings for a Port facility into a digital SIM using soft- count for 5% of all the electrical documents issued
ware DAD (Dynamic Asset Documentation) for the for the port's facilities. To facilitate the analysis, in-
future life of the plant. DAD is leading edge engi- formation contained in these 107 documents was ex-
neering software, which has been developed to de- tracted and modeled into a SIM through the appli-
scribe connected systems such as control, power and cation of DAD. As modeling progressed, a plethora
communications using a single digital representa- of errors were identified within the 'As Built' docu-
tion. The electrical package for a Stacker Conveyor mentation. The errors were classified as missing la-
(CV911) was selected as a complete set of documents bels, labeling mistakes, inconsistent labeling, incor-
where 106 drawings and a cable schedule were read- rect connection, drawing omissions, cable schedule
ily available for analysis. omissions, and incorrect design (Love et al., 2013). In
The Stacker Conveyor selected for this research addition, a considerable amount of information re-
was part of an AUD$2.8 billion Iron Ore Mining dundancy was identified in the drawings. For exam-
project that was undertaken in the Pilbara in the ple, 357 cables and components appeared on at least
northwest of Western Australia (WA), which was con- two drawings with as many as 42 items appearing
structed in 2008. The project consisted of two stages: on five different drawings. Building on this analy-
(1) Construction of Port facilities and rail infrastruc- sis, the consequences and impact of the errors and
tures to connect to mining operations, (2) Mining omissions identified are determined for this particu-
operations and railway connections. In the mine's lar case study.
first year of operation, it was estimated that 27 mil-
lion tons of iron were mined, railed, shipped to cus- ASSESSING THE IMPACT OF DOCUMENTA-
tomers in China. This increased to 40 million tons in TION ERROR
2011, and it is anticipated that this will increase to A total amount of 589 cables and 469 components
155 tons by 2013/2014. The increase in production were contained within the 107 documents for the

electrical system of the conveyor CV911. With the as- and information traceability is reduced.
sistance of several experienced electrical engineers The number of times each drawing was modified
230 cables (39% of all the cables) and 101 compo- as a result of an RFI being raised was also identified.
nents (21.54% of all the components) were identified A description of the errors and omissions in drawing
with errors and omissions, which distributed among 04900-EL-DR-2001_6, for example, can be found in
42 (39.25%) of the 107 documents. A total of 449 er- Table 2.
rors and omissions were identified. Table 1 demon- With the assistance of several engineers from the
strates the number of times the 42 documents for the participating organization, it was estimated that, if
cables and components have been identified with er- the information was provided with the traditional
rors and omissions. It can be seen from Table 1 that CAD drawings, six man-hours would be required to
231 cables and components appeared once among generate an RFI, which includes the time to identify
the 42 documents; 86 cables and components ap- and define the problem. Assuming that the pay rate
peared twice and 12 cables and components ap- is $150/hour (i.e. the market rate) for a site engineer
peared three times. One cable appeared four times the generation of each RFI would cost the contrac-
and one component appeared six times. Redun- tor $900. In the case of drawing 04900-EL-DR-2001_-
dancy, in some cases, may provide additional infor- 6, all the errors and omissions were categorized into
mation for engineers to understand drawings. Such 10 RFIs. Thus it can be calculated that 60 man-hours
redundancy can, however, hinder an engineer's abil- will be consumed and therefore costing AUD$9000 to
ity to obtain their required information in a timely raise RFIs for this schematic. A description of the er-
manner, as they need to refer to a number of draw- rors and omissions in drawing 04900-EL-DR-2571_4
ings and documents. This can be especially unpro- can also be found in Table 2. These errors and omis-
ductive if reference numbers are labeled incorrectly. sions were categorized into 6 RFIs. Thus, a total of
As a result, the link between drawings ceases to exist 36 man-hours and $5400 is required to raise the RFIs
Table 1
Number of times
shown on
documents of
cables and
components
Table 2
Description of
errors and
omissions

Figure 2
Reference
information
for this drawing. In total, 103 RFIs are required to ad- takes one day to identify the problem, the drawing
dress the problems identified in the 42 documents. and mark it up, then another day to revise and review
Similarly, a total 618 man-hours was required to raise the drawings and a further two days to go through
the 103 RFIs at a cost of $92700. The total contract the document control process. Noteworthy, in some
value for the E&I system design and documentation is instances the contractor had experienced RFIs taking
$20.76 million. The documents in this study account as many as 20 days to obtain a response and the doc-
for 5% of all the documents of the electrical related uments to be modified. Thus, the delay in respond-
contract. Assuming the documents are of the simi- ing to an RFI, particularly in E&I contracts, may cause a
lar quality, then the cost for raising RFIs accounts for delay and adversely impact productivity and project
8.93% of the cost of the electrical related contract. costs.
Noteworthy, this is an indirect cost that is borne by
the E&I contractor. The non-productive time associ- SYSTEMS INFORMATION MODEL
ated with raising the RFI is not reimbursable. More- The information contained within the documenta-
over, the cost associated with raising an RFI repre- tion produced by CAD is presented using a 1:n re-
sents a small proportion of the total indirect costs of lationship. This resulted in a considerable amount
RFIs. In practice, once a RFI is raised, the engineers of information redundancy being created and con-
on site may not be able continue their work until the tained in the documentation. The production of such
correct information has been issued. Additionally the redundant information comes at a cost. Such cost
response time is lengthy as the resources may not manifests as additional time for the EPCM engineers
be available to deal with the work required. Inter- to produce and check the documentation and then
views with the contractor indicated that it typically

for the contractor to understand and decipher what dimensions, cable lengths, locations, prices, sched-
is required to install and construct the Stacker Con- ules, product images and files, can be attached to
veyor. In the case of the 'As Built' documentation the model. These attributes and associated functions
was examined, it was revealed that many of the draw- enable DAD to be applied to activities in engineer-
ings did not marry with one another. In several ining, procurement, construction, commissioning and
stances, the drawing reference numbers were incor- maintenance.
rect, which made it very difficult to locate the re- A SIM model can be accessed either locally or re-
quired information. A typical example of the refer- motely. More specifically, the SIM model database
ence information contained within a particular draw- can be stored on a local workstation or a remote
ing is highlighted in Figure 2. In this selected drawing server, which can be accessed online. DAD can be
a total of 29 reference drawing numbers were iden- used on a PC (Personal Computer) or mobile de-
tified. Two of these references were mistakenly la- vices. The PC version is compatible with a 'Win-
beled. Assuming all the information is available and dows' operating systems. Its mobile version can be
can be retrieved, an engineer will need to compare installed on industrial Tablets, which can be used in
and contrast multiple drawings to establish the infor- the field. When DAD is applied to engineer an elec-
mation that is wrong or missing. trical project, the design to be constructed will be
To effectively and efficiently address errors and modeled into a database forming a SIM. Then, a read
redundancy information, which are typically found in only copy of the model can be created, exported and
E&I engineering contracts, it is suggested that switch made available as a 'Kernel' to other project team
from a 1:n drawing based documentation process, members (Figure 3). A DAD Portal, which is designed
inherent within CAD, to a 1:1 SIM based relation- basing on the 'Kernel' is the client software with its
ship is required. In contrast to conventional CAD own users and security. The users of DAD portals
software, a SIM can be applied to projects where a could import and access all or part of the design infor-
system's design describes the interrelationships of mation within the Kernel regarding to their respec-
the connected components that exist within the sys- tive authorization levels. Private user data can be es-
tem. For example, in a SIM based electrical control tablished and managed via the DAD portal by edit-
system, all the equipment and cables that are con- ing attributes of the components or attaching addi-
nected are digitally modeled in a single database, tional documents to the model. To guarantee that all
which can be accessed through specific software (e.g. the parties involved in the project are working on an
DAD). The model that is created replicates the de- identical Kernel, users do not have the authorization
sign to be achieved in the 'real world'. Information to change the design.
stored in the database is dynamically linked so that As the information modeled using DAD is dy-
any modification to the design is automatically gen- namically linked, errors and omissions can be readily
erated in the model. DAD software can be applied identified. For example, when a site engineer identi-
to the entire lifecycle of E&I systems and is specif- fies a potential connection error associated to a vari-
ically useful for asset managers as it enables infor- able speed drive (VSD)5671, they can verify the prob-
mation to be stored in a single digital model. In the lem by examining its connections within DAD (Fig-
case of designing an electrical control system, all the ure 4). In this instance, there is no need for the site
equipment and cables that are constructed in the engineer to locate and compare the problem within
real world will only need to be modeled once when an array of cross-coupled reference drawings, which
DAD is used. DAD offers users with greater flexibil- is often the case with using conventional CAD. Thus,
ity to customize their designs. Attributes, such as time spent on problem identification can be reduced
material types, number of connections, equipment significantly. Once the problem is verified, a dedi-

Figure 3
DAD portal/SIM
relationship
Figure 4
Example of a
connection
Figure 5
Kernel revision
process

cated RFI folder can be created within DAD contain- tion can be used to trace the revision history and as-
ing the problem to be solved. The site engineer can sists engineers to compare previous and current de-
mark and describe the problem in DAD, which will be sign versions. However, in a drawing based design,
recorded by either a 'pdf' file or a snapshot of the se- revisions of drawings have to be maintained manu-
lected area on the screen. A 'spreadsheet' can also ally. All the revised versions of a drawing and its orig-
be automatically generated containing all the infor- inal copy must be categorized and archived so as to
mation of those objects either in 'Excel' or 'pdf' file keep the design traceable.
format. Then, the RFI will be sent to the design team
Figure 6
by email using DAD. As the site engineer cannot con-
History spreadsheet
tinue their work without authorized information, the
work relating to the error identified has to be stopped
before correct information is issued. On receipt of the
RFI folder, the design engineers can review and rec-
tify the problem immediately.
If an error is identified, then the design can be
readily modified within a DAD environment. A de-
sign engineer simply logins to the SIM model via
DAD, reviews and then corrects the component that
contains the error. As each piece of equipment in
the real world has only one counterpart in the SIM, CONCLUSION
there is no need to correct the problem by revising The graphical and written representations devel-
those affected drawings. When a revision is com- oped by engineers, for example, are typically repre-
plete, a new Kernel is generated and exported to the sented in two dimensions (2D) and constructed using
users for further application, as denoted in Figure 5. computer-aided-design (CAD). When a change is re-
With the client portal, users can replace the old Ker- quired to a 2D drawing, then the drawing and each
nel with the new one. All their private data saved can corresponding view has to be manually updated.
be retrieved and reused. As discussed above, DAD This can be a very time-consuming and costly pro-
can simplify the procedure of raising and addressing cess. Furthermore, as drawings are manually coordi-
RFIs. Through observations that have arisen from this nated between views in 2D, there is a propensity for
research, ½ an-hour is needed to locate a problem documentation errors to arise particularly in the de-
and raise an RFI when using DAD. Using a pay rate sign of complex E&I systems, which comprise of hun-
of AUD$150/hour, the total man-hours to raise all the dreds of drawings that are not to scale and have to
103 RFIs will be 51½ hours at a cost of AUD$7725. be represented schematically. In such cases, informa-
Thus, a reduction of over 90% man-hours and cost tion is often repeated on several drawings to connect
can be achieved compared with using conventional each schematic together. Consequently, the time to
CAD software. Noteworthy, for an experienced en- prepare the schematics can be a lengthy and tedious
gineer, the average time spent to review an RFI and process, especially as the design gradually emerges
revise the SIM model would be a little as ¼ of an-hour. and individual documents are completed. Inconsis-
DAD also provides a complete history log for tencies can manifest between the documents and
each object (Figure 6). Any modification to a particu- therefore they must be re-edited and crosschecked
lar object, including the person who performed this before they can be issued for construction.
activity, is automatically recorded in the system for There is a proclivity for contractors to be supplied
future checking and verification. As a result, this func- with incomplete, conflicting and erroneous docu-
ments. When a situation of this nature arises, the

standard form of communication between the con- REFERENCES
tractor and EPCM firm is to raise an RFI. The rais- APCC 2003, Improving Project Documentation: A Guide
ing of an RFI can be a costly and adversely impact to Improve Current Practice, Australian Procurement
productivity for the contractor. Using a case study, and Construction Council, Australian Construction
Forum, Deakin West, ACT, Australia
errors, omissions and information redundancy con-
Gardiner, J 1994, 'Management of design documenta-
tained in the 'As built' for a Stacker Conveyor were tion, where do we go from here?', in Wakefield,
examined. A total of 449 errors and omissions were RR and Carmichael, DG (eds) 1994, Construction
identified within 42 documents. In addition, 231 and Management, Recent Advances, Balkema, Rotter-
cables and components appeared once among the dam, p. 113–118
42 documents; 86 cables and components appeared Hanna, AS, Tadt, EJ and Whited, GC 2012, 'Request for in-
formation: Benchmark and metrics for major high-
twice and 12 cables and components appeared three
way projects', ASCE Journal of Construction, Engineer-
times. As a result of the errors, omissions and re- ing and Management, 138(12), p. 1347–1352
dundancy RFIs were raised. Retrospective analysis Love, PED, Edwards, DJ and Smith, J 2006, 'Contract doc-
indicates that the indirect cost of raising the RFIs umentation and the incidence of rework', Architec-
to the contractor was estimated to be 8.93% of the tural Engineering and Design Management, 1 (4), pp.
cost of the E&I contract. Noteworthy, the estimate 247-259
Love, PED, Zhou, J, Sing, CP and Kim, JT 2013, 'Documen-
is deemed to be conservative as it is based upon 'As
tation errors in instrumentation and electrical sys-
Built' and not the 'For Construction' drawings, which tems: Toward productivity improvement using sys-
is suggested to contain a higher rate of error prone- tem information modelling', Automation in Construc-
ness. tion, 35, pp. 448-459
The findings presented have been based upon McGeorge, JF 1988, 'Design productivity: a quality prob-
a single case study and therefore it is not possible lem', ASCE Journal of Management in Engineering,
4(4), pp. 350-362
to generalize the results that have been produced.
Smith, L, Bratini, L, Chambers, A, Jensen, RA and Romero,
Moreover, the inputs of the EPCM's design engineers L 2010, 'Between idealism and reality: Meeting the
were not solicited and therefore the times estimated challenges of participatory action research', Action
to attend to the RFIs are estimates, though based on Research, 8(4), pp. 407-425
the advice provided by experienced industry profes- Tadt, E, Hanna, A and White, D 2012, 'Best practices from
sionals. Despite the limitations of using a single case, WisDOT Mega and ARRA Projects — request for in-
formation: benchmarks and metrics', WisDOT Policy
there is however a need to address the problems of
Research Program Project, ID: 0092-1-20, Final Report,
errors, omissions and redundancy in design docu- March 2012, pp. 1-40
mentation. There needs to be a switch away from Tilley, PA, Mohamed, S and Wyatt, A 1997 'Indicators of
using traditional CAD documentation for E&I engi- design and documentation efficiency', Proceedings
neering, where a 1:n relationship exists, to a 1:1 ob- of the 5th Annual of International Group for Lean Con-
ject orientated SIM. It is demonstrated that the use of struction, Gold Coast, Australia
a SIM in the case example could provide significant
improvement in cost reduction on identifying/rais-
ing the RFIs. Furthermore, the SIM that is presented
is syntactically and semantically interoperable with a
wide range of software solutions.

The architectural design process: an intuitive modeling in
BIM's parametric design
Vasco Alexandre Pereira1 , Alexandra Paio2
1
ISCTE-University Institute of Lisbon 2 ISCTE- University Institute of Lisbon, ISTAR-
Information Sciences, Technologies and Architecture Research Center and Vitru-
vius FabLab-IUL
1
http://iscte-iul.pt/ 2 http://vitruviusfablab.iscte-iul.pt/
1
vascolpereira@gmail.com 2 alexandra.paio@iscte.pt
The digital era has brought many changes in the architectural research and
practice. Building Information Modeling (BIM) tools are offering now a wide
range of benefits in the AECO industry. This paper aims is not to do an
evaluation on efficiency gains or the advantages of adopting BIM, but to suggest
a design methodology using BIM software tools, throughout all phases of the
architectural design process. With the constant advances in technology and with
new conceptual design tools, became urgent the exploration of the potentialities
of an intuitive design within BIM technology. This paper addresses the above
question by suggesting an experimental methodology to implement an intuitive
modeling in BIM's parametric design.
Keywords: BIM, Parametric design, Design process
INTRODUCTION developing mainly with production concerns inte-

BIM brought a procedure shift in the AECO (Archi- grating within a single software, construction man-
tecture, Engineering, Construction and Operations) agement, analyses, simulations, building life-cycle
Industry that became a new CAD paradigm (Succar management and a database of information incorpo-
2009). According to Garber (2009:4) "It is the very rated within parametric 3D models, laying the foun-
collaborative nature of the data feedback through dations for more collaborative and effective models,
the modeling process with its potential to inform the building information models. These two trends
and communicate that turns the tables on all exist- that developed separately are now "giving way to a
ing systems". Coren Sharper, a partner of SHoP Ar- still emerging area of overlapping concerns" (Garber
chitects, refers to three-dimensional modeling tools 2009:23).
first used to communicate with clients with render- Recently, parametric design has influenced the
ings and walkthroughs as being 'dumb' models com- development of digital architectural. The impact of
pared with BIM tools. Virtual models first appeared BIM and Parametric Design on contemporary archi-
in architecture as representational tools responding tectural practice is widespread. This allows the archi-
mainly to aesthetical concerns. At the same time tect to create solutions that would be unattainable
structural and construction orientated software was otherwise.

However, schematic cognitive models design parametric design and all of BIM's capabilities in a
opportunities are often overlooked in the adoption conceptual design environment that stays linked to
of parametric building information models in profes- a constructive design environment and constantly
sional practice. updates any change made in the conceptual model,
There are important aspects that must be con- never having to leave the same platform.
sider during the early stages of the design process.
Abstract cognitive models and sketches are tools in COGNITIVE MODELS FOR CONCEPTUAL
architectural thinking for raising new question and
AND SCHEMATIC PARAMETRIC DESIGN:
defining an idea. Has a designer draws a sketch, it
allows a process called visual thinking (Schön 1987).
TYPES AND MODELS
There have been many approaches to how digital
The designer then creates an image that he is able to
tools have influenced architecture in general as well
reinterpret allowing him to pose new questions. This
as in the design process. These tools have created the
process that Schön names reflection-in-action allows
conditions for raising new questions, achieving new
the designer to reshape what he is doing, while do-
solutions and enter a new territory of complexity.
ing it, thus, posing new questions and trying out dif-
According to Barrios (2011), during the initial
ferent results through an on-going experimentation
phases of the design process the idea has still a high
essential in the design process to find a viable solu-
degree of uncertainty; at this stage the model should
tion.
also have a high degree of flexibility. The types of
During the schematic design phase, as the ar-
models used enhance or constrain the architectural
chitect hand-draws the dimensions of a room, the
design process according to software specific capa-
height of the ceiling or the thickness of a wall he does
bilities or limitations but also according to the way
it intuitively according to specific architectural inten-
the designer uses the software.
tions. In CAD, the design process is frustrated when
Carlos Barrios (2007, 2011) proposed five differ-
the software induces the architect to make prema-
ent cognitive models for parametric design to aid the
ture decisions about the specific thickness of the wall
designer in different phases of the design process.
or the shape or type of door, window and so on, de-
(1) Parametric Models For Exploratory Design - These
cisions that should not be made at an early stage of
models are mostly used in the early stages of design
the design process.
to explore the design geometry to a design problem;
In the traditional method with hand-made
(2) Reusability - exploder the potentials of the adapt-
sketches and models that are plain, white and with
ability models; (3) Parametric Models For Interactive
little detail, the architect is creating images and giv-
Feedback - a parametric model that demonstrates
ing space for the mind to freely fill in with pieces,
the properties of the surface curvature; (4) Paramet-
components and materials. The great amount of in-
ric Models For Progressive Optimization - paramet-
formation available in BIM systems make very easy
ric model that illustrates the steps of the refinement
the inclusion of too much detail creating a saturated
of a geometry; (5) Knowledge-Based Parametric De-
mental image that gives no space for further reflexion
sign - This parametric models shows how the design
or imagination.
can be helped in this decisions based on the interac-
This paper's aim is to remove the misconception
tion of a parametric model with a knowledge-based
that BIM is not ready for an architectural thinking by
system. Currently, all these features can be found in
creating a flexible and intuitive design methodology
BIM software tools. Stavric and Marina (2011) talk
integrated throughout the architectural design pro-
about two models of conceptual parametric design
cess. This experimentation methodology is accom-
and constructive parametric design. The first refers to
plished using Autodesk Revit software by including
parametric models used for conceptual design with

visual programming or scripting, morphogenesis, al- Fain. In their studio they start using the software (Re-
gorithmic and generative design. The second refers vit) in the urban analyses and a 3D study from day
to the parametric models from BIM, with embedded one. They use a conceptual massing environment to
data in 3D objects like doors, windows, stairs, slabs run in parallel many options to evaluate proper den-
and so on. sity and other aspects of an initial planning. Staying
Richard Garber speaks of 'closing the gap' be- in the same software they start shaping masses and
tween design software, used for representation and getting to a new level of detail as the model keeps
formal experimentation, and an industry software generating the analyses feedback and running in par-
primarily used for production, documentation, anal- allel alternatives.
yses and simulation.
Although it's clear influence from Barrios criti- AN INTUITIVE MODELING IN BIM'S PARA-
cism this paper seeks to overcome these limitations
METRIC DESIGN
more encouraged by Jeremy Roh's (Part-Time Lec-
New advances in technologies propitiated the possi-
turer at UNC Charlotte's School of Architecture) ap-
bility to explore all phases of the design process in-
proach on whether or not BIM is ready for Concep-
side the same platform. For example, Revit has new
tual and Schematic Design: "at a schematic level, one
conceptual design tools and adaptive components
should not be bogged down with premature tasks
that allow a new level of relations between concep-
such as creating compound wall types showing all
tual and constructive design. There have been cre-
the layers of the constructed wall. Instead, the de-
ated new applications that run in Revit with visual
signer should be making a generic gesture using a
programming allowing the introduction of scripting
plane or basic solid to represent the wall; further-
in Revit's environment as well as enhancing its para-
more, one should not be in the portion of the pro-
metric design capabilities for generative design and
gram where tools such as walls, doors, floors, etc.
algorithm design.
are in the tool ribbon. At the early stages of the de-
For this intent, two experimentation methods
sign process, one should be in the Conceptual Design
are conducted on an educational context in a de-
Environment where Massing, Generic Modeling, Pat-
sign studio (DS-PFA) for a Master of Architecture class.
tern Based Elements, and Adaptive Components are
Even though the principles are used for an intuitive
utilized to create stereotomic and tectonic form. Ac-
design application will then be suited to actual archi-
cording to Jeremy Roh's "Building Information Mod-
tectural practice's concerns. The selected software
eling software, such as Autodesk Revit, is an environ-
for a practical application was Revit from Autodesk.
ment where the entire architect's design and docu-
The first method explores a parametric model
mentation process can be infused into one software
with a close-up approach to the architectural form.
platform". The benefits of working all phases of the
This method is developed in three phases: identifica-
design process in one platform may be great but it
tion of the generating principles, testing alternatives
doesn't mean it is the best way for every case. BIM
and evaluating results. It explores generative design
is a convergence platform where different software
and in the end it is given a report of all BIM features
models and different fields of the AEC industry may
that the model responds to.
come together and be managed by the same BIM sys-
The second method explores all stages of the de-
tem.
sign process through a practical application in the
On the Practical BIM symposium for the AIA Tech-
year assignment project of DS-PFA's studio class. All
nology in Architectural Practice's July 13, 2012 webi-
the design phases are addressed in BIM using Re-
nar, Jed Donaldson gives a presentation of the tech-
vit tools from an urban strategy to constructive de-
nologies used during the design process at Johnson
tails. Parameters are assigned to the model to re-

spond to programmatic and architectural intentions designer is able to manipulate the overall shape by
evaluating and giving the architect feedback to fur- creating 3D forms and freely push and pull points,
ther enhance the design process. Reporting parame- surfaces and edges, instantly receiving feedback
ters, instead of constraint generative parameters, es- from the model on floor areas and facades as well
sentially allow flexibility and intuitiveness. as any parameters specific to meet programmatic
In this paper it will only be presented the second needs.
experimentation method. There were created masses for the existing build-
The architectural design process varies with dif- ings and for the new proposal. The masses are then
ferent architects, situations or approaches. For that parameterised to extract floor areas according to the
reason there is not a clear division of the process, al- existing and the proposal program and it was created
though, for better presenting this experiment the de- a table of comparison between demolished and new.
sign process was divided in three different phases: (1) On the second phase getting more into interior
Conceptual, (2) Scale, (3) Materialization. spaces the architect should still be thinking of planes,
solids and voids making sense of space adjusting
1. Conceptual phase: Sketches and diagrams are dimensions and light. At this stage the architect
made, it's transposed the idea and a volumet- shouldn't be picking up things out of a pre-formatted
ric implantation is tried out. library, instead, he should be thinking of space, open-
ings and passages or how much light should cross in
2. Scale: Dimensions are adjusted, program- or how wide or narrow should an opening be. At this
matic needs are met. stage, most of the time, it shouldn't be thought of
frames and panels or handles and mechanisms.
3. Materialization: Materials and architectural When a component from a library is selected
components and constructive matters are de- filled with information and detail it is already restrict-
fined. ing the architects imagination to that specific ele-
ment. An image is created giving little room for any
In the first phase, handmade sketches and diagrams other t rise. That happens with doors, windows, com-
were transferred to 3D virtual diagrams and Intuitive pound walls, floors, roofs, curtain systems, furniture
masses modelled by points, lines, planes, solids and and any other architectural component.
voids. This allowed experimenting volumes and its A BIM wall brings information such as compound
visual impact on site lot quicker than by a traditional wall types with layers and materials. At this stage by
method. It was also taken advantage of parametric placing a wall the architect should only think of three
design to try out multiple hypotheses. things: x, y and z, or rather, one thing: space.
As Jeremy Roh states, at an early stage of the de- For this phase were created family components
sign, the designer should not be doing premature that are not windows or doors with frames and pan-
tasks such as creating compound wall types or mak- els and materials. Instead, were created BIM compo-
ing decisions concerning specific thickness of the nents that are only voids with instance parameters
wall, or the type of door or window, instead, the that allow the manipulation of the form simply be the
designer should be thinking of planes, solid forms pushing and pulling of points or by the insertion of
and voids. At this first approach usually the archi- numerical values. The same was done for walls that
tect is studying the implantation on site at a volumet- only have parameters for x, y and z (figure 1).
ric scale seeking a volumetric relation with the sur- At the detailing phase the designer tells the soft-
rounding. ware to replace all 'B's with 'A's and because the ar-
These masses were created in Revit's conceptual chitectural components are modelled with paramet-
environment with reporting parameters where the

Figure 1
Wall A and B
Figure 2
Window

ric features a singular component will automatically Intuitive BIM opens the way for architects to re-
adjust for every different sized or different shaped ally grasp the potentialities of BIM in the ongoing
opening or wall (figure 2), automatically adapting switch from CAD to BIM encircling all of its effective-
other components to it such as floors. ness gains with the recent creative capabilities.
Replacing doors and windows for openings on a
first stage allowed the design process to be done with REFERENCES
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during a phase where only conceptual concerns were [Modelos Cognitivos para el Diseño Paramétrico]',
being evaluated. Detailing as materials were added SIGraDi 2007 - Proceedings of the 11th Iberoamerican
gradually at specific stages. In this experiment was Congress of Digital Graphics, México , pp. 239-242
also used with casework modeled as solids that were Barrios, C 2011 'Parametric affordances, what, when,
how', ACADIA Regional: Parametricism, Lincoln, pp.
later better detailed.
203-207
It was created a design environment where the Bryde, D, Broquetas, M and Volm, J 2012, 'The project
designer could basically forget about the decisions benefits of Building Information Modelling (BIM).',
that were not to be made at an early stage and fo- International Journal of Project Management, 31((7)),
cus on space freeing the mind for architectural think- pp. 971-80
ing and also to take advantage of BIM parametric de- Deutsch, R 2011, BIM and Integrated Design: strategies for
architectural practice., John Wiley, Hoboken
sign to create flexible parameters as to keep BIM prof-
Garber, R 2009., 'Closing the Gap: Information Models
itability in a project delivery phase. in Contemporary Design Practice.', Architectural De-
sign, 79(2), pp. 6-13
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Schön, D (eds) 1987, The Reflective Practitioner, How Pro-
fessionals Think In Action, Basic Books
The new technologies brought a procedure shift in
Stavric, M and Marina, O 2011, 'Interna-
the design process and the way architects think. It tional journal of applied mathematics
has brought the potential to create things that could and informatics', [Online] Available at:
never be achieved otherwise. http://www.naun.org/main/UPress/ami/2011.html
Parametric design allows the architect to create [Accessed 6 January 2014]
buildings and forms with a higher level of complexity, Succar, B 2009., 'Building information modelling frame-
work: A research and delivery foundation for indus-
pose more questions to the same problem and study
try stakeholders.', Automation in Construction, 18(3),
many more variations of the same solution. The in- pp. 357-75
tegration of BIM makes the process more complete.
This shift in procedures gave the architect the power
to manage so much information that it became cru-
cial for him to learn how to filter what, how and when
to introduce it in the project.
This paper demonstrates that BIM is ready for
parametric schematic design and that it is a tool with
great benefits for architects.
BIM tools with all its performance benefits may
influence the architectural design process in a posi-
tive as a negative way. This gives the architect the
responsibility to know the importance of knowing
what does disturb and what does enhance the archi-
tectural design process.

The Unbearable Lightness of BIM
Ivana Vinšová1 , Dana Matějovská2 , Henri Achten3
1,2,3
Czech Technical University in Prague
1,2,3
http://molab.eu
1,2,3
{vinsoiva|matejovska|achten}@fa.cvut.cz
In this paper we investigate the current state of BIM usage in Czech Republic and
aim to find strategies how to improve BIM education based on findings from
practice. We give an outline of the current state, identify problems that provide
hurdles for BIM adoption, and show how we implement a new pedagogical
approach to BIM education in our faculty.
Keywords: BIM, academic BIM, practising BIM
INTRODUCTION • Train students to have the necessary skills

In order to systematically monitor the education of so they can be employed when exiting the
CAAD at our institution, we have developed a frame- school.
work for measuring four aspects related to teaching
• Train students to have the knowledge and
(Matějovská and Achten 2011):
skills to understand and learn new technolo-
• Student's entrance level skills in computer/- gies (which currently are not used in practice).
CAD use. • Teach practical and theoretical knowledge
under a tight pedagogical time schedule that
• CAAD skills of students during their studies. competes with many other subject matters.
• Exit skills and expectations of students. Because of this, we turn to practice for two reasons -
one, to get a realistic impression what recently gradu-
• Enquiry of practitioners. ated students will actually do in practice; and two, to
educate practice in order to advance the application
In this paper we focus in particular on the last aspect of contemporary (and near future) CAAD technology.
(enquiry of practitioners). Building Information Mod- On the basis of these findings we hope to establish
elling (BIM) is widely conceived both in academia and a pedagogical approach that is both grounded on
practice as a very promising set of technologies, pro- practice and offers students best potential on the
cesses, and methods for CAAD. In our country, BIM market after finishing school.
adaptation is at a very low rate and in fact there are
only a few firms actively investing in this despite a BIM - OBSERVATION STRATEGY
general wide awareness of BIM's existence. For an ed- To obtain a clear overview of the current state of BIM
ucational situation this creates a situation in which application in practice we went about in the follow-
we have to balance a number of seemingly contra- ing way. First, we set up a workshop for practitioners
dictory requirements: about BIM. Through this workshop we got in touch

with many early adopters and architects interested to pricing policy the most noticeable spread occurred
in using BIM, and became acquainted with contem- in 2005 when also small architecture firms (up to 5
porary issues in the use of BIM in practice. Based on people) could afford to buy BIM-oriented solutions.
this experience, we created an inquiry in which we The only reliable data we can get is from the software
investigate in more detail the current state of BIM in dealers and resellers, but this obviously does not in-
practice. In particular, this enquiry dealt with the fol- dicate anything about the real(istic) use of BIM soft-
lowing questions: ware. Our own investigation in 2014 covered firms in
Prague, Brno and surroundings - so only the tip of the
1. In what type of projects is BIM applied? iceberg.
We found that BIM adaptation is at a very low
2. What is the role division of people engaged
rate, and also were able to identify a number of hur-
with BIM in such projects?
dles. The crisis has put heavy pressure on the prices,
3. What deficiencies and problems are currently in fact so high that offices have to work under offi-
experienced with the use of BIM? cially stated fees. This obstructs investment in new
technologies. In the current system, the produc-
4. What are the currently perceived require- tion of project documentation is split up in multiple
ments for graduated students from practice? phases. For each phase a separate bidding round is
made who actually produces the documents. There
Each question was subdivided into more specific sub- are no regulations governing the information struc-
questions. From the enquiry we selected a number of ture of the documentation. Also, if an office does not
companies which we visited personally for more de- continue in the next phase with a project, they are
tailed discussion. From these meetings we derived not likely to invest in BIM. Legally, all documentation
a deeper developed insight of current needs in prac- has to be delivered in 2D.
tice. This is outlined in the following section. Firms that are using BIM notice higher workload
of about 10-20%. Therefore they need to acquire jobs
that are more profitable in order to cover the addi- Figure 1
tional cost. The only offices that are actually using BEXEL Consulting
BIM are those that are capable to cover all phases of Technology - VDC /
the project documentation - therefore the large firms www.bexelconsulting.com
only. They find competitive advantage in the use of
BIM. In many cases they are internationally oriented
and see the benefits of BIM in their projects in coun-
tries such as Russia, China, Kuwait, and Saudi Ara-
bia to name a few. Unfortunately, these offices are
not keen to share their experiences, and therefore
in Czech Republic do not figure as BIM role models
for others. We found that offices which do make the
BIM - STATE OF THE ART IN THE CZECH RE- transfer to BIM, stick to this methodology - they do
PUBLIC not revert back to the old ways.
In Czech Republic the first firms started with BIM in We found that a key role for BIM adaption is
2003. The concept of BIM was mainly introduced by played by the project developers. They have a
the marketing of Autodesk's Revit. In the wake of this, central role in that they formulate requirements for
general interest in 3D modelling increased as well as all other parties in the design process, and in this
other software such as ArchiCAD as a BIM tool. Due

way push BIM acceptance. However, the absence Nemetschek), which they convert from BIM models.
of model contracts seriously limits BIM acceptance Facility Managers at the moment only specify which
in this group. To our knowledge there are only information is of their concern. Budgeteers do not
about four developers (market leaders or young early use BIM models at all, mainly because of the highly
adopters) that systematically use BIM. Because there fragmented way budgets are calculated which is in-
is yet no completed project (they are all in design compatible with the BIM database. Economists and
phase or still under construction) there are no exem- certifiers do not use BIM at all.
plary projects that will show others how to use BIM As can be seen from the above, the low rate
successfully. of BIM-adaptation is not caused by technological
Czech norms and standards have not been im- problems: affordable BIM-enabled software has been
plemented yet in BIM. The first act of the Czech Office around since 2005. The main reasons are a complex
for Standards, Metrology and Testing (ÚNMZ) was to mix of missing local norms, lacking government in-
adopt basic ISO norms, however in English - therefore volvement, highly fragmented feeing structure, and
Czech definition of terms are lacking. There are no lack of BIM-managers in the offices.
agreed upon data definitions nor libraries from prod- Table 1 gives the results of our 2014 survey. From
uct supplies. In every new project an ad-hoc model this we can conclude that the reasons for not adapt-
is created which is immediately abandoned after the ing BIM are the same as in practice, namely unwill-
project. At the moment it does not seem likely that ingness to change thinking and change established
in the near future any coordination from a state or- practices.
gan can be expected. The professional associations
ČKAIT (Czech Chamber of Authorized Engineers and PEDAGOGICAL IMPLEMENTATION OF BIM
Technicians Active in Construction) and ČKA (Czech Feeding these experiences back into education is not
Chamber of Architects) are not active in BIM at all. a straightforward translation of practice needs into
Finally we can observe that the succesfull imple- CAAD teaching. Nevertheless, understanding what is
mentation of BIM is not just a question of getting currently perceived in practice as problematic allows
the right software. BIM requires commitments from us to better judge the relative importance of issues in
the users; they have to understand what they are do- CAAD education. Concerning education, from our in-
ing, be able to create and manage multiple object li- vestigation above we can see that our main role has
braries, and teach their peers and colleagues on the two aspects:
way as well. In the current Czech market this role of
BIM-manager is fulfilled by external advisors or brave 1. Making our students knowledgeable about
CAD/IT-managers. Here we see the greatest gap in BIM.
our education, because none of our current gradu- 2. Educate a portion of our students to become
ates are sufficiently trained to fulfill the role of BIM- BIM-managers.
manager in practice.
Concerning the other parties in the design pro- Only by systematically educating our students in the
cess, the installations and HVAC experts for the most principles of BIM can the market start to appreciate
part are external firms. At the highest level they pro- the proper use of BIM and start to apply it in prac-
duce 3D models, but the automatic calculation in Re- tice. A general understanding of BIM however is not
vit MEP is used rarely. BIM is used mostly for colli- enough - we also need people who from the start can
sion detection and optimising layouts between par- implement BIM in practice - the BIM manager.
ties. Structural engineers in Czech Republic use their Recently we acquired a European grant to sup-
own software and models, in particular SCIA (Allplan port BIM education in the design studio of the Bache-
lor degree. A design studio was initiated in which BIM

Table 1
Level of BIM
adaptation in
practice and
schools of
architecture in
Czech Republic -
limited survey.

was used throughout the whole design process. 19 DISCUSSION
Students participated in this design studio in the past In this paper we have identified hurdles that impede
two semesters (study year 2013-2014). Throughout BIM adaptation in Czech Republic. These hurdles are
the semester we organized workshops with experts not of a technological kind, but social, organizational,
from practice and PhD students from the Faculty of legislative, and organizational. As an educational in-
Civil Engineering. The experts consulted the projects, stitution we can make the biggest impact on improv-
using the BIM model as a means of communication. ing BIM adaptation through all-BIM based education,
We noticed that the students invested more time in and training a portion of our students to become
the design studio than those in regular studios. They BIM managers. We have experiences with a prelimi-
were able to create comprehensive 3D models with nary all-BIM design studio, and will initiate an all-BIM
dimensional and material data. The BIM-model facili- Bachelor program in the next study year.
tated their understanding of the design process, con-
struction, and to a small extent also improved their ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
functional understanding of the building. We acknowledge the support of EU grant "OPPA
CZ.2.17/3.1.00/36034 Architektura a praxe KA č.2" for
Figure 2 initiating the BIM studio in the study year 2013-2014.
Setup of the
BIM-dedicated
studio: each REFERENCES
student has a Achten, Henri and Matějovská, Dana 2011 'What is the
goal in teaching basic CAD?', Proceedings of eCAADe
BIM-model (Revit or 2011, Ljubljana, pp. 57-62
Archicad), with Boeykens, Stefan, De Somer, Pauline, Klein, Ralf and
dimensions, Saey, Rik 2013 'Experiencing BIM Collaboration in
materials, and Education', Proceedings of eCAADe 2013, Delft, pp.
installations 505-513
defined (left Kocaturk, Tuba and Kiviniemi, Arto 2013 'Challenges of
Integrating BIM in Architectural Education', Proceed-
column). This is ings of eCAADe 2013, Delft, pp. 465-473
used for Russell, Peter and Elger, Dietrich 2008 'The Meaning of
consultation with BIM', Proceedings of eCAADe 2008, Antwerpen, pp.
experts external to 531-536
the design studio
(right column).
Building on these experiences, we initiate in the new

study year 2014-2015 an all-BIM trajectory for the
complete Bachelor program in which we will enroll
a selection of first year students. Contrary to the reg-
ular curriculum (students start with AutoCAD), they
will learn Revit and ArchiCAD and apply this in the de-
sign studio. We will monitor their progress and aim to
identify strengths and weaknesses of this approach.

The Truth Is In The Model
Utilizing Model Checking to Rate Learning Success in BIM Software Courses
Andreas Dieckmann1 , Peter Russell2

1,2
Chair for CAAD, RWTH Aachen University
1,2
http://caad.arch.rwth-aachen.de
1,2
{dieckmann|russell}@caad.arch.rwth-aachen.de
Model checking is one of the core methodologies of Building Information

Modelling (BIM). It allows us to quickly evaluate models based on custom
criteria. While there are known examples of the integration of model checking
into the course content of design studios, there is no literature on utilizing this
methodology to help in the grading process of BIM software courses. This paper
presents a project that applies model checking to the task of rating the learning
success of students in such a course. The main project goals were increasing the
objectivity of the ratings and reducing the time necessary to process a large
number of submitted models. The paper describes a possible approach to
categorizing and organizing model checks in an educational context and outlines
a proven and tested workflow for automating the rating and feedback process.
Keywords: BIM Education, Grading, Evaluation, Model Checking, Automation
CONTEXT egress path checking etc. (Hjelseth & Nisbet, 2010),

Nowadays, Building Information Modelling (BIM) is but also lends itself to more basic applications like
being taught at an ever increasing number of archi- model content checking.
tecture schools: the overall concepts and processes This paper is about applying the aforementioned
as well as the use of specific BIM software. A lot has method to the task of rating the learning success of
been written about how to teach BIM, with a lot of pa- large numbers of students in BIM software courses
pers focussing on ways of integrating BIM into design using the tools available within the BIM environment
studios (Barison & Santos, 2010) - but nothing about itself.
how student work is graded, specifically the quality
of the BIM models students submit for review. PROJECT PARAMETERS
One of the main advantages of BIM over conven-
From elective to mandatory subject
tional CAD is the semantic nature of the model which
At RWTH Aachen University, BIM.Basics - the intro-
permits querying the model like a database. The pro-
ductory BIM course - always used to be an elective
cess of verifying that a BIM model meets certain crite-
with 30 to 40 students per semester since it was first
ria or rules is known as model checking. Typical use
launched in 2008 (Dieckmann, Russell, & Wittenberg,
cases for model checking include collision detection,

2011). That changed in 2012 when the new manda- model a building using building elements),
tory module Integrated Planning was introduced into
the second and third semester of the Master of Ar- 3. Model representation (three weeks, learn
chitecture curriculum. BIM.Basics became the only how to derive 2D and 3D representations from
mandatory course in that module as all other courses the model and format them),
in the module (e.g. "Model-based Building Perfor- 4. Model data (three weeks, learn how to en-
mance Optimization", "Model-based Procurement & rich the model with additional data, how to
Tendering" etc.) build upon the foundations laid extract data from the model and how to au-
in BIM.Basics. Accordingly, every semester approxi- thor custom components).
mately 100 students now enroll in the class (see fig.
1). Alternatively, it can still be taken as an elective be- At the end of each phase, the students have to submit
fore the Integrated Planning module so as to allow in- their BIM model for review through a website. That
terested students to enroll in a larger number of elec- means that each time 100 submitted projects have to
tives in that module. be evaluated and - in the first three phases - individ-
BIM.Basics introduces the students to the topic ual feedback for the students needs to be generated.
of Building Information Modeling - its history, its This feedback is focussed mainly on the correct use
principles, its methodology. However, the larger of the BIM software package and whether the sub-
(practical) part of the course is dedicated to learn- mitted work meets the criteria set in the assignment.
ing to work with BIM software. The approach here is
strictly project-oriented: Throughout the term, stu- The issue of scalability
dents continuously develop a project. They are en- When the course was still an elective with 30 to 40
couraged to bring their own (current) project or, al- students per semester, this process was manageable.
ternatively, they can work on a brief provided by the A teaching assistant (TA) would assess the submit-
Integrated Planning module. The class content is ted models according to a check list and the lecturer
structured into four phases: would subsequently rate the overall quality of each
submission. However, this process does not scale
1. Project setup (three weeks, learn how to well to a course of 100 students per semester. The
setup a project and model the site, building two main reasons for this are the following:
volumes and site elements),
• Lack of objectivity: Due to the large num-
2. Building model (four weeks, learn how to ber of submissions (ca. 400 per semester),
Figure 1
Number of students
taking introductory
BIM course versus
1st year Master
students at the
Faculty of
Architecture, RWTH
Aachen University

several TAs are needed to get the assessment assignment, necessary checks were grouped into
done in a timely manner. However, accord- three categories:
ing to an evaluation performed on the assess-
1. Mandatory tasks. These checks form the
ment scores of the summer term of 2013, av-
base score. Students are penalized for miss-
erage check results vary significantly between
ing items in this category.
different TAs. The evaluation of the scores
showed more than 18% deviation from the 2. Optional tasks. These checks act as positive
overall average score over the course of the modifiers to the base score. Missing items in
entire term, although the TAs were even reas- this category do not have any influence on the
signed to other students randomly after each final score.
phase (see fig. 6). That much is clear: the TAs
show varying levels of leniency toward their 3. Common mistakes. These checks act as neg-
peers when it comes to assessing the quality ative modifiers to the base score. Only if the
of their work as well as varying levels of suc- model is free of mistakes does this category
cess in identifying issues in the submitted BIM have no influence on the final score. Having
models. carried out BIM courses for seven years, the
authors have seen a plethora of common mis-
• Expenditure of time: The manual checks takes that have made it onto the check list.
performed on the model by the TAs are com-
plex. They involve switching model views, iso- Thus, the overall score can be expressed in a very sim-
lating elements or element categories, check- ple formula:
ing element properties and - most impor- ∑ ∑ ∑
tantly - a lot of decision-making. Hence they Score = + − (1)
are very time-consuming. Also, with each ad- Mandatory Optional Mistakes
ditional student, the demand on the lecturer's
time grows, too - especially if he may need The checks can also be categorized according to the
to (partly) re-check the TAs' assessments (and type of information that is extracted from the model:
possibly increase their objectivity). • Type 1: The presence (or absence) of certain
elements (or component categories) in the
Therefore the evaluation process needed to be auto-
model ("Has the student used interior walls?").
mated as much as possible within reasonable time
This would result in a true / false rating.
constraints [1]�. The main goals were increased ob-
jectivity and saving of time. Additionally, the engi- • Type 2: The evidence of the use (or non-
neer's mind set in to the question, "Could we use the use) of certain tools or features of the soft-
BIM software itself to achieve these goals?" ware ("Do all exterior walls have multiple mate-
rial layers assigned to them?"). This would re-
APPROACH sult in a true / false rating, too.
Model check categorization • Type 3: The evidence of the correct (or in-
In general, most model checks performed in this correct) use of certain tools or features of the
project could be classified as what Hjelseth and Nis- software ("Have roofs been modelled as floor
bet (2010) refer to as model content checking (with slabs?"). Again a true / false rating.
some exceptions that belong to the domain of val-
idating model checking). Based on the evaluation • Type 4: The quality of the implementa-
check lists from previous semesters and the course tion of certain component categories in the

model ("What is the overall quality of modelled The manual check of a topography element involved
walls in this model?"). This could also take the following actions:
into account the complexity of the model and
would be rated as either positive, neutral or 1. Determining if there is a topography element
negative. 2. Determining if the topography element in-
cludes subregions
While checking for type 1 information answers
the question whether a student has used a certain 3. Determining if the subregions have different
object category or tool at all, checking for type 2 materials assigned to them
and 3 information will answer the question if he or
she has managed to gain in-depth knowledge of that 4. Determining if the topography is entirely flat
tool. However, only type 4 information will answer
the question if the student is able to apply the skills 5. Rating the overall quality of the topography
and knowledge gained during the course to an actual elements in the model
architectural problem.
Using a check list, the TA would then assign an over-
all rating for topography based on his findings that
Automation strategy
could have one of the following values: 1 (positive),
Yet another way of categorizing the checks was by
0 (neutral) or -1 (negative). With the new automated
assessing whether a particular check could be au-
approach, the software will automatically obtain the
tomated or not. It turned out that for the manda-
information from steps 1 through 4, leaving only the
tory and optional tasks, non-automated checks are
qualitative assessment in the hands of the TA. In this
almost exclusively qualitative assessments. In the
particular case, all results obtained through automa-
common mistakes category, however, some checks
tion will have a true / false rating (1 / 0), while the TA's
could not be automated due to the nature of what
assessment will continue to have values of 1, 0 or -1.
needed to be checked - in some cases because the
The results are then fed into a formula that computes
software development of the check algorithm would
the end result for the topography elements:
have taken disproportionately long, in other cases
because a human eye is needed to make the deci- TopoQuality + 2
sion if something is really a mistake or not. For the TopoResult = TopoAuto · (2)
2
first iteration of the model check automation approx-
imately two thirds of all checks were categorized as
While previously the results would range from -1 to
automatable which later proved to be correct albeit
1 (with only three possible values: -1, 0 and 1), they
with some deviation between the respective phases
now range from 0 to 1.5 with a host of possible values
(see fig. 2).
in between, making for a more fine-grained overall
Converting the manual checking routines of pre-
score. More importantly, the qualitative assessment
vious semesters to semi-automated routines also
merely acts as a modifier now, placing a stronger
meant an increase in the total number of checks per-
weighting on the automated check results. All check
formed. Where previously there might have been
results are stored in a spreadsheet (see fig. 3) that
only one (rather complex) manual check needed to
computes the following data:
rate a certain aspect of the model, there would now
be several automated checks and quite likely one (al- • The results for each element category
beit extremely simple) manual check. As an example,
let's examine how topography used to be checked • The results for each check category (manda-
manually and how that process has been automated. tory tasks, optional tasks & common mistakes)

• The overall score from the three check cate- Additionally, the TAs can include comments for
gories (see formula 1) internal use (i.e. information about each model that
is not reflected in any of the check results).
• The rank of each model score in the entire list
of models IMPLEMENTATION
Dealing with idiosyncrasies
• A qualitative rating of each model based on In practice and research, model checks are usually
the overall score performed on IFC files using dedicated software like
Solibri Model Checker (SMC) [2]. A good overview
• A qualitative rating of each model based on its of rule-based checking systems (albeit with a focus
ranking
Figure 2
Percentage of
automated checks
by category and
phase
Figure 3
Screenshot of the
grading
spreadsheet for
phase 1

on code compliance) can be found in Eastman et al. (or mis-use) of certain tools within the software.
(2009). There are good reasons for performing the
check on an IFC file, the chief among them being in- Choice of development environment & sub-
teroperability. sequent implementation
However, in the context of a BIM software class It just so happens that Revit already has a model
that teaches the use of a specific proprietary BIM au- checking tool in the form of a plugin called Model Re-
thoring software, running the models though an IFC view since its 2010 release [4]. This plugin is available
based model checking software may not be the wis- to all subscription customers of Revit. Basic checks
est choice. Every software has its idiosyncrasies that can be authored through the Model Review user in-
are reflected in the output we create with the soft- terface, but more complex custom checks can only be
ware. When teaching a software and trying to eval- achieved with plugins. These plugins require a signif-
uate the resulting output, those idiosyncrasies there- icant amount of coding in C Sharp or Visual Basic on
fore need to be taken into account, because they may top of the Revit API (Bell, 2011). Each plugin has to be
actually tell us a story about how the software was built as a dynamic link library (DLL) using Microsoft's
used. With regard to BIM authoring software, the Visual Studio [5].
original model will most likely reveal more in that re- An alternative presented itself in the form of Dy-
spect than an exported IFC model. namo [6], a recent open source project that is mainly
For the BIM.Basics course, the software of choice marketed as a computational design tool. In essence,
is Autodesk Revit [3]. Elucidating the choice of soft- Dynamo is a visual programming environment (very
ware is neither part of this paper nor does it bear similar to Grasshopper [7]) that was originally devel-
much relevance as the principles in this research are oped to run on top of Revit but has since been re-
transferable to other authoring environments, but leased as a standalone application as well. Among
suffice it to say that the authors are fluent in several other features, Dynamo allows for the creation of cus-
BIM authoring tools and had their reasons. tom Python-based components that in turn can ac-
With Revit, one of many good examples for the cess the Revit API.
aforementioned idiosyncrasies is the topic of view In the end, Dynamo was chosen over Model Re-
templates. As the name suggests, view templates are view for the following reasons:
an infrastructure to store common settings for views
in the model, thereby greatly facilitating the consis- • Ease of use. At least for non-programmers,
tent formatting of multiple views of the same type working with Dynamo is more intuitive than
(e.g. all floor plans of scale 1:200). Clearly, this is an coding in Visual Studio.
important skill to teach as it has a profound impact
on the economical use of the software (as opposed to • Accessibility. At some point in the future,
formatting each floor plan separately). However, this it may make sense to offer the model check-
type of information will not make it into an exported ing package to students for self assessment.
IFC model and could therefore not be checked by While the access to Model Review is lim-
SMC or similar software. ited to subscription customers, Dynamo is an
It was therefore obvious that in order to achieve open source software that already has a web-
the broadest check results (and give the most valu- based infrastructure for sharing custom code
able and tool-specific feedback to the students), the in place.
model check would have to be performed on the Re-
vit model itself. This way, it could be ensured that • Economy. Dynamo comes with a full library
very specific cases could be tested regarding the use of ready-to-use built-in functions for things
like logic, list management etc. Hence, only

specific queries of the Revit model needed to umented online [9].
be built.
Workflow
Implementing the model checks required building For each of the four phases, the resulting workflow
a total of roughly 50 functions (not counting sub- for the teaching assistants entails the following steps
functions), referred to in Dynamo as custom nodes for each checked model:
(see fig. 4), of which over 80% have Revit-specific
functionality while the rest can be classified as gen- • Open a Revit model
eral purpose. Since the model checker for the final
• Run the appropriate Dynamo graph for the
project submission (see fig. 5) includes 67 checks
current phase
and most of the model checks make use of several
of these custom nodes (three per check on average), • Running a model check will generate a num-
it is obvious that the reusability rate of the custom ber sequence that contains the results of ev-
nodes is rather high. All of the custom nodes have ery individual aspect checked for the current
since been publicly shared through Dynamo's pack- phase. That number sequence can then be
age manager [8] and their functionality has been doc- copied to the clipboard.
Figure 4
Example of a
Dynamo-based
model check
(examining roofs).
Custom nodes can
be identified by a
dashed shadow
outline.
Figure 5
Screenshot of the
Dynamo graph
checking the final
project submission

• Switch to the spreadsheet for the current end, the spreadsheet contains a lookup ta-
phase and paste the results into the appropri- ble that gets populated with boilerplate text
ate line. based on the individual check results for each
student.
• Perform the necessary manual checks for the
given model and enter their results into the • Grade the work based on the check results
spreadsheet. The spreadsheet includes a and individual examination of each model
checklist for each phase outlining the criteria (only phase 4)
for each manual check.
CONCLUSION
• Score and ranking are automatically com- Preliminary results
puted on the fly by the spreadsheet. The presented automation process has been in use
for only one full semester, so there is no long-term
• Where necessary, add some comments on the evaluation of the new grading process yet. However,
current model about encountered issues not the following results are already obvious:
covered in the model checks.
• Automating a large part of the process re-
When all teaching assistants have submitted sults in more objective results, i.e. the devia-
their spreadsheets, the lecturer has to perform the tions between the individual assessments of
following actions: the various TAs have a significantly reduced
effect on the overall assessment of each sub-
• Visually examine all models and the respec- mission (see fig. 6). The goal of increased ob-
tive TA comments jectivity has therefore been achieved.
• Where necessary, write some individual feed- • The estimates of saved time were more or less
back for the student for issues not covered in correct, depending on the submission phase.
the model checks (only phases 1 through 3) Some submission phases have a higher au-
tomation rate than others (see fig. 2), there-
• Send the individual feedback to the students fore the time savings vary. Across the en-
(only phases 1 through 3). This process can tire semester, the average rate of time sav-
easily be automated using the Mail Merge ings amounts to roughly 50%. Thus, the goal
Wizard available in most office suites. To that of speeding up the model review process has
Figure 6
Deviation of
average model
check results from
the mean by
teaching assistant
(anonymized)

been achieved, too, in turn proving the eco- only semi-automated in that a separate model check
nomic viability of automating the process. needs to be run for each model. Although this in it-
self is already a vast improvement compared to an
• As has been described above in the topogra- entirely manual evaluation of each model, it is not
phy example, automating the model check- ideal yet. Accordingly, a solution for batch processing
ing process has led to a significantly larger of models is currently under development. It makes
number of model checks. A welcome side- use of the Revit Test Framework (RTF) [11], a tool that
effect of this change is that the feedback gen- was initially developed for unit testing new Dynamo
erated out of these more detailed checks is builds. Although unit testing still is its main purpose,
considerably more precise than feedback in the RTF can be used for automating other operations
previous semesters, thereby giving the stu- on Revit models as well. Using the RTF will make it
dents a better chance at improving their mod- possible to process an entire folder structure of mod-
els for the final submission. els. The Dynamo-based model checks had to be al-
• Automating the model checks has actually tered slightly in order to automatically update a CSV
made it possible to check several additional file after checking a model, thus building a list of ex-
aspects of the models that previously were amined models that can later be imported into the
too tedious and / or time-consuming to check master spreadsheet. It is expected that this tool can
by hand, again giving students better oppor- go into operation during the current semester, once
tunities to improve their models. again reducing the amount of time spent with each
model significantly.
Boeykens et al. (2013) have already shown how The model checks themselves form another area
model checking can be meaningfully integrated into of potential improvements. After evaluating the indi-
a studio context. The research in this paper has vidual feedback from the last few semesters (i.e. com-
added the case of BIM software classes. How is this re- ments on issues in the models that are not covered
search transferable? The principles laid out in this pa- by a model check yet), several issues have been iden-
per can, of course, be applied to BIM software classes tified that could be automatically assessed in the fu-
in general (without having to use Revit). While the ture.
method of implementation and the rate of automa-
tion will most likely vary depending on the software Acknowledgement
package used, it is foreseeable that the objectivity of Many thanks to Ian Keough, the father of Dynamo,
grades will increase and that the automation process for helping out on the development of the batch pro-
will lead to time savings. As mentioned earlier, an- cessing of models and for creating Dynamo in the
other likely development in the future may be to pro- first place.
vide such a model checking tool to the students di-
rectly for continuous self assessment. Another pos- REFERENCES
sible area for model checking in education could be Barison, MB and Santos, ET 2010 'BIM Teaching Strate-
the assessment of models created in a design studio gies: An Overview of the Current Approaches', Pro-
like it has become customary in many architectural ceedings of the International Conference on Comput-
competitions ever since the Vestbanen competition ing in Civil and Building Engineering (ICCCBE) 2010,
in 2009/2010) [10]. Nottingham, UK, pp. 577-583
Bell, RR 2011 'Writing Your First Autodesk Revit Model Re-
view Plug-In', Autodesk University 2011, Las Vegas, NV
Further work Boeykens, S, de Somer, P, Klein, R and Saey, R 2013
There is, of course, always room for improvement. At 'Experiencing BIM Collaboration in Education', Com-
the time of writing, the model checking process is putation and Performance – Proceedings of the 31st

eCAADe Conference (Vol. 2), Delft, Netherlands, pp.
505-513
Dieckmann, A, Russell, P and Wittenberg, B 2011 'Educat-
ing the Masses: Teaching BIM from Undergraduate
to Postgraduate Level', Autodesk University 2011, Las
Vegas, NV
Eastman, CM, Lee, JM, Jeong, YS and Lee, JK 2009, 'Auto-
matic rule-based checking of building designs', Au-
tomation in Construction, 18(8), pp. 1011-1033
Hjelseth, E and Nisbet, N 2010 'Overview of Concepts for
Model Checking', Applications of IT in the AEC Indus-
try, Proceeding of the 27th International Conference -
CIB W78, Cairo, Egypt
[1] http://xkcd.com/1205
[2] http://www.solibri.com/products/solibri-model-
checker
[3] http://www.autodesk.com/products/autodesk-
revit-family/overview
[4] http://thebuildingcoder.typepad.com/blog/2009/11/model-
review.html
[5] http://www.visualstudio.com
[6] http://www.dynamobim.org
[7] http://www.grasshopper3d.com
[8] http://www.dynamopackages.com
[9] https://github.com/CAAD-RWTH/DynamoSamples
[10] http://www.aec3.com/de/referenzen/Vestbanen-
en.htm
[11] https://github.com/DynamoDS/RevitTestFramework

Thinking the BIM Way
Early integration of Building Information Modelling in education
Magdy M. Ibrahim
Abu Dhabi University
www.adu.ac.ae
magdy.ibrahim@adu.ac.ae
Since Building Information Modelling as a technology depends on recognizing

parts of the buildings as objects that can be simulated digitally, to prepare
students to grasp the BIM way of thinking, educators can start introducing the
concept early in the architectural curriculum without using the real tools. The
researchers monitored the students' progress over a period of time while they
were using different 3 dimensional CAD tools in several situations such as design
studio visualization and construction document production until eventually the
same group of students have been introduced formally to a real BIM tool. The
research tries to establish a relationship between the pedagogical techniques and
the success of the students to grasp what BIM is about and the development of
their ability to use it fruitfully. Comparisons between their performances should
shed the light on the best method to use in order to prepare students for the use of
BIM.
Keywords: BIM, CAD, education, pedagogy, objects
INTRODUCTION WHAT IS BIM?

In conclusion to her article in the 2006 AIA's "Report By now, a definition of Building Information Model-
on integrated practice", Renée Cheng commented on ing is not as necessary as it was five years ago. But
the BIM education by saying: "Regardless of the mag- for the sake of a complete literature review, it is im-
nitude of BIM's eventual of impact on the profession, portant to define BIM. However, instead of the usual
its recent rise provides the ideal catalyst for rethink- definition, it would make more sense if it is defined
ing architectural education. The level of expertise re- by comparing it to physical model making.
quired to intelligently design with BIM is significant, With physical models, objects are manipulated
and serious considerations must be given to how it by tools to produce particular forms that look like real
can be taught" (Cheng 2006). world objects. A wall is piece of wood that has di-
mensions proportionate to its real counterpart in a
building. A slab, is another piece of wood or plastic
that has dimensions that are proportionate to its real

counterpart in the proposed real building. The slab for the production of drawings; in much the same
edge line is well defined by the borders of the mate- way as a word processor is used for letters and re-
rial. In a BIM solution, a user has to think in the same ports. Its contribution to efficiency matches that of
terms of physical modeling. the word processor, a little, rising to quite a lot when a
Ironically, this creates the very first obstacle to document has to be reissued with revisions (Richens
learning the tool especially if the user has been previ- 1994). BIM based CAD is different, it requires think-
ously trained to use a drafting CAD package or a loose ing behind what we draw in order to produce a cor-
modeling tool such as SketchUp, where the integrity rectly represented data about the building in either
of lines to close the loop of the slab edge is not of the format: drawings, or database. It is a way of thinking
same order of importance. before it is a program to run on a computer. Many ar-
A BIM solution will not accept an open loop as a chitects used to think the BIM way even when using
slab edge where a simpler CAD system would, leav- traditional CAD tools, since normally, the tool would
ing the responsibility of its integrity to the user. not teach you how to think.
This articulates the definition of BIM which can BIM conversely begins with the virtual construc-
be described as a system that is smart about its tion (simulation) of the whole, which is then viewed
knowledge of the objects it uses. In most cases, treat- as a series of synthetic assemblies of constituent
ing those objects as they would be treated in the components. BIM represents a design process that
physical world. does not prioritize abstract representation or frag-
mented conventions of communication but instead
How different is it from CAD? privileges the contextual construction of a formal/s-
The initial application of computing in architecture patial systemic intelligent simulation (Ambrose 2007)
has been one of substituting CAD drafting to replace
hand drafting. In most offices, until recently, this has TEACHING BIM
been so literal that drawing sheets and computer files While there is general support for the idea of incor-
have been thought of in a 1:1 relationship (Johnson porating BIM as part of higher education curricula,
2000). It is believed that the 1:1 relationship made agreement is lacking as to the best way to achieve
it very straightforward to convert to CAD platforms this. When to introduce BIM, and how to introduce
when it became economically viable to own a com- BIM are questions programs approach differently.
puter or more in an architectural office. (Becerik-Gerber and Gerber et al 2011)
And it was also true, that training to use CAD plat-
forms was as straight forward as learning the com- Academic versus professional BIM training
mands that would create a line, an arc, or a circle. The There is a clear difference between professional train-
rest of the knowledge was exactly the same required ing to use BIM platforms and academic preparation
to produce drawings by hand, it required the archi- for the same purpose. While professional training
tectural knowledge to do the abstract plans, sections, is more focused on producing fast results, it heav-
elevations and details. ily depends and builds on the users' learning capac-
ity and previous knowledge of computing tools, as
BIM as a way of thinking, approaching ways well as their architecture and building technology
of thinking about BIM knowledge and the trainees own experience as pro-
BIM is not just another CAD; it is the shift from pre- fessional architects. A fast paced training on a new
senting information about the building to represent- platform does not usually have the learning objec-
ing this information. What we used to use and call tives of a university course. The main goal is to ade-
CAD is in its essence a neat replacement of the pen- quately introduce the software and its different func-
cil, pen and the T-square on our desks. It is used

tionalities. Challenged with specific questions, the still are normal everyday activities in architec-
trainer responds in most cases by showing ways of tural education. Students need to develop a
achieving the familiar desired results. sense of the real objects they are required to
In an academic setting, the recipient of the train- abstract in a drawing later. BIM assisted edu-
ing does not usually have enough background to cation would benefit from such a relationship.
challenge the trainer. They do not have a benchmark Using a BIM tool requires the user to jump be-
to measure the productivity of the software against, tween thinking in an abstract mode to objects
and most likely are happy with what the application mode and back again.
can produce while in the same time face difficulty un-
• Physical models versus digital models: De-
derstanding all of its commands.
spite the face similarities, working in the dig-
The focus of the educator in this case should al-
ital world is different. Many CAD application
ways be on the concepts rather than the specifics. A
have a very generic notion to the objects, for
lot of high level ideas about computing and database
instance, a "line" is an object. This does not
views and queries might be necessary in order to in-
help the user grasp the concept of an "Object".
sure the comprehension of why things are the way
One particular application is SketchUp where
they are and why do they behave the way they be-
the idea of an object is clearly misleading. Stu-
have.
dents need to be instructed to use groups and
A usual course at the undergraduate level will be
components to achieve the effect of an ob-
delivered in a 15 weeks semester. The knowledge has
ject. BIM solutions can bridge this gap.
to be divided into smaller digestible portions for the
students to follow successfully. The happiness curve
It is important to let the students know what to ex-
Object oriented modelling "objectification" pect from the ride. What has been described by Kry-
Architectural drawings are abstract means of com- giel and Nies in the book Green BIM as happiness
munications about real physical objects. It has been overtime curve sums up the experience of learning
a long legacy of drawing creation that shaped the to- such a system; you cannot learn it all in one session
days' architectural education with its abstract based see Figure 1.
means of communications. In the era of BIM, thing
Figure 1 are being reversed a little. In fact, many concepts
Krygiel and Nies might need to be revisited to adjust to the new mode
happiness curve of production. Users depend on objects when us-
ing BIM which negates the notion of abstraction that
the education is very familiar with. Producing draw-
ings as an abstraction of the real thing with a BIM sys-
tem confuses the basic training of an architecture stu-
dent.
• Objectification versus Abstraction: By defi-

nition, designing is an abstract process that
requires jumping between different scales The technology requires laying many founda-
and modes. It also requires expressing the tions to start, then advances by adding other layers
thoughts of the designer in a comprehensible of skills which leaves the user frustrated at certain
way to others. Working with physical mod- points of the learning curve. It is important to under-
els and visiting real buildings has been and stand the nature of the steep learning curve.

Figure 2
A door model using
SketchUp, every
part of the
assembly is
modelled as a
separate object.
The whole is
composed of the
parts.
THE EXPERIMENT: FROM SKETCHUP TO to model a panelled door. The assignment was to
REVIT model each part of the door, vertical stiles, horizon-
This paper is to document a rare opportunity that tal boards, panels, door frame, and the wood connec-
was available to the researcher. On the course of tions and assemble each part to the next. They were
four years, a group of students were monitored while asked to present their model as an exploded axono-
building their digital skills until they were able to suc- metric, see Figure 2. Out of 21 students, only 15 com-
cessfully and effectively use a BIM platform. pleted the model properly.
The researcher has been intentionally tailoring In their final exam, the whole group of students
the instructions to follow a particular method. Also, were faced with a question to measure how well they
tests and exams were used to verify the success of the understood the connection and to measure the value
followed method. of the modelling exercise. The question asked the
It is important to note that it is difficult to follow students to locate a particular given connection in a
a big group of students in architecture for four years, door.
this is why the number started with 21 students but Out of the 15 students, 11 were able to get 75%
ended with 9. There was also the factor of luck that of the mark of that question, a percentage of 73%
one instructor would get the same students for that where only 33% of the other group were able to
time. achieve 75% of the marks of that question see Figure
3. Making a correlation between successfully com-
Building technology objects pleting the assignment and proper answering of the
In their second year, students were first faced with exam question resulted in a correlation factor = 0.597
a serious modeling task when they were asked to with p value = 0.009
model a door assembly in their second course of The results show the value of the model exer-
Building Technology. The assignment followed a se- cise in the overall understanding of the two dimen-
ries of lectures on the types and composition of sev- sional drawings, which clearly indicated a better per-
eral door types and a series of drafting assignments formance due to the assignment of modeling the
to technically draft the different types in plans, sec- parts. No BIM tools were introduced, but thinking
tions and elevations as well as details of wooden con- about the parts to create the whole was emphasized.
nections in isometric projection. Thinking in terms of objects rather than just lines fa-
The students were then asked to use SketchUp cilitated the understanding of the complex relation-
ships.

Figure 3
The correlation of
successfully
answering the test
question versus the
completion of the
SketchUp model
Design studio modeling of building ele- tion drawings, for projecting plans, cut sections and
ments elevation from the model. This is a useful approach
Later in their studies, the students registered for a but misses the point of dealing with objects. Accord-
studio class. The same approach to modelling was ingly, they might sacrifice certain aspects to achieve
used. Instead of using the digital 3D model to de- the desired visual appeal.
sign, the usual hand drawn sketching and physical In this projects, the students were required to
models were used as preliminary design study tools. model the glass panels, the window frames, and the
The students were asked to start modeling what they shading device. One of the compelling reasons was
achieved on SketchUp in an object oriented way. the solar studies and shading device suitability to the
Walls were expected to be three dimensional boxes location.
with proper dimensions. Floor slabs were extruded
faces and columns and structural elements were also The jump to a real BIM tool
modelled the same way, see Figure 4. The next step was a formal introduction to BIM. By
Although this seems like a straight forward ap- their fourth year of the five years program in architec-
proach, it has been observed that in many cases, stu- ture, students are very well familiar with digital mod-
dents will focus in their digital model on achieving an elling tools, as well as a strong background of techni-
outer shell of what they designed, ignoring the phys- cal building technology knowledge. They were also
ical dimensions of the components. A wall can be introduced to working drawings and produced two
just a face with a proper material or color and floor dimensional CAD set of construction documents of
slabs or structural elements might be completely ig- a small building that made them very familiar with
nored if they do not show on the exterior. Few will proper drafting techniques, line types, pen assign-
model all the components but with a different in- ments, annotations and dimensions.
tent. Their goal is usually the creation of presenta- The course was carefully structured to benefit

Figure 4
Presentation
Perspective
generated from the
object model
Figure 5
The same building
modeled on Revit
Figure 6
Another example
showing a
sophisticated
design created in
Revit

from the students previous knowledge in technical would proof very difficult to document as a construc-
architecture. Few meetings were spent familiarizing tion drawing.
the students with the interface and theory, which
Figure 7
proved very important in their long term understand-
Example of the
ing of the technology. Then the students were asked
drawings produced
to model their previous studio project on the BIM
in the working
platform, see Figure 5.
drawing course
It was obvious that thinking in the object mode,
was easy to achieve at this stage. In the beginning,
the students struggled mainly with the interface of
the application. They knew what they wanted to do,
and their questions were always about finding the
proper tool.
Looking at the application from the standpoint
of analogy to real world objects was easily achieved
among this group of students. They were ready for
the technology, see Figure 6.
Working drawings course

Finally, the students moved on to their second Work-
Although, the final production was made mostly on
ing Drawings Course in their curriculum. The instruc-
two-dimensional CAD, most of the basis of the files
tor never mentioned any particular expectation of a
were generated from the BIM model.
particular CAD tool usage. Even drafting by hand was
accepted as long as it adhered to the expected level
of presentation. There were no recommendations
Most notable issues
• As useful as this experiment is, it is still a lim-
on how to use any system. The class only discussed
ited study. To the researcher, the privilege to
the technical issues related to a complex building.
work with a group of students on an extended
Choice of materials, joints and connections, struc-
time of their undergraduate years is an excep-
tural systems, water proofing and the like discussions
tion that might never occur again. In itself, the
were the only topics as expected in such a highly
study sheds a light on certain aspects of the
technical course. There was no computer related in-
pedagogical process, however it is clear that
structions.
more investigation is required.
Almost 90% percent of the students started their
projects on a BIM platform. Their argument was; it • Also, it is understood that not all instructors
will keep them focused on the technical part. can be as digitally savvy to guide their stu-
The projects were far more complicated than the dents through such a journey.
students' ability to finish what they started solely
• It is very important for the students to under-
on BIM, but most of the verifications of validity of
stand that different CAD tools are for different
spaces by cutting sections in the critical points, were
jobs, and the fact that they might be used in-
achieved through the BIM model, see Figure 7.
terchangeably does not undermine the pur-
By themselves, the students started criticizing
pose for each system that is expected to fulfil.
their designs, pointing out the unrealistic geometries
that might get overlooked in a design studio, but • Design rationalization should start rather
early in the process of a project design. With

the new tools, there is no excuse to postpone about. Five years later, using CAD got streamlined in
thinking about the components of the project academia and very quickly became a necessity that
in a more comprehensive way. can/should not be avoided. Few years later, most ar-
chitectural programs had a course teaching CAD. In
• Introducing BIM thinking in technology essence, CAD replaced the conventional production
courses not design courses: BIM tools are methods, and became an essential technical knowl-
not design tools. The fact that some users edge. Referring to it as it was when it first emerged
would be fluent enough to use the platform with the suspicious eyes of the professors at the time,
to design does not change the fact that the establishes a status that does not and should not ex-
main role of BIM tools is the documentation ist anymore. BIM should be treated in the same man-
of a worked design. Therefore, the proper inner. It should get incorporated as a way of thinking
troduction of the tool to students should be at all levels.
through technical courses such as building Despite the clear penetration and solid imple-
technology and not design studios. mentation of the Building Information Modelling
technology in the AEC industry worldwide, and de-
• Moving between an object and its abstraction spite the fact that schools of architecture around the
is critical. Students in architecture are taught world are recognizing Building Information Model-
to abstract objects, but BIM tools works the ing as the technology to prepare their students for in
opposite way. Clarity about understanding order to satisfy the market demand, there is no clear
the object and its abstraction is important to path on how to introduce the technology.
establish early enough in the education pro- Many CAD tools have already implemented the
cess. "dynamic" components/block technology for making
smarter than usual components/blocks. As useful as
• It is not expected anymore to question how this is, it does not really help the students grasp the
a plan was drafted on CAD, it just has been concept of objectifying elements of the building in
drafted, no further explanation. Accordingly, order to produce a model. A precursor to this should
modeling on a BIM platform should be treated be thinking of the "parts" or the objects that con-
the same way. And regardless of the platform, stitute the whole. Rather than being overwhelmed
even if it is a simple modeler, the fact that the by the inherent complexity of a full-fledged BIM so-
student is thinking about the parts as objects lution, simple and easy to use modelling packages
is the most important value. They do not have should be used to help introduce students to such
to worry about drafting them, but should fo- concept of smart objects.
cus instead on getting them to work in the real In this research, the researcher monitored the
world. students' progress over a period of time while they
were using different 3-dimensional CAD tools in sev-
• Parametric modeling has not been tested in eral situations such as design studio visualization and
this research. Working with a parametric construction document production until eventually
model is another layer of investigation that the same group of students have been introduced
should be sought. formally to a real BIM tool.
The research tries to establish a relationship be-
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION tween the pedagogical techniques and the success
In the late 80's of the twentieth century, while study- of the students to grasp what BIM is about and the de-
ing architecture, CAD was treated as a sin from some velopment of their ability to use it fruitfully. Compar-
professors who did not grasp what it was really

isons between their performances should shed the Architectural Design in Europe, Zurich, Switzerland,
light on the best method to use in order to prepare pp. 15-18
students for the technology.
Finally, this research effort does not claim a par-
ticular success of a method over another, it rather
documents a certain approach to the problem while
recognizing the viability of other approaches.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
To my wonderful students for their hard work.
REFERENCES
Ambrose, M. A. 2007 'BIM and Integrated Practice
as Provocateurs of Design Education', Proceedings
of the 12th International Conference on Computer
Aided Architectural Design Research in Asia, Nanjing
(China), p. 19–21
Ambrose, M. A. 2009 'BIM and Comprehensive Design
Studio Education', Proceedings of the 14th Interna-
tional Conference on Computer Aided Architectural
Design Research in Asia, Yunlin (Taiwan) , pp. 22-25
Eastman, C. M. 2011, BIM Handbook a Guide to Building In-
formation Modeling for Owners, Managers, Designers,
Engineers and Contractors, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ
Floyd, L.D. and Seidler, D. 2010 'The Role of Building In-
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Technology in Construction, 16 , pp. 411-432
Krygiel, E. and Nies, B. 2008, Green BIM: Successful Sus-
tainable Design with Building Information Modeling,
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Russell, P. and Dietrich, E. 2008 'The Meaning of BIM', 26th
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Sabongi, F. J. 2009 'The Integration of BIM in the Under-
graduate Curriculum: An Analysis of Undergraduate
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Sah, V. and Clark, C. 2008 'Building Information Mod-
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the 28th Conference on Education in Computer Aided

Applying BIM to Sustainable Performance Evaluation in
Design Projects: An Educational Approach for Architecture
Programmes
Zaid Alwan1 , Peter Holgate2 , Paul Jones3
1,2,3
Department of Architecture and Built Environment, Faculty of Engineering and
Environment , Northumbria University
1,2,3
{zaid.alwan|peter.holgate|paul.jones}@northumbria.ac.uk
The merits and potential of Building Information Modelling (BIM) have been
promoted for several years; however, its widespread adoption and development
may potentially stagnate on account of a technical skills shortage, with
insufficient personnel having the capabilities to successfully deliver projects. This
shortfall covers all aspects of BIM, and building performance and life cycle
analysis in particular. Programmes such as Ecotect, Revit, Green Building
Studio, and Project Vasari, have transformed data capture and analysis, enabling
architects and systems engineers to visualise site analyses and to test preliminary
designs. As BIM is a relatively new process which continues to develop rapidly,
Higher Education Institutions need to respond to currency and change while
striving to provide graduates with the advanced skills to satisfy the needs of the
building industry. This work presents a case study of the application of
Autodesk's Building Performance Analysis Certificate (BPAC) as a driver for
learning in support of the integration of BIM into the architectural curriculum.
Keywords: Virtual building performance I, BIM collaboration, Data transfer,

Sustainability Education
INTRODUCTION lution to the successful management of Construc-

The merits and potential of Building Information tion Project Information, but the widespread imple-
Modelling (BIM) have been well documented in mentation and adoption of BIM has been slow, ar-
terms of productivity gains and greater efficiencies guably due to issues such as unsatisfactory interoper-
(Eastman et al. 2011). However, to fully realise the ability (with technological factors impeding the flow
potential benefits of BIM application, the next gen- of information through the project lifecycle), cost
eration of Architects, Construction Managers, and constraints, capital investment, and skills shortages
Consultant Engineers need to have the necessary (Aranda-Mena et al, 2009). According to David Phillip
technical skills and applied knowledge. BIM has (BIM Task Group [1]), BIM adoption and leadership is
been promoted in recent years as a potential so- required to ensure that the UK is at the vanguard of

new, more efficient ways of working. Moreover, fur- assess the pedagogical benefits of this dynamic and
ther work needs to be done on establishing the de- virtual approach to teaching and learning. This ap-
sired learning outcomes at undergraduate and post- proach sought to:
graduate levels of Higher Education that will start to
• Take advantage of a newly launched building
address these key issues (BIM Academic Forum [4]).
performance online training tool to promote
This paper reflects upon the application and ef-
student learning
fectiveness of employing Autodesk's Building Per-
formance Analysis Certificate (BPAC) in the teaching • Use the tool's certification system to incen-
and learning of sustainability and environmental sys- tivise learning and to improve student em-
tems at postgraduate level in Architecture. The ap- ployability
proach adopted required students to design and de-
velop virtual models in a 3D environment, utilising • Align the taught content of the lecture series
data capture, analysis, and simulation tools. These with authentic visualisation of the student de-
models provide visual, complex, integrated and au- sign proposals
thentic vehicles for learning, particularly for students • Encourage students to apply and develop
with limited or no industry expertise. The benefits their knowledge of software interoperability
of BIM in project delivery, parametric design, and in the creation of a virtual BIM environment
clash detection have been extensively documented
and, more recently, BIM has been developed to de- BIM is set to become a requirement for most pub-
sign and procure energy-efficient and sustainable lic sector construction projects, with almost £1bn of
projects, responding to client demands. In this aca- public construction projects now using the technol-
demic context, the learning and teaching strategy ogy. It is estimated that around 3% saving of project
rejected traditional transmission modes of teaching costs as a result of collaborative BIM ( (Barlish & Sulli-
in favour of an immersive, project-based student ex- van 2012) can be achieved. Leading construction and
perience, utilising IT based data capture and apply- supply chain companies have been embracing BIM
ing the results to authentic design projects. Build- processes and principles for several years. Countries
ing performance software communicated and ap- such as the UK, Canada, Australia, China and Norway
plied key components of the sustainability curricu- have set a range of self-directed targets for the adop-
lum within the student designs, exploring their po- tion of BIM in the procurement of major public sector
tential through an applied, authentic and meaningful projects in the next few years (BIM Task Group [1]). A
approach. survey in the UK by the NBS (National Building Spec-
ification) by nearly 1,000 construction professionals
SUSTAINABILITY, DIGITAL DATA AND BIM representing a range of business sizes and disciplines
from across the industry including architecture, engi-
EDUCATION
neering and surveying. revealed that companies cite
This case study critically examines the delivery of the
costs as a major barrier to wider adoption of these
sustainability and performance curriculum, from the
systems. It was however also reported that a lack of
perspectives of both students and teaching staff. It
technological skills, BIM-enabled employees, and re-
argues that student learning of environmental prin-
sistance to practice change were also viewed as key
ciples can be substantially improved by moving away
constraints (Fig. 1) indicates that year on year the ac-
from passive, classroom based approaches, towards
ceptance of BIM is increasing understating and ac-
the active application and visualisation of data in BIM
ceptance of BIM. It is also striking that looking at the
enabled student design projects. A series of quali-
data that the adoption rate now is more than that
tative and quantitative analyses were carried out to
project by those who were aware of BIM in 2010.

Figure 1
Projected use of
BIM among those
aware of it
CURRENT INITIATIVES TO PROMOTE BIM Academic Forum has concurrently been developing
ADOPTION the BIM Academic Framework, with a view towards
The recognition of skills shortages in the construction a long-term vision of incorporating BIM learning at
industry workforce has led to multiple approaches, appropriate levels within 'discipline-specific' under-
policies, and initiatives to increase BIM adoption. Pro- graduate and postgraduate courses, thereby facili-
fessional bodies have created BIM academic forums, tating the development of relevantly-skilled profes-
in response to policy drivers, leading to initiatives at sionals capable of delivering BIM driven construction
a variety of levels: projects.
International Regional
Collaborative ventures, such as BIM live events, have The creation of 11 regional BIM hubs in autumn 2012
sought to demonstrate the international potential of sought to raise awareness of the principles and ben-
BIM technologies. In particular, international design efits of the new programmes, thereby promoting the
competitions have been held to design and construct early and widespread adoption of BIM processes and
projects in the United Kingdom, Singapore, Australia working methods throughout the UK's construction
and Qatar (BIM Academy [2]). Entries have been sub- industry
mitted by collaborative teams of consultants and stu-
dents from multiple countries. PROFESSIONAL ORGANISATIONS AND
THE INTEGRATION OF BIM
National From a UK perspective, a number of key profes-
The UK BIM task group [1] has been tasked with the sional bodies represent the key stakeholders within
development of standards such as PAS1192 , which the British construction industry. These include the
has been promoted as the UK specification for Build- Chartered Institute of Building (CIOB), the Chartered
ing Information Management exchanges. Profes- Institute of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE), and
sional bodies, such as the Royal Institute of Chartered the Chartered Institute of Architectural Technologists
Surveyors (RICS), have also commenced the delivery (CIAT) and as well as the Royal Institute of British Ar-
of specialist distance learning programmes. The BIM chitects (RIBA) and the Royal Institution of Chartered

Surveyors (RICS). Each professional body contributed 2013, having been developed by worldwide experts
their view of the future of the process to the BIM Aca- in sustainable building physics. The programme's in-
demic Forum. This exercise highlighted a range of tention is to enable construction design students to
methods of adoption and education, including Dis- improve their fluency in the strategies and tools of
tance Learning (DL) modules and an over-arching sustainable building design. The course comprises
BIM competence exam. It was also recognised from seven modules in climate analysis, sun path stud-
this exercise that extensive BIM education could give ies, building massing and orientation, solar radiation
rise to a reduced workforce in light of improved ef- analysis, wind analysis, and other aspects related to
ficiencies to the construction process. Another key building environmental performance. The content of
aspect of the conversation is the relationship of BIM the programme includes:
to Higher Education, and whether the attributes re-
quired of construction personnel can be satisfied by • A clear "introduction to software" section
technical skills training, or can only be satisfied by within each of the seven modules
higher levels of intellectual and critical engagement.
This aspect of the wider conversation is, to some de- • Small clusters of content and quizzes that stu-
gree, addressed within this paper. dents can complete in short amounts at a time
• Case-based examples and questions

INTEGRATION OF BPAC INTO TEACHING
BIM • Content focused on energy fundamentals and
The overall benefits of BIM in sustainable design have modelling with detailed Revit models
been researched extensively in recent years. Krygiel
& Nies (2008) suggest that BIM can be used to de- • Application of Revit-based tools (including
velop sound environmental design strategies with Revit, Vasari and Green Building Studio)
respect to the following areas; the choice of build-
ing orientation, whereby selecting efficient sites and The Autodesk Building Performance Analysis Certifi-
aspects can reduce energy costs; the development cate is currently being piloted by students and edu-
of building massing - to analyse the proposed built cators around the world, and Northumbria University
form in order to optimize the building envelope; and has elected to incorporate the new offer within its ar-
daylighting analysis which can be used to reduce chitectural design curricula. The programme intends
the need for artificial lighting, reduce the potential to bridge the gap between fundamental concepts
for glare and overheating, and/or capitalise on pas- of environmental design and valuable software prac-
sive heating strategies . To some degree, teaching tices to encourage accurate and meaningful analy-
the authentic and accurate application of such top- ses for building optimization. Further, advanced pro-
ics to young designers and engineers (as opposed to grammes for professionals are currently in develop-
teaching the principles) has been challenging, due to ment (Autodesk 2013).
a requirement for advanced skills in software, data
capture, and data analysis. However, the recently
METHOD
developed Building Performance Analysis Certificate
The approach adopted was to incorporate a discrete
programme (BPAC) provides an educational method
element of BIM design within a postgraduate course
for architecture and engineering students who wish
of architecture, in a relatively low-stakes fashion for
to conduct authentic performance analyses in the
students who had a variety of experiences with BIM,
creation of highly sustainable and/or energy efficient
ranging from zero to one or two years of compe-
buildings. This online programme was launched in
tency. On completion of the exercise, the intention

Figure 2
Constructive
Alignment of
Teaching and
Certification
was to evaluate the learning in terms of the student module itself, as well as aligned to the development
experience and engagement, as well as the quality and iteration of the central design project. As part
of the application to student design projects. This of the module evaluation process, participants were
was undertaken with a view to informing future di- asked a series of questions regarding their experi-
rection and educational strategies towards wider dis- ences, including consideration of how the overall
ciplinary BIM adoption within the Faculty of Engi- programme could be developed and improved. An
neering and Environment. Self-directed learning was anonymous online questionnaire was designed, util-
encouraged, given the masters level curriculum of ising a five point Likert scale (from strong agreement
this award, and certification after the successful com- to strong disagreement). The cohorts' qualitative
pletion of the BPAC programme provided an addi- views were also complied for thematic analysis.
tional incentive with respect to esteem and employ-
ability. It is a consideration that this individual mod- Preliminary Results
ule could form a stepping stone towards programme This section analyses the outcomes of the module
wide implementation of BIM technologies across the evaluation with respect to student opinions of both
Construction and Architectural related programmes the BPAC online tool, and the associated certification
within the faculty. Figure 2 describes this proposed of their applied learning and skills. As part of the sur-
dual benefit of the taught and certified approach vey, comments were invited on student perceptions
which could perhaps be similarly applied to pack- regarding the future roles of BIM and Building Perfor-
ages such as Revit, Green Buildings Studio (GBS) and mance Modelling.
Project Vasari.
To some degree, it can be argued that the use of Quantitative Analysis
a central architectural design project in this project- The results demonstrate strong correlations in terms
based curriculum model echoes the assertions of of the cohort's expectations of BIM's importance in
Biggs and Tan that active learning is predicated on benefiting their future professional and career devel-
the basis of relevance and need (Biggs & Tang, 2011). opments. With respect to building performance anal-
As espoused by the same authors, it can also be con- ysis, there was overwhelming agreement that this is
sidered that the teaching, assessment and outcomes a critical element of architectural design that needs
of the module are constructively aligned within the to be addressed more comprehensively at curriculum

Figure 3
Diagram of
Quantitative
Responses
level. In addition, the format of the module greatly employers who require employees with BIM knowl-
helped in the delivery of 'dry' topics such as heat loss, edge".
orientation, and daylight factors, which are often per- In terms of practical learning, the alignment to
ceived as dull subjects, and difficult to teach in iso- the central design project was seen as essential to
lation from the application of this knowledge. The student engagement with some of the subject mat-
quantitative results assert that the overall benefits of ter; "I think a more interactive approach might make
this method are significant, in communicating such for increased engagement with the subject matter. It
topics through active learning and application of this did become very dry in several places".
knowledge. However, a note of caution was sounded regard-
ing the potentially prescriptive application of the
Qualitative Analysis new technologies; "It feels like BIM may restrict ar-
A number of key themes emerged from the student chitectural design...however, if it means being able
responses to the module evaluation. Primarily, a low- to use BIM will make architecture students more em-
stakes opportunity to engage with the new technolo- ployable, then it is something that should be encour-
gies was appreciated, with the module being per- aged in architectural education"
ceived as a '... good way to start understanding BIM The qualitative feedback also address important
and its uses"; "It was a strong introduction to a very issues in terms of environmental issues being foun-
broad topic, it covers the basics very well". dational to the design process, and central to the
The certification aspect of the BPAC offer was successful development of design concepts. The im-
also applauded; "completion of the course provides pact of this initiative was far reaching, allowing the
a good addition to your C.V. which will be valuable to cohort to apply the principles learned to the design

project at a formative stage. The multi-media and ap- scale BIM projects. This is likely to provide a variety
plied nature of the BPAC programme appeared to be of challenges for both staff and students; for architec-
highly effective, particularly for these Masters level ture students, this may counter the tacit notion of the
students of Architecture, who employ visual meth- 'lone genius' as promoted in disciplinary and popu-
ods extensively. Their design proposals were en- lar media. This has been addressed by initiatives in
riched by a visual facility to demonstrate the effects pedagogy, such as the use of inter-disciplinary Vir-
of time and orientation on buildings, allowing test- tual Construction Models (VCMs) at the University
ing and modification of the design proposals at the of Technology Sydney; this project utilises a central
feasibility or concept design stages. This virtual mod- design project at the heart of teaching and learn-
elling technique offers richness and relevance in lieu ing approaches to planning, construction, and oper-
of 'chalk and talk' didactic transmission. Figure 4 illus- ation (Forsythe et al 2013). The rich data content of
trates how a student design proposal can be used to such intelligent models enables a move forward from
accurately model daylighting within a key space. This high quality visualisation software towards the criti-
is contrasted here with the mathematical equation cal use of embedded parametric information, which
method which can bear no relation or relevance to can contribute to more effective design and delivery
the learner in its abstract and reductionist language: of the project's overall environmental building per-
formance over its working lifecycle.
Figure 4
BPAC visual
modelling of design CONCLUDING REMARKS
proposal; standard The findings contribute towards identifying effective
daylight factor methods of incorporating BIM into the postgradu-
equation (courtesy ate education of architectural students. Critically, the
of Fabien Danker use of BPAC, and its active and contextual application
Masters Student Similarly, the BPAC software enabled the architecture to studio design projects appears to provide a pow-
Vasari simulation of students to model and apply external weather con- erful learning strategy for the application of build-
for environmental ditions typical of the project's site and locale, including science principles, as well as a manageable in-
site analysis ) ing the representation of direct solar radiation repre- troduction to the potential of BIM. This is the begin-
sentation by incorporating BIM enabled visualisation ning of a journey for BIM based sustainability edu-
methods from the use of Project Vasari (Fig. 5). cation at Northumbria University, which is one first
UK Universities to adopt this Autodesk backed initia-
Figure 5
tive. Future developments may include applying the
Project Vasari
lessons learned towards a wider curriculum that ex-
environmental
ploits 3D, 4D and 5D design project environments, as
modelling outputs
well as strategic approaches to collaborative, inter-
applied to design
disciplinary working. In addition it provides greater
project (courtesy of
development of student- student and educator inter-
Fabien Danker
actions.
Masters Student
It must be re-stated that the effective implemen-
Vasari simulation of BIM WIDE ACTIVITY AT A FACULTY LEVEL
tation of BIM requires as much consideration of peo-
for environmental Proposals have been tabled for an inter-disciplinary
ple as it does of the technical processes. The teaching
site analysis) project that incorporates teaching and students from
and learning environment should therefore seek to
across the Faculty of Engineering and Environment,
address the three components of people, processes
with the aspiration of mirroring and encouraging the
and technology (Forsythe et al 2013). Without appro-
collaborative working processes required for large

priately and strategically considering these elements bim2/build-sydney-live-team-bim-academy
in a holistic fashion, the current fragmentation in the [3] National BIM Report (2014),
adoption of adoption of BIM might not substantially available at http://www.thenbs.com/topics/
bim/articles/nbsNationalBimSurvey_2013.asp
change. The inclusion of BPAC training within the
[4] BIM Academic Forum,
curriculum at Northumbria therefore required 'buy availailable at www.bimtaskgroup.org/
in' from staff and students of the key aim was of intro- bim-academic-forum-uk/
ducing graduates to BIM experts, through a method
which respected their capacity for high level architec-
tural design. These interim results indicate that the
students clearly see value in this approach. While in-
dividual students had varying knowledge and expe-
rience of software applications, the results indicated
that the independent learning method of BPAC al-
lowed them to complete the course with little need
for didactic transmission of content. These students,
having completed at least one year out in industry,
were eager to learn BIM, particularly Revit, which is
used extensively in architectural practice. The oppor-
tunity afforded by BPAC to engage more deeply with
sustainable design provided an additional and rele-
vant expertise to their professional experience.
REFERENCES
Aranda-Mena, G., Crawford, J, Chevez, A and Froese, T
2009, 'Building information modelling demystified:
does it make business sense to adopt BIM?', Interna-
tional Journal of Managing Projects in Business, 2(3),
pp. 419-434
Barlish, K and Sullivan, K 2012, 'How to measure the ben-
efits of BIM — A case study approach', Automation in
Biggs, JB and Tang, CS 2011, Teaching for quality learning
at university -4th ed, Open University Press, Maiden-
head
Forysthe, P, Jupp, J and Sawhney, A 2013, 'Building In-
formation Modelling in Tertiary Construction Project
Management Education: A Programme- wide Im-
plementation Strategy', Journal for Education in the
Built Environment, 8(1), pp. 16-34
Krygiel, E and Nies, B 2008, Green BIM: successful sus-
tainable design with building information modelling,
Sybex
[1] BIM Task Group (2014),
available at http://www.bimtaskgroup.org/
[2] BIM Academy (2013) Build Sydney live,
available at http://collab.northumbria.ac.uk/

The Fusion of BIM and Quadruple Net Value Analysis for
Real Estate Development Feasibility Assessment
Mark J. Clayton1 , Geoffrey Booth2 , Jong Bum Kim3 , Saied Zarrinmehr4
1,2,3,4
Texas A&M University
1
https://sites.google.com/site/bimsimgroup/
1
mark-clayton@tamu.edu 2 gbooth@arch.tamu.edu
3,4
{jongbum.kim.coa|szarinmehr}@gmail.com
Real estate development may benefit from a decision-support software system that
is implemented with Building Information Modelling to perform Quadruple Net
Value Analysis. Schemes may be created rapidly using BIM and parametric
modeling. They may be assessed for economic, social, and environmental factors
using spreadsheets and simulation software. They may be assessed for sensory
value by using an immersive visualization system. The idea has been tested as a
proof of concept in undergraduate and graduate design studios. It appears to be
easy to use for students and effective in directing attention to the four factors and
obtaining objective measurements.
Keywords: real estate development, Building Information Modelling, immersive

visualization
IMPROVING THE DESIGN OF REAL ESTATE pothesis is that, through the adaptation of Building
DEVELOPMENTS Information Modelling (BIM) and immersive visual-
The fusion of design support software and Quadru- ization tools to include the metrics of quadruple net
ple Net Value Analysis enables real estate developers value analysis, it is possible to both thoroughly and
and designers to assess alternative proposals for en- expeditiously elucidate the enduring value of pro-
during value and address not only the triple bottom posed real estate development assets.
line, but also the emotional appeal of the develop- The hallmarks of modern city development have
ment. The framework of Quadruple Net Value Anal- been suburban tract housing estates, strip malls,
ysis combines the triple bottom line of sustainable and cost-effective building solutions largely lack-
development (economic, socio-cultural, and environ- ing in architectural and aesthetic value. The pri-
mental assessment) with an additional factor of sen- mary drivers of these land and property develop-
sory value (Jerke, Porter, and Lasser 2008). This comment projects have been their financial return on in-
prehensive assessment offers the potential to signif- vestment. Proven development solutions and lend-
icantly reduce risk, maximize return on investment, ing practices that seek to mitigate risk have worked
and improve quality of real estate development by against improved alignment of real estate develop-
better accounting for all significant factors. Our hy- ment design and execution to the broader needs of

the public. Nevertheless, innovative design concep- ble, the formulation termed the "triple bottom line"
tualization that aligns a more comprehensive list of (Elkington 1998). Analysis of energy consumption
user needs with the real estate product may enhance of buildings and carbon footprint has received much
rental return, minimize property lease-up time and attention as important to establishing ecological re-
on-going vacancies, and minimize the life-cycle costs sponsibility. Social responsibility is also commonly
of operating the real asset. This potential is in the ma- addressed by various strategies, such as regulatory
jority of real estate developments, but is not currently imperatives of building codes, zoning, utilities pro-
being realized. Many projects miss an opportunity to vision, mass transit, mixed use development, and in-
maximise the net operating income of the real estate corporation of affordable housing.
asset and also enhance its capitalized value. The fu- However what distinguishes real estate from
sion of BIM and Quadruple Net Analysis will signifi- other investment asset classes is that it involves hu-
cantly reduce the costs and time currently required man habitation and therefore has value not just to its
for an innovative design conceptualization process owner, but also to those that use it, visit it, and expe-
and will more accurately identify the comparative rience it. As was observed by Sir Winston Churchill,
costs and benefits of a range of design solutions and "We shape our buildings and afterwards our build-
development sensitivities. ings shape us" [2]. Whilst financial analysts and val-
uers can identify comparative rents and capitaliza-
BACKGROUND tion rates, the current real estate feasibility and val-
Our basic question is how to determine the value uation approach struggles to acknowledge and in-
of a real estate development scheme at the early corporate less quantifiable and obvious qualities that
conceptualization and feasibility analysis stage of a nevertheless determine premium life-cycle perfor-
project. Typical valuation of individual real estate mance. When a project achieves high design qual-
assets applies predominantly financial metrics. The ity, and alignment with user needs (and anyone
appraiser has regard to such matters as comparable who visits the property is a user) the project may
asset sales in the locality, net income stream of the achieve what we term, 'Enduring Value". This endur-
asset, age, contingent liability, design, quality, sup- ing value is a function of the intrinsic quality of devel-
ply and covenant strength to ascertain market value opment conceptualization of individual real estate
(Shapiro, Mackmin, and Sams 2013). The value ac- asset. Even if a real estate development satisfies the
crues to the owner at the time the real estate asset is triple bottom line factors, it must still be appealing
sold. Analysis of real estate development projects for to the people who will be responsible for maintain-
feasibility is well understood to include market anal- ing and preserving it. Sensory value is equally impor-
ysis, site acquisition issues, regulatory issues, and fi- tant in creation of successful real estate asset (Jerke,
nancial issues (Peiser and Frej 2003). However, this Porter, and Lasser 2008). Our view is that enduring
view of the value of real estate is arguably too limited value arises from the combination of the triple bot-
to address imperatives for sustainability that have be- tom line and an emotional attraction that arises from
come widely accepted since their promulgation by sensory response.
the Brundtland Commission [1].
Sensory Assessment of Place
The Triple Bottom Line and Enduring Value All human beings live their lives in places, that is,
In one widespread criticism of the purely financial real estate. The comparative value of each of these
model of valuation, for real estate development to places or real estate assets is in large measure deter-
be sustainable, it must be not only economically at- mined by patterns and concentrations of repeat vis-
tractive, but also socially and ecologically responsi- itation. We tend to reward places that we find meet

our needs with repeat visits and those that we do not spaces, pedestrian-oriented design, nearby schools
with avoidance. We use all five senses, often in synco- and workplaces, and accommodation of pedestrians,
pation to determine the places that we reward with bicyclists, and transit [4]. These factors point toward
repeat visitation. The more time we spend in a par- a tacit cultural assumption that a truly sustainable en-
ticular place the more money we are likely to spend vironment is one that people enjoy due to height-
there, the more social connection and activity we as- ened pleasurable sensory experience.
cribe to that place, and the more protective of its en-
vironmental value we are likely to become. This phe- Computational Advances
nomenology of place is therefore fundamental to real As computational systems advance, it may now be
estate income and capital value (Relph 1976; Booth feasible to measure the performance of a real estate
2001). Yet the current method of real estate financial development scheme along these four dimensions
feasibility and valuation is insensitive to such practi- in an interactive, decision-support system that com-
cal considerations. bines BIM with immersive visualization. BIM provides
The ability to read and navigate human settle- designers with tools for creating rich representations
ments also underpins our appreciation of a real es- of buildings that include not only the geometric and
tate asset (Lynch 1960). However, this appreciation visual qualities, but virtually any non-graphic data
of the asset is all too often not made explicit so as well. Parametric modelling enables designers to
that these valuation and financial performance as- explore rapidly alternative schemes by varying pa-
sumptions can be checked (Booth 2001). Further- rameter values and propagating the effects through-
more, the regulatory plans, land-use zoning controls out a scheme. Interoperability capabilities enable
and building codes mandate prescribed and circum- designers to filter and extract information from the
scribed forms of development that impact user satis- BIM and feed it into specialty simulation and anal-
faction and alignment with need in a way that is cur- ysis programs to obtain evaluations of the perfor-
rently very difficult to visualize and assess (Delafons mance of a scheme. It may be possible to use im-
1969; Booth, 2004). mersive visualization to assess the sensory values of a
Much literature has pointed out the impact of scheme. The idea of simulating our experience of re-
sensory aspects on the appeal and success of urban ality through immersive visualization, auditory simu-
design and urban form. The vividness and coherence lation and other sensory actuation has been explored
of paths, nodes, edges, landmarks, and districts has in many projects since the origination of the "CAVE"
been suggested as crucial to achieving urban envi- (Cruz-Neira et al. 1992).
ronment with sensuous form that is "poetic and sym- The integration of development feasibility tools
bolic" (Lynch 1960, 119). The formal elements and into an integrated computational decision-support
behavioral patterns that lead to significant and com- platform can allow the relative value of alternative
pelling streetscapes have been catalogued (Jacobs development concepts to be tested using Quadruple
1994). Some streets engender a pleasant, walkable Net Value Analysis in a cost-effective and even itera-
environment, while others do not. In addition to the tive manner. In contrast to the traditional risk-prone
well-established values of improved health of resi- development process relying upon tacit knowledge
dents and improve air quality due to reduced vehic- and assessments, we anticipate that this integrated
ular use, walkable neighbourhoods have been linked platform will provide rapid yet thorough exploration
to increased real estate value by Pivo and Fisher [2]. of explicit development outcomes.
One guide to achieving walkability suggests the pro-
vision of a center to support gatherings, mixed in-
come and mixed use development, parks and public

VISION to visualize the project and make decisions about
Our strategy is to integrate BIM, parametric mod- the level of quality needed in the project. Paramet-
elling, simulation, development feasibility analy- ric modelling enables rapid generation of schemes
sis, and immersive visualization in a comprehensive and a more thorough exploration of solution spaces.
computer-based decision-support tool for land de- The second benefit is integration to downstream pro-
velopers that achieves interactive fluidity to encour- cesses. The use of BIM models at the conceptualiza-
age "what if" studies (Booth, Clayton and Kim 2013; tion stage aids in all subsequent work by promoting
Clayton, Booth, Kim and Zarrinmehr 2013). We sug- interoperability. These benefits have been discussed
gest that this integrated tool can fluently address all in depth as general and typical benefits of the use of
four aspects of Quadruple Net Value Analysis in a BIM (Smith and Tardiff 2009).
fashion that is usable to both land developers and
designers. The fusion of these advanced information IMPLEMENTATION
technologies promises to increase the ability of de- The testing of this proposition has begun using a pro-
signers to address the fundamental purpose of city totyping process aided by customized BIM software.
planning and development-the provision of an im- We have named this proof of concept software-QNV-
proved standard of desirable and cost effective space IV for Quadruple Net Value Immersive Visualization.
that meets societal needs. By making explicit what We use BIM as the platform for modelling a real estate
was previously overlooked or at best considered in development and managing the information needed
tacit trade-offs, this tool may also increase the abil- to support decision-making. We use various algo-
ity of developers, planners, and society in general to rithms and computational tools to analyse the eco-
achieve sustainable development. Incorporation of nomic, socio-cultural, and environmental value of a
land development concerns into BIM is a step toward proposal. We use immersive visualization to support
a truly integrated platform to conceptualize, design, the assessment of the sensory aspects of a real es-
deliver, activate, and then manage land and property tate development project using qualitative methods
development. to engage tacit knowledge. We use parametric mod-
Using this tool, the developer can establish fi- elling to generate urban form rapidly to enable ex-
nancial objectives while the architect produces con- ploration of multiple alternatives for land develop-
ceptual, but visually realistic, schemes. Working to- ment.
gether, they can arrive at schemes that achieve eco- The object-orientation and rich data models
nomic, social, ecological, and sensory excellence. It within BIM provide the foundation for fusing these
may even be possible to bring personnel from reg- multiple forms of modelling and analysis. Our de-
ulatory authorities and representatives of the pub- velopment environment consists of Microsoft Visual
lic into the process to see the implications of various Studio C#, Autodesk Revit and its Application Pro-
constraints and decisions upon the sensory appeal of gramming Interface (API), Microsoft Excel and various
the development. other tools. The use of BIM and its API enables us to
Speed of modelling and analysis is necessary to
enable exploration of many schemes and facilitate • model urban spaces rapidly using parametric
collaboration among experts and the public. We be- modelling techniques,
lieve that this innovative process can lead to opti- • embed appropriate parameters into objects
mized designs with enduring value. to store and retrieve information
By integrating the architect's tools and represen-
tations into the project conceptualization, two fur- • extract information subsets and execute anal-
ther benefits ensue. First, the developer is better able yses with either custom C# applications or
spreadsheet models

• employ other interoperable tools such as en- Pro Forma Financial Analysis
ergy analysis and cost estimating, and Additional C# applications are used to extract sub-
sets of information and control execution of analy-
• create models for immersive visualization. sis programs. Our strategy for development of analy-
sis modules is incremental and emphasizes breadth:
Rapid Modelling of Schemes at each stage of development we will add analysis of
Our technique for parametric urban modelling one factor in each of the four components of quadru-
makes use of the parametric change engine and ple net value analysis. Our first stage employs a fi-
constraint modelling inherent to Revit. The parcel nancial pro forma analysis based on the mass model,
under consideration for development is broken into solar shadow studies and energy analysis to gain a
lots and streets, each represented as massing ob- crude estimate of operations costs, a simple walka-
jects controlled by reference planes. These are linked bility audit as a social factor, and immersive visualiza-
parametrically to allow exploration of issues such as tion to assess visual sensory qualities. Other experi-
building height, street width, and setbacks and side- ments have applied wind analysis and even pedes-
walk widths. C# applications compute the parking trian dynamics and crowd simulation.
required for the buildings and adjust the masses The financial pro forma analysis is an example
representing parking blocks automatically to have implementation. A C# program extracts data from
appropriate forms. A set of C# applications elabo- the massing model of a mixed-use urban develop-
rate the masses into realistic, but schematic, facades, ment to specify the total floor area for each use, the
urban landscape and architectural features. These provisions for parking, the provisions for parks and
enable exploration of facade materials, fenestration other amenities, and building envelope area. These
and articulation of floors, on-street parking, place- data are passed to an Excel spreadsheet that applies
ment of trees and other landscape amenities, and land acquisition cost, rental cost rates and occupancy
other factors. Figure 1 depicts a streetscape that may rates, discount rates, and other factors to compute a
be parametrically varied with the software. capitalized value and project profit. figures 2 and 3
depict the spreadsheet.
Figure 1 An additional module varies the building
Parametric variation heights, setbacks from the street, parking ratios,
of an urban and occupancy mix through ranges and calls the pro
streetscape. forma spreadsheet repeatedly to search for optimum
project parameters. Each set of parameters is applied
to the BIM to generate a 3D model of the alternative
as well as the financial analysis.
Immersive Visualization
Our intention is to use an immersive visualization set-
The massing objects and architectural objects ting to enable developers to explore a scheme from
are constructed with custom parameters to main- a sensory, emotional, tacit perspective as the fourth
tain information necessary for analysis. Floor areas, point of the quadruple net value analysis. To support
building footprints, lot areas, heights, area of facades the land development process, we must move mod-
and roofs, occupancy type, sidewalk widths, parking els from the BIM environment rapidly into an immer-
space counts, cost factors for materials and assem- sive visualization setting, to enable interactive exper-
blies, compass orientation, location coordinates, and imentation and collaboration. We achieve this us-
other relevant items are all maintained in the BIM.

Figure 2
Pro forma financial
analysis input
values driven from
the BIM.
ing a "BIM CAVE" (Kang, Ganapathi and Nseir 2012). this has not yet been implemented, we plan to ex-
This facility provides twelve high-definition screens plore various methods to combine both quantitative
arranged in a semi-circular array driven by three com- and qualitative assessments. One approach is to use
puters to provide a basic immersive environment for a weighting algorithm. It could be "tuned" to deter-
one to three viewers. The users can navigate through mine weighting factors by assessing existing places.
the setting in real time with a 170 degree field of We anticipate that development teams will want to
vision. A distinctive aspect of the facility is that it tweak the weighting factors based on their own ob-
uses custom software to coordinate projection of the jectives and experience.
images using commercially available Autodesk Nav-
isworks software running under Microsoft Windows USE SCENARIO
operating system. As Navisworks can read Revit files, A use scenario can clarify our vision and help prove
the interoperability between the BIM and the immer- the concept. In the first step, the real estate devel-
sive visualization generally requires only a few min- oper and designer prepare a schematic 3D design
utes. using parametric modelling. Energy modelling and
An "enduring value" scorecard will be used to as- wind analysis are performed using commercial BIM
sess quadruple net value of each scheme. Although analysis tools. Assessment of socio-cultural objec-
Figure 3
Pro forma financial
output.

tives is carried out using a checklist. The scheme the BIM CAVE. This test demonstrated that students
is then loaded into a BIM CAVE immersive visualiza- can be taught the process with the various tools and
tion system so that people can assess the sensory can derive insights about their designs from the pro-
value through a virtual walk-through. Integration of cess. Figure 4 depicts students using the BIM CAVE
non-graphic information is then used to generate pro for a design review.
forma estimates of relative profitability.
Figure 4
The cycle of designing and testing alternative de-
Students using the
signs is both enabled and accelerated through rapid
BIM CAVE for a
generation of schemes made possible by paramet-
design review.
ric modelling. The relative risk and return is thereby
made explicit and affords a more comprehensive as-
sessment of project viability and how it might best
be improved. The progressive incorporation of the
Quadruple Net Value Analysis metrics provides for
the calculation of a Sustainability Dividend that can
accrue through the cost-effective incorporation of
sustainable design solutions to the real estate devel-
opment project (Booth 2008). We see this as an esti- While the economic analysis and the energy sim-
mation of a project's enduring value. ulation are relatively well understood, and the socio-
cultural analysis is currently very rudimentary, in-
teresting observations resulted from the use of the
TESTING AND VALIDATION
BIM CAVE. Immersive visualization revealed in sev-
In a first exploration, our research team constructed
eral schemes a difficulty in anticipating the effects
test applications as addins to Autodesk Revit. The ap-
of the outdoor space. The urban settings seemed
plications explore economic, socio-cultural, and en-
empty and barren. The distances across the streets
vironmental factors. We also confirmed the process
or between buildings seemed too large and inatten-
of loading the BIM of the schemes into the BIM CAVE.
tion to landscaping crippled the aesthetic impact.
This step demonstrated that all four categories of fac-
In other schemes, attention to these two factors re-
tors in Quadruple Net Value Analysis can be analyzed
sulted in urban settings that were much more appeal-
within integrated tools built on a BIM platform.
ing. Students, instructors, and observers commented
In a subsequent step, an actual 60 acre land and
that the immersive visualization improved their abil-
property development project adjacent to a univer-
ity to assess the experiential appeal of the various
sity campus was used as the scenario for testing.
schemes.
The project has been modelled using Autodesk Re-
In a second test, 17 sophomore students used
vit. This has involved the creation of a massing model
the BIM CAVE to examine houses that they had de-
capable of parametric variation to reflect changes
signed. Students successfully explained their house
in building heights, setbacks, occupancy type, open
designs by providing a virtual tour of the house in the
space and parking provision. Nine students in a
immersive visualization environment.
post-graduate architecture design studio designed
In both tests, all students experienced no diffi-
schemes for the site, analyzed them for economic fea-
culties in producing the Navisworks files from Revit
sibility through a pro forma, analysed them for socio-
files for loading into the BIM CAVE, nor did they ex-
cultural factors through a checklist, determined the
perience any significant difficulties in navigating the
environmental impact using energy simulation, and
space. Although the level of rendering accuracy in
examined sensory value by presenting their work in
the BIM CAVE is relatively crude, students were able

to assess spatial qualities. The BIM CAVE appears has significant potential to involve all professions and
to be adequate for performing basic sensory assess- stakeholders involved in the creation, performance,
ment in support of quadruple net value analysis, at assessment, and, enjoyment of all forms of real es-
least in a research and exploratory setting. tate development. The fusion of BIM and Quadru-
Additional validation tests are in progress to ple Net Value Analysis in real estate development fea-
study other sites and involve additional students as sibility assessment holds significant potential to en-
well as practitioners. hance the enduring value, quality, and attraction of
real estate assets in human settlements.
IMPLICATIONS AND FUTURE WORK
Our study demonstrates the concept of the QNV-IV REFERENCES
system. It confirms that implementation is feasible Booth, G (eds) 2001, Transforming suburban business dis-
and has no major obstacles. Users can grasp the con- tricts, ULI—the Urban Land Institute, Washington,
cept of the system and how to use it very readily. The DC
Booth, G 2004, 'Smart state retarded by stone age plan-
tool appears to have an influence upon the designers
ning tools', Queensland Planner, 44(1), pp. 16-18
and developers who use it. Booth, G 2008, 'The sustainability dividend—Environmental
The proof of concept QNV-IV software developed science delivers Kennecot Land a competitive ad-
to date suggests that it could have wide application vantage', Residential Developer, January , pp. 27 -34
and utility to future real estate asset designers, de- Booth, G, Clayton, MJ and Kim, JB 2013 'A framework for
velopers, and financiers. It demonstrates the poten- designing sustainable real estate developments us-
ing Quadruple Net Value Analysis and Building In-
tial to enhance real estate asset quality and perfor-
formation Modelling', Proceedings of the 19th Inter-
mance through improved development conceptu- national CIB World Building Congress, Brisbane
alization, design, delivery, activation, and manage- Clayton, MJ, Booth, G, Kim, JB and Zarrinmehr, S 2013
ment. Of particular significance is this fused model's 'Quadruple Net Value Analysis using Building Infor-
ability to allow many real estate asset users to ex- mation Modeling and immersive visualization', Pro-
perience proposed real estate projects and begin to ceedings of European Network of Heads of Schools of
Architecture Conference, Naples
discover which parametric values trigger broad and
Cruz-Neira, C, Sandin, DJ, DeFanti, TA, Kenyon, RV and
sustainable user appeal that is central to creation of Hart, JC 1992, 'The CAVE: audio visual experience au-
enduring value from real estate. The QNV-IV is a re- tomatic virtual environment', Communications of the
search tool that can help to reveal tacit knowledge ACM, 35(6), pp. 64-72
and hidden relationships that determine whether the Delafons, J 1969, Land-use controls in the United States,
public will embrace a project or reject it. 2nd edition., MIT Press, Cambridge, MA
Elkington, J 1998, Cannibals with forks: the triple bottom
We are progressively linking Quadruple Net
line of 21st century business, New Society Publishers,
Value Analysis metrics to the data fields in BIM to Gabriola Island, BC
assess the economic, socio-cultural, environmental, Jacobs, AB 1993, Great Streets, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA
and sensory value of alternative real estate develop- Jerke, D, Porter, DR and Lassar, TJ 2008, Urban design and
ment solutions. We plan to incorporate audio cues the bottom line: Optimizing the return on perception,
into the immersive visualization environment. The ULI - The Urban Land Institute, Washington, DC
Kang, J, Ganapathi, A and Nseir, H 2012 'Computer aided
syncopation of both audio and visual responses will
immersive virtual environment for BIM', Proceedings
provide for the evocation of additional senses in ways of 14th International Conference on Computing in Civil
similar to those used in cinema. This will not only pro- and Building Engineering, Moscow
vide for improved alignment with user needs, pref- Lynch, K 1960, The Image of the City, The MIT Press, Cam-
erences, and perceptions but also reveal projected bridge, MA
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velopment: the ULI guide to the business, 2nd edition,

ULI - the Urban Land Institute, Washington, DC
Relph, E 1976, Place and placelessness, Pion, London
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[1] http://www.un-documents.net/our-common-
future.pdf
[2] http://www.u.arizona.edu/˜gpivo/WalkabilityPaper8_-
4draft.pdf
[3] http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1943/
oct/28/house-of-commons-rebuilding
[4] http://www.walkscore.com/walkable-
neighborhoods.shtml

BIM-based Parametric Building Energy Performance Multi-
Objective Optimization
Mohammad Rahmani Asl1 , Michael Bergin2 , Adam Menter3 , Wei Yan4
1
PhD Candidate, Department of Architecture, Texas A&M University
2
Research Scientist, Autodesk Inc.
3
Sustainability Education Program Manager, Autodesk Inc.
4
Associate Professor, Department of Architecture, Texas A&M University
1
sites.google.com/site/bimsimgroup/people/students/mohammad-rahmani-asl
2
www.autodeskresearch.com/people/michaelbergin 3 www.adammenter.com/
4
faculty.arch.tamu.edu/wyan
1,4
{mrah|wyan}@tamu.edu 2,3 {michael.bergin|adam.menter}@autodesk.com
Building energy performance assessments are complex multi-criteria problems.

Appropriate tools that can help designers explore design alternatives and assess
the energy performance for choosing the most appropriate alternative are in high
demand. In this paper, we present a newly developed integrated parametric
Building Information Modeling (BIM)-based system to interact with cloud-based
whole building energy performance simulation and daylighting tools to optimize
building energy performance using a Multi-Objective Optimization (MOO)
algorithm. This system enables designers to explore design alternatives using a
visual programming interface, while assessing the energy performance of the
design models to search for the most appropriate design. A case study of
minimizing the energy use while maximizing the appropriate daylighting level of
a residential building is provided to showcase the utility of the system and its
workflow.
Keywords: Building Energy Performance Analysis, Building Information Model

(BIM), Parametric Modelling, Parametric Energy Simulation, Multi-objective
Optimization
INTRODUCTION and labor-intensive process. Designers deal with a

Due to the considerable impact of buildings on the complex Multi-Objective Optimization (MOO) prob-
environment, it is essential for designers to recognize lem to minimize capital and operating costs while
the importance of improving or optimizing building maintaining occupants comfort (Wang et al., 2005;
energy performance in the early design stage. En- Wright et al., 2002). This complexity comes from the
ergy performance-based design is a highly complex large number of interrelated parameters involved in

sustainable building design such as building geome- significant amount of time and effort in preparing in-
try, space layout, materials, sites, weather data, user put data for building energy simulation while reduc-
behaviors, etc. There is a lack of easy-to-use and effi- ing errors (Kumar, 2008).
cient tools to help architects explore design alterna- In this paper we investigate a systematic integra-
tives and understand their impacts on building en- tion of BIM, parametric modeling, and building per-
ergy performance. Consequently, design practition- formance analysis to provide a new workflow that
ers either decide not to consider energy performance makes the parametric building energy performance
of their designs and instead follow general rules-of- study more accessible for innovative energy efficient
thumbs, which may result in inefficient building de- building design. The workflow uses a MOO algorithm
signs, or seek help from building energy experts to to explore the design space and provide a set of op-
simulate building design alternatives. Since trans- timal solutions to the designers.
ferring an architectural design model to an energy
model is a time consuming and error-prone process, BACKGROUND
the designers and energy experts have to select a lim- The conventional architectural design methodolo-
ited number of design alternatives for energy analy- gies focus on space and form. With the increasing
sis, which result in unoptimized design solutions. importance of building energy-efficiency, designers
Current building energy modeling tools do not have to consider energy performance of their de-
support comprehensive parametric relations among sign by exploring design alternatives that are more
building objects for simulation in tools such as En- promising to save energy in the conceptual design
ergyPlus. For instance, if a wall is transformed in phase (Azhar et al., 2009). A considerable amount
an energy model, none of the related objects in- of literature has been published on building energy
cluding windows, shading devices, rooms, roofs, and simulation tools. For instance Maile et al. (2007) stud-
floors will be updated automatically. In other words, ied the use of a selection of energy simulation en-
parametric intents that are embedded in parametric gines and their user interfaces over different build-
Building Information Modeling (BIM) are not embed- ing lifecycle phases. Also, Crawley et al. (2008) pro-
ded in the energy models. As a result, a manual up- vided a comparison of the features and capabilities of
date of the model data is needed before running the twenty major building energy simulation tools. The
simulations but this is complex, tedious, and error- literature review of this paper is focused on build-
prone. ing energy simulation in conjunction with paramet-
In order to fulfill the requirements of low en- ric modeling, BIM, multi-objective optimization, and
ergy building design there is a need for an innova- visual programming, which are the techniques that
tive design methodology and integrated design pro- are used in the developed integrated system.
cess. The integration of parametric modeling and
BIM is the new trend of building modeling, which can Parametric Modeling and Building Energy
greatly benefit sustainable building design. Paramet- Performance Analysis
ric modeling enables the creative exploration of a de- One of the major benefits of performing energy simu-
sign space by varying parameters and their relation- lation during the design process is to compare design
ships (Azhar and Brown, 2009). BIM is a model-based alternatives using parameters and rules among ob-
process that provides methods and tools for creat- jects. Parametric modeling enables generative form-
ing and managing building projects faster and more making and form-finding on the basis of aesthetic
economically (Eastman et al., 2011). BIM may contain and performance metrics of buildings. Once the con-
most of the data needed for building energy perfor- texts change in a later design stage, parametric mod-
mance analysis and if used appropriately can save a eling allows objects to automatically update (Aish

and Woodbury, 2005; Stocking, 2009). Designers can Ecotect and Green Building Studio (Azhar et al., 2009,
integrate parametric modeling into the process of 2011), and Modelica-based tools (Yan et al. 2013).
performance analysis in different fields of building The common approaches in this type of research is
design, including, but not limited to, energy simula- to translate the BIM models to energy input files for
tion (Paoletti et al., 2011; Pratt and Bosworth, 2011), solving interoperability issues using Industry Foun-
structural analysis(Shea et al., 2005), and acoustic dation Classes (IFC) (Bazjanac, 2008; Morrissey et al.,
simulation (Wu and Clayton, 2013). 2004) and to create an automatic link between BIM
Parametric studies show a significant potential authoring tools and building energy simulation en-
contribution to optimize the building energy per- gines (Yan et al. 2013).
formance (Naboni et al., 2013; Pratt and Bosworth, Integration of BIM and parametric modeling pro-
2011). Nonetheless, designers rarely use parametric vides a more effective process for performance-
building energy performance analyses for the sake based design. Welle et al. (2011) created a thermal
ofdue to the difficulty in preparing the energy mod- optimization tool, ThemalOpt, which used BIM for ex-
els as well as the long simulation run time. To solve tracting the necessary information for thermal simu-
this issue, there are two common approaches: to lation and optimization. Rahmani et al. (2013) devel-
develop computational algorithms that reduce the oped Revit2GBSOpt, a plug-in for a BIM platform (Au-
number of runs (Coley and Schukat, 2002; Wetter todesk Revit®), which integrates parametric BIM and
and Wright, 2004), or to increase the computational building energy performance simulation. Due to the
power through cloud-based simulation (Garg et al., complexity of parametric design study, an easy and
2010; Zhang and Korolija, 2010; Zhang, 2009). visual approach for designers to set up building pa-
rameters and the inclusion of advanced, open source
BIM and Building Energy Performance Anal- MOO algorithms are needed to improve the existing
ysis studies, as presented in this paper.
BIM is the process of generating and managing dig-
ital representations of the building's physical and Building Energy Performance Optimization
functional characteristics to facilitate the exchange Optimization studies are being used in building de-
of information (Eastman et al., 2011). BIM represents sign after long being computationally intractable, on
the building as an integrated database of coordi- multi-scale systems in various topics including opti-
nated information that can be used for the analysis of mizing construction costs (Radford and Gero, 1987),
the multiple performance criteria including architec- construction elements (Sambou et al., 2009), build-
tural, structural, energy, acoustical, lighting, etc. (Fis- ing shapes (Wang et al., 2006), building envelopes
cher, 2006). Performance-based design supported (Bouchlaghem, 2000; Radford and Gero, 1987), Heat-
by BIM is increasingly used in the building design ing, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning (HVAC) systems
disciplines, allowing practitioners efficiently gener- (Zhang et al., 2006), etc.
ate and modify building models (Fischer, 2006; Welle There are two common approaches to MOO
et al., 2011). problems: 1) simple aggregation 2) Pareto Optimal.
The existing studies that consider BIM as the In simple aggregation, a composite objective func-
central data model for building energy performance tion is defined by combining all of the individual
analysis are mainly focused on automatic preparation objective functions. The composite objective func-
of the building energy model for various energy sim- tion can be determined with various methods, like
ulation tools such as such as eQUEST (Maile et al., use of weighting factors. Determining the composite
2007), EnergyPlus (Maile et al., 2007; Bazjanac, 2008; objective function needs knowledge of the relation-
Cormier et al., 2011), TRANSYS (Cormier et al., 2011), ships among individual objectives and their weight-

ing factors (Fonseca and Fleming, 1993; Konak et ties. The prototype contains a set of new function
al., 2006). Nevertheless, in building design these re- nodes that can be used to optimize building energy
lationships are unknown in many cases. The sec- performance.
ond approach is to seek a set of promising solutions, We have developed multiple Dynamo nodes to
known as Pareto-optimal set (Fonseca and Fleming, contain essential functions for creating parametric
1993), given multiple objectives. Pareto Optimality BIM models in Revit and run parametric simulations
supports decision making by finding the equally opin GBS. A MOO algorithm (Non-dominated Sorting
timal solutions such that it is not possible to improve Genetic Algorithm-II or NSGA-II, Deb et al., 2002) is
a single individual objective without causing at least created in Dynamo as a package of nodes that can
one other individual objective to become worse off help designers optimize multiple conflicting objec-
(Hoes et al., 2011). A posteriori set of preferences may tives and approach to a set of optimal solutions. The
be used to evaluate the optimal solutions and find NSGA-II node package is built based on the open
the unique solution later by the designers (Gossard source code [1]. The node "NSGA-II" in Dynamo in-
et al., 2013; Konak et al., 2006). cludes a package of nodes and plays the main loop
role for population generation in MOO to get to the
Visual Programming optimal solution (figure 1). The node "Initial Solu-
While computer programming is often needed for tion Set" generates the initial set of random variables
designers to implement their sophisticated design within the provided range and with the size of popu-
intent (e.g. through the use of for-loop and con- lation defined by user. The output of this node is a list
ditional statements) in parametric BIM, visual proof variables and objective. The objective values are
gramming interfaces can replace the conventional null and they are assigned by "Population Evaluate"
elaborate coding with a visual metaphor of con- node which gets objective values as input parame-
necting small blocks of independent functionalities ters.
into a whole system or procedure (Boeykens and
Neuckermans, 2009). Visual programming allows Figure 1
users create computer programs by manipulating Implementation of
program elements graphically rather than textually. NSGA-II in Dynamo
Based on a survey of 50 visual programming lan- to optimize
guages (Myers, 1990), it is clear that a more visual daylighting and
style of programming could be easier to understand energy use
for non-programmers or novice programmers (archi-
tects normally fit into these categories). Examples of
visual programming tools for architectural design are
This workflow enables the Dynamo code to ac-
Grasshopper for McNeel Rhinoceros® and Dynamo
cept objective functions as nodes or packages of
for Autodesk Revit®.
nodes. For instance, in this study the "LEED Daylight-
ing" node is created as a package of nodes to calcu-
METHODOLOGY late the LEED daylight values based on LEED Refer-
In this study an integrated system is developed for ence Guide for Green Building Design and Construc-
enabling designers to optimize multiple objectives in tion (USGBC, 2009) as an objective function.
the early design process. A prototype of the system is The node "gbXMLExport" in Dynamo generates
created in an open-source visual programming appli- energy model data in the Green Building eXtended
cation - Dynamo, which can interact with a BIM tool Markup Language (gbXML, 2014) format, which con-
(Autodesk Revit®) to extend its parametric capabili- tains the necessary information for energy simula-

tion, using Revit's Application Programming Inter- tion of the energy use requires building information
face (API). The "GBSProject" node is designed to cre- that BIM can provide, for example geometry informa-
ate a new project in GBS by extracting the project in- tion, physical material information, and location data
formation from a BIM model such as the project loca- embedded within the model. The workflows devel-
tion and the building type using Revit API, GBS API, oped in this project can identify parameters from el-
and the Representational State Transfer (REST) pro- ements within the BIM and explore a set of scenarios
tocol. "GBSRun" is designed to create multiple runs for energy performance and daylighting adequacy.
in the GBS project and upload the exported gbXML
files to GBS for whole building energy analysis. When Climate and Context
the simulations are done, GBSRun retrieves the en- The geographic location of the home is in the city
ergy simulation results for further analysis, optimiza- of Indianapolis, Indiana, USA. The climate is domi-
tion, and visualization (figure 2). nated by heating loads with 5892 Heating Degree
The presented system enables designers to ex- Days (HDD) on a yearly basis. Due to site constraints,
plore design alternatives and at the same time assess the long-axis orientation of the structure is fixed at 15
the building performance to search for the most ap- degrees west of true north (figure 3).
propriate design.
Model and Free Parameters (Decision Vari-
Figure 2 ables)
Parametric BIM and The residential home has six rooms at level one and
whole building two rooms at the second level that are included as
energy simulation part of the daylighting calculation and energy use for
integration in the entire building. The light admitted to the build-
Dynamo ing can enter via two fixed curtain walls that are not
included as free parameters in the design space op-
timization. These two curtain systems light the main
living space in the first floor and the balcony in sec-
Figure 3 ond floor. The rooms separated from the main living
Case study building space by interior partitions are lit naturally by fixed
site and floor plans windows with a visual transmission coefficient of 0.9.
The width and height of the windows are identified
within the Dynamo interface as free parameters. The
domains of the width and height of the glazing area
are set independently from 0.5' to 7.0' with an incre-
ment of 0.1'.
CASE STUDY
The objectives of the optimization routine for this
case study is to maximize the number of rooms of the
residential unit that satisfy the requirements of the
LEED IEQ Credit 8.1 for Daylighting while minimizing
the expected energy use. The simulation and calcula-

Figure 4
General overview of
the designed MOO
system
Figure 5
Scatterplot
showing the Pareto
Frontier with model
thumbnails
superimposed on
the plot to illustrate
the association
between the
calculated optimal
solutions and the
building forms.

Optimization Algorithm CONCLUSION
The NSGA-II algorithm is implemented with the in- The investigation shows that the use of a BIM model
put of a population size of 100 for each generation, to generate a multiplicity of parametric design vari-
with the maximum evaluations set at 1000 for a total ations for simulated and procedural analysis is a vi-
of 10 generations. The mutation probability is set at able workflow for designers seeking to understand
0.01. The crossover probability is set at 0.9 and both trade-offs between daylighting and energy use. The
the mutation distribution index and crossover distri- availability of a cloud-based energy analysis tool en-
bution index are set at 20.0. Figure 4 shows the gen- ables the quick evaluation of hundreds of design vari-
eral overview of the MOO system designed for this ations and the connection to a visual, parametric pro-
study and figure 1 shows its implementation in Dy- gramming environment allows the design space to
namo to optimize daylighting and energy use of the be quickly and accurately specified.
building. The Pareto Optimal set from the NSGA-II al- Designers with limited parametric modeling and
gorithm is shown in figure 5. This graph shows the programming experience may use the nodes pro-
result for 1000 runs for this experiment which took duced to perform a broad variety of design space
about 3 hours overall. This graph indicates that the analyses. It is possible to optimize each window's
optimization routine begins to converge on the opti- width and height individually though this method
mal solution for each variable from the third genera- expands the design space considerably. It is also pos-
tion onward. sible to include the angle of the building orienta-
From the graph in figure 6 it can be seen that tion and the overall building footprint in the set of
windows of various Widths from 1' to 7' meet the re- free parameters to be modified. For a broader de-
quirements for more than 80% of the rooms correlat- sign space the number of iterations required may be
ing with about $150 in variation for the yearly energy significantly increased to obtain reliable optimization
cost. In this instance, windows between the sizes results.
of 3' and 4' in Height are evaluated, as this parame- In addition to local variables such as window di-
ter is preferred for the reason of style to fit with im- mensions and material variations this system is ca-
mutable horizontal datum elements. For design vari- pable of producing design options in global building
ations within the bottom 30% of energy cost and the geometries such as the footprint, the form of the roof,
full satisfaction of the daylighting metric, the smallest and the interior layouts. These design options are
glazing Width is specified at 2' 8". considered often by architects and engineers in the
design process. The information embedded within
Figure 6
the BIM can quickly be leveraged to obtain quantifi-
Interactive parallel
able sensitivity of the performative implications to a
coordinates plot for
broad set of possible design decisions.
the constraint and
Through the continued development of similar
analysis of design
projects to enable fast BIM-based simulation and rep-
parameters.
resentation of solution spaces and trade-offs, design-
Visualizing the results in an interactive parallel coor- ers may be able to understand dependencies of de-
dinates plot allows the various iterations to be evalu- sign options on the decision variables at the early
ated by the designer. In figure 7 the chart shows the design stage without substantial expertise in energy
sample of design variations that meet 100% of the modeling and daylighting analysis. For parametric
LEED Daylighting requirements. Of these the lowest analysis, large changes in global building geometry
energy use calculated is $4,265 and the smallest win- can lead to alterations in structural requirements and
dow size is specified as a 5' width and 3.5' height. mechanical systems as well. Incorporating a broader

Figure 7
Illustration of a
bi-directional
association
between parallel
coordinates and 3D
model views
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[1] http://jmetalnet.sourceforge.net/index.html

Reasoning Spatial Relationships in Building Information
Models using Voxels
Tsung-Hsien Wang
University of Sheffield
tsung-hsien.wang@sheffield.ac.uk
This paper investigates a voxel-based approach to automate the space

construction of an ill-defined building information model, namely, a building
model without specific spatial definitions. The objective is to provide a simplified
representation through clustering voxels to reconstruct spaces, with which a
spatial topological algorithm is designed to infer the implicit connectivity. This
approach is treated as the first step to automate building information exchange
for building performance simulation and knowledge-intensive reasoning.
Keywords: Building information modelling, voxel, automatic building

information exchange, topological spatial relationship
INTRODUCTION to support IFC model creation and conversion (Baz-

Building information modelling (BIM) has been in- janac, 2009; [3]). Such guidelines and standards are
creasingly used in the Architecture, Engineering and essential to assure the quality of the data; however, it
Construction (AEC) industries throughout the whole is still heavily relies on users' discretion for data input.
building life cycle, ranging from early conceptual With the increasing popularity of using BIM in
design, construction, operation, to post-occupancy AEC practices, it provides a huge potential for in-
phases. A building information model is essentially tegrated information applications; for instance, au-
a digital information repository with a pre-defined tomating code checking for compliance with build-
meta-data schema articulating how building data ing regulations and sustainable rating standards
should be organised and structured to represent the (Biswas et al., 2013). Recent studies from Bor-
whole building design. The objective is to manage rmann and Rank (2009) in spatial reasoning on build-
three dimensional (3D) conceptual geometry, as well ing information models presented a semantic-rich
as functional and physical attributes, of a building us- language system for qualitative spatial query and
ing a relational database approach (Eastman, 1999). reasoning. This approach demonstrated capabil-
For the past decade or more, the major devel- ities to uncover hidden spatial semantics, which
opment has been focused on the data schema and might be implicitly modelled with building compo-
guidelines, by which the objective is to afford the nents. For instance, room adjacency can be rea-
flexibility, expandability and interoperability using a soned through examining shared wall components.
clearly defined data structure [1]. A commonly used By aggregating these discrete relations, knowledge-
non-proprietary data model is IFC-Industry Founda- intensive reasoning can be automated. The fire es-
tion Class [2]. Various tools have been developed cape route planning is an example that can be au-

tomated and checked against the governing regu- fied method to capture underlying spatial relation-
lations. Nonetheless the strengths of proposed ap- ships starting from the early conceptual phase. As
proaches in formulating computable representation, the project progresses, the spatial network would
they are still very limited at the application level evolve along with the required level of the granu-
due to the complexity of the language itself and the larity and changes could then be propagated effort-
pre-defined relations at a fine-grained level from the lessly through various design, construction and oper-
given building information models. ational phases.
Given a BIM model, the explicitly prescribed rela-
Automatic Data Exchange for Simulation tionships between building components, or, some-
In addition to knowledge-intensive reasoning using times, implicitly inferable spatial intelligence within
BIM, there is a growing interest in automating BIM for the model could play an important role in success-
building performance simulation. Among these, nu- ful data interoperation. As such, this paper pro-
merous researches investigate how conceptual ge- poses a generic voxel-based workflow to enable spa-
ometry could be systematically restructured to form, tial reasoning on building information models. Our
for instance, thermal geometry for energy simulation intention is that the proposed voxel-based method-
in an automatic fashion (Bezjanac, 2009; Hitchcock ology will demonstrate a simplified, yet efficient, ap-
and Wong, 2011; Jones et al., 2013). proach of modelling and representing spatial topo-
Maile et al. (2013) pointed out the difficulties in logical relations. The expected contribution is to
providing error-free information during the concep- facilitate better communication among conceptual
tual design phase. For instance, formulating an accu- modelling, building information modelling and en-
rate thermal geometry model for a building design is ergy modelling.
very different from the models that a designer used
to represent design ideas. At the early conceptual de- Figure 1
sign phase, it is challenging, and sometimes impossi- Overlapping
ble, for designers to supply precise information while geometry
iteratively altering their design to meet various re-
quirements. Most of the time, conceptual geometry
contains ill-defined information due to many uncer-
tainties at this stage. The implication of the uncertain
nature of the conceptual design leads to the imper-
fections in models such that gaps in geometry and
overlapping entities are more likely to occur. For in-
stance, Figure 1 illustrates a commonly seen example
of overlapping geometry, in which a column clashed
with a beam component. Under this circumstance,
it is often very difficult to formulate spaces as water-
RESTRUCURING SPACES USING VOXELS
tight enclosed volumes, which are essential for ther-
This paper presents the work-in-progress develop-
mal geometry modelling and energy simulation.
ment of reconstructing spaces given a coarse design
In a general sense, data contained in a build-
geometry. Similar to Jones et al. (2013), the objec-
ing information model is never complete and the
tive is to automate space construction of a 3D build-
amount of data continues evolving as the project
ing model and one of the potential applications is
progresses. Therefore, it is of the great interest in
to automate geometry preparation for building per-
this paper to investigate a more generic and simpli-
formance simulation and analyses. In this paper, we

propose to use voxel, a three dimensional volumet- tested against with the given building components.
ric entity, to approximate given building information When the union of a unit volumetric entity with the
models. Through the simplified voxel-based repre- input building objects is not empty, a 'solid' voxel is
sentation, special information will be reconstructed constructed with an occupancy channel equal to 1;
and reasoned. This approach is expected to afford a otherwise, a voxel with an occupancy channel equal
foundation to infer implicit spatial relations embed- to 0 and therefore 'void'. The entire voxel grid system
ded in the BIM models, in particular, during the early will be based upon the bounding box calculated from
conceptual phase. the input building information models.
We intend to utilise voxels to examine building Voxel Definition. When a voxel is created, it will be
information models starting from the conceptual de- assigned with a unique identification number (ID),
sign phase. Given that any models provided at the which pertains information in relation to where this
conceptual design phase are more likely to be incom- voxel is located in relation to the prescribed 3D voxel
plete, we propose to start with the native geometric grid system. The formula for voxel ID, V_ID, calcula-
data from BIM models, namely, the polygonal repre- tion is as follows:
sentation of the building model, a mesh with trian-
gular faces. Through a simplified volumetric repre-
VID = XID +YID ·DimX +ZID ·DimX ·DimY
sentation of polygonal objects, we first construct the
spatial objects, zones, and reason the underlying ad- (1)
jacency relationships among them. X_ID, Y_ID, and Z_ID, respectively represent the in-
dices along the X, Y, Z directions of the 3D grid sys-
Voxelisation tem.
A voxel could be treated as an extruded pixel with Figure 2 illustrates an example of finite voxels in
an extra dimension in a three-dimensional (3D) en- a prescribed volumetric space from a building box,
vironment. Voxelisation therefore describes a pro- specified with a minimum bounding box corner ver-
cess of translating source data, a polygonal mesh, tex, BBox_MIN and a maximum bounding box corner
into three-dimensional volumetric data sets. In com- vertex, BBox_Max. Currently in this figure, only solid
puter graphics, volume graphics is an important sub- voxels were visualised and shown shaded grey.
field aiming at the study of the modelling, manipula-
Figure 2 tion, and analysis of spatial objects in a true 3D fash-
Voxelisation within ion (Chen, Kaufman, and Yagel, 2001). In this paper,
the Bounding Box we expand the volume graphics technique for spa-
tial reasoning on complex building information mod-
els. In particular, we investigate how void (space)
and solid (building component) objects can be better
represented using a discrete set of voxels. Through
aggregating voxels at various scales, we can extract
abstract spatial relations at a customisable resolution
without relying on any pre-defined geometrical rela-
tions.
To start with, we develop a volumetric parser tak-
ing into account the spatial occupancy to produce
voxels with distinctive binary attributes, 0 for 'void' Figure 3 demonstrates the creation of voxel mod-
and 1 for 'solid'. Each voxel at its inception will be els using two different resolutions. In this example,

Figure 3
(Left) Low
resolution
voxelisation (Right)
High resolution
voxelisation
only partial models were used for the visualisation the connectivity between voxels. The procedure ini-
purpose. tiates the search from the directly connected neigh-
bours at a given voxel, iterates through next con-
Automating Space Construction nected neighbours at a time, and terminates as all
Once the finite set of voxels was generated, the in- valid voxels are exhausted. By iterating through all
herit connectivity of each voxel will then be used 'void' voxels at once, the clustering outcome approx-
to identify space clusters. For each voxel, there are imates the building information models with distinct
in total six directly and twenty indirectly connected spaces. Spatial connectivity can then be reasoned
neighbours. Figure 4 illustrates the central voxel, through examining the boundaries of these spaces.
shown in shaded red, has directly connected voxels The pseudo code for the space construction using
shaded in blue and indirectly connected ones shaded clustering is as follows:
in green. This relationship provides an important cue
for the next spatial topology reasoning. [SPACE_CONSTRUCTOR ]
# VVS: Void Voxel Set for Search # Figure 4
# TVS: Temp Empty Voxel Set #
Voxel connectivity
# Curr_VC: Current Voxel Cluster #
# EVC: Existing Voxel Cluster #
1. FOREACH V in VVS:
2. Add V to Curr_VC
3. GET CV = CONNECTED_Voxels at V
4. FOREACH V1 in CV:
5. IF V1 NOT in EVC:
6. Add V1 to TVS
7. Update VVS ← TVS
8. RETURN Curr_VC , if VVS is Empty
In the following, we describe an algorithmic ap-

Figure 5 illustrates the space construction using
proach to formulating clusters through examining
the low-resolution voxel model given in Figure 4. Two

Figure 5
Reconstructing
spaces by clustering
void voxels
Figure 6 voxel clusters were identified at the ground level and

Space adjacency they are shown shaded red and blue respectively.
analysis With the space clusters ready, a topology solver is
then triggered to interrogate the spatial connectivity
among them. This solver starts by first extracting the
boundary of each space cluster. Different from the
voxels contained in the cluster, the boundary layer
only consists of solid voxels, which surround and en-
close the entire space. The adjacency relationship
between two spaces is therefore inferable through
examining these boundaries only. Figure 6 demon-
strates an example of a modular house consisting of
five spaces.
Voxel Object Data Structure and Represen-

tation
Voxel objects are created to represent given build- Figure 7 illustrates three voxel models with same
ing information models. To fully parameterise voxel bounding box, same voxel unit size, yet with differ-
objects and voxel-based entities, a set of required ent voxel binary map.
data elements were proposed, including the bound-
ing volume of the voxelisation, the voxel unit size, CONCLUSION
and the binary occupancy map, etc. These data el- With the evolutionary nature of design, the amount
ements, as shown in Table 1, were designed to de- of data continues growing across various design,
scribe the finite set of voxel objects within the bound- construction, and operation phases. To facilitate such
ing volume that enclose the whole building geome- an information-intensive process, this paper inves-
try. tigates a generic voxel-based workflow to enable
spatial reasoning on any given building information
models. The objective is to capture underlying spa-

Table 1
Voxel data file
structure
Figure 7
Voxel models with
the binary
occupancy
representation
tial relationships early on the conceptual design ge- dated in a true automatic fashion. In addition, the
ometry. As the project progresses, the spatial net- capability of capturing no-conventional rectangular
work would evolve along with the increasing granu- spaces via voxels also provides designers a better
larity and allow changes to be updated accordingly. computational vehicle to explore different designs.
The advantage of this approach is expected to be As the development is still at its infancy stage,
the flexibility and scalability associated with the spa- more examples would be sought to validate and im-
tial topological network, with which designers are re- prove the voxelisation procedure. In particular, one
lieved from providing precise information at an early of the future applications would aim to investigate a
conceptual design phase. Our intention is that by smooth transition from conceptual design geometry
procedurally building up the information using such to simulation-ready configuration for energy perfor-
a spatial topological network, various needs at dif- mance analyses. This is to tackle long-lasting interop-
ferent design phases could be ultimately accommo- erability issues on conceptual modelling and energy

modelling. In addition, a conceptual meta-graph rep- ternational Building Performance Simulation Associa-
resentation would be provided to facilitate better tion, pp. 202-209
understanding of the building information models, Maile, T, O, J, Bazjanac, V and Rose, C 2013 'BIM-
Geometry Modelling Guidelines for Building Energy
leading to automatic diagnostics at an early design
Performance Simulation', Proceedings of BS2013:
stage for pre-construction planning in a more effec- 13th Conference of International Building Perfor-
tive and efficient fashion. For instance, through rea- mance Simulation Association, Chambéry, France,
soning spatial connectivity between spaces, simula- pp. 3243-3249
tion could be conducted to investigate fire escape [1] http://www.buildingsmart-tech.org/specifications/ifc-
planning. overview
[2] http://www.buildingsmart-tech.org/specifications/ifc-
releases/summary
ACKNOWLEDGMENT [3] http://www.buildingsmart-tech.org/implementation
The author would like to acknowledge the seminal in-
spiration while working with Andrew Witt, Director of
Research at Gehry Technologies (GT), to the work pre-
sented in this paper.
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Bazjanac, V 2009 'Implementation of Semi-automated
Energy Performance Simulation: Building Geom-
etry', CIB-W78 26th International Conference on In-
formation Technology in Construction, Istanbul, pp.
595-602
Biswas, T, Wang, T-H and Krishnamurti, R 2013, 'From De-
sign to Pre-Certification Using Building Information
Modeling', Journal of Green Building, 8(1), pp. 151-
176
Borrmann, A and Rank, E 2009, 'Topological Analysis of
3d Building Models Using a Spatial Query Language',
Advanced Engineering Informatics, 23, pp. 370-385
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Graphics, Spring-Verlag, New York
Eastman, C 1999, Building Product Models: Computer En-
vironments, Supporting Design and Construction, CRC
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Goldstein, R, Breslav, S and Khan, A 2014 'Towards Voxel-
Based Algorithms for Building Performance Sim-
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Canada eSim Conference, Ottawa, p. 1B.1
Hitchcock, R and Wong, J 2011 'Transforming Ifc Archi-
tectural View Bims for Energy Simulation', Proceed-
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Proceedings of 13th International Conference of the In-

A BIM-based Framework for Assessing Architectural
Competition Entries
Sherif Abdelmohsen
Ain Shams University
http://shams.academia.edu/SherifMoradAbdelmohsen
sherif.morad@gmail.com
Architectural competitions have been traditionally used to select best design

practices. The basis of assessment for competitions has typically involved
non-technical concepts of quality, subjective and emotional appreciations of
experiences, and inseparable accord of formal, functional, aesthetic and
contextual values (Rönn, 2011), rather than clear-cut objective and precisely
measured values as in the engineering domain (Nashed, 2005; Nelson, 2006).
Criteria for judgment usually focus on design parti and clarity of concept, novelty
of architectural approach, context compliance, spatial organization, functional
adaptability, economical solutions, and design flexibility. The assessment
process, although presumably comprehensive and involving multiple evaluation
techniques and resources, may still overlook important technical issues that may
be fundamentally significant to the exclusion or approval of a given entry. This
paper introduces a framework for assessing architectural competition entries
aided by concepts of building information modeling (BIM).
Keywords: Building information modeling, architectural competitions, design

evaluation, best practices, rule checking
DO WE REALLY NEED BIM IN EVALUATING Nature of Assessment in Architectural Com-

ARCHITECTURAL COMPETITION ENTRIES? petitions
One of the essential questions that come to mind in It is important first of all to understand how the
this context is: why do we have to use BIM for as- typical assessment process of architectural compe-
sessment in the first place? Isn't assessment based titions works, in order to identify where BIM tools
on negotiation, interpretation, and tacit knowledge and methods can be of meaningful support. Typi-
among professionals? How can BIM tools, with such a cally, competent professionals (jury members) are as-
quantitative nature, inform the decision making pro- signed to select best design solutions among multi-
cess of a team of professionals? And would it be an ple entries, based on a competition program, require-
automated process void of any potential for discus- ments, best judgment and negotiation. Due to the
sion and negotiation, or can it be framed in such a richness of solution space and limited time availabil-
way that allows for intervention and agency? ity, jury members establish a structure of dominance

(Montgomery et al., 1990) involving a lot of simplifi- clear as possible because it constitutes guidelines
cation, abstraction and overarching judgment to fa- that are traceable throughout succeeding phases of
cilitate the process of qualifying superior candidates, the realization of the winning entry, and so it requires
relying on holistic judgment of overall quality, rather attention to detail in the basic principles being em-
than exhaustively comparing advantages and disad- phasized in each and every entry, aided by thorough
vantages or thoroughly going through each and ev- comparisons and checks, rather than adopting elimi-
ery single criterion outlined in the competition pro- nation policies only without incorporating next steps
gram. or what-if scenarios for implementation. In idea com-
Moreover, graphical representations in compe- petitions on the other hand, which do not involve
tition entries can be misleading and inevitably hav- subsequent stages or an explicit framework of real-
ing an impact on the jury. As architects are trained ization, the jury assessment may be more related to
to use their argumentation and persuasion skills, as- conceptual innovation and uniqueness of design ap-
pects that are critical to the success of a given project proach. The same mostly applies to the assessment
can be dismissed in this process, which implicitly in- of one-stage versus two-stage competitions. In addi-
volves as well oral rhetoric among jury members for tion, the way the jury attempts to evaluate an open
persuasion purposes, and to come up with a winning competition is quite dissimilar from that related to a
entry. Although jury members can still consult with limited or invited competition, and definitely unlike
domain experts to calculate measurable technical as- that of a student competition, both in terms of com-
pects of an entry, they still have to assess aesthet- plexity and level of detail.
ics and quality, which relies heavily on interpretation, The proposed framework in this paper attempts
and their final judgment is based on an overall pic- to incorporate concepts of BIM in the assessment of
ture of the design that is not merely the sum of its architectural competition entries with the aim of pro-
technical and aesthetic components. viding informed decision making for jury members,
At the same time, competitions do not all fall into taking into consideration different types of compe-
the same format or type (AIA, 1988). They vary for titions, and without compromising the nature of as-
example according to the purpose of the competi- sessment in the process of selecting best design prac-
tion (project competition versus idea competition), tices.
where project competitions are more well-structured
and geared towards the construction of a winning What can BIM offer?
entry, while idea competitions mostly involve inno- Concepts of building information modeling (BIM)
vative design explorations. They also vary according are potentially promising regarding the review and
to entry eligibility (open competitions, limited com- (rather automated) assessment of designs at different
petitions, invited competitions, and student compe- levels of detail in the form of 3D BIM models (San-
titions). Another yet important type involves phas- guinetti et al., 2012). The real question here then
ing, where competitions can be either one-stage or becomes: where should BIM be exactly integrated
two-stage competitions. in the evaluation process? According to AIA (1988),
One of the fundamental issues in this regard is there is a multitude of tasks that are conducted in a
the fact that current assessment methods in compe- typical competition by professional advisers and jury
tition juries are mostly identical regardless of the type members, some of which are technical and others are
of competition, although different types may en- merely logistical. Based on the anticipated poten-
tail different assessment approaches, techniques and tial of BIM concepts in the assessment process, the
perspectives. In some cases, such as in project com- framework proposed in this paper is primarily con-
petitions, jury criticism may need to be as explicit and cerned with three of these tasks: (1) preparing and

testing the project program, (2) checking designs for 1. Preparing and testing the project program:
compliance with program requirements, and (3) re- It is evident that the initial exercise of for-
porting to jury and competition sponsors. mulating the competition brief or program is
The first task involves the development and test- highly critical to the understanding and ful-
ing of the competition program in a way that ensures fillment of the competition intent, purpose
the clarity and completeness of requirements and and long-term objectives. This implies that all
project information prior to sending out to competi- guidelines, standards and regulations upon
tors. The second task is more concerned with check- which the competition is specifically based be
ing the compliance of competition entries with basic transported into a machine readable medium
submission requirements, in addition to compliance prior to applying any compliance checking
with budgetary, energy performance and use, and mechanism to the submitted entries, in ad-
other requirements, conducted by technical special- dition to being communicated comprehen-
ists to inform the jury assessment process. The third sively and conclusively to both the designer
task involves the reporting process of relevant infor- and the jury (and its supporting automated
mation to the jury and competition sponsors regard- assessment system).
ing budget, disqualifications, and compliance with
program. 2. Checking designs for compliance with pro-
The three previous tasks are currently carried out gram requirements: This is perhaps the core
in an ad hoc fashion that does not necessarily guaran- of the assessment process, where the valid-
tee thorough evaluation of design alternatives, espe- ity of the competition entries is evaluated
cially when it comes to compliance with detailed pro- against clear cut criteria defined in the first
grammatic requirements, building codes and other task. The scope of this evaluation is depen-
technical requirements and guidelines. The value of dent on the circumstances of each competi-
conducting such a process in a more accurate man- tion, but requires at least a checking mecha-
ner is presumably significant in project competitions nism and an interpretation mechanism. The
(as opposed to idea competitions) with focus on con- checking mechanism conducts the necessary
structability and technical ramifications, as well as in validation and compliance checks, while the
limited and invited competitions where the competi- interpretation mechanism translates the com-
tion scope is often more defined and structured. pliance check results into higher level and of-
The paper puts forward the assumption that by ten natural language understanding.
means of implementing BIM modeling, analysis and
checking tools, technical aspects related to energy 3. Reporting to jury and competition sponsors:
performance, cost analysis, spatial and functional In this task, a reporting mechanism is devel-
rules, and simulations of projected conditions can be oped to provide concluding remarks about
identified, checked and compared. One cannot ar- all competition entries, a comparative assess-
gue that non-quantifiable aspects can be assessed ment, and recommendations for the jury and
using these tools, but the benefit of at least acquiring competition sponsors, as supplementary ma-
an informed decision making process that can con- terial for an informed decision making pro-
tribute to the exclusion or approval of an entry can cess.
be achieved. The following represents three key ar-
eas where BIM tools and concepts are seen most ap- Based on these three key areas, the paper proposes a
plicable: BIM-based framework for the assessment of architec-
tural competition entries, by putting into effect BIM
model deliverables with specific conventions and

guidelines using Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) BIM-authoring tools. Defining these guidelines is im-
data. perative to the credibility and integrity of the result-
ing assessment data. Another significant task that is
PROPOSED ASSESSMENT FRAMEWORK conducted by the advisory team is the extraction of
The proposed BIM-based framework incorporates data from building codes and design guidelines that
the designer submitting the competition entry, the is fundamental to the competition theme, building
jury members evaluating the entry, and the advisory type, and best practices. These are translated to ma-
team controlling and managing the competition pro- chine readable rules that are fed into the framework
cedures and regulations. Figure 1 illustrates the pro- modules.
posed process diagram for the framework. Designers are usually asked to submit entries in
First, the advisory team works on defining clear several formats, including PDF and TIFF posters. For
and explicit guidelines and rules for the designers the purpose of this framework, they are asked to sub-
and the jury. These include guidelines defined prior mit in addition the native BIM file format (both the
to the commencement of the competition and in file from the BIM-authoring tool, e.g. .rvt file, and the
concurrence with the call for entries, and others de- corresponding IFC file), in order to perform the nec-
veloped after the submissions in accord with the se- essary checks, evaluation methods and review proce-
lected jury members. Prior to the commencement of dures. After the submission of competition entries,
the competition, the advisory team works on devel- the jury members are asked to develop a concise set
oping a clear outline of the competition terms of ref- of qualifying conditions and a set of assessment cri-
erence (TOR) document in a way that is unambiguous teria specific to the competition at hand. These are
for both the designer and the jury members. They translated by the advisory team into a group of ma-
also include a document that sets fixed standards for chine readable rules that are used by the framework
BIM modeling standards for all designers entering modules to check for compliance and assist with the
the competition, such that modeling methods and decision making process regarding qualification or
conventions are defined unequivocally vis-à-vis all disqualification of competition entry on an informed
basis.
Figure 1
Process Diagram for
the Proposed
BIM-based
Assessment
Framework

Upon receiving competition entries, they are visory team loads the entry BIM model (in IFC format)
checked for compliance with the qualifying condi- into the system. Four main modules are proposed to
tions set by the jury. These can include basic pro- perform the assessment process: 1) the rule extrac-
grammatic requirements and relations defined by tion module, 2) the testing module, 3) the interpreta-
the jury, or general conditions and rules that are tion module, and 4) the reporting module. Figure 2
seen as fundamental and could provide insight with shows the basic structure of these four modules.
regards to disqualifying entries, similar to the early
elimination process conducted in conventional eval- The Rule Extraction Module
uation sessions but based on presumably accurate This module extracts the necessary information to
and explicit figures. If the entry does not pass this test the BIM model entry against specific guidelines
stage, a report is automatically generated and sent to and target values. It works independent of - and prior
the jury to approve or disapprove the disqualification to - the BIM model entry submission, and specific to
process. Otherwise, the entry is checked for com- the competition theme, building type, and jury as-
pliance with the BIM modeling standards and guide- sessment criteria. Inputs to this module include any
lines set initially by the advisory team in order to per- requirements as per the competition TOR, the jury as-
form the detailed assessment procedures. If the en- sessment criteria and qualifying conditions, and any
try does not fully satisfy these guidelines, in a way relevant standards, building and safety codes, design
that affects the integrity of the assessment (to be de- guidelines. The module core clearly identifies and
fined by the advisory team), the team takes on itself transforms these inputs in narrative form from natu-
the task of adjusting and updating the entry files, pro- ral language to machine readable language, in order
vided the integrity of basic design intent. to perform the necessary testing procedures. Out-
Once the BIM model is seen as satisfying the puts from this module are in the form of extracted
qualifying conditions set by the jury and the model- rulesets (in spreadsheet form) that are explicitly de-
ing standards set by the advisory team, it is prepared fined and categorized in groups according to the re-
for the detailed assessment process. The jury initiates quired domain of testing, such as functional and area
the assessment procedures for the entry, and the ad- requirements, circulation, zoning and spatial adja-
Figure 2
Structure of
Assessment
Framework
Modules: 1) Rule
Extraction Module,
2) Testing Module,
3) Interpretation
Module, and 4)
Reporting Module

cency relationships, ADA requirements, budgetary values. The module core works on "making sense"
and scheduling requirements and constraints, and of all the large numbers of rule violations and is-
building performance requirements and target val- sues, and providing human readable information at
ues. The extracted rulesets correspond to specific a conceptual level, categorized into domain-specific
statements, guidelines and target values specified in datasets. Outputs from this module are in the form of
codes, guides and relevant standards. conceptual categories resulting from the interpreted
feedback, including high level understanding of is-
The Testing Module sues such as value engineering, LEED compliance,
This module performs the necessary operations to contextual compliance, and lean manufacturing.
examine the validity and compliance of the compe-
tition BIM model entry against the rules extracted in The Reporting Module
the preceding stage. It works depending on the BIM This module allows for an automated reporting
model input of each competition entry. Inputs to this mechanism such that testing results for all competi-
module include the BIM model (in IFC format) and the tion entries are displayed comparatively. The goal of
extracted rulesets. The module core checks the BIM the final report is not to select winning entries per se,
model against each of the extracted rulesets for com- but to outline results in a way that allows for informed
pliance. Outputs from this module are in the form of decision making. Inputs to this module include both
a group of reported instances of issues, errors and vi- the results from the testing module and the inter-
olations to the rules specified in the previous stage, preted feedback from the interpretation module for
in addition to comparisons of actual domain-specific all competition entries. The module core manages
values against their corresponding target values (e.g. the results and feedback in order to provide com-
R-value, project total cost, etc.). These comparisons parative reporting in both textual and graphical for-
do not necessarily disqualify entries, but provide sup- mat to inform the jury decision making process. Out-
plementary data that can assist with informed deci- puts from this module are in the form of an automat-
sion making. This module consists of sub-modules ically generated assessment report in PDF format.
for establishing modeling and labeling conventions As different levels of detail are incorporated in the
for the model, others for mapping the model and four modules, the reporting mechanism is flexible
the corresponding ruleset conventions, and others enough to allow for different versions of the report
for preparing the model for the necessary testing pro- for varying purposes. The advisory team may choose
cess (simulation, conflict checking, etc.) based on the to provide a fully detailed report in two-stage com-
relevant category. petitions for example to allow for thorough study of
the issues for further development and refinement. A
The Interpretation Module shorter version can be generated for one-stage com-
This module works on developing a higher level un- petitions and idea competitions.
derstanding of the results from the testing module As soon as the report is automatically generated,
to provide the jury with an informed decision at the it is reviewed by the advisory team and handed over
conceptual level rather than the low level errors or to the jury for their examination. The report is typ-
rule violations identified in the testing process. It ically provided as a guide for the jury and is by no
works depending on the competition type and the means compulsory, but the jury may decide to qual-
required feedback to the jury and designers and its ify or disqualify the remaining entries based on the
level of detail. Inputs to this module include the iden- provided results. If the entry is found by the jury to
tified low level results containing instances of errors have serious flaws based on the generated report,
and violations, in addition to datasets of high level they can disqualify the entry after a discussion with
objectives that define conceptual goals and target

the advisory team for double checks to ensure the where a variety of plug-ins and interfaces can be in-
credibility of the information. Otherwise, the entry corporated on demand to inform the jury decision
is qualified. In this stage, the jury consults to select making process. At the same time, the intervention
the winning entries. of this type of assessment opens the door for open-
The final jury report and feedback to design- ness to public access and integrating the opinion of
ers depends on the competition type. In one-stage the public, thus enhancing collective debate, where
competitions, the jury submit their short version fi- the subjective or tacit component of the assessment
nal report and announce the winning entries, justi- can be shared among experts together with the com-
fying their decision based on their consultation, and munity.
aided by results from the system automated report. Below are two significant topics for discussion
In project competitions, the jury provide more elabo- following the suggested framework, that are viewed
rate feedback to the winning entry in preparation for as essential to understand its value as well as its ad-
the next stage of design development and construc- vantages and disadvantages. The first deals with the
tion. Based on the feedback from the automatically competition and assessment culture and the new dy-
generated report - which includes data from all en- namics of the jury process, while the second involves
tries - the jury may decide upon consultation to incor- the topic of architectural quality versus blind elimina-
porate successful ideas and merits from other entries tion of competition entries.
in the entry chosen to proceed. These ideas are in-
tegrated into their final report. In idea competitions, Changing Dynamics of Competition Culture
comments and notes are less elaborate and are at a One of the fundamental issues that follow the devel-
more conceptual level. If the competition is a two- opment of the aforementioned proposal is taking a
stage competition, the jury are asked by the advisory step back to evaluate how such a framework would
team to provide detailed and tailored feedback for affect the nature of assessment, jury structure, roles
the continuing entries. The jury announces the win- of advisory teams, jury and sponsors, and competi-
ning entries and calls for an updated BIM model. This tion culture at large. Usually, a jury process involves
is used to initiate the assessment process for the sub- certain characteristics such as identifying assessment
sequent stage. criteria, weighing the criteria, grading every alterna-
tive in respect of every criterion, and making the ulti-
DISCUSSION mate decision (Bazerman, 2006). According to Svens-
Based on the proposed framework, there is poten- son (2013), there are some unique characteristics and
tial for some aspects and issues open for discussion features however pertaining to the process of assess-
and debate concerning the validity of implementa- ment and the structure of the jury for an architectural
tion. Benefits include the thorough investigation of competition, which can be summarized in this con-
design model entries, and learning from each and ev- text into two main features: 1) diversity of jury repre-
ery proposal, as the detailed comparison and check- sentation and jury consensus, and 2) representation-
ing can help tailor or refine a best entry by making based assessment.
use of qualities in different entries. By running the Regarding the first feature, a competition jury
necessary checks and simulations, jury members can typically consists of different representatives from
read more into the proposals and examine their long multiple professions and domains, including mem-
term impacts, and simulate different scenarios in the bers with professional competence similar to that of
project context and environment using building in- the designer participants, but also representatives
formation modelling tools and possibly geospatial from sponsoring institutions, advisory boards and
information systems. This process is also extensible, others. This implies that there are usually varying

interests, perspectives and duties among jury mem- rhetoric - as viewed by Tostrup (2007) - can often pre-
bers towards the competition entries. In addition, cede matters of substantial value and higher signifi-
the final decision of the jury must be made in con- cance.
currence, where a carefully laid systematic process is In the context of the proposed framework, the
conducted to evaluate all entries and then discuss added value lies in the nature of the deliverable,
and negotiate till arriving at one common and final which is the information model, which represents
decision. much more than graphics and visuals, but rather
The extensibility of the proposed framework in much of the semantics upon which the assessment
both its preliminary stages (the ability to provide in- is based. By exposing the native model together
put requirements and qualifying conditions for each with graphics or image captures, the assessment pro-
jury member) and terminal stages (the ability to de- cess becomes presumably less prone to the often il-
fine clear and explicit assessment criteria, and con- lusory effect of architectural catchy representations,
duct prediction models for the potential of certain and more focused on issues of performance which
projects and study their future impact through sim- set a clear and explicit assessment metrics. Access to
ulations of on-demand conditions and factors) sug- the geometric and semantic data of each entry allows
gest new dynamics to the jury assessment process not only for more accurate information visualization
and the interaction among its members to address and comparative analysis, but also for running what-
different viewpoints. if scenarios and arriving at optimized and integrated
Most of the specific requirements, perspectives solutions.
and objectives of the different parties involved can The exercise of submitting a BIM model however
be met by embedding and defining specific rulesets has its drawbacks. It puts some pressure on the de-
in the system that becomes a basis for testing. Typ- signer due to the number of requirements, the high
ically, not all the issues in this context are explicitly learning curve, and the effort exerted in creating a
quantifiable, but the fact that tailored requirements correct and complete BIM model that satisfies pre-
can be embedded on a case by case basis can add set modelling standards and qualifying conditions.
to the discussion and negotiation component of the This is questionable especially with architects, where
jury deliberation process. At the same time, the in- the process of delivering BIM models and adhering
terpretation module can generate different feedback to strict conventions and modelling standards can
at the conceptual level for each different category of be viewed as restraining and limiting in terms of cre-
the jury members according to their needs and in- ativity. This also constitutes a burden on the advi-
quiries. sory team whose role is clearly quite different than
As for the second feature, it has typically been in a conventional competition assessment process,
the case that the assessment of any jury is based on extending beyond just a managerial role to a higher
representations of architecture rather than architec- level of expertise in using BIM-authoring and analysis
ture itself (Svensson, 2013), where graphical and tex- tools and running simulation and optimization tools
tual representations, plans, facades, sections, illus- to assist the jury with their final decisions.
trative diagrams and 3D perspective drawings tradi- As described above, the nature of the whole cul-
tionally constitute the "product" before the jury and ture of architectural competitions can be dramati-
are the basis for its assessment. This becomes a fun- cally affected by using the proposed framework. Not
damentally important and an influencing factor in only is the assessment process different, but also the
the jury process, where communicational interaction nature of the competition program, its description
through visuals and persuasion through the maxi- and its requirements. The level of detail and explicit-
mum available methods of argumentation and visual ness of information provided to and required by de-

signers becomes of higher significance. The devel- and provide for a stronger and enhanced competi-
opment of platforms for rule extraction, testing, in- tion culture.
terpretation and reporting becomes inevitable, with
more and more required intelligence based on com- Architectural Quality vs. Blind Elimination
petition type and theme. The dynamics of assess- The notion of architectural quality is continually im-
ment and generating a well justified decision for win- perative to the assessment process in any type of
ning entries (and therefore a much more elaborate competition, and is probably the core of decision
and rich decision making process) is one of the main making in this process. Any assessment of a compe-
anticipated benefits, where it is less likely to rely on tition entry typically falls at the end into one of two
subjective decisions or verdicts based on mere aes- categories: 1) evaluating the quantifiable functional
thetic values. and technical qualities, and 2) assessing the qualita-
Whether or not competition deliverables should tive aesthetic aspects of design (Lundequist, 1992),
be more or less detailed or sophisticated remains an with varying degrees and levels of significance given
open ended question. Different competition types to each on a case by case basis.
can also feature different assessment formats and A typical scenario for the former involves either
therefore different types of deliverables. Although eyeballing or measuring by the jury to compare be-
the flexibility and extensibility of the system allows tween different entries, or consulting domain experts
for these variations and on-demand iterations, the re- for the purpose of checking certain performance is-
ciprocal relation between the efforts done by both sues such as energy efficiency and consumption,
designers and advisory teams remains key in deter- budget, and other spatial and physical qualities. A
mining the required load, level of detail and phas- typical scenario in the latter mostly relies on the indi-
ing. The lower the level of detail and sophistica- vidual readings and constructs of different jury mem-
tion of BIM model data required by the designer, the bers of the submitted solution in terms of appear-
more the burden on the advisory team to adjust the ance and other qualitative and aesthetic values. This
data in order to meet the assessment criteria and the is where the visual rhetoric and catchy presentations
more the process is error prone and open to ambigu- plays a significant role as mentioned earlier.
ity. If the designer for example misses the name of a Moreover, the final jury decision is typically
space, the definition of a wall composition, an open- based on the overall impression and image taken as
ing or a massing element, the team can intervene rel- a whole, rather than mere aggregate collection of
atively easily, although questions of design intent are points in a checklist. The jury - each member with a
legitimate. But if the required alterations exceeded specific agenda in mind - search during the assess-
the level of model completeness to model correct- ment process for answers to preset domain-specific
ness, this would require much more and could jeop- and global questions that have to do with the em-
ardize the assessment process. In a typical scenario bedded meanings in the design, the character of the
- other than a competition setting - designers would building design, the value of the entry in its micro and
be asked to adjust their models accordingly, but the macro scale, how it is communicated, and how well it
single submission process in a competition puts nat- serves the community or larger context. The jury de-
urally more load on the advisory team in terms of in- liberation usually discusses these overarching issues
ference and data manipulation. and questions more than delving into the minutiae of
It is unfair to assume that a BIM-based methodol- the former technical quantifiable aspects of the en-
ogy will produce better architectural products or so- tries.
lutions, but more importantly it is anticipated that im- The proposed framework attempts to address
plementing such a framework will help raise the bar both categories in a slightly different fashion. With

regards to the technical category, domain-specific overall opinion and perspective of all jury members.
expertise and performance-based evaluation tech- This framework thus does not rely solely on a
niques are embedded in the system, where vari- process of blind elimination procedures, as may be
ous functional, spatial, and technical qualities are as- falsely perceived from its process diagram. The aim
sessed based on a multitude of codes, design guides is to target a process of enhancing quality and pro-
and assessment criteria - incorporating different per- ducing best fit solutions rather than just reducing er-
spectives and requirements of different involved par- ror or pointing out areas of easy disqualification of
ties - combined in one all-encompassing and extensi- entries. It is rather an evaluation decision support
ble framework. In addition, at any point in the assess- system targeted at architectural quality in essence,
ment process, the jury can choose to conduct tests that is not simply reduced to pieces of software such
and run what-if scenarios, and furthermore incorpo- as conventional conflict checking tools that gener-
rate ideas from different entries and validate their ap- ate thousands of errors which may be meaningless
propriateness within the competition setting. to its users. It is the interpretation of instances of er-
With respect to the qualitative category, it is rors or issues and translating those into meaningful
quite acknowledged that this area will mostly remain chunks of conceptual categories to the jury that pro-
subjective and left to the discretion and interests of duces articulate feedback and assessment with mi-
different jury members, and it is not the purpose nor subjective domination. Further work may delve
of this framework to replace human judgment with into the value of how such a framework can bene-
automated results and figures devoid of any holis- fit from exploring other subjective concepts such as
tic view that evaluates the integrity or value of a wholeness, coherence, suitability, and meaning, em-
given architectural design. However, the framework bedded in a given architectural competition entry, in
provides a supporting tool for decision making on order to identify how much the limits can be pushed
an informed basis through its interpretation module. between conventional and BIM-based assessment.
This module provides indicators to the jury regarding
concepts that can be used to infer some qualitative CONCLUSION
features. This paper introduced a BIM-based framework for as-
For example, in master plan and urban-scale sessing architectural competition entries that aims at
project competitions, input parameters of urban fab- supporting the evaluation decision making process
ric, setbacks, building heights, street widths, ma- without compromising architectural quality. Using
terials, textures, solid-void percentages, proportion, IFC data from BIM model entries, the framework in-
rhythm, and so forth can be used to develop a corporates designers, jury members and competition
contextual compliance indicator, using target values advisory team in a process that tests BIM model en-
from codes and guidelines and actual values from tries against extensible rulesets extracted from build-
the BIM model entries. In the same manner, in other ing codes, design guidelines, competition terms of
competition types with specific attention to envi- reference and any specified assessment criteria and
ronmental and thermal comfort standards, parame- qualifying conditions. Feedback is then provided to
ters that are related to water consumption and ef- jury members in the form of tailored reports of in-
ficiency, solar radiation, thermal mass, materials, U- terpreted conceptual categories that address both
values, building mass ratio, and so forth can be used quantitative and qualitative aspects of designs to in-
to develop a LEED compliance indicator. These indi- form the assessment process.
cators can be reviewed comparatively by the jury in a
way that allows for a more informed process of evalu-
ation, where the final say remains in the hands of the

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sioner (Two dimensions of the Concept of Qual-
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– arkitekturmuseets årsbok 1992 (Architectonic Qual-
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lag, Stockholm

Use cases for configurable building information model
visualization
Helga Tauscher1 , Raimar J. Scherer2
1,2
TU Dresden, Institute for construction informatics
1,2
http://tu-dresden.de/bau/cib
1,2
{helga.tauscher|raimar.scherer}@tu-dresden.de
We present a new approach to reconnect building information models and their

visual representations involving architects and engineers as domain experts in the
process of the visualization specification. To this end a generic visualization
framework and a visualization description language are introduced. Four use
case areas for the application of the approach were identified and are illustrated
with corresponding examples.
Keywords: BIM, visualization, DSL
CONTEXT AND OBJECTIVE terial.

Due to the advances in building information mod- Thus it is necessary to open up options to archi-
elling (BIM), the information itself and its visual repre- tects and engineers to work with the visual repre-
sentation are falling apart. Information and its visual sentations, to shape, configure and devise them, in-
representation where implicitly contained in a cohe- stead of just consuming preconfigured visual repre-
sive form in drawings and documents before, how- sentations. The role of visualizations in the context
ever now information is modelled explicitly and thus of BIM was pointed out by several authors before, e.g.
separated from its visual representation. As the vi- Liebich (1993), Katranuschkov (2000), Wender (2009).
sual representation is factored out of the information However, there is no approach tackling the problem
models it has to be generated on the fly. The exact in a way involving architects and engineers as partic-
arrangement, definition and design of this process ipants in the process.
are coded into specific software applications and are
rarely accessible to the user. USE CASE AREAS FOR A GENERIC VISUAL-
However domain expert users of architectural
IZATION FRAMEWORK
and civil engineering applications are not only ex-
perts regarding their tasks, but also regarding the
Visualization framework
Towards the goal to open up more possibilities to
information and the visual representations needed
work with visual representations for domain expert
for these tasks. Historically architects and engineers
users the authors pursue the objective of a generic
have developed a repository of specialized visual rep-
visualization description and framework. Instead of
resentations, visual signs and symbols and of meth-
producing preconfigured visualizations hard-coded
ods to encode their content visually. Creating visual
in the application, the visualization framework is ca-
representations is not only a means to an end but an
pable of constructing arbitrary visualizations. The
essential way of engaging with their subject and ma-

Figure 1
Generic
visualization
component
configurable using
visualization
specifications
configuration of the desired visualization to be con- erties of the related data element.
structed is defined by means of a visualization de-
scription, which is fed into the framework in addition • condition: Conditions define the scope of
to the BIM data in question (Figure 1). mapping rules. They act as filters, narrowing
The technical details of the visualization frame- the input data to a subset, which the respec-
work are outside of the scope of this contribution. We tive mapping rule has to be applied to. They
are referring to a first discussion in Tauscher & Scherer are specified in terms of the type of the data
2012. In this paper we will give a short introduc- elements the rule applies to and in terms of
tion to a possible domain specific language (DSL) for additional conditions the data objects have to
the visualization description, which also outlines the fulfil.
scope of the framework. We will then define four use
case areas, where visualization specifications might • initial/update: Mapping rules may have two
be useful. For each use case areas we constructed different roles: On the one hand (in the "ini-
an application examples. These In section 3 the DSL tial" role) they define, how to create the visu-
is used to present these application examples and alization elements. On the other hand (in the
demonstrate the functionality of the framework in "update" role) they may define how to change
context. already created objects. Changes may be trig-
gered by events or by the advance of time.
Visualization specification
The DSL we are using here is only one possible way • graph/data: These keywords are used to ac-
to specify the visualizations to be generated by the cess the properties of data and visualization
framework. It contains the following lexical ele- elements inside of the mapping rule. Dur-
ments: ing the mapping rule application, the respec-
tive data and visualization elements are made
• rule: A mapping rule defines the relation be- available under these names.
tween elements of the data and elements of
the visualization. The visualization elements • space/part: The visualization space may be
are specified in terms of their type and the val- subdivided into spatial parts. The "part" key-
ues of their properties. In order to set these word is used to group and relate rules to the
properties the mapping rule can access prop- respective spatial parts.

In terms of further syntactical rules, we are using that a common view of the subject is not guaran-
whitespace indentation as known from Python in- teed anymore. The exchange of visualization speci-
stead of brackets to identify blocks belonging to- fications together with the models could fix this.
gether. This produces compact code. Further we Education: When teaching and learning BIM prin-
are using common mathematical operators for arith- ciples, a visual representation of the otherwise imma-
metic and equality operations as well as curly braces terial and abstract concepts is especially important.
for anonymous functions. These functions can be ap- Classes, objects, properties and relations in a model
plied to each element in a set using the map keyword. are hard to grasp. Visual representations on the other
The framework also provides statistical functions hand are more accessible to the human mind and un-
aggregating values over sets of data elements and derstanding how the abstract concepts map to visual
the possibility to calculate and specify global values representations helps to grasp the abstract concepts.
outside of the local scope of certain rules. We are Exploration: In the process of planning and exe-
not using these possibilities in the exemplary DSL nor cution of construction projects different stakeholders
in the examples. Instead we are strictly limiting the often rely on preliminary work of other project part-
calculations to the values reachable from the current ners. Thus it often becomes necessary to review in-
data object. Fixed global configuration values are incoming building information models, to get a gen-
dicated by using capital letters. eral idea of the content of a building information
To further compress and simplify the DSL, key- model or to track changes in particular parts of the
words may be left out under certain conditions. The models. These activities may be supported by cus-
rule keyword may be left out if there is only one single tomized views on the model, which can be reused
rule, such that there is no need to mark and enumer- later on.
ate multiple rules. Similarly the initial keyword may Experimentation: During the development of
be left out if there are no updates and no conditions new analytical or numerical methods, for instance to
to differentiate from the mapping itself. assess risk during construction, to validate schedules
or to shape the outer shell of a building, there are nei-
Use case Areas ther the software tools nor established visual repre-
Certainly useful visualizations are tied to specific use sentations available for exactly this task. A framework
cases, and it could be argued that for this reason the to generate the necessary visualizations would sup-
generation of visual representations belongs exactly port the creative work in these cases.
where it is - inside of specialized applications. How- These use cases have commonalities as well as
ever, we have identified four areas, where it seems to substantial differences regarding the objective and
be especially helpful to grant further options to con- goal.
trol, specify and manipulate visual representations, For communication purposes it is relevant to
hence to provide extended access to visualization present the result of an analysis, no matter whether
methods to engineers and architects as domain ex- the analysis was carried out automatically or manu-
perts. These areas are: communication, education, ally. On the other end of the spectrum in the case
exploration and experimentation. of exploration the result is not achieved beforehand,
Communication: A substantial part of the com- but the visualization serves the process of gaining in-
munication happening in architectural and construc- sight in the underlying information. The educational
tion projects is carried out using non-textual media use case combines both uses of visualization: when
or textual media with references to non-textual parts. teachers demonstrate facts about the subject, they
With the widespread use of BIM these non-textual are using visualization in the communicational way,
parts are replaced by the exchange of models, such while learners trying to understand the subject use

visualizations in the exploratory way. The education tion project - a single family house with two storeys
use case differs from the communication and explo- and basement. An exemplary realistic use case is the
ration use cases in the complexity of the information communication about a delay and an underlying ob-
and the resulting visualization: education is usually struction. A load-bearing wall on the ground floor
carried out with simpler material, while in the other is not finished in time, such that work on the slab
cases visualizations unfold their full potential when above ground level could not be finished in time as
applied to more complex material. Experimental vi- well and the construction of walls in the next level is
sualizations may aim at all three previous application obstructed. The visualization helps to track back the
areas. They only differ in the fact, that they use a new reasons for the delay and to facilitate communication
or unusual way of encoding visual information. about the issue.
Figure 2
APPLICATION EXAMPLES FOR THE USE Communication
CASE AREAS example
To demonstrate how users would benefit from the
possibility to specify a visualization description, this
section will introduce four example visualizations
and present them together with their visualization
description. The general methods and the exemplary
model employed for the examples are similar, but the
utilization and focus of each example is different. We
are assigning the examples to the use cases, although
this assignment is not exclusive. Each example could
also occur in the context of one of the other use cases.
The assignment between each use case and a typical
example is made solely in order to illustrate the dif- The following code defines the visualization. Fig-
ferent application areas of the proposed visualization ure 2 shows the resulting visualization.
framework and description language. view:
projection: isometric
Communication direction: (-1,-1,-1)
This example has a clear communicative character, rule: ResLink <IfcObject > > Polyeder
it states a message and supports the dialog about a condition:
subject. A solution fulfilling basic communication re- data.key.obj type IfcBuildingElement
quirements is already specified in the BIM Collabora- initial:
graph.vertices = data.key.geo.
tion Format (BCF). BCF is a lean format, intended to
,→ vertices
be used for the exchange of information during the
graph.normals = data.key.geo.normals
communication referring to a building model or parts graph.indizes = data.key.geo.indizes
of it. The specification contains a so called "view- rep = data.link.report
point" section allowing for the specification of cam- sch = data.link.schedule
era parameters and the designation of one or more graph.color = scale(rgba)
objects of interest, intended to highlight them in the rep.date < sch.start: (0 ,255 ,0 ,150)
visualization. The example presented here adds a rep.date > sch.end: (255 ,0 ,0 ,150)
simple colour scale to this setup. else: (255 ,255 ,0 ,150)
The underlying model features a small construc- rule: ResLink <IfcObject > > Polyeder
condition:

data.key.obj type IfcBuildingElement cus (highlighted by the second rule). The geometric
&& data.object.guid == GUID calculations necessary to check for this spatial con-
initial: straint could be coded directly in the condition, but
graph.color = rgba (0 ,0 ,255 ,0) they would quickly exhaust or exceed the computing
rule: ResLink <IfcObject > > Polyeder
resources as the size of the model grows. This is why
condition:
the framework allows for the inclusion of external fil-
spatialFilter.beforeGuid(GUID)
initial: ter libraries to query the model efficiently. The spec-
graph.visible = false ification refers to a fictional filter library called "spa-
tialFilter". Provided that an efficient implementation
First, we define an initial camera view by specifying existed, the runtime system could even update the
the projection mode (isometric) and the camera di- visualization on view direction changes.
rection (view from top-north-east to the origin). The
zoom property of the view defaults to "scale to ex- Education
tend" and does not have to be specified. In general This example is at the simple end of the spectrum,
the visualization frameworks provides sensible de- it should emphasize or confirm something already
faults wherever possible to allow the user to concen- known about the information in a visual way. We
trate on the essential parts of the specification. The are presenting an example with a more sophisticated
remaining examples leave out view definition section colour scale and an interaction component to en-
for their 3D parts completely, defaulting to a perspec- gage with the visualization and explore details of the
tive projection. colour scale.
Then a mapping rule set is defined, consisting of The example used is a very simple building, con-
two rules. The first rule applies to all objects of type structed artificially for educational purposes. It con-
IfcBuildingElement and creates transparent 3D ob- sists solely of five building elements, four columns
jects with a color scale according to whether the re- with two different geometric profiles and a roof. The
ported construction progress confirms to the sched- example is designed with this high level of simplicity
ule or not. Every object reported to be completed in order to teach the fundamentals of Industry Foun-
before the planned period has even started is col- dation Classes (IFC). Students are able to work with
ored green. Objects completed during the scheduled the STEP file in a text editor in parallel to a visual rep-
period are colored yellow and those completed with resentation, without being overwhelmed. This way
significant delay are colored red. Note that depend- they are enabled to establish a clear relationship be-
ing on the granularity of the underlying schedule, ob- tween the textual representation of the model and
jects with delay may also receive yellow color. the concepts encoded in the model.
The second rule applies under the condition that The following code defines the visualization. Fig-
the object is of type IfcBuildingElement and in addi- ure 3 shows the result of the mapping process.
tion it has a specified unique ID. This rule is a par-
tial definition only, because it only sets the color rule: IfcObject > Polyeder
value to opaque blue without defining any geome- condition:
try. Because the rule applies to a subset of the ob- data.obj type IfcBuildingElement
initial:
jects matched by the first rule, the geometry defini-
graph.vertices = data.geo.vertices
tion does not have to be repeated. Instead only the graph.normals = data.geo.normals
color value from the first rule is overridden. graph.indizes = data.geo.indizes
The third rule again overrides the color value of graph.color = rgba (128 ,128 ,128 ,150)
the first rule, rendering the object in question in- update(HIGHLIGHT):
visible if it would otherwise hide the object in fo- graph.color = rgba (255 ,0 ,0 ,0)

update(UNHIGHLIGHT): IfcRoof: (0 ,255 ,127 ,150)
graph.color = rgba (128 ,128 ,128 ,150) IfcWindow: (0 ,255 ,255 ,150)
IfcDoor: (0 ,127 ,255 ,150)
...
Figure 3
Education example
This scale ranges from yellow over green and cyan
to a greenish blue and could be extended for fur-
ther types. Then, during unhighlighting the original
color of the object has to be restored according to the
same scale.
The example in the next section shows how two
views can be interlinked. The educational exam-
ple could benefit from a similar setup, by adding
and connecting a text representation of the STEP file
and highlighting respective lines upon object selec-
tion. Alternatively the display of the GUID and/or line
number could facilitate lookup of the line in a text
viewer or editor.
The visualization consists of a 3D view with de- Exploration

fault view settings as stated in explanation of the This example is more ambiguous, the visual represen-
previous example. The 3D view is embedded in a tation does not intentionally and clearly communi-
small application featuring a text entry field for fil- cate a result or message, but rather encourages the
ter queries. Depending on the setting of the check- examination of the information. We are presenting a
box labelled "(Un)highlight" either an HIGHLIGHT or visualization combining different views of the infor-
an UNHIGHLIGHT event is triggered from the outside mation contained in a complex data set interactively.
into the visualization. The underlying data follows the multi model
Similar to the communication example, a first paradigm - a method to couple multiple elemen-
rule maps the geometric properties of the data to the tary, previously unconnected models (Fuchs 2011).
shape of the visualization object and sets a default By adding additional relations, multi models substan-
color. Two further rules override the color value. Un- tially increase the complexity of the information con-
like before, these rules are not applied during the ini- tained in the models, allowing for more advanced
tial mapping pass, but instead they are applied dur- methods to analyze the data, to gain insights into and
ing runtime triggered by events named HIGHLIGHT in general to work with the information, but at the
and UNHIGHLIGHT. This kind of deferred change of same time increasing the difficulty to intuitively un-
objects in the visualization allows for dynamic high- derstand the data.
lighting of multi object selections. The concrete multi model in this example con-
The visualization specification can be refined by sists of two elementary models: one model contains
adding a color scale that differentiates the type of the 3D object information according to the IFC standard,
object. and the other one contains a work specification with
graph.color=scale(rgba ,data.obj.type) description of work and cost information conform-
IfcWall: (255 ,255 ,0 ,150) ing to the GAEB standard. The communication ex-
IfcColumn: (127 ,255 ,0 ,150) ample in section 3.2 did already use multi model in-
IfcSlab: (0 ,255 ,0 ,150) formation with an IFC model and schedule informa-

tion. The former example accessed the multi model object geometry to 3D objects (polyeders), the right
information grouped by IFC model elements, treat- side maps cost values to bar charts. Both parts trigger
ing schedule information as an attachment to these highlighting events, when their objects are clicked
key elements. The current example on the contrary on. The 3D object mapping in the left part is similar to
accesses the multi model on link level and groups the mapping in previous examples. The bar chart ex-
the links twice - once according to the IFC model and ample, however, shows use of another visual object
once according to the GAEB model. type - rectangle. Further it can be seen, that during
The following code produces the visualization in the mapping process an object index is generated,
figure 4. which is then provided as a variable inside the map-
space: ping rule. The example mapping uses the index to
part: IfcObject > Polyeder calculate the vertical position of the bars.
condition:
Figure 4
data.obj type IfcBuildingElement
Exploration initial:
example graph.vertices = data.geometry.
,→ vertices
graph.normals = data.geometry.
,→ normals
graph.indizes = data.geometry.
,→ indizes
graph.color = rgba (128 ,128 ,128 ,150)
graph.click = HIGHLIGHT
update(HIGHLIGHT):
graph.color = rgba (200 ,0 ,0 ,0)
update(UNHIGHLIGHT):
The visualization could be extended by high-
graph.color = rgba (128 ,128 ,128 ,150)
part: lighting only parts of the bars in the chart - only that
rule: GaebTgItem > Rectangle part that corresponds to the costs of the selected ob-
initial: jects. Accordingly also the highlighting of 3D ob-
graph.height = 15 jects in reaction to selections in the bar chart could be
graph.left = 400 scaled in color strength or brightness to indicate the
graph.top = index *20 proportion of costs of that single building element
graph.width = data.IT selected in the bar chart.
graph.click = HIGHLIGHT
rule: GaebTgItem > Label Experimentation
initial:
The final example uses hierarchical edge bundles
graph.text = data.outlineText
graph.left = 0 (HEBs), a novel visualization method from outside of
graph.top = index *20 the architectural or construction domain and verifies
its applicability for domain specific information and
The specification first divides the visualization tasks.
space into two separate areas. Spatial division of the This example is very similar to the one in example
area can be defined by specifying layout type and 2, because the experimental study is also targeting
constraints, but the example works with a default lay- an exploratory visualization against the background
out of horizontal partitioning into equal parts. of the steadily increasing amount and complexity of
Each area contains its own rule set to construct information.
parts of the visualization. While the left area maps

The following code produces the visualization in rule: GaebTgItem > Rectangle
figure 5. ...
rule: GaebTgItem > Label
space:
...
part: IfcObject > Polyeder
...
part: ResolvedLink > Bezier Again, similar to the previous example, space
tree = { n -> separation with the default layout algorithm is used.
y: (n.before + n.size /2) * SCALE This time three different areas are constructed. The
x: n.depth * DIST + OFFSET left area and the right area are similar to the ones in
} the previous example, 3D objects representing build-
BS = 1-BUNDLING ing element geometry on the left side and a bar chart
params = { t -> representing cost values on the right. The mappings
ax: BS*(t.first.x-t.last.x)/t.size ,
for these two areas are marked with ellipsis and are
ay: BS*(t.last.y-t.first.y)/t.size ,
not specified in detail again.
cx: BS*t.first.x,
cy: BS*t.first.y The third mapping for the central area is different
} and contains the experimental application of hierar-
bundling = { node -> chical edge bundles. Each link connecting a build-
x: BUNDLING*node.x + cx + i*ax ing element with a certain work specification is rep-
y: BUNDLING*node.y + cy + i*ay resented by a bezier curve. These curves are bun-
} dled according to the algorithm proposed by Holton
tr = data.hierarchicalIfc.anchestor. (2006), yielding a visual representation where links
,→ map(tree) in the same part of the building structure or in the
graph.points =
same part of the work specification structure are ly-
tr.map(bundling , params(tr))
tr = data.hierarchicalGaeb.anchestor ing closer to each other than those belonging to dif-
,→ .inverse.map(tree) ferent structures.
graph.points = Details regarding the application of the original
tr.apply(bundling , params(tr)) HEB algorithm to the construction domain can be
graph.color = rgba (50 ,50 ,50 ,0) found in Tauscher & Scherer (2013). In that paper we
part: have also proposed several extensions to the exam-
Figure 5
Experimentation
example

ple visualization using dynamic color scales or high- View parameters could be made available during run-
lighting according to the linked proportions selected time for dynamic queries and scales.
in another part of the visualization. Further, the following problems where excluded
As in the previous example objects in all parts of from the example specifications, but have to be
the visualization may trigger as well as receive high- solved in order to reveal the potential of the ap-
lighting events. This part of the specification is left proach in practical applications: The DSL should al-
out in the listing above. low for the integrated specification of data access us-
ing external filter and query languages. This includes
CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION data preprocessing such as aggregation or grouping
We have introduced four use case areas for the appli- and consistent access across the single parts in multi
cation of a new approach to reconnect building infor- part visualizations allowing to dispatch events be-
mation and its visual representation by specifying the tween these parts. Reusable and modular visualiza-
visualization generation explicitly. For each use case tion specifications should be facilitated through an
area a concrete example was shown, with a charac- include mechanism. The language constructs of the
teristic visualization and the corresponding visualiza- DSL have to be chosen carefully, taking the poten-
tion specification. Apart from the main contribution tial previous programming language knowledge of
of this paper - the identification, classification and il- architects and engineers into account. The advan-
lustration of use cases for the approach - the exam- tages and disadvantages of a standalone DSL tailored
ples where analysed regarding further development to the user group versus an embedded DSL with a
and further requirements for the framework and DSL. more general allowance of language constructs from
Each example can be further developed and ex- the host language have to be weighted.
tended: The communication example can benefit
from the integration of an efficient spatial filter library ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
and the addition of runtime evaluation according to The building models where partly developed during
view properties. The education example can be ex- the BMBF projects mefisto and eworkBau. The fund-
tended to contain more explorative elements with ing of the Federal Ministry of Education and Research
embedded textual GUID annotations or an additional is gratefully acknowledged.
text representation of the whole model. Dynamic
color scales and refined highlighting could make the REFERENCES
exploration example even more useful. Also the ex- Fuchs, S, Kadolsky, M and Scherer, RJ 2011 'Formal De-
perimentation example would benefit from dynamic scription of a Generic Multi-Model', WETICE - 20th In-
color scales for the curve bundles. ternational Conference on Collaboration Technologies
Some of the extensions can be achieved using and Infrastructures, Paris, France
the possibilities already present in the current frame- Holten, D 2006, 'Hierarchical Edge Bundles: visualiza-
tion of Adjacency Relations in Hierarchical Data', IEEE
work concept, but other extensions pose extra re-
Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics,
quirements on the framework and DSL: Filter condi- 12, pp. 741-748
tions are currently evaluated outside of the frame- Katranuschkov, P 2000, A Mapping Language for Concur-
work, the results are then used to fire events in the rent Engineering Processes., Ph.D. Thesis, TU Dresden
framework. Dynamic query evaluation would al- Liebich, T 1993, Wissensbasierter Architekturentwurf. Von
low for queries to be evaluated during runtime in- den Modellen des Entwurfs zu einer intelligenten Com-
puterunterstützung., Ph.D. Thesis, Bauhausuniver-
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sität Weimar
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querying, e.g. for dynamic color scale application. urable nD-viewer for building information models.

A generic model for the description of visualization
methods.', Proc. 9th European Conference on Product
and Process Modelling (ECPPM), Reykjavik, Iceland
Tauscher, H and Scherer, RJ 2013 'Utilizing hierarchical
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puting in Engineering, Vienna, Austria
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erksdokumentation, Ph.D. Thesis, Bauhausuniver-
sität Weimar

Data Fusion Using Geographic Managed Objects
Erik Kjems
Aalborg University, Department of Civil Engineering
kjems@civil.aau.dk
The way we design our buildings and cities has not really changed a lot for
decades. Drawing boards have been exchanged with relatively small 30" inch
monitors, pens and rulers have been exchanged with advanced digital tools
mostly though disturbing, making the creative process of design merely a
frustrating one. So what have we gained from CAD. Certainly a lot, but mostly
the possibility to combine and fuse projects. Simulating future use and behaviour,
revealing design issues and failures before actually built. Still data fusion is a
relatively new challenge albeit quite obvious trying to assemble models coming
from different systems and vendors representing different professional domains.
This paper discusses data exchange and data fusion in general and presents a
new development, which gives the possibility to enhance data as intelligent
objects opening a whole new paradigm for both data exchange and data fusion.
Keywords: Data Fusion, CAD, Managed Object, Data Exchange, Virtual

Machine
INTRODUCTION least company internal data exchange developments

Exchanging data electronically has been a challenge to work almost flawless. This problem can be expe-
since the dawn of the digital age. Evolving CAD rienced in many different kinds of systems not only
systems then naturally were built with data formats within the area of CAD.
suiting their own purposes fulfilling customers' de- The only way out of the misery is to develop open
mands and fitting the functionality and software standards (OS). Or is it? Standards do not suffer from
capacity into one common data paradigm. These drawbacks due to poorly documented proprietary
formats have evolved further into huge propriety file formats, but they do also suffer from errors due to
strongholds, which are almost impossible to conquer poor implementations especially when formats grow
when it comes to developing a parser that can read into large complex object oriented hierarchical struc-
the data contained within the files, and understand tures making the implementation a tough job. OS
every detail of it. The formats are being developed are a priori always behind the latest developments
further continuously, making it difficult to accom- and technological innovations, since OS evolve due
modate the technological enhancements when data to implementations of developments and trends al-
are supposed to be exchanged between the systems. ready there, only waiting to get implemented, agreed
Even within software companies one can observe the on, and approved by the organization behind the OS.
struggle to address the changes correctly from one Nevertheless, OS are probably the best way with the
version to the next, although one should expect at technology at hand to ensure a reasonable broad ex-

change of data between different CAD systems and devices. But how do we handle this kind of informa-
also other systems, but also to fuse data into bigger tion coming from many different devices and sources
and more complex data models. and from many different professional domains? How
What we face at the moment is the necessary not do we exchange objects with complex real time re-
only to exchange and fuse data between different lated behaviour? Are open standards the only solu-
CAD systems, but also to combine data coming from tion? The OGC is certainly dealing with sensors and
different professional domains. Each domain uses doing an honest effort to predict the need of sensors
specialized software within their specific area of de- in the future, but is it at all able to cover the develop-
sign and construction. The only common denomina- ments in time?
tor is a geographic reference within a building, con- At the Centre for 3D GeoInformation we have de-
struction site, city or whole country. In some coun- veloped a completely new concept to handle 3D ob-
tries for instance Norway the fusion of data coming jects referenced to a dynamic geographic location
from different domains has reached quite far even representing (although not necessarily) an object of
without the use of open standards, but with the use physical extend with for instance behaviour attached
of primarily proprietary file formats like Autodesk's (Kjems et al. 2009)(Kjems & Kolar 2006). This con-
(DWG). We also see model servers, which can han- cept implies many things ranging from the use of
dle data input and output using a common plat- geocentric coordinates rather than map projected
form and open exchange standards. OS certainly coordinates, allowing objects to change or to move
are on their way and for instance the IFC standard geographically in a 3D information system environ-
has reached quite far within the building commu- ment, scaling the model space from nanometre to
nity, and the Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC, [1]) one light year and handling the aspect of time in a
is pushing forward undauntedly for open standards scalable way, but probably first of all executing the
within a wide area of data exchange. One of the objects and allowing them to act out behaviour with-
biggest challenges at the moment is the open area out any limits. The latter is possible through the use
and its infrastructure, like roads, railroad and supply of a virtual machine. In our case we use Java Vir-
networks. tual Machine. We call this kind of objects Geographic
But the next wave of challenges in the construc- Managed Objects (GMO). In the following the devel-
tion data area has arrived already. The latest demand oped concept will be presented with focus on data
in connection with data exchange goes much further. fusion, understanding the challenge of exchanging
We have reached the sensor age. "The Internet of data, collecting data from different domains into one
Things" (Weiser 1991) and "Big Data" (Mashey 1997) coherent model, but also handling sensor informa-
is all over the media and the design and construction coming from different sources, being able to
tion area is a vital part of that, simply because for in- combine the data flow, and interpret information
stance buildings use an increasing amount of sensors into meaningful messages.
for primarily maintaining purposes, but also safety
purposes and not least ensuring the perfect energy THE CORE OF DATA EXCHANGE
consumption in a building. Cities use sensors for traf- As mentioned in the introduction, most of the data
fic control, intelligent lightning or citizen protection. exchange carried out today is predominantly con-
The sensors can be placed virtually during the design trolled by the vendors of the major CAD systems used
phase, simulated and tested. The virtual representa- within our business. Proprietary file formats have
tion coming from CAD systems can be used as user been used as de facto standards for a few decades
interface making it intuitive to handle sensors and in- and this will also be the case in the future. July 2008
formation streaming from the sensors to the control Bentley and Autodesk, the two main players signed a

historical agreement for the data exchange between sign, construction and maintenance process. Noth-
their systems (Khemlani 2008, available at [2]). They ing less.
agreed to make it easier to exchange data and im- Unfortunately data exchange is still mostly done
prove the support for each others proprietary file with the means of data files and appurtenant file for-
formats. In a way this was an obvious step for the mats instead of using logged secured access directly
big vendors. Even though the CAD market involving to a model database, which has been underway for
3D construction is insignificant compared to the rev- quite some time and has been marketed as part of a
enue seen in other industries, one can chose to see solution without really being an open model-server.
this agreement as a way to oppose the efforts seen for As mentioned already, this paper wants to
instance within the buildingSMART alliance, where present a completely new way of data exchange,
several major OS projects are conducted pointing at which can handle data fusion, data behaviour and
alternative possibilities using open data exchange. different semantic standards in an elegant way, but
One could go as far as raise objections to the before this can be done the following will explain
way the big vendors present their BIM solutions, be- how a traditional CAD software environment handles
cause they are mostly closed environments and a col- data, functions and data exchange. This is done be-
lection of lots of proprietary add-ons to their main cause it will be easier to explain the new way of spa-
CAD package, but this is probably an inevitable de- tial data handling in a similar way.
velopment seen from a commercial point of view. In the following graphical presentation of a typ-
So the real BIM is now OpenBIM while BIM as gen- ical CAD software environment one can identify two
eral term is used mostly in connection with propri- CAD systems (application 1 and 2). Each system
etary systems. Supporting OpenBIM opens the pos- contains data and each system has built in func-
sibility to an open free data exchange following the tions, which can be used in connection with the
standards proposed by the buildingSMART alliance data, thereby producing new data and enriching the
among others. One could argue, why do we need data. Each system can run in any combination of
open standards, when the big players are doing ev- operating-system and hardware as long as the CAD
erything possible to deliver a turnkey system to their software has been developed for each combination
customers. There is at least one big argument. It as well. This unfortunately is not the case at all. If
must be in everyone's interest to have as many com- data need to be exchanged between the systems,
petitors on the market as possible. A building project files are generated using specific proprietary or non-
is not only about the built environment. A lot of pro- proprietary formats, either or is not essential here.
fessional domains are involved in a project and there The same situation will occur if data are coming from
is a great amount of specialized software taking care a third-party provider, for instance application 3 or in
of all the different parts through all phases of the figure 1 depicted as external data source. All func-
building process. Large vendors buy this expertise tionality is part of the system (Function 1, 2, 3, 4,...).
on the market expanding their own software port- So if any functionality is missing in the application
folio within their proprietary environment suffocat- one can hope for the possibility to add it by installing
ing smaller rivals. Open standards give the possibility available plug-ins, or aim for the next updated ver-
for small businesses to enter the market and provide sion of the application to include the particularly
perhaps a better solution for certain project issues. missing function. Within commercial BIM one can
A real BIM (sorry OpenBIM) environment is allowing observe that sometimes whole new software pack-
all kinds of professional software solutions to extract ages are offered for sale to add functionality.
and provide enriched data from and to a data model A somehow different, and yet not so common issue is,
representing a construction at any stage of the de- if data are supposed to be enhanced with behaviour,

Figure 1
Traditional
structure of
applications and
data exchange
for instance interactivity, the provided system func- tually be essential for monitoring the building and
tions need to be able to take care of that. This could maintaining it. There is nothing more intuitive than
be animated functionality in a model for visualiza- a 3D model of a building representing it and all its
tion purposes, or far more sophisticated behaviour components. Imagine all the movies where 3D mod-
connected to the modelled objects enabling them els have been used to give the non-professional spec-
to act on changes in the built environment. Adding tator an overview of a certain situation. A big or
communicative behaviour to objects turn them into a few big monitors with an interactive 3D model
agents where they can connect to their real counter- is for most people far more intuitive to grasp com-
parts in the physically built environment, or wherever pared to a dashboard with a diagram and hundreds
one wants them to. With the growing amount and of lights and instruments. While one can bring a lap-
complexity of built in technology, increasing the pos- top around the building the dashboard remains in
sibilities of controlling and optimizing a building, not the control room.
only with regards to energy consumption, but also
user related demands to office climate and optimal ENHANCING A MODEL USING GMO
maintenance, objects with advanced behaviour are The way we exchange data today using open stan-
not only a cool feature during design, but could ac- dards is in principle divided into two parts. We cre-

ate/use a schema like for instance XML which al- possibility to use data exchange in a binary form. The
lows us to write and read data which fits into this binary file format opens up a lot of possibilities, and
schema easily, and further develop a schema for the is not a closed format as many think, as long as the
required semantic content allowing us to interpret underlying data format is open. The binary data for-
the information. This demands, that we have imple- mat, which will be executed by the virtual machine
mented a parser that not only can handle XML but when it enters the application, makes the whole dif-
also has a full implementation of the semantics in ference. Imagine working on a model and receiving
use. The drawbacks are obvious and most people data from an external source. The received objects
have experienced the inadequacy exchanging data are automatically executed, which makes it possible
this way. (Faus & Wen 2012). Exchanging data us- for each of them to for instance "unfold" themselves
ing proprietary exchange formats are somehow sim- into visible geometry since the functionality is part
ilar although this process is not really transparent for of the object. The object has been created with sev-
a common user. Well the OS way may not be either, eral classes perhaps hundreds, which will be used for
but at least there is an opportunity to. instance to show its modelled geometry, to animate
A new concept developed originally by Jan Ko- certain movements, or to allow to interact with the
lar at Alborg University is dealing with the data ex- user because it also can bring along its own user in-
change in a different way using what we call Geo- terface, which can show up as a separate window.
graphic Managed Objects (GMO) (Kolář 2006; Kolář Clicking on the object will typically invoke the win-
2013). To understand the GMO concept it is essential dow. What the object can do or is supposed to do de-
to understand an important prerequisite of the depends entirely on what is added as behaviour to the
velopment. As presented above traditional software object. These kinds of objects are in figure 2 shown
uses built in functionality to handle data input and as boxes with both data and behaviour included. As
output. A GMO can be created containing both ge- minimum behaviour one should expect the object
ometry and behaviour. The new and perhaps more to appear as visual object. Perhaps one can imag-
complex situation is shown in the following illustra- ine that the data exchange format now has moved
tion. to the core binary format of the Java programming
The most essential part of the concept and dif- language, which can be executed by the virtual ma-
ference to all other systems involving 3D objects is chine. Java virtual machine is world wide the most
the use of a virtual machine. A concept actually de- used system for this kind of data exchange. Creating
scribed as early as 1966 to avoid for instance compat- simple GMO from pure 3D data as they are used to-
ibility issues (Feldman 1966; Richards 1969). It could day in CAD software is not that difficult, and can be
be a .NET solution but since .NET only supports Mi- compared with an exchange of data using IFC with
crosoft originated platforms the choice in our case XML. One will in this case not need the semantic part
fell on Java Virtual Machine, which runs on Windows though, because the objects reveal themselves ex-
platforms, Linux distributions and OSX on Macs. This ecuted by the virtual machine, and does not need
is indicated in figure 2 by having a combination of to be parsed and recognised as certain building ele-
operating system and hardware (1) and (2). In gen- ments, they are self-explanatory. GMO are encapsu-
eral the concept could have been developed in many lated in small byte-code files and can therefore easily
ways but ended up with a prototype, which partly will be stored in databases, which even can be organised
be included in the following, showing the versatility in a distributed way using a combination of time and
of the concept. The prototype is an open source de- space for the indexing.
velopment, and can be found at [3]. In figure 2 one also can find boxes with only data
Using a virtual machine first of all gives one the or behaviour. GMO do not necessary have to carry

Figure 2
Virtual Machine and
GMO based
application and
data exchange
everything with them. Supplementary data or be- for instance simulations developed for buildings will
haviour can be fetched from other places internally be handled the same way. Either by letting sim-
or externally. If one for instance receives data from ulated people using the building, or letting wheel
a vendor of building parts for instance certain win- chairs moving around in the building, testing intel-
dow sections, these data represented by objects, can ligent room lightning or what ever. If the objects are
fetch the latest data update directly from the vendor developed with a general approach, they simply can
referring to a production line or certain glass param- be replicated, and loaded into all kinds of models.
eters. A GMO does not necessarily need a geograph- This might look strange and far away from what
ical extend, which makes it a MO. This way objects seems possible for most people because it seems as
can represent an agent like functionality, and does if programming is involved, but there is not more
not need to be visible at all, but handling functions programming involved than in traditional systems.
in the model. This could for instance be clash detec- Lately Oracle seems to have recognized a similar ap-
tion, a distance rule, or detection on non-geometric proach for their solution for the Internet of Things [4]
rules controlling whether all rules are applied to by since they include among a lot of other parts Java Vir-
the building objects, and the overall design. tual Machine to handle sensors and its data with em-
Just as an example it shall be mentioned, that bedded Java software.

So GMO are not only containing the information Figure 3 shows a situation where lampposts and
about the object geometry and attribute data but manholes have been added to a city model. It must
can also contain functionality. Imagine a 3D model be stressed that the focus in the project was on the
of a new site development with roads, buildings etc. development of GMO, and the user interaction rather
where one wants to introduce lightning using dif- than beautiful textures and shading. The ground sur-
ferent lampposts with a certain design and function face has been removed at the manholes to show the
coming from different vendors. With a bit of luck one possibility of conflict between the objects.
can be able to get data in 3D, which could be imple- The situation in figure 3 describes a situation
mented into the model with or without semantic in- where a lamppost and a manhole have been acti-
formation but probably with the right look. If one vated by clicking on it. This way they could be moved
later wants to use the lamppost in a maintenance sys- controlled in all directions (6 DOF on 2D monitor).
tem one would need to extract the most important The lower little window gives the possibility to ac-
information for instance by adding it manually. If the tivate the clash detection, which in this case would
lamppost was created as a GMO, first of all seman- turn both objects orange indicating they are collid-
tic rules could have been implemented. This means, ing with a distance rule, and suggesting new posi-
the object itself can follow design rules. If one places tions for probably both objects. Both objects are con-
a lamppost to close to another object it is not sup- nected to other similar objects and many different
posed to and thereby breaking a rule, it would re- rules could have been applied. If a third engineering
act on it and for instance suggest moving to a dif- or design domain would add objects to the model for
ferent location close by, and thereby obeying the instance traffic signs, they could be checked for any
rule. Further the modelled lamppost "expects" to be rule violence as well as suggesting an alternative po-
connected to the real lamppost, when it has been sition to either of the objects, until everyone is sat-
put in place, and communicate with it directly from isfied. This prototype allowed multiple users to al-
the representing data model, indicating for instance ter the model simultaneously. In this case no user
whether the bulb is turned on or off or not working constraints were implemented, although it would be
properly at all, and perhaps even calling for mainte- natural that each domain would be restricted to only
nance. Every time this GMO is loaded into a model have access to one owns objects.
it will do the same. No semantic standard has been This was a very simple example and others have
used, since the lamppost as a GMO carries all neces- been made. But the idea presented here should be
sary information provided by the vendor during ar- very clear. Imagine all vendors of lampposts and
rival to the model. manholes creating their own GMO providing them
Exactly this situation more or less has been mod- online during the design and construction phase.
elled as a case for a prototype that was developed in Each of the domain experts know exactly what kind
a research project conducted by a group of especially of rules that do apply for the building components
computer scientists coming from geo-science and they produce, and could easily apply them to the vir-
engineering. The project had a volume of € 4M partly tual representation. Each time the model is loaded
financed by the Norwegian Research Council. The co- into the viewing application, the rules are applied in
operating parties were as follows: Iver from Spain, principle without anyone else knowing exactly what
Vianova Systems Finland Oy, Norkart and Vianova kind of rules are involved, although quite often they
Systems a.s. from Norway and Aalborg University, are common knowledge.
Denmark, where the latter added the basic develop-
ment and fundamental ideas of the GMO concept
into the project.

Figure 3
Example situation
from the prototype
with lampposts and
manholes as GMOs

PERSPECTIVE the back site, connecting them with smart algorithms
The development with the prototype showed clearly to provide a bigger picture, and better decision sup-
the huge potential of an open system where building port. The latter is actually one of the biggest chal-
objects are encapsulated structures, which unfolds lenges to face regarding sensor data. The GMO con-
themselves carrying all necessary information from cept can provide the platform for that. There are so
geometry to design- and maintaining rules. As soon many advantages of the GMO concept that it should
as they are loaded into the common design model be obvious to start developing in this direction. As
they are activated, and objects with behaviour are mentioned, Oracle has been starting off, and that
able to react on from outside coming impacts, and could be a turning point, but whether the big play-
to interact with other objects and users. As long as ers within CAD and GIS will turn their ships in another
the GMO can be executed by the virtual machine direction or perhaps put a new boat into the water,
one does not need anymore with regards to data ex- well, that is somewhat a different story.
change. Perfect for data fusion.
The drawback of this concept is that all exist- REFERENCES
ing CAD systems would need to be redesigned from Faus, JD and Wen, W 2012, 'Improving Interoper-
scratch. It would though be possible to create an ap- ability of 3D Geographic Features via Geographic
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GMO. Most GMO especially in the first period of time formation Modeling, 1(1), pp. 43-54
would mainly contain geometry perhaps one GMO Feldman, JA 1966, 'A Formal Semantics for Computer
will simply take care of objects containing geome- Languages and Its Application in a Compiler-
try altogether. It would be quite easy to create soft- compiler', Communications of the ACM, 9(1), pp.
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into GMO. Enhancing them with behaviour could be Khemlani, L 2008, 'Autodesk and Bentley', AECbytes,
made as drag and drop options within each domain. AECbytes "Building the Future" Article(July 10,
Most of the challenges have been discussed and 2008)
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Millions of Euros or whatever currency is pre- 2006, Innovations in 3D Geo Information Systems,
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[1] http://www.opengeospatial.org
[2] http://www.aecbytes.com/buildingthefuture/
2008/AutodeskBentleyAgreement.html
[3] http://griffnor.net
[4] http://www.oracle.com/us/solutions/
internetofthings

A Model for a Distributed Building Information System
Tasos Varoudis1 , Panagiotis Patlakas2
1
Bartlett School of Graduate Studies, University College London, UK
2
Technology School, Southampton Solent University, UK
1
http://www.bartlett.ucl.ac.uk 2 http://www.solent.ac.uk
1
t.varoudis@ucl.ac.uk 2 panagiotis.patlakas@solent.ac.uk
This paper sets the theoretical and technological framework for the development
of a distributed model for a holistic Building Information System. It commences
by summarizing versioning and revision control models in software engineering.
Then it proceeds to establish parallels between the distributed revision control
process and the building design process and argues that the underlying structure
of Building Information Modelling can be exploited for the development of a
similar structure for building design. The fundamental framework of such a
system, called Distributed Building Information System (DBIS), is described and
implementation strategies are discussed, while the potential difficulties are also
addressed.
Keywords: BIM, Distributed Building Information System, Source Code

Management
INTRODUCTION feeding from, and back to, each other [1].

The internet explosion of the past 20 years has Despite the significant interest of the AEC indus-
brought the advent of a wide range of technolo- try in digital tools though, little attention has been
gies and, perhaps for the first time, achieved full paid to software developments that appear external
integration of the digital in every realm of profes- to the sector. This is particularly pronounced for in-
sional and personal life. In architecture, engineering, novations that concentrate on "pure" or "core" soft-
and construction (AEC) the three key developments ware engineering topics, as they are considered not
were software advancements in the fields of visual- applicable to AEC. However this is not the case; as de-
ization (Computer-Aided Design, 3d modelling, com- sign assimilates the digital more and more, it also ab-
putational and parametric design etc.), engineer- sorbs exactly those "core" computer science and soft-
ing analysis and design (finite elements and com- ware engineering aspects. Often these provide im-
putational fluid dynamics methods, structural de- portant opportunities for innovation. This paper at-
sign packages etc.), and management (project and tempts to highlight exactly such an opportunity.
program management tools). Building Information
Modelling (BIM) aims to bring together these three AIMS AND SIGNIFICANCE
aspects introducing the concept of a "master model" This paper aims to provide the theoretical and tech-
in which the aforementioned tools work in tandem nological background for a new 3d model digital

framework that allows a new way of collaboration in versioning and revision control, a fundamental con-
modelling, analysis, and design among the AEC disci- cept in programming, evolved significantly with the
plines. Based on the BIM concept, it extends and ex- development of systems such as Apache Subversion
pands it to facilitate both intra-disciplinary and cross- (SVN) [2].
disciplinary working. For this purpose, it utilizes the
Figure 1
software engineering paradigm of Revision Control
Typical SVN
systems (RCS) and Source Code Management (SCM)
workflow
systems, effectively viewing the geometry and asso-
ciated information as a type of source code. A sec-
ondary aim is to introduce the fundamental concepts
that will guide implementation and distribution via a
cloud-based architecture.
The significance of this work is threefold. Firstly
it illustrates how software engineering concepts typ-
ically considered as outside the domain of AEC can
have direct beneficial impact; since it is highly likely
that in the near future the digital will become more
and more intertwined with the physical, this can be
just the initial development of many.
Secondly the paper introduces the concept of
the analogy between programming source code and
the digital representation of a building, including
both geometry and associated information. This is
not meant to be a linking metaphor, as it is often em-
ployed in digital, computational, and parametric de-
sign; instead it assumes the two concepts are directly
analogous, and sets up a clear blueprint for taking ad-
vantage of their similarities. This is not confined to
the topic presented here, but can ignite a wider con-
versation on the importance and consequences of
this relationship. Finally, by establishing a clear the-
oretical framework, it paves the way for implementa-
tion as discussed in the closing sections. Conceptually SVN revolves around a central
repository (repo), which represents the "correct" ver-
RCS AND BIM sion of the source code. Prior to working an individ-
ual contributor must update her local copy to reflect
An introduction to RCS and SCM
the latest version of the central repository (the HEAD
Managing complexity has been a problem of soft-
revision). Then the contributor can work on her code
ware engineering since its inception. The advent of
locally; when she is finished she has to commit her
the internet brought to programming the capability
changes to the central repo. This creates a new HEAD
of organizing and coordinating projects remotely, as
revision (Figure 1).
code could be sent around the globe practically in-
While SVN was a significant advance over tra-
stantaneously. At the same time, remote servers ex-
ditional versioning control, it had a number of dis-
panded the possibilities of the code repository. Thus

advantages, most prominent of which were the proved particularly suited to the needs of the open
difficulties of sorting conflicts (effectively discrep- source community, enabling the creation of initiative
ancies between different local copies) as well as likes Github, but today it has been adapted by many
resource-heavy "branching" (creating copies of the commercial vendors such as Microsoft [6] and Google
main source code for different purposes). [7].
The possibilities Git opened led to many differ-
Figure 2
ent ways of working, with various approaches con-
Git workflow
sidered during the first few years. Today however,
good practice tends to be based on variations of "the
successful Git branching model", initially reported by
Vincent Driessen [8] and now adopted by popular Git
clients such as SmartGit (Figure 2).
The success of this model relies on two factors.
Firstly it provides a clear way to manage the final
project while enabling the development of different
features and experimentation. Secondly, it supports
this workflow while preserving a major Git feature,
the opportunity for specialist groups to work on spe-
cific topics before integrating ("pushing" in Git termi-
nology) their changes back to the common model.
Analogies with BIM

The main concept of Building Information Modelling
presents some striking analogies with the version-
ing and revision control systems presented above.
An idealized BIM system revolves around a "master
model" which contains the entirety of information re-
lating to a building. While visualization, design, and
analysis are of paramount importance, the ambition
is for this master model to be used for the whole
range of activities involving a building, not only in its
design stage but also in its entire life-cycle (Figure 3).
Figure 3
BIM conceptual The next significant conceptual jump came from
model Linux creator Linus Torvalds [3]. Git introduced the
concept source code manage-ment (SCM) via a dis-
tributed revision control system (DRVS). This elimi-
nated the concept of the central ("true") repo and
allowed the development of many parallel versions
based on an original starting point [4]. Simulta-
neously, it introduced a number of significant per-
formance and safety improvements that resulted in
a much more agile system [5]. The DRVS concept

In this system direct parallels can be drawn be- itations much more quickly. Despite the various spe-
tween BIM and an SVN system. The master model cialisms, software engineering tends to be far more
is effectively a central repo. The various AEC special- uniform, with different programmers generally shar-
ists correspond to the developers and associated pro- ing a mindset, approach, and method of working.
fessionals working in software (though intended for This is very different to building design where the gap
code only, most SVN systems eventually included as- that separates even directly interfacing disciplines,
sets such as graphics etc). Initiatives like Autodesk's such as architects and structural engineers, is consid-
"BIM In The Cloud" make the similarities even more erable.
pronounced. Effectively, BIM is meant to support This places a disproportionate load on the pro-
a practically identical workflow, where individuals grammers of BIM software; effectively they are asked
work to a central repo/master model, and have to not only to combine a number of highly specialized
solve conflicts manually every time a revision calls it software packages but also to have this accessible,
(in SVN terminology). editable, and updateable by all specialties. The prob-
This also highlights the ambition to describe and lem of resolving HEAD revision conflicts was a major
manage all building information instead of just the vi- one in SVN; it can stop BIM in its tracks. It is not a coin-
sual aspects in one model, something which has led cidence that when BIM success stories are presented,
both in semantic confusion between the M in BIM, as the advantages tend to be concentrated in visualiza-
well as suggestions for acronyms like BIMM (Building tion and clash detection [9]
Information Modelling and Management). Irrespec- The current standard approach to deal with the
tive of the terminology that will prevail in the indus- limitations of the "master model" comes from the
try, the aspect that is pertinent to this paper is the concept of the reference (or even sub-reference)
change of focus for the digital; models now are rede- models, with the ambition to integrate this in future
fined semantically. The digital model is not a visual BIM developments such as BIM Maturity Level 3 in
model of a physical object, but a multi-dimensional the UK. The implementation of this in actual com-
(4D, 5D, 6D, effectively nD) representation of consec- mercial applications is limited, and it is doubtful how
utive semantic layers of information. effective this is in practice. Simultaneously it raises
significant technological challenges; the proprietary
CURRENT APPROACHES AND LIMITA- underlying data structures of the leading BIM pack-
ages make interoperability and integration particu-
TIONS OF BIM
larly difficult . Infamously, Autodesk Revit, arguably
When there is talk about the limitations of BIM, the in-
the leading BIM application, does not save down to
dustry tends to concentrate on requesting additional
an older Revit version, thus requiring the same model
features, usually as implemented in specific software
and the software to be in the same version for the en-
packages. While this is understandable from a busi-
tire project team. Enabling cross-discipline collabo-
ness perspective, where immediate benefits and re-
ration in an extremely diverse and fragmented indus-
turn of investment are of primary importance, it is
try such as the construction industry appears partic-
safe to say that these are issues that can be addressed
ularly challenging with current approaches.
in the short- or mid-term. What this conversation ig-
Researchers have addressed these issues by uti-
nores however is an obvious limitation with the exist-
lizing the Model View Definitions (MVDs) which al-
ing BIM concept.
low the filtering of data according to pre-set parame-
As established above, the "BIM in the cloud" ob-
ters [10]. This enables the identification of discipline-
jective has striking conceptual similarities with SVN
specific aspects thus assisting different specialists
development. The limitations of SVN were men-
with the BIM transition. The issue of the underly-
tioned above, but BIM might be faced with such lim-

ing data model though remains extremely impor- Information representation
tant. The traditional answer by researchers is the In- The representation of all building-related informa-
dustry Foundation Classes (IFC). Despite being in de- tion should be on an XML-like structure, based on a
velopment for more than a decade, and overseen human-readable text-format and a hierarchical struc-
by the buildingSMART alliance which includes the ture. Variations such as JSON [12], and various com-
main software vendors, their actual adaption in prac- pression formats are a possibility for size optimization
tice has been very limited. Cerovsek for example re- and transmission purposes.
ports that IFCs have failed to achieve interoperabil- A key difference between DBIS and BIM is that
ity, trust, and comparability [11]. This is likely to be a building model is not constrained in one file. In-
due to the mega-schema approach adopted by the stead the project consists of various files that repre-
IFCs. Despite being an open and extensible schema, sent different layers of information. Hence, not all
its attempt to fit everything within one data struc- the personnel working on a building will need to en-
ture makes its chances of large-scale industry adop- gage with all files. Instead, different specialists work
tion unlikely. with different files, depending on project require-
It is here where learning from RCS can be not ments and/or contractual rights (for example a build-
only particularly useful, but also open a great range ing services contractor might not have access to the
of possibilities for further development. What is pro- geotechnical engineering components). This is a rad-
posed in this paper is effectively a method for tag- ical departure from the MVD/IFC model which still
ging, linking, and combining these conceptual layers. assumes that all model-related information is con-
The framework can be seen as a Distributed Building strained in one file.
Information System, henceforth referred to as DBIS. In this, the DBIS corresponds to developing a
software application; building-related information is
A METHODOLOGY FOR A DBIS split in packages, further subdivided in objects. Each
The development of a DBIS framework required ad- object is an individual text file, with variables that de-
dressing five key areas with regard to building infor- scribe different properties. In addition, an object in-
mation: cludes a list of the allowed actions that can be per-
formed on it; these can be also restricted by contrib-
• how the information is represented as data utors.
Table 1 • how the data is organized, classified, and

Sample object linked
structure
• how the data is transmitted, stored, and
shared
• how the data is manipulated, edited, and

analysed
• conflict resolution
Obviously a single paper cannot address all these

points in implementation-ready depth. However the
top-level methodology is provided here, in order to
lay the groundwork of the framework and illustrate So for example a Beam object might allow a
how implementation is achievable.

changeDepth function, but an architect might have Table 2
changed this to false for a specific beam to prevent Example of object
a contributing engineer from increasing the depth classification and
(Table 1). The main differences with a programming tagging system.
class are two:
• this "building source code" is typically not ma-

nipulated directly, but via software applica-
tions which will render the information and
provide specific tools
These tags determine not only the interoperabil-

• the actions that an object can receive do not
ity between objects, but also the software applica-
contain their own instructions (as a program-
tion(s) in which these can be manipulated (as will be
ming class) but simply provide a flag for orga-
explained later).
nizing the data
Data storage, transmission, sharing and in-
Data organization, classification and link- frastructure
age The text-based nature of the file architecture, as well
The internal representation of the information should as the fact that different data is stored in different files
correspond to the notion of one base Object as it means both that individual objects are lightweight,
is standard practice in modern object-oriented pro- and that not all contributors need access to the en-
gramming languages such as Java. This will enable tire file set. Filtering can be done by package, by the
the internal consistency of all building information, tag described above, or by additional tags that would
as well as backwards compatibility. describe contractual obligations.
The first main classification of objects is between Transmission and distribution is done via the
tangible and intangible properties, on corresponding web, following the DRVS principles established
to physical objects (e.g. a column) and the other to above. A key element here is that different groups
human-defined concepts (e.g a room). With such a of contributors have access to different versions of
distinction established, the rest of the properties can the model. This can mean that specialist groups can
be described. work on different iterations before feeding back to
The XML-like structure allows for categorizations; the common system. Examples of such actions could
for example a geometry file includes <Shape> nodes be the architects working on the design, the struc-
which include vertex arrays, etc, drawing from the tural engineers working on the structure, the visu-
established Scene-graph paradigm in 3D graphics alization specialists working on add-on site compo-
frameworks [13]. nents etc (figure 4). This is done on local branches of
An important aspect is the need to classify ob- the source file system, after the Git model presented
jects depending on their usability. Each object earlier. The option of keeping only the required ele-
should include a range of boolean tags that would ments, as well as the text-based nature of the source
identify the aspects to which it is pertinent to. For data means that this is lightweight and hence achiev-
example a column on the third floor could have the able.
following tags demonstrated in table 2.

Figure 4 of the available computing power. At the same time,
Example of it has limited tolerance to errors, and it is absolutely
distributed model fundamental to follow good practice when setting up
the original model. Moreover, as it has been pointed
out, despite the need for Integrated Project Delivery
(IPD), most work remains intra-disciplinary and BIM
has done little to address that [14].
The concept behind DBIS assumes that, noble
as the aim of full interdisciplinary working might be,
perhaps it is not achievable or even desirable. Dif-
ferent specialisms have evolved different methods of
working largely for good reason; constraining them
in a single platform by force is unlikely to lead to har-
monious collaboration. Instead it is more likely to
lead in increased friction.
The system uses the client-server model from In addition, the BIM software developer is almost
distributed computing in order to provide a scal- condemned by the problem he has set for himself. By
able distributed application structure that partitions definition, the cutting edge in each discipline will be
tasks and workloads in a way similar to specialist achieved by specialist software. It is unlikely that an
teams working on a project. The model can offer all-inclusive BIM platform will be able to offer simul-
access and concurrency transparency for the users. taneously cutting-edge dynamic analysis for earth-
DBIS servers can use a modern file system like ZFS quake engineering, cutting-edge visualization, and
[15] which amongst other features supports protec- cutting-edge program management. It is also doubt-
tion against data corruption, efficient data compres- ful that this is needed.
sion for the project repositories and continuous in- What is needed is a common description of the
tegrity checking; ideas that exist in the Git model. project, not of the ways of manipulating it. The DBIS
The DBIS client-server communication will be gov- framework functions as a way of describing a design
erned by a cross-platform application layer interface or an existing building. This can be fed back into spe-
(API). As the model is based on the XML-like Object cialist software for manipulation, editing, and analy-
based system the application layer protocol can be sis. Having performed the specialist operations, the
implemented with both a sophisticated high perfor- specialist software will have two types of outputs.
mance network protocol with build-in data compres- One will be the discipline-specific (e.g. the thermal
sion (Web/Cloud service etc.) or a backwards com- comfort calculations by an environmental designer,
patible text streaming Transmission Control Protocol a 3d walkthrough by a visualization expert etc). The
(TCP) service for any software package that supports other is any updates done to the project (e.g. chang-
scripting via a high-level programming language. Be- ing the insulation of a wall), which will be fed back to
low we discuss the importance of an easy to use and the central DBIS.
implement communication with any software used At the same time, this approach addresses prob-
by experts. lems that are currently plaguing BIM, such as back-
wards compatibility and the "closed silo" effect. Af-
Data manipulation, editing, and analysis ter all, the DBIS is not a file format, but a semantic
It is perhaps in this area that the DBIS offers the great- cataloguing, organization, and description of build-
est potential. Despite significant advances in recent ing data. Also, the type-based structure means that
years, BIM software remains heavy, pushing the limits

upgrades, downgrades, and cross-platform transfor- • branching is cheap in resources
mation tasks can be automated much more simply.
• specialist groups can try a number of itera-
Conflict resolution tions and different designs without interact-
Conflict resolution is obviously a very important ing with a "master" model
topic, not only in software engineering or in build-
• significant improvent in back-up and version
ing design, but in any collaborative activity. As men-
control; this not only enhances collaboration
tioned previously, the introduction of BIM has im-
but addresses the issue of As-Built drawings /
proved conflict resolution in aspects such as clash de-
models, as well as Whole Life-Cycle Monitor-
tection. In this, the DBIS offers at least an equal, if not
ing
much improved, performance. Clashes, changes, and
conflicts are identified in a similar way. However, not • the similarity of the structure with Git sug-
constraining the source models to one all-inclusive gests better security for project data
application means that the software's task is much
easier. This is likely to allow for more seamless work- As is the case for any framework, many issues remain
ing. Indeed the only software that might be shared to be addressed.
by all members of a team could be a viewer-only ap- Key possible concerns are:
plication that visualizes all the semantic layers of the
DBIS. • cross-platform and cross-vendor "buy-in" for
a single data-exchange model; similar prob-
lems have appeared for file formats that deal
CONCLUSIONS with geometry representation such as COL-
The framework presented in this paper aims to im-
LADA and gbXML. The ambition is that the
prove and expand on concepts that already exist in
lightweight nature of this approach will make
nascent form behind BIM. The technology exists for
implementation much easier.
implementation, and the framework is generic allow-
ing development in different languages and accom- • the cost in time and effort of resolving con-
modating different programming structures. flicts would probably require a specialist, ef-
Drawing from the example presented above, it is fectively a new professional role
important to make some key observations from this
workflow: • software vendors of individual DBIS-
compatible applications would have to ob-
• users only download the files that are applica- serve specific requirements to ensure full
ble to their project compatibility; it is likely that detailed schemas
need to be developed
• different applications are used for different
tasks, thus allowing for far leaner software; the While these concerns are important, previous exam-
DBIS functions as a data exchange medium ples in computer science and software engineering
indicate that these obstacles are not insurmountable,
• a common lightweight viewer is shared by all either from a single vendors (e.g. Sun Microsystems
parties; this functions as a geometry visualiza- and the development of Java) or from the wider open
tion tool, conflict identifier and updated, and source community (as with Git itself ).
data viewer An immediate first step is implementation in a
specific system. A strategy for implementation in
• parallel working is enabled Java, with XML as the data representation system is

currently being developed. Fittingly, the initial data
exchange system will rely on a Git implementation.
The promise of DBISs is significant; it harnesses
the good points behind BIM, as well as the power of
cloud and distributed computing. Simultaneously,
it addresses issues that have plagued BIM from the
start, both technical (complexity and resources re-
quirements of software) and professional (such as in-
tellectual property and contractual issues between
collaborators). At the same time, it deals directly with
aspects of the Built Environment, such as whole life-
cycle monitoring and management, which are be-
coming constantly more pertinent. More research
and development is needed to examine this promise
further and identify its limitations.
REFERENCES
Angel, E L and Shreiner, D 2011, Interactive Computer
Graphics: A Top-Down Approach with Shader-Based
OpenGL, Pearson Education
Cerovsek, T 2011, 'A review and outlook for a ‘Building
Information Model’ (BIM): A multi-standpoint frame-
work for technological developmen', Advanced Engi-
neering Informatics, 25, pp. 224-244
Chacon, S 2009, Pro Git, Apress
Holzer, D 2011, 'BIM’s seven deadly sins', International
Journal of Architec-tural Computing, 9, pp. 463-480
Katranuschkov, P, Weise, M, Windisch, R and Fuchs, R
2010, 'BIM-based generation of multi-model views',
CIB, W78 , pp. 10-15
Oliver, A 2013, BIM: Change Culture, New Civil Engineer
[1] http://www.nationalbimstandard.org/about.php
[2] http://subversion.apache.org/features.html
[3] http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4XpnKHJAok8
[4] https://git.wiki.kernel.org/index.php/
GitSvnComparison
[5] http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/
hh850437.aspx
[6] http://googlecode.blogspot.co.uk/2011/08/
announcing-git-support-for-google-code.html
[7] http://nvie.com/posts/a-successful-git-branching-
model/
[8] http://www.json.org/fatfree.html
[9] http://www.open-zfs.org/wiki/Announcement

Understanding technological interoperability through
observations of data leakage in Building Information
Modelling (BIM) based transactions
Kieran A. J. Stapleton1 , Barry J. Gledson2 , Zaid Alwan3
1,2,3
Faculty of Engineering and Environment, Northumbria University, Newcastle
Upon Tyne, NE1 8ST
1,2,3
{kieran.stapleton|barry.gledson|zaid.alwan}@northumbria.ac.uk
The use of Building Information Modelling (BIM) and collaborative techniques

have been identified as solutions to the problem of managing construction project
information and data. However the implementation and success of BIM may
stagnate due to issues associated with unsatisfactory technological
interoperability, which can impede the flow of information through a project
lifecycle. To gain further understanding of technological interoperability within a
BIM-enabled project environment, a review of relevant literature was undertaken
to assimilate key information and provide a framework for future research. An
observational method of reviewing a series of data transactions between multiple
BIM packages was then devised in order to assess interoperability issues, and
inform future research design. Interim findings from the preliminary stage of this
research project have been reported in this paper.
Keywords: BIM, information technology, interoperability, technology transfer,

data leakage
INTRODUCTION tional practices of information generation and man-

Poorly communicated and fragmented information agement does not allow for information of poten-
is considered to be a contributing factor of con- tially higher value to be captured during the complex
struction project failure (Demian & Walters, 2013; and heterogeneous process of asset creation. As nu-
Austin, Baldwin, & Newton, 1994), with several re- merous disparate stakeholders are needed to recip-
searchers identifying inefficiencies resulting in defi- rocate and recycle large quantities of information in
cient decision-making (Ding et al, 2012; Kam, 2005), order to make a series of interrelated decisions dur-
lifecycle management (Lucas, Bulbul & Thabet, 2013; ing the design, construction, maintenance and oper-
Wong & Fan, 2013; Garba & Hassanain, 2004) and pro- ational phases of a project lifecycle, a more holistic
ductivity (Eastman et al, 2011). All too often, informa- and collaborative approach to information manage-
tion used within projects is assumption based, gener- ment is required.
ated in isolation then homogenised resulting in po- Building Information Modelling (BIM) and collab-
tentially avoidable errors. Adherence to these tradi- orative management techniques have been identi-

fied as potential solutions to managing construction ogy. "consisting of a set of policies, processes and tech-
project information, but the implementation and nologies" (Succar, 2009, p.357). Despite the various
success of BIM may stagnate due to issues associated definitions of BIM, there is consensus in relation to
with unsatisfactory interoperability, with technologi- its implementation and usage occurring at strategic,
cal factors impeding the flow of information through organisational and project levels (Porwal & Hewage,
the project lifecycle (Grillo & Jardim-Goncalves, 2010; 2013; Eastman et al, 2011; Kam, 2005) and bene-
Aranda-Mena et al, 2009). No single software is able fits to be gained from an integrated approach com-
to satisfy participants involved in the entire project bining people, processes and technology. As a con-
lifecycle, leaving stakeholders to utilise a myriad of sequence, it has been associated with collaborative
software packages to undertake functions necessary methods of working such as Integrated Project Deliv-
for project delivery and inabilities to exchange infor- ery (Wong & Fan, 2013), leading researchers to sug-
mation accurately and seamlessly, generate further gest this as the end goal of BIM maturity and other
costly inefficiencies. Interoperability is defined by the value-focused approaches such as Concurrent Engi-
IEEE as "the ability to which systems and organizations neering (CE) or Lean (Demian & Walters, 2013; Sacks
work together exchanging information and resources". et al, 2010b).
The aim of this paper is to enable further understand- Similar to its implementation, the output/deliv-
ing of interoperability within a BIM-enabled project erable of BIM is also consistent throughout literature
environment. To achieve this, a review of the salient which a semantically linked, data-rich, object orien-
literature is first necessary in order to assimilate key tated, intelligent and parametric building informa-
information about interoperability from technologi- tion model (Eastman et al, 2011). The benefits and
cal and process orientated perspectives and to pro- impact of BIM vary according to its context, definition
vide a framework for future research, then findings and usage, where benefits can relate to the coordina-
from an in-progress research project will be reported. tion and optimization of design, construction, main-
A large body of literature is available relating to in- tenance and operational phases of a project lifecycle
teroperability and BIM, that has had particular focus (Bryde, Broquetas & Volm, 2013; Wong & Fan, 2013;
on the interoperability of data (Venugopal et al, 2012; Ding et al, 2012). However, the implementation and
Hetherington et al, 2011; Sacks et al, 2010a; Steel, large-scale BIM benefits remain generally unrealized
Drogemuller and Toth, 2010), business (Grillo and due to issues of interoperability. Poor interoperabil-
Jardim-Goncalves, 2010; Shen et al, 2010; Aranda- ity has been identified consistently as a major bar-
Mena et al, 2009; Aranda-Mean and Wakefield, 2007), rier for BIM implementation and usage and many re-
and software and web-based interoperability (Red- searchers believe the benefits of BIM can only be re-
mond et al, 2012; Toth et al, 2012; Chen et al, 2005). alised if the associated interoperability issues are re-
The literature has also considered the generation of solved (Demian & Walters, 2013; Porwal & Hewage,
frameworks to assess the value of interoperability at 2013; Azhar, 2011). Bryde, Broquetas & Volm (2013)
business level (Becerik-Gerber & Rice, 2010). suggest that poor software interoperability actually
counteracts any benefits associated with BIM and col-
BIM AND INTEROPERABILITY laborative working, most notably the inability to han-
During the last decade, a paradigm shift has occurred dle large quantities of data and exchange of data.
in the way information is viewed, shared and organ-
ised within projects because of the proliferated use TECHNOLOGICAL INTEROPERABILITY
of Building Information Modelling. Multiple defini- Literature relating to technological interoperability
tions of BIM refer to its application as a tool, a process, largely views interoperability from a software or data
and a holistic information management methodol- perspective, in which BIM is predominantly defined

Figure 1
Some common
data exchange
methods
as a tool (Toth et al, 2012). Shen et al (2010) and Venu- formats, i.e. a neutral file format which can be used
gopal et al (2012) argue that interoperable data alone to exchange data between any software application
is insufficient as it focuses purely on the interchange that has a non-proprietary import and export func-
of data, and while the data may be exchanged freely, tion, and XML-based exchange formats (which will
it does not account for quality or appropriateness for not be considered in this study).
purpose. Therefore there is a need to view techno- The use of non-proprietary data models have
logical interoperability not only from a data perspec- been identified as the most favourable solution to
tive but also from a process perspective. interoperability, allowing successfully mapping be-
tween an applications' internal data structure and a
Data Interoperability universal data structure without the need for rework
Data interoperability, within a BIM enabled project integrating data models (Grillo & Jardim-Goncalves,
environment, focuses on the ability in which build- 2010). The other data exchange methods are re-
ing information models are interpreted, shared and stricted in terms of flexibility and inability to deliver
used between software applications (Grillo & Jardim- 'smart' object data and limited data transfer (Eastman
Goncalves, 2010; Shen et al, 2010). Eastman et al et al, 2011).
(2011) identifies four common methods of exchang- Direct Data Exchanges. The exchange of data
ing data that are depicted in Figure 1: Direct ex- through direct methods is hampered by its inabil-
change of data using proprietary links within soft- ity to integrate fully with software from other ven-
ware, i.e. same vendor data exchange; Use of propri- dors. A possible solution could be the use of a mas-
etary file exchange formats, i.e. simplified data for- ter suite of software, however Ashcraft (2009) and
mats which carry limited data between different ven- Ibrahim, Krawczyk & Schipporeit (2004) argue that
dors; Use of non-proprietary data model exchange

this method could limit innovation and would not ac- the bSDD can be used for any exchange format.
count for every aspect of the building lifecycle. Us- Information Delivery Manual's and Model View
ing such methodology would raise additional issues Definition's. IDM's are registered as an official inter-
such as hardware and resources required to utilise national standard, ISO 29481-1:2010 and are used as
and maintain such an extensive approach. a method of improving process interoperability and
Proprietary Data Exchanges. In relation to the use functionality of data schemas, by describing subsets
of proprietary file exchange formats, there is limited of project information at any step in the project work-
operability of such data exchanges as they are only flow in order to fulfil the stakeholder's information
able to transfer geometric data, and do not support requirements (Sacks et al, 2010a). However, there
the transfer of semantically linked descriptive objects are limitations with the use of IDM's as they only de-
(Eastman et al, 2011). fine the tangibles where intangibles such as culture,
Non-Proprietary Data Exchanges. The most com- value and management of contractual issues cur-
mon non-proprietary data format utilised in the con- rently remain outside the scope of its coverage (Grillo
struction industry is Industry Foundation Classes & Jardim-Goncalves, 2010). Within an IFC schema,
(IFC). The IFC is a neutral data schema, conceived IDM's alone are insufficient to provide complete in-
by buildingSMART (formerly the IAI) in 1995, with teroperability, as the IFC structure itself is highly re-
the intention of defining a common language for dundant due to the varied options available to de-
data sharing in the construction industry through- fine the objects, relations and attributes, leaving data
out a project lifecycle (Aranda-Mena & Wakefield, exchanges at risk of unreliability secondary to poor
2007). The IFC schema uses the ISO Express lan- cohesiveness of data import and export (Venugopal
guage (STEP-11) as its primary descriptor language et al, 2012; Steel, Drogemuller & Toth, 2010). In or-
(Grillo & Jardim-Goncalves, 2010), and is registered der to challenge this, MVD's are used to define how
as an official international standard, ISO 16739:2013 the information is structured within the IFC schema,
This schema is a neutral data structure, which defines a method supported by the National Building Infor-
data relating to objects, attributes and relationships mation Modelling Standard (NBIMS). Model views are
contained within a Building Information Model [1], subsets of the entire schema which contain all the
consisting of multiple views which are used to de- requirements used to satisfy specific information ex-
fine data set requirements depending on its intended changes throughout the project lifecycle.
purpose. BuildingSMART Data Dictionary. In order to ascer-
tain true coherency throughout the process there is a
Process Interoperability need to have a common language which defines pro-
As well as data interoperability, frameworks associ- cesses and information within the IDM and the MVD
ated with processes, information exchanges and re- [2,3]. The bSDD achieves this by defining a common
quirements also need to be designed for interop- vocabulary for objects within the IFC schema, bring-
erability if functionality between interoperable data ing together disparate data sets and generating a co-
models is to be ensured (Shen et al, 2010). Numer- herent view of the information within the IFC schema
ous methods of improving process interoperability [4]. The bSDD is based on the official international
within a BIM-enabled project environment defined standard ISO 12006-3:2007.
by buildingSMART exist, including the Information This section established that technological in-
Delivery Manual (IDM), Model View Definitions (MVD) teroperability does not only encompass the data in-
and buildingSMART Data Dictionary (bSDD). These teroperability but also discusses the need for con-
standards have been developed with the intention of sidering technological interoperability from a pro-
improving IFC functionality, but the use of IDM's and cess perspective, where the use of non-proprietary

schema's were found to be the most suitable method capital phase and operational phases of a project
for improving interoperability within a BIM-enabled lifecycle. Information within the capital phase of a
project. In terms of how process interoperability is project is captured through a series of data-drops at
usually considered, several researchers have consid- pre-defined stages of a project lifecycle (Lucas, Bul-
ered the more human aspects of process interop- bul & Thabet, 2013). Instances of these data-capture
erability, particularly the impact that collaborative points can be found at UK national level in the 2013
working has upon process dynamics (Rekola, Kojima, RIBA Plan of Works. The rigidity of this format pro-
& Mäkeläinen, 2010; Tizani, 2007). Whilst it would duces little positive impact within the early stages of
be interesting to pursue how aspects of data filter- the project lifecycle, the information generated be-
ing and comprehension are achieved throughout the ing evolutionary and iterative, as it only provides a
common work of several diverse specialists, because one way information flow, resulting in inefficiencies
of a need to limit scope, these aspects will not be con- associated to re-entry of the information if/when al-
sidered in this work. terations are made. It could be argued that this was
not its original purpose, though acts as a stepping
CURRENT STATUS OF TECHNOLOGICAL IN- stone to an integrated approach.
Associations and governments, realize that this
TEROPERABILITY
method of technological interoperability is insuffi-
The use of an IFC schema alongside an IDM, using
cient for an integrated approach, and view IFC as the
MVD's and sBDD appears to be the most feasible
solution to advancing technological interoperability,
solution to improving technological interoperability,
where the U.K. has identified the IFC schema in Level
however, noted usage throughout literature remains
3 of BIM maturity. Shen et al (2010) states that the
largely restricted to pilot projects and research con-
widespread use of IFC has been limited due to the
ducted by industry or academia (Ma, Wei & Zhang,
lack of resources for rapid development and promo-
2013; Redmond et al, 2012; Toth et al, 2012; Venu-
tion, where it could be considered that poor progress
gopal et al, 2012; Hetherington et al, 2011; Sacks et
is limited due to software vendors focusing on their
al, 2010a; Steel, Drogemuller and Toth, 2010; Chen
own proprietary functionality. Others (Aranda-Mena
et al, 2005). There currently appears to be an over-
& Wakefield, 2007; Amour & Faraj, 2001) suggest that
reliance on direct software links to exchange infor-
it may be due to socio-technological barriers such as
mation, though as discussed, the use of direct soft-
skills, trust, training, interpretation. Grillo & Jardim-
ware links are rigid and often unable to deliver data
Goncalves (2010) believe that the reason for poor
throughout the entire project lifecycle. Current at-
interoperability is poor understanding of the value
tempts to achieve technological interoperability in-
associated with interoperability, and concludes that
volve the use of the Construction Operations Build-
such technological interoperability is actually feasi-
ing information exchange (COBie).
ble. This view is contradicted by researchers who be-
Construction Operations Building informa- lieve that the IFC schema in its current state is insuf-
tion exchange (COBie) ficient due to issues relating to information transfer
COBie developed by the United States Army Corps and limited coverage of the schema (Delfosse et al,
of Engineers acts as a progressive record of infor- 2012; Hetherington et al, 2011).
mation during a project lifecycle and has been inte-
grated into the 2016 United Kingdom (U.K.) govern-
IFC Limitations
Porwal & Hewage (2013) experienced that when im-
ment target for collaborative 3D BIM on all public sec-
plementing a potential BIM framework, IFC related is-
tor AEC projects - also known as Level 2 BIM Maturity
sues relating to file generation, transference and data
- in attempts to improve information flow between

degradation meant that the information using IFC as and Building Performance Software (Hetherington et
the main source of file transfer was restricted to ex- al, 2011). Amour & Faraj (2001) argue that the lim-
change between Architect's and Building Service En- ited coverage of IFC is actually due to its misinter-
gineer's, which resulted in the team reverting back pretations, where initial focus was intended for mi-
to using direct links between software. This is due cro level aspects as opposed to macro, ensuring in
to IFC's limited coverage, where objects not stated its current state, the idea of an integrated repository
within the data schema are imported as mesh ele- using IFC remains undelivered with further develop-
ments known as IFC 'proxy' elements (Venugopal et ment required to improve technological interoper-
al, 2012; Steel, Drogemuller & Toth, 2010). Ashcraft ability sufficiently to encapsulate the complex and
(2009) argues that such issues lie not only with the evolutionary nature of the construction project.
IFC schema itself, but also the IFC translator embed-
ded within the proprietary software. METHOD
Due to the various approaches to viewing the IFC This section reports the interim findings from the pre-
schema, translators are often disparate to suit their liminary stage of a research project. The purpose of
primary function (Ashcraft, 2009), where some only this initial phase was to begin to develop a method
provide one-way communication flow, as witnessed of assessing technological interoperability by record-
within Sacks et al (2010a) where the researchers used ing observations of data loss or leakage. Follow-
a version of IFC, IFC 2x2, which would not allow for ing the literature review, a series of data exchanges
two-way flow with the type of translator used, in- between multiple BIM platforms was planned, and
creasing the risk of potential information inconsis- an appraisal of 22 BIM enabled products commer-
tencies each time data was re-entered. Although rec- cially available in the UK was undertaken to deter-
tified in the latest release of IFC 2x4, potential er- mine the broad categories of BIM software types.
rors when exchanging information using IFC remain Whilst descriptions of comparable products can vary
highlighted. As well as rework associated with IFC widely between different vendors because of ven-
and its translators, IFC doesn't support the entire ob- dor marketing strategies there can also be instances
ject information library of proprietary software, re- where products offer combined functionality, for ex-
sulting in data loss through each import and export, ample 4D visualisation and clash detection functions
degradation of information, and in some instances can exist either in separate discrete BIM tools or can
loss of semantic, descriptive and parametric func- also be provided as a crossover product in model re-
tionality (Venugopal et al, 2012; Hetherington et al, view and management software. Although the ap-
2011; Amour & Faraj, 2001). Ashcraft (2009) high- praisal was not exhaustive, it was representative of
lights that the inability to exchange data seamlessly the broad functional types of BIM software packages
and consistently could potentially result in litigious currently available which have been categorised as
practices should errors related to re-entry or data- follows: Design authoring software (5 products); En-
loss remain undetected. This highlights the flaw with ergy analysis software (10 products); Model review
viewing technological interoperability purely from a and management software (5 products), Quantity
data perspective, as the implementation of process take-off and measurement software (2).
interoperability methods highlighted earlier could A simple two storey model of a basic domes-
eliminate the risk of such issues, providing they are tic dwelling was produced in each of the three BIM
executed properly. design authoring software packages, making use of
This lack of coverage also extends to building objects available from a publicly available BIM ob-
performance analysis, where in its current format; IFC ject repositories. The originating model was then ex-
inhibits the transfer of model details between BIM ported using various methods of exchanging data

Figure 2
Model of planned
data exchanges.
Arrows denoting
several transactions
between Design
Authoring Software
to Model Review &
Management,
packages and
Design Authoring
Software to Energy
Analysis packages
are omitted for
clarity.
as detailed in the literature review to all other BIM prietary exchanges in addition to other types of ex-
design authoring software packages (bi-directional changes detailed. The vendors own in-built Import/-
exchanges); three other model review and manage- Export functions were used rather than 3rd party ap-
ment software packages (one way data exchanges plications in order to assess the quality of their func-
only). At the time of writing, there are several transac- tionality.
tions yet to be undertaken from the design authoring Whilst performing these exchanges, a 'soft'
platforms to the three selected energy analysis soft- method of analysis was undertaken where the re-
ware platforms (one way data transactions). search team recorded observations where any ob-
By the time the research will have been com- vious 'data leakage' had occurred. These were
pleted, regardless of the actual higher number of recorded using a simple checklist produced followed
data exchange transactions that will have occurred a review of appropriate academic and technical lit-
(unknown at present because of any multiples in- erature (including documentation from Pennsylvania
volved in any non proprietary exchanges), a mini- State University, UK BIM AEC Protocols, AIA and BS
mum of 23 classifications of data exchange will have 1192/BAS 1192.2). Upon completion of these pre-
occurred, (Figure 2 illustrates these exchanges). 6 liminary tests, the checklist will be refined as the re-
exchanges would occur from each design authoring search team aims to make use of a more quantitative
platform to each receiving Energy analysis or Model method of assessing technological interoperability.
review and management software packages (18 ex-
changes), and two way interoperability would be as- INTERIM RESULTS
sessed between the three design authoring software At this stage in the research two of the three rounds
packages (6 exchanges). No model manipulation of classifications of data exchange have been com-
would occur in the receiving platform upon comple- pleted: In Round 1, the bidirectional transactions
tion of the transaction, other than a visual interroga- between Design Authoring Software to Design Au-
tion of the model and review of the data in the receiv- thoring Software (13 transactions) and in Round 2,
ing application in order to assess model fitness for the one way transactions from the Design Authoring
any subsequent tasks. Note that the top row of Figure Software packages to the Model Review & Manage-
2 denotes same-vendor exchanges allowing for pro-

ment Software (21 transactions) occurred. Transac- including different roof and floor types whilst sus-
tions between the Design Authoring Software to the pended ceiling types did not transfer across; There
Energy Analysis Software have yet to be undertaken. were also some examples of components moving to
At this stage only broad observations have been re- incorrect locations, including internal walls relocat-
ported. ing from level 1 to roof level, and the level 1 ceiling
being imported at roof level.
Figure 3
Round 2: Design Authoring Software pack- Transaction from
ages to the Model Review & Management design authoring
Software software to model
Although these transactions provided fewer in- review and
stances of data leakage than in the previous round, management
there were also several notable observations, includ- software using a
ing substantial variances on the quality of the de- general translator
tail of wall joints in different transactions (see fig- for IFC 2 x 3
ures 3 and 4), and in minor instances wall objects
being represented in different colour than originally Figure 4
designed. Construction detailing was not always ap- Separate
parent in the wall jointing, and dimensions would be transaction from
displayed but the unit of measurement would not same design
always be provided (i.e. m2, mm2, inches, etc). In authoring software
some instances material assemblies were not shown, to same model
but more usually, material textures were not trans- review and
ferred across although the research team assumed management
that this is because of the different material libraries software using
used by the separate vendors. Although this may be different translator.
perceived to be a minor issue, this is something that Note difference in
the research team consider would create confusion in wall junction.
Round 1: Design Authoring Software to De- a site team, particularly in terms of confidence when
sign Authoring Software relying upon a BIM. Finally, in some instances the
There were several notable instances of poor interop- research team could not always locate object GUID
erability in this round of transactions including some properties and cannot be sure that these items trans-
instances of wall & floor hatching not being transferred across correctly.
ferred correctly and inconsistencies in the detailing
of wall joints, with separately detailed wall joints not
being transferred accurately. For example, detailed DISCUSSION
Mitre joints were consistently transferred from one This research project is at an early stage and only
platform to another, where in contrast any detailed the interim results have been reported, it would ap-
Butt joints were not been correctly transferred. There pear that data leakage is more common when ex-
was one transaction where the roof thickness was changing data between different design authoring
different in the receiving platform, and several in- software platforms than when transferring data to a
stances where the naming of floor plans had not platform specifically created for model review. The
transferred across correctly. Component families of- team has yet to complete the transactions and subse-
ten did not transfer across - several examples of this quent analysis of exchanges from Design Authoring

Software to the Energy Analysis Software packages is members; however this could potentially lead to is-
needed in order to verify this proposition, then fol- sues relating to integrity of the data schema. Another
lowing the final round of 'soft' analysis of data leak- solution could be to educate the industry on how to
age, the team will need to review the processes, re- correctly build upon the schema. The research raised
sults and conclusions drawn from this preliminary another question in relation to the future develop-
stage of research before attempting to formulate a ment of the IFC schema. If the progress of the IFC de-
more robust method of measuring aspects of tech- velopment is slow due to the software vendors devel-
nological interoperability. oping their own proprietary schemas, does the push
for non-proprietary data schemas have enough com-
CONCLUSION mitment? BuildingSMART is a voluntary organisation
This immediate research highlights the need to con- and does not have the resources of the software ven-
sider technological interoperability within a BIM- dors. Perhaps an integrated approach from all soft-
enabled project environment from a process as well ware vendors and buildingSMART focusing purely on
as a technology perspective to explore useful and the development of non-proprietary data schemas is
seamless information exchanges. Whilst the re- needed.
search team are currently focused on the technol-
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Combining Augmented Reality and Building Information
Modelling
An industry perspective on applications and future directions.
Fabian Danker1 , Oliver Jones2

1
BIM Academy 2 Northumbria University
1
www.fabiandanker.com
1
info@fabiandanker.com 2 oliver.g.f.jones@northumbria.ac.uk
This paper presents a study which has evaluated current research on the topic of
Augmented Reality (AR) and Building Information Modelling (BIM), conducted
semi structured interviews with a panel of industry experts and surveyed a sample
group of 43 within the wider UK construction industry . Industry experts were
interviewed using semi-structured interviews and results were thematically
analysed with the data gathered from the literature review. 5 core themes used to
structure a nine item industry and practitioner questionnaire. Results suggest that
use of AR and BIM within the construction industry will continue to grow with the
advent of emerging technologies. Use of AR and BIM combined with 3D
Scanning, Wireless Sensory Network will also increase and the synergies between
BIM and these emerging technologies will improve overall efficiencies in design,
delivery, maintenance and demolition of projects. The findings of this study
contribute further knowledge to understanding the implications and possibilities
that utilising AR and BIM will have in the construction industry.
Keywords: Augmented Reality, Emerging Technologies, Building Information

Modelling, AEC Industry
The aim of this paper is to investigate the applica- imised through adopting an immersive technology
tions both current and potential, of combining Aug- such as AR. It has also been recognised by Chi et al
mented Reality (AR) and Building Information Mod- (2012) that there will be further development in AR
elling (BIM), whilst also providing an insight into at- and construction, whilst Wang et al (2012) identifies
titudes towards utilising these technologies within that a merging of both AR and BIM technologies will
the construction industry. Coates (2010) reported address shortcomings of current onsite BIM construc-
that there are current limitations of BIM, including a tion which separate physical information from virtual
lack of integrating with contextual information, real information.
world capture and feedback. This could be min- This paper presents a study which has evaluated

current research on the topic of AR and BIM, con- respective of financial, cultural or social market stres-
ducted semi structured interviews with a panel of in- sors. It is therefore reasonable to apply Moore's Law
dustry experts and surveyed a sample group of 43 to mobile computing and advances in AR technolo-
within the wider UK construction industry . Experts gies, and to assume continuing development, refine-
from within the construction industry formed the ex- ment and reduced cost.
pert panel, each member was then interviewed us- Currently one of the advantages of utilising BIM
ing semi-structured interviews. The expert panel in- is its capacity to enable the different disciplines in-
cluded architects, government advisors on BIM im- volved with a project to communicate using the same
plementation, BIM and facilities management ex- model, thereby reducing fragmentation and identi-
perts and researchers in the field. The results of fying and addressing any problems which may arise
the interviews were then thematically analysed with prior to construction; advantages that ultimately im-
the data gathered from the literature review. 5 core prove the cost, time and quality of the finished prod-
themes were established from the thematic analysis uct. These advantages are characteristically synergis-
and used to structure a nine item industry and prac- tic with those offered when adopting AR technolo-
titioner questionnaire which addresses the use, ad- gies.
vantages and implications of AR and BIM within the AR can currently be used with smartphones,
UK construction industry. tablets and other wearable mobile devices, creating
Results suggest that use of AR and BIM within the a cross platform multi-user environment which al-
construction industry will continue to grow with the lows users to view and edit digital information over-
advent of emerging technologies. Use of AR and BIM laid onto the real world environment. It offers the
combined with 3D Scanning, Wireless Sensory Net- user an enhanced experience with greater exposure
work will also increase and the synergies between and access to supplementary or additional informa-
BIM and these emerging technologies will improve tion. Proctor and Van Zandt (2008) argued that AR
overall efficiencies in design, delivery, maintenance has cognitively been able to increase and streamline
and demolition of projects. Whist the applications access to stored information, reducing retrieval time
currently considered the most valuable to industry in some short term memory chores by displaying in-
and practitioners is the improvement of communica- formation within the working environment; thereby
tion between architect, contractor and sub contrac- potentially increasing task efficiency and productiv-
tor and the ability to view composite visualisations of ity; a valuable process to emulate in the construction
BIM on site located within the actual context allowing industry.
greater testing and refining of design prototypes. With the advent of new technologies and wear-
It is the author's intentions that the findings of able devices in the form of Google Glass and Occu-
this study will contribute further knowledge to un- lus Rift, there has been a resurgence of interest in AR;
derstanding the implications and possibilities that and with an increasing number of hardware and soft-
utilising AR and BIM may have in the construction in- ware developments in the field of AR and the comple-
dustry. mentary fields of cloud computing and wireless sen-
sors, AR is poised to be more accessible to both casual
BACKGROUND users and industry in the near future.
The founder of Intel, Gordon Moore published Shin et al (2008) produced a useful study us-
Moore's Law in 1965, stating the power of computing ing work tasks identified by the Architectural, Engi-
technology doubles every two years, whilst the cost neering and Construction (AEC) industries to identify
of technology decreases proportionally. This pattern application areas of AR, however new technologies
has consistently occurred over the past fifty years ir- have emerged since this study which adds to the po-

tential number and variety of applications of AR and information in a more timely and useful way. This is
the nature of those applications within AEC indus- supported by Dong and Kamat (2013) who state that
tries. Wang et al (2013) have also investigated the po- AR will improve visualisation, information retrieval
tential of AR and BIM. Their study investigates BIM, AR and interaction for AEC and FM within construction.
tracking and AR visualisation using past literature to
make logical assumptions of the types of tasks within INCREASED INTEREST IN AR AND BIM
the construction industry that could benefit from AR. Using Google trends, it is possible to track the pop-
Their study focused heavily on the process of infor- ularity of search terms used from 2004 to present.
mation searching, and potential time saved through Since 2005 until 2014, internet searches for AR and
the adoption of AR. BIM have increased, this can be seen as an indication
Adding to the body of knowledge the study re- of increased interest in these areas. The figures on
ported in this paper captures the current attitudes, the graph reflect the number of searches performed
trends, applications and perceived future applica- for a particular term relative to the total number of
tions of AR and BIM in the UK construction industry searches conducted on Google over time. These fig-
at this time, from the perspective of the professional ures are calculated on Google's search trend algo-
community. It draws on expert knowledge from in- rithm and are quantified as a percentage of searches
dustry and the latest research and technological ad- (figures 1, 2).
vances, to offer a valuable and timely insight.
Figure 1 Chein (2014) reported that BIM is an emerg-
Google (2014) ing technology in which digital information mod-
Google Trends of els are employed in a virtual space to achieve high-
search terms "BIM" quality and efficient construction and management
vs "CAD" from 2004 throughout the life cycle of a facility.
- 2014 BIM is most frequently perceived as a tool for vi-
sualizing and coordinating AEC (architecture, engi-
neering and construction) work, avoiding errors and
omissions, improving productivity, and supporting
scheduling, safety, cost and quality management on
Figure 2 construction projects. It incorporates all the build-
Google (2014) ing components, including geometry, spatial rela-
Google Trends tionships, properties and quantities (Zuppa Dino et
search terms al, 2009). BIM can also generate and maintain in-
"Virtual Reality" vs formation produced during the whole life cycle of
"Augmented a building project-from design to maintenance-and
Reality" from 2004 - can be applied to various fields (Yoon et al, 2009).
2014
AN INDUSTRY NEED FOR COMBINING AR
AND BIM According to Google trends, from 2004 to 2014
According to Rankohi (2013) AEC and FM have a high the search term "BIM" has steadily increased from
demand for information needed to enable evalua- 3% to 21% of Google trends algorithmic rating. The
tion, communication, collaboration which is utilised term CAD (Computer Aided Design) which is synony-
through information technology. The adoption of AR mous with traditional computer aided two dimen-
has clear efficiency benefits with regards to accessing sional drafting in industry has decreased from 93%

to 45%. This could be seen to reflect the trend of the viding a reasoned and appropriate language for the
construction industry moving away from traditional nine item industry and practitioner questionnaire.
Computer Aided Design towards Building Informa- Data collected during interview is often difficult
tion Modelling. to compare as wording and sequencing will most
Comparing Augmented Reality with Virtual Real- likely be different in each interview (Patton 2002),
ity from 2004 - 2014 has shown that the term Aug- however comparability can be increased by structur-
mented Reality is searched more than Virtual Reality ing the interviews and standardising the structure for
since 2009. each participant.
What makes this change of interest to this study Data from both the literature review and tran-
is that it corresponds with the release and increased scriptions of the semi-structured interviews with an
utilisation of enabling technology in the form of expert panel were thematically analysed. Thematic
smart mobile devices such as phones and tablets, analysis is widely used when analysing qualitative
both of which now have AR capable features. data (Boyatzis, 1998).During analysis, themes are
Furthermore with the release of Google Glass in 2014 identified in relation to the research question, which
interest is set to grow. Google Glass is a wearable de- in the context of this paper was to identify current
vice which allows digital information to be visually and potential applications of BIM and AR in the con-
superimposed over the users real world view, public- struction industry whilst providing an insight into
ity of AR has increased in the media. Uptake of this current attitudes regarding the combination of these
new enabling and potentially disruptive technology technologies.
is set to further increase interest in AR applications. There are six stages to effective thematic analy-
sis:
THE STUDY 1. Immersion reading - during interviews, notes
Following a literature review a number of experts are taken to highlight key themes, the inter-
within the industry were selected to form an expert views are transcribed and analysed for key
panel that underwent a semi-structured interview, to themes, allowing the researcher time to fa-
establish core themes on the use, advantages and im- miliarise themselves with the data (Riessman,
plications of AR and BIM, in the construction indus- 1993).
try. These core themes then provided the appropri-
ate language and structure for an industry and practi- 2. Generate initial codes - after information rele-
tioner questionnaire which was completed by 43 re- vant to the research question has been high-
spondents. The expert panel comprised of 3D visu- lighted initial codes are organised into emerg-
alisation and BIM software user experts, facility man- ing themes. This stage of coding organises
agers, BIM coordination managers, government ad- data into meaningful groups (Tuckett, 2005).
visors on BIM implementation and BIM professional
training and education managers. 3. Search for themes - coded groups are then
Cohen et al (2009) categorised structured and combined to create larger themes, during
unstructured interviews noting their differences. The this process coded themes, sub themes and
unstructured interview allows for more observa- extracts of data will be collated, miscella-
tion whilst structured interviews more closely reflect neous themes will be identified and signifi-
questionnaires. As interviews or questionnaires rely cant themes will emerge.
on the value of personal language as data, the lit-
erature review and semi-structured interviews have 4. Review themes - the relevance of themes to
been used to produce five core themes, in turn pro- the research question is reviewed, if non-
congruent themes are identified, data from

the theme may be re-appropriated to another Advances in onsite construction mean that con-
relevant theme or discarded from the analysis. textualising virtual data in this manner would have
many benefits toward a project with advances in on-
5. Defining and naming themes - drawing on site construction. As identified by Wang et al (2012)
paraphrased relevant extracts from the orig- the current disconnection between BIM and its con-
inal data, ensures themes are representative text must be improved.
and justified to the research question. Participants recognise the disconnect between
the virtual data and the context, as well as the po-
6. Report - the thematic analysis has produced tential for visualising data from the construction se-
themes that provide a concise, reasoned, log- quence, and potential improvements in collabora-
ical, non-repetitive and interesting account of tion between different disciplines on a project.
the narrative across the original data set. Expert panel member no.4:
"..with new built there's a real potential to have a
Based on the thematic analysis of current literature fully accurate house build MEP model that sits behind
and the expert panel interviews five core themes the architectural structural model and in that sense it
were identified. The five core themes below were would be very easy to utilise augmented reality and
used to structure the nine item industry and practi- to view where services are and where they sit behind
tioner questionnaire. walls"
Nine key areas of application were identified:
1. Application of BIM and AR.
1. Clash detections.
2. Societal and Cultural Ideals of BIM and AR.
2. Visualisation of services on site.
3. Adoption and Advancement of BIM and AR.
3. Health and Safety On site - CDM co-ordinator.
4. Emerging technologies combined with BIM Safe routes can be projected to each team
and AR. member to improve safety.
5. Emotional response and attitudes towards AR 4. Visualisation of construction sequence on site.
technology - Improved efficiency of onsite logistics - small
building footprints in urban sites - Project
A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE FIVE KEY Manager, Site manager.
THEMES FOLLOWS.
Theme 1: Application of Augmented Reality 5. Refurbishment visualisation load bearing
with BIM structure, services etc- improved communi-
During the interviews themes of general applications cation with the client. Architect, Interior De-
of AR and BIM, and their potential advantages for a signer, Client, Contractors.
wide range of disciplines in the industry arose fre-
quently. The expert panel also reported that the 6. 6. Improved communication between Archi-
manner in which BIM is currently used in industry cre- tect and Contractor and Subcontractors. Illus-
ates a disconnection between the virtual model and trate and communicate details to exact spec-
real context. The use of AR combined with BIM would ification to ensure delivery of high quality,
allow virtual data to be superimposed onto the cur- minimise misunderstandings, save time and
rent context on site. money on project for client.

7. Facilities management - locating component vent of digital technology) and the other a digital na-
information for maintenance and component tive (those born during or after the introduction of
replacement. digital technologies) both identified an increasingly
problematic generation gap within the industry be-
8. Visualisation of Building Big Data (Wireless tween digital immigrants and digital natives. This
Sensory Network Integration) - Producing generation gap and differing attitude is problematic
feedback for Architect for improved future de- as the expert panel members recount numerous is-
signs, better understanding and visualisation sues of the younger digital native being restricted
of project with digital information overlaid from implementing new technologies and new tech-
onto real objects. nology centric working practices despite the poten-
tial benefits because those in charge are somewhat
9. Visualisation of BIM on site with context technology averse digital immigrants. It is accepted
insitu- improved design connecting BIM to that an industrial culture shift will occur naturally as
real life. New method to test and prototype the younger digital natives move into management
designs. roles in the construction industry.
Theme 2: Societal and Cultural Ideals of BIM Theme 3: Adoption and advancement of
and AR BIM and AR
The expert panel proposed that the adoption of AR All members of the expert panel viewed BIM adop-
and BIM would be affected by the level to which tion and advancement as continuously increasingly
emerging AR technologies are adopted by society as in the construction industry, all holding the view that
a whole; wider adoption by society and subsequent this is unlikely to change. BIM was recognised by
commercial success was recognised as a key driver to the panel as moving away from a computer aided
refining and developing AR technologies. mass production solution to towards a high quality
Cultural and sub-cultural differences between bespoke design solution, offering new freedoms for
disciplines in the construction industry were also designers to create bespoke solutions with prefabri-
reported as creating further implications towards cated components.
adopting BIM and AR, with the panel recognising the Increased adoption of BIM and AR was recog-
difference in aptitude and attitude amongst differ- nised by all panel members to be dependent upon
ent disciplines within the construction industry. A the efficiencies it offers, with the efficiency of any
broad range of BIM competency was identified with new technology in the industry being measured by
large areas of the construction industry being con- its cost effectiveness. Although it is expected that as
sidered at a lower level of competency when com- accessibility to AR technology increases the cost ben-
pared to large architecture and construction compa- efit of using the technology will follow resulting in in-
nies, for whom the value of adopting BIM has been creased adoption.
increased efficiency and monetary savings. Arayici
(2011) also recognises the implications of the current Theme 4: Emerging Technology Combined
socio-cultural environment for the successful imple- with BIM and AR
mentation of BIM within the construction industry, The panel recognised that the use of Augmented Re-
noting the need for cultural acceptance of BIM as nec- ality within Building Information Modelling will not
essary to fully achieve the potential gains and bene- be the limit to how BIM develops but a potential
fits offered by BIM. strand in its development over coming years. It is
Interestingly two members of the expert panel, likely that BIM will incorporate a number of current
one a digital immigrant (those born before the ad- emerging technologies such as wireless sensor net-

Figure 3 works, big data, 3D printing and 3D scanning, al-
Pie chart showing though these new technologies are relatively new
the sample age and can be further researched. the potential appli-
groups from the cations and benefits of using these technologies fur-
industry and ther blurs the line between virtual and real realities
practitioner and further connects the physical context to the dig-
questionnaire. ital data.
Big Data was highlighted frequently by the panel
as an area of further development. However con-
cerns were raised on the management and manipu-
lation of such large data sets.
Expert panel member no.2:
"There's quite a lot of big data. There's quite a
Table 1 lot of data now being acquired about buildings but
Table showing the there isn't a lot of analysis and understanding. And
sample age groups the big thing there is in this feedback, I don't think
from the industry the findings are being fed back and impacting, and
and practitioner informing the next project. That will come, yeah, I
questionnaire. look forward to the day when we actually have the
feedback circle "
Theme 5: Emotional Link with Technology

Interestingly the emotional implications as to how
AR could potentially change and affect people and
Figure 4 communities was also highlighted, this unexpected
Pie chart showing yet related theme indicates a potential area for fur-
the sample ther study. It also identifies the need for further re-
occupation groups search into how humans experience, use and under-
from the industry stand space through AR. AR could be the medium by
and practitioner which individual data sets of human experience can
questionnaire. be collated and overlaid creating an even richer BIM
model.
RESULTS FROM INDUSTRY AND PRACTI-

TIONER QUESTIONNAIRE
The five themes derived from the expert panel inter-
views directly informed the industry and practitioner
questionnaire. The nine items of the questionnaire
and the results from industry participants (n=43) are
presented in Fig.3 and Table 1.

Item 1: Age groups of survey respondents Table 2
Over 60% of the industry and practitioner respon- Sample occupation
dents (refer to Fig.4) were in the 25-34 age group groups from the
followed by the 18-24 group (18.6%) group and the industry and
35-44 group (13.95%). The results (also see Table practitioner
2; remark: 'Other' include Manufacturing Techni- questionnaire.
cal and Process BIM Management and BIM Consul-
tancy) are indicative of the concerns raised in theme
two, regarding digital immigrants and digital natives
and they clearly show that the majority of responses
came from digital natives.
Item 2: Occupation of respondents

Table 3
The industry and practitioner questionnaire was
Table showing the
made available to a wide range of respondents from
sample occupation
numerous disciplines as it was disseminated through
of BIM experience
a number of BIM user and BIM expert online groups.
groups from the
With nearly 70% of the respondents being BIM users
industry and
from the Architecture and Design profession, this
practitioner
also reflects issues recognised by the expert panel
questionnaire.
in theme 2 regarding the uptake and wide range
in competency amongst the different disciplines in
the construction industry. Occupations listed in the
others category included, manufacturing, technical
and process BIM management and BIM consultancy. Table 4
Whilst architecture and design show a higher re- Table showing the
sponse rate, the response rate for other disciplines proportion of
could be seen as indicative of increasing utilisation projects utilising
in BIM use amongst other construction disciplines. BIM technologies
from the industry
Item 3: How long have respondents been and practitioner
using BIM technologies? questionnaire.
Results are given in Table 3.
Item 4: Proportion of projects on which BIM

technologies are currently utilised
Results are given in Table 4.
Item 5: Has utilising BIM technologies hin-

dered or improved your work performance?
67.44% of respondents indicated that utilising BIM
technologies had made a significant improvement to
their work performance, 30.23% noted a slight im-
provement and 2.33% noted no effect to their work

performance. There were no responses reporting tially because the technology is deemed more appro-
utilising BIM technologies as a 'slight hindrance' or priate and will increase access.
'hindrance'.
Item 9: Prioritise nine applications of BIM
Item 6: Use of smart phone or tablet to view and AR
or edit. Respondents were asked to prioritise the nine appli-
Only 58% of respondents reported using a smart cations of BIM and AR as identified in the thematic
phone or tablet to view or edit digital construction analysis of the expert panel interviews. Rating each
information. area of application from one (high priority or high
Of those respondents 76% indicated they used value application) to nine (low priority or lower value
smart devices to edit or view 2D CAD drawings. 60% application). Interpreting the results in Figure 5 it is
indicated they had used smart device to edit or view evident that the respondents felt that applying BIM
standard 3D models and 48% of those using a smart and AR to improve communication between archi-
device indicated they have used it to view or edit a tect, contractor and sub contractor was the highest
Building Information Model. So whilst established priority and considered the highest value application
2D drawings are most frequently viewed and edited to the group of respondents with utilising BIM and AR
using smart mobile devices, only 25% of the overall to view a composite visualisation of BIM overlaid onto
number of respondents currently use the smart de- the real context to allow greater testing and refining
vices to view and edit Building Information Models. of design prototypes as the second highest value ap-
plication. Where as it is evident from above that re-
Item 7: Will BIM and AR become more com- spondents considered the lowest priority application
mon place in industry with emerging smart to be using BIM and AR to visualise Big Data from
mobile devices like Google Glass? wireless sensor networks which could provide infor-
The majority (79%) of respondents believed that mation on occupancy, thermal performance and lux
emerging smart mobile devices like Google Glass will levels. The nine applications are listed below ordered
make the use of BIM and AR more commonplace in from highest value to lowest value application of BIM
the construction industry. Google Glass is a wearable and AR in the construction industry.
smart mobile device allowing the overlay of digital in-
1. To improve communication between archi-
formation onto the real environment.
tect, contractor and sub contractor.
Item 8: Combining BIM and AR: A fad or gen- 2. To view composite visualisation of BIM on
uine area for expansion of working prac- site located within actual contexts allowing
tices? greater testing and refining of design proto-
93% of respondents felt that the combination of BIM types.
and AR offered a genuine area for expansion in work-
ing practices within the construction industry. De- 3. To visualise construction sequence on site im-
spite the relatively low (25%) utilisation of smart mo- proving onside logistics.
bile devices for viewing and editing BIM reported
amongst participants, this may be attributed to the 4. To improve health and safety on site.
appropriateness of current smart mobile devices for 5. To conduct clash detection on site during con-
viewing and editing digital data as 79% of respon- struction via smart devices.
dents felt that emerging smart mobile devices like
Google Glass will make the combination of BIM and 6. For facilities management post build, locating
AR more commonplace within the industry, poten- component information for maintenance.

Figure 5
Graph showing the
priorities of
perceived
usefulness of
Augmented Reality
and Building
Information
Modelling scenarios
from the industry
and practitioner
questionnaire.
Note: Light green
from the left
indicates high
perceived
usefulness. From
the right red
indicates low
perceived
usefulness.
7. The visualisation of services on site via smart ATTITUDES TOWARDS NEW TECHNOLO-
device. GIES
A recurring implication to the adoption and integra-
8. For refurbishment visualisation overlaying ex- tion of new technologies in the construction industry
isting structural and heritage data. is the generational divide in attitudes towards those
new technologies. With the digital immigrants often
acting as a barrier to adoption and integration. This
9. For the visualisation of Big Data from wireless will over the coming years become less of an issue as
sensor networks feeding back a wide variety digital natives move into key management and deci-
of localised information on occupancy, ther- sion making roles in industry.
mal performance and lux levels. Prensky (2009) identified and labelled two dis-
tinctly different groups of technology users. Digital
These results are intended to identify specific areas natives, who are defined as those born "into" technol-
where future BIM and AR research should focus in or- ogy and those that are growing up with technology
der to be relevant to industry application. Thematic as a part of their everyday reality. Digital immigrants,
analysis of expert panel interviews yielded nine areas those that are seeing the emergence of new technol-
of application, the industry and practitioner ques- ogy and interacting with it later in their lives, having
tionnaire has organised these areas of application, to adjust and adapt to the use and capabilities of that
identifying the most valuable applications of BIM and technology.
AR to industry.

DIGITAL NATIVES DIGITAL IMMIGRANTS will continue to be refined and evolved .
Prefer to receive information quickly from multiple, One common view of from the expert panel in-
varied sources. Often prefer the controlled release of terviews was that the future of the construction in-
information from limited sources. dustry will involve a synergy of technologies includ-
Utilise information in the forms of images, ing 3D scanning, mixed reality models, wireless sen-
sounds, and video often preferable over text. Often sory networks which will all be based around and be
prefer to gather information from text based sources. interoperable with BIM. There was also the common
Are open to trust that information in these forms view that Mixed Reality (MR) which includes both
is reliable. Often distrust / question the validity of in- Augmented Reality and Virtual Reality will be used in
formation that is not text based. the future in conjunction with 3D scanning, big data,
Are most effective in connected, collaborative smart cities and smart homes. Combining and net-
communities with high levels of interaction and en- working technologies will create richer and more ef-
gagement. Are most effective when not disturbed, ficient working practices with regards to design, con-
often preferring private and personal space for intro- struction and maintenance within the industry.
spection to be most productive. The expert panel viewed these technologies
Has a strong ability for divergent thinking and as being accessible through cloud based systems,
creative problem solving often multi-tasking and which both store and process and synthesise all
parallel processing information. Has a strong ability building data from concept, design, development,
to focus and concentrate, with a linear thinking style construction, maintenance, refurbishment and de-
preferring limited information presented in a linear, molition. AR and BIM will heavily impact and ben-
logical and sequential fashion. efit building projects from cradle to cradle through
Further understanding the typical characteris- other technological advances involving wireless sen-
tics of the digital native and the digital immigrant sor technology and big data, collecting and using in-
could make effective adoption and integration more formation throughout the buildings life span.
achievable in industry, by structuring the introduc- The construction industry will however need to
tion of new technologies in a manner which both dig- adapt to gain the full benefits of combining AR and
ital immigrant and digital natives find acceptable. BIM technologies. As mentioned the culture within
construction is managed by an older generation of
MOVING FORWARD digital immigrants, as time advances, the digital na-
Improvements and accessibility of AR technology tive generation will move into positions of leadership
will increase during the next decade as indicated by within the industry, 3D immersive collaborative envi-
Moore's Law. In the initial stages of this study dur- ronments will become the norm within construction.
ing the semi-structured interviews with industry ex- Further research can be conducted to include a
perts, participants reported that technology and cul- larger number of experts opinions within construc-
ture (specifically mass cultural adoption of new tech- tion. There potentially may be differences in opinions
nologies) are interlinked with one another, as tech- with architects on their thoughts to how AR and BIM
nology improves over time, becoming faster, minia- will be used in the future of construction.
turised and seeing a greater reduction in manufactur-
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Design Tool 2
Parasitic Ecologies
Algorithmic Space through Diffusion-Limited Aggregation of Truncated
Octahedrons
Zeta (Georgia) Kachri1 , Sean Hanna2

1,2
University College London
2
http://www.bartlett.ucl.ac.uk/graduate
1
zeta.kachri@archtech.gr 2 s.hanna@ucl.ac.uk
Parasitic architecture allows the creation of flexible structures that feed off
existing infrastructure. Additionally, self-organised models that grow in response
to environmental forces and adapt to their context introduce new ways for
intervening in architectural design. This paper investigates the properties of
self-organised parasitic structures that evolve by creating aggregation forms in
the context of simulated structural environments. The growth process of the
parasitic structures is inspired by the fungal colonies and is based on the rules of
diffusion-limited aggregation (DLA) extended to support real-time force analysis
and aggregation of space-filling geometry. The results of the simulations
demonstrate that the developed diffusion-limited aggregation of truncated
octahedrons is capable of providing self-sustained structures able to adapt in
environments with different spatial limitations.
Keywords: Adaptive Structural Models, Parasitic Architecture,

Diffusion-Limited Aggregation, Self-organisation, Java
INTRODUCTION generative process of the structure and ensures the

Buildings are massive, permanent and static, and creation of models that are balanced with their con-
therefore often unable to deal with the amount of text.
energy embodied in their structure. Yet the 20th Based on ecological relations found in nature
century has seen the emergence of structural mod- and in particular in fungal parasitic colonies, this pa-
els that use nature as the generating force for their per explores the idea of using spatial diffusion lim-
form. Similarly, living organisms that grow under ited aggregation of space-filling polyhedrons for the
specific environmental conditions and adapt to their emergence of self-organised structures. In order to
context after a series of evolution iterations interact establish the foundation for our research a high per-
and evolve in harmony with natural forces. This ap- formance real-time analysis software was developed
proach, which demands combined effort of architec- and a spatial diffusion limited aggregation algorithm
ture, biology, and computer science, focuses on the was designed.
Design Tool 2 - Volume 2 - eCAADe 32 | 539

The significance of this new spatial diffusion lim- PARASITISM - AN ECOLOGICAL RELATION
ited aggregation algorithm is that it reimagines the The term Parasitic Architecture refers to flexible and
biological analogies in relation to real-time adaptive temporary structures that feed off existing infrastruc-
structural models in architectural design. In partic- ture (Allen et al., 2003). This idea has received con-
ular, we investigate, through a series of simulations, siderable attention from architects, who envisioned
the evolution of self-sustained parasitic structural architecture not as a permanent space for humans
models that evolve by creating aggregation forms to live in, but as a motivation for social engage-
in the context of simulated structural environments. ment, freedom and endless transportation. Constant
Throughout the evolution the structural integrity of Nieuwenhuys was one of the first architects that ad-
the model is tested in real-time to ensure that all ma- dressed the mobility of architecture (1964/2001) with
jor structural integrity factors meet the requirements. his proposal of the New Babylon in 1959-74.
In biology, the term parasitism refers to an eco-
TOWARDS BIOLOGICAL ANALOGIES logical relationship (Bush et al., 2001) between two
The impact of biological models on architecture re- organisms, where one organism, the parasite, takes
sulted in new ways for intervening in design. Thom- advantage of its host. Half of all species of organ-
son (1942) was one of the first researchers, who ad- isms are parasites, which create a continuum of in-
dressed, the interrelation between growth and form. teractions between species that negotiates natural
In his study, the form of organisms is considered as equilibrium. Among the great diversity of parasitic
an event in space over time rather than a spatial con- species, a class that presents significant importance
figuration meaning that the growth process is the is this of fungi. Fungi are modular organisms (Carrol
basis for the resulted form. Drawing on the same and Wicklow, 1992), meaning that they grow by re-
discipline, more recently, Ball (1999) explored pat- peated iterations of parts called modules. In a fun-
tern formation in nature suggesting that all the forms gal colony the module is a thin, tubular structure
that appear can be considered as results of specific called hyphae that extends and presents apical char-
growth processes. As Steadman (2008) argues in an acteristics of growth (Moore, 1998). Fungal modu-
attempt to introduce growth process into architec- lar growth leads to a root-like form (Gow and Gadd,
tural design, during development there should be 1995) called mycelium that exhibits great plasticity,
a frequent interaction between the growing design complexity and diversity. The mycelium extends over
and its environment. Steadman's assumption can be or through whatever substrate the fungus is using
considered as derivation from Lamarck's theory of as a source of food. Although, their growth mecha-
adaptation, in which an organism-system grows in re- nisms are of primitive intelligence, they allow for the
sponse to environmental forces but also influences creation of complicated networks that can be consid-
its environment correspondingly (Gould, 2002). ered as three-dimensional lattices (Figure 1).
Studying and interpreting biological analogies
in relation to architectural design allows the devel- Figure 1
opment of emergent and self-organised structures. Fungi and fungal
Emergent structures are the complex systems that mycelium (source:
arise from relatively simple interactions while self- http://en.wikipedia.org/)
organisation refers to the ability of a system to adapt
in a continually changing environment (Camazine et
al., 2003).
540 | eCAADe 32 - Design Tool 2 - Volume 2

GROWING FRACTAL FORMS - DIFFUSION DLA through a simple implementation provides
LIMITED AGGREGATION a wealth of behaviour and a basis for interpreting a
The growth process of fungi is influenced by non- large range of natural pattern formation phenomena.
local factors such as shadowing, temperature and hu- There is a wealth of research on DLA usually in two di-
midity conditions. These far from equilibrium growth mensions on models of fractal growth processes such
phenomena, in which diffusing particles are added to as river networks, plant branching, frost on glass,
a growing aggregate, can be studied by approaches electro-deposition, lightning, mineral deposits, and
based on diffusion-limited aggregation (DLA). DLA coral. However, DLA is a rather unexplored field in
was proposed by Witten and Sander (1981) in order architecture and there is a lack of knowledge with
to simulate the formation of clusters by particles dif- regards to the forms that emerge through DLA of
fusing through a medium that collides the particles space-filling geometry.
with each other as they move.
The growth rule of DLA is remarkably simple. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
First, an immobile seed is located on a planar surface. The aim of this paper is to address the generation
A walker is then launched from a random position far of parasitic structures, which evolve by creating ag-
away and is allowed to diffuse (walk at random). If it gregation forms in the context of simulated struc-
touches the seed, it is immobilised instantly and be- tural environments. The adaptation of a new gener-
comes part of the aggregate. Then similar walkers are ated system into the existing built environment al-
launched one-by-one and each of them stops upon lows the examination of space extensions and the
hitting the cluster. After launching a few hundred emergence of new spatial patterns. To develop a new
particles, a cluster with intricate branch structures re- space within or upon an existing structure requires a
sults. The resulted fractals have a randomly branch- strategy that provides a method to maintain an at-
ing open structure and look stochastically self-similar tachment and structural integrity.
(Figure 2). The main objective is to simulate the growth of
Figure 2 a parasite in a three-dimensional model in respect to
Left - Simulation of some of the rules that are applied to fungal colonies.
Diffusion Limited For this study, the module, which replicates the fun-
Aggregation (DLA). gal hyphae, is expressed with the use of a space-
Right - Simulation filling polyhedron, the truncated octahedron. Space-
of Diffusion Limited filling polyhedrons allow for space tessellation and
Deposition (DLD). also exhibit great structural stability. The space-
(source: filling polyhedrons are aggregated based on the DLA
There are several growth models that are pre- growth algorithm and the emerging form is continu-
http://en.wikipedia.org/) sented as extensions of the DLA method. Diffusion ously tested for its structural integrity.
Limited Deposition (DLD) (Meakin, 1983; Rácz and To explore the adaptive growth of parasitic and
Vicsek, 1983) is very similar to DLA but the single seed self-sustained modular structures, we developed a
is replaced by a surface to which diffusing particles high performance real-time simulation and analysis
are attached. The presence of the surface allows for software built in Java. This was then used to exam-
more complicated systems to emerge. The forest of ine:
clusters shown at figure 2 is a typical example of DLD.
Another extension of DLA is Ballistic Aggregation (Ra- • the efficiency of the Spatial Diffusion-Limited
manlal and Sander, 1985). During Ballistic Aggrega- Aggregation developed for this study,
tion (BA) the particles move along straight lines until
they encounter the aggregate and stick to it. • the structural integrity of the evolving model

through a real-time analysis of all major struc- Figure 3
tural integrity factors, Diffusion-Limited
Aggregation:
• and its growth and adaptation within existing Diagram showing
spatial setting. the alignment of
truncated
Additionally, we developed Ballistic Aggregation octahedrons
(BA) and Diffusion Limited Deposition (DLD) spatial
implementations in order to strengthen our observa-
tions and compare our findings.
DIFFUSION LIMITED AGGREGATION OF

TRUNCATED OCTAHEDRONS
A truncated octahedron is an Archimedean, space-
filling polyhedron with 24 vertices, 36 edges, and 14
faces. In a truncated polyhedron, all edges are of
the same length and eight of its faces are regular
hexagons while the other six are squares. The abil-
ity of the truncated octahedron module to attach to
either a square or hexagonal face results in a large
number of unique configurations. The truncated oc-
tahedron is the simplest and the most economical
in terms of surface area-to-volume ratio of the space Figure 4
filling systems (Pearce, 1978) and the triangulations Diffusion-Limited
that are formed within a space filled with truncated Aggregation of
octahedrons allows a high degree of stability and an Truncated
equal transfer of the compressive forces. Octahedrons: Left -
The aggregation of truncated octahedrons fol- Simulations with
lowed the basic growth rule of DLA. In order to aggre- different stickiness
gate the polyhedron, each particle was considered probability values.
to transfer a virtual truncated octahedron around it. Right - Simulations
During the attachment process a face-alignment al- showing the effect
gorithm was employed. The walker was searching of applying
randomly in a sphere around the seed particle and it different angles to
could become part of the aggregate if it had the ap- the direction of
propriate distance. To attach the polyhedrons with walker (up:
To control the density of the structure, a prob-
aligned square faces the distance between the parti- angle=30°, middle:
ability of adhesion (stickiness) was also introduced.
cles should be greater or equal to two times the dis- angle=60°, bottom:
Additionally, a constraint for controlling the direction
tance of the centroid of the polyhedron to the centre angle=random 0° to
of the growing model by restricting the path of the
of its square face (square radius) and to acquire ad- 360°)
random walker to specific angles was implemented.
jacent hexagon faces the distance should be greater
Figure 4 shows how the stickiness probability and the
or equal to two times the distance of the centroid to
direction of the walker affect the density and form of
the centre of the hexagonal faces (hexagonal radius).
DLA of truncated octahedrons.
Figure 3 shows the two different cases.

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND OPTIMISA- for a set of branches. To define the compressive
TION force, the dot product of the weight vector and a nor-
Once the constraints of the aggregation were set, the malised vector with a direction from the centre of
next step was to calculate the forces within the sys- mass of the branch to its starting point were also cal-
tem. As discussed, the triangulations that are formed culated.
Figure 5 within a space filled with truncated octahedrons al-
Structural Analysis: lows a high degree of stability and an equal trans-
Diagram showing fer of the compressive forces. The analysis focused
the calculation of on the weight of the structure and the moment of
the centre of mass force that is produced as a result of it. Each shape
consisted of 36 tubes that connected the vertices
of the truncated polyhedrons. The weight of each
branch of the aggregation was defined as a vector
that started from the centroid and was perpendicular
to the XZ plane with a magnitude equal to the mass
(volume * density) of the branch. In fact, the weight
of each branch is the force on the branch due to grav-
ity and its magnitude is the product of the mass of the
branch and the magnitude of the local gravitational
acceleration W=mg but because the gravitational ac-
celeration was equal for all the branches it was set to
1.0 m/s³.
Figure 6 The calculations covered two phases: the first
Structural Analysis: was about the moment of force applied to a spe-
Diagram showing cific joint of the structure from the weight of the
the transfer of whole structure above it; and the second focused on
forces within the the transfer of compressive forces within the struc-
structure ture and the moment of force applied to each joint.
For the first phase, as the moment of force is the
cross product of the lever-arm distance vector and
the force vector (in this case the weight), which tends
to produce rotation, the aim was to calculate the cen-
tre of mass of the structure and the distance between
the centre of mass and the joint that was about to be
tested (Figure 5).
To calculate the compressive forces within the
structure, the weight vector of each branch was re-
solved into a vector along the axis of the branch
and a vector perpendicular to the branch's axis. The As moving from joint to joint apart from the com-
vector along the axis transfers the compressive force pressive force that was generated from the weight of
through the structure, while the perpendicular force the current branch, the previous calculated force vec-
vector is responsible for the moment of force at each tor was also resolved into its new components. The
joint. Figure 6 shows the analysis that was followed perpendicular to the axis of the branch force compo-

nents were added at each joint and provided a mo- The diameter of the tubes of each truncated oc-
ment of force at a specific direction while the com- tahedron was at first set to an initial size. If a new trun-
pressive forces were added separately. cated octahedron was attached to a branch, the di-
ameter of the tubes of the existing polyhedrons that
Figure 7
extend to the root would recursively increase in size.
Plot showing the
By increasing the diameter of the tubes, the capacity
relation between
of the structure to withstand compressive forces was
mass and moment
optimised. When a new truncated octahedron be-
of force during the
came part of the aggregate, the moment of force was
evolution of a DLA
calculated. If the moment of force exceeded a pre-
of truncated
defined threshold then the new truncated octahe-
octahedrons.
dron was removed from the branch and a new walker
was released. The plotted data of mass and moment
of force for a DLA of truncated octahedrons (Figure 7)
depicts the pattern of evolution.
Figure 8
Plot showing the
EFFICIENCY - STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY - relation of fractal
ADAPTATION dimension and
After a number of aggregated polyhedrons, each stickiness
structure reached equilibrium. The total number of probability for
the aggregated polyhedrons was dependent on the three-dimensional
maximum moment of force that the structure could DLA with truncated
afford as well as to the stickiness probability. The octahedrons
denser the structure was, the more stable it proved
to be.
The results of the simulations revealed that Figure 9
the DLA of space-filling polyhedrons maintains the Adaptation:
characteristics of a typical DLA model in three- Self-sustained DLA
dimensions. In typical three-dimensional DLA mod- of truncated
els with stickiness probability, the fractal dimen- octahedrons grown
sion can take values equal to 2.50 ± 0.15 (Vicsek, in highly restrictive
1992). Figure 8 shows the relation between frac- (A), semi-restrictive
tal dimension and stickiness probability for self- (B) simulated
sustained three-dimensional DLA of truncated octa- environments and
hedrons. The aggregates of truncated octahedrons in open space (C)
that grew based on Diffusion-Limited Deposition al-
gorithm proved to have a fractal dimension within
the same range.
Furthermore, the introduction of the multi-
variant real-time structural analysis succeeded in
forming a self-organised structure that reaches equi-
librium in response to its context (Figure 9). The find-
ings of the analysis on the stability of the structure

Figure 10
Diffusion-Limited
Aggregation of
truncated
octahedrons - Rapid
Prototyping Model
demonstrate that diffusion-limited method (DLA) CONCLUSION

produces more balanced structures than the ballistic This paper has addressed the development of self-
method (BA). Examining the relation of mass and mo- sustained parasitic structures that evolve by creating
ment of force during the evolutionary process further aggregation forms in the context of simulated struc-
strengthened this finding. tural environments through a new spatial diffusion-
Finally, it was shown that the structure was able limited aggregation algorithm and software. It in-
to adapt over time in all different simulated structural volved the biological paradigm of fungal colonies,
environments in accordance with the constraints which adapt to the changing environmental condi-
that were applied such as the direction of growth and tions providing a meaningful example of ecological
the density of the existing context. Figure 9 shows relations such as parasitism, in nature.
examples of the model grown in different environ- The methodology followed was based on a new
ments. three-dimensional DLA algorithm extended to in-
clude a multi-variant real-time structural analysis and
also to allow the aggregation of space filling geom-

etry. The DLA of truncated octahedrons (Figure 10) Camazine, S., Deneubourg, J.L., Franks, N.R., Sneyd,
proved to have the same fractal dimension with a J., Theraulaz, G. and Bonabeau, E. 2003, Self-
typical three-dimensional DLA model. During the organization in Biological Systems, Princeton Univer-
sity Press, New Jersey, USA
structural analysis, extensions of the DLA (diffusion-
Carroll, G.C. and Wicklow, D.T. (eds) 1992, The Fungal
limited deposition and ballistic aggregation) were Community: its organization and role in the ecosys-
also studied and compared as an attempt to opti- tem, Marcel Dekker, New York, USA
mise solutions. The results of the simulations showed Gould, S.J. 2002, The Structure of Evolutionary Theory, Har-
that the diffusion-limited method is more capable vard University Press, Cambridge, MA
for providing self-sustained and well balanced struc- Gow, N.A and Gadd, G.M. 1995, The Growing Fungus,
Chapman & Hall, London, UK
tures than the ballistic method. By conducting a se-
Meakin, P. 1983, 'Diffusion-controlled deposition on
ries of simulations, the capacity of the algorithm was fibers and surfaces', Phys. Rev. A, 27, p. 2616
proved successful in developing self-organised and Moore, D. 1998, Fungal Morphogenesis, Cambridge Uni-
self-sustained structures able to adapt in areas with versity Press,, New York, USA
different spatial limitations. Nieuwenhuys, C. 1964/2001, 'New Babylon: An Urban-
Although, the introduction and repetition of ism of the Future', Architectural Design, 71(3), pp. 12-
14
space-filling polyhedrons offers the potential for pro-
Pearce, P. 1978, Structure in Nature is a Strategy for Design,
duction and assembly in human scale and creates op- MIT Press, Cambridge, MA
portunities for flexible and temporary parasitic struc- Ramanlal, R. and Sander, L.M. 1985, 'Theory of Ballistic
tures within existing infrastructure, to adopt such a Aggregation', Phys. Rev. Lett., 54, p. 1828
strategy in real-world scenarios requires further ex- Rácz, Z. and Vicsek, T. 1983, 'Diffusion-Controlled Depo-
perimentation in urban settings and specification of sition: Cluster Statistics and Scaling', Phys. Rev. Lett,
51, p. 2382
materials. It is also essential to examine diffusion-
Steadman, P. 2008, The Evolution of Designs: Biological
limited aggregation of different polyhedrons and Analogy in Architecture and the Applied Arts, Rout-
compare their structural efficiency and adaptation ledge, New York, USA
capability. Thompson, D.W. 1942, On Growth and Form, Cambridge
University Press,, Cambridge, UK
Witten, T.A. and Sander, L.M. 1981, 'Diffusion-Limited Ag-
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS gregation, a Kinetic Critical Phenomenon', Phys. Rev.
This work would not have been possible without Lett., 47(19), pp. 1400-1403
Alasdair Turner's immense contribution and support.
He was an excellent tutor that will be missed in-
tensely. It was an honour to have known such a tal-
ented and influential person.
REFERENCES
Allen, J., Ibelings, H., Koekebakker, O., Nio, I. and van Oe-
nen, G. 2003, Parasite Paradise A Manifesto for Tem-
porary Architecture and Flexible Urbanism, NAi Pub-
lishers, Rotterdam, Netherland
Ball, P. 1999, The Self-Made Tapestry: Pattern Formation in
Nature, Oxford University Press, New York, USA
Bush, A.O., Fernández, J.C., Esch, G.W. and Seed, R.J. 2001,
Parasitism: The Diversity and Ecology of Animal Para-
sites, Cambridge University Press,, Cambridge, UK

Visual Dataflow Modelling
Some thoughts on complexity
Patrick Janssen
National University of Singapore
www.patrick.janssen.name
patrick@janssen.name
When visual programming is applied to design, it results in a parametric

modelling approach that we refer to as Visual Dataflow Modelling (VDM). This
paper reviews existing VDM environments and identifies key issues that result in
dataflow graphs with high complexity. In order to explore how these issues could
be overcome, a new VDM environment is being developed, called Vidamo. For
any given parametric modelling task, Vidamo aims to support a style of VDM
where the complexity of the dataflow graph remains commensurate with the
complexity of the task. An initial experiment is conducted in which the existing
environments and the proposed Vidamo environment are used to complete the
same parametric modelling task. The results indicate that the dataflow graphs
created using Vidamo are much smaller and less complex.
Keywords: parametric and generative modelling, visual dataflow modelling,

cyclomatic complexity
INTRODUCTION fied: too many links, too many nodes, and confusing
Visual programming languages enable users to cre- iteration. In general, it would seem that it should be
ate computer programs by manipulating graphical possible to create typical parametric models using far
elements rather than by entering text. In the design fewer nodes linked together in more linear ways us-
domain, visual programming can be used as a para- ing iteration that is easier to understand. In order to
metric modelling approach that we refer to as Visual address these issues, a new more scalable VDM envi-
Dataflow Modelling (VDM) (Janssen and Chen 2011). ronment is being developed, called Vidamo, support-
The appeal of VDM environments lies in the fact that ing a hybrid style of visual programming that allows
complex form generating procedures can be created larger and more complex types of parametric mod-
without having to learn programming. However, a els to be created. At this stage, this environment is
well known problem with these environments is that in the early stages of conceptualization. This paper
the complexity of the dataflow graphs can quickly discusses some of the early design decisions.
become unmanageable. The paper first gives an overview of four com-
Analysing dataflow graphs created using exist- monly used existing VDM environments. The pro-
ing VDM environments, three key issues are identi- posed VDM environment is then described, high-

lighting how limitations of the existing environments of coordinate systems oriented along the cen-
are overcome. Finally, the conclusions summarises treline. The centreline consists of a spline as-
the results and indicates future research directions. sumed to be lying on an undulating ground
surface. The coordinate systems are arrayed
OVERVIEW OF VDM ENVIRONMENTS along the centreline, orientated perpendicu-
Four commonly used VDM environments are anal- lar to the centreline and the global z-axis.
ysed: McNeel Grasshopper 0.9 [1], Autodesk Dynamo
2. Hoop Sections: Use the coordinate systems to
0.7 [2], Bentley Generative Components v8 [3], and
construct a set of hoop sections, consisting of
Sidefx Houdini 13 [4]. Other design environments
spline curves orientated perpendicular to the
that incorporate VDM include CityEngine by Esri [5],
centreline. The hoop sections are scaled so as
3DVia Studio by Dassault [6], and the Sverchok plugin
to ensure that the roof ridge remains at a con-
for Blender [7].
stant height.
The four VDM environments all make use of
dataflow graphs consisting of nodes and links. Nodes 3. Roof Surface: Use the hoop sections to create
represent some type of operation and links represent a discretised roof surface. The hoop sections
the flow of data between these operations. Nodes are first lofted to create spline surface, and the
have input ports and output ports and can have pa- spline surface is then discretised into a grid of
rameters that affect their behaviour. (In some envi- four sided components.
ronments, parameters are treated the same way as
inputs, while in some these are treated differently.) 4. Roof Modules: Use the roof components to
One important restriction that has been imposed create a set of roof modules consisting of X
is that multi-line scripting is disallowed, as this is seen frames. The X frames connect diagonal cor-
to be challenging for many designers (see for exam- ners of each component, with the frame diam-
ple Senske 2014). The use of single-line expressions eter being proportional to the length. When
is however considered to be acceptable since it does all components are replaced by these frames,
not require users to have any advanced knowledge a diagrid structure results.
of scripting or programming.
In the following sections, each VDM environment is
Modelling task analysed. First, three key aspects of each environ-
In order to be able to analyse the types of dataflow ment are described: the way nodes are used; the
graphs generated by these four environments, all of way links are used; and the way iteration is han-
them were used to complete a simple parametric dled. These aspects strongly influence the types of
modelling task. The chosen task is the Kilian Roof, dataflow graphs that are generated. A brief descrip-
based on a tutorial for Generative Components de- tion is then given of how each VDM environment was
veloped by Axel Kilian in 2005. The task consists used to build the Kilian roof.
of building a simple parametric roof with a diagrid
structure (Woodbury at al. 2007). The ridge of the Grasshopper
roof remains at a constant height while the base of Nodes may process either geometric data or non-
the structure varies in height in response to an un- geometric data. For geometric data, nodes are pro-
dulating ground surface. The task consists of a linear vided to create, modify and delete geometry. For
sequence of modelling steps, loosely defined as fol- non-geometric data, nodes are provided for vari-
lows: ous operations, including logical, scalar, and vector-
based operations. Many of the nodes tend to per-
1. Centreline Coordinate Systems: Create a set form fairly simple types of operations.

Links are created by the user connecting nodes in Both geometric data and non-geometric data is rep-
the graph. Both geometric data and non-geometric resented using nested lists.
data is represented in the same way, as trees. A tree Iteration results from nodes iterating over data
is a sorted collection of lists, where each list is identi- items in nested lists. Users are given the option to se-
fied by a path. A specific path can only occur once in lect from three 'lacing' patterns: 'shortest', 'longest',
a tree. When two trees are merged, lists with identical and 'cross product'. In addition, Dynamo supports
paths are appended to each other. recursion using custom nodes, thereby allowing for
Iteration results from nodes iterating over lists more complex types of iteration without requiring
in trees using a data matching algorithm. This algo- any scripting.
rithm looks at the inputs, and selects the data tree For the modelling task, the process is the same as
with the longest path to be the 'master' tree. The al- in Grasshopper until the stage where the lofted sur-
gorithm then iterates over the lists in this master tree face is created. In Dynamo, this surface was then used
and generates an output tree with matching paths. If to generate a grid of points, and these points were
the master tree has fewer lists than some of the other grouped into a list containing four sub-lists for the
inputs, then the algorithm automatically generates four corner points. These lists are then used to create
the missing input data by duplicating the last list in the diagonal X lines, which were then piped, thereby
the master tree. (This data matching algorithm is new creating the final piped structure.
since version 0.9)
For the modelling task, the coordinate systems Generative Components
were generated as frames along the centreline curve Nodes create new geometric entities. There are no
and a hoop section was copied onto each frame. A list nodes for modify or delete existing entities (although
of origin points was extracted from the frames and there is a node that transforms between coordinate
used to calculate a list of scale factors. These were systems.) Nodes are specified in two stages: the user
then used to scale the hoop sections. The hoops were first specifies the type of geometric entity to be cre-
lofted to create a surface, which was then discretised ated and then specifies the method that will be used
by dividing the surface into a set of patches. The cor- to create that entity. Nodes do not output any non-
ner points of the patches were then extracted and geometric data, but may require non-geometric data
used to generate two lists of corner point pairs. These as inputs. The dataflow graph is used mainly for vi-
lists were then used to create the lists of diagonal X sual feedback rather than for direct editing.
lines, which were then piped, thereby creating the fi- Links are created automatically by the system in
nal piped structure. response to expressions written by the user. When
the user creates a new node, the parameters for the
Dynamo node can be defined using expressions that link to
Nodes are similar to Grasshopper. Two additional data within other nodes in the dataflow graph. Ge-
types of nodes are provided: code block nodes and ometric data is represented using lists, with node in-
custom nodes. Code blocks allow users to write short puts and outputs being handled in slightly different
expressions inside a node to perform simple calcula- ways. Nodes outputs are always flat lists of geomet-
tions. Custom nodes allow users to define their own ric entities of the same type (including compound
custom operations that can be saved as a separate file types). Node inputs may require different types of ge-
and then used within parametric models in the same ometric and non-geometric data, structured either as
way as the built-in nodes. lists or as nested lists.
Links are also similar to Grasshopper, and are Iteration results from using nodes with input ar-
created by the user connecting nodes in the graph. guments that are defined as being 'replicable'. This

indicates that a list of inputs can be used, resulting ing 'for-each' nodes inside one another.
in the node iterating over these inputs. For meth- For the modelling task, the centreline curve was
ods with multiple parameters, users are given the op- converted into a polyline with equal segments, and
tion to toggle the replication pattern between one- the vectors for the coordinate systems were then at-
to-one replication and cross replication. tached as attributes to the points on the polyline. The
For the modelling task, the coordinate systems scale factors were calculated and also attached as at-
were generated along the centreline curve and then tributes to the same polyline points. A hoop sec-
scaled, with the scale factor being calculated using tion was created and then copied onto each of the
an expression. A hoop section was created and then points, with the section being automatically oriented
copied onto the scaled coordinate systems, resulting and scaled according to the point attributes. A sur-
in the hoops being automatically scaled to the right face was then generated by lofting the hoop sections,
size. The hoop sections were then lofted to create a which was then converted onto a polygon surface. A
surface. A grid of points is then generated on the sur- loop was then defined (using a 'for each' node) that
face, which were then used to generate a grid of poly- replaced each polygon with a diagonal pair of pipes.
gons. A component was defined that had a polygon
as the input and a pair of diagonal pipes as the out- Analysis of dataflow graphs
put. This component was then applied to the list of For all four VDM environment, the aim was to
polygons, thereby replacing each polygon with a di- model the Kilian roof using the minimum number of
agonal pair of pipes. nodes without resorting to multi-line scripting. In
Grasshopper and Dynamo, input nodes such as slid-
Houdini ers were not counted, as these are considered to
Nodes process geometric data, including creating, be optional. In Generative Components, multiple
modifying, and deleting geometry. Nodes tend to points were generated using a single node (using the
perform complex operations and may have many pa- Point.ByCoordinateList() method) rather than
rameters that affect their behaviour. one node for each point. In Houdini, the nodes
Links may be of two types: links for geometric nested inside the 'for-each' node were also counted.
data and links for non-geometric data. Geometric The four dataflow graphs for the Kilian roof were
links are created by the user connecting nodes in the analysed using three metrics: the number of nodes in
graph (similar to Grasshopper). Non-geometric links the graph, the number of links in the graph, and the
are created by the user writing expressions that link cyclomatic complexity of the graph (McCabe 1976).
node parameters to data within other nodes in the Cyclomatic complexity is a metric for measuring code
dataflow graph (similar to Generative Components). structure by calculating the number of independent
Geometric data is represented using a topological paths through a directed acyclic graph. In order to
data structure consisting of three levels: points, ver- ensure that code is understandable and easily main-
tices, and primitives. Primitives are any type of geo- tainable, it is typically recommended that the cyclo-
metric entity, including lines, polygons, splines, and matic complexity should be no greater than 10. The
so forth. The topological data structure supports complexity M is then defined as:
user-defined attributes at all three levels.
M = E−N + 2 (1)
Iteration results from nodes iterating over lists of
geometric entities within the topological data struc- where E is the number of edges in the graph and N
ture. In order to support more complex types of con- is the number of nodes in the graph. Note that for
trol flow, 'switch' nodes and 'for-each' nodes can be nodes that are connected using parallel links, only
used. Complex nested loops can be created by nest- one link is counted.

The results are shown in the Table 1. Despite the in- sisting of some complex nested structure, the way
herent linearity of the modelling task, none of the en- that the iteration will be executed can be very diffi-
vironments resulted in graphs with cyclomatic com- cult to predict. For Houdini, iteration was less com-
plexity of 1. For Grasshopper, Dynamo, and Genera- plex and avoided the many data restructuring nodes
tive Components, the results are similar, with an av- require in other environments. However, the be-
erage of 24 nodes, 27 links, and a cyclomatic com- haviour of individual nodes is complex and it is gen-
plexity of 5. These numbers are seen to be very high erally very difficult for novice users to know which are
and reflect the fact that with these environments, the the right nodes to use.
complexity of the dataflow graph is not commensu- One last issue to mention is the use of sub-
rate with the complexity of the modelling task. Fur- graphs (also referred to as 'clusters' or 'subnets'). All
thermore, the results suggest that tasks with a more four VDM environments allow users to create nodes
realistic level of complexity will likely exceed the rec- that contain a sub-graph. To some extent, this may
ommended cyclomatic complexity threshold of 10. A reduce complexity by enabling users to encapsulate
similar conclusion was reached by Davis at al. (2011), a closely related set of nodes as a single sub-graph.
who analysed a wide range of dataflow graphs and However, it also has the critical downside that it ob-
found that 60% of the models had a cyclomatic com- fuscates the dataflow, requiring users to continually
plexity greater than 10, despite the fact that many navigate in and out of such sub-graphs.
of the models were thought to be snippets of larger
more complex models. PROPOSED VDM ENVIRONMENT
The results for Houdini were markedly better. The analysis of the dataflow graphs created using ex-
This improvement was attributable to a number of isting VDM environments resulted in the identifica-
factors. First, fewer nodes were required due to tion in three key issues: too many nodes, too many
the fact that nodes in Houdini may perform more links, and confusing iteration. Too many nodes refers
than one modelling operation . Second, fewer links to datafow graphs that get very large due to the
were required due to the fact that data could be em- fact that each operation is represented by a sepa-
bedded within the topological data structure as at- rate node, even when some are relatively trivial. Too
tributes. Third, the iterative loop for creating the X many links refers to dataflow graphs that get highly
frames was easily handled with just a 'for each' node. tangled (also sometimes referred to as 'spaghetti
Table 1 code') due to the fact that nodes tend to require
Analysis of the many inputs. Confusing iteration refers to dataflow
dataflow graphs graphs that use techniques for iterating that are ei-
created using ther highly implicit, or when defined explicitly are
existing VDM very complex.
environments. For any given parametric modelling task, Vidamo
Another issue that was considered was comprehensi- aims to support a style of VDM where the complexity
'Nodes' is the
bility of the iterative behaviour of nodes. This was not of the dataflow graph remains commensurate with
number of nodes,
quantitatively measured, but was instead evaluated the complexity of the task. In order to achieve this,
'Links' is the
subjectively through experience of working with all Vidamo introduces two key features: a hybrid visual
number of links,
four environments. The approach used by Grasshop- programming approach and a topological data struc-
and 'CC' is the
per, Dynamo, and Generative Components, whereby ture. The hybrid approach allows nodes to be defined
cyclomatic
the node iterates over trees or nested lists, was found that perform more than one operation. The topolog-
complexity.
to quickly get very complicated. Since nodes can ical data structure allows complex sets of intercon-
have multiple inputs, with each input possibly connected geometric entities to be represented as a sin-

Figure 1
The Vidamo
interface in a web
browser.
gle geometry collection. break the task into 8 nodes, with each node contain-
The hybrid visual programming approach coming a short procedure consisting of just a few instruc-
bines two styles : the dataflow nodes-based style and tions. In the example given in Figure 1, the task is
the procedural tile-based style. The dataflow style broken into 4 nodes. The 'Centreline Coord Sys' node
is used to define an overall sequence of modelling creates the centreline curve and uses it to create a set
procedures, while the procedural style is used to de- of correctly orientated coordinate system. The 'Hoop
fine each individual procedure. (Note that this ap- Sections' node creates a hoop section on each coor-
proach combines dataflow and procedural styles of dinate system and scales each section by the appro-
programming without needing to invent a new propriate amount. The 'Roof Surface' node lofts the sec-
gramming language, as proposed by Aish (2013)). tion curves to create a roof surface and then converts
The dataflow style can be traced back to the existing this into a polygon surface. The 'Roof Modules' node
VDM environments described above, while the pro- replaces each polygon on the roof surface with a di-
cedural style can be traced back to tile-based visual agonal pair of pipes. The 'Hoop Sections' and 'Roof
programming environments such as Scratch (Resnick Surface' nodes are described in more detail below.
et al. 2009). The way that these various ingredients Vidamo is being developed as a web-application
are combined is novel and supports a more powerful that will run entirely in the browser. Figure 1 shows a
style of VDM that is capable of handling greater com- sketch of the proposed user-interface, showing three
plexity. types of views: the graph view, the geometry view,
The approach allows users to decide on the gran- and node view. The graph view displays the dataflow
ularity of the dataflow graph. For the Kilian roof graph. The geometry has two modes: a 3D mode that
modelling task, the user could decide to perform the shows the model or a spreadsheet mode, called the
whole task using just a single node containing a pro- 'Data Grid'. The latter allows geometry to be viewed
cedure with 16 instructions, or they could decide to as data, with every row in the spreadsheet represent-

ing one geometric entity. The node view has three that node. Procedures are created by inserting three
tabs: the 'Interface' tab allows users to customize the types of instructions: data instructions, action in-
node's user interface, including adding various inter- structions, and control instructions. Data instructions
face components such as sliders and tick boxes; the get and set data to local variables and input and out-
'Procedure' tab allows users to define the node's un- put ports. Action instructions perform any types of
derlying procedure using a tile-base visual program- geometric operations. Control instructions consist
ming style; and the 'Code' tab allows users to inspect of control flow statements such as 'for' loops, 'while'
the generated code. In this paper, only the geometry loops, and 'if' statements.
3D mode and the 'Procedure' tab will be discussed.
Figure 2 The information that is displayed in the geome-
The node view for try or the node view is dependent on what is selected
the 'Roof Surface' in the graph view, with two types of selection be-
node. (a) ing possible: selecting a port and selecting a node.
Instructions with The geometry view displays the data that is passing
collapsed settings. through the selected port. In Figure 1, one of the out-
(b) Instructions with put ports of the Roof Module nodes is selected (as
expanded settings. shown by the black circle), and the geometry view
(c) The node in the therefore shows the roof X modules. The node view
dataflow graph. displays the information for the selected node. In
Figure 1, the 'Hoop Sections' node is selected, and
the node view therefore shows the procedure for that
node. These procedures will be described in more de-
tail below.
Fewer nodes
In order to reduce the number of nodes, Vidamo uses
nodes capable of executing a procedure consisting
of more than one operation. For all geometric oper-
ations, there is only one type of node, which acts as a
generic container for a geometric procedure.
The generic geometry node can have an arbi-
trary number of inputs and outputs. Nodes may have
no inputs, in which case the procedure will generate
geometry from scratch. Nodes with no outputs are
possible, but are only used for specific purposes such
as writing files. Node input and output data may con-
sist of either geometric data or non-geometric data.
For geometric data, the data is represented using a Figure 2 shows the 'Roof Surface' node with a proce-
topological data structure (see section "Fewer Links"). dure consisting of four instructions: a data instruc-
For non-geometric data, the data can be structured tion, two action instructions, and another data in-
as either flat or nested lists. structions. Each instruction is defined by a number
When a user adds a generic geometry node to of settings that can be collapsed or expanded. Fig-
the graph, they need to define the procedure for ure 2 (a) shows the collapsed settings, while Figure
2 (b) shows the expanded settings. In order to spec-

ify the action to be performed, the user must select ferent type of geometric entity, such as a line, an arc,
a method using a series of nested menus. Once the or a BSpline curve. A geometry collection can there-
method is selected, parameter boxes are then dy- fore contain a large number of geometric entities re-
namically generated so that the user can specify the lated to one another in complex ways.
values for the method parameters.
The data instructions read and write data to Table 2
the input and output ports. For reading data, the The eight
GetInput() method is used, and for writing data, typological shapes
the SetOutput() method is used. For the first ac- available in
tion, the BSplineSrf.ByLoft() method has been OpenCascade.
selected which generates a BSpline surface by loft-
ing a set of section polylines. The surface is assigne
to the local variable bs_srf. The section lines are
specified by the expression hoop_sections.edges,
which refers to a set of curves in the topological data For the 'Roof Surface' node described above, the in-
structure (see section "Fewer Links"). For the sec- put and output data are both geometry collections.
ond action, PolySrf.FromBSplineSrf() method The input collection consists of vertices and edges,
has been selected which generates a polygon sur- with the vertices being points and edges being the
face from a BSpline surface. The polygon surface is BSpline curves. The output collection consists of five
assigne to the local variable poly_srf. The BSpline topological levels, from vertices to shells. The ver-
surface is the one created by the previous action, tices are points, the edges are straight lines, the wires
bs_srf. are sets of four connected lines, the faces are poly-
gons, and the shell is a set of connected polygons.
Fewer links The topological data structure allows lower level
In order to create graphs that are less tangled, entities to be extracted from higher level entities us-
Vidamo uses a topological data structure capable ing simple expressions. The expressions specify data
of representing geometric relationships and storing queries using the topological level as a way of navi-
non-geometric data. The use of such a data struc- gating through the data structure. For example, the
ture means that many of the relationships between expression input1.edges[1].vertices[0].z will
geometric entities do not have to be represented in return the z coordinate of the first point of the of the
the dataflow graph, but are instead an integral part of second curve in the collection input1. This ability to
the data structure (which is itself a graph). The data extract specific pieces of data from deep within the
structure and underlying geometric entities are de- geometric collection means that nodes often only
fined using the Open Cascade modelling kernel [8]. need a single input, thereby significantly reducing
A set of geometric entities represented using the the numbers of links that are required in the dataflow
topological data structure is referred to as a 'geom- graph.
etry collection'. Within such a collection, complex
shapes are modelled as assemblies of simpler shapes. Explicit iteration
Table 2 lists the eight types of shapes defined by the In order to reduce the obfuscation of iteration, Vi-
OpenCascade kernel. These shapes are abstract en- damo allows iteration to be explicitly specified us-
tities that are associated with underlying geometric ing loops, thereby giving users complete control over
entities. For example, a model may contain a number the iterative process. Loops fall under control flow
of edges, each of which may be associated with a dif- instructions, which are one of the three instruction
types that can be created for node procedures.

The ability to add control flow to the procedures ometry collection. The coordinate systems are cre-
makes this approach Turing complete, theoretically ated and oriented by the 'Centreline Coord Sys' node.
allowing procedures of arbitrary complexity to be de- Since the hoop sections lie on a flat plane, 2D coordi-
fined. Figure 3 show the procedure for 'Hoop Sec- nate systems have been used, defined as a set of ver-
tions' node, which includes a 'for loop'. As can be tices in the topological data structure.
seen in Figure 1, this 'Hoop Sections' node actually The 'for loop' is the second instruction in the pro-
precedes the 'Roof Surface' node sown in Figure 2. cedure shown in Figure 3. The type of 'for loop' that
has been used in this case is the 'for item in list' type,
Figure 3 which iterates through a list of items. For the settings,
The node view for the 'Item Name' defines the name of a local variable
the 'Hoop Sections' whose value will be equal to the item, and 'List' refers
node that includes to the list of items to be iterated through.
a loop. (a) The Inside the loop, four instructions have been de-
procedure showing fined: three action instructions and one data instruc-
a list of instructions tion. The first action creates four 2D points on the
with expanded 2D coordinate system. The second action create a 2D
settings. (b) The BSpline curve through these points and assigns it to
node in the a local variable called hoop. The third action scales
dataflow graph. the hoop by a factor that ensures that the roof ridge
line will remain at a constant height. The final instruc-
tion is the data instruction, which appends the scaled
hoop to the geometry collection for the node output.
Analysis of the dataflow graph

The dataflow graph shown in Figure 1 has 4 nodes
and 3 links, and therefore has a cyclomatic com-
plexity of 1. Furthermore, even if more nodes were
used, there would still be no need to create a non-
linear graph and therefore the cyclomatic complex-
ity would remain the same. For example, another
user might decide to split the 'Centerline Coord Sys'
node into two: one node to create the centreline and
another to place coordinate systems along that line.
This would result in 5 nodes with 4 links, which would
still have a cyclomatic complexity of 1.
The reason that the linearity of the dataflow
graph can be maintained is due to the fact that the
parametric modelling task is itself liner. This is of
course not always the case. More complex para-
metric models may require non-linear graphs. How-
ever, with Vidamo the user can ensure that the com-
plexity of the dataflow graph remains commensu-
In order to create the hoops, the node has to iterate rate with the complexity of the parametric modelling
over each of the coordinate systems in the input ge-

task. This is not the case with existing VDM environ- ference, Delft, The Netherlands, pp. 87-95
ments, where the complexity of the dataflow graph Davis, D 2013, Modelled on Software Engineering: Flexi-
will typically be significantly higher than the com- ble Parametric Models in the Practice of Architecture,
Ph.D. Thesis, RMIT University
plexity of the parametric modelling task.
Davis, D, Burry, J and Burry, M 2011, 'Understanding Vi-
sual Scripts: Improving collaboration through mod-
CONCLUSIONS ular programming', International Journal of Architec-
Four existing VDM environments were used to model tural Computing, 9, pp. 361-376
Janssen, P and Chen, KW 2011 'Visual Dataflow Mod-
the Kilian roof and the resulting dataflow graphs
elling: A Comparison of Three Systems', Proceed-
were analysed. Considering the simplicity of the task, ings of the 4th International Conference on Com-
the size and complexity of the dataflow graphs was puter Aided Architectural Design Futures (CAAD Fu-
found to be very high. tures 2011), Liege, Belgium, pp. 801-816
Vidamo is a new type of VDM environment that McCabe, T 1976, 'A Complexity Measure', IEEE Transac-
results in dataflow graphs that are are much much tions on Software Engineering, 2, pp. 308-320
Resnick, M, Silverman, B, Kafai, Y, Maloney, J and
smaller and less complex. It achieves this by integrat-
Monroy-Hernández, A 2009, 'Scratch: programming
ing two key features: a hybrid visual programming for all', Communications of the ACM, 52, p. 60
approach and a topological data structure. The hy- Senske, N 2014 'Confronting the Challenges of Computa-
brid approach uses the dataflow nodes-based style tional Design Instruction', Proceedings of the 19th In-
for defining a sequence of procedures and the proce- ternational Conference on Computer-Aided Architec-
dural tile-base style for defining each individual pro- tural Design Research in Asia, Kyoto, Japan, pp. 821-
830
cedure. The topological data structure defines a hi-
Woodbury, R, Aish, R and Kilian, A 2007 'Some Patterns
erarchy of shapes that allows complex shapes to be for Parametric Modeling.', 27th Annual Conference of
modelled as assemblies of simpler shapes. the Association for Computer Aided Design in Architec-
Vidamo is in the early design stages, and there- ture, Halifax, Nova Scotia, p. 222–229
fore the modelling of the Kilian roof was conducted [1] http://www.grasshopper3d.com/
as a theoretical exercise. The use of a hybrid ap- [2] http://dynamobim.org/
[3] http://www.bentley.com/en-US/Promo/
proach combined with a topological data structure
Generative%20Components/default.htm
allowed the Kilian roof example to be modelled us- [4] http://www.sidefx.com/index.php?
ing significantly smaller dataflow graphs with a cyclo- option=com_content&task=view&id=1000&Itemid=266
matic complexity of only 1. Furthermore, due to the [5] http://www.esri.com/software/cityengine/features
explicit way that loops are represented, it is argued [6] http://www.3dvia.com/studio/documentation/
that the comprehensibility of the iterative behaviour user-manual/ai-artificial-intelligence/pathfinding/case-
example
is much better than in existing VDM environments.
[7] http://wiki.blender.org/index.php/Extensions:2.6/
The future development of Vidamo will focus Py/Scripts/Nodes/Sverchok
on three areas: support for debugging, support for [8] http://www.opencascade.org/doc/occt-6.7.1/
linking to third-party tools (such as simulation pro- overview/html/occt__tutorial.html
grams), and support for generating data-rich models
(such as Building Information Models). These are all
areas in which current VDM environments are lack-
ing.
REFERENCES
Aish, R 2013 'DesignScript: Scalable Tools for Design
Computation', Proceedings of the 31st eCAADe Con-

From Point Clouds to Definitions of Architectural Space
Potentials of Automated Extraction of Semantic Information from Point
Clouds for the Building Profession
Martin Tamke1 , Ina Blümel2 , Sebastian Ochmann3 , Richard Vock4 , Raoul Wessel5
1
CITA - Royal Academy of Fine Arts, Schools of Architecture, Design and Conser-
vation 2 Technische Informationsbibliothek und Universitäts 3,4,5 University of Bonn
- Institute of Computer Science II - Computer Graphics
1
cita.karch.dk 2 www.tib.uni-hannover.de 3,4,5 cg.cs.uni-bonn.de
1
martin.tamke@kadk.dk 2 ina.bluemel@tib.uni-hannover.de
3,4,5
{ochmann|vock|wesselr}@cs.uni-bonn.de
Regarding interior building topology as an important aspect in building design

and management, several approaches to indoor point cloud structuring have been
introduced recently. Apart from a high-level semantic segmentation of the
formerly unstructured point clouds into stories and rooms, these methods
additionally allow the extraction of attributed graphs in which nodes represent
rooms (including room properties like area or height), and edges represent
connections between rooms (doors or staircases) or indicate neighborhood
relationships (separation by walls). In this paper, we investigate possible
applications of these approaches in architectural design and building
management and comment on the possible benefits for the building profession.
While contemporary practice of spatial arrangement is predominantly based on
the manual iteration of spatial topologies, we show that the segmentation of
buildings in spaces along with the untraditional more abstract graph-based
representations can be used for design, management and navigation within
building structures.
Keywords: 3D Scanning, Point Cloud Processing, BIM, Facility Management,

Space Syntax
INTRODUCTION tion of differences between built architecture and the

Indoor 3D point cloud scans have become increas- original CAD plans. Having faster and easier access
ingly important in architecture, as they enable a to 3D documentation of building structures is impor-
three-dimensional documentation of buildings for tant, as today over 80% of all buildings in Europe are
which no CAD models exist as well as documenta- older than 25 years and in need of adaption to con-

temporary levels with respect to usability, functional data information. Due to the large amount of man-
requirements and energy performance. ual post-processing necessary, the advantages that
The effort needed in order to capture existing come along with the digital capturing devices are in
building stock is hereby decreasing, as the constant practice to a bigger part lost again.
evolution of 3D scanning technologies increases the Computational approaches might minimize the
speed of scanning, the quality and density of the efforts needed to create architectural data from point
point cloud, while error margins and the amount clouds.
of manual labour needed is reduced (Hichri et al. Several approaches to indoor point cloud struc-
2013). Capturing the existing building stock has turing have been introduced recently, see e.g.
also been facilitated by certain recent developments: (Ochmann et al. 2014). Apart from a high-level se-
3D scanning devices (1) have become increasingly mantic segmentation of the formerly unstructured
autonomous and can prospectively scan complete point clouds into stories and rooms, these methods
buildings without user interaction (e.g. ScanBot by additionally allow the extraction of attributed graphs
Faro Labs), (2) have become able to scan hard-to- in which nodes represent rooms (including room
reach areas of architectural structures, like e.g. the properties like area or height), and edges represent
ScanCopter by Faro and 4D-IT, and (3) have been en- connections between rooms (doors or staircases) or
abled to scan complete structures ultra-fast in walk- indicate neighborhood relationships (separation by
ing speed, see e.g. the ZEB1 developed by CSIRO Au- walls). This semantic approach to the structuring of
tonomous Systems Lab. (Fig.: 1) point cloud data challenges the traditional represen-
tation of buildings through mass, as wall elements,
Figure 1
ceilings and floors, as it results in none of them. It pro-
Recent
vides an information rich interior building topology,
developments in 3d
that might on a second view be an important aspect
registration
for a future Building Information Modelling approach
technique: Faro
towards architectural design and building manage-
Labs ScanCoptor ,
ment and create benefits for the Architectural and
Faro Labs ScanBot
Engineering Community (AEC).
While scanning itself is becoming seemingly and CSIRO ZEB1
While contemporary practice of spatial arrange-
faster, a considerable effort is needed to post-process (From Left to Right).
ment is predominantly based on the manual itera-
the acquired data, as in contrast to highly struc- Images courtesy by
tion of spatial topologies, this paper shows the po-
tured and semantically enriched Building Informa- FARO and CSIRO
tential of semantically rich graph-based representa-
tion Models, point clouds are completely unstruc- tions of spaces found in point clouds for design, man-
tured and contain no semantics at all. agement and navigation within building structures.
Due to their unstructured nature, it is virtually
impossible to define meaningful parts in the raw
data, e.g. rooms or stories. These definitions are
RELATED WORK
A prominent use of definitions of spaces in architec-
yet imperative for further architectural planning ef-
tural planning is in Space Syntax. Within this context
forts, as in applications for management and navi-
bottom-up design strategies for buildings are pro-
gation within building facilities (FM tools) and are as
posed that generate the topology of spaces based on
well needed for targeted (textual) search, manipula-
their preprogrammed relations and functions in an it-
tion, measurement takings, and efficient rendering.
erative process that evaluates the internal organiza-
This forces architects and construction companies to
tion of spatial entities as their relation to a building
manually generate 3D Building Information Model-
shape. These methods can as well take the cogni-
ing overlays of the point cloud and additional meta-

tive needs of designers into account as they are in- body can be an extrusion of a footprint, it can be sub-
formed by the perception of information and knowl- jected to a Boolean expression or it can be a multi-
edge and how it is acquired, stored and processed. faceted boundary representation (BRep). In contem-
William Mitchell describes in his "Logic of Architec- porary practice spaces are mostly used to calculate
ture" (Mitchell 1992), how such descriptions of build- areas, denote functions of rooms in 2D representa-
ing structures may be formalized. tions, while the 3D BReps are used for energy simula-
(Deleuran et al. 2013) further argue that tration, often via gbXML export.
ditional modes of representation are not able to The IFC definition of spaces is however imprecise
capture cognitive and organizational properties of as they can refer to huge variety of spaces, as actual
space, such as circulation networks. His approach is rooms, outdoor spaces, virtual delimitation of spaces
based on a domain model based on 2D floorplans and can as well overlay (Figure 2). If used for the plan-
from which a graph based formalized mode of archi- ning within existing building stock, the spatial defini-
tectural representation for mapping, abstracting and tion provided in IFC files necessitate hence a verifica-
analyzing is extracted. This is used to find the space's tion with the physical reality.
resilience to security and safety concerns in building
Figure 2
design and layout planning.
An IFC compliant
The knowledge of spatial relations from previ-
BIM model, that
ous projects can as well directly support architec-
shows overlapping
tural planning. (Langenhan et al. 2013) develops a
spatial
system for sketch-based queries by topological sub-
definitions.Courtesy
structures of buildings in a database containing pre-
of NCC, Carlsby IFC
calculated so-called "semantic fingerprints" of exist-
model in Solibri
ing spatial solutions.
Model Viewer. APPROACH
The topological information can be extracted
from 2D (Deleuran et al. 2013) or low-level 3D CAD As shown above, design processes can greatly bene-
representations of buildings, from which Wessel et al. fit from spatial definitions. However, existing defini-
automatically extract 2D plans (Wessel et al. 2008). tions are usually outdated or even missing for exist-
From this they generate room connectivity graphs as ing building stock. We tackle this problem through
a topological representation of architectural storeys the algorithmic extraction of semantic descriptions
for easier search and retrieval of CAD building mod- directly from point cloud scans of building interi-
els. (Langenhan et al. 2013) uses the spatial defini- ors. If implemented into the architectural toolset
tion of spaces (ENTITY IfcSpace) in IFC files. These the amount of manual labor by specialists is reduced
are very common in current practice and represent greatly.
an area or bounded volume. According to the IAI The proposed method for room segmentation
definition [1], a space represents an area or volume and opening detection is described in detail in
bounded actually or theoretically. Spaces are here ar- (Ochmann-GRAPP, 2014). We will summarize the
eas or volumes that provide for certain functions in a approach below. The identification of meaning-
building. In IFC files a space is associated to a build- ful structures and features within Point Clouds is
ing storey (or a site, in case of exterior spaces) which non trivial, far from solved and part of ongoing re-
describes its elevation (+flooring offset). In case of search. In contrast to other methods which focus on
volume, the height can be provided by elevation of the reconstruction of boundary representations (e.g.
bottom of suspended ceiling. Geometrically, spaces Turner et al. 2014, Oesau et al. 2013, Xiao et al 2012,
can be represented by 2D curves or a 3D body. The Mura et al. 2013), segmentation of objects within
rooms (e.g. Kim et al. 2012, Nan et al. 2012, Shao et al.

2012), or work on different kinds of representations Figure 3
(e.g. Ahmed et al. 2013, Langenhan et al. 2013, Wes- Initial colored
sel et al. 2008), the proposed method works purely pointcloud
on point cloud data and yields a concise description
of a building's topology.
Step 1: Initial Room Labeling

The starting point of the segmentation process are
indoor point cloud scans of a building which have
been registered (i.e. spatially aligned) in a common
coordinate system; the registration is usually done by
the scanner software. Clutter outside of the building Figure 4
(e.g. surroundings scanned through windows) is re- Initial rough
moved beforehand. In addition to reducing compu- point-to-space
tational complexity this also removes outlier points assignments. The
for which the room labeling described below is not affiliations of points
meaningful. This step is currently done manually by to spaces are
performing a coarse selection of the region of inter- color-coded.
est, however we are experimenting with techniques
to automate the process of detecting and removing
such outlier points. An example input point cloud is
depicted in Figure 3. The goal is to find a labeling of
all points such that each point is assigned to one of
Step 2: Refinement of Room Labeling
The initial room labeling is subsequently refined us-
the rooms of the building which yields a semantically
ing a diffusion process of room labels between points
meaningful segmentation of the cloud. As an initial-
which is governed by mutual visibility between them.
ization for this labeling, we start with n different la-
The underlying idea is that most points that can be
bels where n is the number of scanning positions and
"seen" from a certain point p tendentially have the
each point is labeled with the scanning position from
correct label and it thus reasonable to take the av-
which it originates. Subsequently, if a particular room
erage labeling of visible points as a new, improved
has been scanned from more than one position, the
guess for the labeling of p. This process is iterated
corresponding labels are merged to a common label;
a few times, allowing the diffusion to take place be-
this step is currently done manually using a graphical
tween points which are not directly visible from each
user interface. We are then left with m different la-
other but only indirectly (e.g. around a corner or if a
bels where m is the number of rooms in the building.
region is hidden behind a piece of furniture). Figure
This initial "guess" for the room labeling is shown in
5 shows an example of the room labeling after the re-
Figure 4. Obviously, this initial labeling is ambiguous
finement step.
in regions in which multiple scans overlap.

Figure 5 ready yields valuable information, e.g. for performing
Final segmentation an analysis of sound propagation between adjacent
- space labeling rooms, openings between neighboring rooms are
after refinement. detected in a subsequent step. Each pair of neighbor-
ing planar structures is tested for intersections with
a certain subset of rays between scanner positions
and the measured points, namely those rays whose
origins (i.e. scanner position) are located in a differ-
ent room than the corresponding measured points.
These sets of intersection points are then used to
approximate the geometry of openings (e.g. doors,
Figure 6 vertical openings for staircases). Figure 7 shows the
Automatically detected door connections in the example dataset;
recognized space Figure 8 also includes captions showing the number
neighborhood of openings and neighbors for each room. A lim-
graphs itation of this approach is that a sufficient amount
of overlap and thus rays shot through openings be-
tween adjacent rooms is required in order to be able
to detect openings. However, such overlaps are usu-
ally required anyway in order to perform the (semi-
)automatic alignment of the scans to each other in
Figure 7 the scanner software.
Space connectivity
graphs including Step 4: Export of Data
captions showing For demonstrating the usage of the extracted meta-
the number of information for the generation of IFC representations
openings and of a building we have developed a prototypical tool
neighbors. for the generation of IFC files from the processed
point cloud data. Although our long-term goal is to
enable (semi-)automatic generation of rich IFC files
including floor, ceiling and wall structures, as well as
openings, we have for now focused on the export
Step 3: Detection of Room Neighborhood of "IfcSpace" entities as a first step towards this goal.
and Openings Following the definition of the IFC 2x3 standard, Ifc-
Based on the segmentation of the point cloud data Space entities are commonly used for representing
into rooms, the room neighborhood relation is de- an area or volume within a building, bounded actu-
termined by automatically searching for wall struc- ally or theoretically. In our approach, we generate
tures separating adjacent rooms. Wall structures are one 2.5D IfcSpace for each room label present in the
sought by detecting pairs of planar structures (i.e. the point cloud. Here, 2.5D means that each space con-
scanned surfaces of the walls) fulfilling certain consists of a closed polygonal footprint together with a
straints (e.g. they shall are close enough, have plane height of the respective space. Starting with a point
normals pointing away from each other and possess cloud in which point labels indicate the affiliation to
different room labels). The resulting room neighbor- a certain room, the problem of generating IfcSpace
hood is depicted in Figure 6. While this relation al-

Figure 8
An example for
space
segmentation and
determination of
room relationships.
3D scan with
overlay of the room
connectivity graph
and all further
information
extracted from the
3D scan. 3D scan
courtesy by
Statsbyg Norway3D
entities consists of structuring the scene into a dis- sible. This adherence to detected planes is done by
joint set of polyhedra, each one representing one penalizing usage of cell borders which do not belong
room. The challenge here is twofold: On the one to detected planar structures as separating lines be-
hand, room borders must be sufficiently regularized tween differently labeled cells. After the cells have
such that outliers and noise do not cause them to be- been assigned their labels, adjacent cells with the
come jagged. On the other hand, systematic devia- same label are merged such that we obtain labeled,
tions from the broader wall structure should be faith- polygonal regions for each room. These regions are
fully captured even if they are small. This trade-off subsequently exported as an IFC file containing one
can be formalized as an optimization problem. IfcSpace entity for each region. Figure 9 shows an ex-
Our approach to solving this problem is coarsely ample for the resulting IFC.
based on ideas by (Schnabel et al. 2009) who propose
a primitive-driven mesh reconstruction method from RESULT OF APPROACH
point cloud data and (Mura et al. 2013) who generate The final result of the proposed method is a seman-
a two-dimensional cell complex from extracted verti- tically meaningful assignment of all points to the
cal wall planes and subsequently perform a room la- building's rooms as well as a concise description of
beling by means of diffusion maps in an spectral em- room neighborhoods and connections between ad-
bedding of the cell complex. For assigning room la- jacent rooms. In addition to providing a better in-
bels to each of the resulting cells, we use a multi-label sight into even large-scale datasets (e.g. by enabling
optimization algorithm by (Boykov et al. 2001). This hiding or highlighting of certain areas of the building
yields a regularized labeling of the cells while trying for inspection), it also provides concise, higher-level
to adhere to the detected wall surfaces where pos- information about the building's topology. Further

structuring of the obtained information, for instance sense of their semantic relations.
a grouping of rooms into storeys as well as a further The approach described in this paper is to pro-
segmentation of rooms into objects contained within vide a better understanding of existing buildings
them, may be performed as detailed in (Ochmann- and grants a new base to the architectural design of
3DOR, 2014) which also demonstrates the usage of retrofitting and user-oriented space management ac-
the extracted room connectivity graphs for perform- cording to ergonomic principles:
ing searches of building sub-structures.
• Performance based programming of space -
Figure 9 As real-world architecture has significant se-
Example for an IFC mantic structure, the knowledge of spatial re-
extracted from the lations allows to engage a performance based
point cloud shown design of spaces. An example of this ap-
in Figure 2-7. One proach is the consideration of the impact of
of the IfcSpaces is sound emitting spaces (entrance halls, func-
highlighted. tion rooms, ..) on neighboring spaces, which
tend to be more quiet, e.g. offices. The room
neighborhood graph, as depicted in Figure 5,
is suitable as basis for the allocation of spaces
or for the calculation noise-reducing actions,
which can be further assessed through simple
AREAS OF APPLICATION IN BUILDING rules or simulations (Cavanaugh et al. 1999).
PRACTICE This provides crucial feedback for the optimal
Already basic tasks in Facilitiy Management (FM) as positioning of spaces according to their sensi-
the accounting of areas and volumes require a se- tivity towards noise.
mantic understanding of spatial structures. As intro-
duced beforehand, this is even more necessary for • Planning of building retrofitting - An essen-
the integration of existing building structures into tial part of contemporary planning of builid-
FM processes, which is seemingly understood by ar- ing retrofitting is concerned with energy us-
chitects and building owners as a constant monitor- age. Energy simulation (Diaz-Vilarino et al.
ing and adaptation sequence (Graf et al. 2011, Gu 2014) requires however data on the volume of
et al. 2013). In practice, design extends into the spaces, their orientation and relation to each
realm of building operation, as the continuous op- other. The further knowledge of current and
timisation of buildings and their adaptation to up- future use of spaces and other semantic data
coming needs require design decisions. This requires helps to verify design decisions regarding spa-
the semantic linkage of spatial hierarchies and ge- tial distribution of program, as the dimension-
ometries to other existing information on the building of technical appliances.
ing and an ongoing process of updating this data.
A growing set of FM software, as Dalux [2], Archi- • Access management is an application widely
data [3], Gralund Mangaer [4], Rambyg [5], ActiveFa- used in FM tools, and requires information
cility [6], supports the continuous collection of data on spatial connections as well as on different
related to state and changes in buildings and pro- properties like floor area or door sizes. Fig-
vides connection to other building relevant systems, ure 8 depicts a automatically extracted room
as energy monitoring systems. However, today most connectivity graph with attributed nodes
FM systems do not contain actual 3D geometry or a and edges including semantic information

needed for planning and simulation of spatial apper can help to find the best arrangement
programs. Graph and properties can be used of spaces with the shortest routes for users
as basis and for enrichment of FM information (Fig 10).
to facilitate access management.
• Assessment of security and safety in building de- Figure 10

sign is an emerging field (Deleuran et al., 2013) A graph is used to
and requires information on spatial relations, find a path between
connectivity occupation and distances for the an office space
optimization of emergency routes as well as (identified through
the assessment of terrorist threads. algorithmically
• Mobile Navigation systems for outdoor use detetced office
are standard applications on mobile phones. chair- red) and
These applications are seemingly entering sanitary area
navigation in indoor spaces and require for (identified through
this information about buildings that extend algorithmically
detected sink- red)
spatial and graphical aspects. In particular, EVALUATION
the ontological structure of buildings have to The created spatial definitions in are fully compliant
be defined (Diaz-Vilarino et al. 2014). This in- with the IFC standard and tests show that the most
formation is not readily available from existing common IFC viewers (Solibri Model Checker) and
CAD drawings, nor from laser scans. The ap- BIM modelling tools (Revit) import and render the
proach described in this paper is resulting in spaces correctly, using their individual approaches to
semantic descriptions, that have the potential the display of spaces (Solibri: 3d representation of
to deliver data in the Node-Relation-Structure spaces, Revit 2d representation of spaces (Fig. 11)).
(NRS) required for indoor mobile navigation Metadata detected in the point clouds or addition-
systems. (Lee et al. 2005). These geospa- ally entered in the tool described here, as names of
tial formats are undergoing standardisation spaces, is imported correctly.
efforts at the moment (ISO-CD 17438-1) and
out an emphasis on the compatibility to the Figure 11
Industrial Foundation Class Format (IFC). Two dimensional
display of the
• Programming of space and distribution of imported IFC file in
functions - The detected distances between Autodesk Revit
spaces, can be of benefit for the planning
and optimisation of workflows and the nec-
essary pathways in existing buildings. Re-
cent approaches extend the until now ap-
plied shortest path algorithms, as they take
an extended three-dimensional dataset with
additional metadata into account (Ya-Hong
et al. 2013). An application for such way plan- The detection of meaningful architectural informa-
ning are hospitals, which are characterised by tion in point cloud data remains a challenge. One
many overlaying workflows. The graphs de- particular difficulty is the sheer size of the datasets.
tected through the approach described in this The point clouds of a single building may easily con-

Figure 12 sist of tens of gigabytes of data which usually ren-
A case of a missed ders processing of the data in core memory infeasi-
door in a dataset ble. However, as the proposed method does not re-
from Risløkka quire the full resolution of the point cloud for per-
trafikkstasjon, Oslo. forming the computations, downsampled versions of
The reason for this the datasets may be used which fit into main mem-
is that the overlap ory and also allow fast, parallel computation of visi-
between the scans bilities between points on graphics cards. In our ex-
of the "yellow" and periments, it sufficed to retain (at most) one point
"blue" rooms is not per voxel of 2 cm side length. Other challenges, es-
large enough due pecially when dealing with real-world datasets of in-
to a closed door habited buildings, are highly cluttered rooms and
complex, non-convex room shapes. The proposed CONCLUSION
from the side of the The described algorithmic methods demonstrate the
"yellow" room and method is able to deal even with challenging cases
due to the formulation as a diffusion process which benefits that a semantic linkage of real world spaces
sharp scanning and their representation in BIM can provide. Espe-
angles from the side is able to gradually refine the initial labeling despite
occluded or non-convex regions. In addition to syn- cially planning processes in existing building mass
of the "blue" room. benefit, as the generated room connectivity graph
thetic datasets, the method was tested on several
real-world datasets from different scan providers on can be queried on the level of the individual spaces
which it yielded satisfactory results. One limitation of (volume and area) as on the level of spatial topology.
our method for the detection of openings between This will provide stakeholders a mean to query their
rooms is that it requires the openings to be (at least models in a project specific way through rule-based
partially) unobstructed during the scanning process algorithms for user-oriented space management ac-
(in particular doors need to be standing open), and cording to ergonomic principles and help them to
that a sufficient overlap between scans of different identify opportunities for better design concepts. Fu-
rooms exists; Figure 12 shows a failure case of the ture work will have to improve the underlying algo-
opening detection. In general, assuming the avail- rithms, as new opportunities might arise through the
ability of overlaps between rooms is not a hard con- semantic detection of objects in spaces. The pre-
straint due to the fact that such overlaps are usu- sented methods can however be seen as a first step
ally necessary for performing the registration of in- into the automated generation of BIM models from
door point cloud scans. Another current limitation 3D laserscans.
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137:10

Evolutionary multi-criteria optimization for building
layout planning
Exemplary application based on the PSSA framework
Reinhard Koenig1 , Matthias Standfest2 , Gerhard Schmitt3

1,2,3
ETH Zurich, Chair of Information Architecture
1
http://www.ia.arch.ethz.ch/koenig/ 2,3 http://www.ia.arch.ethz.ch/
1,2,3
{reinhard.koenig|standfest|schmitt}@arch.ethz.ch
When working on urban planning projects there are usually multiple aspects to
consider. Often these aspects are contradictory and it is not possible to choose
one over the other; instead, they each need to be fulfilled as well as possible.
Planners typically draw on past experience when subjectively prioritising which
aspects to consider with which degree of importance for their planning concepts.
This practice, although understandable, places power and authority in the hands
of people who have varying degrees of expertise, which means that the best
possible solution is not always found, because it is either not sought or the
problem is regarded as being too complex for human capabilities. To improve this
situation, the project presented here shows the potential of multi-criteria
optimisation algorithms using the example of a new housing layout for an urban
block. In addition it is shown, how Self-Organizing-Maps can be used to visualise
multi-dimensional solution spaces in an easy analysable and comprehensible
form.
Keywords: Planning synthesis, Evolutionary algorithms, Multi-criteria

optimization, Isovist, Computational design
INTRODUCTION cussed here we have to vary the number of build-

This paper focuses on the implementation and test- ings. A further goal is to show that various evaluation
ing of a minimal but flexible chromosome represen- methods when combined with evolutionary multi-
tation that enables one to explore a huge search criteria optimization (EMO) can assist a planner in ex-
space of possible building layouts in an acceptable ploring design possibilities by offering compromise
time and on the integration of this system into a plan- solutions located on the Pareto front.
ning process. This representation has to accommo-
date both parametric as well as topological optimiza-
tion. The latter requires that for the example dis-

Figure 1
Class diagram of the
PSSA optimization
library. On the left,
the wrapper to the
PISA library; on the
right, the interface
for multi-criteria
chromosomes and
fitness functions as
well as the
multi-criteria
population class.
Their structure is
based on the
AForge.Genetic
library.

METHODS ness function are used as initialisation parameters for
We developed a framework for computational plan- a MultiPopulation instance.
ning synthesis and spatial analysis (PSSA), which In the chromosome we encode parameters for
combines algorithms for the evaluation of spatial buildings' x/y-position, width, length, rotation, and
configurations, for optimization, visualization and number of buildings as well as maximal and minimal
user interaction. PSSA is written primarily in C-Sharp values for each parameter. These parameters may be
and combines existing libraries with newly devel- changed by the mutation and crossover operators of
oped algorithms into one open source framework [1]. the ES. Another parameter defines the coverage ra-
It was created over the past few years as part of var- tio of an area as a density characteristic value. This
ious research projects at different institutions and is value has to be constant for all variations to ensure
continuously being developed further. their comparability. The parameters are encoded as
For the layout example presented in this paper real values for the ES and an individual mutation op-
we show how various Isovist field properties (Batty erator is provided for each parameter. The minimal
2001; Benedikt 1979) can be used as fitness values in length of a buildings side is for example defined by
combination with others (multi-criteria fitness func- the square root of the buildings area, multiplied by a
tion) to evaluate 2D building layout variants. The po- ratio value. The range of the ratio is [0; 1]. Whereas
tential of this approach for single criteria optimiza- e.g. 0.5 means that the minimal value for a buildings
tion was already demonstrated by Schneider and side is half of the length of a square with the area of
Koenig (2012). A similar approach for using 3D Isovist the building.
for spatial planning is demonstrated by Derix (2009). For topological optimization of building layouts,
Isovist fields are used to describe experiential where we vary the number of buildings and there-
qualities, which are very important in urban design, fore the number of gens for each chromosome, we
but usually under-represented in computational de- need to implement a more sophisticated crossover
sign approaches. To optimize the arrangement and mechanism. For the minimum number of buildings
properties of buildings in an urban layout we devel- in one of the chromosomes we can exchange the
oped an evolutionary strategy (µ+λ) ES in combina- gens randomly. For the difference in the number of
tion with a selection mechanism using the HypE algo- buildings we generate a random number between 0
rithm (Bader & Zitzler 2011) from the PISA framework and the difference. It indicates the number of gens
(Zitzler & Thiele 1999). HypE is especially designed for which are copied from the old chromosome with the
considering many-objectives, since the state of the most buildings to the new chromosome. After the
art multi-objective algorithms are developed for solv- crossover and mutation operators of each iteration
ing problems with two or three contradiction objec- have been executed (Figure 2), we check if the same
tives. All selectors from the PISA framework [2] are coverage ratio still applies. If not we adapt the sizes of
included in PSSA (left-hand column in Figure 1). The the buildings by varying their width and length val-
class structure of PSSA for optimization (especially for ues.
the interfaces) is based on the AForge.Genetic library In a last step the optimization algorithm is com-
[3]. Figure 1 shows the resulting class structure of the bined with adaptation mechanisms as described by
PSSA optimization library. Koenig and Schneider (2012). First, we use a repelling
For our layout example we need to implement algorithm to prevent buildings from overlapping one
a special chromosome based on the IMultiChromo- another (Figure 2) or the border of a defined area.
some interface and a set of fitness functions that are Second, we use virtual springs to define adjacency
combined in a class based on the IMultiFitness Func- relationships between buildings. The advantage of
tion (Figure 1). Both the chromosome and the fit- these adaptation mechanisms is that we do not need

Figure 2
Crossover for
layouts with various
number of
buildings. Left:
Schematic layout
with 3 and 2
buildings. Right:
The corresponding
chromosomes,
where a gen
to include a corresponding goal into the set of fitness promise solutions. An interesting challenge is how represents a
criteria for the EMO. This helps keep the search space to translate requirements that are relevant for a plan- building with all its
smaller and in turn shortens the computing time re- ner to the possibilities that result from computational properties and
quired to generate useful solutions. analysis using Isovist fields. For example if we want to parameter values.
find a spatial configuration where the arrangement
SOFTWARE PROTOTYPE of the buildings creates one large central place, we
We present a software prototype (Figure 3) that can maximise the "area" Isovist parameter value. This
shows how an urban planner can treat a planning interpretation of an Isovist field property can be con-
problem as an inverse problem by defining what per- sidered as an indirect measurement for our require-
formance a solution should have and using an EMO ment. Other related interpretation examples and a
system to automatically generate a set of best com- more detailed explanation of the Isovist properties
can be found in the paper by Schneider and Koenig
Figure 3
Software prototype
showing an
example of a
building layout
with corresponding
Isovist analysis. The
coloured grid
represents an
Isovist field for
"area" property and
crosses the entire
planning area.

(2012). Our optimization approach becomes espe- ings which requires a special function to ensure con-
cially interesting when we combine various require- sistency of the chromosomes after user interactions.
ments that could potentially contradict each other
(or not) into one EMO. In the paper, we elaborate on RESULTS
various examples in more detail. To test the EMO mechanism we used a simple ex-
Another important aspect for using EMO during ample of a rectangular area, for which we looked
a planning process is the ability to introduce further for buildings layouts, for which we maximised two
restrictions in a simple and visual way. Figure 3 shows objectives: The mean and max "area" property of
an example where an open space axis is inserted the Isovist field. Figure 4 shows results of one run
which, for example, could stand for a new street (the of our optimization system, whereas one row shows
long narrow rectangle in the centre of the planning a generation and each column consists the non-
area). Furthermore the prototype makes it possible dominated solutions found so far and collected in an
to move, rotate and scale individual objects. After archive. The system find very good solutions already
each user interaction we update all chromosomes of after 20 generations. In Figure 4, solutions with huge
a population, so that all genes (that represent an ob- red (free) areas are better in this simple example.
ject such as a building) affected by the user manip- In the next step we increase the number of ob-
ulation are assigned new parameter values. This en- jectives to five. These are the following Isovist prop-
sures that the changes will be constant for a few iter- erties: Maximisation of maximum area, maximisa-
ations. We can also optionally lock an object which tion of mean area, minimisation of mean occlusiv-
means that the related genes are not changed by the ity, maximisation of mean compactness, maximisa-
crossover and mutation operators. A difficulty results tion of mean min-radial (minimal distance to obsta-
from the fact that we don't fix the number of build- cles) value. Figure 5 shows the 30 layouts after 20
Figure 4
Optimization
process. The rows
show the content of
the archive with the
best (pareto
optimal) solutions.
The initial layouts
are shown in the
bottom row, the
final ones (after 20
iterations) are
shown at the top
row. The colours
show the area
property of the
Isovist field.

Figure 5
Layout result of an
optimization
process with five
objectives after 20
generations which are contained in the archive. The dimensions to be analysed by the SOM as cells in the iterations. The
geometries (phenotypes) show more variation than grid. These are 2000 dimensions for the layout exam- colours show the
the ones with only two objectives presented in Fig- ples shown in Figures 5, 6 and 7. Because of the result area property of the
ure 4. This results amongst others from the fact, that is relatively similar to the one in Figure 6 on the left, Isovist field.
some objectives contradict each other. For exam- we don't show it here.
ple the maximisation of the mean min-radial contra- In another setting, we added a fixed open space,
dict with the maximisation of the maximisation of the which represents for example a street. For the objec-
maximum area value. We can also see in Figure 5 that tive functions we use the same five criteria like above
similar geometrical solutions are not placed beside for Figure 6. The layouts resulting from the optimiza-
each other, but are randomly arranged. The solutions tion process after 20 iterations are shown in Figure 7.
are added to the archive if their differences in the ob- For the arrangement we have used the binary grid as
jectives are large enough without considering their fingerprint for the arrangement via SOM.
geometrical properties. For an application of a multi- For the open space an attractor function was
objective optimization system in a planning context, added to align the nearby buildings to it. Because
a possibility to order the solutions in a meaningful the open space itself is not considered as obstacle, it
way is very important. Usually a pairwise mapping to is used for the Isovist field calculation. Compared to
two-dimensional pareto-front curves is used for this Figure 6, where the large open areas (red) emerged at
purpose. A promising alternative is a clustering using the edges of the complete area, in Figure 7 the fixed
Self-Organizing-Maps (SOM) as shown by Obayashi open space in the middle is usually part of the largest
and Sasaki (2003). SOM are capable to map multi- open areas. As described above and shown in Fig-
dimensional data into a two-dimensional map. This ure 3, it is possible to interact with all geometrical el-
allows a planner to find solutions that have similar fit- ements including the open spaces. This enables the
ness values clustered together. user to flexibly change the restrictions for the system,
Figure 6 shows the result of a SOM using the like the placement of an open space.
five objective values for the same variants as shown For the optimization process it is important that
in Figure 5. For the SOM clustering the software we do not change objects like the open space. There-
Databionic ESOM Tools have been used (Ultsch & Mo- fore they are locked for all operators of the EA and can
erchen 2005). A torus projection was applied, what only be changed by the user. Especially the crossover
means that the variants at the top are neighbouring operator needs to consider locked elements sepa-
to the bottom ones and the left ones to the right rately in order that they do not get lost. For this rea-
ones. By clustering the variants by their objectives, son they are copied to the new generation first, and
they are also ordered indirectly by their geometrical the existing crossover procedure is executed after-
properties. Similar phenotypes are placed in the near wards as shown in Figure 2.
of each other in Figure 6 on the left. Nevertheless it is
possible to map the variants by considering their ge- CONCLUSION AND OUTLOOK
ometry instead of their objective values. Therefore a We have presented an interactive multi-criteria opti-
binary grid is used as fingerprint. Each cell can be on mization system. We developed this system for the
or off depending if it is located in a free area (on) or special requirements in the planning context, where
inside a building (off ). In this case we have as many it is needed to interact with the geometrical ele-

Figure 6
SOM analysis. Left:
Arrangement of
layout variants from
Figure 5 using the
mapping of the
SOM analysis.
Colours show
Isovist field area.
Right: Visualisation
of PMatrix of the
Databionic ESOM ments, change restrictions and objective functions in the population. This comparison can be improved
Software. Variants and have understandable visualizations during the it- by using the binary grid compare method which was
(represented as erative optimization process. The presented exam- used to cluster similar solutions. The disadvantage
points) in clusters ples are not very realistic, since there are more crite- of this procedure is, that it requires an additional and
with warmer ria that need to be considered, but they are a good relative time consuming computing step per itera-
colours have more prove of the concept for using an optimization tech- tion why we have not used it.
in common with niques during an urban planning process. A further open issue is how to design a process
respect to all To fill the archive with pareto optimal solutions that allows a planner to use the solutions presented
dimensions than we test the similarity of solutions by comparing their in a SOM to lead the optimization process in a new
the variants in fitness values. The idea is to accept only new solu- direction, without analysing which restrictions or fit-
clusters with colder tions for the archive that are sufficiently different to ness values need to be changed.
(blue) colours. maintain the diversity of genotypes and phenotypes Finally it is worth to mention the relationship be-
Figure 7
Layouts with open
space. Left:
Arrangement of
layout variants
using the mapping
of a SOM analysis.
Colours show the
Isovist field area
property. Right:
Visualisation of the
PMatrix of the
Databionic ESOM
Software. Variants
(represented as
points) in clusters
with warmer
colours have more
in common with
respect to all
dimensions than
the variants in
clusters with colder
(blue) colours. Design Tool 2 - Volume 2 - eCAADe 32 | 573
tween restrictions and objectives for an optimization Obayashi, S and Sasaki, D 2003 'Visualization and data
system. Which criteria we consider as restriction that mining of Pareto solutions using self-organizing
must be fulfilled by each variant and which is used map', Proceedings of the 2nd international confer-
ence on Evolutionary multi-criterion optimization, p.
as objective for the multi-criteria optimization mech-
796–809
anism is always a trade-off between the computing Schneider, S and Koenig, R 2012 'Exploring the Genera-
time to achieve meaningful results and the possibil- tive Potential of Isovist Fields: The Evolutionary Gen-
ity for the system to create unexpected results. eration of Urban Layouts based on Isovist Field Prop-
The presented system is the first step towards a erties', Proceedings of eCAADe 2012, Prague, pp. 355-
computing systems that learn and interact with an 363
Ultsch, A and Moerchen, F 2005 'ESOM-Maps: tools
urban planner to extend what either humans or ma-
for clustering, visualization, and classification with
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Computer Science: The user states the problem, the ary algorithms: a comparative case study and the
computer solves it (Freuder1997). strength Pareto approach', IEEE Transactions on Evo-
lutionary Computation, 3(4), p. 257–271
[1] http://www.cplan-group.net/
ACKNOWLEDGMENT [2] http://www.tik.ee.ethz.ch/pisa/
Many thanks goes to Christian Tonn and Sven Schnei- [3] http://www.aforgenet.com/framework/
der for implementing a fast algorithm for calculat-
ing Isovists in parallel by using the graphic proces-
sor unit. The software presented in this article will be
published soon via the website [1].
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129–142

Smart and Responsive Design
Responsive Architecture
A Conceptual Framework for the Re-Examination of Space, Embodyment,
and Perception
Omar Al Faleh
Topological Media Lab, Concordia University
http://www.omarfaleh.com
omar@morscad.com
This paper is a discussion and a re-examination of the materiality and the

perception of architecture and architectural spaces beyond the physicality of
bricks and mortar and beyond the geometrical delineation of walls and ceilings.
This paper presents our research in responsive architecture, computational and
interactive media, and the phenomenology of space perception, presence, and
embodiment. We will introduce some of our experiments where we design and
implement immaterial spaces and potential architectures through sensing,
moving, and non-linear narratives, and attempt to revisit concepts of perception,
space, and spatiality, when technology is used in architecture not as tools for
design and visualization, rather as a framework for designing of engaging and
meaningful experiences.
Keywords: Architecture, Computational media, perception, Embodied

experience, Space
INTRODUCTION came to being. Therefore, the engineers and plan-

"Buildings have been erected without drawings, but Ar- ners of that age, rushing to come up with solutions
chitecture itself goes beyond the mere process of build- to this representational challenge, laid hay stacks in
ing. The complex cultural, social, and philosophical de- the open fields where the city will be erected, and in-
mands developed slowly over centuries have made ar- vited the king to stand on the hill that overlooks this
chitecture a form of knowledge in and of itself." eventual construction site. They proceeded to set the
Bernard Tschumi, 1996 hay on fire and watched from atop the fiery layout of
Mythologies and folk tales tell the story of king the streets and city blocks, simulating the urban lay-
Nebuchadnezzar who built the city of Babylon in the out of what will eventually be one of the most promi-
fifth century BC. As the local tales go, he ordered nent cities of that era. This folk tale, regardless of its
his engineers to show him what his majestic city will authenticity or accuracy, is probably the first docu-
eventually look like, centuries before drawn and plot- mented case of attempting to simulate and represent
ted representations of plans and technical drawings immaterial and potential architectures as they over-
Smart and Responsive Design - Volume 2 - eCAADe 32 | 577

lay the physical landscape, by using ephemeral rep- on making design decisions that are inspired by rel-
resentations that co-create cognitive materialization evant studies and philosophies, implementing these
of this potential built environment, or what we may designs with the subject as the main point of interest,
consider an ancient attempt at augmented reality. and finally evaluating the experiments through inter-
Many centuries later, and after many perspective viewing the subjects and evaluating their described
drawings, computer-generated 3D renderings, and experiences. This methodology, process, and evalu-
experimentations with virtual and augmented real- ation results will not be part of this paper but will be
ity, the challenge to construct representations and briefly mentioned in the experiment description.
simulations of immaterial and potential spaces over
the existing perceived reality remains as new and in- RESEARCH MOTIVATION
teresting as ever. New technological advances con- The most common practices that imply potential and
tinue to offer us new modalities and mediums to immaterial architecture are street pantomime per-
experiment with; The rapid evolution of real-time formances. Feeling and moving alongside invisible
graphics and simulation techniques allow us to go walls, by placing the performer's hands flat, and at an
beyond drawn and printed representations of the po- equal distance from the body, suggests the presence
tential architecture, and into animated, interactive, of a level invisible plane or a transparent separation
and immersive experiential virtual environments that between the performer and the audience.
co-inhabit our reality in a non-competing manner. Pantomimes play on the dynamics between the
This paper will present experiments and studies body and our social and cultural comprehension of
in the perceptual and sensorial construction of non- the physicality of the built environment. Their ges-
material spaces and architectures beyond the pro- tures and actions are what Edward Casey terms "per-
duction of representational imagery and animations. formative remembering" (Casey, 1996) which informs
These potential architectures are subjective sensorial the body's action through the resurrection of simi-
constructions of parallel realities that become avail- lar previous experiences of interacting with solid sur-
able to us through sensory and cognitive activation faces and planes. It also works on a suggestive and
rather than resorting to wearable or hand-held gad- cognitive level on the side of the observer. The pan-
gets and technologies. These experiments do not at- tomime's performances imply the presence of solid
tempt to replace existing architecture; they co-exist surfaces, but also suggests transparency: the per-
with our built environments as interactive ephemeral former's body can be seen but yet unable to cross this
layers that are space-time specific. spatial division.
The projects that will be presented in this paper These actions and hand gestures are not made
are interactive and responsive environments that are up or improvised in any way, they are rather habit-
informed and inspired by the theoretical and concep- ual and familiar bodily gestures that trigger a certain
tual studies in perception, presence, memory, and body memory of dealing with the solidity of walls and
embodiment. The paper will anchor these attempts glass planes. Casey's essay on body memory, and
in the historical and theoretical precedents that in- performing tasks as rituals that summon past expe-
formed and inspired these experiments, challenge riences, provides powerful conceptual tools to build
existing mediums and techniques of representation, our experiments with what we considered to be ha-
and draw conclusions and recommendations for fu- bitual body performances that help create a mental
ture studies. model of immaterial spaces and architectures.
What we call experiments in this paper do not Another attempt to use visual and sonic cues to
follow the traditional scientific discourse of measur- summon the audience's cognitive construction of im-
ing data and generating results, we base our work material spaces and architecture is Lars Von Trier's
578 | eCAADe 32 - Smart and Responsive Design - Volume 2

Figure 1
The Village in Von
Trier's Dogville - an
Aerial view
film Dogville. The set (figure 1) is made of an open tual cues.

space where the village houses are drawn as archi- Janet Cardiff's Audio Walks (1991-2012) is an-
tectural plans on the floor instead of building them other example of the mental and cognitive construc-
with physical materials on the set. tion of space and objects through sound narrative.
In this film, the acts of opening doors, walking Cardiff's narrative describes the space in which the
the streets, and leaping over steps, are achieved by listener is walking, which allows them to identify and
enacting the appropriate gestures, and playing the match the narrated version with the listener's physi-
normally associated sound effects of interacting with cal surroundings. These audio walks sometimes de-
that object, without the need to show the original ob- scribe people and objects that were present during
ject. the recording but not there anymore. This creates
Therefore, opening a door becomes the act of ex- parity between the two timespaces, and allows for
tending the hand forward, grabbing an invisible ob- a mental superimposition between the narrated and
ject, and then retracting the hand closer to the actor's the perceived reality without the need to use any sen-
body while hearing the squealing sound of the door sory activation or media presence. The common el-
hinges revolving along their axis. ements between the narrated and perceived times-
These enacted interactions also plays on our so- paces function as bridges and portals, which enables
cial and cultural body memories, and our cognitive the listener to perform a constant back and forth be-
modeling of objects and spaces: What is considered tween the two realities.
inside and outside in Von Trier's film is not defined Bernard Tschumi's Questions of Space (Tschumi,
by physical enclosures of walls and ceilings, rather by 1996) talk about the materiality of space and ar-
our mental construction of this narrated and implied chitecture, and whether a space (Euclidian or non-
architecture through the use of media and percep- Euclidian) should be regarded as a series of events

over time or a geometrical representation. This lever- 3. Blindfolded subjects, like persons who are
ages the definition of space as the dynamic rela- blind from birth or through injury, do already
tions between the elements within a milieu rather have a knowledge of space, even if it is only
than a geometrical delineation of a void where things through the world of sound or the space
are placed in measurable distances and dimensions of bodily action with tactile and kinaesthetic
(Merleau-Ponty, 1945). This emphasizes experienc- feedback (Lenay, Steiner 2010)
ing the space through motion, action, gestures, as
well as sonic input, not only through visual percep- The concept of this research is to replace the physical-
tion of shapes, volumes, and scale. ity and permanency of the built environment by a dy-
Salome Voegelin argues that "[..] Merlot-Ponty's namic, ephemeral, and immaterial architecture that
subject performs the unity of space through a synthe- is implied by a computationally activated touch sen-
sis of things experienced not as discrete objects, but as sation. This is inspired by the work of Edward Casey
distinct viewpoints which are connected through the on Body Memory, and the Tactile Vision Substitution
agency of perception producing a visual realization of System of Paul Bach y Rita (Lenay, Steiner 2010). The
space" (Vogelin, 2010). This synthesis of the experi- potentials of such platforms allows for the dynamic
ence, which we attempt to achieve by using compu- morphology of this implied architecture, with its di-
tational and interactive sensory stimuli, are the tech- visions, scale, and delineations, by the process of ma-
niques and tools with which we imply space, delin- nipulating certain ephemeral elements in the space,
eation, and scale of potential and immaterial archi- namely: light sources.
tectures. To examine these concepts, a wearable comput-
ing device was built to be the interface between the
PROJECTS: MEMORY, PLACE, IDENTITY body and space through light sensing and haptic
2011: Dr. David Morris, Dr. Sha Xin Wei, Zohar feedback. Subjects were asked to wear a glove-like
Kfir, and Patricia Duquette. item which has a small photocell mounted to a pros-
thetic extension of the glove's index finger, and a
2014: Dr. Sha Xin Wei, Omar Faleh, Nina Bouchrd. small actuator that is placed under the fingertip of
This project follows a prototype that was initiated in the glove. The glove is connected to a microcon-
2011 by the Topological Media Lab, at Concordia Uni- troller unit that handles the computation and signal
versity and re-visited later by other researchers in the processing locally and in real time. Once the pho-
same lab in 2014. tocell detects the presence of light (above a certain
The research motivation for this project starts threshold, to focus on direct light source detection
from two ideas: instead of environmental and refracted lights), the
1. Our sense of the space is informed by the way small actuator, which is placed on the fingertip, gets
we get in touch with the world activated, therefore giving the haptic sensation of
touching a solid object. The sensing process works
2. Making way through a place is what gives a on discreet on/off modes, which makes the haptic
sense of the place, its layout, and dimensions, feedback similar to the presence, or lack thereof, of
and it also condenses body memories of that solid objects in real-life.
place. Blindfolded subjects, like persons who In the 2011 phase of this project, subjects were
are blind from birth or through injury, do al- asked to walk blindfolded through an indoor space
ready have a knowledge of space, even if it is that is equipped with a light source (lamp) in a fixed
only through the world of sound or the space position in space (refer to figures 2 and 3). Subjects
of bodily action with tactile and kinaesthetic were navigating the space with their hand extended
feedback (Lenay, Steiner 2010) to the front to feel the presence of light. What we

observed was that participants slowly integrated the In the later phase of this experiment, the sensing
light source in their spatial memories and subjects mechanism was connected to a global spatial com-
were avoiding the light source in their navigation. puting system that reads the signal from the light
This is within the lines of Ed Casey's suggestion that sensor, adds sonic feedback to the interaction, and
"an active immanence of the past in the body that in- allows for a dynamic change of the topology of this
forms present bodily actions in an efficacious, orienting, immaterial architecture through the manipulation of
and regular manner" (Casey 1996), but on a shorter light sources in the space and the spatialization of
and more compact timescale that is based on short- sound.
term active memory. This connectivity allowed the integration of this
experiment in the TML's OZONE ecology (Sha et al.
Figure 2 2010), which is a fully integrated media choreogra-
A subject in the phy system that includes a computational light con-
space, navigating trol, an integrated spatialized sound engine, and a
and sensing the computer vision tracking system. The integration of
location of the light this experiment with OZONE allows us to transcode
source the position of the subject in the space through cam-
era tracking and remotely activate/deactivate the
sensing process in the glove based on predefined ar-
eas in the space.
PROJECTS: THE TABLE OF CONTENTS

2014: Evan Montpelier (TML, Concordia-Mon-
treal), Assegid Kidane (Synthesis, ASU-Phoenix),
Figure 3 Omar Faleh (TML, Concordia-Montreal), Michael
A subject in the Montanaro (TML, Concordia-Montreal). The table
space after the of content (TOC) is a collaborative communication
location of the light and collaboration meeting table that functions as a
source was portal between remote locations. TOC works by map-
encoded in their ping presence, gestures, and sounds to the dynamic
body memory and manipulation of a visual video feed, and to the envi-
they navigated ronmental features (light, sound) control systems in
away from it opposite locations.
In TOC, remote spaces influence, and are influ-
enced by, the dynamics of the bodies that inhibit
these spaces and the dynamics of the conversation
itself. Lefebvre argues that active bodies create their
spaces and themselves through their action and the
energy that is available to them (Lefevbre 1991),
The main theoretical design consideration for this ex- which is applied in this project by allowing the con-
periment was to go against the traditional responsive versation participants to map their activities to the
architecture model where the sensing is external to physical changes in remote spaces through the com-
the body and embedded into the space, rather inter- putation of the affective quality of their motion and
nalize the sensing process by focusing on the body as interaction.
the epicenter of the perception.

This project, while similar in essence to commer- United States (figure 4). The close collaboration be-
cial video chat software, attempts to bend and su- tween the two research centers, and the joint sem-
ture remote spaces by means of physical, represen- inars between graduate students in the two institu-
tational, and non-representational data exchanges tions, triggered the conversation over the need for
that control the modalities of communication. This a communication environment where gestures and
is done by emphasizing the affective quality of the sound are communicated in their affective value, in
conversation rather than the basic exchange of au- the same way images and sounds are communicated.
dio and video streams, and by extending the conver- Motion quality and audio features are analyzed
sation beyond the communication medium and into and broadcasted alongside the audiovisual streams.
the space, thus allowing spaces to leak into, and in- This data is mapped to a visual particle system defor-
fluence, each other. mation tool that overlays the video feed on the table,
and to a light control program in TML's OZONE media
choreography system (figure 5). The table is rigged Figure 4
with 4 speakers under the surface, and the incoming The Table of
audio stream is spatialized to reflect the positioning Content: Standard
of people who speak on the other side. communication
Therefore, a silent and still audience on Side A mode
of the conversation removes their image from the
meeting table on Side B (through the accumulation
of white particles over the feed) and also increases
the room light intensity on Side B, thus switching fo-
cus to the active side of the conversation. Once Side
A becomes active again (start talking or gesturing),
their sound is channeled through the appropriate
4-channel table speakers system on Side B, and the
sound emitters scatter away the particles over the
Figure 5
corresponding image zone, thus revealing the per-
The Table of
son who is speaking.
Content: Remote
This project, while still in the development
source inactivity
phase, attempts to connect multiple communication
and light control
sources instead of two. This poses the challenge of
implementing multi-channel feeds on the table with-
out resorting to split-screen representation like video
chat applications do. For this purpose, image depth
is implemented into the visualization system by plac-
ing the video feeds on various depths, and displac-
ing the active feed to the top while pushing the inac-
tive ones to the bottom. This computational swap is
overridden by the recipients' hand gestures and mo-
tion. This is done by "dusting off" the surface feeds
A video feed is mapped to the meeting table in to reveal the ones at the bottom, which implies an
the Topological Media Lab at Concordia University in alternative spatial superimposition within the space
Canada, and is connected to the meeting room in the itself, and emphasize the new role of table as a portal
Synthesis center in the Arizona State University in the

instead of an irregularly shaped screen. 6), where the size and speed of the white portion of
the stripes is proportional to the averaged movement
PROJECTS: STRIPED BODIES in the scene, which is collected and computed by the
2012: Omar AL FALEH (TML, Concordia-Montreal, infrared camera. Idle state of the participants gen-
Elizaveta Solomonova (TML, Dreams and night- erated zero-height white stripes, thus covering the
mares lab, University of Montreal). Striped Bodies bodies, and the space, in darkness (figure 7). This al-
is a playful experimental media-rich interactive game lowed participants to play with the ability to see each
that examines the correlation of movement, body, other and to allow themselves to be seen, which is
and space through a choreographed construction of done by changing the intensity of their movement.
personal spaces. This experiment considers space a The movement average is also mapped to a sound
product of the senses, which is a concept that tran- engine that changed its gain to reveal and hide am-
scends the physicality and materiality of architecture bient and active sounds, thus coupling visual percep-
to focus on perception and mental constructions of tion with aural sensing.
spaces, where space is considered a mental extension
Figure 6 of sight (Nouvel, 2002), and a dynamic entity that ex-
Striped Bodies, tends as far as the senses can reach (Gins, Arakawa,
striped projection 2002).
on participants’ The role of the body as an active agent in expand-
bodies ing and shrinking its personal space, and the epicen-
ter of perception and sensing, is emphasized through
the interaction and the exchange of roles between
subjects in our experiment.
Participants, who were mostly not trained in per-
formance arts nor in summoning expressive body
language, engaged in a responsive media narrative
that follows a predefined set of rules, to examine con-
cepts of dynamic and immaterial spaces and percep-
Figure 7 tion. The experiment is held in a dark empty space,
Striped Bodies, surrounded by black curtains to hide the characteris-
participants in near tic of space and give the impression of a neutral void.
idle state The elimination of visible boundaries places the ex-
periment in what looks and feels like an infinite space,
which enhances the sense of intimacy to eliminate
the social inhibitions of being watched.
Invisible infrared lights flood the scene to facili-
tate gesture and movement tracking without placing
any visible lights in the scene; an infrared camera and
a high-definition projector are installed in the corner
of the room to capture the movement and map the
participants' bodies with the projected visual feed-
back.
High contrast black and white stripes are gener-
ated and projected on the participants' bodies (figure Participants are split into teams of two, a leader and a
follower, and are instructed upon entering the scene

to follow the following set of rules: close their eyes and focus on the question at hand
(their perception of space, of the other participant,
1. The leader assumes a pose and waits for the of the movements that they performed, etc.), and
follower to imitate her. then attempt at verbalizing the best they could how
the experience felt, as opposed to simply describing
2. The leader is to change position only when what it was.
the follower has successfully imitated her. This method was inspired by work of Claire Petit-
mengin (2007) on the phenomenology of lived expe-
3. A change of the background sound for the rience , as well as by Eugene Gendlin's work on expe-
first time reverses the roles of the leader and riencing and focusing techniques. Both approaches
follower advocate for dropping the more explicit descriptions
of the obvious, in favor of studying the source of ex-
4. A change of the background sound for the periential subjectivity by isolating and focusing on
second time is the cue for both participants to how an event felt. Getting in touch with the felt di-
improvise movements independently mension of an experience undoubtedly requires a
certain degree of training, willingness and concentra-
Animated black and white stripes give a sense of reg- tion.
ularity through repeated motion, and hide body de- Synthesizing the answers from different partici-
tails to make participants blend in the background, pants showed a very interesting link between move-
only to reveal themselves through the progression of ment and sound. Most participants wouldn't go
continuous movement (figure 8). in details about describing the space in its physical
manifestation, rather focused on the other body in
Figure 8
front of them, and the effect of the mirrored move-
Striped Bodies,
ment in their perception of the body of the other as
striped projection
a reflection, or an extension, of their own.
on participants’
The participants in our experiment game were
bodies
random selection from undergraduate students in
the Computation Arts department at Concordia Uni-
versity, which implied a level of understanding of re-
sponsive media and the behavior of responsive sys-
tems, and a certain level of curiosity. Participants
knew each other to varying degrees through their
classes, which also provided a corresponding level
of comfort in improvising and performing in front of
each other. It was observed that those who were
more familiar with each other performed in a more
These conditions draw from the concepts of mobil- relaxed way and felt more freedom in exploring the
ity and sight as main elements in constructing space, space in the third improvisational stage of the exper-
where idle bodies disappear in darkness, and move- iment.
ment enables sight, thus building the common space
between the participants. CONCLUSION
At the end of the experience, participants were Designing and implementing immaterial architec-
asked to fill out a short questionnaire consisting of ture through sensory activation and augmentation
open-ended response items. They were asked to first

can create meaningful and powerful experiences for
users, and can provide us with the tools and plat-
forms to apply and study theories of space, spatial-
ity, and embodiment. These experiments can pro-
vide a conceptual framework for the considerations
and implementation of responsive systems in exist-
ing architectural spaces to create a dialogue between
the subjects and their surroundings, and to create
meaningful and enjoyable experiences. These exper-
iments propose ideas and concepts for ephemeral
architectures and spaces that do not require hand-
held or isolating wearable visualization devices, nor
do they require the rendering and the construction
of complex augmented and virtual realities. Non-
representational computational media, visual or oth-
erwise, allow for a cognitive and mental construction
of alternative realities that leave space for subjective
individual and collective experiences.
REFERENCES
Baudrillard, J and Nouvel, J 2002, The singular objects
of architecture, University of Minnesota Press, Min-
neapolis, MN
Casey, E.S 2000, Remembering: A Phenomenological
Study, Indiana University Press
Gins, M and Arakawa, S 2002, Architectural Body, Univer-
sity of Alabama Press
Lefebvre, H 1991, The Production of Space, Blackwell pub-
lishing
Lenay, C and Steiner, P 2010, 'Beyond the internalism/ex-
ternalism debate: the constitution of the space of
perception', Consciousness and cognition, 19.4, pp.
938-952
Merleau-Ponty, M 2012, Phenomenology of Perception,
Routledge
Petitmengin, C 2007, 'Towards the source of thoughts:
The gestural and transmodal dimension of lived ex-
perience.', Journal of Consciousness Studies, 14.3, p.
54–82
Sha, XW, Fortin, M, Navab, N and Sutton, T 2010 'Ozone:
continuous state-based media choreography sys-
tem for live performance', Proceedings of the interna-
tional conference on Multimedia. ACM, Firenze
Tschumi, B 1996, Architecture and disjunction, MIT Press
Voegelin, S 2011, Listening to noise and silence: Towards a
philosophy of sound art, Continuum

Grow: Generative Responsive Object for Web-based
design
Methodology for generative design and interactive prototyping
Davide Ventura1 , Matteo Baldassari2

1
Sapienza Università di Roma 2 ONL, Hyperbody research group
1
www.cenosarc.org 2 www.matteobaldassari.eu
1
davide.ventura@uniroma1.it 2 matteobaldassari86@gmail.com
This paper is part of the research on Generative Design and is inspired by the
ideas spread by the following paradigms: the Internet of Things (Auto-ID Center,
1999) and the Pervasive/Ubiquitous Computing (Weiser, 1993). Particularly, the
research describes a number of case studies and, in detail, the experimental
prototype of an interactive-design object: "Grow-1". The general assumptions of
the study are as follows: a) Developing the experimental prototype of a
smart-design object in terms of interaction with man, with regard to the specific
conditions of the indoor environment as well as in relation to the internet/web
platforms. b) Setting up a project research based on the principles of Generative
Design. c) Formulating and adopting a methodology where computational design
techniques and interactive prototyping ones converge, in line with the principles
spread by the new paradigms like the Internet of Things.
Keywords: Responsive environments and smart spaces, Ubiquitous Pervasive

Computing, Internet of Things, Generative Design, Parametric modelling
FROM GENERATIVE DESIGN TO INTERAC- nected with web platforms by the encoding of spe-
TIVE PROTOTYPING cific scripts.The three general objectives converge on
The design process (Figure 2) is based on the prin- the idea of developing a smart object capable of spe-
ciples of Generative Data-Driven Design. The in- cial performances in terms of Pervasive/Ubiquitous
teractive prototyping is based on the current tech- Computing. Specifically, the study focuses on find-
niques of 3D printing and laser-cutting. It is im- ing experimental solutions for designing new objects
plemented, specifically, by using electronic boards which can interact with the external inputs, being
(Spark) equipped with micro-controllers and devices interconnected to the web. The search for formal
which incorporate sensors-actuators and so on. The "non-standard" solutions, which is carried out using
paradigm of the Internet of Things, instead, is imple- the above methods of digital morphogenesis (Kolare-
mented through the use of Wi-Fi boards, inserted in vic, 2000), is linked with the techniques of integra-
the electronic circuit inside the object and intercon- tion of innovative sensing systems in order to con-

Figure 1
Render of the
project
Figure 2
The design process:
from generative
design to
interactive
prototyping
trol and optimize the real-time performanceThe idea conditions of the context.
is to reformulate the traditional character of every-
day household objects, adapting them to the new in- THEORETICAL INTRODUCTION
formation and communication technologies.The in- In 1993 Mark Weiser introduced the concept of "calm
vestigation ultimately aims to assign to our everyday technology" describing the occurrence whereby
objects a new "genetic heritage", whose code does technology is hidden behind the visible sphere of
not only correspond to its "canonical" function but to space and things. He embarked the paradigm of
the combination of different features and behaviors "Ubiquitous computing", the information technology
in terms of interactivity.The result is a "hybrid pheno- separates itself from personal computer becoming
type" in which the digital information pass through integrated in objects and devices commonly used.
the matter and where architecture and design are in- After two decades, as Gregory Wessnerm has under-
terwoven with electronics and Information Technol- lined, low cost of hardware solutions and increasing
ogy. In this sense, the digital information is consid- computational skills of software products allow to
ered as a real material (Kuniavsky, 2010) which in- implement digital intelligence of machines. Further-
spires and guides the design experience. This out- more the quality of design becomes an ephemeral
look brings in new questions about their ability to and intangible value based on the computational ca-
assume interactive behaviours towards the specific

pabilities. As Mike Kuniavsky underlines, nowadays stance, released a series of smart wearable acces-
architects and designers have the opportunity to ex- sories able to track the diet and the physical activi-
periment and shape with the new tools of informa- ties of the users. In the other hand the belkin com-
tion technology throughout several hardware and pany promoted a smart pan controlled by distance
software solutions suitable for all. Do we have, today, throughout an App for mobile devices, furthermore
examples about the impact of information technol- "Sen.se" built a doll able to record and communicate
ogy in design? Are they leading to impressive out- events in a room. Kolibree it's also a remarkable ex-
comes? Before dealing with products in the market ample concerning products able to gather informa-
it's interesting to focus on the approach of artists pic- tion about hygrothermal features, it verifies and com-
turing new scenarios within this field of research. For municates to the user the effectiveness of the oral
instance the domestic-city of Keiichi Matsuda (Fig- hygiene . Italian design studio Digital Habits cre-
ure 3) represents an exciting and truthful scenario. ated a modular lamp that encourages human inter-
He employed information not as a medium to rebuilt action. Called Dragon, the lamp consists of interlock-
a virtual dimension but, on the contrary, he altered ing triangular modules filled with tiny LEDs that can
the physical dimension around us overlapping real- be arranged to provide a variety of lighting effects.
ity with digital tags and information: the data be- A fractal chandelier from the future, Dragon can be
came interactive and dynamic amplifying the objects controlled with a simple smartphone app. It is the
meanings and functionalities. This idea resumes and World's First Remote-Controlled LED Bulb that Can
follows the concept of "augmented reality" firstly ex- be Turned On Via a Smartphone. Some students at
plained by Manovich. the MIT invented Twine, a device with external and
internal sensors, wi fi connection and an application
Figure 3 to connect and communicate environmental condi-
Keiichi Matsuda, tions. The product send emails and warnings accord-
Domesti/city ing to the data collected. Researchers at the IAAC in
Barcelona developed an akin device able to monitor
environmental data. The device is connected to the
web platform (smartcitizen.com/net) storing data in
real time and sharing with other users of the plat-
form. Even though forrester Research poll affirmed
that the 53% of the Americans are not concerned to
control devices through a smartphone, it's really dif-
ficult to deny the remarkable potential of an object
able to interact with man, environment and the web
at the same time combining several functionalities.
Besides that all those kind of experimentations can
be considered attempts to absorb the impulses of the
Examples and references
new computational culture of the 21th century. Nev-
Artists like Matsuda suggests a process of innova-
ertheless today the most convincing inventions are
tion achievable in a long term although some com-
the DIY (do it yourself ) products where users can as-
panies have already undertaken a market strategy for
semble components by themselves, in fact, instead
this kind of products, showing the increasing poten-
of being a passive actor, the consumer participates
tial of the products related to the internet of things
actively to the process behind the mere fruition. Fur-
as a real clue for the technological innovation and
thermore the challenge is to introduce products able
cutting edge design. The Fitbit company, for in-

to solve real issues and to improve life of people. The try, it follows the prototyping phase which consists
opportunity given by the communication between of two main parts: the first is the actual construc-
objects and people represents the breaking point tion of the object, while the second corresponds to
of a consumerist society toward a democratic one, the activation and integration of electronic devices-
where devices will control and track environmental During the computational design stages, 3D printing
changes in an accessible, free and decentralized net- has been chosen as the most appropriate prototyp-
work. This research aims at underlining a method- ing technology. This alternative has determined a
ology based on the intent to create a network of re- particular attention to detail within the virtual model
lations between object Computer environment and that will be exported later as a stereo-lithographic
people. This scenario implies the capacity to manage printing. This stage will be improved using sustain-
and gather data throughout languages of the com- able bio-plastics The second phase involves the pro-
putational design culture.To achieve these goals was gramming of Spark and the setting of the connec-
fundamental to approach the computational tools tions with sensors (photocells) and actuators (LED or
available today, five years ago these tools were re- speaker).The whole system is powered by a recharge-
served to an elite inner circle of researchers. Today ar- able lithium battery and the physical aggregation of
chitects and designers have easy access to these tools multiple components (in accordance with the digital
throughout an active open source community and recursive-aggregation) is obtained through the use
low costs of machines and hardware solutions. The of round magnets fully integrated in the geometry of
algorithmic and associative design allow in this case the printed article. In the process of morphogenesis,
to establish dynamic relations through virtual mod- in fact, one of the main objectives was to achieve the
els, physical models and software products using a integration between shape and electronic devices.c)
small amount of resources. connection of the object to web platforms through
Wi-Fi cards and appropriate software. The next step
ANALYSIS OF THE RESEARCH is to connect the object to the Internet. Over the
The analysis of the research is structured as follows: last few years, there has been a spread of different
a) description of the main steps of the generative de- web platforms able to store and manage data in real
sign process carried out using algorithms developed time (smartcitizen.me, xively.com, openenergymon-
with VPL: Grasshopper-Rhino and with Python pro- itor.org). Through the sharing of API addresses and
gramming language:The first step consists of describ- Feed URL an interconnection between smart objects
ing the particular objectives with respect to the idea (equipped with microcontrollers and Wi-Fi cards) and
of the process: a free-form element subjected to an the web can be started.The environmental parame-
action of "recursive aggregation", then it follows the ters received by the sensors, which are embedded
description of the generative algorithm and of the in the object, are converted into digital information,
main parameters which define the process, then the edited in real time by web platforms or managed by
results are analysed and selected. During the analy- appropriate software installed on the PCs or smart-
sis of the results, it is evaluated the relation of emerg- phones. In addition, since the early stages of de-
ing morphologies with the assumptions of function- sign, specific plug-in for VPL (Grasshopper-Rhino) are
alities, with the level of integration of electronic sys- used to manage virtual models, using real-time data
tems and also with the materials and prototyping acquired directly from the external environment or
techniques. The final step is the choice of functional- from the internet. It is therefore possible to represent,
ities, scale and of the most appropriate size and mor- through digital simulation, the behaviour of a smart-
phology.b) manufacturing and interactive prototyp- object before its actual prototyping.
ing process.After selecting the most suitable geome-

Figure 4
The methodology
METHODOLOGY The generative design process

The methodology (Figure 4) adopted has a loop The starting formal idea is to set an iterative process
structure, this method allows to go back to previ- in terms of "recursive aggregation" (Figure 5, step 2)
ous steps and to easily redefined the logic for a dif- starting from the definition of a core component.The
ferent project. The methodology recalls a computer initial concept does not correspond neither to a pre-
science logic of functions and loops to facilitate and cise function nor to a predefined shape, it rather re-
readapt the design process depending on outputs, flects the idea of an "open" morphogenetic process.
inputs and tools available.The process is formed by The morphology of the core component is defined
five different phases: algorithmically: according to the principles of Asso-
ciative Architecture, geometry has variable proper-
• Generative design ties related to the definition of specific parameters
and calibrated within appropriate ranges. Once you
• Output 1: Digital morphology
have defined the variables of the core component, it
• Interactive behaviour is replicated according to the rigid-geometric move-
ment of the rotation, iterated n times and algorith-
• Prototyping mically checked through an appropriate function.At
this time the general rules underlying the process
• Output 2: Physical-Interactive output are encoded in the generative algorithm.During the
Figure 5
The digital outcome

process of morphogenesis, hypotheses are evaluated achieve the maximum amount of possible interac-
with respect to the functions of the design product tions with the environment and the users.This funda-
concerned. Considering the intended use of the ob- mental step will also facilitate the translation of the
ject at the design stage (indoor), the various func- software for mass customization into the web-site, al-
tions are: lighting systems, monitoring of indoor en- lowing the users to personalise the shape according
vironmental conditions, sound systems (speaker) and to personal requirements and tastes.
kinematic systems.While evaluating the hypotheses
of the performances that the object shall exhibit, Interactive behaviour
the most appropriate scale and size is considered. The interactive behaviour of grow is the starting
Accordingly, the most congenial prototyping tech- point of the research,. The device represents the
niques are examined as well as the materials and natural connection between real and computational
electronic devices to be used for the construction of world, the design itself suggests the transition be-
the physical prototype.All these choices entail certain tween biological and digital realm. The behaviour
conditions which guide the process of morphogene- is characterized by four different hardware compo-
sis towards certain directions more than others. The nents: a lightning system, an environmental control
geometric parameters are then calibrated in line with system, speakers and the spark wireless core. The ob-
the choices made during the process.The simultane- ject has three different kind of behaviours depend-
ous, interactive variation of parameters guides the ing on the mood and needs of the user.The biolog-
evolution of the shape towards the achievement of ical behaviour transforms grow in a living organism.
the aims and objectives which are gradually defined. It will respond to environmental conditions express-
The formal result at the end of the path does not cor- ing his emotive state to the surrounding. Like a coral
respond to the representation of a pre-determined it will bleach or change colours depending on envi-
shape, but rather to a population of "emerging" ge- ronmental factors giving warnings to the users about
ometries which best solve the simultaneous combi- climate conditions, changings or pollution raisings.
nation of multiple requirements.At this time the gen- At the same time this behaviour will interact with
eral rules underlying the process are examined more human proximity, changing the intensity of light ac-
in depth: other aspects are involved within the gen- cording to the distance from the user, the presence
erative algorithm. It takes on more complex configu- of light in the room or the location of the device.
rations following the encoding of conditions and pa- Furthermore it will change his colour and conduct
rameters which control in greater detail the evolution adding new components. This kind of interactivity
of the shape. represents a breakthrough to the human to artefact
interaction and vice-versa, the fruition of the device is
Digital morphology not just considered as a materialist and consumerist
The first digital outcome (Figure 5) is the mesh model occurrence but as a more complex interaction within
realized using computational advanced techniques, an ecological system where human artefacts and en-
mixing grasshopper and custom functionalities in vironment communicate responsibly. On the other
Python. In this step we evaluate the morphologic hand the customizable behaviour allows to person-
features adjusting several parameters in the soft- alize the conduct throughout an App. The behaviour
ware. The generative algorithm has been constantly might also be customized depending on the needs
readapted during the creative process throughout of the users, lights gradient, intensity and functional-
continuous adjustments and feedbacks to formulate ities can be personalized depending on the require-
the rules of the design methodology. The same ments using a software running on tablet or Smart
process has been driven by functional choices to phones. The system also connects to the internet

over wifi with sparks and communicates information code programs through specific IDE language (inte-
about environmental conditions.The two main be- grated development environment) to customize par-
haviours can be easily switched and the design pro- ticular performances. However, it is possible to pro-
vides several functionalities related to different kind gram the Arduino board using the same VPL (visual
of activities and moods. programming language: Grasshopper) used during
the parametric modeling stage: some plug-ins like
Prototyping Firefly are useful to set a connection between the
The stage of interactive prototyping consists in the Personal Computer and the Arduino board by trans-
physical construction of the object. During the earlier lating the Arduino IDE in algorithmic components
stages of design we evaluated different strategies of of VPL.Furthermore nowadays the Internet allows to
manufacturing. In fact, parameters define the digital- undertake innovative projects in the realm of indus-
algorithmic model. Besides that they are estab- trial design and provides platforms Iot (internet of
lished and adjusted with respect to the techniques things) to control the devices and facilitate prototyp-
of digital manufacturing chosen and compared to ing. The most common Iot platforms can be classi-
electronic cards, micro-controllers and input-output fied in two kinds.The first (smartcitize.me , Things-
electronic devices already taken into account dur- peak.com) are platforms where users can collect data
ing the stages of parametric modelling. This phase worth to share, for instance , environmental data
requires the knowledge of both modern manufac- or activities. The second kind of platforms provide
turing techniques, based on new digital technolo- hardware solutions and electronic devices (micro-
gies, such as rapid prototyping 3d printer, as well controller and wifi boards) and software solutions
as new electronic prototyping platforms based on which allow to build a real interactive prototype (
the use of micro-processors, micro-controllers, wifi IDE systems and apps).During the design process we
cards and various sensor-actuator devices. The pe- used LilyPad XBee to test the interactive system but
riod of widespread use of these devices allows to afterwards we choose to work with Spark (Spark io) a
chose a great range of different solutions at reason- more flexible and tiny device with a better software
able prices. The interactive prototyping allows you development. Spark allows to control the device
to determine a connection between the virtual ob- throughout a set of customizable apps depending on
ject, its computational makeup and modern tech- outputs and inputs established to achieve a specific
niques to build prototypes: 3d prints, laser cutter, purpose.Ultimately you can control with Sparks by re-
etc. .. The choice of prototyping techniques im- mote controller, every kind of analogic or digital out-
plies the choice of materials and the definition of put.
constructive details. For instance, 3d printers allow
to use a range of materials (ceramic, plastic, syn- Physical interactive output
thetic resin)) that implies different kinds of finishes. The last step consists in the evaluation of the final
Similarly, the laser cutting and other digital manu- prototype with respect to the performances to be
facturing techniques include or exclude the choice achieved. After building the object and after imple-
of some kind of materials and finishes rather than menting all electronic devices is possible to verify the
others.The next step consists in the programming of efficiency and the degree of attainment of the objec-
the electronic card (or micro-controller). It manages tives previously fixed. This is the stage where infor-
the performance of the object in terms of interac- mation is exchanged between the physical phenom-
tivity. At this stage you can use Apps already pro- ena that occur around the object, the microproces-
grammed for specific uses (as in the case of Spark.io, sor inside it and the wifi network. In the example de-
the used platform), in other cases you need to write scribed the wifi network represents only the means

through which the input signal is sent by the smart- and optimize the real-time performance of the enve-
phone to the microprocessor integrated in the ob- lope, b) advanced building control systems to control
ject. The Leds (output) are connected to the digital- the active envelope. (Horizon 2020, 2013).The next
analogic outputs of the card inside the object and re- developments of the research will evolve, in fact, in
ceive the input signals in order to regulate the light two different directions. On one hand, as was men-
intensity and the lighting effects of the prototype, tioned earlier, the research will focus on further de-
managed by the smartphone's app.The next devel- velopment of Grow in order to deepen its character-
opment consist in the implementation, within the istics of interactivity with the environment, with the
object, of environmental sensors, like photocells or man and with a web platform specifically developed
temperature/humidity sensors, in order to translate, to monitor and manage the performance of the ob-
into numerical ranges, the surrounding environmen- ject. On the other hand future developments of the
tal conditions. Once selected a list of inputs it is pos- research aim to introduce these concepts in the field
sible to activate a series of output by means of actu- of technological innovation of envelope architectural
ators like speaker, that communicate specific signals, systems to improve the performances of architectural
or led, whose light intensity, for instance, is adjusted skin in terms of interactivity thanks to the implemen-
according to the light level present on site and so tation of modern technology ICT (Information and
on. Moreover, a web platform may receive and store Communication Technology) and in terms of adap-
the data exchanged between the object and the sur- tivity with respect environmental conditions.
roundings translating them into graphics templates
useful to monitor and manage, through the web, the REFERENCES
performances fixed in relation to the environmental Kolarevic, B 2000 'Digital Morphogenesis and Computa-
conditions with which the object interacts. tional Architectures', Proceedings of the 4th Confer-
ence of Congreso Iberoamericano de Grafica Digital,
Sigradi, Rio de Janeiro, pp. 98-103
CONCLUSION Kuniavsky, M 2010, Smart Things: Ubiquitous Comput-
In 1991 Mark Weiser published an article entitled: ing User Experience Design, Morgan Kaufmann Pub,
The Computer for the 21st Century, in which he Burlington,Massachusetts
predicted that when the technological innovations Manovich, L 2006, 'The poetics of augmented space', Vi-
would become cheaper, smaller and more power- sual Communication, 5, pp. 219-240
ful they would begin to "recede into the background Matsuda, K 2010, Domesti/city The dislocated
home in augmented space, Master's Thesis,
of our lives" integrating and blending into the ob-
http://www.bartlett.ucl.ac.uk/
jects around us.This research is trying to translate Weiser, M 1991, 'The Computer for the 21st Century',
that vision into one of the possible methodology, in Scientific American Special Issue on Communications,
which the current parametric-computational design Computers, and Networks, 265(3), pp. 94-104
techniques and the recent electronic platforms, for [1] http://www.sentientcity.net
the interactive prototyping, encounter the web.This [2] http://www.digitalhabits.it/dragon.php
[3] http://supermechanical.com/twine/
methodology may also be used for the design of
[4] http://www.smartcitizen.me/
"smart" architectural components of greater com- [5] http://www.forrester.com
plexity, such as, for instance, the housing of new [6] https://thingspeak.com/
buildings or upgrading of the facades.The next devel- [7] http://lilypadarduino.org/
opments of this research, in fact, will be aimed at the [8] http://www.arduino.cc/
following objectives, which are also among the main [9] https://www.spark.io/
themes of the European Programme Horizon 2020:
Integration of innovative sensing systems to control

Botanics and Parametric Design Fusions for Performative
Building Skins
An application in hot climates
Salma El Ahmar1 , Antonio Fioravanti2

1,2
Sapienza University of Rome
1,2
{salma.elahmar|antonio.fioravanti}@uniroma1.it
Biomimicry and computational design are two growing fields of research and
practice in architecture for their potential in performative and sustainable design,
among many other benefits. Cooling loads are posing serious energy problems in
hot climatic cities as in Cairo and Alexandria. Attempting to solve these
problems, this research turned to botanical inspirations for ideas in order to
improve thermoregulation of the building skin. One of these ideas was chosen and
implemented using computational software in the design of a parametric vertical
shading screen for a typical office room in Cairo. The challenge was to minimize
cooling loads as much as possible without compromising daylight requirements.
An evolutionary solver was used to optimize results and environmental
simulations were performed before and after the proposed screen to assess its
performance and evaluate this biomimetic-computational approach to design.
Keywords: Biomimicry, Building skin, Thermoregulation, Parametric design,

Hot climates
INTRODUCTION energy-efficient buildings is their enclosure. This ele-

The elevating problems of climate change through- ment has the capability of improving the building's
out the world in addition to increasing use of non- performance in natural ventilation, managing heat
renewable energy sources are creating a sense of ur- transfer, redirecting and filtering daylight and even-
gency for fundamental changes needed in many in- tually decreasing energy consumption for cooling.
dustries, and the building sector is no exception. Ac- This is a major problem in hot countries such as Egypt
cording to the United States Energy Information Ad- where residential and commercial sectors accounted
ministration (EIA), almost 40 per cent of total energy for almost 48 per cent of total energy consumption
consumption in 2012 was by the residential and com- in 2010 [2], and air conditioners account for approx-
mercial sectors. These two sectors account for nearly imately 20 per cent of energy consumption in build-
all building-related energy consumption in the U.S. ings (Attia, et al., 2012).
[1]. The motivation arose to investigate new design
One of the key considerations in designing ideas for building skins that could help solve such

problems. Turning to nature was chosen for this in- oping the proposed preliminary parametric model,
vestigation, since nature possesses a '3.8 billion-year' which was be simulated to discuss its environmen-
history of experience dealing with complex problems tal performance in terms of thermoregulation and its
for survival. Much of the problems we face today effect on daylighting.
have already been addressed and solved in effective, The software used is Grasshopper plugin (v.
sustainable, and creative ways by natural organisms. 0.9.0075) for Rhino 3D modeller and DIVA plugin
Thermoregulation in hot climates is achieved by or- for environmental simulations. DIVA-for-Rhino is
ganisms using numerous strategies, each of which a highly optimized daylighting and energy mod-
either minimizes heat gain or maximises heat loss. elling plug-in for the Rhinoceros - NURBS modeller.
Plants in particular have many similarities with build- The plug-in was initially developed at the Graduate
ings, most importantly is that they are rooted and School of Design at Harvard University and is now dis-
fixed in their location, and therefore were chosen as tributed and developed by Solemma LLC [3]. Galapa-
the starting point of this investigation. gos evolutionary solver is used for optimization.
On the other hand, digital modeling and simu- There are generally two main approaches to
lation tools together with computational design and biomimetic design; a Problem-Based and a Solution
simulation processes are facilitating the realization Based approach. The two approaches have been
of complex forms of many contemporary buildings. addressed in literature such as Zari (2007), Knippers
One of the opportunities to fully explore the poten- (2009), Helms et al.(2009), and Biomimicry 3.8 [4].
tial benefits of biological principles for performative This paper follows the first approach where the de-
design, is by means of these technologies and tools. sign problem addressed is thermoregulation of a
building skin for hot climates. In order to effectively
AIM AND METHOD search for ideas in nature, the design problem must
This paper is a part of an ongoing doctorate re- be as specific as possible. The exploration began ask-
search in which the aim is to couple biologically- ing the questions of: how do plants minimize heat
inspired ideas with computation through a perfor- gain and/or maximize heat loss? The intention is not
mative design perspective (El Ahmar, et al., 2013). . just to mimic what an organism looks like, but rather
Such aim would be achieved by practically applying a how its form or behaviour serves its needs to survive.
biomimetic approach in designing a parametric skin
for a building in Cairo to improve its performance by STATE OF THE ART
decreasing cooling loads while maintaining daylight Many strategies have evolved by organisms living in
needs. The performance of the proposed skin would hot climates to prevent overheating. These strate-
be evaluated by comparing simulations of cooling gies are both physical as well as behavioural. Exam-
loads, insolation on the façade and daylight before ples include being light in colour to reflect heat, hav-
and after the new skin. ing long limbs to be farther from the ground, hav-
In this paper a focus has been made on botani- ing more blood vessels near the surface of the skin
cal inspirations specifically regarding the problem of in order to increase heat loss, staying active only at
minimizing heat gained by incident solar radiation. night and dawn, building ventilation tunnels as in ter-
A primary objective is to discover a number of plant mite mounds, taking refuge underground, in pools of
strategies which are presented, analysed and simpli- water if available, and even going into a type of dor-
fied for further use. A preliminary parametric design mancy called estivation within the hottest months of
of a skin for a typical office room in Cairo based on the year (Mazzoleni and Price, 2013).
one of the analysed strategies is presented. A trans- Biomimetic building skins could be found in
lation into mathematical terms was needed in devel- both academia and, less commonly, in professional

practice. They originate in contexts where creativ- • Conduction: thermal resistance, thermal ca-
ity and sustainability are prioritised, and costs are re- pacity, material thickness, material arrange-
laxed to some extent (Loonen, et al., 2013). Some ex- ment.
amples include research at Stuttgart University such
as the HygroSkin Project (Menges & Reichert, 2012) • Convection: ventilation system, size, shape,
in which surfaces inspired from Conifer cones could location of openings, (de)humidification sys-
passively respond to humidity changes, the Flectofin tem.
Project (Knippers & Speck, 2012) where a hinge-less
louver system (inspired from the Strelitzia reginae • Evaporation: (de)humidification system, ven-
flower) was designed to move its fin by 90 degrees by tilation system, skin permeability, use of
inducing bending stresses or temperature change to phase-change materials.
it. Examples could also be found in research projects
Figure 1 in the Architectural Association School of Architec-
Smaller leaf size ture, the Austrian Institute of Technology, and in the
decreases the MIT Media Lab among many others. Biomimetic skins
boundary layer (BL) in practice could be seen in some of the works of
resistance (top left), HOK, Michael Pawlyn, Grimshaw Architects, Atelier
holes and lobes One, also among others.
(top right) in leaves
decrease the HOW DO PLANTS REGULATE HEAT?
distance to the Trees and plants are flexible structures that are sen-
closest edge and sitive to climatic conditions and as a response, they
decrease the BL have developed a number of techniques and features
resistance and that aid in overcoming such situations. Only leaves,
improve free tree barks, and succulents were thoroughly studied
convection. and analysed to explore the strategies which they
Hornbeam leaf generally use to aid in thermoregulation (Table 1).
(bottom left) It is important to note that transferring ideas
(Kobayashi, et al., from nature to architecture was not found to be a
1998). Schematic clear and easy task to do. Since the aim was to regu-
cross-section late heat, the process of heat transfer is broken down
(bottom right), to its main types which are radiation, conduction,
indicating that the convection and evaporation (Allen, 2005; Mazzoleni Leaves
folds shade parts of and Price, 2013). They serve as the common ground Leaves are physical and biological entities that are
the leaf from between the strategies of natural organisms and the extremely differentiated, either on the level of dif-
sunlight. corresponding architectural features. The main archi- ferent species, or even within the same one. The
tectural features of a building skin which might affect huge variation of shapes and sizes of leaves have long
each of these modes of heat transfer are listed as fol- been a topic of research, indicating that it is a part of
lows: an adaptive response to different climates, and dif-
ferent microclimates within the same tree or plant
(Schuepp, 1993). These adaptations either minimise
• Radiation: size, shape, location of openings, heat gain or maximise heat loss. It is worth noting
shading elements, skin overall morphology, that leaves depend on two types of convective heat
reflectance, emittance of outer material. loss; thermally-driven (free) convection in the form of

upward flows, and wind-driven (forced) convection Figure 2
represented in lateral air movement (Vogel, 2009). Different bark
A number of strategies have been observed to morphologies.
aid leaves in avoiding overheating such as smaller Auracaria auracana;
size, the presence of lobes, dissections, holes, tearing, left, Pinus
and folds among other strategies (Schuepp, 1993; canariensis; center,
Vogel, 2009; Givnish, 1988; Kobayashi et al., 1998; and Aloe
Ehleringer et al., 1976; Jones and Rotenberg, 2011). dichotoma; right
Some of these strategies tend to decrease the Bound- (Henrion &
ary layer (BL) which is a thin zone on the surface of Tributsch, 2009).
a leave where air does not move due to surface fric- Succulents
tion. For transpiration to take place, water vapour
must pass this layer to reach the atmosphere. The Figure 3
bigger and wider the leaf, the thicker the boundary Golden Barrel
layer becomes and therefore resistance to transpira- cactus (left) that has
tion increases (Schuepp, 1993). a relatively small
surface area to
Tree Barks volume ratio,
Leaves are not the only tree elements that contribute spines, and folds
to cooling and thermal regulation, but also tree barks that aid in thermal
have an important role. Tree barks have always at- regulation. Cereus
tracted people's attention due to their appearance, schottii (right) with
and despite their diversity that makes it seem difficult smooth alternate
to find common thermal regulation strategies, they curves for
Succulents are plants that have thick fleshy tissue
all serve the function of efficiently delivering water to self-shading and
that has adapted to the storage of water. Some
leaves. And since leaves could sustain temperatures light reflection.
of them such as cacti have no leaves (or very small
(usually) no more than 40 to 50 degrees Celsius, the
leaves) and store water only in the stem, while others
water that reaches them must therefore be cool even
(e.g. agaves) store water in their leaves. They are na-
in hot environments. Excessive heating could also af-
tive to environments with arid to semi-arid climates
fect the tensile water flow in the Xylem tissue below
and have therefore evolved a number of features for
the bark (Henrion and Tributsch, 2009).
thermal regulation [5].
Unlike leaves, barks are not capable of cool-
Their strategies include closing stomata during
ing by evaporation. Therefore they have evolved
the day and opening them at night when the tem-
other strategies to remain cool. They include having
perature has decreased and relative humidity has in-
a round cross-section, rough textures, peeling sur-
creased to decrease water loss by transpiration. In
faces, a thick insulating outer layer, and being opti-
this case the process of photosynthesis occurs at
mised not for reflecting the visible spectrum of solar
night as carbon dioxide is absorbed and combined
light (of wavelengths between 380 and 750 nm), but
with an acid in a process called Crassulacean Acid
rather for the filtered (transmitted) and reflected light
Metabolism (CAM) (Jones and Rotenberg, 2011).
from surroundings (which is a part of infrared light of
The concept of self-shading is widely used
wavelengths of 700 to 2000 nm) (Henrion and Trib-
among succulents. Varying from spines and protru-
utsch, 2009).
sions, ribbed surfaces, grooves, or smooth alternat-
ing concave and convex surfaces such as in Senita

Table 1
Summary of some
strategies of
leaves/barks/succu-
lents that aid in
thermoregulation.
Each strategy is
described pointing
out its main
principle, which
helps in finding the
corresponding
architectural
feature to study.

(Cereus schottii). These seeming irregularities de- commonly used Daylight Factor, now they require
crease the incident angle of light as well as reflect and spatial Daylight Autonomy (sDA) which is a standard
scatter part of it (Hadley, 1972). Those which have requiring 50% of occupied hours during the year to
hairy spines help also collect dew droplets and fun- be adequately day-lit (between 300-3000 lux) for at
nel them down the grooves to combine with other least 55% of occupied floor area (USGBC, 2013). Day-
droplets forming bigger ones and decreasing their light Autonomy at a point in space is the fraction of
chances of being lost by evaporation (Ju, et al., 2012). the occupied times per year, when the required min-
imum illuminance level at the point can be main-
FROM NATURE TO ARCHITECTURE AND tained by daylight alone (Reinhart and Walkenhorst,
2001).
COMPUTATION
The design idea is to propose a folded perforated
After exploring a number of plant strategies, the
screen as a second façade layer to a typical office
main principle (heat transfer method) of each was
room in Cairo. The sides that face upwards towards
listed to find a corresponding analogy in architectural
the sun would be solid or have small openings, while
terms. This paper only addressed the strategies re-
the others facing downwards would have openings
lated to minimizing heat gain by minimizing incident
with varying sizes. The size of each opening will de-
solar radiation. There are many possible biomimetic
pend on the amount of the incident solar radiation
ideas as seen in the previous section.
on its face.
Among those, the authors had particular inter-
est in the idea of folding that was seen in leaves as
Figure 4
well as in cacti and was chosen to start investigating
Typical furnished
the design of the building skin. The reason behind
office room with
this choice is that folding strategies have more than
double-glazed
one benefit; they achieve self-shading of the building
insulated curtain
skin, they can orient faces towards or away from the
wall.
sun depending on their position, and they could be
rather easily translated into mathematical geometric
relationships for computational modelling. The con-
cept of folding is not new to architecture and is in-
separable from Origami explorations. It has been ex-
plored numerously because of its potential as a cre-
ative form finding method, and also due to the result-
ing strength of the corrugated structures.
The investigation here however is interested in
the benefits such forms can present in decreasing
cooling loads of a space. There are various folding
Model setup
patterns that could achieve the intended. The pat-
A digital model of a typical office room is set up, with
tern explored here is that of the Hornbeam (Figure 1)
dimensions of 4*6 meters and 3 meters high, with
and Beach leaves, which also represents the basis of
a south-facing curtain wall façade made of double-
the Miura Ori pattern.
pane insulated glazing (Figure 4). The room accom-
The design goal is to design a building skin that
modates four people. Only one room (zone) is stud-
decreases heat gain and maximizes heat loss as much
ied for now as this is a limitation of DIVA simulation
as possible without compromising minimum needs
plugin. The façade of the room comprises two lay-
of daylight. According to LEED v.4: instead of the
ers; an inner one representing a typical office facade,

and an outer layer representing the proposed folded and the fitness function was set to minimize the av-
screen. erage value of insolation on all faces.
Figure 5 The search range (minimum and maximum value
Conceptual sketch of each parameter) was set at the beginning. Af-
of the Miura Ori ter solver the search range was adjusted accordingly.
pattern, illustrating The opening of each face depended on the insolation
design parameters value, the bigger the numerical value, the smaller the
that will serve as opening. After adjusting the search range, daylight-
genomes for the ing simulations we performed, this time new param-
Galapagos eters are explored (the previous ones are now fixed
evolutionary solver and not subject to change):
to minimize
insolation on each • Thickness of the skin
face.
• Smallest opening size
The first step was to define a surface that would • Biggest opening size
be folded to act as the shading screen. This sur-
face was divided in both the horizontal and vertical The Galapagos solver is used again for these new pa-
directions creating a grid of points. The even hori- rameters, with the fitness function set to minimize
zontal rows of this grid were selected and moved in cooling loads while keeping a minimum illuminance
the horizontal direction to create the fold displace- value of 300 lux at four key nodes. The position of
ment. Then the vertical columns of points were se- these nodes is the centre of four desktops placed the
lected and moved in a direction perpendicular to that office room (Figure 4) with a height of 76 cm from
of the façade surface to create the fold depth. A sur- the floor. Initially sDA simulations were intended to
face is created from the new set of points, forming the be used, however they take a lot of time, especially
folded façade based on the Miura Uri pattern. The de- when used with Galapagos as it could keep on run-
sign parameters (as shown in Figure 5) that we have ning for days using the available computers (Proces-
considered are: sor: Intel core i7, 3.5 GHz, RAM: 32 GB). Illuminance
values were used instead just to give an indication of
• Number of folds in the X axis
the best possible combinations of the new parame-
• Number of fold in the Y axis ters.
In the end, one of the results (Figure 6) achieving
• Fold displacement the least cooling loads was chosen to run a single ac-
curate sDA simulation (Figure 7) on a grid of nodes
• Fold depth with 60 cm spacing in the whole room to be sure
that at least 55% of the analysis nodes receive 300lux
So far we still do not have any openings yet. To deter- or more during half of the occupied hours. The sDA
mine their size, we decided to calculate the insolation alone however would not tell us if parts of the space
on each face, and then the opening size would be a are over-lit, which is particularly important to know
function of that value. There are lot of possible com- in cities that have relatively low cloud coverage and
binations between the parameters stated above. In- almost continuous sunshine throughout the year as
stead of manually trying every possible combination, in Cairo. So a check was also performed when certain
these parameters were set as Genomes in Galapagos, points receive an illumination value above 3000 lux

for more than 5% of the year. This check is important enabled much of the light to enter in an indirect man-
as glare and overheating could occur. Annual inso- ner (through folds facing downwards).
lation on a vertical grid of points located just behind The following values were calculated before and
the glazing was also measured before and after the after the presence of the folded screen for compari-
presence of the screen for comparisons (Figure 8). son:
• Annual insolation Figure 6

Final selected
• Daylight Autonomy instance of the
folded screen after
• Over-lit areas optimization: 7
folds in X & Y,
• Annual cooling loads displacement=
0.87m,
The same settings were always used such as mate- depth=0.7m, screen
rials, occupancy schedules, weather files, accuracy thickness= 0.34m,
level, etc. The results seen in Table 2, show that tra- panel sizes=
ditional curtain-wall systems typically used in Cairo 1.3*1.2m.
provide high sDA, however this is accompanied by
high insolation and over-lit nodes. Here 60% of the
Results space is over lit , usually causing a occupants to use
The concept of folding as seen in leaves and cacti blinds and therefore decreasing the daylight enter-
continuously provides self-shading to the building ing the space and eventually using electric lighting
skin partially protecting it from the sun and caus- most of the day. After the folded screen is placed, a
ing a big decrease in heat gained by radiation insignificant decrease in insolation and cooling loads
side the office room. The flexibility of the parametric is observed. The minimum daylight needs were
model with all its variables provided a wide variety of achieved with a much less over-lit area (just 14% of
shapes and sizes of folds, and sizes of openings. With the space). This indicates a better distribution of light
the help of the evolutionary solver, a balance was throughout the room. The decreased over-lit area
found among these variables that minimised heat not only means less heat gained by radiation, but also
gain while providing enough daylight for the occu- an increased real estate value and efficiency of the of-
pants as well. The nature of this folded morphology fice space since a bigger area could be comfortably
used.
Table 2
Comparison of
simulation results
before and after the
placement of the
folded screen.

Figure 7 CONCLUSION
DIVA simulations of This paper aimed at discovering and applying botan-
Daylight Autonomy ical inspirations for thermoregulation of building
and over-lit nodes skins. In a biomimetic-computational design ap-
before (top) and proach, a number of strategies are abstracted and
after (bottom) the analysed and one of which was chosen to design a
folded screen. preliminary parametric skin for an office building in a
Positions of desks hot climatic area. The design challenge was to de-
are outlined in crease cooling loads while maintaining at least the
black. minimum daylight standards.
Exploring how nature solves problems that we
are facing in design, gives us insights and guidance
to sustainable solutions, and often leads us to think
of unconventional yet efficient ideas. The paper
presented a list of biomimetic ideas (Table 1) that
could serve as guidelines for designers aiming to im-
prove the thermal performance of building skins. It
demonstrated with the help of computational de-
sign software and environmental simulations that
such biomimetic ideas are worth exploring for the im-
provement they have shown in environmental per-
formance. The evolutionary solver proved particu-
larly useful in finding best results when conflicting
aims are needed (decreasing cooling loads vs. in-
Figure 8
creasing daylight).
DIVA simulations of
One of the drawbacks regarding this design pro-
Solar Insolation
cess is the time spent at the beginning where biolog-
analysis before
ical organisms are explored. The presence of a biol-
(top) and after the
ogist in the design team would facilitate the process.
screen (bottom).
Another issue was the long simulation times needed
to obtain accurate results, in addition to limitations
regarding the geometry complexity. When the num-
ber of folds exceeded a certain value, thermal simu-
lations would not function posing a serious obstacle
along the way.
The presented research will continue in the ex-
ploration of nature including a more comprehensive
analysis and classification of all discovered ideas. Fur-
thermore, future work will study not just the mor-
phology of the skin, but also its materials, structure
and behaviour as a whole.

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Interaction with a Kinetic Folded Surface
Filipa Osório1 , Alexandra Paio2 , Sancho Oliveira3
1,2,3
Vitruvius FabLab-IUL, Instituto Universitário de Lisboa (ISCTE-IUL), Lisbon,
Portugal
1,2,3
http://www.iscte-iul.pt
1
fpfco@iscte-iul.pt 2,3 {alexandra.paio|sancho.oliveira}@iscte.pt
Kinetic systems offers new perspectives and design innovation in research and
practice. These systems have been used by architects as an approach that embeds
computation intelligence to create flexible and adaptable architectural spaces
according to users changing needs and desires as a way to respond to an
increasingly technological society. The presented research attempts to answer to
this question based on the results of a multidisciplinary on-going work developed
at digital fabrication laboratory Vitruvius Fablab-IUL in Lisbon. The main goal
is to explore the transformation of the shape of a construction by mechanisms
which allow adaptation either to environmental conditions or to the needs of the
user. This paper reports the initial development of a kinetic system based on an
origami foldable surface actuated by a user. The user can manipulate a small
scale model of the surface and evaluate at all times if it is achieving the desired
geometry.
Keywords: Kinetic systems, interactive architecture, responsive surfaces,

origami geometry, folded surfaces
INTRODUCTION puters and cybernetic control systems. Gordon Pask,

The technological advancements in fabrication and Nobert Weiser and other cyberneticians made ad-
computational control are expanding the parame- vancements toward a theoretical work concerned in-
ters of what is possible in robotics and, therefore teractive systems related to adaptability. Accord-
influence the scale by which architects design and ing to Pask (1969) "The designer is controlling the
built the environments. As the objects around us be- construction of control systems, and consequently
come gradually more intelligent, they become more design is control of control, i.e. the designer does
than just tools at our disposal, but somewhat, key much the same job as his system, but he operates
collaborators in our everyday activities. In other at a higher level in the organizational hierarchy".
words, the emergent digital processes and technolo- The architects were encouraged to think architec-
gies are challenging the architecture to be adapt- ture as interactive system rather than static. As John
able and flexible at users needs. Although kinetic Frazer (1995:9) outlines "architectural concepts are
architectural structures have existed since antiquity, expressed as generative rules so that their evolu-
in the 1950s and 1960s, the development of com- tion may be accelerated and tested. The rules are

described in a genetic language which produces a The dynamic systems act independently of the
code-script of instructions for form-generation". In architectural whole, like doors, movable walls, etc.
1990s Fox founded Kinetic Design Group at MIT to ex- The deployable kinetic systems are usually easily
plore adaptability in architecture based on full-scale constructed and deconstructed systems that exist in
interactive environments (2010). a temporary location. (Fox and Yeh 2000)
Even though there are every time more and more
Figure 1
examples of kinetic architectural structures they are
Kinetic Typologies
not yet completely disseminated and have a big po-
in Architecture
tential for exploration and investigation. Specially
in a world where the "increasing presence of sen-
sors and actuators in domestic contexts calls for the
need of architects and designers to develop the skills
necessary to explore, think about, and design intel-
ligent and adaptive architectural systems". (Fox and These structures can have one or multiple func-
Hu 2005) tions and their movement can be controlled in six dif-
In this research we intended to pursuit a real ferent ways (Osório et al 2014:
and usable answer for kinetic systems in Architecture, Internal control: these systems have the poten-
where the building itself may be completely kinetic tial for mechanical movement but they do not have
and adaptable to various intents through a direct in- any direct control device or mechanism, they have a
teraction. constructional internal control that allows it to move
To respond to the flexibility asked by nowadays by rotating or sliding. It is the case of deployable and
society we have developed a light surface obtained transportable architecture.
by the folding of a planar, rigid material with the geo- Direct control: the movement is done directly by
metric rules of Rigid Origami. The surface behaves at a source of energy such as electrical motors, human
once as skin and structure, has self-supporting abili- action or biomechanical changes in response to en-
ties, is collapsible, easily assembled and deployable, vironmental conditions.
and able to assume a variety of geometric forms. In-direct control: the movement is induced indi-
The user can control the movement of the struc- rectly through a sensor feed-back system, i.e. there's
ture through a tangible remote control, a miniature an exterior input given to a sensor that then sends
of the structure that can be easily manipulated allow- a message to the control device, this control device
ing for testing and choosing the forms the structure then gives an on/off in-struction to the energy source
will assume. This remote control allows the user to inso it actuates the movement. It is a singular self-
teract with the structure even if it is in an inaccessible controlled response to a unique stimulus.
location. Responsive in-direct control: the operation sys-
tem is quite similar to the last one but here the con-
trol device can make decisions based on the received
KINETIC SYSTEMS in-put from various sensors. After analysing the in-
According to Fox and Yeh (2000) the kinetic systems puts it makes an optimized decision and sends it to
can be classified in three kinds of structures: embed- the energy source for the actuation of a single object.
ded, dynamic and deployable (Figure 1). Ubiquitous responsive in-direct control: in this
The embedded kinetic structures are systems type of control the movement is the result of several
within an architectonic whole at a fixed location. autonomous sensor/motor pairs that act together as
Their primary function is to help control the whole in a networked whole. The control system uses a feed-
response to changing conditions. back algorithm that is pre-dictive and auto-adaptive.

Heuristic, responsive in-direct control: in this These systems change the space of course, they fill it
case the control mechanism has a learning capac- with different colours, or lights that are responding to
ity. The system learns through successful experien- users actions but they are not the space itself. Com-
tial adaptation to optimize the system in an environ- monly these systems can be implemented in several
ment in response to change. The movement gets different spaces they are not united with one spe-
self-constructive and self-adjusted. cific place. But they are obviously very important. All
made experiences in terms of architectural interactiv-
INTERACTION ity are useful and belong to the path we have to make
The forms of control described in the previous sec- in order to achieve a truly interactive architecture.
tion are suitable for structures that function as a "It is hard to anticipate how quickly the types of in-
mechanical machine that is controlled by a non- teractive architectural systems will be widely adopted,
mechanical machine, the computer. Guy Norden- but it is not difficult to see that they are an inevitable
son describes this phenomenon as the creation of a and completely integral part of how we will make build-
building as a body: a system of bones, muscles, ten- ings in the future." (Fox and Kemp, 2009)
dons and a brain that knows how to respond. That is, The ways of altering an object or a structure
the interactive space is achieved by joining the com- through an interaction can be divided in three cat-
putation (intelligence) to a physical component (ki- egories:
netic) which together provide environmental and hu- • One way action
man interaction. (Fox and Kemp 2009)
In kinetic, intelligent and responsive systems, the • Single-loop interaction
structure should be designed as an integral compo-
nent of the whole, should not be considered singu- • Multiple-loop interaction
larly or independently. Structural solutions must si-
multaneously consider ways and means for kinetic According to Usman Haque the first type cannot
operability. The means by which a structural kinetic be really considered "interaction" it is more a "reac-
solution operates may include, among others, fold- tion" where one element reacts to the actions of an-
ing, sliding, and expanding both in size and shape. other one without giving back any kind of response,
The ways from which it operates can be, among oth- "like a brick wall that crumbles over years under the im-
ers, mechanical, pneumatic, chemical, magnetic or pact of rain".
natural. (Fox and Kemp 2009) Haque also states that "At its fundamental, inter-
By implementing interactive systems in kinetic action concerns transactions of information between
structures the built space can acquire sensory capa- two systems (...) these transactions should be in some
bilities interpreting and responding to user actions or sense circular otherwise it is merely "reaction"." (Haque
the surrounding conditions that will cause them to 2006)
change their state or formal settings. It is considered a single-loop interaction when a
These systems are relatively well studied in the user interacts with an object and it gives back just
area of home automation but are still in a very early one response and the interaction ends. This is true for
stage in architecture, that is, to design a building as situations like withdrawing money from a cash ma-
a system that works entirely as a biological organ- chine or choosing the temperature in a thermostat.
ism, is something with great potential but has not Even if at the initial action there are several possible
yet responses adequately developed. When we find choices it is chosen only one and after the response
examples of interactive architecture they happen to is given the interaction is over.
be more as installations inside an architectural space. A multiple-loop interaction allows for a contin-
uum of cycles of response in which each cycle brings

some new information based on the "conversation" Figure 2
between user and machine. In this kind of interaction Areas of study
it is often possible to build knowledge about the user
during repeated interactions that permit the com-
puter to construct a data base specific to that user
and consequently allows it to respond in a more per-
sonal way in future interactions.
KINETIC ORIGAMI SURFACE (KOS)

When developing KOS we intended to create an in-
teractive structure that could create spaces. It is not
yet a building of course, but it may be the first step to
define a building that can be interactive as a whole.
We aimed to create a system that could assume dif-
ferent forms in order to configure different spaces,
with a range of different areas and volumes and sev-
eral different geometric configurations so it would be
able to respond to several different needs of a user.
We designed a multiple-loop interactive struc-
ture, not in the sense of making the structure build Step 1
knowledge about the user but in the sense of allow- In the first phase we have studied origami regular
ing for multiple responses. The user can interact with and irregular crease patterns like Namako pattern
the structure through a remote control, a reproduc- and Miura Ori pattern in order to find their geometri-
tion in a small scale of the structure itself. By manip- cal properties and capabilities of assuming different
ulating it the user can choose the desired form, then geometries when forces were applied. We decided
watch the structure assume it, analyse the outcome to use the Miura Ori pattern with a regular tessella-
and re-manipulate it or accept the form achieved. tion because it proved to have the best compromise
The research design process used to develop the between all of our demands such as self-supporting
KOS encompassed four phases as shown in Figure 2: abilities, geometry's predictableness and easiness to
control.
1. Study geometrical and mathematical proper-
ties of classical origami to generate rigid fold- Step 2
able structures; The second phase, which consisted in building small
scale prototypes with different crease patterns, dif-
2. Explore kinetic possibilities of folding trans- ferent materials and different mechanic systems, led
formable structures and material selection; us to settle for a mechanical system where the forces
would be applied on the horizontal plane in three
3. Explore possible forms of actuating remotely parallel lines of action in order to make the surface
on a folded surface; rise in the Z direction assuming different forms as
shown in Figure 3.
4. Building the prototype.

Figure 3 trol's shape was achieved. Distance sensors were
Some forms the used to measure accurately the positions of each con-
KOS surface can trol point.
assume When the control points have reached the de-
sired positions the microcontroller would stop the
shutter engines until a new order was received. The
controller's main cycle consists on reading the poten-
tiometers values, reading the distance sensors values
and, for each line of action, setting the motor speed
so that the two values converge. The program is quite
simple:
#include "Wire.h"
#include "SRF02.h"
boolean EXPAND = true;

boolean CONTRACT = false;
// Number of different configurations

To implement such a structure we needed mo- // in the model and in the structure.
tors that would rotate in both ways and with enough // That is the number of states
strength to make the structure move, stop, and to int NUM_STATES = 5;
maintain it steady so the tensions between faces and
// Number of control lines in the
the force of its own weight would not make it move.
// structure.
We have chosen shutter engines that have these ex- int NUM_LINES = 3;
act competencies, rotate in both ways and stop.
Each one of the three lines of movement would // Pins and addresses for sensors and
work through cables and sheaves put to action by the // motors
shutter engines that would push and pull six points of int modelSensorPins [] = {A0 , A1 , A2};
the surface. To each line of action there are two con- int structSensorAddress [] =
trol points that are pulled and pushed symmetrically. {0x70 , 0x71 , 0x72};
This symmetry of movement is achieved by having int motorPins [] = {7, 5, 12};
the shutter engines at the centre of the structure and int motorDPins [] = {6, 4, 11};
a sheave that guaranties the inversion of course as
// Ultrasonic sensors to measure the
shown in Figure 4. // shape of the real structure
SRF02 s1(0x70 , SRF02_CENTIMETERS);
Step 3 SRF02 s2(0x71 , SRF02_CENTIMETERS);
In the third step we tested and developed several SRF02 s3(0x72 , SRF02_CENTIMETERS);
forms of indirect control, at last we decided to use a
microcontroller board (Arduino compatible) to con- SRF02 structSensor [] = {s1 , s2 , s3};
trol the structure. The shape of the miniature was
read by three potentiometers, one for each line of // Actual state for each control line
action. Using this information the microcontroller // for the structure and for the model
int structState [] ={0, 0, 0};
would make each motor move until the remote con-
int modelState []= {0, 0, 0};

Figure 4
Mechanical system
// Setup and inicialization of the // read the shape of the

// arduino port configuration // structure:
void setup () { SRF02 :: update ();
for(int i =0; i < NUM_LINES; i++){ for(int i =0; i < NUM_LINES; i++){
pinMode(motorPins[i],OUTPUT); int sensorValue =
pinMode(motorDPins[i],OUTPUT); structSensor [i]. read ();
} structState[i]=map(sensorValue ,
Wire.begin (); 30,
} 100,
0,
// Main control loop NUM_STATES);
void loop () { }
// read the shape of the model: // Activate all motor

for(int i =0; i < NUM_LINES; i++){ for(int i =0; i < NUM_LINES; i++){
activateMotor(motorPins[i],
// read the potentiometer motorDPins[i],
// values that represents modelState[i],
// the shape of the structState[i]);
// model }
int sensorValue =
analogRead(modelSensorPins[i]); delay (500);
}
// convert the model position
// into a state // Activates the motor in the correct
modelState[i] = map(sensorValue , // direction to change the structure 's
0, // shape in order to replicate the
1024, // model 's state
0, void activateMotor(int motorPin ,
NUM_STATES); int dirPin
} int modelState ,
int structState){

Figure 5 if (modelState == structState){
Interaction cycles motorOff (motorPin);
} else {
if(modelState <structState){
motorOn (motorPin ,
dirPin ,
CONTRACT);
} else {
motorOn (motorPin ,
dirPin ,
EXPAND);
}
}
}
In Figure 6 it is possible to see the user manipulating
// Switch on the motor attached the tangible remote control and how this manipula-
// to motorPin/dirPin in a tion affects the folded surface making it assume di-
// specified direction
verse geometries.
void motorOn(int motorPin ,
int dirPin ,
boolean direction){ CONCLUSIONS
digitalWrite (dirPin , direction); Building the full scale prototype allowed us to test the
digitalWrite (motorPin , true); movement of an origami surface in a real scale situa-
} tion when controlled by a tangible remote control.
The surface worked closely to what we expected
// Stop motor connected to
but the forces between faces proved to be more diffi-
// motorPin
void motorOff(int motorPin){ cult to control and have a greater role in the surface's
digitalWrite (motorPin , false); performance than we initially thought which made
} us have to use a substructure to help it stand.
The geometry of the surface has also shown
Such a simple program allows a very reactive control some weak points. In particular the points where four
as we will show in the next point. sheets of PP meet, at these points the surface tended
to lose its geometric continuity. We believe that it
Step 4 would have worked better if it was all done in one
Finally in phase four we built the prototype. For the single sheet, this way the isotropy of the entire sur-
surface we used polypropylene (PP) because, such as face would be guaranteed and its geometry would
paper, is isotropic, as a very low density, is rigid and work as one. Despite those problems the origami ge-
at the same time flexible so it can bear multiple folds ometry proved to be really appropriate to use in a ki-
and unfolds and it is recyclable. We did the precreas- netic situation due to its elastic properties and abil-
ing with a CNC and then folded and assembled the ity to self-adjust and find a "comfort geometry" when
18 pieces manually. subjected to forces.
Then we installed the folded surface on the base Adding computation to control the movement
where the mechanical system would work. Then we and different geometries of a kinetic surface by a user
configured the controller of the structure. Finally we proved to be a challenging endeavour that resulted
could test if the cycles (Figure 5) between orders and quite well. The manipulation of the remote control
reactions worked properly.

Figure 6
KOS movement
storyboard
produced a direct response in real time and the result ments', Footprint Delft School of Design Journal, 6, pp.
was reasonably close to the geometry in hands. 5-18
This project is part of an ongoing Phd research Fox, M and Kemp, M 2009, Interactive Architecture; Variate
Labs, Series Design/Build, ., Princeton Architectural
that from this experiment intends to test other ma-
Press
terials and crease patterns with different kinetic and Fox, M 2003, 'Kinetic Architectural Systems Design', in
mechanic systems in order to develop surfaces that Kronenburg, R (eds) 2003, Transportable Environ-
can be used for flexible, multifunctional spaces. Also ments 2, Spon Press, London, pp. 163-186
it will try to respond to really important and practical Fox, M and Yeh, B 2000, Managing Interactions in Smart
questions for which we don't have yet the answers, Environments, Springer
Haque, U 2006, 'Architecture, interaction, systems', AU:
like how to make it waterproof to use in an open air
Arquitetura & Urbanismo, 149 - August 2006, pp. 68-
context. Which spans can it cover depending on the 71
used material and/or sub-structure. How should the Kolarevic, B and Malkawi, A 2005, Performative Architec-
crease pattern be defined and which crease patterns ture, Spon Press
work better in which situations. Lang, R 2010, Origami and Geometric Constructions,
Robert Lang
Osório, F, Paio, A and Oliveira, S 2014 'KOS-KINETIC
REFERENCES ORIGAMI SURFACE', Proceedings of CAADRIA 2014,
Demaine, E and O’Rourke, J 2007, Geometric Folding Al- Kyoto, pp. 201-210
gorithms: Linkages, Origami, Polyhedra, Cambridge Pask, PG 1969, 'Architectural Relevance of Cybernetics',
University Press, Cambridge Architectural Design, September, pp. 494-496
Fox, M 2010, 'Catching up with the Past: A small Con- [1] http://www.aaschool.ac.uk/publications/ea/intro.html
tribution to a Long History of Interactive Environ-

LIGHTING DESIGN
Toward a synthesis of science, media technology and architecture
Ellen Kathrine Hansen1 , Michael Mullins2

1,2
Aalborg University
1,2
http://www.create.aau.dk
1,2
{ekh|mullins}@create.aau.dk
Light as a multi-dimensional design element has fundamental importance for a

sustainable environment. The paper discusses the need for an integration of
scientific, technical and creative approaches to light and presents theory, methods
and applications toward fulfilling this need. A theory of design developed from
three experiments show how distinct qualitative and quantitative criteria in
different disciplinary traditions can be integrated successfully, despite disparate
technical/scientific, social scientific and art/humanities backgrounds. The model
is applied to a pedagogical curriculum in the context of multi-level learning
competencies.
Keywords: lighting design, collaborative design, trans disciplinary design,

media technology, architectural experiments
INTRODUCTION sumption when designing with extensive glazed ar-

"Light has always been recognized as one of the most eas (Hansen, 2013a). Building legislation has con-
powerful formgivers available to the designer, and sequently imposed increasing restrictions which in-
great architects have always understood its impor- variably lead to reduction in window sizes, less day-
tance as the principal medium which puts man in light and consequently increased design demands
touch with his environment" (Lam, 1977). on the quality and effects of artificial lighting. More-
There is substantial documented evidence for over, advances in new sources of artificial light such
the life improving potential of light in architecture: as OLED, QLED, 5G visible light communication, re-
differentiated daylight; awareness of architectural sponsive media technologies, and intelligent and in-
space; fresh air; reduction of glare; relation to site- teractive lighting control are often driven by engi-
specific surroundings through physical and visual ac- neering and technological factors other than archi-
cess; and views to the surrounding landscape and tectural design considerations.
cityscape are all factors which will be considered as In relation to designing with light, consideration
essential to human life well into the future. Presently of holistic solutions for aesthetic and technical design
in Scandinavia however, the documented benefits of problems remains an essential ingredient in achiev-
daylight in workplaces, institutions and dwellings are ing overall project success; the challenge lies in inte-
offset by quantifiable disadvantages in energy con- grating research-based science of light, and interac-

tive media technology with a creative design think- in architecture, such as in the evidence-based design
ing that focuses on both the qualitative and quanti- methodology, they are often embedded in a knowl-
tative values inherent in architecture and lighting de- edge base that lacks an explanatory theory which ad-
sign. equately predicts why some design solutions work
The contemporary demand for trans-disciplinary and others do not (Stankos & Schwarz, 2007) This may
(Meeth, 1978) teams has created the need to clarify be explained by the context-free single-variable na-
how very different domains can input their knowl- ture of deductive hypothesis tests. The practice of ar-
edge in design processes. How can the design pro- chitecture demands the resolution of a complex web
cess work optimally across professional boundaries of problems in arriving at contextually determined
and in particular how it is possible to combine design design decisions.
and science when using light as a parametric, mul- The development of a pragmatic theory derived
tidimensional design element? In order to answer from these conditions has been expressed as the
these questions, explicit theories and methods to in- "declarative proposition that such and such an act is
tegrate science and creativity need to be developed. the one best calculated to produce the desired issue
This set of questions has been a common factor under the factual conditions ascertained" (Dewey,
in three architectural experiments realized by the first 1925). Theory draws on the experience and skills
author in the period 2001-2011. The experiments in- of practitioners, teams of specialists, the values and
cluded projects and prototypes encompassing the preferences of the client, as well as a deliberate at-
environments of research, education, industry, tech- tempt to base design decisions on the best available
nology and practice in the context of designing tech- research findings. More particularly, developing the-
nical as well as qualitative environmental solutions. oretical propositions for multi-disciplinary practice
Drawing from this empirical base, the paper de- implies incorporating proficiencies and judgments,
velops a theoretical framework and presents a proce- acquired through experience, observations and re-
dural model to demonstrate how research traditions flection, with the evidence from systematic research;
can be integrated in trans-disciplinary practice. This in other words, the combination of the art and sci-
model is implemented in a problem based pedagog- ence of architecture.
ical application for a graduate program in Lighting
Design, synthesising lighting, media technology and THE ARCHITECTURAL EXPERIMENT
architecture. "Any deliberate action undertaken with an end in
mind is, in this sense, an experiment...the move is
ARCHITECTURAL PRACTICE AND THEORY confirmed when it produces what is intended for it
CONSTRUCTION and is negated when it does not." (Schön, 1987)
The development of knowledge and explanatory Three architectural experiments, incorporating
theoretical principles, logic and practice in architec- knowledge from a diversity of fields including archi-
ture are more often than not induced from observed tecture, engineering, anthropology, and media tech-
phenomena in the context of the built environment. nology provide the empirical material from which a
Principles are logically inferred from observations, theory and model for interdisciplinary action is devel-
patterns and reflections on experience rather than oped.
deductive research applied and tested in a context- The three experiments represent scales and
free environment, as practised in scientific, clinical stages in the development of the interdisciplinary en-
and engineering experiments where little or no em- quiry, spanning from the first experiment (EX1; see
pirical evidence for a theoretical standpoint may ex- Figure 1) in the development of future Photo Elec-
ist. Where these latter methods have been attempted trical Cemical (PEC) solar technology, to the second

Figure 1 (EX2; see Figure 2) in the definition of architectural
Exercises in EX1 potential in commercial transparent solar compo-
exploring solar cell nents and to the third experiment (EX3; see Figure 3)
technology, in the design of an assembly of building components
transparency and and technologies incorporated into an 'active-house'
light in space. Light or energy producing dwelling. A systematic account
is absorbed, defines four principles used to describe and compare
transmitted or the experiments. (Hansen, 2013b)
reflected in
transparent solar • Vision: A shared vision for the project
cells in the project
illustrated through • Criteria: Based on the shared vision, design
ice cube bags. criteria for the different disciplines is explicitly
stated, developed through exercises and con-
Figure 2 ceptual discussions
Exercises in EX 2
exploring how light • Construction: The design criteria are material-
can create new ized through sketches, computer models and
qualities in mock-ups or those means most suitable to the
transparent solar independent disciplines (see Figures 4, 5, 6)
cell components, in
this project through • Evaluation: The results are evaluated in terms
ornamentation of of the applied criteria.
the PEC solar cell.
Light as a multi-dimensional design element was
Figure 3 common to the vision in each of the three experi-
Exercises in EX 3, for ments. Moreover, in each of the experiments, criteria
an energy were formulated which related to light within specific
producing smart areas of disciplinary knowledge. In EX1 these com-
home, the cross prised 'technology' (solar cells), 'function' (indoor cli-
disciplinary group mate) and 'aesthetics' (transparency). In EX2 the
defined personas parameters were 'regulating', 'communicating', and
and models, digital 'producing'. In EX3 the criteria were 'energy', 'in-
sketches and door climate' and 'aesthetics'. In all cases, the crite-
luminance ria suggest solution-oriented approaches commonly
animations to employed in different professional domains, with the
optimize indoor intention to integrate these qualitative and quantita-
climate, passive tive aspects of knowledge into creative and innova-
energy and daylight tive designs.
conditions. Comparing the three processes of the ex- Figure 7 show how the criteria are incorporated. EX1
periments, three models for integration and used three criteria only in the early design phase,
synthesizing of knowledge can be produced. translating knowledge from discipline domains to
The three process models illustrated in

design elements. Thus, various aspects of knowledge Figure 4
of 'solar technology', 'indoor air quality' and 'trans- Constructions in EX
parency' were incorporated into designing a solar cell 1, Ornamentation in
integrated as an element of a transparent façade. glass facade
In EX2 the criteria were maintained throughout imitating red color
the process. The exercises in the early design phase pigment and
were concentrated into a single criterion as the pur- electrical conduits
pose of the experiment was to evoke architectural in PEC solar cells to
potentials of components already available on the illustrate how solar
market. The focus was thus on defining qualitative cell technology can
values and integrating these with quantitative val- effect daylight in
ues defined by other professional disciplines in the the façades and
project. Participants collaborated across disciplines, interiors.
but did not design together; in consequence knowl-
edge was translated in a form understandable to all Figure 5
team members. Construction
EX3 defined a vision which was then expressed exploring the
as a common element within each of the three cri- potential of light
teria. The vision was experienced as a source of mo- and transparent
tivation and commitment from the different parties. solar cell panels,
Communication across the three criteria had a large EX2.
degree of influence on the design process, making it
possible to evaluate ideas on energy and climate per-
spectives at all levels of the process. This can be char-
acterized as form of hybrid design, defined by Meeth
(1978) as "trans-disciplinary" design in which techni-
cal, scientific and artistic disciplines are transformed
by linking together in new ways, and where knowl-
edge is acquired from respective team members in Figure 6
pursuit of a common vision. The construction
The three experiments illustrate differences in and test of living in
that knowledge in EX1 is tacit (or silent), in EX2 a home designed
it is both tacit and explicit and in EX3 it is largely with light to be
explicit. This difference is determined by how energy producing
the criteria are maintained and whether evalua- and apply a good
tion criteria, hypotheses or research questions can indoor climate and
be evaluated. In EX1 knowledge is communi- architectural
cated through the design, the construction can be qualities EX3.
seen and discussed and images are created which
demonstrate how transparent solar cells can influ-
ence form and space. With reference to Schön's
(1987) description of three types of experiments,
EX1 can be described as "explorative"; while

Figure 7
Three models,
representing the
process in EX1, EX2
and EX3.
EX2 where all three criteria representing the disci- THE PROCEDURAL MODEL
pline domains were applied throughout is "move - Drawing from the work briefly outlined in the preced-
testing" and disseminated in the form of a matrix. ing section, a theoretical framework has been devel-
In both EX1 and EX2 evaluation takes place in the oped for how research traditions can be integrated
form of discussions on the basis of presentation and in trans-disciplinary practice, illustrated in a model
observations of the designed models. However, no for architectural experiments (see Figure 8). Build-
research question, hypothesis or a program can be ing on Carlile's (2004) theory of innovative processes
evaluated. In consequence, most of the knowledge and the work in design research by Koskinen et. al.
developed remains tacit and cannot be generalized. (2011) the model attempts to resolve the question
EX3 can be described in terms of Schön's defini- first formulated of how the knowledge of different
tions as "hypothesis testing", where knowledge was disciplines can be thoroughly integrated into the de-
disseminated and evaluated within the three criteria sign process, create innovative solutions and gener-
and the building was actually constructed for occu- ate new explicit knowledge.
pation and use as a dwelling. However, the hypothe- The model comprises five steps:
ses generated are not limited, as Schön describes
them, in terms of hypothetico-deductive methods, • Step 1 IMAGINE & ASK ('transfer')
but derive from several research traditions and can
thus be evaluated through the qualitative and quan- Knowledge from different disciplines can be included
titative methods preferred by those traditions. The in the early design phase, "the entrance level", where
model of Experiment 3 is therefore strongest in its a common vision meaningful to all parties is created.
combination of creative potential as well as in its This step cuts across knowledge boundaries and its
knowledge generating logic. output is 'the imaginative research question', which
expresses a common commitment to create value
through the experiment.

• Step 2 EXPLORE & PROPOSE ('translate')
Figure 8
Model illustrating
The unfolding of the research question defines three
the process of the
criteria that represent knowledge in different prac-
architectural
tice cultures, disciplines and research traditions.
experiment,
These criteria are explored and translated from a
synthesizing the
common language of parametric and fysicak models,
three criteria in five
sketches, photographs, diagrams, concepts and ma-
steps
trices. The output is a formulation of an explicit state-
ment or hypothesis within each criterion, and which
attempts to answer the 'imaginative research ques-
tion'.
• Step 3 LINK & CONSTRUCT ('transform')
The three criteria are each resolved into preliminary

Figure 9
design solutions and scale models representing the
Model illustrating
input from discipline domains and linking knowl-
the curriculum
edge across criteria.
structure of the MSc
in Lighting Design,
• Step 4 TEST & EXPLAIN ('evaluate') synthesising the
three academic
Designs are tested in terms of the statements or hy- fields (vertical) in
potheses within each of the criteria which generated the horizontal
it by methods specific to the diverse research tradi- problem based
tions. The results of the hypotheses tests are com- project work.
bined and assessed in terms of how criteria individu-
ally and collectively answer the "imaginative research
question".
• Step 5 SHARE & LEARN ('communicate')
Knowledge is shared by communicating within the

individual criteria as well as across the three criteria
with the intention of gaining a holistic perspective
of the issues at hand. This knowledge is iterated in PEDAGOGICAL APPLICATION
the form of explicit knowledge, spread into the spe- The model, drawn from empirical material gathered
cialized networks behind the project partners, and by the experiments and theoretical explorations de-
communicated externally to users, practitioners and scribed above, is applied in a new pedagogical cur-
academics. riculum for lighting design (see Figure 9). The gradu-
ate program is designed to fulfill a need documented
by the Danish Center for Light in 2012 for trans-
disciplinary lighting designers in Denmark. The train-

ing comprises a full-time interdisciplinary, research- sign, architecture, media technology and engineer-
based program that combines natural and artificial ing on highest international level." To achieve this
lighting within the established disciplines of media tri-disciplinary approach, the disciplines of lighting
technology, engineering and architecture. In addi- science, media technology and architecture are lay-
tion to aesthetic values, the aim is to produce grad- ered as three disciplines and the curriculum is built
uates with academic, technical as well as process- around these three 'academic pillars'. Knowledge
related skills in virtual and physical light. The stu- within each domain is learned in parallel through
dents are given an understanding of the interaction three courses of 5ECTS each, comprising lectures,
between light, its context of the built environment, discipline-based exercises, literature and demonstra-
light technologies, digital media, human factors and tions of how these disciplines relate to practice.
design methods. The educational program is struc- Knowledge acquired in courses is synthesised in
tured such that the students develop their skills in the 15 ECTS semester projects based on the "Prob-
synthesizing knowledge from the program's three lem Based Learning" (PBL) method. PBL defines a
disciplines through immersion in team-based prob- learning process in terms of idea generation, prob-
lem solving within the context of real-world project lem analysis, problem solving, design, and imple-
experiments, and which have tangible results. menting solutions (Kolmos, Du, Holgaard, & Jensen,
These intentions give rise to diversity among the 2008). The projects are accomplished in groups of 4
backgrounds of students as well as among academic to 5 students with different academic backgrounds,
researchers, teachers and representatives from the a situation which can ordinarily be difficult to deal
lighting industry associated with the program. Un- with by both students and supervisors. Towards eas-
dergraduates who have been accepted for admission ing this problem the students are lead through a
to the graduate program come from previous studies contact phase, a contract phase, preparation phase,
such as architecture, industrial design, media tech- implementation phase, evaluation phase and a fi-
nology, architectural engineering, natural science, nal phase where the students discuss what has been
electronic engineering and civil engineering, among learnt (Hiim & Hippe, 1998; Inglar, 1999).
others. This situation of multi-level competencies These stages of PBL pedagogy can be integrated
and widely disparate knowledge domains leads to in the procedural model of the architectural exper-
some students for example having strong design iment, which specifically indicates the synthesis of
knowledge but weak technical skills, vice-versa, and knowledge from different disciplines. Idea genera-
many other combinations. The challenge for edu- tion (contact and contract phase) relates to Step 1
cators is to integrate divergent threads from these in the Model, "imagine & ask" and definition of the
knowledge spaces into a coherent whole (Carlile, IRQ (imaginative research question), which in scien-
2004). Various process models (Hiim & Hippe, 1998; tific disciplines refers to an initial problem statement.
Inglar, 1999) describe how phases in a project or Problem analysis (preparation phase) relates to Step
the design process can be organized from idea to 2, the translation "analyse & propose" of hypotheses
outcome, from visions to details. But these models through exercises. Problem solving (Implementation
do not explore how knowledge from different disci- phase) relates to Step 3, transformation, "link & con-
plines may be integrated. struct"; and finally Implementation relates to Step 4
One of the stated goals in the competence proof "test & explain", here the results can be tested in
file of the programme formulated in the curricu- relation to the hypothesis defined within each disci-
lum for the master's programme in lighting de- pline and therefore using research with technical/sci-
sign is to "be able to understand and synthesize entific, social scientific as well as art/humanities back-
knowledge of light from different subject areas: de- grounds.

An essential point in innovation (Carlile, 2004) is Wensveen, S 2011, Design research through prac-
to return new knowledge gained in the experimen- tice: From the lab, field, and showroom, Morgan Kauf-
tal projects back to the different discipline domains. mann, USA
Lam, WC 1977, Lighting and perception as formgivers in
This is what occurs in Step 5, where knowledge is
architecture, McGraw-Hill, USA
shared among the disciplines and can feed into fu- Meeth, LR 1978, 'Interdisciplinary studies: A matter of
ture projects. That is to say, knowledge learned definition', Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning,
through coursework is transformed by the students 10(7)
in the experimental trans-disciplinary projects and Schön, DA 1987, Educating the reflective practitioner,
generates explicit, shared knowledge within the dif- Jossey-Bass, San Francisco
Stankos, M and Schwarz, B 2007, 'Evidence-based de-
ferent disciplines.
sign in healthcare: A theoretical dilemma', Interdis-
The model has therefore shown how multi-level ciplinary Design and Research, 1(1)
entry competencies may co-exist within one curricu-
lum through the combination and transformation of
knowledge from three different disciplines based on
technical/scientific, social scientific and art/humani-
ties backgrounds . Problem-based, project-oriented
learning is combined with the trans-disciplinary pro-
cess indicated by the procedural model. The meth-
ods described may be applied by combining multiple
criteria from the three disciplines of architecture, me-
dia technology and lighting science toward achiev-
ing a synthesis of trans-disciplinary design solutions.
REFERENCES
Carlile, PR 2004, 'Transferring, translating, and trans-
forming: An integrative framework for managing
knowledge across boundaries.', Organization Sci-
ence, 15(5), pp. 555-568
Dewey, J 1938, The theory of inquiry, Henry Holt Inc, USA
Hansen, EK 2013, ARKITEKTONISKE EKSPERIMENTER de-
sign med viden om lys, et multidimenstionalt design el-
ement, Ph.D. Thesis, Aalborg University
Hansen, EK, Gylling, G and Mullins, MF 2013, 'Home,
smart home, A Danish Energy Positive Home De-
signed with Daylight', Proceedings of the IEEE : Special
Issue: The Smart Home, 101(11), pp. 2436-2449
Hiim, H and Hippe, E 1998, Instructor guidance in the edu-
cation of teachers related to vocational subjects, Oslo
Universitetsforlaget, Oslo
Inglar, T 1999, Lærer og vejleder om pædagogiske ret-
ninger, vejledningsstrategier og vejledningsteknikker,
Narayana Press, Gylling,DK
Kolmos, A, Du, X, Holgaard, JE and Jensen, LP 2008, Facil-
itation in a PBL Environment, Aalborg University, Aal-
borg
Koskinen, I, Zimmerman, J, Binder, T, Redstrom, J and

The Psychology of Buildings
Computational cognitive strategies for interactive buildings
Henri Achten
Czech Technical University in Prague
http://www.molab.eu
achten@fa.cvut.cz
Buildings have to respond to changes in order to remain functional. Traditional

means to adapt to change are to design relatively static shells that can
accommodate to some degree changes. Recently a number of technologies have
come into existence that extend the capacity of buildings to change in a more
autonomous way. Such buildings are responsive buildings. In this paper we deal
with a special case of such responsive buildings: interactive buildings.
Interactive buildings engage in a dialogue with the user and have an internal
representation of the user. Interactive buildings can display a variety of 'styles'
how they interact with people - these are known as attitudes. As a building may
go through a number of attitudes during the interaction with the user, control
structures are necessary to determine this change. The mechanisms for these
changes are the 'psychology' of the building.
Keywords: Interactive architecture, Building attitudes, Computational cognition
RESPONSIVE AND INTERACTIVE ARCHI- changes need to be made. Incorporating such po-
TECTURE tential for change requires a different way of think-
Buildings are situated in a changing environment. ing about buildings (Habraken et al. 1986; Leupen et
Usually, buildings are not conceived as highly dy- al. 2005). Today a set of technologies are emerging
namic systems that change a lot, although in truth that allow buildings to become more responsive than
they actually accommodate quite a lot of change. through traditional approaches. There exist already a
Most of the way this accommodation of change is ac- quite large number of technologies that make build-
complished is by offering a more or less static struc- ings more dynamically changing (see Table 1).
ture that allows a various number of uses. Some The application of such technologies mentioned
enduring configurations, acknowledged as building above results in buildings that can adapt to changing
types, are particularly strong in this respect (Rossi conditions. They are known under a variety of names:
1982). However, during the life-time of a build- Building Automation Systems, Smart Homes, Sen-
ing many occasions may occur in which the avail- tient Buildings, Adaptive Buildings, Dynamic Build-
able flexibility reaches its limits and more profound ings, Interactive Buildings, and Portable Buildings, to
name a few. In our work, we want to make a spe-

Table 1
Existing examples
of responsive
technologies.
cial case for Interactive Buildings. We want to reserve are required that determine which type of function
the term 'Interactive' when one or more components has to be fulfilled. These control structures can act
work with each other and which always have some on the system level (thus they act without user in-
kind of relationship with one or more persons. If teraction; the system makes up its own mind) or in
the interaction is only between two or more systems a reaction or dialogue with the user (thus determin-
(therefore, no people involved), then we are talking ing the behaviour as a partly reaction to the user).
on a system level but not about interaction. We re- On the most general level, an interaction can be di-
quire of an interactive system that it has a represen- rect involvement between the system and user or in-
tation of the user. This representation does not have direct. Additionally, the interaction can require the
to be complex; it is sufficient if it can differentiate be- user to be active or passive. A system that aims to-
tween a number of states and desires of the user and wards direct interaction with a passive user can be
react correspondingly. If it does not, then it can only characterised as a "perfect butler"; direct interaction
be a purely reactive system that has a single response with an active user as a "partner." A system that aims
to a user action: thus, it is not considered to be inter- toward indirect interaction with a passive user can be
active (Achten 2011). characterised as "environmental"; and indirect inter-
An interactive system can consist of multiple action with an active user as a "wizard" (Achten 2011).
components. For an interactive system it is not nec- The general characterisations above still leave
essary that every component is interactive. To de- open many options how the system actually inter-
termine the boundaries of an interactive system, we acts with the user. According to interaction design
can simply proceed by a process of elimination; given theory, interactive systems can try to instruct a user,
any system, continue to eliminate components un- have a conversation, manipulate, or explore (Sharpe
til the system as a whole is not interactive anymore. et al. 2007). Additionally, an interactive system can
Components which can be removed without conse- have different kinds of goals: performance, sustain-
quence for the interaction are not a necessary part ability, service, symbolising, and entertaining (Achten
of the interactive system (but they can of course fulfil 2013). The combination of these possibilities leads
any different kind of purpose). to 20 combinations of interaction styles, or in other
Interaction is geared towards one or more pur- words: attitudes of buildings (Table 2).
poses. In particular when dealing with complex sys-
tems, there can be multiple functions present in the
system. In such cases, additional control structures

Table 2
Attitudes of
buildings.
INTERACTIVE SYSTEMS CONCEIVED AS interactive systems exhibit short loops. For such in-
AGENTS teractive systems we do not need a lot of control
Many contemporary responsive systems are fairly structures to understand their behaviour, neither in
simple in their behaviour: they are geared to a limited the design phase nor in the use phase. There are
set of input aspects, determine behaviour on the ba- systems on the other hand however, which are more
sis of fairly straightforward decision rules, and have a complex: they respond to a large number of inputs,
limited amount of expressions. In other words, such process decisions in complex ways, and offer many
different kinds of feedback to the user. In other
Figure 1 words, such interactive systems exhibit long loops.
Agent architecture. For the understanding and design of interactive
buildings it is useful to conceive such buildings as
agents. An agent is an autonomous entity, situated
in an environment, capable of sensing this environ-
ment and other agents that are in that environment,
able to send out and receive signals from the environ-
ment and other agents, and capable to manipulate
aspects of the outside world (see Figure 1).
The core of an agent has a recorded state, goals
that it wants to achieve, and reasoning structures
that process input and determines output of the
Figure 2 agent. The input comes from the outside world
An agent can be in two types: actions (changes in the world envi-
made up of many ronment of the agent) and messages (from other
different agents. agents). Actions are registered through sensors and
messages are received through channels. The agent
can manipulate the world through actions (chang-
ing the world environment of the agent) by means
of actuators, and it can send out messages through
a channel. Messages can be sent directly to other
agents, or they can be sent to the world.
Agents can be considered in the same way as
complex systems in systems theory. Complex agents
can be realised by combinations of more simple
agents working together (see Figure 2). The bound-
ary is determined by the interactions between the

agents. Note that in this approach, between agents mutually exclusive; they can be mixed. This mix is
there is only communication possible - not actions. dependent upon perceived priorities of the control
Actions always occur in the world, where they may structure.
be sensed by other agents.
Hypothetical case: interactive museum
INTENTIONAL AND COGNITIVE LEVEL In the following example we consider a hypothetical
The control structure of interactive buildings is not case in which we describe the potential interactions
a straightforward issue. Aspects to be considered in a museum. The example of museum is fairly ar-
by the control structure are: which attitude, actions bitrary - much of the interactions can be considered
of the overall interaction, and coordination of the in the same way for large places which take many
components. These control issues determine the be- non-residential visitors (social services, airports, train
haviour of the interactive system, but they do not stations). Following the discussion above concern-
manifest themselves as such to the observer. What ing agents, we term main aspects of the functioning
the observer notices is the outward performance of the building as agents. Specific agents that likely
of an interactive system (something opens, moves, need special fine-tuning for a museum are Lighting,
changes aspect, and so on) but not the consideration Wayfinding, Itinerary, Exhibition, and Advertising.
which leads to this behaviour. Therefore it is fair to We keep the possible descriptions of agents as
say that the control issues could be considered the close as possible to parts of the building itself. A vi-
psychology of a building: those mechanisms which able alternative approach would involve communi-
determine what actual behaviour a building will per- cation of the building with PDA's (Personal Digital As-
form. The psychology is described in two ways: on sistants such as tablets, smart phones, or specific de-
the "intentional" level what the overall considera- vices handed out in the building) but then the discus-
tions are; and on the "cognitive strategy" level how sion becomes even more speculative because of the
the intentional level is actually realised. open-ended capabilities of such devices (Table 3).
• The "intentional" level is the attitude of the Switching between attitudes

interactive system as the user perceives it to An attitude defines the basic interaction style of the
be. It concerns the communication of the sys- building with the user. In many cases multiple atti-
tem to the user about its goals and purpose, tudes are possible to realise a particular interaction
and informs the way the communication is re- with the user. They have different implications for the
alised. design of the interaction. Switching between atti-
tudes can become desirable to counteract saturation
• The "cognitive strategy" level is the compu-
(where the user does no longer perceive the interac-
tational part how the intentional level is re-
tions because of their repetitive character), to stress
alised: this concerns the control strategies,
increasing importance of a particular aspect (going
decision trees, input signals, outputs to actu-
from an 'introvert' attitude to a more 'assertive' atti-
ators, communication between components,
tude) and vice versa, when going from one functional
and so on. This level is usually hidden for the
regime to another (opening hours, rush hour, closing
user.
hours, night hours), and so on.
In this paper we describe the intentional level of On the cognitive strategy level most attitudes are
the attitudes, and the mechanisms for switching be- the same in terms of input - they always use the same
tween attitudes. Attitude change is governed by sets of sensors to get the relevant data. The reason
system-user interaction or through autonomous sys- for this is that the sensor part is fairly inflexible (they
tem decision. Attitudes need not be completely have to be integrated in the building and are not very

Table 3
Intentional and
cognitive aspects of
a hypothetical
interactive museum
case.

easy to change once installed). Differences between ence – Volume 1, Faculty of Architecture, Delft Uni-
attitudes can occur in the selected agents that are in- versity of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands, pp.
volved in the communication, priorities in the control 477-485
Habraken, NJ, Boekholt, JTh, Dinjens, PJM, Wiewel, W
structures, and output channels for communication
and Gibbons, S 1986, Variations: The Systematic
with the user. When we include PDA's in the interac- Design of Supports, Laboratory of Architecture and
tion, possibilities become almost endless and highly Planning at MIT, Cambridge, Massachusetts
flexible. Kronenburg, R 2007, Flexible: Architecture That Responds
to Change, Laurence King Publishing, London
Leupen, B, Heijne, R and van Zwol, J 2005, Time-Based Ar-
DISCUSSION chitecture, 010 Publishers, Rotterdam
The psychology of buildings allows a deeper inves- Milgram, P, Takemura, H, Utsumi, A and Kishino, F 1994
tigation of interactive buildings in terms of control 'Augmented Reality: A Class of Displays on the
structure. The distinction between intentional level Reality-Virtuality Continuum', H Das (ed), Telemanip-
and cognitive strategy level helps to keep overal de- ulator and Telepresence Technologies: 31 October-1
November 1994 (Proceedings of Spie – The Interna-
sign considerations separate from the technological
tional Society for Optical Engineering, V. 2351.), Eu-
implementation. This is in particular useful when rospan, Boston, Massachusetts, pp. 282-292
we are considering complex behaviours of buildings. Rossi, A 1982, The Architecture of the City, The MIT Press,
Cognitive strategies allow realisation of various atti- Cambridge, Massachusetts
tudes through switching sets of parameters. The case Sharp, H, Rogers, R and Preece, J 2007, Interaction De-
of the hypothetical museum shows that the inten- sign: Beyond Human-Computer Interaction, 2nd edi-
tion, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Chichester
tional and cognitive strategy force the designer to be-
[1] http://www.helloivee.com/ [Accessed: 9-2-2014]
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[Accessed 9-2-2014]
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on the many implications of interaction, and adds [Accessed: 9-2-2014]
some transparency and systematic rigour to all the [6] http://www.zigbee.org/Standards/
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[Accessed: 9-2-2014]
[7] http://www.orambra.com/˜prairieHouse.html
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Aarts, E and Marzano, S 2003, The New Everyday – Views [8] http://www.vml-technologies.com/projects/
on Ambient Intelligence, 010 Publishers, Rotterdam taipei-arena [Accessed: 9-2-2014]
Achten, H 2011 'Degrees of Interaction: Towards a Clas-
sification', Zupancic, T. et al. (eds.) Proceedings of the
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Achten, H 2013 'Buildings With an Attitude – Personal-
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Stouffs, R. and Sariyildiz, S. (eds.), Computation and
Performance – Proceedings of the 31st eCAADe Confer-

Index of Authors
A
Abdel salam, Hassan 2-89 C
Abdelmohsen, Sherif 2-473 Çağdaş, Gülen 1-201, 1-227
Achten, Henri 1-181, 2-23, 2-237, Carey, Brad 2-395
2-411, 2-621 Carrara, Gianfranco 1-613
Agkathidis, Asterios 2-71 Carreiro, Miguel 2-271
Agnew, Brian 1-119 Carvalho, Nelson 2-271
Akiyoshi, Koki 1-527 Castro e Costa, Eduardo 1-585
Aksoy, Yazgı 1-227 Çekmiş, Aslı 1-277
Al Faleh, Omar 2-577 Celani, Gabriela 1-33, 2-315
Alborghetti, Paolo 2-97 Charlton, James 1-109
Alwan, Zaid 2-437, 2-515 Chatzikonstantinou, Ioannis 1-287, 2-39
Anagiotou, Despo 1-153 Christensen, Jesper Thøger 1-239
Anderson, Ian 1-313 Cifcioglu, Ozer 2-217
Androutsopoulou, Eirini 1-191 Clayton, Mark 2-385, 2-445
Araújo, Bruno 1-585 Cokcan, Baris 2-131
Asut, Serdar 1-401 Colakoglu, Birgul 1-305
Avis, Charles 1-173 Coutinho, Filipe 1-515
Aydin, Serdar 1-603 Coyne, Richard 2-185
Azevedo, Sérgio 2-271 Cruz, Joana 2-271
Cursi, Stefano 1-613
B
Baerlecken, Daniel 2-107 D
Baldassari, Matteo 2-587 D'Alpuim, Jorge 2-271
Barekati, Ehsan 2-385 Dalton, Ruth 1-213
Beetz, Jakob 2-375 Danker, Fabian 2-525
Beirão, José Nuno 1-33 Davidová, Marie 2-139, 2-153
Bergin, Michael 2-455 de Castro Fernandes Abreu
Bielik, Martin 2-303 ,→ Gonçalves, Afonso Maria 2-327
Blümel, Ina 2-557 de Vries, Bauke 1-455
Booth, Geoffrey 2-445 Decker, Martina 2-179
Brath, Mads 3-365 Di Mascio, Danilo 1-653
Braumann, Johannes 2-131 Dieckmann, Andreas 2-417
Brell-Cokcan, Sigrid 2-131 Dinçer, Ahmet Emre 1-201
Brown, Andre 1-623 Ding, Yan 1-137
Brune, Markus 1-109 Diniz, Nancy 1-63
Burry, Jane 1-137, 1-165, 1-267 Donath, Dirk 2-303
Burry, Mark 1-137, 1-165 Dörstelmann, Moritz 1-423, 2-61
Buš, Peter 1-181 Doulgerakis, Adam 1-53
Index of Authors - Volume 2 - eCAADe 32 | 629

D'Uva, Domenico 2-81 Hanna, Sean 2-539
Hansen, Ellen Kathrine 2-613
E Hayes, James 1-643
Economou, Athanassios 2-357 Heller, Alfred 1-49
El Ahmar, Salma 2-595 Hess, Trevor 1-71
ElBanhawy, Eiman Yehia 1-213 Holden Deleuran, Anders 2-29
Eloy, Sara 2-271 Holgate, Peter 2-437
Erbas, Irem 2-39 Hollberg, Alexander 2-303
Erdine, Elif 1-145, 1-373 Hubers, Hans 2-39
Erhan, Halil I. 1-247
Erioli, Alessio 2-97 I
Evers, Henrik Leander 2-29 Ibrahim, Magdy 2-427
Ibrahim, Mohamed 2-337
F
Fai, Stephen 1-643 J
Fereos, Pavlos 1-433 Janssen, Patrick 1-79, 2-547
Figueiredo, Bruno 1-585 Jensen, Mads Brath 1-297
Fink, Dietrich 1-43 Jensen, Rasmus Lund 2-117
Fioravanti, Antonio 1-593, 1-633, 2-595 Johansson, Mikael 2-261
Fjeld Edvardsen, Dag 2-375 Jones, Oliver 2-525
Florián, Miloš 2-23 Jones, Paul 2-437
Foged, Isak Worre 1-297, 2-117, 2-365 Jorge, Joaquim 1-585
Fok, Wendy W 1-391 Juvancic, Matevz 1-99
Fonseca, Fernando 1-585
K
G Kachri, Georgia (Zeta) 2-539
Gargaro, Silvia 1-593 Kallegias, Alexandros 1-373
Genganagel, Christoph 2-29 Kalogianni, Dorothea 2-185
Georgiou, Michail 2-169 Kepczynska-Walczak, Anetta 1-565
Georgiou, Odysseas 2-169 Kerkidou, Maria 1-53
Gerber, David 1-463 Kim, Jong Bum 2-445
Gledson, Barry 2-515 Kjems, Erik 2-495
Gokmen, Sabri 2-107 Knight, Michael 1-623
Grasl, Thomas 1-11, 2-357 Kocaturk, Tuba 2-71
Greenberg, Evan 1-145 König, Reinhard 2-567
Grigoriadis, Kostas 2-123 Kontovourkis, Odysseas 1-411, 1-153
Gronier, Guillaume 2-227 Kreutzberg, Anette 2-253
Gsandtner, Martin 2-139 Krijnen, Thomas 2-375
Guerriero, Annie 2-227 Kruger, Mario 1-515
Kulcke, Matthias 2-245
H Kuma, Taichi 2-61
630 | eCAADe 32 - Index of Authors - Volume 2

Kurilla, Lukáš 1-181, 2-23 Negendahl, Kristoffer 2-49
Kwiecinski, Krystian 2-207 Nielsen, Timo Harboe 1-537
Kwok, Theresa 2-169 Norell, Daniel 2-145
Kyjanek, Ondrej 1-423 Nováková, Kateřina 2-237
L O
Lancia, Ruggero 1-313 Ochmann, Sebastian 2-557
Larsen, Andreas Lund 2-117 Oliveira, Sancho 2-605
Laskari, Anna 2-283 Osório, Filipa 2-605
Latifi, Mehrnoush 1-267
Leggieri, Elisabetta 1-593 P
Leitão, António 1-257 Paio, Alexandra 2-405, 2-605
Li, Di 1-623 Pak, Burak 1-89, 1-365
Liang, Hai-Ning 1-63 Pantazis, Evangelos 1-463
Lo, Tian Tian 1-603 Paredes, Miguel 1-333
Lorenz, Wolfgang E. 1-495 Pasold, Anke 2-365
Love, Peter 2-395 Patlakas, Panagiotis 2-505
Pechlivanidou-Liakata,
M ,→Anastasia 1-53
Marques, Sibila 2-271 Pedro, Tiago 2-271
Martens, Bob 1-11 Pedro Sousa, José 1-475
Martins, Pedro Filipe 1-475 Pereira, Vasco Alexandre 2-405
Matejovska, Dana 2-411 Perkov, Thomas 2-49
Matthews, Jane 2-395 Petzold, Frank 1-43
Maver, Tom 1-653 Pinto Duarte, José 1-515, 1-585
Melville, Stephen 1-537 Prado, Marshall 1-423, 2-61
Mendes, Daniel 1-585 Proença, Pedro 2-271
Mendes, Letícia 1-33 Proença, Sara 1-257
Meneghel, Rafael 2-315 Prohasky, Daniel 1-137, 1-165
Menegotto, José Luis 2-195
Menges, Achim 1-423, 2-61 Q
Menter, Adam 2-455 Qian, Zi 1-119
Morton, David 1-343 Quinn, Gregoory 2-29
Mostafavi, Sina 1-445
Moural, Ana 2-271 R
Moya, Rafael 1-137, 1-165 Rahmani Asl, Mohammad 2-455
Mühlhaus, Michael 1-43 Ramsgard Thomsen, Mette 1-381
Mullins, Michael Finbarr 2-613 Remy, Nicolas 1-487
Myrup, Morten 2-375 Rodhe, Einar 2-145
Rossini, Francesco 1-633
N Roupé, Mattias 2-261
Index of Authors - Volume 2 - eCAADe 32 | 631

Russell, Peter 2-417 Tong, Hakan 1-201
Rutherford, Peter 1-323 Trento, Armando 1-633
Triemer, Michel 2-303
S Tryfonos, George 1-411
Sagias, Alexandros 1-53 Tschetwertak, Julia 2-303
Salehi, Mahsa 1-267 Tsiliakos, Marios 1-433
Sales Dias, Miguel 2-271 Turrin, Michela 2-39
Salet, Theo 1-455
Salman, Huda 1-573 V
Sanchez, Rodolfo F. 1-247 van der Zee, Aant 1-455
Sarhan, Ahmed 1-323 Varoudis, Tasos 2-293, 2-505
Sariyildiz, Sevil 2-217 Ventura, Davide 2-587
Sauda, Eric 1-71 Verbeke, Johan 1-89
Scherer, Raimar J. 2-485 Viklund Tallgren, Mikael 2-261
Schmitt, Gerhard 2-567 Vilar, Elisângela 2-271
Schnabel, Marc Aurel 1-603 Vinsova, Ivana 2-411
Schneider, Sven 2-303 Vock, Richard 2-557
Schubert, Gerhard 1-43 Voordouw, Johan 1-557
Schwinn, Tobias 1-423 Vrouwe, Ivo 1-365
Sedrez, Maycon 2-315 Vyzoviti, Sophia 1-487
Seifert, Nils 1-43
Šichman, Martin 2-139 W
Simeone, Davide 1-613 Wang, Tsung-Hsien 2-465
Sing, Chun-pong 2-395 Watkins, Simon 1-137, 1-165
Słyk, Jan 2-207 Wessel, Raoul 2-557
Soni, Shubham 1-129 White, Phil 1-643
Sproat, Iain 1-537 Wojcik, Marcin 2-159
Standfest, Matthias 1-505, 2-567 Wurzer, Gabriel 1-11
Stapleton, Kieran 2-515
Stasiuk, David 1-381 Y
Stouffs, Rudi 1-79, 2-347 Yan, Wei 2-455
Strumillo, Jan 2-159 Yazici, Sevil 1-547
Yunis, Leyla 1-423
T
Tamke, Martin 2-29, 2-375, 2-557 Z
Tanaka, Hiroya 1-527 Zarrinmehr, Saied 2-445
Tanti, Matthew 1-445 Zarzycki, Andrzej 1-357, 2-179
Tapias, Estefania 1-129 Zhou, Jingyang 2-395
Tauscher, Helga 2-485 Zubairu, Tijjani 2-217
Thompson, Emine Mine 1-213, 1-119 Zupancic, Tadeja 1-99
Toldo, Ilaria 1-613
632 | eCAADe 32 - Index of Authors - Volume 2

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1st Edition, September 2014

ISBN: 9789491207068 (eCAADe)

Cover Design: Northumbria Graphics

Fusion - Data Integration at its best

10-12 September 2014

Fusion- Data Integration at its best

Emine Mine Thompson

Theme - Volume 2 - eCAADe 32 | 5

6 | eCAADe 32 - Theme - Volume 2

Acknowledgements - Volume 2 - eCAADe 32 | 7

8 | eCAADe 32 - Acknowledgements - Volume 2

eCAADe 2014 Conference Chair

Acknowledgements - Volume 2 - eCAADe 32 | 9

10 | eCAADe 32 - Acknowledgements - Volume 2

List of Reviewers - Volume 2 - eCAADe 32 | 11

12 | eCAADe 32 - List of Reviewers - Volume 2

Keynote Speakers - Volume 2 - eCAADe 32 | 13

21 Generative Design- Parametric Modelling

Contents - Volume 2 - eCAADe 32 | 15

205 Collaboration and Participation

16 | eCAADe 32 - Contents - Volume 2

281 Spatial Analysis

313 Shape, Form and Geometry 2

Contents - Volume 2 - eCAADe 32 | 17

18 | eCAADe 32 - Contents - Volume 2

537 Design Tool 2

575 Smart and Responsive Design

Contents - Volume 2 - eCAADe 32 | 19

Lukáš Kurilla1 , Henri Achten2 , Miloš Florián3

Keywords: performance-based design, early stage of design, decision-making

INTRODUCTION However, the problem which less experienced users

Generative Design- Parametric Modelling - Volume 2 - eCAADe 32 | 23

24 | eCAADe 32 - Generative Design- Parametric Modelling - Volume 2

Generative Design- Parametric Modelling - Volume 2 - eCAADe 32 | 25

The visualization of a number of criteria is a topic of

26 | eCAADe 32 - Generative Design- Parametric Modelling - Volume 2

Generative Design- Parametric Modelling - Volume 2 - eCAADe 32 | 27

28 | eCAADe 32 - Generative Design- Parametric Modelling - Volume 2

Keywords: Simulation, Bespoke Fabrication, Material Behaviour, Complex

Generative Design- Parametric Modelling - Volume 2 - eCAADe 32 | 29

30 | eCAADe 32 - Generative Design- Parametric Modelling - Volume 2

DESIGN SYSTEM Form-ﬁnding Input Geometry

Generative Design- Parametric Modelling - Volume 2 - eCAADe 32 | 31

32 | eCAADe 32 - Generative Design- Parametric Modelling - Volume 2

Generative Design- Parametric Modelling - Volume 2 - eCAADe 32 | 33

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 3) Computational and empirical modelling

34 | eCAADe 32 - Generative Design- Parametric Modelling - Volume 2

Generative Design- Parametric Modelling - Volume 2 - eCAADe 32 | 35

36 | eCAADe 32 - Generative Design- Parametric Modelling - Volume 2

Generative Design- Parametric Modelling - Volume 2 - eCAADe 32 | 37

38 | eCAADe 32 - Generative Design- Parametric Modelling - Volume 2

Simultaneous interdisciplinary architectural design from the very start of a

Keywords: Parametric, collaborative, design, plug-in, stadium

INTRODUCTION edge and experience of all stakeholders at this

Generative Design- Parametric Modelling - Volume 2 - eCAADe 32 | 39

2. What is the best format for the parameters

40 | eCAADe 32 - Generative Design- Parametric Modelling - Volume 2

THE PROPOSED APPROACH

Generative Design- Parametric Modelling - Volume 2 - eCAADe 32 | 41

42 | eCAADe 32 - Generative Design- Parametric Modelling - Volume 2

Generative Design- Parametric Modelling - Volume 2 - eCAADe 32 | 43

44 | eCAADe 32 - Generative Design- Parametric Modelling - Volume 2