Assignment 2

A. For the staircase pressurization system, the total force required to open the door when applied at the designed door
opening handle or push plate shall not exceed 133 N.
The distance from the doorknob side of the door is 0.15 m and the pressure differential across the door should be 50 Pa.
For an exit door of 0.9 m (W) x 2.2 m (H), what is the force to overcome the door closer? (5 marks)

Total force to open the door (F(N)) when applied at the designed door opening handle or push plate, shall not exceed 133N,
in a smoke control system

Given:
F = Total force to open the door = 133N
W = Door width (m) = 0.9m
A = Door area (m2) = 0.9 x 2.2 = 1.98m2
P = Pressure differential across the door (Pa) = 50Pa
d = Distance from the doorknob side of the door (m) =0.15m
F = Total force to open the door (N) = 133

𝐹𝑑𝑐 + (𝑊 × 𝐴 × ∆𝑃)
𝐹=
2 × (𝑊 − 𝑑)
𝐹𝑑𝑐 + (0.98 × 1.98 × 50)
133 =
2 × (0.98 − 0.15)
𝐹𝑑𝑐 = 110.4N

The force to overcome the door closer =110.4N

B. For a shopping mall at basement level B3, the width and length of the shopping mall is 60m and 120m respectively. The
clear height is determined at 4m. What is the HK statutory requirement of Smoke Extraction Flowrate and the Makeup Air
Flowrate in m3/s?

Under Code of Practice, smoke extraction system is required if there is more than 2 stories.
Compartment volume: 60 x 120 x 4m = 28800m3
Minimum extraction rate shall be equivalent to not less than 8 air changes per hour of the total compartment volume
Minimum extraction rate = 28800 x 8 = 230400 m3/hr
Minimum make-up air rate shall be 80% of the extraction rate
Minimum make-up air rate: 230400 x 80% = 184300 m3/hr

1
Psychrometry, Air Conditioning and Cycles
A. Definition: study of thermodynamic properties of moist air, e.g. temperature, relative humidity, moisture content
a. Moist air: Dry air with water vapour
b. Air and water vapour behave independent of each other and follow ideal gas laws.
c. Conservation of energy and mass principles can be applied
Dry bulb temperature °C Air temperature
Wet bulb temperature °C Air temperature when it is cooled to saturation (100% relative
humidity)
Humidity ration/specific kg/kg Mass of water vapour per unit mass of dry air
humidity/moisture content (w) 𝑚𝑤
𝑤= 𝑘𝑔/𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑎
Masses of water vapour mw In a given volume
Masses of dry air ma In a given volume
Relative humidity % Extent of saturation
Dew point °C temperature to which air be cooled at constant pressure to become
saturated
Specific enthalpy (h) kJ/kg Energy content of moist air per unit mass of dry air
Specific heat of moist air at Amount of energy required to raise temperature of moisture air by
constant pressure (CP) 1°C for unit mass of dry air.
It can normally be taken as 1.02 kJ/kg K.
Specific volume (ν) m3/kg Volume of moisture air per unit mass of dry air
Density (ρ) kg/m3 1
ν

B. Psychrometric Chart
a. For a moist air sample at point X
Dry bulb 25 °C
Wet bulb 18 °C
Moisture content 0.01 kg/kg
Relative humidity 50 %
Specific volume 0.858 m3/kg
Specific enthalpy 50.5 kJ/kg

C. Air Conditioning Processes

a. Air conditioning processes involve energy and mass transfer between moist air and its surroundings with changes
in physical properties.
b. 2 basic principles for energy and mass transfer: Conservation of energy and mass.
c. Steady flow energy equation be applied for the energy change:

𝑞 = ℎ2 − ℎ1

𝑄 = 𝑚𝑎 𝑞
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑎 (ℎ2 − ℎ1 )
q kJ/kg Energy transfer per kg of dry air
1 Entering air condition
2 Leaving air condition
Q kW Total rate of energy transfer
ma kg/s mass flow rate of dry air

d. Various types of A/C processes are shown in the following psychrometric chart where O represents the entering air
conditions.

2
 Sensible  An increase or decrease in dry bulb temperature
Heating (OC)/ of air without change in moisture content.
Cooling (OG)  In cooling, the surface temperature of the coil
shall be above the dew point temperature of
the incoming air.

 For Heating 𝑄 = 𝑚𝑎 𝐶𝑃 (𝑡𝐶 − 𝑡𝑂 )𝑘𝑊

 For Cooling 𝑄 = 𝑚𝑎 𝐶𝑃 (𝑡𝑂 − 𝑡𝐺 )𝑘𝑊

Humidifying  Achieved by steam injection with

(OB) a large increase in moisture content and
a small increase in temperature

 Mass flow rate of steam ms:

𝑚𝑠 = 𝑚𝑎 (𝑤𝐵 − 𝑊𝑂 )𝑘𝑔/𝑠

Cooling &  Achieved by water spray having a temperature

Humidifying above the dew point of entering air.
(OH)  An adiabatic saturation process with
an increase in moisture content and
decrease in temperature.
 Follows the constant wet bulb line.
𝑤𝐻 −𝑤𝑂
 Saturation efficiency 𝜂𝑠𝑎𝑡 =
𝑤𝑙 −𝑤𝑂
wI = moisture content of air if it is saturated

Cooling &  Achieved by a cooling coil with surface

Dehumidifying temperature lower than the dew point
(OF) temperature of entering air.
 A reduction in moisture content and dry bulb
temperature
 Cooling Coil Load 𝑄𝑐𝑐 = 𝑚𝑎 (ℎ𝑂 − ℎ𝐹 )
 Latent Heat Removal 𝑄𝑐,1 = 𝑚𝑎 (𝑤𝑂 − 𝑤𝐹 )ℎ𝑓𝑔,𝑜
 Sensible Heat Absorbed𝑄𝑐,𝑠 = 𝑚𝑎 𝐶𝑃 (𝑡𝑂 − 𝑡𝐹 )
 hfg,o=2501kJ/kg
Chemical  Use of chemical for moisture removal.
Dehumidifying  Follow constant wet bulb line with
(OD) increase in temperature and
decrease in moisture content.
Humidifying  Pure increase or decrease in moisture content
Dehumidifying without any temperature change.
(OA)/ (OE)  In practice, these 2 processes rarely occur

a. Adiabatic Mixing
 2 or more air streams mix with each other to form a combined
stream.
 Mixture (m) of 2 entering streams 1 and 2 will lie on the
straight line joining 2 state points.
 Divides the line into segments with regards to the relative
mass flows of the entering streams.
𝑚1 𝑡1 + 𝑚2 𝑡2 𝑚1 𝑤1 + 𝑚2 𝑤2 𝑚1 ℎ + 𝑚2 ℎ
𝑡𝑚 = 𝑤𝑚 = ℎ𝑚 =
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 𝑚1 + 𝑚2

3
 b. Space Conditioning Process
i. Conditioned air (s) enters the space and
there is heat and mass transfer between the supplied air and the space air (r).
ii. In summer
1. Cool and dry air is used to remove the energy generated in the space (Q) which can be in the
form of sensible (Qs) and latent (Ql) heats.
2. Sensible heat: raise the space air temperature while
3. Latent heat: increase the moisture content.

iii. In winter with heating

1. Follows the same principles.
2. Warm and dry air is supplied to offset the heat loss in the space
3. An increase in moisture content due to the latent heat released in the space

iv. Sensible Heat Ratio (SHR)

1. % total energy (KW) a cooling device delivers that deal with sensible heat
2. Indicates the relative amount of energy removal in terms of sensible and latent heats.
3. Governs the slope of the space conditioning process
4. Protractor on the psychrometric chart shows the various SHR lines:
lower quarter for cooling and upper quarter for heating.

𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜

𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
=
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡

Total energy absorbed ∆𝐻 = 𝑄𝑆 + 𝑄𝑙

Latent heat absorbed 𝑄𝑙 = 𝑚𝑎 (𝑤𝑟 − 𝑤𝑠 )ℎ𝑓𝑔,𝑜
hfg,o=2501kJ/kg
Sensible heat absorbed 𝑄𝑠 = 𝑚𝑎 𝐶𝑃 (𝑡𝑟 − 𝑡𝑠 )

D. Air Conditioning Cycles

Process
Sensible cc -> s Supply air will gain heat energy as it passes
heating through the supply air fan and duct to the
space.
Space s -> r Cool and dry supply air at s will be supplied
conditioning to the space and absorbs the energy
generated to become r
Sensible r -> ru As return air passes through the return air
heating ductwork and fan, heat energy will be
gained similar to the supply system heat
gain
Adiabatic ru -> o -> Return air at ru will mix with outdoor air at o
mixing m in the air handling unit resulting in a
mixture of m.
Position of m depends on the amount of
outdoor air admitted.
Cooling & m -> cc Mixture will pass through the cooling coil
dehumidifying where the total energy absorbed
throughout the cycle is removed at the coil
by the cooling chilled water
4
E. An Illustration of Air Conditioning Cycle Analysis
a. An office employs a basic air conditioning system.
The space total and sensible cooling loads are estimated to be 40 kW and 34 kW respectively.
Summer outdoor design dry bulb temperatures 33°C
Wet Bulb Temperature 28°C
Indoor design conditions: dry bulb temperature 25°C
Relative humidity 50%
Condition of air leaving cooling coil (off coil) relative humidity 95%
Outdoor ventilation air 0.5 m3/s
b. Supply and return system heat gains are neglected
c. The followings are to be determined in order to specify the air handling plant for the system:
i. Condition of supply air
ii. Supply air volume flow rate
iii. Condition of mixture of outdoor and return air
iv. Cooling coil load
d. Calculation procedures

1 Locate the indoor and outdoor design state points (r

and o respectively) on the psychrometric chart.

2 Calculate the Sensible Heat Ratio (SHR) of the space:

𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝑄𝑠 )
𝑆𝐻𝑅 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑(𝑄𝑠 + 𝑄𝑙 )
34
𝑆𝐻𝑅 = = 0.85
40

Draw space conditioning process line s to r parallel

to SHR line on protractor

5
3 Since no supply system heat gain, state point cc is
the same as state point s.

Given RH of cc is 95%, intersection of space

conditioning process line sr and 95% RH curve give
location of s.

4 Supply air conditions can be read off from the chart:

ts = 13.5°C
ws = 0.0091 kg/kg
hs = 36.5 kJ/kg
5 Determine the supply air volume flow rate Vs:
𝑄𝑆 = 𝑚𝑎 𝐶𝑃 (𝑡𝑟 − 𝑡𝑠 )
𝑄𝑆 = 𝑉𝑠 𝜌𝑆 𝐶𝑃 (𝑡𝑟 − 𝑡𝑠 )
𝑄𝑆 ν𝑆
𝑉𝑆 =
𝐶𝑃 (𝑡𝑟 − 𝑡𝑠 )
34 × 0.823
𝑉𝑆 =
1.02 (25 − 13.5)
𝑉𝑆 = 2.39 𝑚3 /𝑠
6 Return air r and outside air o mix to form mixture m;
determination of m using adiabatic mixing equations

7 Since ro = 5.45 cm from the chart,

rm = 0.21 x 5.45 = 1.14 cm
8 Locate m on the chart by measurement which gives
the on coil conditions as:
tm = 26.75°C
wm = 0.0125 kg/kg
hm = 58.5 kJ/kg
9 Connect up m and cc (cooling & dehumidifying) to
complete the cycle;
calculation of cooling coil load Qcc.
𝑄𝑐𝑐 = 𝑚𝑎 (ℎ𝑚 − ℎ𝑐𝑐 )
𝑄𝑐𝑐 = 𝑉𝑠 ρ𝑆 (ℎ𝑚 − ℎ𝑠 )
2.39(58.5 − 36.5)
𝑄𝑐𝑐 =
0.823
𝑄𝑐𝑐 = 63.9𝑘𝑊

10 If the supply and return system heat gains are to be considered,

they have to be included in the cycle as two horizontal lines having lengths corresponding to the increase
in dry bulb temperatures.

The return system temperature increase can be easily drawn starting from r.
A horizontal line has to be drawn so that one end lies on the off coil relative humidity curve while the other
lies on the SHR line with its length equals to the temperature increase.

6
11 If supply system heat gain is considered, say 2°C, the
temperature difference between cc and s is equal to
2°C.

Point cc and s are located after line-s cc is drawn

Space conditioning process s to r then drawn

12 If return system heat gain is considered, say 1°C,

the temperature difference between r and ru is
equal to 1°C

Once r and ru are located, the rest of the cycle can

be plotted

7
Refrigeration Plant and Components
A. Types of Refrigerants
a. Refrigerant
i. A fluid capable of transferring heat in a refrigeration system.
ii. Boil at not a too high temperature and liquify at a moderate pressure.
A high latent heat of vaporization is also desired.
iii. Classifications depending on its composition: e.g. chlorine, hydrogen, halogen

B. Prefixes and Decoding Refrigerants

a. Refrigerant number provides complex information about the molecular structure.
b. Prefixes: CFC, HCFC, HFC, PFC, Halon
c. Azeotropic blend are assigned in series in numbering

d. Numbering in refrigerants
i. Add 90 to the refrigerant number
ii. Result shows the number of C, H, F atoms
iii. e.g. HCFC-141b: 141+90 = 231 (2 “C”, 3 “H”, 1 ”F”)
iv. Since 2 “C” should have 6 bonds (saturated)
v. Remaining will be 2 “Cl”
vi. Thus, HCFC-141b = C2H3FCl2
vii. Letter “b” describe the isomer for the chemical

e. What is the chemical formula for R-134a?

i. Any refrigerant having only 1 “C” will have a 2-digit number, e.g. R-11, and those with 2 “C” or 3 “C” will
have 3-digit number

C. Selection of Refrigerant Consideration

In order to select a suitable refrigerant for a refrigeration system, the following factors must be considered:
a. Evaporating temperature required during operation
b. Location of the refrigeration plant
c. Mass/ volume flow rate required per kW of refrigeration capacity
d. Coefficient of performance (COP) in the refrigeration cycle
e. Safety requirements
f. Physical properties
g. Operating properties
h. Cost

D. Piping Materials for Refrigerant

a. Copper tubing
i. Used for refrigerant piping in air-conditioning systems.
ii. Available in various standard diameters and wall thickness.
iii. Nominal diameter = outside diameter.
iv. Should be completely free from dirt, scale, and oxide.
b. Piping system is constructed by brazing copper tubes and fittings together

E. Effects of Refrigerants on Environment

a. Ozone depletion
i. Reduction of shielding layer against UV causing
ii. Increase in skin cancer and suppression of immune system
iii. Reduction in crop yield and affecting micro-organisms in sea
iv. Global warming

b. Increased chance of depletion with presence of chlorine as a catalyst and higher degree of stability of refrigerant
Example: CFC-11 and CFC-12.

c. CFC is more harmful than HCFC while HFC will not cause any problem

8
 d. CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons)
i. High ozone-depleting potential (ODP) contributing to the breakdown of the ozone layer,
are banned by the Montreal Protocol
ii. CFCs (e.g. R11, R12 and R114) would be phased out production and consumption of CFCs by year 2000.
iii. Copenhagen amendments to Montreal Protocol (1992): quicken the pace of phasing out of CFCs in 1/1/1

e. HCFCs (Hydrochlorofluorocarbons)
i. Have limited ODP are classified under the Montreal Protocol as transitional substances and
ii. Copenhagen amendments to Montreal Protocol (1992):
restricted the use of HCFCs with gradual phase-out until completion in 2030

f. HFCs (hydrofluorocarbons)
i. Contain no chlorine and therefore have zero ODP and not controlled by the Montreal Protocol.
ii. Examples: R125, R134a and R152a.
iii. R134a can be substituted directly, requiring replacement of some serviceable components only for R12.

F. Effects of Refrigerants on Environment

a. Greenhouse effect
i. Long wave radiation is emitted from earth surface after absorption of short wave radiation from the sun
and is then absorbed by CFCs in the troposphere resulting in global warming.
ii. Increase in temperature affects the distribution of crops and animals and raises the mean sea level

b. Global Warming Potential (GWP)

i. Refrigerants are also given ratings for GWP, an index providing a simple comparison with carbon dioxide
which has an index rating of 1.

c. Prevention of Leakage
i. Limit the volume of refrigerant gas in a system
ii. Improve standards of design and installation for refrigerant pipework

d. Hong Kong Present Situation on CFC

i. In line with the Montreal Protocol, Ozone Layer Protection Ordinance and its subsequent enforcement
has brought about a total ban on import of CFCs
ii. Some refrigerants are lost through small leaks in pipes and valves,
during equipment overhauls or accidents.
iii. No CFCs available to replenish these losses

e. Eliminate dependence on CFC for AC plant for existing installations

i. Routine leak checks at regular intervals
ii. Installation of a refrigerant leak detection system to minimize the leakage
iii. Recover and recycle the refrigerant during servicing and maintenance of the refrigerant circuits.
iv. Paying particular attention to joints, seals, and gaskets.
v. After completion of any servicing or repair work, thoroughly check for leaks before recharging with
refrigerant.
vi. Replace refrigerants in existing systems by HCFCs. Minor modifications to equipment needed and allow
for a slight reduction in machine efficiency after conversion.
vii. Install new chillers running on non-CFC refrigerants

f. Ideal refrigerants
i. Having the desired thermodynamic properties
ii. Non-toxic
iii. Non-flammable
iv. Completely stable inside a system
v. Environmentally friendly even after decomposition of products and abundantly available or easy to
manufacture
vi. Compatible with other materials used to fabricate and service refrigeration systems
vii. Easy to handle and detect
viii. System not operating at extreme pressures, either high or low

9
 G. Basic Refrigeration Principles
a. Principles of Refrigeration
i. Liquids absorb heat when changed from liquid to gas
ii. Gases give off heat when changed from gas to liquid.
b. For an air conditioning system to operate with economy, the refrigerant must be used repeatedly.
c. All air conditioners use the same cycle of compression, condensation, expansion & evaporation in a closed circuit.
d. Same refrigerant is used to move the heat from one area, to cool this area, and to expel this heat in another area.

H. Single Stage Refrigeration Cycle

a. Vapour compression refrigeration system
i. Most common type:
ii. Its diagram is superimposed on a pressure-enthalpy (p-h) chart to demonstrate the function of each
component in the system.
b. P-h chart:
Plots the properties of a refrigerant-refrigerant pressure (vertical axis) VS enthalpy (horizontal axis).

c. Steady flow energy equation:

Heat and work transfers in various refrigeration processes can be determined according to the enthalpy difference
read from the diagram.

Various parameters involved in a p-h diagram

for HFC-134a are shown below.

t: temperature
s: entropy
h: enthaply
p: pressure

10
Evaporator Low Pressure Liquid to Low Pressure Gas
(Vaporization)  Low-pressure liquid then moves to the evaporator,
where heat from the inside air is absorbed and changes it from a
liquid to a gas.
 Heat extraction from the evaporator through vaporisation of
refrigerant.
 Refrigeration effect (RE)
o Energy transfer per kg of refrigerant
o Cooling effect produced in a refrigerator
o RE = h1 – h4 kJ/kg
Compressor Low Pressure Gas to High Pressure Gas
(Compression)  Refrigerant comes into the compressor as a low-pressure gas, it is
compressed and then moves out of the compressor as a high-
pressure gas.

 Compression of vapour refrigerant in the compressor upon leaving

the evaporator and entering the condenser
 Work done in raising the evaporator pressure to condenser
pressure.
No losses in the compression process,
Energy absorbed by the refrigerant.
Adiabatic and reversible proecess with no change in entropy
s1 = s2.
 Specific isentropic work (w)
o Amount of work input per kg of refrigerant
o w = h2 – h1 kJ/kg
Condenser High Pressure Gas to High Pressure Liquid
(Condensation)  Gas then flows to the condenser
 It condenses to a liquid, and gives off its heat to the outside air

 Heat rejection from the condenser through condensation of

refrigerant.
 Heating effect (HE)
o Made use of in heat pumps per kg of refrigerant
o HE = h3 – h2 kJ/kg
Expansion High Pressure Liquid to Low Pressure Liquid
Valve  Liquid then moves to the expansion valve under high pressure.
(Throttling) This valve restricts the flow of the fluid
 and lowers its pressure as it leaves the expansion valve

 (Expansion of) refrigerant throttled from high to low pressure on

leaving the condenser and entering the evaporator.
 Constant enthalpy process:
h3 = h4.
Sub-cooling and superheating are important to determine stability and well-functioning of a refrigeration system
Subcooling  A liquid existing at a temperature below its normal saturation
temperature.
 Allow technicians to be certain that the quality, in which the
refrigerant reaches the next step of cycle is the desired one.
 In comparison, the same system without sub-cooling produces
less refrigeration effect.
Superheating  Temperature difference between refrigerant and air is the
highest.
 Such large temperature difference increases the rate of heat
transfer and the refrigerant vapour absorbs much heat.
 Liquid refrigerant completely evaporated.
 Shifts from the liquid/vapour region to vapour
11
d. Refrigeration effect (RE)
i. Change in enthalpy that occurs in the evaporator i
ii. Amount of heat that each kg of liquid refrigerant will absorb when it evaporates.

e. Refrigeration capacity (RC)

i. Total cooling effect produced:
RC = mr (RE)
ii. mr = mass flow rate of refrigerant in kg/s

f. Coefficient of performance of cooling (COPc):

i. Indicates the energy consumption or efficiency of the refrigeration system.
𝑅𝐸 ℎ −ℎ
ii. 𝐶𝑂𝑃𝐶 = = 1 4
𝑊 ℎ2 −ℎ1

g. Actual Refrigeration Cycle

i. Takes into account the losses at various parts of the system,
Example: valves losses, evaporator and condenser pressure drop.
ii. Ideal basic cycle VS the actual practical cycle (solid lines):

iii. When there are losses in the compression process, the entropy will always increase s2’’ > s1.
iv. State point 2’’ is determined using the isentropic efficiency (ηisen) with state 2’ located initially (s1 = s2’):
𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 ℎ −ℎ
v. 𝜂𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛 = = 2′ 1
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 ℎ2" −ℎ1

h. Plotting of single stage refrigeration cycle:

12
 I. Calculation on Vapour Compression Refrigeration Cycles
a. Consider a refrigeration cycle using R-134a is plotted based on the following information:
i. Condenser temperature = 45°C
ii. Evaporator temperature = 10°C
iii. Sub-cooling at condenser = 3°C
iv. Superheating at evaporator = 3°C
v. Compressor efficiency = 90%
b. Refrigeration cycle for single stage compression is plotted
c. Refrigeration effect and the COP are to be found

Step 1 Plot the condenser and evaporator pressure line (based on temperature)

Step 2 Locate the sub-cooling and superheating points

13
Step 3 Plot the isentropic line and determine the enthalpy of the refrigerant

Step 4 Determine the actual work based on compressor efficiency

𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘
428 − 410
0.9 =
𝑥 − 410
𝑥 = 430𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

14
Step 5 Complete the refrigeration cycle and identify the enthalpy of all the points

Step 6 Calculate the refrigeration effect and COP

𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 = 410 − 258
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 = 152𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡
𝐶𝑂𝑃 =
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒
410 − 255
𝐶𝑂𝑃 =
430 − 410
𝐶𝑂𝑃 = 7.6

15
J. Types of Compressors
a. Positive displacement type
i. Increase the pressure of vapour refrigerant by reducing the volume of the compression chamber through
mechanical force applied to the compressor.
ii. Example: Reciprocating, screw, rotary and scroll compressors.

b. Non-positive displacement type

i. No reduction in volume of compression.
ii. Mainly based on conversion of dynamic pressure to static pressure.
iii. Example: Centrifugal compressor

K. Types of Construction
a. Hermetic type:
i. Compressor and motor are sealed in the same housing with the minimum leakage of refrigerant.
ii. Assembly is small and cheap.
iii. Rotary compressors and reciprocating compressors.

b. Semi-hermetic type:
i. Similar to the hermetic type but with access to the compressor for repairs.
ii. Medium-size compressors.

c. Open type:
i. Compressor and motor are enclosed in two separate housings.
ii. Large-size compressors
iii. Example centrifugal compressors with cooling capacity greater than 1200 TR.

d. Reciprocating Compressors
i. Intake, compression and discharge strokes in cylinder
ii. A no. of 2-8 cylinders in a compressor with up to 200TR
iii. Total refrigeration capacity from 50TR to 500TR with the use of multiple compressors in a chiller plant
iv. Examples of Refrigeration system using reciprocating compressors

e. Screw Compressors
i. Male rotor driven by a motor which enables the meshing female rotar to rotate with compression of
trapped refrigerant.
ii. A screw compressor can have a refrigeration capacity from 50 to 500TR.
iii. With multiple units, a refrigeration plant can provide up to 1250TR.

f. Scroll Compressors
i. 2 identical scroll: one stationary and one revolving eccentrically with compression of trapped refrigerant.
ii. No valves are required and valve losses are eliminated.
iii. Maintenance, noise and vibration are reduced.
iv. Small refrigeration capacity (up to 60 TR).

g. Rotary Compressors
i. 2 types: Rotating piston and rotating blade.
ii. Cylinder is stationary with a rotor revolving.
iii. Small refrigerators of up to 4 TR, e.g. window units.
iv. Quiet and smooth in operation.

16
 h. Centrifugal Compressors
i. Several impellers are installed in series to increase the pressure and refrigerant volume flow.
ii. Vapour refrigerant is drawn through the inlet vanes to the impellers.
iii. Refrigerant is whirled at a high speed by the impellers which impart centrifugal force throwing it to the
outside of the impeller.
iv. Housing contains the refrigerant and forces it to exit at the discharge.
v. Generally used for large installations (100 - 10,000TR).

i. Comparisons Among Different Types of Compressors

Reciprocating VS other positive displacement compressors
i. More moving parts and components requiring more maintenance.
ii. Several cylinders in a compressor implying balancing problem.
iii. Less reliable and slightly lower efficiency.
iv. More noise and vibration problems.
v. Greater clearance volume lowering the volumetric efficiency.
vi. Step control instead of stepless control.

L. Refrigerate Piping Design

a. Refrigeration system involving refrigerant piping to connect components, system reliability and installed cost
should be taken into consideration.
b. Design of the interconnecting refrigerant piping shall meet the following criteria:
i. Return oil to the compressor at the proper rate, at all operating conditions.
Oil is used to lubricate and seal the moving parts of a compressor.
Reduction oil level in the compressor could cause lubrication problems or even mechanical failure.
ii. Ensure that only liquid refrigerant (no vapour) enters the expansion device.
iii. Minimize system capacity loss that is caused by pressure drop through the piping and accessories.
iv. Minimize the total refrigerant change in the system to improve reliability.

c. Procedures for Sizing of Pipes

i. Different pipe sizes for pipe line connecting compressor and condenser, condenser and expansion valve
and evaporator and compressor.
ii. Pipe sizes can be determined as follows:
1. Determine the total length of piping.
2. Calculate the refrigerant velocity at both maximum and minimum system capacities.
3. Select the largest pipe diameter that will result in acceptable refrigerant velocity at both
maximum and minimum capacities.
4. Calculate the total “equivalent” length of piping by adding the actual length of straight pipe to
the equivalent length of any fittings to be installed in the pipe line.
5. Determine the pressure drop (based on the total equivalent length) due to the straight pipe and
fittings.
6. Add the pressure drop due to any accessories installed in the pipe line.
iii. Piping should be routed in the shortest and simplest manner possible, minimizing the total length

17
Air Side System
A. Basic Concepts
a. 4 methods of environmental control:
i. Natural ventilation
ii. Mechanical ventilation
iii. Comfort cooling
iv. Air conditioning

b. Air conditioning system:

i. Provides full control of air temperature, humidity, freshness and cleanliness.
ii. However, comfort cooling does not have full control of humidity
iii. Consists of a group of components or equipment connected in series to control the environmental
parameters.
iv. Goal:
1. To achieve a highly quality system that functions effectively
2. Energy-efficient
3. Cost-effective
4. All design criteria are fulfilled, and the requirements of the owner and the user are satisfied.
5. Good indoor air quality is provided.
6. Reliable and has adequate fire protection level (e.g. smoke management).

c. Comfort Air-conditioning
i. A process of controlling the air temperature, relative humidity, ventilation, air movement and air
cleanliness of a given space in order to provide the occupants with a comfortable indoor temperature.

B. Air Conditioning System Selection

a. Designer must understand the building and client’s requirements.
i. Building location, surrounding environment and external climate.
ii. Uses and functional requirements of the building.
iii. Client’s budget, investment policy and expected quality of service.

b. Designer should consider various system options and recommend 1 or several that will be likely to perform as
desired.

Some of the selection criteria include:

Performance  Comfort
 Noise
 Control options
 Flexibility
 Meeting requirements of local regulations/codes
Capacity  Range of capacity
 Multiple units
 Zoning
Spatial  Plant room space
 Space for ducting and piping (vertical shafts)
 Space for terminal equipment
Costs  Initial cost
 Operating cost
 Maintenance cost
Energy consumption  Economic
 Environment
System qualities  Aesthetics, life
 Reliability
 Maintainability

18
C. Classification of Air Conditioning Systems
a. To provide a background for selecting the optimum air conditioning system based on building requirements.

b. 3 Main categories:
i. Individual Systems
1. Use a self-contained, factory-made air conditioner to serve 1-2 rooms
2. Example: room/ window air conditioner and split-type units

ii. Unitary Packaged Systems

1. Similar in nature to individual systems but serve more rooms or even more than 1 floor, have an
air system consisting of fans, coils, filters, ductwork and outlets
2. Example: in small restaurants, small shops and small cold storage rooms

iii. Central Systems – basically consists of 3 major parts:

Air system  Air handling units (AHU)
 Air distribution (air duct) system and terminals
Water system  Chilled water system
 Hot water system
 Condenser water system
Central Plant  Refrigeration (chiller) plant
 Boiler plant

c. Classification: By refrigeration system

Individual system Uses a small, self- contained factory assembled refrigeration system that uses a DX (direct
expansion) coil to cool air
Packaged system Always has a refrigeration system that uses a DX coil to cool air directly
Central system Has a refrigeration system that uses chilled water as a cooling medium to cool air
indirectly

d. Classification: By medium used to offset the space loading

All-air systems Only air is used to offset the spacing cooling or heating load
Air-water systems Both conditioned air and water are used
All-water systems Only water is used to offset the space loading through terminal units

D. Direct Expansion Systems

a. Window Air Conditioners
i. Direct expansion of refrigerant, without chilled water as a heat transfer medium.
ii. Since the refrigerant compressor is locating inside the casing of the air conditioner,
noise and vibration from the compressor can be observed.
iii. Fresh air exchange for the room can be provided by:
1. Setting the “ventilator” switch of the window air conditioner to “open” position.
2. Installing a ventilating extract fan in the room to extract room air to outside
(Caution: Do not oversize the fan)
3. Naturally leaking of air in and out of the room (by opening a portion of the window)

b. Rooftop Package Air Conditioners

i. Commonly air-cooled units.
ii. Units are the floor: Standing type designed for installation outdoors or on the roof.
iii. A supply air duct and a return air duct are to be connected to the cooling unit.
iv. Application: For general air conditioning of stores, residences, schools, offices,
particularly suitable for single flat building with extensive floor areas

19
 c. Package Air Conditioning Systems
i. Factory assembled (floor mounting) package
1. Placed indoor, containing direct expansion coil, controls, fan and compressor, with the condenser
remotely placed outdoor.
2. Commonly used in Hong Kong for restaurants, café shops, factories, etc
ii. Refrigerant compressor: installed inside the indoor unit, making the machine less quiet than the split
system.
iii. Allow a larger cooling capacity for the indoor unit, which will be floor-mount usually.
iv. Application: Outdoor unit (condenser only) is put on the roof top, with the indoor unit a few floors below

d. Split Air Conditioning Systems

i. Factory assembled (ceiling mounting) indoor unit of fan and direct expansion coil, controls,
with the condensing unit, i.e. compressor and condensing coil, remotely placed outdoor.
ii. Commonly used in HK for café shops, small offices, some domestic units, etc.

e. Single Split VS Multiple Splits

i. Multiple splits: Several indoor units are connected to one outdoor unit by insulated copper refrigerant
pipes.

f. Split Air Condition System(SAC) & Central Conditioning System(CAC) Comparisons

i. SAC
1. Allows flexible hours operation.
Example:
Specific room in a building (e.g. server room) requiring 24-hour A/C,
the running of the chiller plant will not be energy efficient.
2. Does not involve a chilled water system with a risk of water damage due to breaking or leakages.
3. Allow independent control on indoor temperature comparing with the case of adopting air
handling unit serving zones.
It would be a localized problem if SAC is found out of order.
4. No water treatment cost as for chilled water pipes and condenser water pipes.
5. Requires place for accommodation of outdoor units that is always a difficulty in modern building
with curtain walls on all facades.
ii. CAC
1. Allows the pretreated primary air and use of thermal wheel for recovery of energy from exhaust
air

E. All Air Systems

a. Conditioned air is delivered to the occupied space via ductwork.
No refrigerant or chilled water pipe to reach the occupied area.
i. Single zone constant air volume (CAV) system
ii. Reheat
iii. Variable Air Volume (VAV) system
iv. Dual Duct

b. Advantages & Disadvantages of All Air Systems

Advantages  Central plant is located in unoccupied areas,
hence facilitating operating and maintenance, noise control and choice of suitable
equipment.
 No piping, electrical wiring and filters are located inside the conditioned space.
 Seasonal changeover is simple and readily adaptable to climatic control.
 Gives a wide choice for zoning, flexibility, and humidity control under all operating
conditions.
 Allows good design flexibility for optimum air distribution, draft control and local
requirements
Disadvantages  Requires additional duct clearance which can reduce the usable floor space.
 Air-balancing is difficult and requires great care.
 Accessibility to terminals demands close cooperation between architectural, mechanical
and structural engineers.

20
c. Single Zone CAV System
i. A variable supply air temperature to meet with the cooling load requirements of the space while the
supply air volume flow rate will be unchanged
ii. Basic central system which can supply a constant air volume or a variable air volume at low, medium or
high pressure.
iii. Equipment:
located outside the conditioned space normally but
can also be installed within the conditioned space if conditions permit.

iv. System Description and Control (Sub-system)

Cooling coil control  Supply air temperature
Heating coil control  Space temperature
 Cooling & Heating coil control valve
Mixing air control  Supply air temperature
 Mixing air temperature
 Space temperature
 Outdoor, exhaust and re-circulating air dampers
Economizer control  Supply air temperature
 Mixing air temperature
 Outdoor temperature
 Recirculating air temperature

v. Supply air temperature:

controlled by the duct temperature sensor T1 which through a controller (e.g. DDC type) modulates the
chilled water control valve V1,
the outdoor/recirculating/exhaust air dampers D1/D2/D3 and
the heating coil control valve V2 in sequence.

vi. Chilled water control valve:

modulated to maintain the supply air temperature at the desired set point.
The set point is reset according to the space air temperature T2

vii. Economy cycle

1. Outdoor temperature T3 is compared with the recirculating air temperature T4.
2. If T3 > T4, the outdoor air/exhaust air dampers is set to minimum opening position according to
the need of fresh air. The recirculating damper is fully opened.
3. If T3 < T4, the outdoor air/exhaust air dampers is fully opened while the recirculating air damper
is closed to save refrigeration power.
4. As the outdoor air temperature drops further, the mixed air control will function.
The outdoor/exhaust/recirculating dampers will be modulated to maintain the desired mixed air
temperature T5 until the outdoor air damper is at its minimum position.
Temperature sensor T5 can be omitted with its function taken care of by T1.
5. Heating coil valve: opened and modulated to maintain the desired supply air temperature when
heating is required.
6. Using temperature control can be substituted by an enthalpy control using enthalpy sensors.

d. Reheat System
i. A modification of the single-zone system.
ii. Zone/ space control for areas of unequal loading.
iii. Heating/ cooling of perimeter areas with different exposures.
iv. Air throughout the reheat system can be:
1. Warmed up.
2. Removed moisture (for humidity control).
v. Close control for process or comfort applications.
Heat is added as a secondary process to either preconditioned primary air/ recirculated room air in the
system
Heating medium: Hot water, steam or electricity

21
 e. Variable Air Volume (VAV) System
i. Compensates for varying cooling loads by regulating the volume of cooling air supplied through a single
duct.
ii. Simple VAV systems typically cools only and have no requirement for simultaneous heating and cooling in
various zones.

iii. VAV Box

1. A terminal device in which the supply volume flow rate is modulated by varying the opening of
the air passage by means of a single blade butterfly damper.
2. Pneumatic/ direct digital control (DDC).
Pneumatic control VAV box is fading out and replaced by DDC VAV box.

iv. Advantages of VAV systems

1. Inexpensive temperature control for multiple zoning and a high degree of simultaneous heating-
cooling flexibility, when combined with a perimeter heating system,
2. Capital cost is lower since diversities of loads from lights, occupancy, solar and equipment of as
much as 30% are permitted.
3. Virtually self-balancing.
4. Lower operating cost because fans run long hours at reduced volume.
5. Lower operating cost because unoccupied areas may be fully cut-off.
6. Reduced noise level when the system is running at off-peak loads.
7. Allows simultaneous heating and cooling without seasonal changeover.

f. Dual Duct System

i. Employs 2 air ducts to supply cold air and warm air to a mixing terminal unit which
proportions the cold and warm air in response to a thermostat located in the conditioned space.

F. Air and Water Systems

a. 1 in which both air and water (cooled or heated in central plant room) are distributed to room terminals to
perform cooling or heating function.

Air side  Central air conditioning equipment

 A duct distributing primary air
 A room terminal.
Water side  A pump and piping to convey water to heat transfer surfaces within each conditioned space.
 Water is cooled by the introduction of chilled water from the primary cooling system

b.Fan-Coil System
i. Elements: Finned-tube coil + fan section.
ii. Fan section:
1. Recirculates air continuously from within the perimeter space through the coil
2. Supplied with either hot or chilled water
iii. System Description
1. Each space has its own fan coil unit(s) through which cooling and/or heating can be provided.
2. Mixture of primary air and recirculating room air is passed through the cooling and/or heating
coils in the FCU for treatment before being admitted to the space.
3. PAU: provides preliminary treatment of the outdoor air.
4. Heating:
a. Provided by the FCU through hot water heating coil or electric heater
b. Catered for by the warm PA.
G. All Water Systems
Advantages  Less ductwork and space
 Flexible and readily adaptable to many building module requirements.
 Provides individual room control.
 Less expensive
Disadvantages  No positive ventilation is provided unless wall openings are used.
 No humidification is provided.
 Maintenance and service work has to be done in the occupied areas.

22
Components of Air Side Systems
A. Basic Concepts
a. Duct Insulation
i. Mounted or inner-lined
ii. To reduce heat loss and heat gain
iii. To prevent the condensation on the outer surface of the duct.
iv. Duct wrap (outer surface)/ duct inner liner/ fiberglass duct boards.
v. Duct liner provides both thermal insulation and sound attenuation.
vi. Thickness: based on economical analysis.

B. Air Leakage Limit on Ductwork

a. >25% in area of ductwork which is designed to operate at operating static pressure >750Pa
shall be leakage tested in accordance with the air leakage limit set

C. Ceiling Diffuser
a. A series of concentric rings/ inner cones made up of vanes arranged in fixed directions + an outer shell/frame.
b. Shape: Round, square, or rectangular.
c. Most widely used: Suitable for low headroom situations.
d. Supply air is discharged through the concentric air passages or directional passages in 1, 2, 3 or
in all directions by using different types of inner cone and vanes.

D. Slot Diffuser
a. A plenum box with single or multiple slots and air deflecting vanes for flow direction control.
b. Air discharged from a slot diffuser can be projected horizontally or vertically.
c. With multiple slots, air can be horizontally discharged either left or right, or a combination of both,
or one slot can discharge vertically while another discharge horizontally.
d. To distribute the air more evenly at the slot.
e. Insulated internally.

E. Side Grilles
a. Various types (fixed blade, single/double deflection)
b. Low entrainment ratio and longer throw.
c. Not suitable for rooms with low ceiling and great depth

F. Jet Nozzle Diffuser

a. Ideally suited for predictable directional control of conditioned air within large spaces
b. Example: malls, exhibit halls, sports arenas, atrium areas, and large office building entrances.
c. Small nozzle sizes provide shorter throws for smaller spaces.
d. Spot air distribution ideal for industrial heating, ventilating, or cooling.
e. Side wall, ceiling, or duct mounted applications at any orientation.
f. Rapid temperature equalization eliminates stratification.

G. Return Air Inlets

a. Different types: grille, louvre, linear
b. Location not so critical.
c. If a ceiling plenum is used as return plenum, return inlets shall be located outside supply air jet, above return
airstream, or near a concentrated heat source.
d. Noise level relatively more important (velocity: 1 to 4 m/s)

H. Factors Affecting Air Distribution

a. Room geometry: a deep or a short room, a narrow or a broad room.
b. Type and location of supply air terminals and the location of extract air terminals.
c. Supply air parameters: velocity, momentum flux and buoyancy flux.

23
 d. Heat source: location, shape and heat flux
e. Location of obstacles and furniture.
f. Radiation and heat loss through the walls.
g. Infiltration and exfiltration through door gaps and other leak areas.
h. Movement of equipment and people.

I. Air Filters

Principle of operation Construction Application

Low
Efficiency
Filter
Medium  Extended surfaces e.g. pleated
Efficiency mats or bags are used to
Filter increase surface area and air
velocity flowing through the
filter media
High  Removes dust particle by
Efficiency filtration of the passing air.
Particulate
Air Filter
Electronic  A high DC potential of 1.2kV is
air cleaner applied to the ionizing field.
 Positive ions generated from
the ionizer wire charge the dust
particles.
 When traveling in the air stream
of the ionizing field, positively
charged dust particles are
attached to the ground plates.
Activated  Removal by absorption.
carbon filter  Gas molecules diffuse into the
microspores/ macrospores of
activated carbon, bond to these
surfaces.
 Reactivation/ regeneration
required at the end of its life
 Filter media
 Corrugated metal wire mesh.
 Dry and reusable-nylon
 Panel type
 Size: 500 x 500 mm
 Filter media:
glass fibre of submicrometer
diameter that is formed into
pleated paper mats (dry and
disposable).
 Performance: measured by
alpha value which is a function
of penetration % and pressure
drop (mm).
 Size: 600 x 600 x 300mm.
 Surface filter media area: 50
times of the face area
 Activated carbon is placed in
special tray
 Low efficiency filter is placed
as prefilter
 Filter efficiency: < 30%.
 Filter efficiency: 30 - 95%
Meet the requirement of dioctyl
phthalate (DOP) 99.97% efficiency
for dust particle ≧0.3μm
 Clean room
 Clean space for microelectronic
industry
 Pharmaceutical industry
 Precision manufacturing
industry
 Operating theatre in hospital
 Atmospheric dust and
cigarettes smoke.
 Refuse storage room
ventilation:
 Removal of objectionable
odour and irritating vapour of
gaseous airborne particles 3nm
to 6nm in size.

J. AHU/PAU-Filters
a. Air filtration is an important component to achieve an acceptable indoor air quality.
b. Low-efficiency filters of the panel type as prefilter.
c. Medium- and high-efficiency bag type for filtering the air.
d. Carbon-activated gaseous absorption filters for removal of objectionable odors.

24
Water Side Systems: System Design
A. Basic Concepts
a. Water system design needs evaluation of
i. Space loads: Transmission, solar radiation, infiltration, ventilation air, people, lights, power, appliances
ii. Occupancy patterns
iii. Indoor environmental requirements
iv. Full-load and part-load conditions

b. Types of water system

Closed System  Only 1 interface point with a compressible gas (air) or surface.
 Flow cannot be provided by static head differences.
 Pumps do not provide static lift.
 Entire piping system is always filled with water

Open system More than 1 interface with a compressible gas or surface

e.g. cooling towers.

c. HVAC water systems can be classified by

i. Operating temperature
ii. Flow generation
iii. Pressurization
iv. Piping arrangement
v. Pumping arrangement

25
 d. Open water systems, e.g. using cooling tower
e. Closed water systems
i. Chilled water (CHW) system [4-13˚C, 825 kPa]
ii. Condenser water (CW) system
iii. Dual temperature water system
iv. Low temp. water (LTW) system [Max.120°C, <1100 kPa]
v. Medium temp. water (MTW) system [120-125°C, <1100 kPa]
vi. High temp. water (HTW) system [>175°C, >2070 kPa]
f. Once-through system, e.g. sea water system

g. Hydronic systems
i. Use of liquid heat transfer medium in heating and cooling system
ii. Convey heat to or from a conditioned space or process with hot or chilled water.
iii. Water flows through piping that connects a boiler, water heater, or chiller to suitable terminal heat
transfer units located at the space or process

B. System Components
 Source system (chiller or boiler)
 Load system
 Pump system
 Distribution system
 Expansion chambers

a. Source VS Load
Source Load
 Boiler  Air Coil
 Chiller  Heat Exchanger
 Heat Pump  Storage Tank
 Solar Panel  Process

b. Source
i. Point where heat is removed from a cooling system or added in a heating system.
ii. Source efficiency as a function of load.
iii. Considerations in selecting a source device
1. Design capacity
2. Part-load capability
c. Load systems:
i. Devices (terminal units) that convey heat to the water for cooling or from the water for heating of the
space or process.

d. Cooling Source devices & Heating Source Devices

Cooling Source Heating source
Electric chiller Hot water generator or boiler
Absorption chiller Steam-to-water heat exchanger
Heat pump evaporator Water-to-water heat exchanger
Water-to-water heat exchanger Solar collector panels
Heat pump condenser
Heat recovery device

26
e. Cooling load devices & Heating load devices
Cooling Load devices Heating Load devices
Fan-coil units (AHU) Fan-coil units (AHU)
Air-to-water heat exchanger Air-to-water heat exchanger
Water-to-water heat exchangers Water-to-water heat exchangers
Steam-to-water heat exchanger
Radiant cooling panels Radiant/ Solar heating panels
Coils in central units Preheat & Heating coils in central units
Heat pump evaporator Heat pump condenser
Induction unit coils Finned-tube radiators
Electric compression chiller Convectors
Thermal absorption chiller Unit heaters
Hot water generator/ boiler
Heat recovery or salvage heat device
Exhaust gas heat exchanger Incinerator

𝑀𝑖𝑛.𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
f. 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = × 100%
𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
g. 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑

h. Use of multiple chillers/boilers

i. To achieve better operation efficiency
ii. Facilitate maintenance and standby backup

i. Design trade-offs
i. Improved efficiency vs initial installation cost

j. System temperatures
 Design temperatures and temperature
ranges by considering the performance
and economies of the components.

 Example:
 if conditioned space at 25°C, 50% RH
has dewpoint temperature 13°C,
max return water temperature should be
near 13°C.

Lowest practical temperature for

refrigeration, considering
freezing and economies is 4.5°C.

chilled water systems are set at 4.5-13°C.

27
C. Heat Transfer Calculations
Depends on surface area, overall heat transfer coefficient, geometry of heat transfer surfaces, etc.

Cooling or heating of air 𝑞 = 𝑄𝑎 𝜌𝑎 𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑡 q=Heat Transfer Rate

Water coil or heat exchanger
Qa= Air Flow Rate
Ρa=Density of Air (ρa) = 1.2 kg/m3
Cp = Specific Heat of Air= 1 kJ/kg K
q = UA (LMTD) Q=Heat Transfer Rate
U=Overall Coefficient of Heat Transfer W/m2/˚C
A=Surface Area m2
LMTD = Log mean temperature difference
∆𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 − ∆𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 =
𝐼𝑛(∆𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 − ∆𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 )

a. Sensible Heating Example

𝑞 = 1.2𝑄𝑎 ∆𝑡
𝑞 = 1.2(2.5𝑚3 /𝑠)(55°𝐶 − 15°𝐶)
𝑞 = 120𝑘𝑊

b. Coil LMTD example

Assume coil has

U: 850W/m2 ˚C/ row
4 rows

∆𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 − ∆𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 =
𝐼𝑛(∆𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 − ∆𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 )
Δtmax = 60 – 15 = 45
Δtmin = 70 – 55 = 15
45 − 15
𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 =
45
𝐼𝑛( )
15
𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 = 27.3˚𝐶

𝑞 = 𝑈𝐴(𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷)
𝑞 = 850(1.2 × 0.9)27.3(4 𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠)
𝑞 = 100246𝑊
𝑞 = 100.246𝑘𝑊

28
 c. Latent cooling and dehumidification of air
 Both sensible & latent heat transfer
𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑊∆ℎ(𝑘𝑊)
W = mass flow rate of cooled
medium (kg/s)
Δh = enthalpy difference of entering
and leaving conditions of cooled
medium (kJ/kg)

 𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑄𝑎 𝜌𝑎 ∆ℎ𝑗
𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 1.2𝑄𝑎 ∆ℎ

 Heat transferred to or from water

𝑞𝑤 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑡(𝑘𝑊)
 When volume flow rate (L/s) is used
𝑞𝑤 = 0.001𝑄𝑤 𝜌𝑤 𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑡
ρw = 1000 kg/m3
cp = 4.19 kJ/kgK
qw = 4.19QwΔt

D. Piping System Design

a. Compare path resistance of these two systems
Direct return system
 Length of supply and return piping through sub-
circuits is unequal.
 May cause unbalanced flow & require careful
balancing to provide each sub-circuit with design
flow
 Former the terminal unit connect to chilled water
supply pipe that the return pipe run will be
shorter.
 Difficult in chilled water flow balancing because
the system pressure drop difference significantly in
the first and last terminal units
 Available pressure drop for a load circuit is
greatest near the system pump and decrease the
farther away the load is form the source pump
 Care must be taken by the designer to size and
select the control valves to ensure adequate flow
distribution and proper close off
Piping Layout
Reverse return system
 Provide equal total lengths for all terminal circuits.
 More pipe length is needed
 Former the terminal unit connect to the chilled
water supply pipe that the chilled water return
pipe run will be longer.
 Easier in chilled water flow balancing because the
system pressure drop of each terminal unit is
nearly the same and only minor adjustment by
balancing valve is required.
 Higher piping cost may result because of additional
reverse return pipe but can be minimized by
properly allocate the chilled water risers
 Pressure drop for a load circuit is uniform even as
the distance is increased from the source pump.
 A reason to assist the two way valves with a
uniform pressure drop. Selection of control valve is
not as important as direct return

29
 Pressure Drop Diagram

b. A combination of direct and reverse systems: Direct return Riser & Reserve Zone Piping
Raisers are direct return
First load return first

Mains are reverse return

First load return last

E. Hot and Chilled Water Systems

2-Pipe Systems
i. Loads must all require cooling or heating coincidentally:
if cooling is required for some loads and heating for other loads at a given time,
this type of system should not be used.
ii. Changeover procedure:
1. Should be designed such that the chiller evaporator is not exposed to damaging high water
temperatures and
2. Boiler is not subjected to damaging low water temperatures.
iii. If rapid load swings are anticipated, a 2-pipe system should not be selected,
although it is the least costly of the 3 options

b. 4-Pipe Common Load Systems

i. Load devices are used for both heating and cooling as in the 2-pipe system.
ii. Both heating and cooling are available to each load device,
the changeover from one mode to the other takes place at each individual load device,
or grouping of load devices, rather than at the source.
iii. Can be in the cooling mode while others are in the heating mode.
iv. Problem: mixing of hot and chilled water

c. 4-Pipe Independent Load Systems

i. Some of the loads are in the heating mode while others are in the cooling mode.
ii. Control is simpler and more reliable than for the common load systems and is less costly to install.
iii. Flow through the individual loads can be modulated,
providing both the control capability for variable capacity and the opportunity for variable flow in either
or both circuits.

30
Components of Water Side Systems
A. Basic System

B. Volume Flow and Temperature Difference

a. Heating and cooling capacity of water when it flows through a coil:
b. QW=VWρWCPW (TWE-TWL)
c. Where
VW Volume flow rate of water (m3/s)
ρW Density of water (kg/m3)
CPW Specific heat of water (J/kg°C)
TWE, TWL Temperature of water entering and leaving the coil (°C)
∆TW Temperature drop or rise of water after flowing through the coil (°C)

d. Temperature of water leaving the water chiller should be no lower than 2.8°C to prevent freezing.
e. Performance of a chilled water system is closely related to:
i. Temperature of water entering the coil (TWE)
ii. Temperature of water leaving the coil (TWL)
iii. Difference differential (TWE-TWL)
f. Note:
i. Temperature TWE directly affects the power consumption in the compressor.
ii. Temperature differential is closely related to the volume flow of chilled water and thus the size of the
water pipes and pumping power.

C. Piping Design
Maximum water velocity in pipes is governed mainly by:

Pressure drop  Select a pipe size for desired total flow rate and available or allowable pressure drop
Pipe erosion  Impingement of rapidly moving water containing air bubbles and impurities on the inner
surface of the pipes and fittings.
 Erosion occurs only if solid matter is contained in water flowing at high velocity
Noise  Flow turbulence
 Cavitation
 Release of entrained air
Water hammer  Transient pressure impact on a sudden closed valve

31
D. Design Criteria for Chilled Water System
a. Water velocity ≥ 0.6 m/s: Transport the entrained air to air vents
b. From friction chart, with the aforesaid criteria, the pipe diameter could be read out.
100 to 400 Pa/m Compromise energy costs, investments, age corrosion
< 250 Pa/m Pipe diameter: < 50mm or less
200 Pa/m Closed water systems
135 Pa/m Open water systems

E. Makeup and Fill Water Systems

a. A hydronic system is filled with water through a valve connection to a water source.
b. Water makeup point: located at or near the expansion chamber,
because the expansion chamber is the reference pressure point in the system

F. Air Elimination
a. If air and other gases are not eliminated from the flow circuit,
they may slow or stop the flow through the terminal heat transfer elements and
cause corrosion, noise, reduced pumping capacity, and loss of hydraulic stability.
b. Air can be removed by an elimination valve installed at the point of lowest solubility.
c. Manual vents: installed at high points to remove all air trapped during initial operation.
d. Shutoff valves: installed on any automatic air removal device to permit servicing without draining the system

G. Drain and Shutoff

a. All low points should have drains.
b. Separate shutoff and draining of individual equipment and circuits should be possible so that the
entire system does not have to be drained to service a particular item.
c. Whenever a device or section of the system is isolated, and the water in that section or device could
increase in temperature following isolation, overpressure safety relief protection must be provided.

H. Water Treatment
Aims to evaluate the following parameters in the chilled water system:
a. PH value
b. Turbidity
c. Total iron increment
d. Total copper increment
e. Total dissolved solid
f. Nitrite
g. Bacteria count

I. Piping Material and Joints

Black Steel pipe Chilled and hot system
By welded joints (except flange joint for large pipe with valves, etc.).
Galvanized (zinc-coated) Condensate drain system
By threaded fitting

J. Working Pressure and Temperature

a. In a water system,
i. Maximum allowable working pressure
ii. Maximum allowable temperature
b. A proper choice for pipes, joints, pipe fittings, valves

K. Safety Relief Valves

a. Installed at any point at which pressures can be expected to exceed the safe limits of the system components.
b. Causes of excessive pressures include:
i. Over pressurization from fill system.
ii. Pressure increases due to thermal expansion.
iii. Surges caused by momentum changes (shock or water hammer).

32
L. Pipe Insulation
a. External pipe insulation should be provided to chilled and hot water system for the sake of
i. Energy saving.
ii. Prevention of surface condensation.
iii. High-temperature safety protection.
b. Depends on the operating temperature of the inside water, the pipe diameter, and the types of service.

M. Expansion Tank
a. Provides a space into which the non-compressible liquid can expand or from which
it can contract as the liquid undergoes volumetric changes with changes in temperature.
b. Provides an interface point between the system fluid and a compressible gas,
to allow for this expansion or contraction,
c. 2 basic configurations:
Open tank A tank open to the atmosphere)
Diaphragm tank A flexible membrane is inserted between the air and the water
(Bladder tank)

N. Types of Valve
a. Valves are used to regulate or stop the water flow in pipes
b. Manually
i. Hand-operated valves are used to stop or isolate flow, regulate flow, prevent reverse flow and regulate
water pressure.
c. Automatic control systems
i. Valves used in automatic control systems are called control valves.
d. Basic construction of a valve:
i. A disk to open or close the water flow.
ii. A valve body to seat the disk and provide the flow passage.
iii. A stem to lift or rotate the disk, with a hand wheel or a handle.

O. Gate Valves
a. Disk of a gate valve is in the shape of a “gate” or wedge.
b. When the wedge is raised at the open position, a gate valve does not add much flow resistance.
c. Either fully opened or closed, an on/off arrangement.
d. Used as isolating valves for pieces of equipment or key components,
Example: Control valves, for service during maintenance and repair

P. Globe Valves (Balancing valves)

a. A round disk or plug-type disk seated against a round port.
b. Have high flow resistances.
c. Globe valves are used to throttle and regulate the flow.

Q. Check Valves
a. Use to prevent, or check, reverse flow.
b. Swing check valve
i. It has a hinged disk.
ii. When the water flow reverses, water pressure pushes the disk and closes the valve.
c. Lift check valve
i. Upward regular flow raises the disk and opens the valve, and reverse flow pushes the disk down to its seat
and stops the backflow.
ii. Install at the discharge of pump

R. Butterfly Valves
a. Has a thin rotating disk.
b. Varies within a quarter-turn from fully open to fully close.
c. Exhibits low flow resistance when it is fully opened.
d. With an actuator, a butterfly valve used for control purposes.
e. May be used for throttling purposes in addition to on/off control.
f. Used in large pipes.

33
S. Water Control Valves
a. Regulate or stop water flow in a pipe either manually or by means of automatic control systems.
b. Adopted in water systems can modulate water flow rates by means of automatic control systems

T. Valve Actuators
a. A device which receives an electric or pneumatic analog control signal from the controller.
b. Closes or opens a valve, modulating the associated process plant,
and causes the controlled variable to change toward its set point.
c. Used to position control valves
d. Solenoid Actuators
i. A magnetic coil to move a movable plunger connected with the valve stem.
ii. For on and off control
iii. For small valves
e. Electric Actuators
i. Move the valve stem by means of a gear train and linkage.
ii. On/off mode: Motor moves the valve in one direction, and when the electric circuit breaks,
the spring returns the valve stem to the top position.
iii. Modulating mode: Motor can rotate in both directions, with spring return when the electric circuit breaks.

U. Water Control Valve

a. 2-way valves
i. Q varies and ∆t is fixed.
ii. 1 inlet port + 1 outlet port.
iii. Water flows straight through the two-way valve along a single passage.
b. 3-way mixing valve
i. ∆t varies and Q is fixed.
2 inlet ports + Main water stream flows through the coil or
1 common boiler.
outlet port Bypass stream mixes with the main stream in
the common mixing outlet port.

3-way diverting Supply water stream divides into 2 streams in

valve the common inlet port.
(1 common
inlet port + Main water stream flows through the coil
2 outlet ports) Bypass stream mixes with the main water
stream after the coil

V. Cooling Coil
a. Corrugated fins can increase convective heat transfer coefficient and hence higher transfer rate

W. Centrifugal Pumps
a. Transporting chilled water, hot water, and condenser water because of their high efficiency and reliable operation.
b. Accelerate liquid and convert the velocity of the liquid to static head.
c. Consists of an impeller rotating inside a spiral casing, a shaft, mechanical seals and bearings on both ends of the
shaft, suction inlets, and a discharge outlet.

d. Types of Pumps
i. End Suction
ii. Horizontal Split-casing
iii. Vertical Inline

34
Smoke Extraction System
A. Smoke Extraction System
a. To remove hot smoky gases from the upper parts of a compartment and
b. To introduce air from outside into the lower parts of the compartment.

B. Objectives of Smoke Extraction

a. To inhibit the migration of smoke out of the source compartment.
b. To facilitate escape of people by restricting spread of smoke and hot gases in escape route.
c. To facilitate firefighting by enabling fire fighters to enter the building and conduct search and rescue operations
and to locate and control fire.
d. To reduce damage caused by smokes and hot gases and contribute to the protection of life and reduction of
property loss.
e. To clear smoke in building after fire

C. Type of Smoke Extraction Systems

Advantages Disadvantages
Dynamic Smoke  Guaranteed exhaust rate  Heavier weight of mechanical plant
Extraction System  Few smaller openings on roof  Problem in electrical supply and wiring at
 Cool smoke can be handled high temperature
 Small area of inlet required  Retrofit no always possible
 Can be used with ducting  Expensive equipment/ fan required at high
 Can be sited away from risk area temperature
 Will provide normal ventilation for building
(if 2 speed fans are used)
Static Smoke  Simple and cheap  Easily affected by wind
Extraction System  Self-regulating  Required large areas of inlet
 Easy to retrofit and reuse  Many large opening on roof
 Operate at high temperature  Difficult to handle cool smoke
 Units in non-fire zones can provide  Material distortion at high temperature
replacement air

A. Dynamic Smoke Extraction System

A mechanical ventilating system capable of:
a. Remove smoke and products of combustion from a designated fire compartment.
b. Supply fresh air to maintain a specified smoke free zone below the smoke layer

B. Static Smoke Extraction System

a. Utilizing smoke reservoirs; localized ducting; and permanent openings or automatic opening of windows, panel or
external louvres actuated by smoke detectors
to remove the smoke from a fire compartment by means of the natural ventilation

b. An alternative to the dynamic smoke extraction system if the following 3 conditions are satisfied:
i. Each smoke reservoir <500 m2 in area should be provided under the ceiling by fixed or automatically
operated smoke screen.
ii. Horizontal distance between the perimeter of any smoke reservoir and the external wall of building
where smoke outlets are installed,
<30m and 1 side of its reservoir shall abut the external wall.
iii. Aggregate area of smoke outlets > 2% of the floor area, and that
at least half of these outlets are openable by automatic actuating devices.

c. May only viable for single storey warehouse, depot or hanger etc.

35
C. Requirements for Premises
i. Basements >3 levels or which exceed 230 m2 of usable floor.
ii. Hotels: Both low rise and high rise.
iii. Industrial/ godown buildings: Both low rise and high rise.
iv. Audio/Visual Production Facilities.
v. Container Terminal Yards and Freight Stations.
vi. Railway Marshalling Yards

b. Might be exempted where the compartment is small, the fire risk is low, or smoke can be purged alternatively.

c. Not required if any one of the following conditions can be satisfied:

Compartment
- For atrium areas <28,000m3
- Any basement level or floor forming part of that compartment < 7000m3
For internal means of escape for hotels, > 6.25 %
- Route is provided with openable windows and the aggregate area of such Floor area of the route
windows
Design fire load <1,135 MJ/m2
- Building used exclusively as office, domestic, institutional or carparks

D. Design requirements of Dynamic Smoke Extraction Systems

a. Design criteria
Extraction rate
- General ≥8 air change/ hour
- Internal means of escape for hotel ≥10 air changes/ hour
Smoke travel ≤ 30 m
Extraction point Min 1 / 500m2
Flow velocity at discharge grilles ≤ 6 m/s
Area of smoke reservoir ≤2000 m2
Make up air rate ≥ 80% extraction rate
Velocity at make-up air inlets
- Where not mechanically propelled ≤ 3 m/s
- Where mechanically propelled ≤ 6 m/s
Discharge of smoke
- Distance from surrounding intake ≥ 5m
- Above ground floor ≥ 3m

b. Other essential requirements:

i. ‘Fail safe’ design
ii. Counter flow of smoke to that of egress/escape route.
iii. Make up air supply at low level and smoke exhausted at high level.
iv. All equipment shall be rated at 250°C for at least 1 hr.
v. Provision of emergency power supply for equipment
vi. Duplicate equipment for sleep accommodation.
vii. Double system, each of 50% duty, for each basement compartment.

36
E. Multi-zone Smoke Extraction Systems
a. Under normal situation, smoke extraction fan and supply/makeup air fan are shut down,
and all the motorized fire and smoke dampers in both extraction and supply systems are closed.
b. Under an emergency situation,
if a fire occurs in zone 1, the smoke detector will be activated and automatically send a signal to start up both the
extraction and supply/make-up air fans.
c. Move the motorized fire and smoke dampers serving zone 1 to the open position.
All other motorized fire and smoke dampers shall remain closed.
d. If the smoke reaches zone 1 and moves into an adjourning zone, say zone 2,
the smoke detector in zone 2 will open the motorized fire and smoke dampers for zone 2.
This will reduce the airflow previously being handled in zone 1 by approximately 50%.
e. If there is a failure of the smoke extraction fan,
both the supply and extraction systems shall shut down and all motorized fire and smoke dampers return to the
closed position.
f. If there is a failure of the supply/make-up fan,
only the supply system shall be shut down and all motorized fire and smoke dampers on the supply duct return to
the closed position.
g. Extraction system shall continue to function.
h. 1 smoke extraction/make-up air system can serve up to 10 separate above ground fire compartments.
The system shall be capable of fully operating any 1 of the compartment
except for “Internal means of escape” in hotel where 2 compartments shall be capable of operating simultaneously

F. Acceptance Testing of Dynamic Smoke Extraction System

a. Where interaction with other systems is part of the operational mode,
all such systems shall be correctly functioning before final Fire Services inspection takes place.
b. “Completion” shall include all necessary permanent labels, instruction plaques, fully detailed operating and
maintenance manuals and diagrams, record ‘as-built’ drawings, etc.
c. All ductworks shall be pressure tested to Heating and Ventilating Contractors’ Association specification DW143 or
subsequent amendments.
d. A full set of test and functional operation check records shall be submitted with the request for the attendance of
the Fire Services Inspecting Officers.
Accompanying the records shall be a certificate signed by the designer confirming that the installations are
operating in accordance with his design and the requirements of FSD.
e. Format/method/apparatus of the required operational and functional tests (including hot smoke test) shall be
agreed with FSD before any such tests commence.

f. Except for simple devices, all instruments, meters, etc. used for testing purposes shall:
i. Be provided in duplicate.
ii. Have a manufacturer‘s claimed accuracy of not more than plus or minus two percent of range.
iii. Be manufactured to an appropriate British Standard or recognized equivalent standard.
iv. Calibrated by a recognized testing or calibration laboratory < 3 months prior to the date of test.
v. Calibration certificate provided by the laboratory shall be available during the test

g. Full and complete records should be taken of all tests and the results thereof including :
i. Records of pressure testing during construction.
ii. Serial no. type and owner of all instruments used, with a copy of the calibration certificates.
iii. Actual measurements taken.
iv. Corrected measurement.
v. Resulting air flows.
vi. Serial no. type and use of every device checked.
vii. Date and time of test.
viii. Signature of operator/tester or supervisor and any witness for each test.
ix. Signature of acceptance of and by designer.

37
G. Maintenance of Dynamic Smoke Extraction System
a. For dedicated systems that only operate in emergency,
they should be actuated by the owner at an interval of < 3 months,
and checked to ensure that all functions and sequences are operating correctly.

b. For dual purpose systems that operate continuously at a low level and at an increased level in emergency,
they should be actuated into emergency mode by the owner < 6 monthly intervals and checked to
ensure that all emergency functions sequence and operate correctly.

c. Periodic actuation should include the following actions:

i. Activate system by manual switch.
ii. Check that indicator lights give correct signals.
iii. Inspect staircase to ensure all doors are closed especially if magnetically held doors are utilized.
iv. Full inspection of fan rooms including:
1. Fresh air inlet to be clear of debris and area in front to be free of obstruction.
2. Filters correctly in place and not at end of useful life.
3. Check any flexible connections for deterioration.
4. Motor operating satisfactorily (not overheating, etc.)
5. Belt drive with correct belt tension and alignment or other type of drive functioning correctly.
6. Fan bearings satisfactory.
7. Electrical equipment satisfactory (no contactor hum, etc.).
8. Record motor currents on each phase.
9. No significant air leaks.
10. Check operation of pressure relief or fan by-pass dampers (and indirectly, pressure sensor) by
opening and closing staircase entry door(s).
11. Check plant room for free of debris, stored materials,
12. Check fan room entry door self-closers.
v. Throughout the staircase, a check should be conducted to ensure that air is discharging from all outlets
and pressure sensor is clean and free from obstruction.
vi. Deactivate the manual switch and restore automatic mode.
vii. Record actions progressively, complete and sign record logs.

d. At intervals not exceeding 12 months,

the system shall be actuated and a full test shall be carried out by a registered fire service installation contractor
and a Certificate of Fire Service Installations and Equipment (F.S. 251) shall be sent to the Director of Fire Services.

e. A record log should be maintained by the owner and all systems providing a complete record of the actions carried
out and the results thereof under signature of the supervisor and witness.
Records should be retained for a period of at least 7 years and shall be made available at the request of FSD.

38
Staircase Pressurization System
A. Pressurization of Staircases
a. A system to protect the staircases against the ingress of smoke by maintaining the air within staircases at pressures
higher than adjacent parts of building
b. Purpose:
i. To maintain a tenable environment in the staircase for occupants to evacuate from the building during
the early period of a fire incident.
ii. To provide conditions within the staircase to assist FSD personnel to conduct search and rescue
operations, locate and control the fire.

B. Requirements for Premises

a. Under the Code of Practice, staircase pressurization system is required for the following types of premises:
i. Basements with three or more levels and each level exceed 230 m2 of usable floor area.
ii. Commercial buildings: High rise.
iii. Container terminal yards and freight stations.
iv. Hotels: High rise and low rise.
v. Industrial/ godown buildings: High rise.
vi. Institutional buildings: High rise.

b. No of pressurized staircase shall be determined by the cubical extent of the basement or building
Cubical Extent (CE(m3)) No. of Staircases
For basements of ≥3 levels 7000 <CE< 56000 1
56000 <CE< 112000 2
112000 <CE< 168000 3
CE>168000 4
For buildings other than hotels, hospitals & sanatoria 28000 <CE< 56000 1
56000 <CE< 112000 2
112000 <CE< 168000 3
CE>168000 4
For hotels, hospitals and sanatoria 7000 <CE< 56000 1
56000 <CE< 112000 2
112000 <CE< 168000 3
CE>168000 4

c. Staircase pressurization requirements might be exempted:

i. When the compartment is small, or the fire risk is low, or smoke can be purged.
ii. Natural venting of staircase is provided.
iii. Aggregate area of openable window of the compartment >6.25% of the floor area of that compartment

C. Principles of Staircase Pressurization System

Compartmentation

An alternative to multiple injection is compartmentation

of staircase into a number of sections,
each compartment has at least 1 injection point

39
Single point injection Multiple point injection
Pressurized air is supplied to the staircase at 1 location, For tall buildings, a number of injection points is used to
normally at the top (for building height < 30 m). prevent loss of pressurization due to opening of doors
near the air supply point (for building height > 30 m).

a. Escape of pressurizing air from building

i. Air flowing out of the pressurized space to the unpressurized part of the building shall be able to leak out
of the building.

Window leakage Requires sufficient no. of openable windows

Special vents at building
periphery
Vertical shaft
Mechanical extraction
Normally closed and open on the fire floor only when the pressurization
system operates
Either separate shafts for each floor
which are permanently open or a common shaft with vents
on each floor automatically controlled
upon activation of the pressurization system
Either a separate extract system for each floor or a common extract system
with ducting and control dampers for each branch inlet

40
 b. Over-pressure relief
i. Air flow rate will vary from a minimum based on the total door leakage when all door are closed,
to a maximum when 3 single leaf entry doors and the exit door are open.

ii. A method of varying the air volumes must be introduced if over pressurization of the staircase is to be
avoided.

iii. This can be achieved in a number of ways:

1. Automatic opening of the exit door on fan start up.
2. Strategically placed barometric pressure relief vents.
3. An exhaust fan actuated by differential pressure sensors.
4. Fan by pass using modulating bypass dampers

c. Single or two stage system

Single stage System operates only in an emergency.
Two stages A low level of pressurization for normal ventilation and an increased level of pressurization for
emergency operation

D. Design Parameters
a. Leakage area
i. It is necessary to identify the leakage paths through which air can escape from the pressurized space and
assess their size
ii. Example: Area of the cracks round doors, windows and other places where air will escape
iii. By analogue to electrical circuits, the effective leakage area of a flow path is given by:

For parallel paths AT = A1 + A2 + A3 + A4 +…

For series paths 1/AT2 = 1/A12 + 1/A22 + 1/A32 + 1/A42 + …

b. Force to open door

i. Total force to open the door (F(N)) when applied at the designed door opening handle or push plate, shall
not exceed 133N.
𝑊×𝐴×∆𝑃
ii. 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑑𝑐
2×(𝑊−𝑑)

F N Total force to open the door

Fdc N Force to overcome the door closer
W m Door width
A m2 Door area
P Pa Pressure differential across the door
d m Distance from the doorknob side of the door (m)

E. Design Requirements of Staircase Pressurization System

a. Design criteria:
i. 50 Pa minimum (All door closed)
ii. Force to open door: 133 N maximum
iii. > 0.75(2) m/s through any one of the three open single leaf door with the largest exit door open
iv. Air supply point distance < 12m (For building height > 30m)

41
 b. Other essential requirements:
i. Provision of pressure relief system.
ii. Activation of smoke detection system with smoke detectors within 1m of access door at the approach
side.
iii. Installation of smoke detection at the intake to stop pressurization fans if smoke is detected
iv. Installation of air flow switch at the discharge to confirm air flow.
v. All electrical equipment are rated for 250˚C for at least 1 hr.
vi. Duplicate fans and motors for hotels and hospitals.
vii. Manual on/off control required at control panel.
viii. Position of intake shall be 5m from discharge point and shielded by upstair wall extending 1 m above the
intake point.
ix. Availability of low resistance air path for air vented through the doors.

F. Staircase Pressurization Design Procedures

a. Determine whether staircase pressurization is required by FSI Code.
b. Consider proposal for the building and indicate changes in layout if pressurization is to be achieved.
c. Identify the spaces to be pressurized and consider any possible interaction between pressurization and pressurized
space.
d. Design whether the system is single or two stages.
e. Decide whether the system is single or multiple point injection.

f. Identify all leakage paths which air can escape from the pressurized space and determine the rate of air leakage for
the appropriate pressure differential.
g. Air flow through a restriction is given by:
1
𝑄 = 0.827 × 𝐴 × 𝑃𝑁
For cracks around doors, N is taken as 2.

h. Air velocity through open doors should be estimated and compared with the minimum requirements.
i. If the requirements are not satisfied, the air supply proposed must be increase.
j. FSI Code specifies a minimum average egress velocity through doorways of 0.75 m/s
where 3 single leaf doors and the largest exit door are opened.
k. Total all airflow out of each pressurized space and increase this total by 25% for unidentified leakage from
pressurized space.
l. This will give the proposed air supply for each pressurized space.
m. Air supply estimated in above must be provided at the duct terminated in each pressurized space.
n. Fan capacity, duct size and position of intake grilles must be decided.
The air supply with allowance made for duct leakage should be used to determine the fan capacity.
o. Escape of the pressurizing air from the building should be considered and appropriate method of venting specified.
p. Operation of system must be considered.
q. Position of smoke detectors should be specified

r. Design air flow rate is calculated as follow:

𝑄𝑇 = 0.75(𝐴1 + 𝐴2 + 𝐴3 + 𝐴𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 ) + 𝑄𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒
A1, A2, A3 Area of entry doors (single leaf)
Aexit Area of exit door
Qleakage Leakage flow rate through other doors
P Pressure differential and taken

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s. Calculation Example
i. Determine the design supply flow rate of the staircase pressurization system using the leakage data given
in the following Table.

ii. Typical leakage area for common types of doors

Type of door Size Crack Length Leakage Area
m m2
Single-leaf in rebated 2m High 5.6 0.01
frame opening into a 800mm wide
pressurized space
Single-leaf in rebated 2m High 5.6 0.02
frame opening outwards 800mm wide
from a pressurized
space
Double-leaf with/ 2m High 9.2 0.03
without center rebate 1.6mm wide

iii. Equation:
A1, A2, A3 Area of entry doors (single leaf) 1.6m2
Aexit Area of exit door 3.2m2
1
Qleakage Leakage flow rate through other doors
0.827 × 𝐴 × 𝑃 2
P Pressure differential and taken 50Pa

iv. Area of restriction for staircase

Location Doors Area of Restriction
m2
GF 1 no fully open double leaf door
1-20F 1 no fully open single leaf door x 3 floors
1-20F 1 no single leaf door x 17 floors 0.01 x 17 = 0.17
Roof 1 no single leaf door 0.02
Total 0.19

1
v. 𝑄𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 0.827 × 0.19 × 502 = 1.111𝑚3 /𝑠
7.111𝑚3
vi. 𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 0.75(1.6 × 3 + 3.2) + 1.111 =
𝑠
vii. To allow for unidentified leakage as suggested by BS 5588: Part 4, 25% safety factor is added,
air supply flow rate of 7.111 x 1.25 = 8.889 m3/s is therefore designed.
viii. If the building height is 63m,
the minimum number of injection points is 63/12 = 5.25 (say 6) and
the air supply flow rate at each point is 1.482 m3/s.

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Ventilation/ Air Conditioning Control System
A. Definition
a. An automatic control system, designed to stop mechanically induced air movement within a designated fire
compartment,
i.e. allow smoke to rise and form a layer at ceiling level which will not be disturbed by air into the smoke layer.
b. System is actuated by smoke detectors/ building fire alarm system and provided with a central, manually operated
back up facility.

B. Exemption of Ventilation/ Air Conditioning Control System

a. Any mechanical ventilating system forming part of the fire service installations and installed solely for fire
protection or firefighting purposes
i.e. staircase pressurization system and smoke extraction system.
b. Individual, self-contained or split type, direct expansion room cooling units not connected to ductwork systems.
c. Minor mechanical ventilating systems which comply with all of the following criteria:
i. All air distribution ductwork systems are contained within the same compartment.
ii. Air flow rate handled by each air distribution ductwork system < 1000 L/s.
d. Mechanical ventilating systems handling toxic gas or grease/air mixtures
i.e. fume cupboard ventilation, kitchen ventilation, systems handling toxic gases/explosive gases, etc.
e. Mechanical ventilating systems where all air is supplied at low level and/or extracted (not recirculated) at high
level.
f. Individual plant rooms and toilets which are mechanically ventilated directly to outside
(i.e. ventilating system not serving other areas)

C. Override Control
Any one of the following methods of override control shall be used:
Method “A” If the compartment/unit is provided with a smoke detector,
fire alarm system or sprinkler system,
on activation of that system,
all fans serving the compartment shall be shut down.
Method “B” Smoke detectors of a type suitable for use in air ducts,
shall be installed in the exhaust and/or recirculation ductwork serving the compartment/unit.

When sensing smoke, all fans in the mechanical ventilating system serving the compartment/unit will be
automatically shut down
Method “C” Override control can be arranged to completely shut down all the fans in the building instead of isolated
compartments/units.

Actuation shall be provided by the building fire alarm system

Method “D” Smoke detector shall be installed at suitable position under slab/false ceiling at a space of 250 m 2 of net
floor area for each detector.

When the smoke detector activated, all the fans in the affected compartment will be shut down

a. In addition to Method “A”, Method “B”, Method “C” or Method “D”,

manual override switches shall be provided at the central fire control panel to allow
the building operator or Fire Services personnel to switch off the fans for
all the mechanical ventilating systems serving the building in the event of an emergency.

b. For buildings where central mechanical fresh air supply and/or exhaust systems are installed,
either the central fresh air supply and/or exhaust system shall be shut down,
or the fresh air and/or exhaust to the affected compartment/unit shall be closed off from the central system by
actuation of a local motorized smoke damper.

c. Shut down of the mechanical ventilating systems utilizing a multiplex automatic fire alarm or building automation
system shall be permitted by FSD.

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D. Acceptance Testing of Ventilation/ Air Conditioning Control System
a. Override control of the ventilation/air conditioning control system shall be tested to ensure satisfactory operation
at alarm condition to the satisfaction of FSD

E. Maintenance of Ventilation/ Air Conditioning Control System

a. Installation shall be maintained in efficient working order and inspected by a registered fire service installation
contractor at least once in every 12 months.
b. Operation of this override control system should be tested at least once every 6 months, and the results entered in
a log book by the owner.
c. This log book should be kept in the premises and be available for inspection by FSD when required

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Testing and Commissioning of Automatic Control Systems
A. Summary of Commissioning Requirements
a. Building services plant and control system should be inherently commissionable.
b. Contractor and client must allow sufficient time for the complete commissioning process.
c. Formation of a commissioning management team.
d. Maximizing off-site pre-commissioning activities.
e. Adoption of thorough commissioning procedures.
f. Implementation of post occupancy checks to confirm the performance of the control system and the attainment of
required internal environmental conditions.

B. Energy Consumption
a. In order to minimize energy consumption, it is crucial that the buildings services systems are controlled properly.
b. Set-up and operation of a control system should be checked.
c. Incorrectly controlled building services systems can result in excessive energy consumption:
i. Unnecessary periods of plant operation.
ii. Poor control to set points.

C. Indoor Environmental Conditions

a. Achievement of satisfactory indoor environmental conditions is crucial in order to provide a healthy and
comfortable working environment.
b. A poorly commissioned control system can result in:
i. Desired levels of internal air temperature and humidity not being met.
ii. Inadequate levels of ventilation.
iii. Too high or too low levels of air movement.
iv. Excessive noise due to plant cycling.
v. Inappropriate lighting levels

D. Maintenance and Safety Requirements

a. Commissioning of a control system will have an impact on the future maintenance requirements of both the
control system and plant that it controls.
Example: excessive switching on and off of the plant will increase their maintenance requirements and shorten
their operational life.
b. A poorly commissioned control system has the potential to compromise the safety of building occupants and
maintenance personnel.
c. In order to ensure a properly commissioned automatic control system,
it is important that sufficient resources and time are allocated to the commissioning process.

E. Good Practice (Safety procedures)

a. Risk assessments should be performed and resulting method statements produced.
b. Personnel must receive adequate training in safety matters before working on site.
c. Site personnel must be trained to use appropriate safety equipment.
d. Use of adequate safety barriers when working on live equipment.
e. Use a ‘permit to work’ system.
f. Where possible use two-man working.

F. Design for Commissionability

Issues which impinge on the commissionability of a control system include the following:
a. Appropriate control strategies and set points.
b. Packaged systems.
c. Interaction with existing or other control equipment.
d. Sensor type and location.
e. Access to control equipment.
f. Adequate control system specification details.

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