CH 08.NDI & EET

8.
NDI AND THE EET:

Null Double Injection and the Extra Element Theorem
How to find the contribution of a particular element to the

transfer function
v.0.1 3/07 http://www.RDMiddlebrook.com 1

8. NDI & the EET
Null Double Injection (ndi)
Usually, a transfer function (TF) is calculated as a response to a single
independent excitation.
However, large analysis benefits accrue when certain constraints are
imposed on several excitations present simultaneously.

8. NDI & the EET
signal signal
input output
ui uo = A1 ui
The input is an independent signal, the output is a dependent signal.
The gain is A1 .

8. NDI & the EET
Consider a second dependent signal, a voltage v at some internal port :
signal + signal
input output
v = B1 ui
ui uo = A1 ui
−
The gain from ui to v is B1 .

8. NDI & the EET
Apply a second independent signal, a current i at the same internal port :
signal i + signal
input output
Zdp v = 0 + B2 i
ui = 0 uo = 0 + A2 i
i −
The ʺgainʺ from i to v is a driving point impedance B2 .

8. NDI & the EET
Apply both independent signals simultaneously:
signal i + signal
input output
Zdp v = B1 ui + B2 i
ui uo = A1 ui + A2 i
i −
For a linear system model, the two dependent signals are the superposition
of the values they would have for each independent signal separately.

8. NDI & the EET
Apply both independent signals simultaneously:
signal i + signal
input output
Zdp v = B1 ui + B2 i
i −
For a linear system model, the two dependent signals are the superposition
of the values they would have for each independent signal separately.
By adjustment of ui and i , uo can be made to have any value we like.

In particular:
uo can be made zero by adjustment of the relative values of ui and i ,
namely
A2
v.0.1 3/07
ui u = 0 = − i
o A1 http://www.RDMiddlebrook.com
8. NDI & the EET
7
There is now a null double injection (ndi) condition:
signal i + signal
input output
Zdp v = B1 ui u = 0 + B2 i
ui o
uo = 0
i − (nulled)
The voltage at the internal port is
⎛ A ⎞
v = ⎜ B2 − B1 2 ⎟ i
⎝ A1 ⎠
so the driving point impedance is
⎛ A ⎞
Zdp = ⎜ B2 − B1 2 ⎟
uo = 0 ⎝ A1 ⎠
8. NDI & the EET
Recap:
The driving point impedance (dpi) Zdp at the internal port can have two
different values, one when the input is zero, and another when the
input is not zero, but is adjusted to null the output:
Zdp = B2
ui = 0
from i
A2
Zdp = B2 − B1
uo = 0 A1
from ui
8. NDI & the EET
Recap:
The driving point impedance (dpi) Zdp at the internal port can have two
different values, one when the input is zero, and another when the
input is not zero, but is adjusted to null the output:
Zdp = B2 ≡ Zd
ui = 0
from i
A2
Zdp = B2 − B1 ≡ Zn
uo = 0 A1
from ui
8. NDI & the EET
The dpi Zd is calculated under single injection (si) conditions:
signal signal
input output
Zd
ui = 0 uo = A1 ui
(zero)
The dpi Z n is calculated under null double injection (ndi) conditions:
signal signal
input output
Zn
ui u = 0 uo = 0
o
(nulled)

8. NDI & the EET
The Extra Element Theorem (EET)
Replace the current source by an impedance Z :
signal i + signal
input output
Z v = B1 ui + B2 i
i −
The same linear superposition equations still apply to the rest of the circuit.
However, a relation between v and i is now enforced by Z , namely
v = − Zi
Substitute for v to find i in terms of ui :
v = B1 ui + B2 i = − Zi
so
B1
i=− ui
B2 + Z
8. NDI & the EET
signal i + signal
input output
Z v = B1 ui + B2 i
i −
B1
i=− ui
B2 + Z
Now substitute for i in the equation for uo to find uo in terms of ui :
B1
uo = A1 ui + A2 i = A1 ui − A2 ui
B2 + Z
⎛B −B 2 +Z⎞A ⎛ B 2 − B 1 A1 ⎞
A2
⎜ 2 1 A1 ⎟ ⎜1+ ⎟
= A1 ui = A1 ⎜ Z
⎟ ui
⎜⎜ B2 + Z ⎟
⎟ +
B
⎝ ⎠ ⎜
⎜ 1 Z
2
⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠
8. NDI & the EET
signal signal
input output
Z Zdp = Zd or Z n
ui
The two combinations of the linear circuit parameters are precisely what
have just been defined as Zd and Z n , so
⎛ 1 + Zn ⎞
uo = A1 ⎜ Z ⎟ ui
⎜ 1 + Zd ⎟
⎝ Z ⎠

8. NDI & the EET
signal signal
input output
Z Zdp = Zd or Z n
ui
⎛ 1 + Zn ⎞
uo = A1 ⎜ Z ⎟ ui
⎜ 1 + Zd ⎟
⎝ Z ⎠
However,
uo
u i = gain in presence of Z
A 1 =3/07
v.0.1 gain when Z = ∞ http://www.RDMiddlebrook.com 15
8. NDI & the EET
signal signal
input output
Z Zdp = Zd or Z n
ui
⎛ 1 + Zn ⎞
uo = A1 ⎜ Z ⎟ ui
⎜ 1 + Zd ⎟
⎝ Z ⎠
However,
uo
≡H
u i = gain in presence of Z
A 1 =3/07
v.0.1 gain when Z = ∞ ≡H ∞
http://www.RDMiddlebrook.com 16
8. NDI & the EET
signal signal
input output
Z Zdp = Zd or Z n
ui uo = Hui
Hence, the Extra Element Theorem (EET) is:
⎛ 1 + Zn ⎞
H = H∞ ⎜ Z ⎟
⎜ 1 + Zd ⎟
⎝ Z ⎠
H = gain in presence of Z H ∞ = gain when Z = ∞
Zd = Zdp Z n = Zdp
ui = 0 uo = 0
ui = zero u i ≠ zero, uo nulled
8. NDI & the EET
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Dual forms of the EET

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The Parallel and Series forms of the EET

8. NDI & the EET
8. NDI & the EET
Exercise 8.1
Insert C1 by the EET

8. NDI & the EET
Exercise 8.1 ‐ Solution

8. NDI & the EET

8. NDI & the EET

8. NDI & the EET

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8. NDI & the EET

8. NDI & the EET
8. NDI & the EET
8. NDI & the EET
Exercise 8.2
Lag‐lead network: Find A by designating C1 as an extra element.

8. NDI & the EET

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8. NDI & the EET

8. NDI & the EET

8. NDI & the EET
Special case: The EET for a self‐impedance

8. NDI & the EET
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8. NDI & the EET
8. NDI & the EET
Exercise 8.3
Lag‐lead network: Find Zi by designating C1 as an extra element.

8. NDI & the EET

8. NDI & the EET

8. NDI & the EET

8. NDI & the EET
Exercise 8.4
Lag‐lead network: Find Zo by designating C1 as an extra element.

8. NDI & the EET

8. NDI & the EET

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8. NDI & the EET
8. NDI & the EET
1CE: The basic Common‐Emitter amplifier stage

8. NDI & the EET
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8. NDI & the EET
Note that the Z n calculation is much shorter and easier
than the Zd calculation!

8. NDI & the EET
8. NDI & the EET
8. NDI & the EET
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8. NDI & the EET
Common‐emitter (1CE) amplifier stage
Use the EET to find the outer and inner input impedances Zi and Zi*
iE β = 120 − Av vS Previous results: s / 2π
1 − s / ωz 1 − 880 MHz
1 + β Ct Av = Avm = 36dB
5p α iE 1 + s / ωp 1 + s / 2π
Rdp RL 10k 51kHz
vS RS RB α RL
10k
iE Avm ≡ = 62 ⇒ 36dB
* R + R RS RB
jS RB rm Zo Zo S B r +
m 1+ β
36 Rn = rE / α = 36Ω Rd = mRL = 620k
Zi Zi* 8.6k
1 1 RS RB (1 + β )rm
ωz ≡ ωp ≡ m≡ = 62
Outer input impedance Zi : Ct R n Ct Rd RS RB rm RL
Use the parallel EET with reference value Z ≡ 1 / sCt infinite:

v 1 + sCt Rni
Zi ≡ S = Rim
jS 1 + sCt Rdi
Rim ≡ RS + RB (1 + β )rm = 13k ⇒ 82dB ref 1Ω
Rni = Rdp with output vS nulled

= Rdp with input jS shorted
= Rdp for the voltage gain
v.0.1 3/07 A
8. NDI & the EET
1 − s / ωz 1 − 880 MHz
5p α iE 1 + s / ωp 1 + s / 2π
Rdp RL 10k 51kHz
vS RS RB α RL
10k
iE Avm ≡ = 62 ⇒ 36dB
* R + R RS RB
m 1+ β
36 Rn = rE / α = 36Ω Rd = mRL = 620k
Zi Zi* 8.6k
1 1 RS RB (1 + β )rm
ωz ≡ ωp ≡ m≡ = 62
v 1 + sCt Rni
Zi ≡ S = Rim
jS 1 + sCt Rdi

RS RB (1 + β )rm
Rni = mRL ≡ RL = 620k
RS RB rm RL

8. NDI & the EET
1 − s / ωz 1 − 880 MHz
5p α iE 1 + s / ωp 1 + s / 2π
Rdp RL 10k 51kHz
vS RS RB α RL
10k
iE Avm ≡ = 62 ⇒ 36dB
* R + R RS RB
m 1+ β
36 Rn = rE / α = 36Ω Rd = mRL = 620k
Zi Zi* 8.6k
1 1 RS RB (1 + β )rm
ωz ≡ ωp ≡ m≡ = 62
v 1 + sCt Rni
Zi ≡ S = Rim
jS 1 + sCt Rdi

RS RB (1 + β )rm
RS RB rm RL
Rdi = Rdp with input jS open

8. NDI & the EET
1 − s / ωz 1 − 880 MHz
5p α iE 1 + s / ωp 1 + s / 2π
Rdp RL 10k 51kHz
vS RS RB α RL
10k
iE Avm ≡ = 62 ⇒ 36dB
* R + R RS RB
m 1+ β
36 Rn = rE / α = 36Ω Rd = mRL = 620k
Zi Zi* 8.6k
1 1 RS RB (1 + β )rm
ωz ≡ ωp ≡ m≡ = 62
v 1 + sCt Rni
Zi ≡ S = Rim
jS 1 + sCt Rdi

RS RB (1 + β )rm
RS RB rm RL
Rdi = Rdp with input jS open
RB (1 + β )rm
=R = RL = 820k
v.0.1 3/07 ni RS →∞ RB rm RL
8. NDI & the EET
1 − s / ωz 1 − 880 MHz
5p α iE 1 + s / ωp 1 + s / 2π
Rdp RL 10k 51kHz
vS RS RB α RL
10k
iE Avm ≡ = 62 ⇒ 36dB
* R + R RS RB
m 1+ β
36 Rn = rE / α = 36Ω Rd = mRL = 620k
Zi Zi* 8.6k
1 1 RS RB (1 + β )rm
ωz ≡ ωp ≡ m≡ = 62
s / 2π
1 + 51
vS 1 + sCt Rni
Zi ≡ = Rim = 82dB kHz
jS 1 + sCt Rdi 1 + s / 2π 39kHz
39kHz
82dB 51kHz
Rim Ri∞ 80dB
Zi
Check:
Rn 620k
By GB trade‐off: Ri∞ = Rim = 13k = 10k ⇒ 80dB
Rd 820k
By inspection:
v.0.1 3/07 Ri∞ = http://www.RDMiddlebrook.com
RS + RB rm RL = 10k ⇒ 80dB 103
8. NDI & the EET
1 − s / ωz 1 − 880 MHz
5p α iE 1 + s / ωp 1 + s / 2π
Rdp RL 10k 51kHz
vS RS RB α RL
10k
iE Avm ≡ = 62 ⇒ 36dB
* R + R RS RB
m 1+ β
36 Rn = rE / α = 36Ω Rd = mRL = 620k
Zi Zi* 8.6k
1 1 RS RB (1 + β )rm
ωz ≡ ωp ≡ m≡ = 62
Inner input impedance Zi* : Ct R n Ct Rd RS RB rm RL
*
* 1 + sCt Rni * 1 + sCt Rni
Zi = Zi R → 0 = Rim = Rim
S 1 + sCt Rdi R → 0 1 + sCt Rdi
S
*
Rim = Rim R → 0 = RS + RB (1 + β )rm R → 0 = RB (1 + β )rm = 2.9k ⇒ 69dB
S S
* RS RB (1 + β )rm
Rni = Rni R → 0 = RL = RL = 10k ⇒ 80dB
S RS RB rm RL
RS → 0

8. NDI & the EET
iE β = 120 − Av vS
Ct
1+ β
5p α iE
Rdp s / 2π
vS RS RL 10k
* 1 + 3.2 MHz
10k
iE
* Zi = 69dB s / 2π
jS RB rm Zo Zo 1 + 39 kHz
36
Zi Zi* 8.6k
39kHz
82dB 51kHz
Zi 80dB
69dB
Zi*
Check:
*
R
By GB trade‐off: Ri*∞ = Rim
* ni
Rdi
39kHz
= 2.9k = 35Ω ⇒ 31dB 31dB
3.2 MHz 3.2MHz
By inspection:
v.0.1 3/07 Ri*∞ = RBhttp://www.RDMiddlebrook.com
rm RL = 35Ω ⇒ 31dB 105
8. NDI & the EET
Exercise 8.5
Use the EET to find Zo and Zo* for the 1CE amplifier stage
Ct 1 − s / ωz 1 − 880 MHz
1+ β Av = Avm = 36dB
5p α iE 1 + s / ωp 1 + s / 2π
RS Rdp RL 10k 51kHz
vS RB α RL
10k
iE Avm ≡ = 62 ⇒ 36dB
* R + R RS RB
m 1+ β
36 Rn = rE / α = 36Ω Rd = mRL = 620k
Zi Zi* 8.6k
1 1 RS RB (1 + β )rm
ωz ≡ ωp ≡ m≡ = 62
Outer output impedance Zo : C R
t n C R
t d R R r
S B m L R
Use the parallel EET with reference value Z ≡ 1 / sCt infinite:

v 1 + sCt Rno
Zo ≡ o = Rom
jS 1 + sCt Rdo
Rom ≡ RL = 10k ⇒ 80dB ref 1Ω
Rno = Rdp with output vo nulled = Rdp with input jS shorted
= RS RB (1 + β )rm = 2.2k
Rdo = Rdp with input jS open = Rd for the voltage gain A

v.0.1=3/07
620k http://www.RDMiddlebrook.com 106
8. NDI & the EET
Exercise 8.5: ‐ Solution
iE β = 120 − Av vS
Ct
1+ β 5p α iE / 2π
RS Rdp RL 10k 1 + 14s MHz
vS
iE Zo = 80dB s / 2π
10k *
rm Zo Zo 1 + 51 kHz
jS RB
36
Zi Zi* 8.6k
39kHz
82dB 51kHz
80dB Zo Zi 80dB
69dB
Zi*
Check:
R
By GB trade‐off: Ro∞ = Rom no
Rdo
51kHz
= 2.9k = 36Ω ⇒ 31dB 31dB
14 MHz 3.2MHz
14MHz
By inspection:
v.0.1 3/07 Ro∞ = RShttp://www.RDMiddlebrook.com
RB rm RL = 36Ω ⇒ 31dB 107
8. NDI & the EET
iE β = 120 − Av vS
Ct
1+ β Rom ≡ RL = 10k ⇒ 80dB ref 1Ω
5p α iE
RS Rdp RL 10k
vS
10k
iE
* Rno = RS RB (1 + β )rm = 2.2k
jS RB rm Zo Zo
Zi Zi* 8.6k 36 RS RB (1 + β )rm
Rdo ≡ RL = 620k
RS RB rm RL
Inner output impedance Zo* :
1 + sCt Rno * 1 + sCt Rno

Zo* = Zo R →∞ = Rom = Rom
L 1 + sCt Rdo R →∞ 1 + sC R *
t do
L
*
Rom = Rom R →∞ = RL =∞
L RL →∞
* RS RB (1 + β )rm
Rdo = Rdo R →∞ = RL =∞
L RS RB rm RL
RL →∞
8. NDI & the EET
iE β = 120 − Av vS
Ct
1+ β Rom ≡ RL = 10k ⇒ 80dB ref 1Ω
5p α iE
RS Rdp RL 10k
vS
10k
iE
* Rno = RS RB (1 + β )rm = 2.2k
jS RB rm Zo Zo
Zi Zi* 8.6k 36 RS RB (1 + β )rm
Rdo ≡ RL = 620k
RS RB rm RL
Inner output impedance Zo* :
* *
Because Rom and Rdo both are infinite, change the Zo reference value
from Rom to Ro∞ . Then:
1 + sCt Rno 1 + 1 / sCt Rno
Zo* = Zo R →∞ = Rom = Ro∞
L 1 + sCt Rdo R →∞ 1 + 1 / sCt Rdo R → ∞
L L
= Ro*∞ ( 1 + 1 / sCt Rno )
* Rno
o∞ =3/07
Rv.0.1 Rom = Rhttp://www.RDMiddlebrook.com
S RB rm RL R →∞ = RS RB rm = 36Ω ⇒ 31dB
109
Rdo R →∞ L
8. NDI & the EET
L
iE β = 120 − Av vS
Ct
1+ β 5p α iE
RS Rdp RL 10k
( )
vS
10k
iE
* Zo* = 31dB 1 + 14s MHz
/ 2π
jS RB rm Zo Zo
36
Zi Zi* 8.6k
Zo* 39kHz
82dB 51kHz
80dB Zo Zi 80dB
69dB
Zi*
3.2MHz 31dB
14MHz
8. NDI & the EET

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8.

NDI AND THE EET:

How to find the contribution of a particular element to the

v.0.1 3/07 http://www.RDMiddlebrook.com 1

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The gain from ui to v is B1 .

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The ʺgainʺ from i to v is a driving point impedance B2 .

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By adjustment of ui and i , uo can be made to have any value we like.

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Use the parallel EET with reference value Z ≡ 1 / sCt infinite:

Rni = Rdp with output vS nulled

Rim ≡ RS + RB (1 + β )rm = 13k ⇒ 82dB ref 1Ω

v.0.1 3/07 http://www.RDMiddlebrook.com 100

Rim ≡ RS + RB (1 + β )rm = 13k ⇒ 82dB ref 1Ω

v.0.1 3/07 http://www.RDMiddlebrook.com 101

Rim ≡ RS + RB (1 + β )rm = 13k ⇒ 82dB ref 1Ω

v.0.1 3/07 http://www.RDMiddlebrook.com 104

Use the parallel EET with reference value Z ≡ 1 / sCt infinite:

Rdo = Rdp with input jS open = Rd for the voltage gain A

1 + sCt Rno * 1 + sCt Rno

= Ro*∞ ( 1 + 1 / sCt Rno )

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