Coatings

CORROSION PREVENTION
We preserve values.
WORLD PIPELINES COATINGS & CORROSION 2015 www.worldpipelines.com
I n d u s t r i
35 50 56
Contents
WORLD PIPELINES | COATINGS & CORROSION 2015
03. Editor's comment COMPOSITE COATINGS

Rallying against corrosion.
40. On a scale of one to ten...
05. Guest comment David A. Hunter, Neptune Research, Inc. (NRI), USA.
Mark Stone, Sonomatic Integrity Services Manager.
47. Extending the life of pipes
88. Last word Bob Orme, Senior Technology Specialist at Henkel Ltd., UK.
Bruce Young, Senior Research Scientist, Battelle Memorial Institute.
CATHODIC PROTECTION
KEYNOTE
50. Cathodic disbondment or self-healing?
06. Tough to crack Nathan Muncaster, Polyguard Products, USA, and Luc Perrad, Expartech,
Jason Skow and Dongliang Lu, C-FER Technologies, Canada, and Steven Bott, Belgium.
Karmun Cheng and Charles Watt, Enbridge Pipelines, Canada.
56. The devil is in the details
John C. Bollinger P.E., (Principal Corrosion Engineer), Farwest Corrosion
Jason Skow and Dongliang Lu, C-FER
Control Company, US.
Technologies, Canada, and Steven Bott, Karmun
Cheng and Charles Watt, Enbridge Pipelines,
63. The AUV approach

Canada, discuss methods of maximising the
performance of ILI based crack response criteria.
H
igh-resolution shear-wave ultrasonic inline inspection (ILI) tools are
used to assess crack threat severity on transmission pipelines and
Kirill Otradnov and Sergii Kornieiev, BaltRobotics, Poland.

have been in use by operators for almost two decades. Subsets of the
anomalies identified by these tools are selected for investigation by
in-the-ditch non-destructive examination (NDE) to confirm pipeline condition.
The process used to respond to ILI inspection results and prioritise
excavations is called a ‘response criteria’. Initial excavation selection is often
based on a conservative deterministic criteria allowing for a rapid response
to mitigate potential defects and validate ILI performance. As investigative
excavations are completed, field NDE information is collected and used to
compare the demonstrated ILI tool performance against the vendor specification,
and calibrate the initial selection criteria. Maximising the performance of the
response criteria increases reliability by reducing response times and targeting
INSULATION
resources more effectively.
When using deterministic criteria, operators typically select conservative
input values to account for uncertainties in the data set and models used.
Probabilistic assessments consider the uncertainties directly, but require
significant data collection that may result in unacceptable delay.
To address these issues, a calibrated approach has been developed that
considers uncertainties and is validated against historical experience. It is
comprised of a deterministic criterion calibrated to a probabilistic approach,
resulting in improved characterisation of uncertainties while also providing a
criterion that can be applied quickly and consistently, ultimately achieving a
67. Preliminary piping advantages

probabilistic result once an integrity programme is complete.
Sid Siddharth and Bob Maffei, Perma-Pipe, USA.

PAGE
6
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7
08/10/2015 15:30
06 SUBSEA INTEGRITY
71. Lesson learned: pipeline management
Grant Adam, Jee Ltd., UK.
INSPECTION PIGGING
15. Avoiding failed inline inspection surveys HYDROTESTING
Bill Davis and J. R. Morgan, Enduro Pipeline Services, Inc., USA.
77. A protective barrier from corrosion
19. Pigging for micro-organisms Ana Juraga, Cortec Corporation, USA.
Dr. John J. Kilbane, Programme Manager for Petroleum Microbiology at
Intertek Upstream Services, USA. SUBSEA SCANNING
CORROSION 81. Subsea pipeline diagnosis
Lee Robins, Tracerco, UK.
25. Conquering coatings to quantify corrosion
Alison Craigon, Sonomatic, UK. STEELS INTEGRITY
CONCRETE COATINGS 84. Protecting against wear
Tom Santos, Weartech International, a Lincoln Electric Company, USA.
29. A concrete design
Olav Fyrileiv, Chia Chor Yew and Nguyen Thi Bich Ngoc, DNV GL.
FIELD JOINT COATINGS

35. Asset appreciation
WORLD PIPELINES COATINGS & CORROSION 2015
Drs. JF Doddema and Sander Hofstee, Seal for Life Industries, the Netherlands.
ON THIS MONTH'S COVER Reader enquiries [www.energyglobal.com]
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ISSN 1472-7390
pipeline industry. Following the founding of the company in 1922, DENSO's success story
CORROSION PREVENTION
commenced with the world's first corrosion prevention for pipelines: the Petrolatum-Tape We preserve values.
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Member of ABC Audit Bureau of Circulations

Copyright© Palladian Publications Ltd 2015. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form
or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. All views expressed in this
journal are those of the respective contributors and are not necessarily the opinions of the publisher, neither do the publishers endorse any of the claims made in
the articles or the advertisements. Printed in the UK.
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Comment
RALLYING AGAINST CORROSION
T
EDITOR
Elizabeth Corner his special annual issue of World new technologies for corrosion protection.
elizabeth.corner@worldpipelines.com
Pipelines is dedicated to the science Qatar University and Qatar Shell Research
and technologies that work to and Technology Centre (QSRTC) have
MANAGING EDITOR
James Little protect pipelines and environments entered into a research agreement with
james.little@worldpipelines.com from corrosion-related damage. Pipeline Imperial College London, in order to study
EDITORIAL ASSISTANT coatings, along with other preventative and corrosion and scaling in pipelines
Stephanie Roker rehabilitative methods, must perform to the transporting sour gas, which is a common
stephanie.roker@worldpipelines.com highest standards if they are to make the challenge in Qatar. Saudi Aramco is
ADVERTISEMENT DIRECTOR grade. working with TWI and Swagelining on a
Rod Hardy Safety measures for pipelines are a hot pipeline polymer project, designed to
rod.hardy@worldpipelines.com topic at the moment: a growing public ascertain the potential corrosion
ADVERTISEMENT MANAGER awareness of pipeline safety standards has protection offered by various liner/
Chris Lethbridge been fostered by a few high profile and polymer materials. Tata Steel is working
chris.lethbridge@worldpipelines.com
contentious pipeline projects making with Swansea University (UK) to encourage
ADVERTISEMENT SALES EXECUTIVE headlines; and of course graduates with expertise
Will Pownall
will.pownall@worldpipelines.com a couple of incidents in coatings. Axalta and
PRODUCTION
where pipeline accidents
caused environmental
MAJOR Hempel are working
together on a coating
Stephen North
stephen.north@worldpipelines.com and, tragically, human CHANGES ARE system that
harm. A rise in pipeline incorporates both
CIRCULATION MANAGER
Victoria McConnell accidents in the US can PROPOSED IN external and internal
victoria.mcconnell@worldpipelines.com
SUBSCRIPTIONS
be attributed to the
recent shale boom,
THE US FOR elements.
Occasionally, the
Laura Cowell
laura.cowell@worldpipelines.com
which saw domestic oil
and gas production rise
THE SAFE sector benefits from
companies teaming up,
OFFICE ADMINISTRATOR
Jo Repton
and increased pipeline TRANSPORT buying out, acquiring
transport from the shale others or similar. Earlier
jo.repton@palladian-publications.com
WEBSITE MANAGER
fields. It’s natural that FOR HAZARDOUS this year, Quest
Tom Fullerton
tom.fullerton@worldpipelines.com
what follows is a
tightening up of
LIQUIDS Specialty Chemicals Inc.
sold its industrial
WEBSITE EDITOR standards, a house keeping of sorts, to coatings division to Valspar Corp., in a
Callum O’Reilly adapt to the new normal. move that sees Valspar’s performance
callum.oreilly@worldpipelines.com Major changes are proposed in the US coatings operation aiming to compete
DIGITAL EDITORIAL ASSISTANT for the safe transport for hazardous liquids – with the big boys. Valspar has also donated
Angharad Lock an expansion to PHMSAs integrity scholarships to North Dakota State
angharad.lock@worldpipelines.com
management rules is expected to include University for graduates studying coatings
PUBLISHER more regular inline inspection, multi- and polymeric materials. Ashland is to split
Nigel Hardy
technology inspection, stricter repair criteria, into two independent companies, one of
tougher regulations on pipelines running which will be focused on specialty
Palladian Publications Ltd,
15 South Street, Farnham, Surrey, through high consequence areas; and chemicals (siphoning off the automotive
GU9 7QU, ENGLAND increased usage of leak detection systems. and engine business into a second
Tel: +44 (0) 1252 718 999 Other countries are turning their company).
Fax: +44 (0) 1252 718 992 attention to pipeline safety too. In Canada, The fight against corrosion requires
Website: www.energyglobal.com
Email: enquiries@energyglobal.com
the federal government is pushing through many different strands of thought to come
Bill C-46, the Pipeline Safety Act, which together, be they legislative, corporate or
Annual subscription £60 UK including postage/£75/ will enforce absolute liability for all NEB- scientific.
e105 overseas (postage airmail)/US$120 USA/Canada
(postage airmail). Special two year discounted rate:
regulated pipelines. This means that This issue of Coatings & Corrosion
£96 UK including postage/£120/e168 overseas companies will be liable for costs features articles on the latest coating and
(postage airmail)/US$192 USA/Canada (postage
airmail). Claims for non receipt of issues must be
and damages irrespective of fault inspection methods. The keynote
made within three months of publication of the issue (CAN$1 billion for companies operating describes how C-FER and Enbridge are
or they will not be honoured without charge. major oil pipelines). The new bill will also working to determine the accuracy of
Applicable only to USA & Canada: increase annual pipeline inspections by a crack response data, ensuring that data
World Pipelines (ISSN No: 1472-7390,
USPS No: 020-988) is published monthly by frequency of 50% and provide guidance for based safety criteria are used correctly
Palladian Publications Ltd, GBR and distributed in companies on emergency response and and more successfully. Ultimately, judging
the USA by Asendia USA, 17B S Middlesex Ave,
Monroe NJ 08831. Periodicals postage paid New incident handling. and certifying detailed pipeline condition
Brunswick, NJ and additional mailing offices. Separately from the government level, is key and it’s what everyone is working
POSTMASTER: send address changes to World
Pipelines, 701C Ashland Ave, Folcroft PA 19032 joint projects can help industry develop towards.
COATINGS & CORROSION 2015 / World Pipelines 3

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Guest
Comment
Mark Stone
Integrity Services Manager, Sonomatic
C
orrosion is a major consideration in the economics of technologies and development of new technologies and
pipelines. It affects both Capex and Opex and plays a methods of data analysis are driving changes in integrity
role in defining the balance between these costs. For management. There is a growing reliance on inspections
example, depending on the type and nature of that provide quantitative data, often in massive volumes.
corrosion expected for a pipeline, there may be benefits to using Inline inspection using intelligent tools often delivers the
expensive corrosion resistant alloys, with the impact on Capex primary information on which to base decisions and this
being recovered through reduced Opex through the asset life. field is seeing rapid development. While many pipelines are
Clearly corrosion needs to be considered at all stages, from designed to be piggable, there are probably more pipelines
project initiation through to end of life. This means it’s not only a in service that are not piggable (or where the costs of
materials issue and a wide range of disciplines play their role in modification for pigging render it uneconomic). Externally
maximising the long term return on investment in pipelines. The applied inspection is essential to determine the internal
approach at the design stage directly affects Capex, but – once in condition of such lines.
service – the approach to corrosion and integrity management The capabilities of externally applied inspections are
will strongly influence through life advancing rapidly, in response to both the
costs, associated with both
interventions and failures. THERE IS A needs of integrity management and the
availability, at relatively low cost, of
Management in any field relies
on information and implementing
GROWING sophisticated electronics technologies
developed in other fields. The speeds at which
actions based on that information. RELIANCE ON data acquisition and processing is possible
In the case of pipeline integrity
management, the primary aim is
INSPECTIONS continue to grow rapidly, making possible
inspection which provides very detailed data
to ensure integrity of the pressure THAT PROVIDE on the internal condition of pipelines. For
boundary in a cost effective example, examination of a corrosion defect
manner throughout the intended QUANTITATIVE which may imminently threaten integrity of a
life, and sometimes beyond.
Decisions and actions are based
DATA, OFTEN subsea pipeline is possible with measurements
on a grid of 0.5 x 0.5 mm with the thickness
on information related to the IN MASSIVE values obtained having an 80% tolerance of less
condition of the pipeline and its
operation. An understanding of VOLUMES than 0.15 mm. This kind of inspection
performance allows fitness for purpose
the operating conditions and how assessments on directly representative geometries,
those might affect corrosion is fundamental to effective and also provides the basis for accurate corrosion growth rates
management when corrosion is a threat to integrity. This on and remaining life assessments. It can, and has, made the
its own is not sufficient, however, and direct information on difference between pipelines being shut down and replaced or
the condition of the asset is also essential. Provision of this repaired in the short term, versus being kept in service over
information is the role of inspection. The reliability and nature many years until end of their field life. The savings to the
of information delivered by inspection is therefore pipeline operator are substantial, typically many times more
fundamental to the effectiveness of integrity management than the investment in the inspection. Advances in analysis
decisions. Poor information leads to poor decisions, with methods play an equally important role. As inspections
increased costs, e.g. associated with unnecessary interventions provide more quantitative data, so the opportunities for
or increased failure rates. Conversely, inspections that deliver maximising knowledge of asset condition based on analysis of
reliable information on asset condition will drive more cost this data increase. Data science, a growing disciple in many
effective decisions and actions. other fields, is taking on increasing importance in integrity
There is a growing emphasis on understanding how management. Its role will continue to grow in response to the
inspection data and its interpretation influence integrity benefits it offers to through life cost.
management outcomes, and hence also on adopting Corrosion will remain a challenge to pipelines operators,
inspection approaches that provide more useful but the good news is the toolbox with which to tackle it is
information. Improvement in existing inspection getting ever more capable.
COATINGS & CORROSION 2015 / World Pipelines 5

6
Jason Skow and Dongliang Lu, C-FER
Technologies, Canada, and Steven Bott, Karmun
Cheng and Charles Watt, Enbridge Pipelines,
Canada, discuss methods of maximising the
performance of ILI based crack response criteria.
H
igh-resolution shear-wave ultrasonic inline inspection (ILI) tools are
used to assess crack threat severity on transmission pipelines and
have been in use by operators for almost two decades. Subsets of the
anomalies identified by these tools are selected for investigation by
in-the-ditch non-destructive examination (NDE) to confirm pipeline condition.
The process used to respond to ILI inspection results and prioritise
excavations is called a ‘response criteria’. Initial excavation selection is often
based on a conservative deterministic criteria allowing for a rapid response
to mitigate potential defects and validate ILI performance. As investigative
excavations are completed, field NDE information is collected and used to
compare the demonstrated ILI tool performance against the vendor specification,
and calibrate the initial selection criteria. Maximising the performance of the
response criteria increases reliability by reducing response times and targeting
resources more effectively.
When using deterministic criteria, operators typically select conservative
input values to account for uncertainties in the data set and models used.
Probabilistic assessments consider the uncertainties directly, but require
significant data collection that may result in unacceptable delay.
To address these issues, a calibrated approach has been developed that
considers uncertainties and is validated against historical experience. It is
comprised of a deterministic criterion calibrated to a probabilistic approach,
resulting in improved characterisation of uncertainties while also providing a
criterion that can be applied quickly and consistently, ultimately achieving a
probabilistic result once an integrity programme is complete.
7
ILI response criteria and calibration
Effectiveness = number of defects targeted by criteria
The goal of the initial selection criteria is to target all
detected defects on a pipeline without the need for total number of defects reported by field NDE
additional excavation phases. Field NDE results are
analysed to assess whether this goal is achieved or whether Efficiency describes the criteria’s ability to target
additional excavations are required. Root cause analysis defects while not targeting non-defects:
of missed defects may identify changes required in the
selection criteria, and calibration of ILI results may result in Efficiency = number of defects targeted by criteria
fewer or more required digs. total number of ILI anomalies targeted by criteria
Effectiveness and efficiency are two key performance
measures for response criteria. These measures are based Because a safe and reliable operation is the primary
on field results, whereby ILI-reported anomalies are defined objective, the optimal response criterion maintains a high
as defects if they are confirmed to have dimensions or degree of effectiveness while optimising its efficiency.
characteristics that exceed acceptable limits.
Effectiveness describes the criteria’s ability to Deterministic response criteria
successfully target all defects present in a pipeline: An example of a deterministic response criteria is the
predicted burst pressure (PBP) of a feature measured by ILI
evaluated against a burst pressure threshold. Uncertainties
in the ILI data are implicitly addressed through use of
conservative inputs (e.g. the upper bound of the ILI-
reported depth bin, or the minimum of ILI-reported wall
thickness and nominal wall thickness).
The advantage of a deterministic approach is that it is
simple to implement, thus allowing a consistent process that
minimises human factors risks. The disadvantage is that ILI
measurement uncertainties are not explicitly considered, and
the level of conservatism is difficult to quantify or adjust.
The performance of this method can be described by
two quantities (where a PBP below threshold is associated
with higher likelihood of failure):
)) Number of features where field PBP is below threshold,
and ILI PBP is above threshold (i.e. ‘missed defects –
should have been identified as below threshold but
were not).
)) Number of features where field PBP is above threshold,

while ILI PBP is below threshold (i.e. ‘targeted non-
defects’ – identified as requiring excavation when in
fact it was not required).
Figure 1. ILI burst pressure assessment for excavation using The measure of an assessment method’s effectiveness
the deterministic method. lies with its ability to minimise missed defects without
Figure 2. Comparison of deterministic and probabilistic PBPs against field assessment.
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increasing targeted non-defects (i.e. unnecessary pressures calculated from field measurement (Figure 2),
excavations). Figure 1 shows an example using this method, expressed as a percentage of SMYS (i.e. a percentage of the
where five out of six features are confirmed to be defects. pressure associated with a hoop stress equal to 100% SMYS
However, this is accompanied by a large number of in the pipe body). The points below the unity lines indicate
unnecessary excavations (983 targeted non-defects out of a non conservative PBP estimates (i.e. the ILI PBP estimate is
total of 2803 features). higher than the field PBP estimate).
Probabilistic response criteria A calibrated approach using semi-

A probabilistic approach addresses the disadvantages of probabilistic methods
the deterministic method by explicitly considering the While the probabilistic method explicitly accounts for
uncertainties in the dataset. The level of conservatism is uncertainties in ILI data, and the level of conservatism
explicitly quantified and can be adjusted by selecting a can be selected, it requires a Monte Carlo simulation to
probability threshold. The probabilistic response criteria solve. As a result, the application is more difficult and
accounts for the random sizing uncertainty associated with ILI time consuming compared to deterministic approaches. A
tool measurement of feature length and depth, as well as pipe compromise between these two methodologies is a semi
wall thickness. Field NDE depth measurement uncertainty is probabilistic method that is calibrated to probabilistic
minimised by considering only depths sized by grinding. results. Instead of relying on a simulation, the calibrated
The probabilistic response criterion for ILI-measured approach uses analytical equations to calculate burst
crack-field features is developed using the following steps: pressures corresponding to a lower percentile of the
)) Estimate uncertainties by comparing field and ILI probabilistic PBP distribution. To account for ILI sizing
measurements for length, depth and wall thickness, and uncertainty, the lengths and depths of the crack field
assessing mean and standard deviation. features are adjusted based on the sizing uncertainty
distribution and the selected lower percentile used in the
)) Perform Monte Carlo simulation to assess effects of ILI assessment.
measurement uncertainty on the PBP calculation. The calibration was carried out using a set of generated
)) Rank severity of ILI-reported features using results of cases with different combinations of feature sizes and pipe
step two. attributes. A total of 14 700 theoretical crack field features
were simulated, and the calibration used the same sizing
)) Select an appropriate probability threshold and uncertainty distributions as the probabilistic assessment.
compare PBP values calculated in step three with burst Figure 3 shows 0.1th and 5th percentile unity plots of the
pressure threshold. burst pressure results for the calibrated and probabilistic
methods. If the calibrated method could perfectly match
The PBP calculated using the deterministic and the the probabilistic method, all points would fall on the unity
probabilistic methods are compared with the burst line. However, since it has been simplified and does not
Figure 3. Unity plot comparison of probabilistic and calibrated methods.

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Table 1. Non-conservative (NC) estimates of PBP for different Table 2. Number of missed defects excavation calls by method
methods
BP threshold (% SMYS) 70% 80% 90% 100%
Assessment method Number of Maximum over-
NC estimates estimate PBP (% Number of features below 1 1 1 6
SMYS) threshold
Deterministic 10 12.6 Deterministic 0 0 0 1
0.1th Probabilistic 5 7.6 0.1th Probabilistic 0 0 0 0

percentile percentile
Calibrated 0 0 0 0
Calibrated 7 7.3
0.5 th
Probabilistic 1 0 0 2
0.5th Probabilistic 11 12.9
percentile
percentile Calibrated 1 0 0 3
Calibrated 19 12.2
1 st
1st Probabilistic 15 15.6
percentile
Calibrated 34 14.7
Probabilistic 51 22.4 5th Probabilistic 1 1 0 4
5th
percentile percentile Calibrated 1 1 1 4
Calibrated 87 23.6
Table 3. Number of targeted non-defects excavation calls by

require simulation, it approximates the probabilistic result.
method
The points centred along the unity line with small variation
(mostly below ±5% SMYS) indicate the results from the BP threshold (% SMYS) 70% 80% 90% 100%
calibrated method are consistent with results from the Deterministic 7 57 389 983
probabilistic method. 0.1th Probabilistic 8 86 416 1154
percentile
Calibrated 12 124 519 1244
Comparing PBP results from each criteria
0.5 Probabilistic 1 20 150 628
type
th
percentile
Table 1 summarises the number of non-conservative Calibrated 1 25 185 713
estimates for each methodology, as well as the maximum 1st
difference between the burst pressures calculated from the percentile
Calibrated 0 9 99 495
field and ILI data. Notice that:
5th Probabilistic 0 0 8 98
)) The smaller percentiles result in fewer non-conservative
results.
)) The probabilistic method at the 0.5th percentile has )) The calibrated method has similar performance
a similar level of conservatism as the deterministic compared to the probabilistic method with respect to
method. the number of missed defects, and it results in a slightly
)) The calibrated method at the 0.1th and 0.5th percentiles
larger number of targeted non-defects.
results in more non conservative estimates than the
corresponding probabilistic method, but has a similar The low numbers of features below threshold (e.g. six
maximum over-estimate. features at 100% SMYS threshold) limited the confidence
in the performance evaluation of each method’s ability to
Targeted non-defect and missed defect identify critical features. Prior to implementation of the
analysis calibrated methodology, additional critical features were
The number of missed defects and the number of targeted added to the dataset to provide further substantiation.
non-defects for pressure thresholds at 70%, 80%, 90% and
100% SMYS were calculated (Table 2, 3). A lower count for Implementation of calibrated criteria
targeted non-defects and missed defects indicates better A typical method used by industry for response criteria
performance: uses a safety factor approach that considers the maximum
operating pressures (MOP) of each pipeline. Tests using a
)) The probabilistic method at the 0.1th percentile
125% MOP threshold confirmed that the calibrated method
identifies a similar number of features below the
improves the predicted burst pressure when compared to
threshold compared to the deterministic method and
results in a similar number of targeted non-defects. field results.
Figure 4 shows the effect of the calibrated depth and
)) The probabilistic assessment at the 0.5th percentile has length inputs compared to the previous non-calibrated
a slightly inferior performance to the deterministic approach. A notable shift towards the unity line is apparent
method with respect to targeting features below the for features over-called and under-called by the ILI.
threshold, but it results in a significant reduction in the Comparison between ILI and NDE results using a safety
number of targeted non-defects. factor approach also confirmed that the calibrated method

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can maintain or improve effectiveness while also
improving efficiency (Table 4). As expected, moving
to a larger percentile reduces effectiveness and
increases efficiency dramatically.
Conclusion
Using the calibrated method preserves the
flexibility of a probabilistic approach and takes
uncertainties into consideration, but is simple
and quick to apply in practice. It allows response
criteria to be defined based on ILI performance,
pipeline condition, operator experience and risk
tolerance. Comparisons show that it is a good
approximation of the probabilistic method, with
differences in the PBP calculated by the two
methods being less than 5% SMYS for all four
percentiles calibrated in this study.
The approach has demonstrated its ability
Figure 4. Non-calibrated and calibrated safety factor vs field assessed
to improve the correlation between ILI and NDE
safety factor (most data points with ILI safety factor >1.25 removed for
clarity). fitness-for-purpose results, and to maintain or
increase effectiveness while increasing efficiency.
This increases reliability by reducing response
Table 4. Number of missed defect and targeted non-defect excavation
calls by method times and targeting resources more effectively,
and thus Enbridge is continuing to place a major
Missed defect Targeted
focus on this area of study as part of ongoing
non-defect
efforts to increase the overall safety of its
Burst pressure threshold 125% MOP 125% MOP pipeline system.
Number of features below threshold 10 10 Any information or data pertaining to Enbridge Employee Services
Canada Inc., or its affiliates, contained in this article was provided
Deterministic 2 720 to the authors with the express permission of Enbridge Employee
Services Canada Inc., or its affiliates. Enbridge Employee Services
0.1th percentile Calibrated 1 674 Canada Inc. and its affiliates and their respective employees, officers,
0.5th percentile Calibrated 2 386 director and agents shall not be liable for any claims for loss, damage
or costs, of any kind whatsoever, arising from any errors, inaccuracies
1st percentile Calibrated 3 113 or incompleteness of the information and data contained in this
article or for any loss, damage or costs that may arise from the use or
5th percentile Calibrated 6 26
interpretation of this article.
Figure 5. A typical integrity excavation.

Bill Davis and J. R. Morgan, Enduro Pipeline Services, Inc., USA,
discuss experienced based solutions that provide a pathway to
successful inline inspection tool surveys of pipelines.
AVOIDING FAILED INLINE

INSPECTION SURVEYS
T
he initial solution step/cleaning involves a verification Step one
that the line can be pigged, coupled with proper The initial solution step/cleaning involves a verification of
line cleaning methods in stages. Instances where line the line that can be pigged, coupled with proper line cleaning
conditions – debris, resulting in calls for inline inspection methods in stages. Pig runs should include the aid of tracking
survey re-runs continues. Survey tool re-runs are costly to equipment and transmitter/receivers to locate if a pig stops in
all concerned, as pipeline operators and service companies’ the line. Foam pig or two cup (conical) pigs can accomplish the
resources are closely scheduled to maximise their efficiency of task of confirming the line as being piggable. This run also serves
utilisation (Figure 1). as the first indication of line debris conditions.
Avoiding a failed inline inspection survey due to poor line Evaluation of each of the received pigs dictates whether
conditions or line configuration is accomplished through the a repeat run of the same pig is required prior to the selection
application of ‘experienced based’ solution steps. of the next type of cleaning pig. Noting the target speed for
15
Figure 3. Calliper tools document anomalies and features that
can pose a threat to successful inline inspections.
Figure 1. Debris can cause tool stoppage in pipeline fittings
and create speed excursions above tool tolerance.
removal. Linking pigs to form a train will reduce the number of
cleaning runs required to accomplish line clean (Figure 2).
The applied initial solution step to verify whether the
existing line condition is piggable, coupled with line cleaning in
the stages described, addresses a service company’s concerns
related to the risk of failed tool survey runs from debris. Line
cleaning is accomplished through proper applications and uses
of different pig types, selected and based on operational and
existing line conditions. Importance should be placed on the
allocation of ample time to accomplish an effective line clean.
Too often insufficient time is planned to address the ‘unknown’
line conditions that will be revealed once pigging operations
commence.
Step two
A second solution step/calliper incorporates the running of
geometry or calliper survey tools once line cleaning is completed.
This tool survey is performed as a go/no-go survey, to provide
Figure 2. ‘Pig train’ combination of cups, discs, brushes and
magnets provides increased cleaning results.
informational data related to pipeline configuration: line feature
identification and listing, pipe tallying, geometric anomaly
location and sizing, debris conditions from the location, plus it
effective pigging range no higher than 3 - 5 mph, adjustments could also include IMU data capabilities if so required.
of the line flow may be required for the next pig run. Speed This important calliper tool run documents existing
control devices are also available to maintain ideal pig speeds, anomalies, plus other pipeline features, allowing the service
allowing higher line flow operating conditions to continue at provider to determine if they pose a threat to safely executing
normal rates. the next inline inspection survey (Figure 3). Viewing this
Observed pig damage during pigging operations can result information and comparing the pipeline geometry requirements
from improper trap operations, partially closed valves, pipe for the inline tool allows for an informed decision on how to
anomalies, and debris or line fittings, such as unbarred tees. proceed. Any identified threat can be addressed and corrected
Selecting a more aggressive pig continues a progressive line prior to committing resources to perform the inline inspection
clean with debris removal. Cleaning elements, such as discs and survey. This critical solution step provides an informed decision
brushes, compliment an effective cleaning pig type. Pigs that process, further reducing the potential for failed inline surveys.
include magnets allow collection/removal of metal debris, while Geometry/calliper tools can be equipped to collect IMU
providing a visual confirmation of the line’s cleaning progress. data. Coupled with GPS points for aboveground pipeline features,
Decreasing amounts of metallic debris on magnets helps pipeline listing reports can include co-ordinates for each line item
determine the advanced stages of line cleaning conditions. entry. Provision to include any customer-supplied information,
After removal, evaluating the debris amounts and type for each such as customer stationing, weld numbers, X-ray data and field
run will determine when a more aggressive step is appropriate notes, are provided. This same GPS data can be used to create
to continue the line clean. Connecting two or more different pig KMZ files for use with current spatial location software (Figure 4).
types to form a ‘pig train’ accomplishes the last and very aggressive All notes relating to the service providers data analysis will appear
cleaning stage. The combination of cups, discs, brushes and magnets alongside anomaly locations from the location software. Anomaly
results in an added benefit – weight to aid in the cleaning and debris dig sheets also include the previously listed information.

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give you just that. Source: 2015 NACE International Annual Corrosion Career Survey
debris, perform an inline inspection, and manage all operations
related to pigging and pig tracking.
After carefully evaluating all the pipeline characteristics,
Enduro implemented a progressive pigging programme with
the aforementioned pigging parameters in mind. Multiple pig
configurations were run in several different stages, each with a
batch of chemical solution mixed with diesel fuel.
The initial pig – a urethane coated foam pig equipped with
2% bypass ports – was successfully received with approximately
700 gal. of liquids and debris. From there, Enduro steadily
increased the aggressiveness of each pig, advancing to a higher
density urethane coated foam pig with brushes, then to a steel
Figure 4. Geometry/calliper tools can be equipped to collect mandrel pig equipped with a combination of cups, discs and
IMU data to produce KMZ files.
brushes that brought in significant amounts of liquid and solid
debris. The next pig, equipped with cups, discs, and magnets,
was designed to sweep the line of loose debris and remove
ferrous material. The final and most aggressive cleaning pig was
a two-section train fitted with cups, discs, brushes, and magnets,
stretched out across two pig bodies coupled together with a
u-joint. This pig was run several times, with each run bringing in
significantly less debris than the previous run, indicating the line
was becoming steadily cleaner with each pig pass. Overall, the
pigging programme implemented by Enduro took approximately
two weeks to complete, and removed more than 43 000 gal.
of liquids and over 200 gal. of solid debris from the pipeline
system.
Once the final pig was received with no debris of significance
documented, Enduro’s Project Manager made the decision to move
forward with the inline-survey, which would be accomplished with
Enduro’s MFL DfLTM Multiple Technology Tool (Figure 5).
Figure 5. Successful inline inspection survey run results when Conclusion

solution steps are applied. Due to the fact that an extensive mechanical and chemical
cleaning programme was carefully initiated and successfully
Step three performed on this pipeline system, the Enduro MFL DfL tool
The third solution step/inline inspection survey detects was received in good condition, worked to specifications, and
pipeline threats and line conditions, which may exist in recorded good data for the entire length of the pipeline. The
addition to the calliper tool survey results. Completion of MFL DfL tool was received with minor amounts of compressor
the previous steps listed – cleaning in stages plus geometry/ oil concentrated on the brushes, but the main sensors were clean
calliper go/no-go survey results – has prepared a way and the tool pushed no solid debris into the receiving area. In
forward. Line conditions and features have been documented addition, data collected from the MFL DfL tool indicated the
and addressed for correction as required. The risks that line was clean with no substantial areas of debris build up in
typically threaten a successful inline survey have been the pipeline system. Based on the visual appearance of the final
mitigated. The inline service industry offers a wide variety cleaning pigs – the receipt of the tool and review of the good
of tools for assessment of pipeline conditions, location and data collected – all evidence indicated the customer’s pipeline
identity of pipe integrity threats. Multiple technology tools had been cleaned of debris and thorough inspection results
offer the advantage of reducing the number of tool runs; were achieved. The cleaning programme put forth by Enduro
they collect several different data sets simultaneously, which had been validated by this evidence. Furthermore, post-cleaning
provides an increased understanding, analysis and reporting of information provided by the customer indicated that their line
pipeline integrity conditions. throughput and efficiency had been substantially increased.
Because of diligent preparation, effective communication,
Case study for initial solution step/cleaning the use of proper equipment and years of combined experience,
Enduro Pipeline Services managed a cleaning project for a major all objectives for this project were met within a timely manner
gas transmission company in the northeast region of the USA, and costs were kept to a minimum. The integrity of the pipeline
which incorporated both mechanical and chemical cleaning system was dramatically improved, and the pipeline now
procedures. The subject pipeline was approximately 20 miles operates with better efficiency. As the facts have indicated,
in length, transported natural gas, and had never been pigged. everyone comes out a winner when the proper approach is taken
Enduro was mobilised with the objective to clean the pipeline of to ensure pipelines get cleaned the right way the first time.

Pigging for
micro-organisms
Dr. John J. Kilbane, Programme

Manager for Petroleum
Microbiology at Intertek Upstream
Services, USA, reviews the use of
pipeline pigs for recovery of biofilm
material, for MIC testing.
C
orrosion is a key concern in maintaining
a pipeline and providing safe and reliable
service. However, obtaining data to allow the
effective monitoring of possible corrosion in
pipelines can be challenging. Many pipeline segments
are relatively inaccessible, making it difficult to gather
corrosion monitoring data. This can be particularly true for
microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC), which can be
highly localised.
This article discusses a case study describing how
Intertek obtained reliable data concerning MIC from an
inaccessible pipeline segment in the Gulf of Mexico.
Pipeline integrity
Maintaining pipeline integrity is crucial in the oil and
gas industry and when pipeline defects are detected, or
pipeline failures occur, understanding the cause of these
events is of utmost importance. One cause of corrosion is
19
MIC, which is the cause of up to 40% of internal corrosion products or sediment within the pipe may lie on top of the
cases in the oil and gas industry.1 pits, providing a physical barrier that further protects the
micro-organisms within the pit from biocides or from efforts
Biofilms to remove biofilms.
Bacteria within pipelines attach to internal surfaces and
grow as biofilms. The growth of biofilms requires water and Pipeline pigging
even the low concentration of water in crude oil pipelines, The mechanical cleaning of pipelines is accomplished using
or condensed water in gas pipelines, can be sufficient to devices called pigs. There are multiple types of pigs that
allow patches of water-wet biofilms to grow. can travel through a pipeline, pushed by the flow of fluids.
Micro-organisms growing as biofilms generally cause Some pigs are designed to scrape material from the walls
pitting corrosion due to the production of hydrogen of a pipe and push the material out of the pipeline to be
sulfide, organic acids, and by influencing electrochemical removed at a pig launcher/receiver station. Other pigs
corrosion. The types of micro-organisms that are most are fitted with brushes that enhance the cleaning of pipe
commonly associated with internal pipeline corrosion are surfaces and some contain sophisticated devices, which can
sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB), acid producing bacteria measure pipe wall thickness or other parameters as they
(APB) and methanogens. pass through a pipeline. Figure 1 shows an example of a
While the absolute quantity of hydrogen sulfide pig used for pipeline cleaning and a pig launcher/receiver
or organic acid produced by micro-organisms within a station.
pipeline may be relatively small – and insufficient enough The preferred type of sample from a pipeline for
to result in the detection of hydrogen sulfide or a pH microbiological testing are biofilms that can be obtained
decrease in the bulk fluids within the pipeline – the local from weight loss corrosion coupons that may be present
concentration of hydrogen sulfide or organic acids at the in a pipeline, from sidestream devices that are specifically
interface of a patch of biofilm and the pipe surface, can be designed for the collection of biofilm samples, or
high enough to result in pitting of the pipe wall. from pigging solids or materials resulting from cleaning
Biofilms can be particularly difficult to prevent or pipelines.2
eradicate because they are much more resistant to biocides If micro-organisms are present within a pipeline,
than individual microbial cells. Moreover, the small size of biofilms will grow on metal coupons. These biofilms can be
micro-organisms allows them to lodge in a minute scratch conveniently recovered for microbiological testing at the
on a pipe’s surface and be protected from the turbulent flow same time the coupon is retrieved from a pipeline, so that
of fluids in the pipe. Then, as corrosion creates a shallow weight loss data can be obtained and the general corrosion
pit in the pipe wall, the growing biofilm finds improved rate can be calculated.
protection by growing within the pit. Frequently, corrosion Frequently, metal coupons used to monitor corrosion
rates, or sidestream devices, are not available. Many
pipeline segments, such as pipeline segments serving
an offshore oil platform, are generally inaccessible
except at the pipeline terminal. So, for the majority of a
pipeline segment, the installation of a corrosion coupon
or a sidestream device is simply not an option. In those
instances, the material recovered during pipeline pigging
operations may provide the only source of biofilm samples
that can be used in microbiological testing. However,
material recovered from pipeline pigging operations
is usually very heterogeneous and can consist of sand,
corrosion products, waxes, asphaltenes, crude oil, water,
biofilm, and other materials.
The challenges with biofilm

The scattered patches of biofilm that could be present
within a pipeline may be dislodged by the pig and pushed
into the pig receiver station. These biofilm particles are
mixed with all of the other materials removed in the
pigging operation and therefore sampling becomes a
challenge. Often, all the material recovered in a pipeline
pigging operation looks the same; so there is no way to
visually determine which particles contain biofilm.
Obtaining and analysing multiple samples of the
materials recovered from each pigging run is one way of
Figure 1. Example of a pig used in pipeline cleaning.
addressing this challenge, but the cost associated with

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collecting and analysing multiple samples usually results data regarding the concentration of micro-organisms in
in the decision to take a single sample and work from this. pigging material.
The microbiological results obtained from taking a single To achieve this, the collection of composited samples
sample, derived from the monthly pigging operations of an was employed. Instead of collecting individual samples
oil pipeline in the Gulf of Mexico are shown in Figure 2. from the material recovered from each pigging operation,
The samples of pigging material were used to inoculate a composited sample was prepared. This was achieved
microbial growth tests to quantify SRB, APB and general by collecting three sub-samples from different regions
heterotrophic bacteria (GHB) according to a standard of the pigging material and combining these into a single
method developed by the National Association of sample, which was then processed and used to inoculate
Corrosion Engineers (NACE); method TMO212, ‘Detection, microbial growth tests to quantify corrosion-associated
Testing, and Evaluation of Microbiologically Influenced micro-organisms. The results of the microbiological testing
Corrosion on Internal Surfaces of Pipelines.’ of composited pigging material samples derived from the
The data in Figure 2 illustrates the heterogeneous same pipeline are shown in Figure 3.
nature of pigging solids as some samples contain low to The data shown in Figure 3 is far less variable than
undetectable concentrations of SRB and/or APB, while the data in Figure 2, and microbial concentrations in
other samples contain very high concentrations of micro- composited samples differed over the course of a year by
organisms. The range of concentrations of micro-organisms only about three orders of magnitude (1000-fold). This data
obtained over the course of one year using individual is much more consistent and could be expected to detect
samples of pigging material varied by seven orders of trends of increasing or decreasing microbial concentrations,
magnitude (10 000 000-fold). The data clearly indicates or the effectiveness of a biocide treatment.
that micro-organisms are present within this pipeline, but it
is not useful in determining if the concentration of micro- The investigation
organisms is increasing or decreasing. Since biofilm does not form uniformly within a pipeline –
Using such data, as shown in Figure 2, it would not and any biofilm that may be present on the pipe wall may,
be possible to determine if improved protection of the or may not, be effectively removed and recovered in the
pipeline from MIC was achieved by the addition of a pigging material – it is still very challenging to get accurate
biocide, for example. What was needed was an improved data about what the concentration of corrosion associated
method of sample collection that obtained more reliable micro-organisms is based on an analysis of pigging material.
The biofilm material that is recovered
in pigging material is mixed with, and
therefore diluted by, all of the non-
microbial material. This means that the
actual concentration of micro-organisms
present in a patch of biofilm on the
pipe wall is probably higher than the
concentration found in the composited
pigging material samples. Accordingly,
the biofilms present in pig returns may be
derived from a relatively few locations,
so microbial concentrations detected
Figure 2. Variable microbial populations in pigging material: individual sampling. in composited samples underestimate
the actual concentration of microbial
cells in biofilms attached to pipe
surfaces. For this reason, even moderate
concentrations of corrosion-associated
bacteria detected in pigging solids can
indicate a potentially high risk of MIC at
specific locations within pipelines.
The risk of MIC in the pipeline segment
presented here was high, and the data in
Figure 3 was used to defend the decision
to continue monthly pigging of the
pipeline, even though the amount of solids
recovered was relatively modest.
Another issue associated with pipelines
is that MIC is not always considered
Figure 3. Variable microbial populations in pigging material: individual sampling.
when beginning an investigation of a pipe

(800)328-0090
segment that is removed from service. It is not uncommon gas industry samples to detect and quantify corrosion
to have a pipe segment removed from service and sitting in associated micro-organisms.
a warehouse for days or even months before the possible
involvement of MIC is considered. Microbiological testing
Once a biofilm has been exposed to oxygen and dried
Microbiological testing is an important component
out, microbial growth tests cannot be performed, but in pipeline monitoring and maintenance programmes.
genetic testing – of quantitative polymerase chain reaction
However, care must be taken to analyse samples as quickly
(qPCR) – may still be an option, particularly if under-
as possible when microbial growth tests are performed, and
deposit corrosion or deep pits are present.2, 3, 4, 5 While
collecting multiple composited samples is recommended
when heterogeneous material, such as pig returns, are being
fresh samples are required for microbial growth tests, even
sampled.
dead cells can be detected using genetic tests. Genetic
tests, such as qPCR, are increasingly used to test oil andGenetic tests can detect DNA, even from dead bacteria,
and can be used to test for the
presence of corrosion-associated
micro-organisms on samples where
Committed to Safety, Quality and Environment microbial growth tests cannot be
used, such as old pipe segments.
OHSAS 18001:2007, ISO 9001:2008 and ISO 14001:2004 certiﬁed
However, DNA degrades in the
environment and even genetic
testing may be ineffective if pipe
samples have been removed from
service for more than a month.
It is important to obtain
comprehensive data in determining
the corrosion mechanism in any
given sample. Physical and chemical
tests, as well as microbiological
or genetic tests, should all be
used. A microscopic examination
of the morphology of corrosion
pits, chemical analysis of corrosion
products, metallurgical analyses,
We’re truly one of a kind... microbiological analyses and

knowledge of the operating
and wear many hats.

conditions and fluid composition
when the pipe was in service should
all be considered when making
a determination regarding likely
Mears Integrity Solutions is the only corrosion control corrosion mechanisms.
company providing inline inspection tools, and an inline References

1. KOCH, G. H., BRONGERS, M. P. H.,
inspection company offering complete turnkey pipeline THOMPSON, N. G., VIRMANI, Y. P., PAYER, J.
H., ‘Corrosion Costs and Preventive Strategies
integrity services, all under one hat. in the United States,’ FHWA-RD-01-156,
published online, (Federal Highway
Administration, Washington D. C., 2001).
2. NACE TMO194-2013, ‘Field Monitoring of
Bacterial Growth in Oil and Gas Systems,’
(Houston, TX, NACE).
For a complete list of services visit: www.mearscorrosion.com 3. ZHU, X. Y. and KILBANE II, J. J., ‘Faster
and More Accurate Data Collection for
Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion,’
Society of Petroleum Engineers SPE-93089-PP,
(2005) p. 1 - 9.
www.mearscorrosion.com
4. ZHU, X. Y., LUBECK, J., LOWE, K., DARAM A.,
and KILBANE II, J. J., ‘Improved Method for
Monitoring Microbial Communities in Gas
Pipelines,’ Corrosion2004 paper No. 04592,
Toll Free: (US & Canada) 844 802 4195 | Worldwide: +1 832 834 2800 (Houston, TX: NACE, 2004).
5. SCOTT, P. J. B., ‘Expert Consensus on MIC:
Prevention and Monitoring-Part 1,’ Materials
Performance 43, 3 (2004): p. 2 - 6.
Half-Island-World-Pipelines.indd 1 2/4/15 3:03 PM

I
nspection plays a major role in assuring the in-service integrity of pipelines and similar business or
safety critical assets. Corrosion, internal or external, is often the primary degradation mechanism
of concern, hence wall thickness measurement is the main focus of the inspection. In the case of
pipelines, inspection may be possible using inline tools. However, there are many circumstances
where inline inspection is not physically possible, not economically feasible or does not meet the
inspection performance requirements.
In these situations inspection using externally applied techniques is necessary. In addition to
pipelines, there is a wide range of asset types for which external inspection techniques are beneficial or
the only practical option, e.g. pipework, pressure vessels and structures.
Inspection technique selection

A variety of techniques are available for external application based on ultrasonic, electromagnetic or
radiographic technology. The objectives of a particular inspection define the requirements that the
technique must meet. The objectives vary according to the situation, and consequently have different
requirements with respect to measurement.
25
For example, where the objective of the inspection is to inspection techniques are usually the preferred option. The
validate the absence of active internal corrosion, a targeted main techniques for wall thickness measurement are based on
low coverage inspection with very accurate wall thickness 0° pulse echo and time of flight diffraction (TOFD).
measurement performance and a high probability of detection The pulse echo technique measures the wall thickness at
(POD) would meet the requirements. Alternatively, where a specific location using the travel time of an ultrasonic pulse
potentially severe degradation is expected, the objective is to applied by a probe at the outer surface of the pipe, which
identify the regions of worst degradation so that follow up reflects from the inner surface and returns to the probe. It can
action can be taken. In this situation, a screening approach would be used to make spot thickness checks or, in more sophisticated
be appropriate, where the focus is on detection of degradation automated scanning systems, to generate a corrosion map at a
with potential to fine spatial resolution over the region of interest.
threaten integrity in TOFD utilises a pair of probes on the outer surface of the
the short/medium pipe in a pitch-catch arrangement with a fixed separation. An
term. A greater focus ultrasonic pulse, transmitted at an angle from the first probe
on measurement into the steel, reflects from the inner surface and is received
accuracy would then by the second probe. TOFD typically allows more rapid
be necessary when coverage of thicker material while providing a high POD for
sizing the degradation small corrosion features, hence it is growing in application for
identified by the corrosion related inspections.
screening. In many These ultrasonic techniques are widely used and can deliver
cases, sizing would very accurate measurement and reliable detection of in-service
require a different wall loss. They are proven to work well with many typical paint
technique to that used and corrosion protection coatings, e.g. fusion bonded epoxy.
in the screening. However, they are limited to application on thinner coatings
and/or coatings for which the ultrasonic attenuation is low. This
Wall thickness limitation is related to the high ultrasonic frequencies necessary
Figure 1. DRS excites the coated inspection for these techniques, i.e. typically in the range of 4 - 15 MHz.
pipe with ultrasonic energy and
utilises the natural frequency
Where quantitative Attenuation of ultrasound in materials is directly related to
response of the steel to determine wall thickness frequency, with a rapid increase in attenuation with increasing
its thickness. measurements are frequency. Signal transmission significantly improves at lower
required, ultrasonic frequencies but the time resolution necessary for accurate
thickness measurements cannot then be achieved. This limits
the thickness and types of coatings through which it is possible
to successfully apply 0˚ pulse echo or the TOFD technique for
thickness measurement.
There is a wide range of situations where the coatings
present are thick and/or
attenuative, to the extent
that inspection using 0°
pulse echo or TOFD is
not practical. Examples
include:
Figure 2. Existing corrosion mapping techniques: 0˚ pulse echo )) Polymer insulation on
and TOFD.
subsea pipelines.
)) Corrosion protection
tapes.
)) Polypropylene wraps
at pipeline field
joints.
)) Composite repairs.
)) Fire protection
materials.
Figure 3. DRS transducers cause the steel to vibrate at Figure 4. Comparison of 0˚ and DRS
corrosion mapping of a corroded The ability to
frequencies related to its thickness. The A-scan shows signals
reflected from the pipe’s outer and inner diameters, followed steel plate. The DRS spatial obtain quantitative wall
by the dynamic response of the steel. Frequencies extracted resolution is 10 mm and the wall thickness measurements
from the A-scans are used to calculate the steel wall thickness. thickness accuracy is 0.5 mm. in these situations would

be a major benefit in supporting cost effective integrity prevent external corrosion on pipelines, but also act as
management and there is a strong interest from asset owners a barrier to the existing ultrasonic inspection techniques
in techniques that have this capability. Sonomatic has reacted used to map internal corrosion. DRS has proved to be
to this situation by investing in the development of dynamic successful in penetrating these tapes to produce a wall
response spectroscopy (DRS). thickness map of flat-bottomed
holes in the underside of a taped
DRS plate.
DRS corrosion mapping utilises low frequency Thick polypropylene and
ultrasound (<1 MHz) to penetrate coatings polyethylene field-joint shrink-
and excite the natural frequencies of wraps, and intumescent passive fire
vibration of the underlying steel. protection have been evaluated and
A custom DRS probe, held above the pipe found to be excellent candidates for
surface, emits a broad range of low ultrasonic DRS corrosion mapping. Promising
frequencies. The lower attenuation at these results have also recently been
frequencies allows the ultrasound to pass obtained through 75 mm of injection
more easily through challenging coatings. The moulded polypropylene (IMPP).
steel responds to the input signal, vibrating Other coatings are currently under
at frequencies related to its thickness. These investigation and any specific
vibrations pass out through the coating and are material can be evaluated upon
received by the DRS probe as it scans across Figure 5. A DRS wall thickness map request.
through corrosion protection tape.
the pipe surface. The frequency content Measured thicknesses are within
of the received signals is then extracted, 0.5 mm of the actual thickness. Field deployment
using advanced signal processing algorithms The DRS corrosion mapping technique
developed by Sonomatic, and used to is deployed on Sonomatic’s range of
determine the thickness profile of the steel. proven topside and subsea scanning
Over the past two years Sonomatic technology. All scanners are designed
has developed DRS from a theoretical in-house and are easily modified to
concept, through a process of computer accommodate challenging access
modelling and laboratory testing, to a requirements. Sonomatic’s R&D
field-ready inspection system capable of capability, advanced technology
both subsea and topside corrosion mapping. and extensive field experience make
A comparison between 0° ultrasonic wall them well placed to deliver DRS
thickness measurements and DRS corrosion as a practical solution to corrosion
mapping on a corroded steel plate has shown mapping through challenging coatings.
the technique to have a thickness accuracy
of 0.5 mm. The DRS spatial resolution Benefits
is currently 10 mm, although further DRS penetrates challenging coatings
development work is ongoing to refine this. to produce corrosion maps of the
underlying steel. It provides quantitative
DRS applications wall thickness measurements with
DRS has already been successful in 0.5 mm accuracy and 10 mm spatial
measuring steel wall thicknesses through resolution. This means:
a wide range of challenging coatings. One )) The absence of corrosion on subsea
of the most commonly requested DRS lines with thick insulation such as
inspections is for pipelines with composite IMPP can be validated.
wrap repairs, such as TechnowrapTM. These
GRP-type materials are currently classified )) Repeat inspections can be used to
as temporary repairs due to the lack of a measure corrosion growth rates for
suitable inspection method for monitoring pipelines.
corrosion growth post installation. DRS )) The lifetime of temporary
has successfully mapped corrosion composite repairs can be extended.
through 10 mm of Technowrap and work is
underway to inspect through even thicker )) Statistical analysis can be conducted
composite repairs. Figure 6. Sonomatic topside and subsea on the data e.g. limited coverage
Corrosion protection tapes are tools used for deployment of the DRS inspection provides useful
another challenging coating. They corrosion mapping technique. results.

CONCRETE
Olav Fyrileiv, Chia Chor Yew and Nguyen Thi Bich Ngoc,
DNV GL, explore industry collaboration when developing
design guidelines for pipeline concrete coatings.
T
he primary function of concrete weight coating (CWC) is to provide on-bottom stability to submarine
pipelines by adding weight along them. It is also commonly used to provide mechanical protection to a
pipeline against impact, which may occur during its service life.
When a submarine pipeline is installed by the S-lay method, it is predominantly subject to tension,
bending moments, external pressure and roller loads during the installation process. In operation, the pipeline is
subject to all or some of the following loads, depending on its specific operational condition and site location:
differential pressure, variable temperature, excessive bending due to global buckling on the seabed, bending and
29
vibration in free spans, and accidental loads due to trawl from a wider range of installation vessels, resulting in
collisions, anchor interference and dropped objects. The CWC potential savings from installing with an alternative vessel.
may therefore be exposed to a combination of all these loads. DNV GL has therefore initiated a joint industry project
(JIP) for the development of a rational design approach, to
Design issues account for CWC response mechanisms and effect of relevant
The main design issue for the pipeline CWC is to ensure contributing factors.
that it can withstand the various loads present during the
installation and operation phases of the pipeline without Pipeline concrete coating configuration
it being severely damaged. Conversely, the design of the The CWC is applied as an outer layer over a layer of ACC. In
CWC should minimise the introduction of any undesirable current practices, ACC systems used in combination with a
effect on the pipeline arising from the presence of the CWC are:1
CWC, such as not raising the bending stiffness of composite )) Glass fibre reinforced asphalt enamel, which is relatively
cross section of the concrete weight, steel pipe and anti- inexpensive, has lower shear strength, and is restricted in
corrosion coating (ACC) to levels that increase the stress use to low operating temperature.
in the steel pipe at the field joint above an unacceptable
limit. The design of the CWC should also enable a safe and )) Single, fusion bonded epoxy, which is harder and
easy installation of the pipeline. Most current standards and smoother in comparison with asphalt enamel coating.
company specifications relating to pipeline CWC provide )) Three-layer of polyethylene, which has significantly
detailed requirements for application of concrete. However, higher shear capacity and can withstand higher operating
they often lack a specific design approach and criteria for temperature.
the design of the combined section.
The lack of specific industry-recognised detailed design Adhesion between the ACC and steel, between ACC
requirements has in some circumstances resulted in strict and CWC, or within ACC layers, is a primary parameter and
installation requirements, and in other circumstances led to its strength is dependent on the application procedures in
CWC damages. In the last few years the pipeline industry has addition to the type of ACC. Some coating surfaces can
continued to expand into more remote waters and harsher be roughened, or the ACC can contain a particular layer to
environments, bringing along new technical challenges. This enhance its adhesion and friction properties.
has made the development of a rational approach for the The density and strength of the concrete material
design of the CWC even more pressing. depend upon the method used to apply the coating. The
The design should aim to ensure that the on-bottom three different methods of concrete coating application
stability and mechanical protection provided by the CWC over anti-corrosion coated pipes used in the industry are:
is reliable, by further developing the design criteria for the impingement method, compression method and form cast
CWC to a technically optimal and cost effective level. This method. The CWC can be reinforced with a steel grid
will prevent the primary functions from being adversely or spiral cage reinforcement, welded steel wire mesh, or
affected by damages during installation and operation. It chicken wire mesh.
should also lead to some of the current requirements on The void in the field joint of concrete coated pipes is
installation vessels being relaxed. This may allow selection traditionally filled by hot marine mastic poured into a mould
formed around the joint. Recently,
customised high-density polyurethane
foam has been used as infill. For
projects that require high resistance
against impact from fishing trawlers,
higher density foam, strengthened with
aggregate, has been used. In general,
the use of solid PU may significantly
reduce the stress/strain concentration
factors at the field joint as the
compressive strength of solid PU is
similar to that of the concrete coating.
There are a number of

damage modes that may
occur during a pipeline’s
CWC service life
Concrete sliding during

installation
Tensioners on board the pipelaying
Figure 1. Pipeline design under verification.
vessel grip on the pipeline via the

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In general, such damages were often identified by the limit
compression strain of about 0.2% in the concrete material.2, 3, 4
However, it is found that the concrete crushing/spalling
strain threshold is different for various pipe stiffness, concrete
strength and thickness, and the shear resistance of the ACC.5
When a significant amount of the CWC has been lost, the
spalling and crushing of concrete will lead to a reduction of
mechanical protection and on-bottom stability to the pipeline.
Concrete spalling can also occur in the midspan of a
pipe joint, as a result of bending reversal during installation.
Concrete on the top and bottom parts of a pipe joint cross
section may spall when bending stresses in these parts
alternate between tension and compression.
Concrete sliding in operation

Local axial sliding movement has been observed between
the concrete and the steel pipe in some high pressure/
high temperature pipelines under operation. The sliding
movement can cause damage to the field joint coating or
anode attachments.
Sliding will be more severe if the shear capacity of the
ACC, such as asphalt, is reduced. This can occur when the
heat generated from the high temperature in the pipeline
containment softens the ACC. The shear capacity of the
ACC-CWC interface can also be reduced if the ACC is made
of brittle material and has been degraded after several load
cycles.
Local buckling
Occurrences of local buckling, excessive plastic strain or
even cracks in the steel line pipe at the field joint, have been
observed during installation and operation.
Figure 2. A pipe joint after being tested. The abrupt change in stiffness at the concrete coating
cut off – where on one side there is bare steel at the field
CWC. When the tension is transferred through the composite joint, and on the other the combined section of steel,
layer of reinforced concrete and corrosion coating by shear, ACC and CWC – creates strain concentration in the field
the transfer depends on the shear capacity of the ACC joint. This effect has been the subject of much attention in
within itself and at the interfaces with the steel and the pipeline literature. A potential issue related to this damage is
concrete. The shear transfer also depends on the amount excessive strain in the field joints, which can lead to severe
of longitudinal steel reinforcement bars in the CWC. If the fatigue and fracture damages.
combined resistance is not sufficient to sustain the tension
load, sliding will occur. However, sliding in CWC during Factors affecting concrete damages
pipelaying is usually limited to a finite length of the pipeline, Inspection and investigation reports from several laying
and is regarded as local rather than global sliding. Repairing and operating conditions indicate that sliding and spalling
such damage during installation normally leads to delay in of the concrete cover were the predominant cause of the
pipe laying. concrete damage. The results of pipeline bending tests support
the above general observation. This points to a need for
Concrete spalling and crushing during investigating the behaviour of pipeline CWC, and to closely
installation observe its structural behaviour and its interactions with
Occurrences of localised damages in the CWC caused by contributing factors.
spalling have been observed during installation. Spalling often One of the factors of interest is the difference in
involves pieces of concrete at the damaged location breaking damage strain thresholds of the concrete material located
loose and detaching without concrete crumbling, exposing inside and outside the reinforcement cage. It is observed
the reinforcement mesh behind. that the outermost concrete cover is more prone to
Concrete crushing is often associated with strain exceeding spalling and delamination. It is also observed that when
beyond the crushing strain, resulting in rapid development of the pipeline is subject to bending, and if the shear capacity
microcracks around the boundaries between the aggregates between the CWC and the ACC is low, then the concrete
and the cement paste, as well as cracks through the paste. particularly close to the field joint starts to slide axially.

Sliding reduces the strain concentration at the field joint, DNV GL JIP – phase one and possible future
the compression stress in the concrete, and consequently, work
concrete spalling. The JIP consists of two phases: phase one is for the
Several other factors affect the strength and durability of development of a tentative design approach for pipeline
the CWC during the installation and operation of a pipeline, concrete coating, and phase two is for an experimental
e.g. pipeline laying and operation conditions, pipe size and validation of the design approach and development of a
stiffness, concrete strength, thickness and toughness, type, design guideline for pipeline concrete coating.
amount and location of steel reinforcement, shear resistance The first phase of the JIP will address the following
between the concrete and the anti-corrosion coating, etc. issues:
More studies into the effect of the individual factors and )) State of the art review.
combined effects will be necessary to better understand their
influence in design of pipeline CWC. )) Discussion on relevant failure modes and corresponding
contributing factors.
Current considerations for the design of
)) Development of a framework for the design approach for
pipeline CWC in code/standard pipeline concrete coating.
According to Section 5, H 301, DNV-OS-F101 (2013)5,
concrete crushing due to excessive compressive forces in )) Establishment of numerical and analytical models based
the concrete, subject to bending at the overbend under on existing information, and calibrating them against
static conditions, is not acceptable. Where no strain currently available test data.
data is available, Section 13, G 200 of the same standard
)) Parametric study and preliminary investigation into the
provides a criterion for concrete crushing based on the
effect of different design parameters.
mean overbend strain of the steel cross section. This design
criterion was developed based on extensive experimental )) Tentative design approach with design requirements for
and numerical work by Ness and Verley.6 It is mentioned pipeline concrete coating.
in the same clause that the mean overbend strain – at
which concrete crushing first occurs – depends on the pipe )) Proposal for potential validation tests.
stiffness, the concrete strength and thickness, the axial
force, and the shear resistance of the corrosion coating. The objective of the JIP is to obtain a more thorough
Crushing occurs at lower mean overbend strains for lower understanding of the behaviour of pipeline concrete weight
concrete strength, lower axial force, higher pipe stiffness coating during the installation and operational phases. It will
and higher shear resistance. also result in more specific acceptance criteria, to provide
If no other information is available, concrete crushing a sufficiently conservative approach to estimate the strain
represented by the concrete compression strain limit may in the concrete coating subject to bending, and a more
be assumed to occur when the strain in the concrete at accurate estimate of the strain concentration factor at the
the compressive fibre reaches 0.2%. In this current form, field joints.
considerations of shear resistance of the corrosion coating, The first phase, which began in November 2014, is due
composite section stiffness and other parameters specific for completion by December 2015. The second phase is
to a project, which may have some design influence, are expected to be completed by the end of 2016. Current
implicitly covered in the concrete crushing criterion. participants include Saipem, Bredero Shaw, SVAP, McDermott,
PAPE Engineering and Wasco Coatings, with more partners
expected to join. The project continues to welcome new
participants.
References
1. DNV-RP-F106, 2011, ‘Factory applied external pipeline coatings for corrosion
control.’
2. BRUSCHI, R., MALACARI, E.E., TORSELLETTI, E., and VITALI, L., 1995, ‘Concrete
coated submarine pipelines: Further advances in strain concentration at field
joints and relevant implications on strain based design’, Proceedings – Annual
Offshore Technology Conference, p. 491 - 501.
3. ENDAL, G., 1994, ‘Extreme bending of concrete coated offshore pipeline:
A numerical study,’ International DIANA Conference on Computational
Mechanics, Delf, the Netherlands.
4. LUND, S., BRUSCHI, R., MONTESI, M. and SINTINI, L., 1993, ‘Laying criteria versus
strain concentrations at field joints for heavily coated pipelines,’ Proceedings
of the International Conference on Offshore Mechanics and Artic Engineering,
OMAE, Vol.5, p. 41 - 56.
5. DNV-OS-F101, 2013, ‘Offshore submarine pipelines’.
6. NESS, O.B. and VERLEY, R., 1996, ‘Strain concentrations in pipelines with
concrete coating,’ Journal of Offshore Mechanics and Artic Engineering, 118,
Figure 3. Pipeline with concrete coating on the seabed.
Vol.5, p. 225 - 231.

Figure 1. Tensionless wrapping without blasting/primer
or lay-up technique application.
ASSET
APPRECIATION
D
Drs. JF Doddema and amage to a coating is almost unavoidable during
transportation, construction and service. Damage
Sander Hofstee, Seal or holidays in coatings may expose the substrate to
for Life Industries, the possible corrosion. Cathodic protection systems are
installed to act as a back-up for coating imperfections in buried
Netherlands, discuss the pipelines. However, cathodic protection systems interact with
special requirements for the coating by chemical and physical phenomena, which can
lead to cathodic disbondment of the coating. Corrosion may
field joint coatings and a occur underneath the disbonded coating, which is a risk for
new installation system that asset owners. Above ground or at offshore platforms, cathodic
protection is not in place as a back-up system.
accurately monitors heating
Testing for cathodic disbondment of all types of regular
and material qualities. ‘conventional coatings’ often reveals disbondment to a certain
extent. Contrary to this, properly formulated visco-elastic polymer
coating systems do not show any disbondment at all, due to their
unique self-healing properties at small defects.
35
Testing for cathodic disbondment is always carried out on manufactured under ideal conditions in the factory, whereas the
newly applied coatings and these are only tested for a short jointed sections are coated much later on, in the field. We expect
period of time, e.g. 30 days. The lifetime expectancy of assets, these joint protections to last for the same period but, given
however, is much longer, typically 30 years or more. During its the fact that the field joint area is exposed to many different
operating lifetime a coating will age and lose essential properties environmental influences, one can imagine the challenge to ensure
such as adhesive strength. This process can be simulated by hot a perfect application of every joint where 100% repeatability is
water immersion testing, followed by peel or dolly testing. Results required.
obtained with cathodic disbondment testing are not useful if over It is important to pay respect to the treatment of the heat
time the coating spontaneously disbonds because of the coating’s shrinkable sleeve (HSS) materials during the installation process.
ageing processes. The application of shrinkable materials during installation is critical
Stopaq visco-elastic coating systems have proved to be to ensure the required long lasting performance. Simply relying on
invulnerable to ageing in hot water immersion tests. Values installation by open gas torch flame and or previous introduced
obtained with peel testing after hot waterimmersion at Tmax 20˚C infra-red (IR) radiation does not always protect the HSS materials.
for 100 days were similar to values obtained with non-aged test Since the industry is insisting on the shortest installation times
specimens. The self-healing effect – a typical property of Stopaq possible, manufacturers are challenged to introduce materials and
coating systems – still completed within the expected period of equipment to make this possible.
time. Although many coating companies focus on reducing
shrinking times, Seal for Life recomends that this is not the
Engineering beyond the limits of experience feature to focus on when long term performance is desired. The
The oil and gas pipeline industry has become more demanding companye strongly believes that the main focus should be on
over the years. Pipelines are expected to last for a period of respecting the characteristics of the backing materials and at
50 years or longer. Pipelines and coating systems are typically the same time the inflow of the mastic/hotmelt adhesive. This
to ensure a full wetting of the substrate and create an optimal
bond. To ensure such inflow we need to respect the softening
temperature of the mastic/hotmelt and the time needed for it
to completely wet the substrate (the bond temperature and the
bonding time).
Designing for optimal performance

For the optimal performance and shortest installation time of the
Seal for Life HSS Systems, the company introduces engineered
solutions that respects the characteristics of the sleeve materials
and allows for maximum installation comfort and performance.
Seal for Life developed the very first intelligent assistant tool in
HSS installation, KELVIN.
The KELVIN range of intelligent installation systems offer
optimal and guaranteed installation comfort and performance
by ‘reading’ the characteristics of the sleeve materials that are
applied. KELVIN also creates an optimal HSE situation. The need
to apply the closure patch by open flame prior to the operation is
negated. The installation of the closure patch can be performed in
Figure 2. Tankchime application at transition concrete/
the same process.
steelplate. Built in sensor technology recognises the softening point
of the adhesive layer as well as the duration of the liquid stage
the adhesive is kept in (the bonding phase), and thus manual
inspection of the temperature during installation is not needed.
The shrink pressure by the sleeve body during the total installation
furthermore ensures the liquid mastic/hotmelt is forced to flow
into all irregularities of the substrate.
By using KELVIN technology for the installation of HSS,
heat is transferred from the heat source onto and through the
backing to reach the mastic/hotmelt. By using direct or near
contact solutions, weathering elements, such as wind, rain or
moist, cannot affect the process. The heat and pressure create
a heat bath of the mastic/hotmelt which is often called the ‘au
bain marie’ method of heating. It creates the most homogenous
Figure 3. 40 000 joints of 48 in. gas pipeline Stopaq HI Shield heating of the mastic/hotmelt, in which the heat is transferred
Shrink System, Gasunie. onto the (primed) body of the pipeline, avoiding the often

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KELVIN at a glance
)) Short installation time.
)) Operation by two engineers only.
)) Easy operation by fully pre-programmed PLC.
)) Available in sizes ranging from 10 - 52 in.
)) Maximum power to weight ratio.
)) Maximum technology-to-cost ratio.

Figure 4. The KELVIN Direct Contact Machine and Monitoring
Software for shrinkable sleeve application. )) Multiple units operating at same time.
)) Dramatically reduces the turnaround time at projects.

dramatic quenching effect. Moreover, the KELVIN’s sensor
)) Avoids sleeve damage by overheating.
technology ensures that overheating of the sleeve materials does
not occur. With the introduction of KELVIN, Seal for Life brings )) Reduces installation mistakes.
the first intelligent and automated system to the market that
allows guaranteed and uniform installation around a solid body )) Fully mobile units.
of all heat shrinkable polyolefin sleeves from the Seal for Life
)) No HSE issues.
range.
From an environmental point of view, KELVIN avoids the )) Direct or near contact between sleeve and KELVIN, so
need for high energy input as there is no need to recover heat that weather conditions do not influence the process.
losses during the installation process. In contract to open flame
or commonly used IR methods of shrinking, the loss of energy )) Allows a variety of shrinkable sleeves to be used, from
is minimal when making use of the ‘au bain marie’ process of soft mastic-based shrink sleeves to hard, hot melt shrink
heating. With ‘au bain marie’ the heat is trapped between the heat sleeves provided with a stiff and hard backing material
source and the substrate to ensure an optimal heat bath. This is (e.g. HDPE).
markedly different from the common IR way of heating in which )) Operational temperatures of the heating blanket is
the heat source is placed too far from the backing and too much monitored by temperature sensors connected to the
power is needed to beam through the backing, with a high chance control unit.
of damaging it, before it can liquefy the adhesive. In addition,
because the IR beam is extremely intense, the process time is kept )) Sleeve shrink temperatures are displayed at the PLC
to a minimum. This is the opposite of what is needed, which is to display.
transform and then keep the adhesive in a liquid phase, to ensure
)) Consistency of installation.
the inflow and wetting of the substrate.
)) Fast and easy patch application.
Registering the whole process
The PLC driven KELVIN units have a pre-programmed set of )) Compact in size.
parameters corresponding with specific sleeve types offered
)) Minimal packaging space required in confined FJC areas.
by Seal for Life. Every KELVIN is equipped with a set of sensors,
embedded at several locations along the heat source, allowing )) Ultimate bonding of adhesives such as mastics, hotmelts
it to register the temperature output and input to the sleeve and visco-elastics.
materials without human intervention. This ensures a very
accurate heating process in which the different parts of the )) Easy to install software programme per coating type.
KELVIN adjust themselves individually to create the homogenous )) Remote controlled.
heating and shrinking. It furthermore registers precisely the whole
process, making it possible for operators and clients to check on )) Extremely lightweight.
the installation.
Different types of PLC units are available on the KELVIN, )) Lowest energy consumption.
of which the most sophisticated version allows fully remote )) Preheat, installation and post heat process by the same
programming and reading. The contractor or client can login from unit without taken the machine from its position.
his desktop to check on the status of the installation executed and
the ‘as installed’ parameters thereof. They are able to print all the )) Safe and secure post rolling during installation
results to insert these in the installation reports. process.

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On a
scale of
ONE
TO
TEN...
T
he rating of things is human nature. Man uses tools
to compare everything, from weight to length, from
speed to time (or timing). Even physical attractiveness
is brought into the fray – ever heard the line ‘on a
scale of one to ten, what is he/she?’ The only problem is that
the aforementioned is extremely subjective.
But on a more serious note, the rating of infrastructure has
significant implications, because it introduces factors of safety.
Subjectivity must be kept at bay, and a rigorous understanding
and methodology must be applied in order to safeguard life
David A. and property.
Natural gas transmission lines play a key part in providing
Hunter, the energy required to keep countries and economies running,
Neptune as well as modern day conveniences typically taken for
Research, granted such as warming your shower water and cooking your
food. The technical term is vital. The failure of such lines can
Inc. (NRI), result to significant loss of life and property.
USA,
discusses A one or ten?
the re-rating In rating natural gas lines, depending on the jurisdiction in
which the line sits, there are certain modifications to increase
of in-service the factor of safety of the pipeline, namely the class and
buried location factors (Table 1 and the section below are taken from
pipelines. the Canadian Standards Association, CSA Z662-11, Oil & Gas
Pipeline Systems).
41
)) A prevalence of buildings intended for human occupancy
with four or more storeys above ground = class four
location designation.
Based on the aforementioned classification factors,

including the location of the pipe in residential or industrial
areas, the density of the population, etc., a reduction of what
is called the maximum allowable operating pressure (MAOP)
of the line is applied. This, in effect, increases the factor of
safety against a pipeline failure based on the consequences if
a failure were to happen.
There are two primary reasons why this fact holds some
interest:
)) Safety of the public and property.
Figure 1. View of the aftermath of exploded pipeline in San )) Operating pressure is directly related to revenue of the
Bruno, California. pipeline. The higher the operating pressure, the faster the
transfer of the sellable gas or liquid to the consumers.
Table 1. Location factor for steel pipe. Source: taken from Do wrinkles reduce your rating?
Canadian Standards Association, CSA Z662-11, Oil & Gas Our world is obsessed with beauty, and the signs of age tend
Pipeline Systems, Table 4.2 to reduce our youthful glow, decreasing our rating. Pipelines
Application Class Class two Class Class do not follow the same rules. Pipelines can get reduced rates
one location three four simply by being in the wrong place at the wrong time, like
location factor location location
being next to an expanding population base.
factor factor factor
Things that can reduce ratings include damage to line
Gas
(gouges and dents), corrosion losses, or other mechanical
(non-sour service)
damage. But what happens when someone decides to build a
General 1.000 0.900 0.700 0.550
brand new subdivision right next to your pipeline, or perhaps,
Cased crossings 1.000 0.900 0.700 0.550 an access road to cross over your line? The pipe might then
Roads 0.750 0.625 0.625 0.500 need to be reclassified and/or, the location factor adjusted
Railways 0.625 0.625 0.625 0.500 based on the new conditions. The re-classification or altering
Stations 0.625 0.625 0.625 0.500 the location factor can, and usually does, reduce the allowable
Other 0.750 0.750 0.625 0.500
MAOP of the pipe, which in turn could reduce the revenue the
pipeline can generate. The pipe may still be in excellent shape,
but the allowable pressure is reduced due to nothing more
CSA Z662-11: development within the class than required factors of safety. The operator has no options
location assessment area but to comply. Ouch!
)) None = class one location designation.
How about a facelift?
)) 10 or fewer dwelling units = class one location designation. One way humans combat the effects of ageing is to under-go
medical procedures to ‘reverse’ the effects of time. The
)) One or more of the following = class two location
procedure can be costly, and require downtime to heal. The
designation.
other option might be to eat right and exercise. In the case of
yy 11 - 45 dwelling units. the pipeline, there are also several options available.
yy A building occupied by 20 or more persons during
Cut and replace
normal use.
A first option might be for the operator to remove the
yy A small, well-defined outside area occupied by 20 or problematic section of pipe and replace it with a thicker or
more persons during normal use (e.g. a playground, higher strength pipe, allowing a higher operating pressure.
recreation area, outdoor theatre, or other place of Certainly a viable solution, but it has one costly factor:
public assembly). downtime, which is synonymous with lost revenue, and
some potentially angry customers, since the service will be
yy An industrial installation (e.g. a power plant or a
hazardous substance storage area) where release of the interrupted. ASME and other regulating bodies allow this
service fluid from the pipeline can cause the industrial option.
installation to produce a dangerous or environmentally
hazardous condition. Welded steel sleeve
A second option would be to build a welded sleeve around
)) 46 or more dwelling units = class three. the pipe. In this scenario, a pipe is installed on top of the pipe

Figure 2. Aerial view of line routing under two locations.
Names removed at operators’ request. Figure 5. Primer application.
Engineered composite repair

The third option allowed by ASME PCC-2 is using an
engineered composite repair or ECR. The composite option
has some advantages that the other two do not: composites
do not require the line to be shutdown during installation;
they can be installed by fairly unskilled labour after training;
and can be installed on nearly any geometry that might be
presented or uncovered in the dig due to their conformable
nature.
The operation
A need for the re-rating of a pipe located at a road crossing
Figure 3. Excavation of the line. in Canada recently brought all of these benefits together in
one unusual project. Figure 2 demonstrates the proposed road
crossings.
Beauty at a reasonable price

In evaluating several options for maintaining pressure and
meeting the safety standards for the lines, the operator
decided on an engineered composite repair (ECR).
The materials are user friendly, and provide the ability to
increase the pressure rating of a pipe by providing additional
structural support for hoop and axial direction of the line.
Since they are applied by a simple 50% overlap wrapping
method, and the materials are qualified using the ASME PCC-2
testing protocol, the additional structural reinforcement can
be calculated, providing a repair length and number of layers
required based on proven formulas found within the standard.
Figure 4. Surface preparation.
Figures 3 - 7 show the ECR process.
and welded into position, with a filler material required to be Discussion

installed between the outer pipe and inner pipe in the event Composites, as the name implies, are combinations of two
that annular space is created. This is another option allowed or more materials that act integrally when combined. Many
by ASME PCC-2, but often problems arise concerning the times the combination will take advantage of each material’s
length that needs to be reinforced, because often the steel individual strengths, to provide a functional combination
is not completely straight when installed. Since the length that is greater than each individual material by itself. One
is not completely straight, multiple sleeves may need to be composite that everyone in the world has seen is reinforced
fabricated in order to match the curvature of the pipe (if concrete. Concrete by itself is very strong in compression, but
necessary). Length presents a problem as welding steel sleeves weak in tension. Steel is extremely strong in tension, but if not
for sections over 50 ft is somewhat impractical in the field braced in the transverse direction, the slenderness ratio would
and can be costly. cause it fail at very low loads in compression. By properly

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placing the steel in the column, beam or slab in the tension due to pot lives, and are more subject to changes based on
locations of a concrete member, the ability for the member environmental conditions.
to handle both tension and compression can be achieved, and It is interesting to note that composites are reinforced
voilà! Composites are everywhere in everyday life. resin systems, i.e. coatings. In excess of 90% of the quality
The composites used in this case are not steel and control/quality assurance steps for proper installation are
concrete, but work much the same way. Engineered composite identical to those used in the coatings industry.
repairs use a polymer, typically a two-part epoxy or moisture- )) Surface preparation.
cured polyurethane (MCU) binding resin with extremely
strong fibre architecture, typically made of engineered glass )) Surface profile.
(fibreglass) or carbon fibres.
)) Addressing rough or irregular surfaces on the substrate
The choice of carbon fibre vs fibreglass fibre is primarily
that must be smoothed in order for the composite not to
one of strength vs cost. Carbon fibre tends to make a higher
have stress concentration (either by grinding or using filler
strength/modulus composite per layer, but costs more. material).
The FRP resin can be either a pre-impregnated (the resins
are pre-applied to the fibre in the plant) or field-saturated )) Addressing rough, jagged, or protruding areas of filler after
system. Pre-impregnated systems consist of single component application to pits and weld that must be smoothed via
systems that are cured by environmental exposure, such as sanding in order to prevent stress concentrations in the
moisture or ultraviolet light, whereas field-saturated systems composite once installed (if required).
are typically two-part epoxies. There are advantages and
)) Batch life verification.
disadvantages to each. For example, the MCU systems offer
good strength, and are very user-friendly during application, )) Monitoring ambient conditions, and substrate conditions.
even including underwater application. Epoxy based systems
have higher strength characteristics but limited working times )) Identification of proper mixtures ratios and thorough
mixing.
)) Uniformity of application, addressing holidays (voids in the

application), runs, sags, or drips.
)) Pot life.
)) Film thickness verification of primers.
)) Verification of properly applied thickness (layers) of the

composite.
)) Installation and removal (after curing) of compression

films.
)) Verification of cure via shore hardness testing.
)) Top coating if necessary to prevent ultraviolet degradation

(if above ground).
Figure 6. Isolation layer installation.
Results and conclusions
The aforementioned is a great advantage for the pipeline
owner, because the vast majority of the technicians found in
pipeline construction are often qualified coatings inspectors.
Although some of the steps are specialised, they are no
stretch for the coatings inspector; therefore, the owner does
not need to employ a specialty inspector from an outside
firm to perform the application inspection. It does, however,
require knowledge of the standards for design and training for
proper installation. Engineered composite projects must have
a well-written specification, which highlights the required
testing needs, installation training, and quality steps required
for field verification.
The resulting Canadian pipeline re-rating installation met
the requirements of the customer, both in lack of downtime
and results, as the pipeline now has the required factor
of safety while allowing for continued use at the pressure
Figure 7. Installation of carbon fibre pre-impregnated layers.
required for maintaining profit. In addition, the customer
saved over US$150 000 over other alternatives.

Figure 1. A product from Henkel’s
LOCTITE Composite Pipe Repair System
being applied to pipework.
EXTENDING
THE LIFE OF PIPES
Bob Orme, Senior Technology Specialist at Henkel Ltd.,
UK, explains how innovation can significantly extend the
lifespan of pipes.
S
teel pipelines are extremely capital intensive, irrespective rather than replace pipework, and are seeking solutions that
of whether they are used to transport gas, water, crude mitigate interruption in processes and productivity.
oil, waste water or any other medium. So the lifetime One group of products that are proving increasingly
of these transport systems is a critical factor for any important in this regard are metal rebuilding and wear resistant
operator. It therefore pays to continue to operate pipes as long coating systems. While traditional repair methods are time
as possible after the planned amortisation and depreciation consuming and expensive, such as hard face welding and flame
period. spraying, metal repair compounds are easily applied and offer
Pipes are exposed, both internally and externally, to the superior compressive strength and protection qualities.
combined corrosive effect of the climate, mechanical stress and With their extremely hard reinforcement fillers, these polymer
chemical attack. As the renewal of damaged and ageing sections composites have excellent wear resistance and exceptional
stops production, companies are therefore choosing to repair adhesion. They are designed to protect and extend the service
47
life of a wide range of plant equipment. The composites act as a developed for renewing surfaces subject to compression, thrust,
sacrificial and renewable working surface, protecting the structural impact, and harsh environments.
integrity of the original substrate. The pipe is then wrapped with high-strength, glass carbon
fibre tape – LOCTITE 5085 – that has been impregnated with
Latest technology temperature-resistant, two-part epoxy resin LOCTITE PC 7210.
Henkel is a world leader in adhesives, sealants, and functional This product is designed for bonding steel substrates and exhibits
coatings, and it has developed a wide choice of dedicated exceptionally high adhesion.
formulations of both metal repair compounds and wear The repaired section is finally sealed with a spray ceramic
resistant coatings. Individual products are designed for specific topcoat, LOCTITE PC 7255; a two-part epoxy that is Water
environments and conditions, such as heavy wear/abrasion, Regulations Advisory Scheme (WRAS) approved. The resultant
corrosive fluids, or high temperature service. composite repair effectively reinforces steel pipes for continued
The company’s latest introduction, however, is not straight duty under high pressure and thermal cycling, while increasing
out of the research and development laboratory. It is a system their chemical resistance.
that brings together a range of products, field proven over
many years. When their attributes are combined they create Economic benefits
a new method of pipe repair, the results of which are truly In addition to certified safety, the LOCTITE Composite Pipe
groundbreaking. Repair System enhances its cost-saving credentials by eliminating
This new composite repair system for pipes has been the need to replace pipe components. Corroded pipes can be
introduced under Henkel’s respected LOCTITE® brand. This system repaired on the premises, without any interruption to operation
is attracting a lot of attention due to its potential to increase pipe and even with high internal pressure. This is in addition to cost
lifetime by up to 20 years, offering significant economic benefits savings associated with a significant increase in the pipelines
for the end user. active service life.
Central to the LOCTITE Composite Pipe Repair System is Another part of the solution package is Henkel’s ability
a resin-based composite material reinforced with fibres. It is to provide calculations of project-specific repair designs.
similar to materials developed by Henkel that are successfully These differ from project to project depending on the range
serving manufacturers of rotor blades for wind power of parameters, such as the forces acting on the pipeline,
generation, or lightweight components for the automotive temperature, pressure, and the extent of damage. To maximise
industry. When used for steel pipelines, the composite the safety and efficiency of this process, Henkel has developed a
reinforces the damaged pipe sections while also protecting software tool to determine how the repair should be executed;
them against renewed corrosion. this is also covered by the DNV GL certification.
This all-in-one repair system has completed a rigorous test
programme by DNV GL – the certification body serving the oil, Expert partnership
gas, and marine engineering sectors. The test programme spanned One of the first companies to take advantage of this new
two years, to assure the product’s conformity with the global combination of proven Henkel technologies is Bilfinger Industrial
quality standard ISO/TS 24817. Services, one of Europe’s leading engineering and service
This standard defines the design, installation, test, and providers for the process industry and the energy sector. Indeed,
inspection criteria for use of composite repair systems for oil and in the UK oil and gas industry alone Bilfinger is reported to
gas pipelines and pipework carrying petrochemicals. Compliance have a one third market share for fabric maintenance services
of the LOCTITE Pipe Repair System with this standard gives at production facilities. This includes scaffolding, inspection,
industry access to a time-served system with the added insulation and protective coatings.
assurance of certified safety and performance. Bilfinger clearly considers the LOCTITE Composite Pipe Repair
The system is suitable for repairing both Type A (non-through System to be an ideal addition to its armoury. As specified in the
wall) and Type B (through wall) defects, covering all repair classes ISO certification and required by DNV GL, Bilfinger engineers
1 - 3. In addition to straight pipes, the system can also be used to have completed the specifically developed, certified training
repair and seal other structures and components such as bends, programme for pipe repair at Henkel’s Technical Applications
tee’s, reducers, and flanges. Centre in Hemel Hempstead, Hertfordshire, UK.
“We are actively seeking new solutions to extend asset life,
The process reduce maintenance costs, and set ourselves apart from the
The first step in the repair procedure is to clean and sandblast competition by offering higher value services and solutions,”
the surface of the damaged area. As this treatment makes the explained Murray Strachan, Head of Strategic Business
substrates extremely susceptible to flash rust, Henkel recommends Development, Bilfinger SE Oil and Gas Division.
the application of the corrosion inhibitor, LOCTITE SF 7515, to He continued: “some of our customers’ facilities are now
provide immediate, temporary protection. 40 years old and it is very important to keep them operating
For Type A defects, the original outer pipe diameters need safely and, at the same time, to keep maintenance costs low and
to be restored by filling the cavities with LOCTITE EA 3478 – a downtimes to a minimum.”
proven ferro-silicon filled epoxy compound that provides Demonstrating its commitment to seeking and developing
outstanding compression strength. This product was specifically advanced long-term engineering and maintenance solutions for

its customers, Bilfinger invited Henkel to an innovation workshop Together, Bilfinger and Henkel set about developing a
in Aberdeen. It drew in experts from both companies, from repair concept. This involved injecting a LOCTITE epoxy
Germany, Dubai, UK, India, Italy, Norway, and the Netherlands. resin into approximately 700 flanges. Then, with the aid of a
The main purpose of the event was to discuss the needs of nitrile rubber ‘O’ ring and high tensile stainless steel strip on
customers in the oil and gas, refinery, and process industries, and each connection, hydraulic pressure was applied, pressing
to brainstorm ideas on how Bilfinger and Henkel can improve the sealant into the smallest gaps in the flanges.
maintenance efficiency and outcome. The work was undertaken over a period of four weeks
“We have vast product knowledge when it comes to and complex tests at pressures of 30 bar – requested by
the service and maintenance of pipelines, pumps, gears and the client – confirmed that the solution had worked well.
other components,” explained Bernd Hammer, Global Market Only minute amounts of gas escaped under an extremely
Development Manager, Oil and Gas at Henkel Adhesive stringent hydrogen leak test – incredibly, less than one-
Technologies. “And Bilfinger is aware of the specific problems tenth of the permitted limit values.
its customers face and what is needed in the future.” Simon Hope added: “the total cost was less than
Bilfinger and Henkel are now bringing together their respective £500 000. Indeed, the customer saved about 90% of the
expertise to create potential for both companies, as well as deliver costs originally expected, and the complete project was
efficiency gains and cost savings for the industries they serve. delivered before a high sensitive TAR completion deadline.”
This is a prime example of how the collaboration
Joint expertise between Henkel and Bilfinger is creating innovative
Although the new LOCTITE Composite Pipe Repair System maintenance processes, and how the new pipe repair
is providing a new focus for discussion, Bilfinger has valued system feeds in to the pool of solutions that are available.
Henkel’s skills for many years. Indeed, the company recently Kai Vogt from Corporate Business Development at
sought Henkel’s advice on how best to seal flange connections Bilfinger concludes: “the safe and cost effective repair of
in a large cooling system to prevent leakage of climate-damaging piping components is the first priority for the partners.
R22 refrigerant gas at the Grangemouth Refinery in Scotland. Both companies are globally-positioned, so we are able
“The client was prepared for the worst and had already to offer our services to local and international clients
budgeted £5 million for the project,” said Simon Hope, a throughout the entire process industry, as well as in
Technical Consultant at Bilfinger. power plants.”
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CATHODIC
DISBONDMENT
or self-healing?
Nathan Muncaster, Polyguard Products, USA, and
Luc Perrad, Expartech, Belgium, discuss cathodic
disbondment testing and its importance within the industry.
50
B
y definition, cathodic disbondment is the loss of adhesion
between a coating and its metal substrate, due to cathodic
chemical reactions that take place in the interface of steel and
coating. In cathodic protection systems, current passing through
the metal frees hydrogen gas and oxidative molecules like chlorine and
hypochlorite-ions, causing coating disbondment. This current passes only
through metal exposed to the electrolyte where the coating is in default.
The current flow amount depends on the size of the coating fault. If the
size of the fault increases, the current increases, causing more cathodic
disbondment. If there is no coating fault, then cathodic disbondment does
not occur.
The purpose of the cathodic disbondment test is to quantitatively
compare the resistance to excessive cathodic protection currents
between different coating materials. Potential, temperature, duration,
electrolyte, composition and diameter of the drill, are the main parameters
of the cathodic disbondment test. Due to numerous variations of the
test parameters, an extraordinary variety of test conditions and related
acceptance criteria have been established. ASTM, CEN, or ISO publishes
51
the major test methods used in the oil and gas and water which expresses the relative degradation of that material
industries. ISO21809-3 – the most recent published standard when attacked by excessive cathodic current.
– gives different requirements, including maximum allowed Knowing this, and knowing that the functions of high
disbondment radius for each type of coating. strength electrical insulation and anti-corrosion control
are not presently deliverable in the same product, one
Coatings understands that the anti-corrosion coatings can never deliver
Coatings for anti-corrosion and electrical insulation are a true zero in cathodic disbondment testing if the test were
two different areas requiring diverse material selection. An performed over a longer period. One expects to capture
electrical insulator based on current technology cannot be a certain degradation value and extrapolate the numerical
expected to provide the same anti-corrosion performance as result to analyse the anti-corrosion coating. Standardised
a dedicated anti-corrosion coating, and vice versa. Thus, when accelerated test methodologies vary in duration and
someone applies a cathodic disbondment test to an anti- temperature, using an original artificial hole of typically 3 mm
corrosion coating, one expects to capture a numerical value, radius, but the purpose does not change. Engineers need to
view this as a ‘snapshot in time’ – whether the test period is
30 days, 90 days or a modification, the accelerated testing is
still just a glimpse, a parameter amongst many to consider an
anti-corrosion coating’s performance.
If an anti-corrosion coating cites a 0 mm disbondment
result, it is important to understand this represents one of
two possibilities. The first is that the anti-corrosion coating is
understood to not have degraded during the observed time
period, and this is deemed excellent. Yet, it is imperative to
understand that anti-corrosion coatings are not full electrical
insulations and that eventually degradation will occur. The
second possible result is that the material cold flowed into
the void (typically 3 mm radius) created for the purpose
of the test. This is a completely different result and in no
way captures the true value of the cathodic disbondment
resistance of that coating system. In the real world, coating
damage spots are highly unlikely to be perfectly formed
circles with 3 mm radiuses. Rather, mechanical damage tends
Figure 1. Cathodic disbondment on a pipeline. to be larger and exceed the self-healing capacity of coating
systems. So, in any situation where the damage spot was
larger than the cold flow capacity of the coating, bare metal
would remain, and then cathodic disbondment would occur.
If an engineer were only using a testing result that declared
cathodic disbondment to be zero, or even a negative figure,
the result they used would have absolutely no relationship to
real world performance.
Disbondment testing
In Polyguard, historically, if the RD-6 coating system cold
flowed into the void during cathodic disbondment testing,
the American customers would not accept a result of zero,
since we were only demonstrating our self-healing/cold flow
capabilities. Consequently, for the American market, we often
had to redo testing and try to apply less tension or pressure
on the sample so that the viscosity would be less.
On the other side, some markets in Europe for example,
easily accept a 0 mm disbondment result and sometimes
even a -3 mm result (self-healing over the 3 mm radius
original hole). Amendment One of the international standard
ISO21809-3, largely inspired by the European EN12068
standard, is requesting 0 mm disbondment for coating types
1E-a and 1E-b after 28 days cathodic disbondment test at 23°C
Figure 2. Cathodic disbondment testing. and at maximum service temperature. Coatings 1E are based
on non-crystalline low viscosity polyolefin tapes (simply

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called viscoelastic coatings). Their manufacturers recognise Amendment One of ISO21809-3 standard is requesting only
themselves that the result of cathodic disbondment test of 0.2 N/mm for peel strength at 23°C for coating types 1E-a
such coating systems is 0 mm, due to the self-healing effect. and 1E-b (viscoelastic coatings). This value can be compared
Experts like the members of the committee for the new with the peel strength required for other coating systems:
edition of the standard ISO21809-3 discussed this issue and type 1D (polymeric tapes): 1 N/mm; type 2B (3LPE heat
agreed that self-healing is the main, and probably the only shrinkable material): 2.5 N/mm. Adhesion to steel is the most
reason, for 0 mm disbondment for viscoelastic coatings. fundamental property for pipeline coatings; is self-healing
It is interesting to note that ISO21809-3 is requesting 0 mm more important than adhesion?
disbondment for coating type 1E (viscoelastic) only. All the The lap shear resistance test is one method to capture a
other coating systems listed in ISO21809-3 do have cathodic coating system’s resistance against soil movements. For large
disbondment requirements above 0 mm just because they diameter pipelines, this property is certainly as important as
don’t measure self healing in that test (Table 1). the adhesion to the substrate. ISO21809-3 is requesting
We feel it is important that engineers in the global market 0.05 N/mm2 for coatings type 1D, cold applied polymeric
understand and appreciate what is being observed and tapes (PE tapes) and only 0.02 N/mm² for coatings type 1E
captured. With cathodic disbondment testing your objective (viscoelastic coatings). From many years of field experience,
should be to obtain a quantitative value of the anti-corrosion the well-known weakest point for PE tape coatings is the
coating’s resistance or degradation when in contact with soil stress resistance, causing many cases of delamination at
excessive cathodic currents. If this means that the radius used the four and eight o’clock positions. With only 0.02 N/mm2,
to analyse the cathodic disbondment value for some coating viscoelastic coatings present even less resistance to soil stress.
systems needs to be wider, then that could be an individual The most important principle is that an engineer
decision as current testing methodologies can fall short in understands the testing parameters, what is being
capturing this property accurate in some cases. observed, and how methodologies can interact differently
between materials. While a simple review of standards and
Is too much viscosity a positive or a negative? methodologies is not very complicated and available for
Knowing that pressure triggers flow, one could extrapolate the anybody with Internet access or a small budget to purchase
deleterious effect of soil movement and the pressure it exerts copies, a comprehensive grasp of methodologies can be
on a coating system and assume this pressure would trigger intimidating. Drawing an analogy, a civil engineer would not
coating flow, typically towards the bottom of the pipeline. expect to use wood and concrete for the same application.
Likewise, identical testing parameters cannot be applied for
those materials. A healthy collaboration between industry
and manufacturers is desired, but not all engineers know how
to compare test methods on different materials, and not all
manufacturers seek to truly assist them.
Table 1. Requirements ISO21809-3 – maximum cathodic

disbondment at 23˚C
Types of coating Code Maximum
cathodic
disbondment
Hot applied bituminous tape 1A 20 mm
Petrolatum tape 1B 20 mm
Wax tap 1C 12 mm
Polymetric tape 1D 15 mm
Heat shrinkable sleeves without 2A 10 mm
primer
Heat shrinkable sleeves with 2B 8 mm
primer
Liquid coatings 4A, 4C and 8 mm
4D
Liquid coatings polyurethane 4B 10 mm
Cast polyurethane 4E 10 mm
Polyolefin-based coatings 5 7 mm
Thermal spray aluminium 6 No requirement
Hot applied microcrystalline wax 7 14 mm
coatings
Elastomeric coatings 8 7 mm
Non-crystalline low viscosity
Figure 3. Cathodic disbondment testing. 1E 0 mm
polyolefin tapes

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John C. Bollinger P.E.,
(Principal Corrosion Engineer),
Farwest Corrosion Control
Company, US, explains the
importance of dielectric isolation
for cathodic protection
systems.
T
here are many factors to consider when designing a cathodic protection (CP) system.
Attention to detail and proper installation techniques are mandatory if a CP system
is to provide the required results. This article will focus on the two most important
factors that control the design of a CP system: coatings that are the primary dielectric
isolation between the pipeline and the soil/electrolyte; and the physical/electrical isolation
of the pipeline from foreign structures, i.e. structures not intended to be protected in the CP
design.
Coating systems
Proper coating selection for the specific pipeline operating condition is critical to the
performance of the pipeline. These considerations can include varying operating temperatures,
physical soil properties, soil chemistry and more.
Proper application of the selected coating is equally important. Even the best coating
system will fail if it is not properly installed. Surface preparation, temperature, humidity, dew
points are all factors that should be considered when the coating is applied. Having a third-
57
party, qualified coating inspector during the coating process So what exactly is a ‘good’ coating?
is strongly recommended. Let’s assume, for example, that a 99% efficient coating
is considered adequate for the purposes of pipeline
Coating efficiencies performance. The vast majority of people might agree that
The basis of any CP design requires knowledge, or a a 99% efficient coating would be a high rating. However,
competent estimate, of the amount (area) of bare steel that consider a requirement or specification to coat a structure
will be exposed to the soil/electrolyte. In a perfect scenario, that is 10 ft2 x 10 ft2, or 100 total ft2. A 99% efficient coating
a pipeline would have a 100% flawless coating. If this were would mean that one full ft2 of surface area was missed and
possible, there would be no need for CP as there would be is still bare. How about 99.9% efficient instead? This would
zero contact of the steel with the earth and therefore, no still leave an equivalent bare area of 1.2 x 1.2 in. and in this
possibility of corrosion. author’s opinion, a new coating with even 99.9% coverage
This is an unrealistic expectation due to the inevitable should be considered unacceptable.
nicks, scratches (called coating holidays) and possibly less Besides coating efficiency, all coatings have a ‘dielectric
than perfectly coated field joints. Therefore, it is up to strength’, which varies with coating type. This is the ability
the CP designer to estimate the coating efficiency for the of the coating to act as an electrical insulator or barrier
pipeline in order to calculate the amount of CP current between the pipeline and the soil. So even with a perfect
needed to adequately protect the pipeline. or 100% efficient coating, a minute amount of CP current
can pass through the coating with low dielectric strength,
thereby affecting the CP system’s design life.
As it relates to coating efficiency, the new generation
of multi-layer, fusion bonded epoxy (FBE) coatings, used
on the majority of new pipeline installations, can provide
efficiencies well in excess of 99%. I have found, through
empirical testing, that a properly applied FBE coating can
provide long-term stability and dielectric effectiveness well
in excess of 99.9%. Some of the old ‘coal tar’ type coatings
had a much lower dielectric strength, even when new, and
would degrade with time. This has been an ongoing ‘nemesis’
to CP operators for many years.
No matter what the coating type, it is important that the
entire pipeline is checked for coating imperfections with a
high voltage holiday detector. Doing so will help to ensure
a minimum number of coating holidays and much better
performance from the designed CP system.
Figure 1. Standard dielectric insulating flange kit.
Finally, it is very important that the pipeline is
backfilled in such a manner to prevent
coating damage during this phase of
installation. Proper backfill media or
coating protection, such as a rock
shield, is critical to the long-term
performance of the CP system.
Electrical isolation
As important as an efficient coating is,
the need for proper electrical isolation
of the pipeline is equally important. In
a perfect scenario, the pipeline should
be a stand-alone metallic structure
with no electrical interconnections
to other foreign metallic structures.
This is typically accomplished by
the installation of the appropriate
dielectric insulating fitting.
Dielectric insulating fittings
generally fall into four categories:
)) Standard dielectric insulating
flange kit: this product consists
Figure 2. Monolithic dielectric insulating fitting cut-away.
of a single 1/8 in. (3.2 mm)

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thick dielectric flange gasket, insulating sleeves and 1/8 in. wide but a flanged spool extends that width
washers. This type of isolation kit is used throughout the to 25 in. (for an 8 in. spool). This fitting can be locally
industry but does have some reliability issues in certain fabricated by standard pipeline welding and coating
application (Figure 1). processes (Figure 3).
Even with proper installation of the required dielectric
)) Dielectric insulating unions: usually used on pipelines
insulating fittings, any unintended physical or electrical
smaller than 3 in. dia., and when properly installed they
are very reliable. Remember that these products will vary contact between the company’s primary pipeline and a
in pressure rating and material construction. foreign structure, i.e. another pipeline or metallic structure,
will electrically bond or short the two structures together.
)) Monolithic dielectric insulating fitting: brand names As a result, these unintended and additional structures will
include ElectroStop, IsoJoint and others. These fittings often require very high CP currents for protection, which can
are factory built, weld-in, dielectric insulating joints. They degrade the overall CP system.
are reliable, internally lined with a dielectric material There are many situations along the pipeline that require
with a smooth bore, and are compatible with pipeline close consideration as to the need for dielectric isolation.
pigging. Monolithic fittings are the most expensive of These include flanged connections, motor operated valves
all the inline dielectric fittings and can have very long (MOV), pig signals, temperature probes, flowmeters, pipeline
delivery times (Figure 2). taps, casings, bridges and more. Each will require close design
)) Double insulated, internally lined, flanged spool: an and installation attention to ensure that they are properly
alternative to the monolithic insulating fitting, this isolated from the pipeline.
custom made product provides double insulated flanges Other challenges can be found during construction that,
with an internal lining that extends the dielectric if not identified, can be a real problem after construction.
insulating ‘band’. As an example, a standard gasket is
Pipeline’s electrical isolation and CP systems
Field experience has proven that pipelines that transfer
electrically conductive products (products that have
suspended sediment or debris) can and will eventually
‘bridge’ across a standard 1/8 in. thick insulating gasket. This
usually results in a compromised or shorted dielectric flange
isolation kit. This condition is exacerbated if pigging is used
regardless of the product properties. There are solutions
to this problem, such as monolithic isolating fittings and
internally coated pipeline spools in conjunction with flange
isolation kits as described above.
Any compromise to the pipeline’s electrical isolation
will reduce or nullify the effectiveness of the designed
CP system. When an isolating fitting fails or is bypassed
by some parallel metallic circuit (such as a new conduit
installation or similar) that contacts the isolated section of
Figure 3. Double insulated/internally lined flanged spools.
Figure 4. Isolating the pipeline from the casing is very Figure 5. Notice physical contact to rebar. If not cleared during
important. construction it will be a big problem later to locate and correct.

pipeline, the CP current requirement will increase, which in aspects of the pipeline installation that relates to CP.
turn will shorten the CP system service life and/or minimise This includes anode installation, cable connections,
the CP system’s ability to protect the pipeline. installation of dielectric insulating devices, as well as
Pipeline casings must also be electrically isolated from any other devices associated with, or that might have an
the pipeline in order to achieve an effective and efficient impact on the performance of the CP system. It is always
CP system. A shorted casing will serve as a metallic shield better to prevent a problem from occurring at the time
to CP current and eliminate any possibility of providing of construction than trying to fix the problem after the
protective current to the pipeline within the casing. project is completed.
Therefore, electrically isolating the pipeline from the casing In instances where corrections or repairs would require
is very important. Properly designed and installed casing a pipeline shutdown, the time between identifying the
insulators and casing end seals is the key to achieving this problem to correcting the problem can be greatly extended
goal (Figure 4). due to the reluctance to shut down the line and/or cost
The ratio of required CP current for an isolated pipeline, in considerations in regards to an out of service pipeline.
comparison to an electrically shorted pipeline, can be greater
than 100 to 1. This means that the theoretical service life of a Conclusion
CP system in an isolated pipeline condition may be as much as Clearly, there are many factors that must be considered
30 years. However, if the pipeline is shorted to other metallic when designing a CP system for buried pipelines. The
structures, the additional current loading on the CP system challenge of providing proper electrical isolation is common
can reduce the actual anode life to less than one year. to both galvanic and impressed current CP systems.
Seemingly minor issues can greatly affect the ability of a
Critical field inspection CP system to effectively protect the pipeline. All things
During the installation of the pipeline and CP system, considered, the initial time and cost during the pipeline and
it is strongly recommended that a third-party field CP design phase, along with careful installation practices,
inspector, familiar with the CP design requirements are likely to be many times less costly in the long run.
and installation techniques, be retained to oversee all Remember, the devil is in the details.
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OFFICIAL MEDIA PARTNERS

Kirill Otradnov and Sergii Kornieiev,
BaltRobotics, Poland, explain the
automatic AUV-based approach for
the CP inspection of subsea pipelines.
THE AUV
APPROACH
O
ver the 2011 - 2015 period, the global combined The regulation
pipeline and control line market is expected to reach A new regulation requires an increase in the frequency of
almost 90 000 km.1 the inspections from one every five years (which was the
As installed subsea pipelines grow older, the practice until recently) to one every three years. In the future,
importance of inspection, repair and overhaul approaches is maintenance will be about preventive work and thus monitoring
increased. A lot of new subsea pipelines have been built over and inspection will have to be carried out on a continuous
the last 10 years and that alleviates the problem for a time. basis.
However, the lack of proven maintenance approaches means There is a serious obstacle in increasing the frequency of
that every three or four years the working pressure in the inspections: cost. The rent of a vessel with ROV equipment is
pipelines must be decreased: from 50 atm initially, to 25, to typically more than US$100 000/d. The daily productivity of
12, etc. This causes a huge loss of output. Recent catastrophes one ROV is less 15 km and this is only with the good weather
in the offshore oil and gas industry have necessitated the conditions. Working seasons in comparatively quiet equator
establishment of stronger regulations regarding maintenance. regions is 80 - 120 days per year (i.e. 25 - 30%), thus ‘average
63
productivity’ with the technology is three to four times less. In approximately 100 m. The resources of these shallow water
some regions with extreme weather conditions, inspections are marine areas are far from exhaustion. For example, as Reuters
only possible for half of the year. reported on 12 December 2014: “Mexico is offering 14 shallow
High dependence on the weather leads to disadvantageous water exploration and production contracts for bids: 14 contracts
contract terms for customers – oil and gas operators. The cover 4222 km2 in Mexican territorial waters in depths between 131
customer should pay not for the work carried out (the length of and 262 ft (40 and 80 m).” That means that from the maintenance
inspected pipelines), but for number of days they need to rent point of view, ‘shallow water’ is very important.
the vessel-ROV equipment. Shallow water is not always easy to work in. With statistics
Bearing in mind the decrease of oil prices, the costs of the gained from recent research (for example, Manoj Kulshrestha
maintenance become a serious factor in total expenditures. The ‘Shallow water hazards’, OE, May 2015) it has been seen that
optimisation of these costs is the privileged task for R&D and pipelines in shallow water are at increased risk from intensive
technology departments. offshore activities. These include anchor damage, fishing
Furthermore, if we see ROV as the basic inspection interference and so on.2 Global statistics for shallow water
equipment, there are even higher risks of incidents that are pipeline damage are as follows:
caused by umbilicals and tethers. One reason to have a cable )) Mechanical damages – more than 50%.
between the ROV and the vessel is the need to have online
video communication. Embedded batteries in the vehicle can )) Corrosion – 26%.
eliminate the other reason – energy supply.
In the Middle East, there are thousands of kilometres of
Shallow water pipelines pipelines in shallow water that are not buried and lack concrete
In recent years, companies have been drilling in the ocean protection. This leads to an increased risk of incidents including
have been down to 3000 m and more. But, at the same time, coating damage and intensive corrosion.
the majority of subsea pipelines are situated at a depth of
Inspection techniques
The detection and risk assessment of the effects of mechanical
damage is currently primarily associated with visual inspection.
Corrosion monitoring is also associated with cathodic potential
measurement (externally) and intelligent pigs (externally).
Underwater inspections are mainly conducted with ROVs,
which have cameras and electrodes to measure the cathodic
potential. There are some other methods: electromagnetic,
radioactive, etc., but they can only be used locally and are not
applicable for long distance inspections. Leak detection is a
separate task.
Given that an ROV support vessel has a typical
displacement of more than 1000 t, this leads to restrictions,
particularly at shallow depths. Divers can be used only locally.
Figure 1. AUVs onboard a carrier. The benefits of AUVs

The impact of economic factors on the planning of
technical inspections has increased dramatically, due to the
aforementioned decrease in the price of oil. There is a need
to develop approaches to improve the quality and frequency
of inspections while under the conditions of budget cuts.
As a consequence, autonomous underwater vehicles
(AUVs) should increase their market share in the maintenance
of subsea pipelines. AUVs will become an increasingly
important tool for inspection, maintenance and repair (IMR)
operations. They will influence a wide range of inspection
sensors and technologies including video, photographic,
sonar, laser, ultrasonic, magnetic and so forth, in order to
achieve end user and regulatory agency objectives for subsea
structural integrity monitoring of offshore platforms, subsea
pipelines, risers, flowlines, and other subsea infrastructure.
The primary advantage of AUVs in comparison with ROVs
is their autonomy. Other benefits are increased reliability
and fewer requirements for personnel. AUVs require a less
Figure 2. AUV ‘X-3A’ launch.
supportive vessel – this can be the source of significant

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savings. The operations of AUVs can be maintained with a 10 km away and provides an accurate measurement of the
vessel of 100 t displacement, which is ten times less than cathode potential).
typical support vessels require. AUVs can replace light work
ROVs. )) The AUV starts the inspection in automatic mode, which
To ensure the development of AUVs in the offshore oil does not require a support vessel around. AUV follows the
pipeline using the magnetic autopilot system and dynamic
and gas industry, DeepStar has united the largest operators
positioning (DP) and at the same time, recording the state
in the sector, including Chevron, BP, Total, and Petrobras and
of the pipeline surface with the video camera.
has developed a draft of standards for the use of AUVs in
inspections. These drafts were presented for the discussion )) Upon completion of the inspection, the AUV can return
in September 2014. to the point of vessel dislocation or use the radio channel
Until now, a major deterrent factor for AUVs was the from the surface to transmit its GPS co-ordinates, before
lack of wireless video transmission online. “The lack of lying down on the seabed to wait for the vessel – it will
breakthroughs in wireless underwater communication and send the acoustic command to the AUV when it reaches
battery capacity is prolonging the wait for an AUV, one that the destination.
will not need a US$100 000/d vessel and crew, a heavy
)) This well-established and proven technique for measuring
tether for power and control, or hours to complete a task
the cathode potential will be used initially. Furthermore,
that might take minutes onshore.”2
the list of inspection methods and sensor payloads will be
expanded, primarily to electromagnetic methods and leak
The use of videos and CP-UAIT detection.
Wireless videos are particularly important in the initial stages
of AUV missions, such as ‘search pipeline’ mode, where the The proposed technology also has several advantages:
position of the pipeline may be different from the location )) The small vessel – about 100 t – is able to work in shallow
indicated on the map. It is also important to find some water (a few metres), whereas motor yachts can be used as
target objects, for example, sacrificial anodes in order to the supporting vessel; they have a number of advantages
make the calibration in CP inspections. In 2015, BaltRobotics in terms of efficiency and sea keeping.
managed to solve this problem when performing missions to
depths of 200 m. )) The vessel can carry several AUVs – this boosts
BaltRobotics has developed the Cathodic Protection productivity: one goes forward whilst the other goes back.
Underwater Automatic Inspection Technology (CP-UAIT) )) Maintenance and marine crew can be limited to seven to
approach. It enables the use of more precise measurements eight people.
for cathodic potential, with direct contact of the
‘0-potential wire’ with sacrificial anodes – currently this These advantages can significantly optimise CAPEX/OPEX
electrode mostly is in the water around the vessel. operations.
The proposed CP-UAIT technolgy involves: However, the use of AUVs in the oil and gas industry
)) Search for underwater pipeline. is not limited to conducting surveys and inspections.
Recent reports have estimated that the cost of oil theft is
)) Search under operator control (using a wireless rapidly spiralling out of control. In Nigeria alone, it is now
underwater video) sacrificial anode. reported that oil theft accounts for losses of approximately
£1 billion per month. For major oil companies operating in
)) Contact the ‘0-wire’ with the sacrificial anode (then this
the area, this figure has raised questions as to whether they
‘0-wire’ is unwound while the AUV drives a distance of
should stay or go. Likewise, if we look at leak incidents in the
industry, the National Energy Board, Canada, found that the
number of safety related incidents has doubled in the last
decade: from 45 in 2000, to 142 in 2011.3 Oil and gas losses
are not only financial issues, but also issues of environment
protection.
Permanent monitoring of subsea infrastructure is an issue
in the agenda of all major operators. Thus, AUVs and related
technologies will be the main technical answer to these
challenges.4
References
1. Infield Safety UK Ltd., ‘Offshore Pipelines & Control Lines: Market Report to
2015’.
2. NICHOLS, Bruce, ‘Surveying the field in the search for fully autonomy’.
3. SHANNON, Chris, ‘Acoustic Vision’, World Pipelines, v.14, #6, June, 2014.
Figure 3. Operator of AUV ‘X-3A’: route control, navigation, 4. PACHEK, Bartlomiey, ‘Wireless Underwater Acoustic Video Communication,’
video and telemetry check. ROV Planet, Issue 04, 2015.

Preliminary
Piping
ADVANTAGES
Sid Siddharth and Bob Maffei,
Perma-Pipe, USA, discuss the application
of factory pre-insulated and pre-fabricated
piping: a safe, reliable and efficient
method to pre-insulate pipelines in the
factory vs the field.
Figure 1. Perma-Pipe’s heat traced sulfur

pipeline for GASCO.
P
ipelines and piping systems are used to Historically, engineers involved in the design
transport a variety of fluids. Some require of piping systems that require insulation choose to
insulation in order to maintain the temperature specify that the pipe be insulated ‘in the field’. Even
of the fluid being transported in the pipeline at today, many engineers will still specify field insulation
above, below, or within a specified temperature range of pipelines without considering the safer, usually
to ensure optimum flow of the fluid, such as heavy more cost effective and reliable option of factory pre-
waxy crude or to ensure the fluid does not undergo a insulated piping. The field insulation method is often
phase change – liquid to solid, such as sulfur, or liquid considered to be the traditional and ‘easiest method’
to gas, as in LNG. available. However, in many instances, this is not the
Insulation requirements for pipelines range from case. Pre-insulating piping, especially when fittings
extremely high to incredibly low temperatures. High (bends, elbows, tees) are required (which in almost all
temperatures – a high pressure steam for instance – cases they are) can be a very viable and cost effective
can reach in excess of 1000°F (540°C), while extremely alternative to field insulation. This article illustrates the
low temperatures of -260°F (-162°C) are required for advantages of why pipeline design engineers should
cryogenic applications, typical for LNG. strongly look at the option of pre-insulating pipe and
In the middle temperature range is the transport fittings at the factory, before delivering the pipe and
of sulfur, where the liquid sulfur must be maintained fittings to the jobsite.
above 260°F and below 320°F (126°C - 160°C) or the Recognising the advantages of pre-insulating
sulfur will undergo a phase change to a solid. Another pipe and pre-fabricated insulated fittings, Perma-Pipe
primary use for insulated pipelines is the transport of opened its first plant near Nashville, Tennessee in 1969.
waxy highly viscous crude oil, which can solidify in the Since then, Perma-Pipe has expanded to six locations
pipeline if the temperature of the crude falls below the throughout the world: Lebanon, Tennessee and New
wax appearance temperature (WAT). Though the WAT Iberia, Louisiana, USA; Camrose, Alberta, Canada;
can vary, it normally ranges from 90 - 140°F (30°C - 60°C) Dammam, Saudi Arabia; Fujairah, UAE; and in Gujarat
based on the specific properties of the oil. state, India.
67
Factory applied various reasons, which can shut
pre-insulation and down the work at the jobsite
pre-fabrication of pipes for undetermined amounts of
and fittings offer many time. Other contractors must
advantages when complete their work scope in
performing the work in order to enable access to the site
the field. so the insulation to the pipe and
fittings can be applied.
First and foremost –
safety Schedule
Reducing the scope of work that In addition to the cost savings,
is executed in the field, means pre-insulation and fabrication
fewer operations ongoing at the Figure 2. Disadvantages of field insulation that may cause can be performed to optimum
jobsite, thereby less manpower quality issues. efficiencies without the
and the possibly for a jobsite hindrance of other operations
related incident that may result that may be ongoing at the
in an accident. The risk of an accident and construction site, which can affect the
even the possibility of a temporary job overall field insulation schedule. Pipe and
shutdown due to safety related accidents are fittings pre-insulated at the plant can be
significantly reduced. completed independently from the work
at the construction site. Delivery of pre-
Quality insulated pipe and fittings to the field
The application of the insulation in a reduces the amount of field labour and time
‘factory controlled environment’, together required to perform the installation at the
with the fabrication and insulation of the jobsite. In some instances, field labour may
fittings, provide a superior quality product. not be equipped to handle the fabrication
Application of insulation in the field is subject of these fittings as efficiently as the skilled
to all types of environmental conditions labour in the factory, which can result in
prevalent to working outdoors; inclement project delays. It is Perma-Pipe’s experience
weather including rain, snow, ice, wind, that the completion of fittings in the field
dust, and humidity all have an effect on the takes much longer, and therefore also more
insulation application, which can affect the costly, than fabrication and insulation in the
overall quality of the product of the insulated factory.
pipe. Application of the insulation in the
factory eliminates all of these factors that Why factory sprayed-on systems
affect quality. Field insulation application in Figure 3. Cross-section of an insulated
are better than other piping
many instances has experienced problems pipe. insulation alternatives
with improper application during installation, Factory insulated systems are preferred in
thus causing a breakdown in the insulation, quality over those applied in the field, as
exposing the service pipe and potentially causing accelerated the method of application utilising a spray-on polyurethane (PU)
corrosion. foam with an outer mechanical jacket is far superior in quality and
Another big advantage of factory application is that the performance than the field insulation application, using half shells,
customer can inspect the work to a higher level than what can be foam injection or other methods.
done in the field. Any issues with product quality can be resolved )) Manufactured in a controlled environment under strict quality
prior to delivery of the insulated pipe to the field, whereas issues requirements by trained technicians.
in the field take longer to correct, hold up the work and increase
the cost. )) Insulation is bonded to the substrate, thereby eliminating the
opportunity for water ingress and corrosion.
Cost savings )) Ability to deliver modular systems with piping, fittings and
Insulation in a factory controlled environment enables the insulation arriving at the jobsite pre-fabricated and pre-
applicator to schedule the work in the most efficient manner insulated.
possible. This is not always the case when working in the field, as
field construction entails ‘working around’ many other operations )) Complex pipe bends arrive at the jobsite already fabricated and
that will likely slow down or even temporarily stop the work, insulated, so they do not have to be constructed in the field. A
making it more costly. Delivery of pre-insulated pipes and fittings significant time saver.
to the field reduces the amount of field labour required to perform
)) On aboveground systems, pipe supports on the jacket need
the installation of the insulated pipe and fittings, resulting in
not be insulated and in most cases the pipe can be supported
an overall cost savings to the project. In the field, considerable
directly on the jacket, applied over the insulation.
‘standby time’ can be incurred – thereby increasing the cost – for

Cathodic
FarwestCorrosion.com
Low temperature and high temperature piping systems
Protection &
Perma-Pipe’s spray-on PU insulation piping systems are void-free, highly engineered
systems, that are fabricated in a factory under controlled quality conditions and have the
Corrosion
ability to be installed with relative ease in a variety of field conditions. These systems
range from high temperature to cryogenic applications as noted above.
Control
The key components of this system are the sprayed-on PU foam insulation; fully
bonded to the corrosion coating with a ‘free-rise’ closed cell PU foam and an outer high
Solutions
density polyethylene (HDPE) jacket, which provides superior mechanical protection for
the insulated pipe during handling, installation and operation. The thickness of the HDPE
jacket can be determined based on the ultimate use of the insulated pipe. Other types of
jackets can be applied if desired, such as an fibreglass reinforced plastic (FRP). These types C.P. Anodes
of jackets cannot be applied in the field.
PU is an engineered material; the PU foam density can be designed to vary from
2 - 15 lbs/ft3 based on the specific project requirements. An aluminiumised tape diffusion
Power Supplies
barrier is applied between the foam and jacket, which bonds the jacket to the foam and
prevents the gas blowing agent from defusing, thereby maintaining the insulating value Test Stations
over the life of the system.
For applications in the temperature range from -320˚F to 280˚F, Perma-Pipe, offers Cable & Splicing
two primary alternative products:
)) Xtru-Therm: service pipe (stainless steel, carbon steel, other) with spray-on PU foam Instrumentation
and HDPE jacket.
)) Poly-Therm: service pipe (stainless steel, carbon steel, other) with spray-on PU foam Reference
and FRP jacket.
Electrodes
For temperatures above 280˚F, Perma-Pipe provides composite insulation systems that
feature an inner layer of a high temperature, insulation such as aerogel, perlite or calcium
Anode Backﬁll
silicate, combined with an outer layer of spray-applied PU foam and a moisture-proof
jacket, such as HDPE or FRP. The PU foam’s temperature limit is 280˚F, thus the reason for Remote
applying a high temperature inner layer of insulation, as it can sustain the higher operating Monitoring
temperatures. Using a composite insulation system provides a combination of lower cost
and greater thermal efficiency than using a single insulation material only.
Perma-Pipe also manufactures pipe-in-pipe systems for the containment of Coatings
transported fluids in applications that require an extra factor of safety from spillage
or leaks in the service pipe, which otherwise would contaminate the surrounding Isolators
environment if not contained by an outer pipe. These systems have been used in
refineries for oily water for further treatment, fuel lines at airports, and for other
environmentally sensitive locations. Leak detection cables can also be installed in
Inspection
containment and other piping systems to monitor for leaks if required. Equipment
Case study: pre-insulated sulfur pipeline resulted in lower
transportation costs
C.P. Installation
In the Middle East, there is a significant amount of sour gas containing hydrogen sulfide,
which can be further processed into sulfur. C.P. Engineering
Abu Dhabi Gas Industries Ltd. (GASCO) needed to transport the sulfur economically
and in the most efficient manner. The alternative transportation modes were tanker truck,
rail, or pipeline, with the final choice being the latter. And More...
Perma-Pipe engineered a pre-insulated piping system that would meet the project
requirements for GASCO. The system selected was a 12 in. dia. pipe, with a high
temperature perlite for the inner layer of insulation, and a spray-on PU foam for the
outer. The outer mechanical jacket was HDPE with an aluminium cladding, as the line was
installed above ground. Given that sulfur flows within a narrow band of temperature, a 9 Locations
Across the USA
skin-effect heat trace system was also used. The other features of this system were that
www.
the supports did not require insulation, and the pipe could be supported directly on the
outer jacket of the insulated pipeline.
The entire piping system was pre-insulated at Perma-Pipe’s facility in Fujairah, UAE,
888-532-7937
and shipped to the jobsite where the contractor installed the pre-insulted pipe and field
joints. The project realised significant cost savings and efficiency over the alternative Use Your
methods of transportation, and the pre-insulated piping reduced the field project Smart Phone
to Visit Our
Website...
Figure 4. Perma-Pipe’s Xtru-Therm system.
resulting in a cost effective solution to efficiently transport

the heavy crude via a heat traced pipeline. This team consisted
of Jindal Saw (steel pipe supplier), Pentair (skin effect current
tracing), JP Kenny Ltd. (FEED) and Perma-Pipe’s engineering and
manufacturing team.
The project was of sufficient magnitude to enable Perma-
Pipe to set up a portable plant to insulate the heat traced pipe
using its mobile PP Express Insulation Plant concept. Production
equipment for insulation and jacketing was set up adjacent to
the Jindal Saw ERW pipe mill and corrosion coating plant that
optimised the production and transportation costs associated
with this project. Field insulation was not a viable solution for
Figure 5. Sulfur line – cross-section of insulated pipe with heat this project.
tubes.
Highlights of the project
Cairn Energy India Limited was extremely pleased with the
pre-insulated piping system for the project, including:
)) State of the art, superior quality spray-applied PU foam
insulation, with side-extruded HDPE jacket, and the skin effect
heat management system.
)) High safety, quality and manufacturing standards maintained

throughout project execution.
)) Insulated pipe system met all performance parameters.
)) On-time delivery and excellent project co-ordination.
Figure 6. Continuous HDPE jacket application bonded over the Conclusion

PU foam. Pre-insulated pipe manufactured in controlled conditions in a
factory is superior to alternative field insulated piping systems
construction time and cost. Another sulfur pipeline project using based on quality, performance and cost. The pre-insulated pipe
similar factory insulated pipe was completed for Qatar Gas, in a and fittings, can be efficiently transported to the field with direct
similar manner. results in increased safety, reduced cost and improved schedule
resulting from reduced field labour and construction time and
Case study: heat-traced pipeline efficiently minimal impact from weather.
transports viscous waxy crude oil Pre-insulated piping systems using spray-on PU foam insulation
Cairn Energy India discovered crude oil in a remote desert area in and a moisture-proof jacket – such as HDPE or FRP – are very
the Northwestern State of Rajasthan, India. Without any facilities effective in preventing corrosion. The moisture-proof jacket and
to process the heavy waxy crude at the source, Cairn elected to the fully bonded system prevent moisture from reaching the
transport the crude to the coastal region of India in Gujarat state surface of the pipe, creating an effective barrier against corrosion
for further refining and processing. The most cost effective and under insulation.
efficient manner to transport the heavy crude was through a Perma-Pipe has successfully completed a number of pipeline
700 km, 24 in. heat traced insulated pipeline. Perma-Pipe set up an projects for customers around the world, using its network of six
insulation plant near the termination point of the pipeline in the manufacturing plants in North America, the Midle East and Asia. In
state of Gujarat. The crude had to be maintained above its 150°F these projects, Perma-Pipe facilitated the transportation by pipeline
(70°C) wax appearance temperature for ‘flowability’, and to ensure of a number of products in challenging environments, including
the heavy viscous crude would not solidify in the pipeline. waxy crude oil, sulfur, and other fluids. These systems have stood
To develop the solution, Perma-Pipe worked closely and the test of time and have been producing as designed since the
co-ordinated with a world-class team of design engineers project inception.

PIPELINE
management
A
ccording to the Annual Offshore Statistics & Regulatory Activity Report 2013
- 2014, the UK offshore oil and gas industry boasted around 107 oil and gas
installations, plus 181 gas producing installations, located on 383 producing
fields. There was a supporting infrastructure of 14 000 km of pipelines
connecting installations to beach terminals, many of which were commissioned in the
early 1970s, with some forecast to continue operating to 2030 and beyond.
This article reviews the primary risks
Grant Adam, threatening ageing assets and subsea pipeline
integrity, and the management and mitigation
Jee Ltd., UK, measures that can be employed to reduce these.
discusses the About integrity management

The consequences of ineffective integrity
lessons learned management of this expanse of ageing subsea

pipelines can be catastrophic. Offshore
in subsea pipelines carrying hazardous substances with

poor integrity management have the potential
pipeline integrity to be disastrous from an economic, social,

environmental, and possibly legal standpoint.
management; Significant failures in both gas and liquid

pipelines have made global headlines, and
from design to although pipelines are statistically very safe

and reliable, past pipeline failures have resulted
in fatalities and substantial damage to the
decommissioning. environment.
71
In an industry where subsea assets are maturing and Designing for integrity
reaching the end of their design lives, effective integrity When designing a pipeline and any modifications to it, it is
management has never been more important, ensuring essential to take into account the threats to the pipeline
reliability of offshore installations, wells, well control system and ensure the design approach reduces the risk to
equipment and pipelines throughout their life cycle. as low as reasonably practicable. These threats include the
Pipelines can be subject to a range of degradation issues, operating management, the fluid to be conveyed and the
e.g. corrosion, erosion and embrittlement, a progressive external environment.
deterioration known as ageing. Effective and consistent Pipeline design is also the starting point for inspection,
integrity management is integral to ensure safe and efficient testing and maintenance, with the pipeline design
operation and provides operators with an accurate picture determining the ease with which it can be inspected using
of the current condition of the system, and the activities techniques like inline inspection tools. Some key aspects
required to maintain system integrity. of design that have a strong influence over the operational
Lessons learned and best practices in achieving subsea integrity include:
pipeline integrity management help to ensure the risks )) Material selection.
involved in the ageing process are reduced, and the long,
safe and reliable life of pipelines achieved. )) Flow assurance.
)) Expansion and buckling.

Failure of pipelines
When the corresponding failure rate is plotted against time,
a bathtub-shaped curve results; this highlights the higher rate Early involvement of the operations team in the design
of failure in early and late life (Figure 1). phase helps to ensure knowledge transfer, and establish
The first phase of the diagram shows failure rates in early integrity from the beginning. This allows the team to
life caused by design, construction or installation mistakes address and resolve any potential issues early in the asset’s
and damage. Higher rates of early life failures are more life. Making the right design choices can have a significant
common when new technology or design approaches have positive or negative impact on the integrity management
been used. For example, a number of failures were seen of a pipeline. It is extremely valuable to discuss design, its
when pipe-in-pipe systems were first employed to solve high intent, and the potential challenges it possesses, in order
temperature flow assurance problems. Many of these failures to tease out issues and prevent repeat mistakes.
were associated with failure of the welded connections.
From experience of these failures and the maturing of the Building integrity
technology, this high early life failure rate is reduced. The construction and installation of the pipeline system
In the middle phase, there is a steady state of low brings a high risk of damage or introducing imperfections
rate failures during the operational life of the asset. This in the pipeline, which can result in failure later in life.
represents a gradual deterioration during the service life but This may be due to a number of causes, including the
generally a manageable rate of decay. installation analysis targets not being met or the analysis
The final phase shows late life failure due to the ageing being performed incorrectly. The depth of the burial target
of the pipeline system. However, some pipelines suffer not being achieved can cause major implications including
from premature ageing, which results in a high rate of spanning, movement and instability of pipeline.
deterioration within the design life of the pipeline, leading Another possible cause is the loss of concrete coating,
to substantially more inspection and repair to keep the which can result in further instability issues. In some cases,
pipeline operating. a pipeline could become buoyant in the water and start
By preventing, detecting or mitigating defects, you can to float, which would lead to serious and expensive repair
significantly reduce the risk of pipeline failure. work. Achieving the design through installation is crucial to
ensure a pipeline behaves late in life.
There are a number of pipeline build phases that
are subject to threats to the integrity of the pipeline,
including:
)) Construction.
)) Installation.
)) Precommissioning.
)) Commissioning.
Detailed and quality handovers to the operations team

Figure 1. Bathtub-shaped curve results of life of pipelines is critical to ensure that risks to the system are managed
against number of failures. during this time of change.

Figure 2. Integrity management process.
Integrity during operation
Management system
During operation, a pipeline integrity management system (PIMS) is used to
describe the framework for managing the pipeline’s integrity. An effective PIMS
is critical to prevent failures, with analysis of the data collected on the pipeline
over a period of time helping with improved monitoring, reliability, availability
and compliance to regulatory guidelines in the operation of the pipeline
systems.
Effective management of pipeline systems is essential for safe and reliable
pipeline operations. The PIMS achieves this through definition of the following
aspects:
)) Roles and responsibilities.
)) Competencies.
)) Integrity process and tools.
)) Change management.
)) Compliance with regulations and standards.
PIMS process.
The integrity management (IM) process is shown in Figure 2. During the plan
phase, a risk-based assessment (RBA) is carried out to examine the threats to
the pipeline system, and to later define and schedule integrity activities to
mitigate the risks. These integrity activities are carried out and reported on in
the implement phase of the process.
In the measure/assess phase the results from each IM activity is assessed
and any further inspection or remedial work specified. The overall fitness for
considering all of the data also assesses the continued service gathered from
the integrity activities, and considering how they impact together.
When reviewing the data from all integrity mitigation activities to establish
condition and assess anomalies, it is important to consider whether the
inspection has provided enough data to make an accurate integrity assessment.
By analysing the historical trend of the integrity data when making an
assessment, the company is able to perform detailed analysis and assessment
where required. This may flag up incidents of corrosion defect, dent, span,
stability, etc. enabling the team to develop repair strategies where necessary
and gather all integrity data to make an overall fitness for continued service
assessment and document in an annual report.
The final phase of the process is to improve. This is the )) Two gas lift flowlines (6 in. and 2.5 in.).
feedback loop from the results of the integrity activities
back into the risk assessment and plans. Taking account of )) Two service flowlines (4 in.).
modifications, lessons learned and new technology enables The first stage of the LTE was to assess the current
optimisation of the IM programme and reduces costs integrity of the pipelines. The majority of the pipelines were
through review of inspection data. New or novel inspection well maintained, with some having been conservatively
technology can reduce inspection budgets. Carrying out engineered at the design stage. The production pipelines
periodic audits and reviews is also essential to ensure the were constructed of duplex stainless steel with excellent
system is being implemented correctly. corrosion protection (CP) on the carbon steel spools. The
gas lift and service pipelines were carbon steel, containing
Risk management dry gas and treated water respectively. No integrity concerns
Jee’s dedicated team of engineers have extensive experience were found, other than a pipeline that had been laying
in every stage of the cyclic integrity management process and unused and filled with treated water.
an in-depth understanding of how to effectively plan, budget The second stage was to verify the pipeline’s design
and implement integrity management campaigns. Jee helps against today’s design codes and then determine the
its clients enhance the efficiency of their assets and reduce remnant life of the pipelines. The wall thickness calculations
operating costs, whilst ensuring unplanned shutdowns are showed an adequate design and the stability study
avoided and there is minimal disruption to operations. confirmed that if the pipelines were not buried that they
In order to do this it is essential failure modes of pipeline would be unstable.
systems are understood. This knowledge can be obtained The 30 in. export pipeline had been pigged and existing
by assessing the risk of failure of each failure mode, leading ILI data could be used to assess the internal corrosion. The
to the understanding of the barriers, and the effectiveness other pipelines were not piggable, and so corrosion was
of each barrier. Best practice to ensure that this occurs is to gauged on available corrosion coupons and ultrasonic testing
use the operator’s risk matrix in the process to ensure that (UT) inspection results on spools.
risks are comparable to other company risks, and can be As with all LTEs, the outcome of the assessment depends
understood by the leadership team. heavily on the quantity and quality of the data. In this case, there
Defining the mitigations that are required to manage the were some gaps in operational data, which meant that Jee had to
risk through inspection, monitoring, testing and maintenance, assess the operational fatigue using a conservative approach with
helps take into account the effectiveness and limitations of various assumptions, for example, a daily pressure fluctuation.
the technique used to provide information about the risk. The conclusions of the LTE study showed that three
pipelines could be granted an extended life, ranging
Late life from 5 - 29 years. The remaining pipelines could not be
granted an extended life at this stage due to the lack
Lifetime extension
of inspection data. An external inspection of the riser
When pipelines reach the end of their design life,
contained within a sealed caisson was required to verify
engineering justification for extending the pipe’s life must
integrity. In other cases, it was the unknown status of
be carried out if the pipeline is to continue to be operated.
internal corrosion on a flexible spool piece that was
Good pipeline IM over the lifetime of the asset is an
limiting the life extension options. Recommendations
important factor for successful life extension and asset
were given to inspect the riser and carry out UT
profitability. If the pipeline has not been well inspected and
inspections on sections of pipeline.
maintained then costly inspections and repairs might be
From this assessment, the client found out which of
necessary to justify the extension.
their pipelines were suitable for continued operation
and the remedial measures required to ensure that the
Lifetime extension assessment: case study
other pipelines remained fit for service. Jee made specific
Jee was approached to carry out lifetime extension
recommendations as part of this study and will continue to
assessments (LTE) for nine of its pipelines situated in
support the client to ensure that these pipelines continue to
the North Sea. The pipelines were approaching the end
operate, ultimately saving money for the client.
of their design lives and the client wished to continue
production.
Jee completed the work in two stages starting with the
Decommissioning
When installations are no longer required and are due to be
main 30 in. oil export pipeline. Jee then used the lessons
decommissioned, many subsea facilities need to be removed
learnt and feedback from the client to continue to assess
or partially removed. Sometimes towards the end of life,
the remaining eight infield pipelines. The pipelines that were
understandably, investment in the facilities is reduced. This
assessed comprised:
can lead to inadequate structural integrity for the chosen
)) One oil export pipeline (30 in.).
decommissioning method, potentially resulting in safety
)) Two oil import flowlines (6 in.). risks or having to develop a more costly method of removal.
Therefore, using good IM practices while managing the decline
)) Two condensate import flowlines (12 in. and 6 in.). of the pipeline system, can avoid this situation.

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A PROTECTIVE
BARRIER Ana Juraga, Cortec
Corporation, USA,
FROM
presents environmentally
safe inhibitors for
corrosion protection.
CORROSION
C
ortec® Corporation is one of the global leaders in Environmentally safe corrosion protection
innovative, environmentally responsible Vapour phase The company’s strong environmental concern is demonstrated
Corrosion Inhibiting (VpCI®) and Migratory Corrosion in the design and manufacturing of the products that protect
Inhibiting (MCI®) corrosion control technologies materials of all kinds from environmental degradation. A strong
for various industries. Headquartered in St. Paul, Minnesota, commitment to produce recyclable products made from
Cortec manufactures over 400 products distributed worldwide. sustainable resources has been, and will be, its future policy, due
Presently, the company is producing a full line of multifunctional to its expansion into new markets and creating new high-tech
products, and highly commits to continued development of applications every day.
solutions that are useful, non-hazardous to the environment, and VpCI technology is an innovative, environmentally safe,
recyclable whenever possible. cost-effective option for corrosion protection. It protects with
77
actual use in the field. When properly applied, the VpCI/
MCI technology substantially cuts time and cost throughout
the entire product life cycle: manufacturing, storage, shipping,
and field service. It eliminates the extra processing steps such
as cleaning, degreasing, rust removal, pickling, sandblasting,
and re-protecting, while enabling less re-work, fewer rejects,
improved quality, reduced rust claims, and extended equipment
life.
During the manufacturing of the product, the technologies
easily integrate into customer’s fabrication and assembly
processes. While eliminating the corrosion of ferrous and non-
ferrous metals, Cortec products can provide lubrication, enhance
production speed, and prolong tool life, to help the customer
produce first-quality products.
Man vs corrosion
The oil and gas industry has presented many different challenges
to researchers in fighting the effects of corrosion – in economic
loss and environmental safety. The total annual cost of corrosion
in the oil and gas production industry is estimated to be
Figure 1. Patented VpCI technology protects the metal US$1.372 billion, more specifically US$589 million in surface
substrate with a tight bonding molecular structure. This pipeline and facility costs, US$463 million annually in downhole
system eliminates the gaps that occur with traditional
inhibitors and prevent corrosion from starting. Environmentally
tubing expenses, and another US$320 million in capital
safe VpCI inhibitor technology substantially cuts time and cost expenditures related to corrosion.
throughout the entire product life cycle. Cortec’s capability offers highly efficient and economical
corrosion protection for oil and gas applications. The
a thin, mono-molecular protective barrier that re-heals and company’s products have been developed using proprietary
self-replenishes, and can be combined with other functional VpCI technology, which is a safe, cost-effective method for
properties for added protective capabilities. VpCIs form a preventing and diminishing the severe damage caused by
physical bond on the metal surface, which creates a barrier layer corrosive process streams. Utilising the corrosion inhibiting
against aggressive ions and consequently protects the multi- products will help companies within the oil and gas industries to
metals in enclosed environments. comply with safety, health, and environmental policies, as well
Additionally, these molecules are based on amine as reduce unplanned maintenance and deferment costs.
carboxylate chemistry and are dipoles with a non-uniform
distribution of charges, which translates into attractive forces Why this method?
that that pull the molecules towards the metallic surfaces. Unlike conventional methods, such as filming amine corrosion
The molecules arrange themselves parallel to one another and inhibitors, VpCls can be injected into any part of the system;
perpendicular to the metallic surface, forming a mono-molecular they go to work immediately and are self-replenishing.
layer. This layer then adsorbs to the metal, displaces the water Continuous, uninterrupted protection in the liquid phase,
molecules, and protects the metal from corrosion. Being a interphase, and vapour phase can be added at multiple points.
dipole allows the protection of both the anodic and cathodic For example, the automatic injection of Cortec VpCIs into a
components of the corrosion cell. As a result, VpCIs are effective system – with no attendance operator – provides protection
at protecting multimetals in electrical, static, rotating and civil immediately, even on pre-rusted or scaled surfaces.
equipment, and structures. In a rapidly growing market, the company continues to lead
VpCIs have a medium vapour pressure around in the oil and gas industry with its innovative corrosion control
10-2 - 10-7 mmHg that causes it to vaporise or sublimate products. Many of these unique products conform to ASTM G 1,
into to the vapour phase. Sublimation continues until the ATMS G3 Standard Test Methods, NACE Standard TM-01-64 for
enclosed space is saturated achieving equilibrium. The VpCI Laboratory Corrosion Testing of Metal for the Process Industries,
molecules diffuse from areas of high concentration to low and NACE Standard TM 0169-95 for Laboratory Corrosion Testing
concentration reaching all areas of the enclosure. VpCI of Metals.
molecules can therefore go wherever oxygen molecules can, In order to continue to facilitate and ensure that its
making them an effective protection method for hard-to-reach customers’ needs are met efficiently, Cortec provides:
areas such as crevices. VpCIs have an affinity and are attracted )) Quality management system (ISO 9001 certified).
to metallic surfaces where they condense to provide protection.
yy Product offerings – an innovative producer of leading
Manufacturing the product edge products.
Cortec technology can be used in each stage of the product’s yy Customer service – a positive, long lasting impression
lifecycle, starting from the production of metal stock to its through every link of the company.

yy Environmental commitment. VpCI-639 and VpCI-639 HFB system of corrosion inhibitors.
They are designed to provide continuous corrosion protection
yy An ethical and respectful company culture, of
against severe conditions encountered in petroleum/natural
colleagues, customers, and vendors.
gas production and processing. The VpCI-639 and VpCI-639 HFB
)) Environmental management system (ISO 14001 certified). systems are oil soluble, water dispersible, fast acting, long-term
inhibitors for multiple oilfield applications.
)) Laboratory accreditation (ISO/IEC 17025) – ensures They are effective for a wide range of refined hydrocarbons,
quality testing services, and to continually improve the crudes, and oil/water ratios. The products’ unique chemistry
effectiveness of the quality management system. It is the allows the provision of effective anti-corrosion protection
company’s goal to encourage active participation of all in sweet/sour (low or high hydrogen sulfide concentrations)
employees in quality planning and continual improvement environments at a very low concentration for metals in the
efforts to meet all quality and service objectives. It is the
presence of water, halogens, and corrosive gases such as
only lab in the industry that has received ISO/IEC 17025.
dissolved oxygen, sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen
sulfide. Additionally, they are very stable and will perform
CorroLogic at elevated temperatures and in high-pressure environments
With the support of corrosion scientists, engineers, and testing without gunking, and protect even areas that are inaccessible to
facilities, the company has especially created a CorroLogic® direct solution contact.
VpCI-639
VpCI-639 is recommended when a customer needs a product
with high flash point and the ability to stop or minimise bio-
growth progress. Thusly, it protects internal parts during low
fluid levels, and combats atmospheric corrosion in production
and storage tanks.
Temperature stability is maintained up to 400°F (204°C)
and pressures stability up to 9000 psi (621 bar) in sweet/
sour systems. These inhibitors provide corrosion protection
through the range of extreme service conditions encountered
in natural gas applications. They are designed for use in offshore
equipment, wells, pipes, pipelines, refineries, tankers, production
and storage tanks, and chemical plants, and are also available
in liquid form for easy direct application without premixing, it
enables post action inhibiting effect.
Figure 2. A major US pipeline company successfully used VpCI-639 HFB

CorroLogic VpCI-639 HFB, for the lay-up of transporting
pipeline and corrosion protection during their hydrotesting.
Recently, a major US pipeline company successfully used
CorroLogic VpCI-639 HFB, for the lay-up of transporting
pipeline and corrosion protection during their hydrotesting. The
slug of VpCI-639 HFB was run between two pigs to achieve full
coverage of the internal surface of the pipeline. VpCI-639 HFB
provided excellent corrosion protection during hydrotesting,
the lay-up period following hydrotesting, and it was also
beneficial when the pipeline was going back into service. The
preservative used in the formula suppressed bacteria usually
present in pipes transporting petroleum including anaerobic
sulfate reducing bacteria. The customer appreciated the
relatively low cost of application; instead of inhibiting the
whole volume of the water used for hydrotesting VpCI-639 HFB
was only used in a limited amount that provided a tenacious
protective film on the inner walls of the pipeline.
VpCI-639 has successfully passed its wheel tests,
and confirms to the NACE test method ID 182 (Film
persistency-90+% protection, Continuous Treatment-90+%
Figure 3. VpCI-639 HFB provided excellent corrosion protection
protection) in addition to the Rotating Cylinder Electrode Test,
during hydrotesting, the lay-up period following hydrotesting, ASTM G-170-01, ‘Standard guide for evaluating of Qualifying
and it was also beneficial when the pipeline was going back Oilfield and refinery Corrosion Inhibitors in the Laboratory’,
into service. 95+% of protection.

Lee Robins, Tracerco, UK,
discusses innovative technology
for performing subsea
scans.
SUBSEA
PIPELINE
DIAGNOSIS
T
racerco’s DiscoveryTM is a field-proven, revolutionary for subsea pipelines and crucially takes measurements through
subsea inspection technology that has won innovation coatings, offering large time and cost savings in coating removal
awards and already been used by Shell and other pipeline required for other non-intrusive inspection techniques, such as
operators. UT.
Just as CT scanning can provide detailed images of a blood
CT scans vessel to assess its condition and pinpoint obstructions, Discovery’s
Launched in 2014, Discovery is a prime example of the oil and marinised version of the technology lets operators see inside
gas industry taking inspiration and ideas from other sectors coated subsea pipelines in assessing asset integrity issues, such as
and adapting them to solve difficult challenges in their own wall thinning and defect assessment at close to 1 mm resolution, as
industry. In this case, computerised tomography (CT) scanning well as giving information on restrictions and blockages at density
– widely used for medical diagnosis – has been engineered resolutions of 0.05 g/cm3.
81
to build a complete profile of their pipeline in the Gulf of Mexico,
which helped to confirm the condition of the asset.
Jim Bramlett, Business Development Manager for Tracerco’s
Subsea Technologies division, said: “using Discovery, we were able
to quickly deliver data, drip feeding the scans through to Shell
engineers, then providing an in-depth analysis once we had all the
information. We understand that for each day a pipeline is out of
action, or not performing at peak, there are significant financial
implications: safety, speed and efficiency were the key drivers in
developing this cutting-edge technology.”
Tracerco’s expert team worked hand-in-hand with Shell,
providing the Discovery CT scan images and expert interpretation,
as the scans were taken on a daily basis.
Inspecting the pipelines

By scanning pipelines from the outside, an accurate picture of the
condition of the pipe and the flow is provided with no need to
remove the protective coating and no interruption to production.
Figure 1. Pipe illustration. This innovation is a highly accurate and low risk solution to
gaining information on flowlines including pipe-in-pipe and bundle
This is ground breaking for flow assurance remediation, in that systems. It is also really quick, the 360˚, high resolution scan of
Discovery will allow operators to distinguish between wax, sand, the pipeline’s contents and the wall is provided in real time, with
hydrate, scale and asphaltene, so corrective action can be planned defect resolution close to 1 mm and density differences of
exactly and so remediation is right first time. What’s more, if there 0.05 g/cm3.
is uncertainty about the location of the blockage or restriction Accurate sizing of wall thickness could be made in minutes
Tracerco offer a complimentary technology known as ExploreTM, with a high-resolution image of pipeline contents being provided
which can fast screen several km of pipeline per day and identify from an external scan of the pipeline. Because the tomographic
hotspots for further investigation. image shows flaws within the pipe walls, it allows operators
The operator is provided with a high-resolution image of to plan for the future life of the pipeline. As assets age, oilfield
pipeline contents and pipe wall thickness, giving an accurate professionals are continuously faced with the challenge of
and detailed view of pipeline integrity flaws and flow assurance ensuring efficient production and pipeline integrity. Inspection
conditions. Discovery is capable of inspecting pipelines at depths of these pipelines subsea has often presented challenges where
of up to 10 000 ft and is fitted with a crawler mechanism to pigging is not an option or deemed too risky. Until now, inspecting
propel the scanner along the pipeline, taking measurements at a pipeline from the outside was costly and high risk.
multiple positions.
Unpiggable lines
Tracerco’s methods There is a huge issue in the industry, as one third of the world’s oil
The technique addresses asset integrity and flow assurance issues and gas transmission lines are considered ‘unpiggable’, with many
where traditional inspection methods are impossible, too costly, past their design life. Discovery has been created for these subsea
or too disruptive. Understanding the production system and pipelines that cannot be inspected by conventional means, such as
pipeline transport network is key to safeguarding production and ILI tools.
implementing appropriate remedial action. Tracerco developed Unlike alternative technologies, such as ultrasonic and pulsed
Discovery because it is very difficult to remove coating on a eddy current, Discovery can be deployed more cost effectively by
subsea pipeline. It is not just expensive and time consuming; there reducing the vessel time required for comparable inspections, and
is also a risk of corrosion if you remove the coating. Tracerco is eliminating the expense and risk of damaging pipelines on coating
essentially using technology, which has revolutionised medical removal or re-application.
diagnosis, significantly redesigned and adapted for subsea use. Following the deployment in the Gulf of Mexico, Tracerco is
Discovery is its latest innovation and has already completed now inviting operators to send sections of coated pipeline with
hundreds of scans for several of Tracerco’s customers, successfully various defects. Discovery will then scan the test piece at one of
characterising deposits, as well as identifying integrity issues within its state-of-the-art subsea testing facilities.
a range of flowline designs. Most recently, Discovery successfully The success of the deployments of Discovery and the
completed the first deep-water deployment on Shell-operated customer reaction has been phenomenal, but its capabilities
flowlines in the Gulf of Mexico. really need to be seen to be believed. That is why the company is
During the deployment, Discovery scanned 10 flowlines inviting other interested parties to its testing facilities to witness
including jumpers, steel catenary risers, and pipe-in-pipe flowlines, this groundbreaking technology being tested underwater. It is the
all of varying diameters. Over 250 CT scan images over a pipeline perfect way for them to gain confidence in Discovery’s inspection
length of 50 000 ft, were generated at depths down to 4200 ft. prowess before deploying it on their subsea pipelines. Tracerco
The CT scan image reproduced, gave a precise depiction of the knows that it works, but this is a chance for potential customers
abnormalities present. Based on the data provided, Shell was able to see it in action.

GIRARD INDUSTRIES Toll Free: 800.231.2861
6531 N. Eldridge Pkwy Phone: 713.466.3100
Houston, TX 77041-3507, USA Fax: 713.466.8050
sales@girardind.com www.GirardIndustries.com
Unmatched Performance and Proven Results
Untitled-5 1 8/1/10 09:40:36
Via Strada Mantovana,18 – 26864 – Ospedaletto Lodigiano (LO) ITALY

Phone: +39 037786811 – Fax: +39 037786977 – e-mail: info@opus-srl.it
www.opus-srl.it
Tom Santos, Weartech International,
a Lincoln Electric Company, USA,
discusses how to keep pipelines online
with wear management expertise.
PROTECTING
AGAINST
WEAR
T
housands of miles of oil and gas pipelines crisscross the Today, highly specialised materials and processes afford
globe today, providing economical transportation for raw protection to many of the critical pipeline components at
materials and refined products. But like the proverbial the highest risk of premature deterioration. While numerous
strength of any chain, maintaining pipeline integrity relies approaches have been developed that effectively combat
on continually bolstering up potential ‘weak links’. Fortunately, corrosion induced by environmental and other factors, erosion
the industry’s growth spurt, which has been ongoing since the mid of pipeline components poses an increasing risk. This increase
20th century, has benefitted from a myriad of scientific advances, comes as a result of downhole-drilling in newer, more challenging
including huge strides forward in coating technologies. environments, where penetration through unconsolidated
Figure 1. ID Cladding – internal weld on pipe. Figure 2. Greenwood Valves – quick closing valve.
outside of its pipe, essentially with hardfacing-type material. The

problem they were facing was oil theft, which turns out to be fairly
widespread. In many places where oil pipelines are above ground,
people drill into the pipeline and steal the oil. Weartech was able
to provide OD cladding with an alloy that provides an excellent
solution, because once it has been applied, the only way to get
through it is by using a torch.
Internal protection
Pumping abrasive materials is typically what necessitates ID
cladding. Unlike the OD cladding, which is applied in specific
locations as needed, ID cladding is generally applied to the full
internal section of a component. It often is the solution chosen
by companies transporting or blending a slurry-type media with a
sizable sand component.
Figure 3. Greenwood Valves – self-closing valve.
Pipeline safety in remote locations
Greenwood Valves, collocated with Weartech in the Lincoln
sandstone is challenging but necessary to tap into the oil-rich Electric Company’s Anaheim, California facility, offers another
reservoirs. type of pipeline protection. In essence, it is a ‘quick-closing’ valve
Traditional solutions for dealing with high-abrasion conditions, (Figure 2) that operates as a reverse check valve. The Greenwood
such as tungsten carbide, have been used for years in critical Valve is mechanically held in the open position and designed to
applications. However, such solutions can be prohibitively close and stop flow in an emergency situation.
expensive for widespread deployment on most oil and gas The original valve was designed to automatically close when
pipelines. That is the niche market today being filled by newer the fusible link holding it open melted in a fire event. Since the
materials and methods; one is developed specifically to offer valve’s introduction more than 65 years ago, other activation
appropriately increased levels of erosion protection at a price that options have been added, such as solenoid actuators, which today
makes economic sense. are the most widely purchased option. They typically use 120 v/AC,
and pneumatic operation is also available.
External protection Remote control notification is a feature that has become
Newer, less costly abrasion-resistant techniques and materials popular on Greenwood Valves in recent years. Limit switches on
can be used to clad and protect the actual pipeline, valves, the valve enables pipeline operators to know whether it is open
drill bits, pistons, pumps and many other critical components. or closed, which can be especially valuable for remotely located
The materials and application processes offer the capability for valves.
internal and external cladding, as well as cladding of high precision
components in need of protection in unique areas with very Abrasion beyond the pipe
specific surface finishing requirements. Another part of the business consists of manufacturing wear-
Another interesting example of OD protection involves a resistant components for pumps and valves using primarily nickel
large oil company that contacted and asked Weartech to coat the and cobalt-based alloys. With performance characteristics that

Advertisers’
go beyond the iron-based nanoalloys used for hardfacing and
hardbanding, nickel and cobalt-based alloys maintain their wear
Direct ry
resistance at very high temperatures.
In some cases, the company makes entire assemblies of
wear-resistant material. But, because of the flexibility and
expertise developed in applying coatings, Weartech can also
provide cladding for pump housings and other auxiliary pipeline Advertiser Page
equipment that offers nearly the same performance at a much
ABC 76
lower cost.
On a recent project, Weartech provided an ID-clad pump Aegion 43, 79
housing that delivered a performance value greater than 700%
lifetime increase. Cladding all the exposed metal inside the Canusa-CPS 11
housing not only extended its usable life, but also took the
guesswork out of the maintenance schedule. That, in turn, Corrosion Service Co Ltd. 33
permitted a reduction in inventory and a lot fewer headaches all
CRC-Evans 21
around.
DENSO GmbH OFC, 75
Form and function
How is this ID or OD cladding applied? This question has a number Denso North America, Inc. 55
of answers, but the key point is that it is the chemistry – rather
than the method of application – is at the heart of any successful Enduro Pipeline Services, Inc. OBC
application. Equipment and techniques have been developed
that apply these alloys in the form of rods, electrodes, wires and Energy Global 37
powder. Their application requires a high degree of equipment
Elcometer 49
control supported by engineering expertise.
Highly sophisticated power supplies, such as those available Farwest Corrosion Control Company 69, 73
from Weartech’s affiliated company – the Lincoln Electric
Company – are excellent at providing the control and feedback Girard Industries 83
capabilities necessary for these operations. Beyond that, the
broad technical support available from Lincoln Electric is also Holdtight Solutions, Inc. 53
a significant asset. Where Weartech specialises in providing
Mears Group, Inc. 24
solutions for extreme conditions, other entities within the Lincoln
Electric companies offer proven solutions that work well in 2
Midwestern
concert with those extreme solutions.
The company has also fine-tuned the chemistries in the alloys MONTI – Werkzeuge GmbH 13
to make life easier for the end user, specifically to ensure easy
weldability in almost any environment. The alloys can easily be NACE International 17, 62
welded onto other base materials, including other alloys. To make
things easier, no shielding gas has to be used when welding the NRI 23
alloys; greatly simplifying field applications, such as in oilfields in
OPUS s.r.l 83
the middle of the Venezuelan jungle or an African desert where it
is tough to carry gas cylinders. Perma-Pipe Inc. 4
Weartech has facilities in Anaheim, California and Wales, UK,
where the company produces the components and assemblies, Pigs Unlimited International, Inc. 37
starting with highly controlled master melt in its foundries.
Coating and hardfacing services, both ID and OD, can be applied Pipeline Inspection Company Ltd. 61
at many of the application facilities throughout the world or
Polyguard Products 31
in the field. Numerous service providers and applicators use
the materials, and often do so as a value-add to give them a Seal for Life Industries IFC
competitive advantage against the competition. The long and
short of it, is that Weartech is truly a customer-driven world. Selmers 45
Considering the variety of solutions and services that it offers,
it is very gratifying to say that the company hit the entire value Shawcor 9
stream when it comes to oil and gas applications. From digging the
Specialty Polymer Coatings, Inc. 59
hole, to transporting the raw and finished materials, to the high
temperature challenges in refineries, Weartech offers solutions
STATS Group 39
to keep the process going forward and manage the points of
extreme demand. Wasco 27
World Pipelines 65, IBC

The last word
Bruce Young
Senior Research Scientist, Battelle Memorial Institute
T
he oil and gas industry spends US$7 billion each potential of the pipe wall. Other inhibitors form either a
year to control and repair corrosion on the United protective oxide or protective precipitate on the internal
States’ 480 000 miles of liquid petroleum and gas pipe walls to protect against exposure to water, sand, and
transmission pipelines. Protecting and restoring microbes present in crude oil that can contribute to internal
production and exploration infrastructure and equipment corrosion.
adds another US$1.4 billion to that tab.
New technologies may soon help companies better Field MIC detection
monitor and mitigate corrosion. Here are some of the most Microbially induced corrosion (MIC) is a significant cause
promising research angles to watch. of corrosion for pipelines and other oil and gas assets. In
order to select the appropriate treatment, operators need
Fusion-bonded epoxies to know what kind of bacteria is causing the corrosion. New
Fusion-bonded epoxies (FBE) provide superior protection field-based detection technologies can eliminate days or
compared to tars and other traditional protective coatings, weeks of waiting for lab results by diagnosing MIC problems
forming a solid seal around the pipe without leaving pinholes right onsite. Innovative MIC detection technologies use DNA
where corrosion can enter. FBE is also fully compatible with analysis to determine whether corrosion-causing microbes
modern cathodic protection technologies. are present and help operators select the
Additional research may yield better
resins that are even more resilient and
FIVE right biocide for mitigation.
provide longer lasting protection against PROMISING Remote detection technologies

the elements. As research continues on
FBE, new technologies should be focused
CORROSION Perhaps the most promising new
technologies are in the area of remote
on three areas: automation of installation, TECHNOLOGIES detection. Remote detection technologies
lower cost, and lower cure times. TO WATCH generate real time data to let operators
know if cathodic protection is working and
Smart coatings provide early warning of signs of corrosion.
Smart, self-healing coatings may offer the best protection for Recent investments have made it possible to integrate
new equipment and aboveground pipelines that can be easily corrosion monitoring systems into the supervisory control
repainted. One example already on the market is the Battelle and data acquisition (SCADA) system for a clearer picture
Smart Corrosion Detector BeadTM, a nanotechnology that of overall pipeline health. As this technology becomes
can be mixed into paints and coatings to detect and mitigate more widespread, pipeline operators will be able to
corrosion in one step. The beads automatically release self- integrate test data with real time corrosion data to
healing chemicals upon contact with corrosion to slow its develop, verify and validate their corrosion models.
spread. To aid visual inspection, the beads also fluoresce The oil and gas industry needs to continue to invest in
under a black light if corrosion is present. new corrosion management technologies that will reduce
the risks of equipment failure and minimise the costs of
Internal corrosion inhibitors monitoring and mitigation. Research funds should be directed
New coatings cannot protect pipelines that are already to those projects that promise the greatest opportunity for
buried. With 65% of oil and gas pipelines dating to the 1970s improvement and the highest return on investment. These
or earlier, protection of ageing infrastructure must be a five technologies may offer the most bang for the research
priority. New, internal corrosion inhibitors could help protect buck.
pipes from the inside out. Inhibitors can protect the pipe in Bruce Young is a Senior Research Scientist with Battelle Memorial Institute. He
one of two ways. Some inhibitors make the pipeline surface serves as the Project Manager for several major oil and gas pipeline research
less susceptible to corrosion by shifting the electrochemical projects for the government and commercial industry.

Keep Updated
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Inspection technique selection

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There are a number of

Concrete sliding during

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Coating System 2010 2014