WORLD PIPELINES

Volume 15 Number 11 - November 2015

NOVEMBER 2015

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Contents
WORLD PIPELINES | VOLUME 15 | NUMBER 11 | NOVEMBER 2015

03. Editor's comment PROJECT RISK

Like father, like son? 37. Keeping track of project risk
05. Pipeline news Chris Wilber, PLS, Pipeline Services at SGC Engineering, LLC, USA, and Vibha
Contracts galore; reportings on African pipeline projects; Enbridge's Sandpiper Zaman, P.E., Pipeline Integrity Management Lead, Lloyds Register Energy, USA.
permit request; China utilises coal-to-gas technology; and more. 43. Risky business
Peter Brawley, Head of Operations and Brownfield Projects at ADIL, Scotland.
REGIONAL REVIEW
12. Asia: cheap energy marks downturn WELDING Q&A
Ng Weng Hoong explores Asia’s oil outlook: how the decline in oil price 47. World Pipelines' welding Q&A
provides comfort amid worries over economic slowdown. Featuring Applus RTD, ESAB, Lonestar, RMS, and Sawyer.

PIPELINE INTEGRITY
64. Countdown to zero
Karine Kutrowski and Murielle Bouchardy, Bureau Veritas, France.
70. Putting the spotlight on pipeline safety
Mike Poland, Life Cycle Engineering, USA.
77. DIMP: finding and managing risks
David Turner, T.D. Williamson, USA.

CORROSION
Cheap energy C
heap energy is providing a measure of comfort for
Asia’s major economies 18 months into the global
oil and gas market collapse, as they confront the

81. To see in 3D
worrying prospects of slowing growth and deflation.

MASKS
China rocked global confidence in August when it
unexpectedly devalued its currency just weeks after its stock
markets began crashing to wipe out US$5.5 trillion worth of
shareholders’ wealth. As Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Vietnam,

Jérôme-Alexandre Lavoie, Creaform, Canada.

Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore and Australia took turns
reporting dismal trade and economic growth figures, China’s
ill-timed decision to devalue the renminbi (RMB) by a total

DOWNTURN
of 4.65% from 11 - 13 August sparked fears of a repeat of the
region’s devastating 1997 financial crisis.

PAGE
As confidence crumbled in Asia’s China-led economic
power, oil prices took another tumble in late August to
their lowest levels in over six and a half years, with US WTI

12
crude touching US$37.75/bbl and North Sea Brent crashing
Ng Weng Hoong explores Asia’s oil outlook: how the decline in oil to US$42.23. Analysts are debating if Beijing’s actions are part
price provides comfort amid worries over economic slowdown. of a long-term market reform strategy or are signs that the

13
COATINGS & LININGS
85. New life for old pipes
Nicasio Messina, Solvay.

PIPELINE STEELS SENSING TECHNOLOGY

20. Line pipe trends 90. A gas detection system is only as good as its parts
Glen McAdam and Dimitris Dimopoulos at Berg Steel Pipe Corp., USA, Michail Tzouvelekis, Europe North Region – Dräger Marine and Offshore.
with Christoph Kalwa and Hans-Georg Hillenbrand at Europipe GmbH,
Germany. 94. The big brother of pipelines
Chris Shannon, CEO, Fotech Solutions, UK.
27. Integrity down the line
Dr. Jai Dev Chandel and Kamal Kishore, Jindal Saw, India. PIG TRACKING & LOCATION
31. A reel challenge 101. No one wants a pig in a poke
Martin Connelly, Tata Steel, UK. Simon Bell, iNPIPE PRODUCTS, UK.
WORLD PIPELINES

Volume 15 Number 11 - November 2015

NOVEMBER 2015

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Copyright© Palladian Publications Ltd 2015. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form LEADERS IN CORROSION
PREVENTION &
or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. All views expressed in this SEALING TECHNOLOGY
journal are those of the respective contributors and are not necessarily the opinions of the publisher, neither do the publishers endorse any of the claims made in
the articles or the advertisements. Printed in the UK.
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Comment
LIKE FATHER, LIKE SON?
L
ast month, the Canadian Energy
Pipeline Association (CEPA) launched a
new interactive map, which aims to
provide information on pipeline
location throughout the country. This move
to transparency caters to the increasing
public interest in proximity to pipeline
infrastructure. By December, CEPA hopes to
add information about any pipeline that has
experienced a problem in the past five years.
As for the next five years, Canada’s
parliament is entering a new term with a
Liberal government in power. Justin Trudeau
won the general election last month and steps
into power as Prime
Minister at a time when
issues of energy,
environment and
JUSTIN
economy dominate
public discourse.
TRUDEAU
Outgoing Conservative FACES A
Prime Minister Stephen
Harper’s government TOUGH CROWD
AS HE COMES
vigorously championed
oil and gas pipeline
projects but, in doing
so, bumped up against
INTO POWER
various factions.
Analysts blame Harper’s heavy hand for a
deterioration in the relationship between the
US and Canada on energy matters, and for
creating general public distrust of politicians
pitching pipelines. Harper’s environmental
credentials were seen to be lacking: he was
keen for Canadian oil to reach market and was
happy to promote a global reach, including
destinations that would involve tankers and
other environmentally unfriendly solutions.
So where does Trudeau stand on
pipelines? Let’s start with what he is not: he is
not, he hastens to reassure all who will listen,
his father. Trudeau’s father Pierre Trudeau, who
was Canadian Prime Minister from 1968 - 1984,
famously toted unpopular energy policies
including a national energy programme (NEP)
that gave the federal government more
control over the energy sector and introduced
taxes and price controls that were tough on
producers. The NEP translated into Albertan
oil profits being shared across the country. Its
three main aims were: to boost Canadian
ownership in the oil industry; to make the
country a self-sufficient oil producer; and to
increase the federal share of energy revenue.
It marked a period of increased government
involvement in the energy industry in Canada,
following the various global energy crises in
the 1970s. But Alberta has always railed against
federal impositions and argued for more input
in decision-making, owing to its economic
strength as a province.
Justin Trudeau faces a tough crowd as he
comes into power. The drop in oil prices has
taken a huge toll on producers in Canada,
where oilsands crude is costly to extract and
transport and where pipeline capacity is
severely lacking. Several big pipeline projects
remain in limbo, including Keystone XL,
Northern Gateway, Energy East and the Trans
Mountain extension.
Trudeau has
publicly supported
Keystone XL, but
come down against
Northern Gateway
(Enbridge’s plan to
build a twin pipeline
from Alberta to
Kitimat, British
Columbia, for
shipment to Asia).
As for Energy
East: a member of
Trudeau’s advisory team caused controversy a
week before the election, when it was
revealed he had sent a letter to TransCanada
officials suggesting ways in which they could
best lobby a Liberal government to get the
pipeline built. Dan Gagnier admitted writing
to five TransCanada personnel and offered his
resignation in the wake of the public outcry.
Trudeau agreed with the resignation and
re-emphasised his party’s pledge to act on the
highest possible ethical standards.
Trudeau’s other promises include the
construction of key pipeline infrastructure;
national targets for greenhouse gas
reductions; carbon taxes at a provincial level
and further oilsands development. In
contrast to his father’s ethos, Trudeau has
been quoted as saying: “The environment
and the economy … they go together like
paddles and canoes.”1 Let’s hope Trudeau’s
new transparent, balanced, even keeled
administration appeals to a raft of investors
and gets those pipeline projects afloat.
1. http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/justin-trudeau-s-
environment-plan-end-fossil-fuel-subsidies-invest-in-
clean-tech-1.3131607
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World News
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Take up the Sandpiper
pipeline case, requests
Enbridge and PUC
Attorneys for both Enbridge Energy and
Minnesota state regulators have asked the
Minnesota Supreme Court to take up
review of a ruling that overturned a
permit for the Sandpiper crude oil
pipeline.
The Sandpiper is a proposed 600 mile
pipeline that would run across North
Dakota and northern Minnesota from the
Bakken oilfields to an existing Enbridge
terminal in Superior, Wisconsin. Enbridge
originally forecast construction to begin
on the US$2.6 billion project in 2016,
although prolonged proceedings may push
back that timetable a year or more.
In September 2015, the Minnesota
Court of Appeals overturned the
Minnesota Public Utilities Commission’s
(PUC) approval of a certificate of need for
the pipeline project, as the PUC did not
receive an Environmental Impact
Statement.
Stated in documents from 14 October
2015, Enbridge argued that the Court of
Appeals commandeered the authority of
the PUC and the Environmental Quality
Board, as well as inaccurately applying the
Minnesota Environmental Policy Act to
the project.
Enbridge’s petition documentation
stated: “The Court of Appeals decision
creates uncertainty for this and future
projects because the Court improperly
substituted its own judgment for that of
the regulators, and in doing so, incorrectly
interpreted and applied MEPA.”
The PUC’s individual petition to the
Supreme Court stated that the
commission claimed the Court of Appeals
ignored a “longstanding process set forth
in Minnesota law and ordered a
duplicative and premature second layer of
environmental review even before the
need for the pipeline is determined.”
As a result, Minnesota regulators are
waiting for a legal decision to be made
and additional input before giving its
approval for the pipeline’s permit. The
PUC is seeking input from the pipeline’s
developer and its opponents to say by
30 October how they want the
commission to proceed.
Uganda’s pipeline route still undecided
Uganda remains undecided about the
transportation of its crude oil, continuing
to consider a pipeline through Tanzania as
it could be a cheaper export route.
Uganda had considered Kenya for the
route, but it was noted that Kenya was
uncomfortable with certain conditions
Uganda had set, should they decide to
form a partnership. Uganda’s proposed
terms could have the potential to
detrimentally increase the cost of the
pipeline, with Kenya having the burden of
paying.
Irene Muloni, Uganda’s Energy Minister,
stated: “It’s not like it was a
misunderstanding, but rather they were
uncomfortable with some of the terms.
The issue of financing was premature
before we agree on the structure of the
project in terms of ownership.”
As a result, the Ugandan government
China’s new coal-to-gas
pipeline
China has utilised coal-to-gas technology
to decrease pollution and increase the
amount of cleaner fuels within large cities.
However, environmental groups state that
coal-to-gas and/or coal-to-liquid projects
will have little effect on reducing
pollution and carbon emissions.
In 2014, China’s National Energy
Administration had cautioned operators to
consider coal-to-gas projects. Apart from
needing regulatory approval, the warning
highlighted issues of environmental
damage and costly investments.
Sinopec took the administration’s
considerations and, as a result, in July 2015
the company was given permission to
undertake coal-to-gas projects, though
only within regions that had sufficient
water resources.
Now, Sinopec has stated that China’s
National Energy Administration has
approved a pipeline that will transport
synthetic gas from coal-to-gas projects.
The 8400 km pipeline will carry a
maximum of 30 billion m3/y from Xinjiang
to Guangdong, and will cost over
US$20.5 billion.In the future, the pipeline
will transport conventional and shale gas,
in addition to coal-bed methane.
signed a MoU with the Tanzania Petroleum
Development Corp. and Total SA to explore
this alternative route for the proposed
pipeline. Uganda’s Energy Ministry stated:
“The objective is to select a route that will
result in the lowest unit transportation
cost.”
Despite Uganda discovering crude oil in
2006, the country remains in the planning
stage of commercial development for a
pipeline. Uganda predicts it could hold
resources of 6.5 billion bbls, according to
the US Energy Information Administration.
Ahmed Salim, Senior Associate at
Teneo Intelligence, stated: “Given the
current oil price environment, it would be
wise on part of the Ugandan government
to make sure any finalised agreement will
be the most cost effective in a period
where fiscal prudence should be a
priority.”
Greece discusses IGB pipeline
On 14 October during a meeting between
Environment and Energy Minister Panos
Skourletis, Amos Hochstein, US Special
Envoy and Co-ordinator for International
Energy Relations, and Bulgarian Energy
Minister Temenuzhka Petkova, Greece
stated that it intends to continue its
180 km proposed IGB natural gas pipeline
project with Bulgaria, should the project
be financially feasible.
Additionally, during the course of
the meeting, Skoutletis also discussed
the possibility of advancing the terms
and conditions of the Trans Adriatic
Pipeline (TAP) transporting its supply
through Greece for local and state
societies.
Hochstein stated that significant
progress had been made with regards to
the IGB pipeline. He continued to advise
Greece and the TAP pipeline to review and
discuss the posed issues and concerns, in
attempt to reach reliable solutions as soon
a possible.
Hochstein explained in the meeting:
“The USA wants to continue working with
Greece for the country’s energy security
but mostly on the role to be played by
Greece as a strategic partner in the
region.”
NOVEMBER 2015 / World Pipelines 5
 IN BRIEF
Poland
Poland, Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia are to
sign a deal regarding the construction of a
534 km GIPL pipeline. The pipeline will run
from Rembelszczyzna, Poland, to Jauniunai,
Lithuania. From Lithuania, it will be distribute
gas across the Baltic nations.
USA
Exova has opened its first facility in north east
USA, with a new materials and corrosion
testing laboratory in Pittsburgh. The
laboratory will provide testing and
consultancy services in metallurgy, polymers
and coatings, as well as corrosion risk
assessment and mitigation.
Azerbaijan
Construction/preliminary work has begun on
three new pipelines designed to flow new
supplies of natural gas from Azerbaijan to
consumers in Turkey, Bulgaria, Greece, and
Italy.
USA
Sanchez Production Partners LP has
announced that it has closed its previously
announced acquisition of pipeline, gathering
and compression assets located in Western
Catarina, in the Eagle Ford Shale in South
Texas.
Russia
Nord Stream Pipeline has served as a safe,
reliable and environmentally sound transport
route since the first natural gas shipped
through the Baltic Sea reached EU in
November 2011, and – being a key element of
the European supply infrastructure – has
recently celebrated the transportation of
100 billion m3 of natural gas.
Canada
The University of Calgary is introducing five
industry training courses at its Global
Research Initiative in Unconventional
Hydrocarbon Resources - Beijing Site for
research, education and training.
Germany
BASF/Wintershall and Gazprom have
co-operated successfully for 25 years,
transporting natural gas from Russia to
Germany. The two companies are thus
intending to expand gas production in Siberia,
in addition to extending the Nord Stream
Baltic Sea pipeline.
6 World Pipelines / NOVEMBER 2015
World News
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Enhancing system safety and reliability through natural gas project
San Diego Gas & Electric (SDG&E) and Southern California Gas Co. (SoCalGas) have jointly
asked the California Public Utilities Commission (CPUC) for approval of the ‘pipeline safety
and reliability project’ to construct a 47 mile natural gas pipeline, and implement new
pipeline safety requirements, as well as increase the reliability of the clean natural gas the
companies deliver.
The proposed pipeline – included in SDG&E’s CPUC-approved pipeline safety and
enhancement plan – would replace the transmission role of an existing pipeline that by law
must be either pressure tested or replaced. The pipeline safety and reliability project would
build on SDG&E’s long history of safely delivering natural gas and would be constructed with
state-of-the-art technology, including automatic shut-off valves, advanced leakage detection
and advanced communication technology. Along with these added safety features, the
pipeline will be tested and inspected in accordance with SDG&E’s pipeline integrity
programme. SDG&E meets or exceeds all state and federal pipeline safety regulations for
operations and maintenance and has a rigorous training programme for employees, as well as
community and first responder training.
The CPUC will determine the final design, construction, and route location after a
thorough environmental review. SDG&E has requested CPUC approval in 2017 in order to
achieve a pipeline in-service date of 2020.
NST Express LLC: holding Lincoln Electric invests in welding
100 000 bpd of crude technology centre
In a year’s time approximately The Lincoln Electric Company has announced it is
100 000 bpd of Bakken crude oil will investing approximately US$30 million in a new
be transported through the NST welding technology centre on its Euclid, Ohio
Express pipeline to refineries across campus. The centre will focus on training welding
the USA. educators and industry leaders, to address the
The North Dakota Public Service rising demand for welding education and career
Commission voted for the pipeline as pathways in welding and advanced manufacturing.
the mode of transportation for the It will also dedicate resources to support welding
crude oil in McKenzie County on training for veterans at this facility.
14 October. Construction is expected to begin in early
NST Express LLC – part of The 2016 with an opening anticipated in 2017, marking
Woodlands, Texas-based NorthStar the centennial anniversary of Lincoln’s legacy
Midstream – intends to construct a welding school, the longest-running welding
12 in. dia. crude oil pipeline in the school in the US. The new 130 000 ft2 centre will
county. double Lincoln’s welding education capacity to
Commission Chairwoman Julie 180 welding booths, and will include high-tech
Fedorchak stated: “This is a 23 mile classroom and seminar spaces. It will also
pipeline in the heart of the Bakken. showcase and integrate Lincoln Electric’s latest
Everything was pretty straightforward technologies and solutions into a comprehensive
so we were able to turn it around welding curriculum, making it the industry’s most
pretty quickly,” continuing to explain advanced facility of its kind.
that the pipeline would hold a Lincoln Electric’s Chairman and Chief
maximum of 100 000 bpd. Executive Officer, Christopher L. Mapes said:
The crude would be transported “This investment reflects our commitment to
from the new NST Express Alexander being at the forefront of welding innovation and
Facility to its NST Transload East education. The increased demand from
Fairview Facility. This ‘strategic customers, the skilled trades and technical
location’ intends to reduce traffic and schools to help develop the next generation of
provide a method of moving the oil to industry-ready welders has accelerated our
markets across the US. investment in education and our new welding
NST Express hopes to complete technology centre will allow us to demonstrate
the project by late 2016, costing how our technical expertise and the value of our
between US$60 million and solutions can have a measurable impact on
US$80 million. educators, students and customers.”
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Events DIARY
World News
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION ON EVENTS VISIT WWW.ENERGYGLOBAL.COM/EVENTS

Nigeria defers threat to PM Trudeau discusses the future of

19 - 21 January 2016 stop gas flow to Ghana Canada’s pipeline projects
European Oil and Gas Conference
Vienna, Austria
The West Africa Gas Pipeline The NEB has delayed its recommendation on
http://www.europeangas-conference.
Company (WAPCo) has postponed its Kinder Morgan’s Trans Mountain pipeline
com/ decision to cut gas supplies to Ghana. expansion project, which would twin the pipeline,
Ghana obtains approximately 25% triple its capacity, and increase tanker traffic in
8 - 11 February 2016 of its power supply through gas from Vancouver’s Burrard Inlet. But the company’s plans
PPIM Nigeria, which is transported through may be helped by new Canadian Prime Minister
a pipeline via Benin and Togo. Nigeria and Liberal, Justin Trudeau.
Houston, USA
Gas’ (N-Gaz) threat of cutting the gas Trudeau promised to formalise the non-
http://www.clarion.org/
– reducing volumes by 70% – would binding moratorium on crude oil tanker traffic on
have raised the cost of supply. B.C.’s North Coast passed by MPs in 2010 – that
23 - 27 February 2016
Ghanian President John Mahama’s ban applies specifically to the North Coast; Kinder
PLCA
government is also bearing the brunt Morgan is seeking approval for the South Coast.
Scottsdale, USA of this issue, as the upcoming election In 2014, Justin Trudeau stated: “I hope we’re
http://www.plca.org/ in 2016 is said to be closely fought. As going to be able to get that pipeline approved.
a result, Mahama has promised to And I hope Kinder Morgan learns from Enbridge’s
24 - 25 February 2016 stop the electricity cuts by early 2016; experience of short-cutting or going too light on
OPT Kwabena Donkor – current Minister community buy-in.”
Amsterdam, the Netherlands for Power – has also stated that Conversely, it has been reported that Trudeau
http://www.ibcenergy.com/event/opt should the problem not be dealt with will terminate the proposed Northern Gateway
and resolved, he will resign. pipeline project, which would carry crude from
24 - 26 February 2016 In an interview with Reuters, the Alberta oilsands to a tanker terminal on the
AOG Harriet Wereko-Brobby – North Coast of B.C. Trudeau stated: “If I win the
Perth, Australia spokeswoman for the pipeline honour of serving as Prime Minister, the Northern
http://aogexpo.com.au/
company – stated: “By next week we Gateway Project will not happen… I’ve been to
are expecting a way forward. There that part of the world. I’ve met with many who
6 - 10 March 2016
appears to be a will by all the parties make their living off the pristine coastal waters. It
to resolve the issue without the flow is just not a place for a pipeline.”
NACE Corrosion
of gas being cut off.” Wereko-Brobby
Vancouver, Canada continued to state that the
http://nacecorrosion.org/
government had paid N-Gas
US$10 million; the Volta River
News Highlights
20 - 24 March 2016 Authority (VRA) owes the company
NASTT’s 2016 No-Dig Show US$103 million.
Texas, USA Ghana – despite its exports of
http://nodigshow.com/ gold, cocoa and oil – has been
suffering economically. Ghana has
25 - 29 April 2016 been borrowing money from
Hannover Messe numerous banks at high interest rates.
Hannover, Germany VRA halted its financial assistance in
http://www.hannovermesse.de/ August 2014, and – at present – Ghana
is partaking in an International
2 - 5 May 2016 Monetary Fund programme to restore
OTC
its fiscal balance.
Ghana intends to resolve its
Houston, USA
economic issues by increasing its
http://2016.otcnet.org/
domestic gas production, in the long- ➤➤ Prince Rupert project receives oil
run. World Bank Group President, Jim and gas commission approvals
23 - 25 May 2016
Yong Kim, stated: “We are very ➤➤ Jee to present at PPSA Operational
PTC supportive of President Mahama’s Pipeline Pigging seminar
Berlin, Germany current reform strategy. We think
http://www.pipeline-conference.com/ he’s now making the hard decisions ➤➤ Pillsbury trial team seeks insurance
to get Ghana back on the path of for Lion Oil over pipeline rupture
growth.”

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 Contract News
TO KEEP UP-TO-DATE ON CONTRACTS VISIT WWW.ENERGYGLOBAL.COM
TAP awards three pipeline equipment
contracts
Trans Adriatic Pipeline AG (TAP) has awarded three contracts
for the engineering, manufacturing and delivery of a 48 in. and
36 in. fittings, isolating joints and scraper traps. This equipment
will perform various key functions, and will be installed along
the TAP route, in line with the project’s technical specification.
Industria Meccanica Bassi S.p.A has been awarded two
contracts. First, for engineering, manufacturing and delivering
48 in. and 36 in. piggable T-pieces and welded elbows of
different characteristics. And secondly, for scraper traps units for
intelligent pigging. Piggable T-pieces will enable the connection
with the block valve and compressor stations while scraper
traps will facilitate the cleaning and control of the pipeline.
Nuova Giungas s.r.l. is the successful tenderer for
engineering, manufacturing and delivering the 48 in. and 36 in.
isolating joints. These will isolate different cathodic protection
systems that avoid corrosion.
Ian Bradshaw, Managing Director at TAP, said: “I want to
congratulate Industria Meccanica Bassi and Nuova Giungas for
their robust technical offers, know-how and safety track record.
Also, I would like to thank all the companies who participated in
these rigorous tendering rounds. In line with our procurement
schedule, TAP will award several large contracts by the end of
the year, including line pipes as well as onshore and offshore
engineering, procurement and construction. This will enable
pipeline construction to begin in Greece, Albania and Italy in
2016 as planned.”
The award of these contracts concludes TAP’s pre-
qualification process (launched in May 2015), followed by bid
assessments from the shortlisted companies that met TAP’s
rigorous pre-qualification criteria. This year TAP has awarded
several contracts: construction and rehabilitation of access
roads and bridges in Albania (April 2015), large diameter ball
valves and actuators (July 2015), and turbo compressors
(September 2015).
Blue Stream Pipeline inspection contract
awarded to Fugro
Fugro has been awarded a contract by Blue Stream Pipeline
Company B.V. for the provision of survey support vessels and
associated survey services to perform the 2015 external
pipeline inspection for the offshore, shore approach, and dry
section components of the Blue Stream Pipeline System.
The two 24 in. gas export pipelines, E1 and W2, run from
the Beregovaya gas compression station in Russia’s Arkhipo-
Osipovka, 235 miles (378 km) across the Black Sea, with a
maximum water depth of approximately 2150 m, to the
Durusu inlet terminal 40 miles (64 km) from Samsun in Turkey.
The infield work in both areas has been completed and the
reporting stage is now underway.
The Fugro-owned Atlantis Dweller was successfully
mobilised in Istanbul at the end of August and is currently
undertaking the external inspection of the offshore section.
10 World Pipelines / NOVEMBER 2015
Iran-Pakistan pipeline project: construction
bids
Chinese state firm China Petroleum Pipelines Bureau (CPP) is set
to be awarded the contract to build the US$2.5 billion Gwadar
liquefied natural gas (LNG) and the Iran-Pakistan gas pipeline in
November 2015.
Interstate Gas Systems (ISGS) – who opened the technical
bid for the construction of projects – announced the news on
1 October 2015.
Mubeen Saulat, ISGS Managing Director, explained that CPP
had submitted technical and commercial bids in accordance
with the Public Procurement Regulatory Authority (PPRA) rules.
CPP will thusly build the 700 km long pipeline from Gwadar
to Nawabshah. It will also construct the terminal with a capacity
to handle 500 million ft3/d of LNG, and a floating storage
gasification unit.
The pipeline and terminal will pave the way for executing
the Iran-Pakistan (IP) gas pipeline project.
Saulat stated: “This is a significant development that shows
Pakistan is serious about kicking off work on the IP pipeline, but
its implementation hinges on lifting of global sanctions against
Iran.”
Penspen awarded US$4.3 million Bangladesh
contract
Penspen – a leading global provider of engineering and
management services to the energy industry – has been
awarded a contract worth US$4.3 million from Gas Transmission
Company Ltd. (GTCL); a company of Petrobangla under the
Ministry of Power, Energy and Mineral Resources of Bangladesh.
The contract is for the Dhanua-Elenga and West Bank of
Bangabandhu Bridge - Nalka gas transmission pipeline, located in
Bangladesh. Work on the 67 km 30 in. high-pressure gas pipeline
will commence in 2016 - 17, and is estimated to take
approximately two years to complete.
Penspen will be involved in all aspects of engineering and
project management, which will include design of pipeline,
stations and related facilities, preparing bidding documents and
evaluating bids, and project management of construction.
The project will be executed by Penspen’s team in London,
and will be supported by a well established Dhaka based
engineering company – BETS, which will be undertaking
environmental studies and providing all onsite construction
activities.
Peter O’Sullivan, CEO of Penspen, said: “We are excited to
be part of a major project designed to help enhance natural gas
infrastructure in Bangladesh. Penspen has previous experience
working in the country and we are pleased to have been
selected by GTCL as we continue to grow and expand in the
region. Penspen has a strong history in providing engineering,
project management, asset management and integrity services
to the oil and gas industry for more than 60 years, and we are
confident our expertise working on similar projects will deliver
value to GTCL’s business.”
 OPERATIONOFFSHORE.COM
#operationoffshore

T.D. WILLIAMSON / MCG PRODUCTIONS PRESENT“OPERATION OFFSHORE”

m MARK SIM, TODD BEADLE, GORDON BLAIR, ALEXEY TUGANOV, ANTON KOVALENKO, LAURENT FABRY, TAMMY WISENBAKER,
KEVIN MCNAUGHTON, PAOLA CORRALES, STEVE APPLETON, ALEXANDRE PETRAGLIA, /ROLF GUNNAR LIE
DIRECTORS LARRY RYAN, GEORGE LIM DIRECTORS JEFF WILSON, GARY ANDERSON x MIKE BENJAMIN, CHAD FLETCHER THE STORY RISK ON THE PLATFORM
DEVELOPMENT TECHNICAL BASED ON

© Copyright 2015 T.D. Williamson, Inc

Cheap energy
MASKS
DOWNTURN
Ng Weng Hoong explores Asia’s oil outlook: how the decline in oil
price provides comfort amid worries over economic slowdown.
C
heap energy is providing a measure of comfort for
Asia’s major economies 18 months into the global
oil and gas market collapse, as they confront the
worrying prospects of slowing growth and deflation.
China rocked global confidence in August when it
unexpectedly devalued its currency just weeks after its stock
markets began crashing to wipe out US$5.5 trillion worth of
shareholders’ wealth. As Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Vietnam,
Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore and Australia took turns
reporting dismal trade and economic growth figures, China’s
ill-timed decision to devalue the renminbi (RMB) by a total
of 4.65% from 11 - 13 August sparked fears of a repeat of the
region’s devastating 1997 financial crisis.
As confidence crumbled in Asia’s China-led economic
power, oil prices took another tumble in late August to
their lowest levels in over six and a half years, with US WTI
crude touching US$37.75/bbl and North Sea Brent crashing
to US$42.23. Analysts are debating if Beijing’s actions are part
of a long-term market reform strategy or are signs that the

13
 government has lost control of the debt-driven economy.
The IMF has downgraded its forecast for China’s annual
economic growth to well below the psychological 7% level
over the next two years.
Amid the prolonged supply glut, US ratings agency
Moody’s has issued a forecast for crude oil prices to trade
below US$50/bbl through 2018, while Canada’s Scotiabank
predicts they will languish for at least another year.
The outlook for liquefied natural gas (LNG) prices in
Asia is just as dismal as spot prices still have room to fall
after sliding to a low of US$7.395 per million BTU for August
delivery, according to reports. At their peak in early 2014,
Asia’s spot LNG cargoes sold for more than US$20.
OPEC expects Asia’s oil demand to exceed
30 million bpd for the first time
Asia’s oil demand will grow by 1.8% this year to
30.48 million  bpd to account for nearly 33% of the
global total of 92.7 million bpd, according to the
Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). It
will be the first of any of the world’s major regions to
consume more than 30 million bpd of oil in a single year.
OPEC expects Asia’s oil use to rise 1.6% to over
30.97 million bpd in 2016, to help boost the global total to
94.04 million bpd.
China – the region’s largest consumer – will register
demand growth of nearly 2.6% to 11.61 million bpd in 2015,
and by a further 2.5% to 11.90 million bpd next year. The
combined consumption of Asia’s other emerging economies
will increase by 3.5% to 10.83 million bpd in 2015, and by over
3% to 11.16 million bpd in 2016.
Chinese oil consumption growth will remain strong
despite a projected slowdown in its economy, said the cartel
in its August report on the global oil industry. It expects
China’s economic growth to slow down to 6.5% in 2016 from
6.9% in 2015. OPEC expects India to lead the region’s major
economies, growing by 7.5% in 2015 and 7.7% in 2016.
Weighing on Asia’s oil outlook, the developed
economies of Japan, South Korea, Australia and New Zealand
together will experience demand contractions: down
1.5% to 8.04 million bpd in 2015, and by a further 1.6% to
7.91 million bpd the following year.
IEEJ analyst expects Japan’s energy
consumption to rise in 2015 after four years
of decline
After four straight years of decline, Japan’s total energy
consumption, buoyed by a mild economic recovery, could
begin growing again in the current financial year starting
1 April 2015, according to an analyst at the Institute of Energy
Economics, Japan (IEEJ).
“Helped by weak oil prices, the resurgent industrial
and transportation sectors will raise Japan’s energy use by
about 1.2% in FY2015, but it will still fall short of FY2010’s
consumption by about 7%,” said Senior Economist Akira
Yanagisawa. Japan’s earthquake-tsunami tragedy occurred less
than three weeks before the end of FY2010 on 31 March 2011,
marking that as the last year when the country’s energy
14 World Pipelines / NOVEMBER 2015
sector, including a vibrant nuclear energy industry, was still
operating ‘normally’.
Following the 11 March 2011 destruction of the Fukushima
Daiichi nuclear complex, Japan’s energy use plunged as the
government and industries responded to the loss of the
country’s entire nuclear power capacity – that supplied
nearly 30% of its electricity – by sharply curtailing daily
activities. The already sluggish Japanese economy fell into
recession in the last financial year ending 31 March 2015.
In a recent report, Yanagisawa said Japan’s consumption
of coal, naphtha and electricity will be boosted by a recovery
in the nation’s iron, steel, automobile and petrochemicals
production. He expects Japan’s diesel and heavy fuel oils
consumption to decrease as the nation continues switching
over to natural gas.
Japan’s energy use shrank last year on a combination
of nationwide conservation efforts, an increase in the
consumption tax and cooler weather. The Japanese economy
went into recession in the July - September quarter last year
after the government of Prime Minister Shinzo Abe raised the
national consumption tax from 5 - 8%, on 1 April 2014.
Yanagisawa expects Japan’s FY2015 electricity demand to
recover, partly offsetting a fall in the use of city gas, LPG and
kerosene, on account of the nation’s shrinking population
and growing use of energy-efficient equipment.
“The residential sector’s final energy consumption as
a whole will decrease by 1% for the fifth straight year,
continuing the downward trend after the earthquake
disaster,” he wrote.
The commercial sector’s energy consumption is expected
to edge up 0.7% in FY2015, reversing a projected 3.6% plunge
the previous year resulting from an earlier consumption tax
hike and weak economic conditions.
“Electricity and city gas use will increase, while kerosene
and heavy fuel oil will continue declining amid the fuel
switch,” said Yanagisawa.
He has forecast a gradual decline in the use of oil for
electricity generation, with LNG taking up the slack alongside
a partial resumption of the country’s nuclear energy capacity.
Electricity generated by nuclear and alternative energy
sources are seen to account for more than 10% of power
supply in FY2015.
Lower energy prices provide respite
The 60% collapse in oil prices since mid 2014 has given the
Japanese economy a much-needed respite after years of
being weighed down by the high cost of imported energy.
From 2000 - mid 2014, Brent crude prices traded mostly
between US$100 - 120/bbl, while LNG cargoes were sold
to Japan at four to five times the levels before the tsunami-
earthquake tragedy.
Due largely to the high cost of imported energy, Japan
reported a near 20% plunge in its current account surplus to
¥3.23 trillion last year, its smallest since 1985. The yen’s sharp
descent from around 80 to the US dollar in March 2011 to 120
today also contributed to the shrunken current account that
is the broadest measure of a country’s trade covering goods,
services, and returns on investments.
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 Burdened by the high cost of oil and gas imports,
Japan’s merchandise trade deficit surged 11.4% to a record
¥12.78 trillion in 2014. Imports climbed 5.7% to ¥85.89 trillion
to outpace a 4.8% rise in exports to ¥73.11 trillion.
Abe, who won re-election as Prime Minister for a second
term last December, views energy cost as one of the biggest
threats to his government’s plan to revive the Japanese
economy.
The IEEJ estimates that a US$10/bbl rise in the oil price
reduces the country’s GDP by 0.3% while shrinking its trade
balance by ¥2 trillion and reducing private consumption,
which accounts for 60% of the domestic economy.
It expects the Japanese economy to grow by 1.8% in
FY2015, thanks to a combination of low energy prices and
Tokyo’s expansionist economic policies to boost private
consumption, investments and exports through a weaker yen.
China could open up oil and gas storage
sector to foreign participarion
China could open up its tightly held oil and gas storage and
pipelines sector to foreign investment as the next phase of the
national plan to enhance domestic energy security.
Officials are discussing the idea’s implementation after it
was first raised last year amid growing fears over safety, health,
and environmental threats posed by the rapid expansion of
the country’s storage and pipe infrastructure. Beijing also
wants foreign expertise and capital to help it quickly expand
the nation’s strategic oil and gas stockpiles to take advantage
of low energy prices.
The hidden threat posed by China’s poorly maintained
energy infrastructure was forcefully highlighted in November
2013 when an oil pipeline buried under a busy road junction
in downtown Qingdao city exploded, killing more than 50
people and injuring over 160, while inflicting extensive damage
to property in the vicinity.
State energy giant Sinopec owned and operated the
pipeline to deliver crude oil from a storage terminal located
near the coastal city’s strategic port to its refineries. State
investigators said the pipeline was sited next to ageing rusty
sewage pipelines leaking methane that ignited during road
construction works.
Under pressure to meet the country’s fast-rising energy
demand, China’s state-owned firms have been racing to build
storage terminals along the coast and linking them through
pipelines to refineries, ports, and petrochemical plants, as well
as oil and gas fields across the country. Safety, environmental,
and health standards were largely ignored, resulting in the
construction of thousands of kilometres of pipelines that
Beijing now fears could become a security threat in the future.
After extensive discussions, the National Energy
Administration (NEA) announced last December that it would
consider allowing foreign and private companies to participate
in the construction, development and operation of China’s
LNG terminals, in addition to oil storage and pipeline facilities.
More importantly, the government will focus on raising
the quality of the new pipelines and storage terminals to
prevent a repeat of the Qingdao accident, while reducing the
environmental and health hazards posed by leaking pipelines
and storage terminals.
16 World Pipelines / NOVEMBER 2015
Another reason, although not stated, is that Beijing wants
to curb corrupt practices among Chinese firms by allowing
foreign participation in new projects through joint ventures
with local players.
Although China has made impressive strides in building
up the first phase of its strategic petroleum reserves to more
than 100 million bbls since 2009, the government believes the
industry can do better. In July 2014, Beijing set the stage for
increased foreign participation when it signed a memorandum
of understanding with the US government to co-operate on
managing its strategic petroleum reserves.
US Energy Secretary Ernest Moniz signed the agreement
with NEA Chief Wu Xinxiong in Beijing, paving the way for
the world’s two largest energy consumers to jointly deal
with global oil supply disruptions and price volatility. Having
overtaken the US as the world’s leading oil importer, China is
increasingly vulnerable to supply shocks, although this concern
has dissipated in recent months on account of the oil price
collapse.
Indian firms looking to activate agreement to
import LNG from Iran
India wants to activate a shelved decade-old agreement
to import LNG from Iran as the Islamic regime prepares to
be freed of international trade sanctions following recent
breakthrough talks with six world powers over its nuclear
energy programme.
Petroleum Minister Dharmendra Pradhan told India’s
Parliament that state owned gas utility GAIL has initiated
talks with Iran to revive the agreement that it and two other
Indian firms signed with National Iranian Gas Export Company
(NIGEC) in June 2005. GAIL had agreed to import 2 million tpy
of LNG, while Indian Oil Corp (IOC) signed for 1.75 million t,
and Bharat Petroleum Corp wanted 1.25 million t. The deal
was never implemented, possibly because Iran may have
suffered seller’s remorse in agreeing to a very low term price
of US$3.215 per million BTU.
Even at today’s low oil and gas prices after the 60%
collapse over the past year, that term price would be
considered cheap and uneconomic as Japan is paying about
US$7.50 - 8 per million BTU for its LNG imports.
GAIL said Iran has yet to respond to its request to
implement the agreement that would require Iran to make a
substantial investment to develop a gas liquefaction terminal
and marine facilities at Chabahar port on the Gulf of Oman.
The two countries signed an agreement in 2003 to develop
the port that would enable India to conduct trade with Iran
without going through Pakistan. India has plans to help Iran
develop Chabahar into a major free trade zone to facilitate its
trade with Central Asia and the Middle East.
Indian Foreign Secretary S. Jaishankar, who recently visited
Iran to boost bilateral energy and security co-operation,
described Iran as offering his country an alternative route to
Central Asia.
“The resolution of the nuclear dispute and lifting of
sanctions will allow our agenda of energy and connectivity
cooperation to unfold seriously,” he said in a lecture at the
International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) in Singapore
on 20 July.
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 With the global economy slowing down, India is eager The US$20.4 billion project comprises the liquefaction
to revive trade with Iran to drive its own long-term growth. trains that draw natural gas through a 540 km pipeline from
Iran holds large easily accessible oil and gas reserves that will the coalbed methane reserves of the onshore Surat Basin
help India meet its projected one-third increase in natural gas in southern Queensland. The second train is due to start
demand over the next three years. up in 3Q, more than five years after the company began
constructing the project.
Australia may miss out on AUS$55 billion Apart from being a shareholder, CNOOC is also a
worth of LNG windfall foundation customer with a 20 year contract to purchase an
“Having done the hard part of attracting AUS$250 billion annual 3.6 million t of the fuel. Along with QCLNG, two other
worth of LNG investments, Australia may yet miss out on major LNG projects in Australia will also face start-up delays.
AUS$55 billion worth of benefits when a wave of new plants The US$34 billion Ichthys project in Northern Territory
starts up over the next few years,” said consulting firm and Chevron’s US$29 billion Wheatstone project in Western
Accenture (US$1 = AUS$1.4). Australia are both expected to be delayed by several months
In a report, the firm said the country’s LNG sector lacks Japan’s Inpex Corp may have to wait until 2017 to start its
competitiveness against international rivals as it faces tough onshore Ichthys terminal due to the delays in the production
“regulatory constraints”, an overpaid workforce, inflexible of a vital offshore platform at South Korea’s Samsung Heavy
labour relations, and costly tendering and contracting Industries shipyard.
processes. As a result of cost overruns, delays, and recent tight labour
For Australia to derive the benefits from having ‘the world’s conditions, consulting firm Wood Mackenzie has trimmed as
largest and most technologically advanced’ LNG industry, much as 11 million t of production from its earlier forecast of
Accenture said the country needs to “improve international Australia’s LNG output for the 2015 - 2019 period.
competitiveness, remove regulatory constraints and introduce “The next wave of LNG from Australia will start in 2017 and
a more flexible labour relations regime.” be exposed to a different economic climate, labour market
The report, Ready or Not? Creating a world-leading oil and changing cost environment than the first tranche of
and gas industry in Australia, analyses the readiness of the projects,” the report stated. Australia has attracted a total of
LNG industry to capitalise on future opportunities as it moves US$180 billion worth of LNG investments for start-up in the
from construction into production. second half of the decade.
In May, Australia launched commercial operations at the
world’s first plant to convert coalbed methane (CBM) to LNG Malaysia’s Petronas faces possible negative
after over a year of start-up delay. cash flow in 2015
The Queensland Curtis LNG (QCLNG) plant on Curtis After announcing a 47.3% plunge in the company’s 2Q
Island near Gladstone was officially dedicated on 15 May profit, the CEO and President of Malaysia’s state-owned
at a ceremony attended by the state’s Premier, Annastacia energy firm Petronas said he expects to tap into its cash
Palaszczuk, and Federal Industry and Science Minister, Ian reserves this year to help pay for operating expenses,
Macfarlane. Equally owned by UK’s BG Group and China capital investments, and dividends to the government.
National Offshore Oil Corp (CNOOC), QCLNG started up Wan Zulkiflee Wan Ariffin said sharply lower oil and gas
one of its two 8.5 million tpy trains last December and has prices and sales sent net profit falling to RM11.1 billion in the
since shipped 16 cargoes while undergoing commissioning April - June quarter from RM21.06 billion the same quarter
and performance testing by builder Bechtel Australia Pty last year. Revenue was off nearly 27% from RM86.36 billion -
Limited. RM63.1 billion (US$1 = RM4.15).
Brent crude traded at an average of more than
US$60/bbl in 2Q, compared with around US$105 for the
Table 1. OPEC’s forecast for global oil demand
same period a year ago. Analysts expect oil and gas prices
2014 2015F 2016F 2016/15 %
to remain depressed through at least next year.
North America 24.17 24.48 24.80 1.31 While promising to continue its RM26 billion dividend
Europe 13.49 13.60 13.59 -0.00 payment to the cash-strapped Malaysian government, Wan
OECD Asia 8.16 8.04 7.91 -1.62 Zulkiflee said Petronas will “persevere with more austerity
TOTAL OECD 45.82 46.12 46.22 0.39
measures” to maintain profitability at the company, which
provides as much as 45% of the state budget.
“I do not expect our cash flow from operations this year to
Other Asia 11.32 11.61 11.90 2.50
meet our capital expenditure and dividend commitments. This
China 10.46 10.83 11.16 3.05 means that we … will have to draw on our cash reserves,” he said.
Latin America 6.60 6.73 6.88 2.23 In February, Petronas announced plans to reduce this
Middle East 8.14 8.34 8.55 2.52 year’s capital expenditure by 15% and dividend payment by
Africa 3.78 3.87 3.96 2.33 around 10%.
Ex-Soviet (FSU) Europe 4.54 4.56 4.61 1.10
The Malaysian economy badly needs Petronas’s cash as
domestic political instability and reduced energy earnings
Other Europe 0.65 0.67 0.69 2.99
have caused the ringgit to plunge by more than 35% to a 17
GLOBAL TOTAL 91.33 92.70 94.04 1.45
year low of 4.35 against the US dollar over the past year.

18 World Pipelines / NOVEMBER 2015

 YOUR COMPLETE PIPELINE PACKAGE.
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 Line pipe

trends
Glen McAdam and Dimitris Dimopoulos at Berg Steel Pipe Corp., USA,
with Christoph Kalwa and Hans-Georg Hillenbrand at Europipe GmbH,
Germany, discuss current trends in the line pipe industry.
D
ue to increasingly difficult line pipe design
requirements and government revisions to both
safety regulations and maximum allowable operating
pressures, pipe manufacturers and steelmakers have
been challenged for higher quality products in order to meet
the industry’s needs. Certain special attributes may have
been limited to a few customer specifications for line pipe
10 years ago, but now the customer base has consolidated
their expectations. Some requirements have been accepted by
international standards and rules, but others continue to exist
within more and more customer specifications. The following
topics regarding steel cleanliness, segregation control,
mechanical rolling, pipe manufacturing and new applications
summarise the changing expectations of the line pipe industry.
This paper describes the current trends in the production
of large diameter pipes, and presents recent trends for new
applications.

21
 Production
Chemistry and steel cleanliness
A tight control of alloying elements combined with
thermomechanical rolling allows improved capability of
mechanical properties in pipe form, meeting tighter customer
requirements. Additionally, measuring and controlling a large
range of elements is also expected including Pcm (typically
0.18 - 0.19%), while the overall variability of chemical
composition within an order is expected to be tight, in order
for a high welding performance to be achieved during pipeline
construction.
Even for sweet service line pipe, specification
requirements of elements such as phosphorus and sulfur have
steadily decreased to levels of 0.015% max and 0.005% max
respectively. Line pipe will be typically inspected by ultrasonic
and radiographic techniques on sheet or pipe form, and any
presence of non-metallic oxide inclusions will be detected.
Non-metallic inclusions originate from deoxidation or
reoxidation products, slag entrapment, chemical reactions or
exogenous sources. Since inclusions cannot be completely
removed from steel, steelmakers must control their
morphology, composition and size distribution. Figures 1 and 2
Figure 1. Sulfide stringer.
Figure 2. Ca treated inclusion.
22 World Pipelines / NOVEMBER 2015
illustrate morphology control of a sulfide inclusion by calcium
treatment.
The industrial term ‘clean steel’ becomes somewhat vague
once it is understood the magnitude of process variables
that must be controlled within a melt shop and continuous
caster. These variables include the time and location of
deoxidant and sequencing of alloy additions, the extent and
sequence of secondary metallurgy treatments, stirring and
transfer operations, shrouding systems, tundish geometry and
practices, the absorption capacity of the various metallurgical
fluxes, and casting practices.
Line pipe applications require fully killed steel so total
oxygen levels in the ladle are expected to be below 5 ppm,
thus large inclusions are unlikely. The difference in nitrogen
content between a steelmaking ladle and the casting tundish
or mould is an indicator of the air entrained during transfer
operations. The nitrogen pickup is a common measure of
total oxygen, steel cleanliness, and quality problems from
reoxidation inclusions, and limitations should be established
to allow slabs to be applied to critical applications, such as
line pipe. Other methods to evaluate cleanliness may include
a dissolved aluminium loss measurement or a slag composition
measurement.
Slab centreline segregation
The solidification of continuous cast products is accompanied
by volume changes. The slab thickness at the meniscus in
the steel mould will differ from the finished slab thickness
by 2 - 3 mm on a conventional thick slab caster. There are
two important regions of shrinkage that must be controlled.
First, the shrinkage of the solid steel shell in the mould must
be maintained by the employing the proper heat extraction
rates. The heat extraction required varies based on the carbon
content and the overall chemical composition. Controls for
the heat extraction are achievable by developing production
practices based on copper plate thicknesses, taper settings,
and cooling water velocity per grade of steel. Secondly, the
support rolls throughout the length of the caster must be
properly set with respect to the roll gap in order to prevent
bulging in between the rolls. Improper gapping may lead to
centreline segregation, which is extremely detrimental to the
product’s end use.
Based on the distance from the meniscus level, the
gaps of the support rolls must decrease to compensate for
the solidification shrinkage. The last third of solidification
contains a mushy structure in the centre region. A poorly
gapped machine may allow enriched liquid melt to flow into
the mushy area of solidification, and porosity and macro
segregation will develop. Liquid motion intensity (LMI)
modelling has been developed to monitor flow throughout
a casting machine and used to develop the proper roll gap
set points throughout the length. Meanwhile, traditional
verification methods of segregation measurement, such as
macro etch evaluation, are still used. The industry trend in US
market is to intensify the frequency of testing and adopting
less subjective evaluation methods (automatic or image
analysis) compared with the ‘legacy’ Mannesmann scale.
 Microstructural control/thermo mechanical
rolling
TMCP is a process where rolling deformation steps are
performed under well-controlled temperature conditions,
resulting in a very fine and uniform acicular ferrite
microstructure. Effectively, this leads to higher strength and
better toughness. The temperature control during reheating of
slab, plate/coil rolling and cooling after plate/coil rolling is
critical. The thermal control during the hot rolling process is
even more effective when combined with the tight control of
the micro-alloyed elements: niobium, vanadium and titanium.
Manufacturers are very often expected to deliver pipe
within a 120 MPa range for yield strength. If the pipe tests
within the 2 ksi range – just above the specified minimum
yield strength – then additional testing is required. Essentially,
pipe yield strength is required to perform within a 106 Mpa
range. The close co-operation between steel supplier and pipe
producer is vital, as well as the exchange of statistical data
that correlate the properties of flat product and pipe.
Pipe manufacturing
The pipe requirements, such as a narrow mechanical property
range, high toughness in the base metal, weld and HAZ
location and an overall homogeneous geometry, can only be
obtained from a high quality steel source. Pipe manufacturing
can employ a variation of forming and welding techniques
to create either longitudinal seam or spiral seam line pipe.
Welding techniques for large diameter pipes is usually
completed by submerged arc welding (SAW). Dimensional
tolerances are important to maximise field welding
production rates and lower costs. In order to meet modified
dimensional tolerances, the pipe industry has responded with
mechanical expansion units. These units provide improved
pipe geometry, as well as a harmonised strength after the
forming process.
Recent trends – new applications
Strain-based design
The strain-based design (SBD) of pipelines began in the 1980s,
with the use of higher-grade line pipe steel in arctic regions.
The improved toughness of X70 and higher was a suitable
Figure 3. Stress-strain curves of X80 grades in longitudinal
direction.
24 World Pipelines / NOVEMBER 2015
match to the deformation of the frozen ground. Line pipe
designers have recognised that SBD should be utilised in
areas with loadings that involve imposed displacements
on the pipeline, such as earthquake faulting, frost heave or
thaw settlement. Various funded programmes around the
globe have worked to develop and validate SBD assessment
of pipelines. These projects have defined the concepts of
the SBD approach, but they are not widely known across
the manufacturing industry and have not been addressed by
regulatory and standard agencies.
With the trend of large hydrocarbon deposits being
discovered in Arctic regions, a common specification for
strain-based design may be ratified for industry use in the
near future. To cope with the requirements from SBD, the
focal issue is the girth weld with respect to strength and pipe
alignment, to avoid stress and strain concentration in small
areas.
The SBD pipe development focuses on the stress-strain
behaviour of the material in longitudinal direction. Besides the
pressure containing task of the pipe, which is represented by
transverse strength values, the pipe has to bear axial loads and
strains that is represented in longitudinal strength and strain
values.
Customer specifications have been developed to test the
longitudinal and transverse direction of line pipe, in both the
rolled and in an aged condition. The longitudinal testing is
based on the application of longitudinal displacements, and
the ageing is used to simulate the effect of the heating cycle
that occurs during coating to the mechanical properties of the
pipe.
A measure of the non-localised deformability in SBD is
the uniform elongation of the material. It represents the range
of deformation in which the material deforms homogeneous,
not localised in necking. This is an additional property during
tensile testing compared with standard line pipe requirements
and frequently provisions for special extensometers with
a wider strain range is required. Additionally, this may be
needed for both strap and round bar specimens. Figure 3
shows an example of stress-strain curves for X80 grade in the
longitudinal direction.
The special steel designed for SBD exhibits the higher
uniform elongation. Also, the specification requirement
excluding non-continuous stress-strain characteristic (Lüders
plateau) after coating shall assure that deformation is uniform
when longitudinal loads are applied. Additionally, process
routes, sampling points, lab equipment and mill capabilities
require re-evaluation in the product development of SBD line
pipe. It is seldom that an industry sees a major product shift
that the entire industry is transformed, but SBD line pipe may
be such a game changer.
Deep sea – collapse resistant pipes
Collapse resistant pipes are necessary when offshore pipelines
will be laid in deeper waters. The deeper the water, the higher
the external pressure on a pipe, and special requirements
have to be fulfilled in terms of mechanical and geometrical
properties. One challenging project was a natural gas pipeline
crossing the Black Sea in a water depth of 2200 m. The
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 required steel grade was SAWL 450 SFDU and the dimensions
were 813 mm OD x 39 mm wall thickness (WT). In order to
prevent the pipe from buckling under high external pressure
on the seabed, the collapse resistance of the material had to
be determined. To predict the collapse pressure, the technical
rules of DNV OS F101 define the equations considering
mechanical and geometrical properties. For single pipe rings
and pipes, the collapse pressure can be determined in full
scale or medium scale tests.
Local buckling is strongly influenced by material resistance
and pipe ovality. Furthermore, the calculation explicitly takes
into account the tensile yield strength – although it would be
more reasonable from a physical point of view to refer to the
compressive yield strength of the material in the as laid state.
DNV rules consider the Bauschinger effect for expanded pipes
under compression loads by introducing a fabrication factor
of 0.85 to the tensile SMYS, which has proven to be a very
conservative approach.
Although, this estimation is neglecting the fact that line
pipe material for offshore use will usually receive a thermal
heat treatment during coating process. This artificial ageing
effect can consequently compensate the drop of yield
strength caused by cold expansion.
In a first step the compressive yield strength in the
as-fabricated (AF) and the as-coated (AC) condition was
Figure 4. Production results of compression tests SAWL 450
SFDU in as-coated condition.
Figure 5. Production data for out of roundness at pipe end and
pipe body 813 mm OD x 39 mm WT.
26 World Pipelines / NOVEMBER 2015
examined. As a result of the heat treatment, the compressive
yield strength at 0.5% total strain was increased by 20%. In
both cases samples – in the 3 o’clock and 6 o’clock position
– they exhibit nearly the same strength level.
Compression testing is by far more complex than a
standard tensile test, and requires a detailed approach
and experience from the involved testing laboratories.
Test results for the compressive yield strength in the
as-coated condition at 0.5% total strain are shown in
Figure 4. The production results exceed the requirements
of the specification with a mean value 60 MPa above
the minimum. Consequently, it can be concluded that a
general reduction of the fabrication factor for coated UOE
pipes does not seem to be mandatory as long as a low
temperature heat treatment is used to compensate the
loss in yield strength. Furthermore, satisfactory results can
also be achieved if the calculations are performed with
compressive yield strength in the as-coated condition as an
input parameter.
The demand to manufacture line pipe material with
excellent geometrical shapes and stringent requirements
often conflicts with the accuracy of manual measurements
for characterisation of pipe geometry. The ability to
evaluate the dimensions in an accurate way is unclear.
Therefore, the need for continuous measurement by
mechanical, optical or laser-optical devices, has been
recently included in more and more line pipe specifications.
Manual measurement methods using rod gauges or
equivalent tools are going to be replaced and shall only be
used as backup systems. Usually the manual measurement
results in a lower out of roundness than the automatic
measurement. Both parties, customer and manufacturer,
can benefit from this request. On one hand, the client
gets the opportunity to get the most accurate and
detailed measurements on multiple positions to ensure
the serviceability of the produced components. On the
other hand, the pipe manufacturer can perform the quality
control and observe the process development without the
possibility of human errors.
To demonstrate the process stability in the pipe mill, a
distribution of the out of roundness at the pipe ends and
pipe body is shown in Figure 5. The figure illustrates that
the pipe body values are slightly higher than the pipe end
values. Nevertheless, all data sets meet the specification’s
requirement of 4.0 mm by having most of the values below
3.2 mm.
Conclusion
When using pipes in extreme environments, the operator
needs to rely on homogeneous material properties. This
is given only when well-controlled processes during all
production steps, from the steel mill and the plate rolling
mill to pipe mill and coating yard, are in place. The proper
process control needs to involve high levels of know-how
and experience. Europipe and Berg Steel Pipe commit to
develop in co-operation with the end user tailored products,
and demonstrate their global properties under operational
requirements.
Dr. Jai Dev Chandel and Kamal Kishore, Jindal Saw,
India, discuss the structural integrity of X80M DSAWH
line pipe for lower temperature services.

Integrity
down
the

LINE
T
he use of high strength large diameter line pipe
makes a significant contribution to pipeline project
cost reduction. In addition to high strength at lower
thickness, material should be suitable for lower
temperature service to meet the lower construction cost
and higher operating pressure.1 In order to meet the safety
standards, the line pipe must be tested and comply with
the project specific requirements. Physical and dimensional
properties are two main factors affecting the pipeline
integrity. The routes of manufacturing line pipes are J-C-O-E,
U-O-E and Helical Seam. J-C-O-E and U-O-E are limited to the
longitudinal welds, which are highly dependent on the plate
width, while the helical line pipes are not restricted to the
plate width. The line pipes manufactured by helical route are
more cost effective than other routes. Nowadays, the DSAWH
line pipes are used in oil and gas transmission too due to their
cost effectiveness and improved properties and quality in
manufacturing, which were earlier limited to water lines and
general purposes only.

27
 The state-of-the-art pipe mills at Jindal Saw are capable
of producing the line pipes with very close tolerances. A
study has been undertaken to meet the structural integrity of
API X80M steel line pipe helically manufactured by a double
seam submerged arc welding (SAW) process. Some 20 batches
of line pipe of API-5L X80M size dia. 1219.2 mm x 17.5 mm
wall thickness were manufactured at two mills (10 at each
location). The line pipes were evaluated at both the locations
to meet the requirements of straightness, ovality, diameter,
peaking, and mechanical and physical properties. The fullscale
burst test was also performed.
Materials and experimental procedures
The base metal used for DSAWH line pipe was produced
through thermo mechanical controlled rolled and accelerated
cooled micro alloyed steel (V-Nb-Ti).2, 3, 4 The chemical
composition of the DSAWH line pipe is shown in Table 1. The
microstructure of the base metal is shown in Figure 1. The
DSAWH line pipes were produced through two-step forming
technique.
The welding of the test line pipes has been carried out by
a combination of gas metal arc welding (GMAW) and double
submerged arc welding (DSAW) processes. The root pass
weld (continuous tack weld) by GMAW and the final welding
processes were completed with a three wire tandem SAW
technique. One pass from the first side (opposite to the root
run) and a second pass on the root weld side of the line pipes
were performed with the two wire tandem SAW technique.
The welding procedure has been developed to maintain the
minimal HAZ, optimum cross penetration, defect free elliptical
weld pool shape, and the competitive epitaxial dendrite
growth in the weld.5 The test line pipes having double-Y joint
geometry is shown in Figure 2. The SAW welding had been
carried out using a heat input of 3.24 KJ/mm and 3.04 KJ/mm
for each pass; using Ti-B-Mo wires.
Results and discussion
The experimental line pipes produced were visually inspected
for any imperfection in weld and base metal. Complete weld
of line pipes was scanned through the real time radiography
and no significant discontinuity was observed. The line pipes
were hydrostatically tested at 95% of SMYS of the line
pipe. After the hydro test, the line pipes were scanned by
automatic ultrasonic for weld. Radiography was performed
at the pipe ends as per the requirement of the API-5L. All
the dimensions were measured and found well within the
API-5L limits. The macro residual stress sample was extracted
(150 mm ring) from the completed line pipe and the macro
residual stress was measured below 4%. The following formula
was used for calculating the residual stress:6

Residual stress (s) = {(E x t x C) / (12.556 x R2)} – {(F x R2)/t}

Where c = change in circumference (mm), t = specified wall

thickness (mm), e = young modulus of elasticity (2 x 108 KPa),
f = 0.1154, and r = specified pipe radius (mm).
The mechanical tests samples for tensile test, guided
bend test, hardness test, charpy test and DWTT, were
extracted from the
Table 1. Chemical composition of line pipes and the
the DSAWH line pipe (%wt) microscopic evaluations
Chemical Weight for weld metal, fusion
Figure 1. Microstructure of base metal. (Left: SEM micrograph. elements percentage line and base metal,
Right: light micrograph at 1000X). (%wt)
were prepared. The
Carbon (C) 0.064 microstructure of the
Chromium (Cr) 0.32 DSAWH line pipe steel
Copper (Cu) 0.2443 was fine grained in
Manganese (Mn) 1.833 addition to the grain size
Molybdenum (Mo) 0.2329 of 13.5, which helps to
Nickel (Ni) 0.2398 get higher CVN values
Aluminium (Al) 0.0176 at -20°C. The weld
Boron (B) 0.00015 metal of the internal
Niobium (Nb) 0.0841
and external weld has
Nitrogen (N) 0.0074
a fine microstructure
of acicular ferrite,
Phosphorus (P) 0.0088
polygonal ferrite, and
Silicon (Si) 0.204
a small amount of M-A
Suplhur (S) 0.0013
(martensite-austenite)
Titanium (Ti) 0.0142
constituent, which helps
Vanadium (V) 0.0259
to achieve the toughness
(V + Nb + Ti) 0.124 at subzero temperatures
Figure 2. Double-Y joint geometry.
Pcm (critical
0.214 up to -20°C at this
metal parameter)
strength level.

28 World Pipelines / NOVEMBER 2015

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Figure 3. Burst line pipe.
Two line pipes were chosen for a full scale burst test
and results reported for one test. The proof test pressure
calculation was done based on the actual tensile strength and
actual thickness of the pipe. The flowing formula was used for
calculating the proof/burst test pressure:7
P=2xSxT/D
Where s = actual ultimate tensile strength (738.96 MPa),
t = actual wall thickness of the pipe (18.0 mm), and d = nominal
outside dia. of the pipe (1219.2 mm).
The calculated pressure for line pipe rupture was 3195 psi
(21.8 MPa), while the actual pressure measured after the burst
test was beyond the calculated pressure. The burst observed
at 3500 psi reflects the complete integrity for its intended use.
Under microscopic evaluation it was observed that the
steel was having the microstructure of the acicular ferrite and
polygonal ferrite and small amount of M/A constituent. This
exhibits the ultimate tensile strength of 739 - 763 MPa; the
YS/UTS ratio was 0.78 - 0.80 and charpy toughness of 283 J at
-40°C. The shear area was observed more than 85% at -40°C.
The drop weight tear test (DWTT) conducted at different
temperatures exhibit ductile nature and the shear area was
more than the 80% at -40°C, and 96.4% at -10°C. The weld
metal shows the excellent tensile properties and toughness
at lower temperature. The yield strength was 627 - 636 MPa
and the ultimate tensile strength was 787 - 790 MPa both
were tested from an all weld cylindrical tensile specimen. The
weld metal hardness was 247 - 249 Hv10 and the base metal
hardness was 230 - 243 Hv10, while the heat affected zone
Figure 4. Schematic of burst line pipe.
30 World Pipelines / NOVEMBER 2015
exhibits the hardness values of 240 - 247 Hv10 in the weldment.
The microstructure of the weld metal was containing the
acicular ferrite, polygonal ferrite and small proportion of M-A
constituent. The full scale burst test exhibits that the helical
weld acts as a crack arrestor/ stiffener, as shown in Figure 3
and 4. From the above results it is concluded that the DSAWH
line pipe exhibit the strong structural integrity, which is highly
desirable for API X80M grade line pipe and uniform properties
at the desired strength level.
Conclusion
During the burst test it was observed that the crack surface
is having the sign of ductile fracture. This is achieved by
the TMCP steel microstructure, which consists of fine
microstructure of acicular ferrite, polygonal ferrite and small
amount of M-A constituent as stated above. Ductility is a
desirable property for line pipe structural integrity. The helical
seam was able to resist the crack propagation and would
not able to travel more in to another loop. The helical weld
seam act as a crack resister, which also exhibits the acicular
ferrite, polygonal ferrite and small amount of M-A constituent
and consistent mechanical and physical properties ensuring
the structural integrity, desired for a pipeline of subzero
temperature application.
Acknowledgement
The authors are grateful to Jindal Saw Ltd. and its employees,
who have given support during the experimental work.
References
1. CHANDEL, Jai Dev, and et al, Characterisation of X-120M pipe line steel, Journal
of Petroleum and Gas Exploration Research (ISSN 2276-6510), December 2011,
Vol. 1, p. 072 - 079.
2. WILLMS, R., High strength steels in steel construction: Application and
processing, Proceedings of the 5th European Conference on Steel and Composite
Structures, EUROSTEEL 2008, Graz, p. 1083.
3. SCHWINN, Volker, et al, Recent Developments and Applications of TMCP Steel
Plates, 2011 International Symposium on the Recent Developments in Plate
Steels, p. 1 - 11.
4. KIRSCH, H.J., et al, New Property Combinations in Heavy Plate via the
Accelerated Cooling Process, Stahl und Eisen 119, No. 3, 1999, p. 57.
5. CHANDEL, J. D., Effect of welding variables on the weld of HSLA steel pipe
(API-5L X-80), International Symposium on joining of materials, SOJOM, 2004,
p. 1 - 9.
6. MECON Limited, India Specification For Helical (Spiral) Seam Submerged Arc
Welded (HSAW) Line Pipe (Onshore), Specification No.: MEC/TS/05/21/012C
Edition 02 & Amendment, p. 57.
7. API 5L, Specification for Line Pipe, 45th Edition, p. 71.
 Figure 1. The DSAWL line pipe has
already been installed in the UKCS.

A reel
CHALLENGE
T
ata Steel successfully manufactured and
delivered 406.4 mm outside dia. (OD) x 22.2 mm
wall thickness (WT) L450MO PSL2 submerged
arc welded longitudinal (SAWL) line pipe,
manufactured at its 42 in. UOE Mill in Hartlepool, England
last year.
Now this success may not sound remarkable, however,
Martin Connelly, there were three key features to this achievement. Firstly
the size represented the thickest 406.4 mm (16 in.) OD
Tata Steel, UK, SAWL pipe delivered by Tata Steel; secondly the thickness
was originally out with the capacity of the 42 in. mill, and
discusses the finally, it was going to be the first SAWL pipe installed
by reeling method in the UK North Sea. All of these
manufacture of small points presented challenging requirements to Tata Steel,
but due to previous experience in supplying 457 mm
diameter/thick wall (18 in.) OD pipe into the Gulf of Mexico, and with the
aid of our state of the art finite element (FE) modelling
reelable DSAWL and tooling programme, the pipe was manufactured and
delivered ahead of schedule and in full compliance with
line pipes. specification.

31
 Reelablity of the line pipe
Tata Steel was contacted by one of its customers – an
international energy company – regarding an urgent
replacement pipeline. The design of the pipe required a
406.4 mm dia. (16 in.), with 22.2 mm (0.875 in.) WT in grade
L450. The specification for the pipe was known to be
very demanding, both in terms of mechanical properties
and non-destructive testing (NDT) requirements. The end
client, lay contractor and Tata Steel engaged technically
to resolve any issues and develop a defined technical
position and schedule for manufacture. This included the
requirements necessary to confirm the reelability of the
pipe; the fact that the SAWL process would manufacture
the pipe represented a departure from both the end client
and the lay contractor’s previous experience.
Reelability would be a concern due principally to
the availability of lay vessels; the end client had various
options, but as schedule was critical, reel lay was
considered the optimum solution.
The chosen installation method meant the pipe wall
thickness needed to be designed to withstand the strains
associated with the reeling process; this is why such a
thick wall pipe was eventually determined. Tata Steel
designed the feedstock requirements and the chosen
plate source was one of Tata Steel’s approved European
suppliers.
Plans were put in place to confirm the reelability of
the SAWL line pipe as part of the manufacturing procedure
qualification; this project would become the third SAWL
project to be installed by the reeling technique globally,
with Tata Steel having supplied the line pipe on the
previous two projects utilising this installation method.
Plate supply was key
The feedstock for the pipe manufacture is extremely
important; the plate design must address the required
mechanical properties, the targeted weldability and the
correct NDT requirements, as well as the appropriate
dimensional and surface quality control.
The steel was manufactured using the basic oxygen
steelmaking process, with full calcium treatment,
secondary steelmaking refining and degassing to achieve
the required composition.
Thereafter it was continuously cast in one of the
most advanced continuous casters in operation today.
Afterwards, the plate was rolled using the thermo
mechanically controlled process (TMCP) on one of the
most sophisticated heavy plate mills. Due to the small
diameter of the pipe and facilitated by the high piece
weight and width capability of the supplying plate mill,
the steel slabs from casting were rolled into mother
plate from which six daughter plates were extracted.
This allowed for a more efficient and timely production
process at the plate mill.
32 World Pipelines / NOVEMBER 2015
Consequently, all of the plate was subjected to visual
inspection on both sides and 100% automated ultrasonic
testing (UT) to ensure complete integrity.
Rigorous testing of pipe integrity
The pipes were welded using the SAWL process; this
takes place after the O forming stage, but before the
expansion process. For this project, a suitable 4/5 wire
weld procedure specification (WPS) was developed and
a titanium-boron type welding wire/semi basic fully
agglomerated flux combination was used. Welding control
was assisted by various new technologies that have
recently been invested in within the 42 in. UOE mill, such
as weld condition monitoring and digital front-end control
of the SAWL process.
Welds were checked prior to expansion for defects
using NDT involving radiography and UT. Once the pipes
were expanded, they were hydrostatically tested to a
minimum test pressure of 447 bar for 10 sec. After this,
they received their final qualitative NDT check, via a 28
probe automated UT system.
The final part of the manufacture involved removal of
test pieces for batch release mechanical testing, followed
by visual inspection, end face bevelling, dimensional
confirmation, peripheral NDT of pipe ends and stencilling/
hard stamping with the pipe’s unique identity for the final
traceability guarantee.
The dimensional confirmation was very important on
this project. Due to the intended installation method,
there was a requirement to provide detailed information
on the dimensional control at the pipe ends. Specifically,
this focused on size and shape control.
Extensive experience
For the intended project, the critical dimensional
performance items were achieved and confirmed by
the laser profiler. Actual diametric control based on 16
equally spaced axes was shown to be within ±2 mm of
the nominal, and the out of roundness (OoR) at the pipe
ends were shown to meet 3 mm maximum. Any pipes
with OoR more than 3 mm had the ends cutback and
were re-measured for compliance. The control on these
dimensional parameters is essential to allow for the
high level of fit up required within the girth welds when
installation by reeling is being considered.
Additionally, local OoR at the longitudinal weld area
(peaking) and wall thickness were evaluated. These are also
critical to controlling the final fit up of pipes during spool
base operations.
Overcoming challenges in manufacturing
small diameter/thick wall line pipe
The manufacture of small diameter thick wall pipe
presents different challenges than the manufacture of pipe
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 with larger diameters. This is manifested in two principle
ways:
)) Pipe bending during welding.
)) Pipe expansion.
During and after the welding process, the weld
contracts as it cools, which has the effect of pulling the
pipe into a bend. To combat this, the welding procedures
and the equipment used must be able to deal with the
associated effects of this bending. In addition to welding
concerns, the bend in the unexpanded pipe requires
careful consideration of the pipe conveying throughout
the mill, and the eventual clearances associated with the
mechanical expander itself.
The deflection of the pipe is expressed in the equation:
d = (Wx3)
3EI
Where W = the load, x = the length of the pipe, E = the
modulus of elasticity and I = the moment of inertia. The
moment of inertia is the crucial component (assuming all
other factors are unchanged).
This then shows that the deflection is greater at
smaller diameters, and that the diameter has a much
greater effect than the wall thicknesses typical for line
pipe.
l = ∏ (OD4 - ID4)
64
In summary, pipe manufacturers will see a dramatically
different reaction when processing small diameter pipe
and adequate measures need to be in place to deal with
this phenomenon.
The second specific challenge involves the expansion
of the pipe. The pressures associated with expansion of
small diameter/thick wall pipe are high due to the hoop
stress associated with their geometry. This is analogous
to the hydrostatic testing principle, where the formula for
required hoop stress is expressed as:
p = 2St
D be increased to the design wall thickness of 22.2 mm, but
Where P = pressure, S = yield strength, t = wall
thickness, and D = diameter.
As seen, reduction in diameter (smaller denominator)
and increase in wall thickness (higher numerator) leads
to a higher pressure and subsequent higher loads on the
mechanical expansion machine. It is high loads associated
with small diameters and thick walls that present the
challenge; the load levels experienced can be close to
the machine limits, so all available load capacity needs
to be focused on expansion of the pipe and not on the
correction of any shape irregularities. Using a mechanical
34 World Pipelines / NOVEMBER 2015
expander to correct excessive shape irregularities (such
as shoulder flats) increases the loads experienced by
the expansion head and the associated pull rod. With
the expansion load already near capacity due to the
diameter and wall thickness, this extra load can exceed
the machine capacity leading to machine failure and the
loss of any manufacturing capability.
Full forming process
The danger presented by this phenomenon means that
manufacturers of small diameter and thick wall pipe
should consider the whole forming process and its
ability to present as round a pipe as possible to the
expander. This alleviates the expander from correcting
shape and manages the load experienced. In order to
deliver as round a shape of pipe as possible, Tata Steel
invested heavily in reviewing the full forming process;
this included tooling design and a fully validated FE
model. Both of these features were fully integrated into
each other, with the ability to determine the effect of
different machine settings on the final pre-expansion
shape.
An additional benefit of the FE modelling process
is the ability to determine maximum capability of the
various machines involved in forming the pipe. Tata Steel
is now able to determine pressing capacity for the crimp
press, the U Press and the O Press without the need for
expensive trials.
Finding solutions
Accessing the additional capacity was made possible by
developing the expander tooling to be able to withstand
the increased pressures. This meant considering the
balance of properties that would be required at high
pressures; too hard and cracking could occur, and too soft
and die wear would increase exponentially. The solution
was to develop a die design, which utilised a surface
hardening heat treatment applied to a tougher base tool
steel grade. This permitted hard working surfaces to resist
wear, and a tough internal core to address the additional
shock loading. In actual fact, the stated maximum
thickness capacity of the 42 in. UOE mill at 406.4 mm
OD L450MO is 21.0 mm. The FE model and associated
tooling enhancements allowed the capacity to not only
has defined a capacity maximum of up to 31.8 mm for the
same diameter and grade.
Confirming the reelability of SAWL line
pipe
During the supply of the 406.4 mm x 22.2 mm L450MO
material, there was a requirement to confirm the
behaviour of the material after it had undergone a strain
cycle similar to that which would be experienced when
reeling. Due to project timescales, this was undertaken
using small scale testing opposed to full-scale
simulation.
 In order to strain specimens correctly, rectangular
panels 95 mm wide x 700 mm in length were extracted
by flame cutting from the test pipe. Panels were removed
from three locations around the circumference – the
weld, 90° from the weld and 180° from weld according to
the normal test locations specified in DNV OS-F101. Strain
gauges were applied to the samples, and would be deemed
‘reached’ when the average of the first pair of strain
gauges achieved the required strain level. The samples
were then subjected to the strain cycles, which were
defined by the end client and the lay contractor.
This approach allowed faster mobilisation to complete
the required tests, but was quite challenging to avoid
buckling of the test pieces during the compression
stages. An additional concern was the limited amount of
material available within each test piece. However, this
difficulty was planned for, and the required number of test
pieces were generated with the correct strain cycles and
successfully tested.
As expected, the requirements of Supplementary
Requirement P of DNV OS-F101 were met, with the strain
cycle ending in tension giving the most significant increase
in strength properties. The ‘as manufactured’ longitudinal
yield strength met the requirement of 100 MPa range and
the longitudinal ratio met the recommended 0.90 maximum.
These results were considered to adequately confirm
the pipe’s ability to be reeled. It should be pointed
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out that this outcome was not necessarily a surprise.
Tata Steel had supplied several hundred kilometres of
457 mm OD grade L415MO pipe in thicknesses ranging
from 22.2 - 28.6 mm to two reeled contracts in the Gulf
of Mexico in the early 2000s. The difference now is that
the proving procedure for reelability has become more
detailed in the last few. Although the requirements are
very similar, a greater degree of confidence is required.
Conclusion
In summary, Tata Steel successfully increased the
maximum thickness of pipe that can be produced for a
406.4 mm OD grade L450MO pipe, and to reconfirm the
reelability of SAWL pipe.
Tata Steel will be continuing to develop its
understanding of the reaction to reeling of its small
diameter/thick wall SAWL pipe, and is planning to conduct
full scale simulations over the next few years. Additionally,
through the use of the validated FE model, the maximum
wall thicknesses that Tata Steel can now reliably
manufacture in the subsea, umbilical, riser and flowline
(SURF) size ranges has increased.
This capability is the culmination of a number of key
technologies deployed over the last 20 years; the result
is an SAWL capability able to support the market trends
looking at increased capabilities in the small diameter and
thick wall size ranges.
distributors
wanted
 PIPE LINE CONTRACTORS ASSOCIATION
The Pipe Line Contractors Association was established in 1948 and negotiates labor
agreements, encourages safe practices in pipeline construction and seeks the resolution
of problems common to all those in the industry.

The purposes of this Association are as follows:

(a) To make membership in the Association a reasonable assurance to the public of the
skill, integrity and responsibility of its members.
(b) To maintain the standards of the pipeline contracting business at the level
necessitated by its quasi-professional character and to establish members of the
Association in the public mind as contractors who fulfill obligations in good faith.
(c) To promote more cordial and cooperative relations among pipeline contractors and
between pipeline contractors and those with whom they deal or have contact.
(d) To encourage efficiency among pipeline contractors and their employees.
(e) To seek correction of injurious, discriminatory or unfair business methods practiced
by or against pipeline contractors.
(f) To eliminate as far as possible the occurrence of injury and death to pipeline
contracting employees.

For more information on the Association or membership opportunities,

please visit our website at:
www.plca.org
1700 Pacific Avenue, Suite 4100 • Dallas, Texas 75201 • Ph: 214.969.2700 • Fax: 214.969.2705
 Inspection and geospatial data collection can reduce
pipeline project risk. Chris Wilber, PLS, Pipeline Services
at SGC Engineering, LLC, USA, and Vibha Zaman, P.E.,
Pipeline Integrity Management Lead, Lloyds Register
Energy, USA, explain how.

KEEPING TRACK OF PROJECT

T
he importance of quality control during front end
engineering design, fabrication and installation of new
pipelines cannot be understated. Failure to implement
robust quality management systems can lead to dire
consequences not only due to delayed schedules and runaway
project costs during the construction phase, but integrity issues
and safety concerns during operations.
The reliability ‘bathtub’ curve tells us the probability of
pipeline failures is high both towards the end of its useful design
life and at the beginning, due to issues with design, fabrication or
installation. Pipelines carry large volumes of hazardous fluids and
the loss of containment can be catastrophic and cost millions,

Figure 1. Barcode scanning using mobile

device to ensure pipe is strung out per
design.

37
 not only due to collateral damage, but environmental cleanup
costs, regulatory penalties, lawsuits, loss of reputation, and even
loss of life should an incident occur.
There are many facets of quality control that are needed.
Third party technical assurance of the design, development and
independent witness of inspection test plans during fabrication,
and utilisation of quality management plans during installation
(e.g. to ensure integrity pipeline welds) can help reduce project
risks and increase confidence by identifying issues and allowing
corrections to be made early on. What is often overlooked is
the important role data plays in ensuring pipeline safety not only
during construction but also during operations.
Fabrication inspections
After the pipe is fabricated, it is subject to a variety of tests,
and an inspection test plan is created to ensure compliance
with various industry codes and standards, as well as design
specifications and customer requirements. An inspection test plan
might include witness of inspections and built-in hold points so a
Figure 2. RFID and barcodes process used to ensure the right
pipe is installed in the right place. It is just one of the ways to
reduce project risk and avoid errors.
Figure 3. Before any pipe is brought out to the worksite,
independent third party inspection ensures quality assurance.
38 World Pipelines / NOVEMBER 2015
manufacturer’s work can be checked. The inspection will include
checking the qualification of welders, spot checks of records and
witness of various tests. Each weld joint is X-rayed before it goes
into the ground. The chemistry of each steel ingot gets recorded
for each pipe spool that is fabricated. Various destructive and non-
destructive tests such as tensile, Charpy, bend, hardness, corrosion,
ultrasonic thickness, radiography, and hydrostatic are carried out.
A large amount of data is generated during this process.
The pipe is then shipped to a coating shop where more data is
generated for various coating inspections that are carried out. All
documentation generated must include a unique number that links
it back to the physical pipe spool it applies to ensure material
traceability. Third party independent inspections at the fabrication
and coating shops safeguard quality control at all stages, and
inspectors also make sure the pipe is handled properly to prevent
damage during transportation and storage. This gives assurance
that tests were done correctly from start to finish.
RFID and barcodes
In an ideal world, every piece of pipe is checked, inspected
and the information is accurately recorded. The process relies
upon a large amount of paper or independent spreadsheets and
tracking by joint numbers. Often, a shipment of pipe will arrive
at the jobsite with only a bill of lading and little other supporting
documentation. It then becomes a manual and time-consuming
process to look up information for each pipe spool.
The use of barcodes and radio-frequency identification (RFID)
provides a mechanism to optically or electronically attach data
to the physical pipe. Rather than using a number, which has to be
manually entered into a data collector or recorded in a field book,
the use of barcoding and RFID allows information on each section
of pipe to be recorded much more quickly, while eliminating the
risk of human error. The use of such technology not only reduces
the time required to prepare pipe or material tallies (to ensure
that all pipe and materials have arrived on the jobsite per the pipe
order), but also provides other benefits such as material tracking
and inventory control.
Quality control during pipe installation is critical and includes
tracking each pipe spool to ensure the right piece of pipe is strung
out in the right place as required by the engineering design. These
checks are performed using mobile applications, which allow the
location of each pipe spool to be recorded and quickly verify
the correct piece of pipe is used. Checks are also performed to
ensure there are no duplicate or missing joint numbers, a common
problem on projects that use paper records.
In the US, the Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety
Administration (PHMSA) requires all materials are verifiable
and traceable. In an advisory bulletin in 2012, PHMSA reminded
gas pipeline facilities to preserve and verify records related to
maximum allowable operating pressure (MAOP) and informed
hazardous liquid operators that they should adhere to the same
standards for maximum operating pressure (MOP). The advisory
further informs operators that records supporting MAOP and
MOP should be ‘traceable, verifiable, complete’ and clearly linked
to original information about a pipeline segment or facility. These
records must also be verified by complimentary, but separate,
documentation.
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 Changes in these regulations have been driven in part by a gas
pipeline explosion and fire in San Bruno, California in 2010, which
killed eight people and destroyed 38 homes. The US National
Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) investigation concluded a
fracture in a partially welded seam caused the failure. Among
the NTSB findings were: incomplete and inaccurate pipeline
information, and a failure to consider the design and materials
contribution to the risk of the pipeline failure.
A data-driven approach
As pipe is brought from the yard to the pipeline corridor and
strung out, the pipe section must be verified before it is placed
and welded. A check against the design is performed to ensure
it meets the criteria for wall thickness and coatings. With an
accurate barcoding or RFID approach using mobile applications,
any changes in pipe spool line-up can be easily made before the
pipe is welded and lowered into the ditch, saving the project not
only time and money, but more importantly, reducing the risk of
pipe failure.
Once the pipeline goes into the ditch, it is critical to locate it
with a survey grade geographic positioning system (GPS) to record
the precise location of each joint of pipe and weld. Creating
a geographic information system (GIS) for the project allows
engineers, construction personnel and project managers to gain
access to the data and the quality reports as the pipeline is being
constructed. It lets project personnel instantly know how much of
the pipeline is in the ground to track progress and plan for other
stages in the installation process, such as water crossings and areas
requiring special construction techniques.
Figure 4. Precise geospatial information using GPS receivers is collected
during a pipeline construction project to reduce risk.
40 World Pipelines / NOVEMBER 2015
There are many advantages of the data driven approach using
spatially referenced asset information located with GPS. Certainly,
a precisely located pipeline during construction will facilitate
future location and play an important role in managing risks to the
pipeline during operations phase. Pipelines passing through high
consequence areas (HCA) based on population density, places of
gathering, or environmentally sensitive areas may be required to
have thicker walled pipe as a safety measure. Knowing precisely
where the pipe is and ensuring the pipeline meets the thickness
requirements is critical to managing risk.
As the pipeline system moves into operations, inline
inspections (ILI) that provide wall thickness data along the pipeline
length are used to verify the pipelines meets the MAOP. Any
anomalies discovered during ILI are easily located using the GPS,
allowing pipeline operators to effectively monitor these areas,
take mitigation measures and make repairs as required. Most
importantly, having pipeline positional information that is linked to
fabrication and installation data records allows for a higher level
of risk-based analysis of the pipeline. For example, if an ILI reports
internal corrosion in certain locations of a pipeline, operators can
query that particular pipe spool and find out what mill it came
from to check the chemical composition, and even spot trends in
corrosion for similar pipes from the same mill.
Once the pipeline project is finished, a data book with all
of the pertinent records is compiled. Collecting the data in a
geospatial environment makes it easy to view it, query it and get
other information about that asset. Pipeline operators should be
experts at associating a physical asset with a specific location and
its relationship to high consequence areas, such as schools, major
transportation routes and other geographical features
like rivers. “Collecting good data about pipelines is
essential to keeping the people living near them safe,”
said former US Transportation Secretary, Ray LaHood.
Conclusion
Data on the design, fabrication and installation activities
is diligently produced and compiled during each stage
of a construction project, but it is often the case that
after project completion, the data is difficult to access
or even ‘lost’ to those who need it during operations.
Precise data collection efforts should be carried out
with a vision to have the data easily available to
manage the integrity of the pipeline after construction
is finished. Creating an infrastructure to manage data
is invaluable in substantially reducing risks on a new
pipeline construction project and in managing the
integrity of a pipeline system during operations and
meets today’s regulatory environment.
RFID and barcode technology makes the process
easier to record data, removes human errors, and helps
build a traceable and verifiable database, ensuring
a trouble-free construction phase. The trend is for
operators to have better data to base their decisions
on, and the shift in the regulatory environment
requires companies to do a better job at tracking and
maintaining this data.
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Keep Updated

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 business
Peter Brawley, Head of Operations
and Brownfield Projects at ADIL, Scotland,
discusses the evaluation of risks in pipeline projects.

E
valuating risk in pipeline projects can be a tricky business. From geological and geographical considerations
through to financial, security and even political or cultural implications, the success parameters for this
type of project can be far-reaching and varied.
Frequently perceived as less risky than other elements of a major green or brownfield scheme, one of
the biggest risks faced is in taking pipeline projects for granted.
Risk management strategies are an integral part of designing, constructing, operating and maintaining any
onshore or offshore asset. Appropriate risk analysis and the development of strategies to manage risk, negate
delays and avoid cost overruns, should be considered just as crucial when managing pipeline projects as in any
other development.
Indeed, it is important that risk management practices are implemented at every stage of a pipeline
development and operation, including during design, construction, before commissioning, and throughout the
pipeline’s operating life to abandonment.

Figure 1. Organisational
capability must match
project complexity.

43
 When things do go wrong, the environment of subsea
pipelines makes it extremely difficult and costly to rectify, a
thorough planning process is vital.
Kashagan’s industry development
A project that illustrates this point only too well is the
Kashagan oil and gas development in Kazakhstan’s section of
the Caspian Sea.
One of the largest and most complex hydrocarbon
development projects in the world, commercial production
at Kashagan was supposed to kick off and start bringing
profit to Kazakhstan more than a year ago, but leakages were
discovered shortly after the long-delayed pilot project started
up in September 2013 and production was suspended. The
leaks were caused by sulphide stress corrosion.
These leaks have proven impossible to repair, and the
Italian firm Saipem was given a US$1.8 billion contract to
replace the pipeline. The new pipeline will have a corrosion
resistant lining to prevent a repeat of the failure. It is already
the world’s most expensive oil project – according to reported
estimates, the cost of the pipeline replacement and the cost
of the delays will total as much as US$4 billion overall.
Given the potential for costly disaster, there is an
argument in favour of the industry developing a set of good
practice guidelines designed to minimise risk when it comes to
pipeline developments.
BP’s Golden Rules for Safety have become an industry
standard replicated in oil and gas companies around the
world. ADIL has developed its own simple rules for delivering
brownfield developments. This is not about creating more
red tape or bureaucracy, just providing simple rules for
projects to follow in order to reduce the risk of failure. What
this approach would offer is some simple, common sense
guidelines that everyone practices – a far better solution than
a rigid set of complex rules, which no one ever reads.
The importance of preparation
Like any other project the foundation for success lies in
thorough and far-reaching planning. The first ‘rule’ should
therefore focus on definition, with the aim of having
completed most of the detailed design at the point of project
sanction. This will require careful planning and discipline but
Figure 2. Corrosion and poor welding are among the leading
causes of failures in subsea pipelines.
44 World Pipelines / NOVEMBER 2015
it is worth striving for, as it will significantly reduce risk during
the project delivery phase.
In the case of a pipeline as part of a brownfield project,
managers should consider the asset’s host systems to ensure
capacities, conditions, and connections have been confirmed
before sanction. In some cases, performance tests should be
carried out to confirm the capacity has not deteriorated with
time. This particularly applies to subsea tiebacks when an
existing subsea control system may be asked to provide the
controls for the new wells.
The state of the physical connections must also
be checked to ensure their integrity. Sometimes this is
not possible until the offshore construction begins, but
contingency plans should be put in place before construction
starts, to be ready to repair flange faces in case damage is
found. We advocate the C3 formula – check, check and check
again. Not doing so can lead to costly failures that could have
been avoided.
Organisational capability must match project complexity.
Our approach is to use lean teams that are extremely capable,
to speed up communications and reduce costs. In particular,
sufficient resources must be applied to the interface with the
operations team and their technical authorities that will have
to approve the designs. It is also good practice to define and
plan the performance management method for execution –
from weekly progress meetings to deep-dive reviews.
These points are general good practice approaches, which
can broadly be applied to almost any development project.
When dealing specifically with pipelines, there are a number
of other factors to consider.
Quality control assurance
Hazard identification should systematically identify all external
accidental scenarios and possible consequences. Corrosion
is – historically – a leading cause of failures for subsea
pipelines, as with Kashagan. Third-party incidents, storms, and
poor welding are additional causes. Another potential cause
of costly delays is out-of-tolerance pipe sections. Pipes are
supposed to be round in cross section, but this is not always
the case.
BP’s Clair Ridge project encountered problems with pipe
sections that were not round during the fabrication of the
150 t wye-piece subsea structure, installed in 2013.
Approximately 50% of the pipe sections provided were oval,
not round, and could not be welded together. This caused
delays while new sections were procured, but the new
sections had the same problem. The final solution was to put
the pipe sections into a mechanical press to make them round.
The delays almost caused the project to miss the summer
weather window, which would have been costly.
Building enough float into project timescales is another
area that can reap major dividends. Getting all ducks in a row
to ensure the right people, vessels, and materials are in place
at the right time in order to meet the summer construction
window, will put the project on track for success.
ADIL recommends a three or four month float period be
built into the schedule, to ensure any unexpected hitches
can be rectified without major implications. With offshore
 construction/heavy lift vessels booked up to two years in original design or carefully assess the risks of any changes to
advance, miss the window due to poor planning and it may the operating regime.
be very difficult to get back on track. Work carried out on the Forties oil pipeline from the
Forties field to Cruden Bay in Scotland is a good example
Operate within the boundaries of this. Originally installed in 1975, the pipeline was used
The risks associated with pipeline projects do not cease the to transport processed crude oil until 1990 when it was
moment the final joint is welded and the oil begins to flow. replaced due to corrosion. Unlike the Kashagan pipeline
It is no secret that the most successful pipeline projects failure, there was nothing wrong with the material selection.
continue to assess all possible risks progressively throughout The problem was that as the Forties field began to produce
the lifecycle of the asset. To maintain integrity the pipeline water and the offshore platforms were unable to separate
must continue to operate within the parameters of its it properly from the oil, the exported oil contained a
significant percentage of water.
Corrosion inhibitor was injected, but
was unable to effectively prevent
corrosion, which was discovered during
one of the early intelligent pig runs.
This is a good example of how a change
N in operating conditions can cause
Coating Thickness Gages ew severe damage.
The Forties pipeline replacement
project was carried out successfully,
Simple. and the life of a critical North Sea asset
was extended for many years to come.
Durable. The long game
Accurate. Uncertainties comprise potentially both
unwanted consequences (hazards) and
desired consequences (opportunities).
n Rugged, weatherproof,
Managing these uncertainties in a
ergonomic design
systematic and efficient manner with
n All models include memory, higher focus on the most critical, is the
statistics, HiLo alarm and a objective of project risk management.
USB port It goes without saying that for each
n PosiTector 6000 accepts project, the risk should be kept as low
all DPM, SPG, and UTG as reasonably practical. This means
probes easily converting that some low cost risk reduction
from a coating thickness measures should be introduced even if
gage to a dew point meter, the risk is considered to be acceptable.
surface profile gage or The challenges around pipeline
ultrasonic wall thickness developments are now increasingly
gage with a simple probe significant for operators, consultants
change and contractors, as exploration moves
into ever deeper water.
Ultimately these rules are about
Now Advanced models come
assessing project preparedness
with WiFi and PosiSoft Mobile
and driving maximum value from
for complete portability investment. The final good practice rule
and expanded functionality. must be at project closeout when it is
important to look back and consider
Made in U.S.A.
the lessons learned.
Advanced model Whether performed by forensic
analysis or facilitated sessions, the
outcome should be the same, to make
www.PosiTector.net A free web-based application sure companies are best placed to
offering secure centralized optimise their pipeline developments
management of thickness readings and continue to identify and mitigate
risk.
1-800-448-3835 www.defelsko.com
DeFelsko Corporation • Ogdensburg, New York
The Measure of Quality +1 (315) 393-4450 • techsale@defelsko.com
The Welding Q&A
gives companies
the chance to
weigh in on issues
such as weld
Q&A
defects, skills retention, on-the-job
hazards and weld testing. Read on
to hear from Lonestar Automated
Welding, RMS Welding, ESAB,
Sawyer Mfg Company
and Applus RTD.

47
 Q&A
Geoffrey Barker,
Lonestar Automated
Welding, USA,
Australia and
Middle East
Q
How can you tackle the skills shortage
in the welding sector? How does
demand for skilled welders play into
this?
Lonestar believes that the skill shortages for welding in many
countries have been created by the introduction of cheaper
labour at some point. The downward effect for young local
welders was that their potential pay is less; with others accepting
less this makes their decision to move into the trade an
unattractive one.
Large contractors have, and always will, put forward benefits
of the overall project cost value rather than the future benefits
of the local workforce. This way of thinking needs to become
re-evaluated by the form of tax incentives from governments
for the use of local labour and/or local contractors using local
labour. The availability of local welders needs to drive the
demand for welders.
Q
How can you prevent weld defects?
Preventing weld defects can be placed into two
categories: the first being defects associated with the
Figure 1. Lonestar welding system – 8 in. flange welding.
48 World Pipelines / NOVEMBER 2015
physical alignment or fit-up of the weld area, and the second
being defects associated with the metal transfer process.
Preventing defects associated with being poorly equipped
can be achieved by providing better fit-up and preparation
before welding or utilising mechanical aids to help with
the process. These may be internal line up clamps, internal
welding machines, bevelling machines, or external clamps. A
highly skilled welder is likely to cope with poor fit-up better
than an average welder. There are also fit-up tolerances set
out in the Welding Procedure Specifications that need to be
met before welding can commence.
Preventing weld process defects can be associated with
poor consumables, bad welding techniques, incorrect inter-
pass temperatures, too low a pre-heat, inclusions in weld
area from an external source while welding, or the weld area
being affected by the environment. All of these factors can be
improved with a better understanding of the welding task and
its requirements, good selection and storage of consumables,
the use of correct heating and treatment methods of weld
area, and clean and unworn copper shoes if used. The most
important is the ability and skill of the operator or welder to
recognise if something is not right with metal being deposited
into a weld area. The welder qualification process should
cover all of these aspects. The welders and site supervisors
need to ensure this is carried onto the jobsite.
Q
What are the pros and cons of
automated/mechanised welding for
pipe?
The most obvious aspects if using automated welding for
a project is the quality and production. These two aspects
provide an overall value far greater than any negative value.
The value in completing a welding project faster not only
reduces the overall welding costs, but also the associated
project costs.
A mechanised system will only provide operator
controlled welding parameters. An automatic system will
have automatic parameter controlled functions, while
welding also reduces the operators’ interaction with the
settings. A mechanised system will only ever be used for flux
cored 5G welding whereas an automatic system can be used
for downhill gas metal arc welding and/or flux cored arc
welding where quick parameter adjustments are required for
multiple functions while welding.
The expense, limitations of pipe diameter access,
limitation of welding process used, training requirements,
and large support equipment required, are the main negative
influences on automated welding. The Lonestar system is
the leader for all five of these negative aspects by being the
lowest priced automatic machine available. It is a versatile
welding system, from 4 in. dia. and up, and is the most
interfaced welding system accessible to over nine readily
available welding power sources. The same single system is
capable of GTAW, GMAW, PGMAW, FCAW, MCAW, RMD;
the remote provides simplistic function and short training
periods, and last of all requires only a power source and wire
feeder to run the welding system.

Q
Are wireless technologies useful in the
welding industry? What benefits do
they bring?
Wireless technologies are extremely useful in the welding
industry when the number of welders exceeds the number of
welding inspectors. This is always the case, and this problem
is international. Previously, it has been assumed that every
weld undertaken conforms to the welding standard. In recent
years, some major manufacturers have installed data collection
and programmable functions via wireless forms only in power
sources. Now that the technology is there, it is a matter of time
until the welding specifications will demand this to become
mandatory.
The end client is the real beneficiary with the introduction
of wireless welding parameter data collectors at site. The
welding contractor can also provide an extraordinary
compilation of welding data that can be accessed by the client,
to ensure the welding specification parameter limits have not
been exceeded.
With the Lonestar welding systems wireless capabilities,
clients can now have a printout or USB stick of welding
parameters specific to each join number, so far only available with
the Lonestar welding system. The overall cost to collect this data
is very minor compared to the amount of time it takes a welding
inspector to guess and write down information relating to the
welding join. It is also a standard built-in function of the new
Lonestar heads. With this function, a nearby laptop in Bluetooth
range can capture multiple welding systems in real time, recording
the join number, start and stop time, and actual travel speed,
welding current, voltage, oscillation widths, oscillation speeds,
dwell time, head heights, head angle, and heat input while
welding. There are no hardwired cables to collect this data. The
join number has to be entered manually into the software; the
programming of parameters is also done via wireless device but
access to this can be password protected.
Q
What developments do you see in the
next few years of welding products
relating to pipe?
Developments for welding products over the next few years will
include an increase in the use of the internal welding machines
for long pipeline projects. They save lots of time and make fast
welding even faster. Although previously used for many projects,
the market has opened up for manufacturers to produce these,
and they have been made available to smaller contractors.
The internal welding machine lines the pipe ends together and
welds the first run from the inside. In relation to this increased
development, the pipe bevelling machines are required to provide
a special bevel on these pipe ends. This product will also become
increasingly used worldwide. Lonestar is able to assist with
enquiries for both of these products.
Inverter technology will continue to be refined for welding
power sources. Further to the point of wireless technologies,
a large shift away from conventional welding power control
methods may also take place. The technology is available.
Currently there are much smarter wire feed systems or wire
feeders that are the power sources. Improvements will be made,
allowing higher currents and duty cycles to become developed.
Q&A
Figure 2. Internal welding machine.
There are many good wires and consumables available for
current materials, and these can only become better and more
economical. Exotic materials’ weld ability should become
improved, allowing the GMAW and FCAW processes to replace
GTAW in some applications.
Q
Which measures are taken to protect
welders from potential hazards?
Welding is a high-risk job. The grinding, the welding
fumes, the welding arc, the heavy lifts, the crane lifting items
overhead, the heat, and the heights, are all basic hazards while
welding. With a welding helmet on your head, these hazards
are again multiplied, so an assistant or spotter makes the life
around a welder much safer. It is also appreciated that other
trades do not lift items overhead or work dangerously nearby a
welder.
Generally, most welders are skilful and safe in their practices.
The grinder is by far the most dangerous work tool and should
only be used by an extremely competent person and never given
to someone who has not used one. A common workplace injury
will be from a new grinder operator, who signed a form saying he
is a competent user.
Instances of potential hazards and the measures taken:
)) Welding fumes are very dangerous – some are carcinogenic –
so current respirators and breathing devices that are provided
give some relief to this issue.
)) The welding arc ultraviolet (UV) rays are intense for the human
skin, so welding jackets, hoods, and gloves have the ability to
overcome most of this hazard.
)) While welding, the heat from the pipe or job can be intense.
Thus, management advises regular breaks and water.
)) It is also advised to wear double eye protection during
welding to provide a second barrier towards UV light and
foreign objects in the air.
)) Welding at heights should be performed only from a secure
structure with a harness. The workers below should also be
advised and restricted access to the area underneath or in the
vicinity. A helper is required for this action.
NOVEMBER 2015 / World Pipelines 49
 Q&A
Chris Penniston,
RMS Welding
Systems, Canada
Q
How can you tackle the skills
shortage in the welding sector? How
does demand for skilled welders play
into this?
The use of mechanisation is an important aspect in addressing
skills shortages. Mechanised welding is a cleaner, easier
alternative to manual methods, appealing to a greater number
of potential candidates looking to start a career. Since the
construction contractor provides the associated equipment, the
welder has lower upfront costs in getting started.
Demographics indicate there will be a large number of
retiring welders in the coming years. Thankfully, the mechanised
welding skill set is easily developed. High quality training
programs of sufficient duration are important in assuring quality.
The learning curve is significantly shorter than for manual
welding processes, since factors like torch angle, torch-to-work
distance, weaving parameters, travel speed, etc. are preset to
optimised ranges by skilled technicians.
Mechanised welding for mainline girth welds minimises
weld volume, and employs weld metal deposition rates far in
excess of manual welding. These factors combine to reduce
the number of welders required for a project, making longer
pipeline projects more economically and logistically feasible,
particularly in locations requiring short construction seasons.
Q
What methods are used to test welds?
Prior to project production welding, mechanised weld
procedure qualifications are performed according to
the applicable industry regulations and specifications, according
to project location and supplemental operating company
requirements. Often, these additional requirements will dictate
Figure 1. A mainline mechanised welding crew in production.
50 World Pipelines / NOVEMBER 2015
certain weld thermal histories; demonstrate a set number of
‘consistency’ welds, etc. Generally, project-specific pipe is
welded using project equipment in order to prove its suitability
for the application.
Following the production of weld procedure qualification
joints, precision laboratory mechanical testing is performed.
These tests will determine mechanical properties including
strength, ductility and impact toughness, and often, specialised
fracture toughness testing, which can be used to underlie
fitness-for-purpose flaw acceptance criteria, specific to the
project design and materials.
All project welds are subjected to non-destructive
examination (NDE). In North America, mechanised welds
are generally first examined using phased-array automated
ultrasonic testing in combination with time-of-flight-diffraction
ultrasonic testing, in order to maximise the probability of
detection of flaws for the narrow-groove configuration
employed. Radiographic testing may also be employed as a
complimentary non-destructive examination technique. These
techniques classify and size weld flaws, at which point a
determination as to their acceptability is made according to the
project acceptance criteria.
During production welding, pipelines are divided into ‘test
sections’. After lowering-in and tie-in welding of test sections,
a ‘test head’ is welded to it, and it is filled and pressurised with
water. The pressure is selected such that a specified proportion
of the specified minimum yield strength or maximum
allowable operating pressure is attained. Volume and pressure
measurements are used to determine the presence of leaks.
These numerous quality control steps work in conjunction to
ensure the line is fit for service.
Q
How can you prevent weld defects?
Mechanised welding allows for a procedure to be
developed and optimised over a number of joints,
in order to determine the limits of suitable parameter ranges.
With digital technology, these limits are programmed into
the system, so that when field welding is performed, the
procedure is strictly adhered to. A knowledgeable team of
experienced personnel develops these procedures and have an
understanding of pitfalls and potential weld defects. By ensuring
adherence to the developed procedure, this can help maximise
quality.
Automated controls enable consistently high quality to be
achieved by allowing the operator to focus on fewer factors.
Torch height control ensures consistent arc parameters. Seam
tracking ensures consistent sidewall fusion, by varying torch
position during weaving to an optimised distance from the
joint sidewall. Inclinometer control allows the programming
of optimal weld parameters for the flat, vertical, and overhead
positions of pipeline girth joints.
Maintenance also plays an important role in preventing
defects. This ranges from routine tasks such as cleaning the
torch to preventatively changing wear items. A mechanised
welding service technician is always on hand during production
in order to support the operation of the equipment, should any
problems be identified.
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 Q&A
Q
What are the pros and cons of
automated/mechanised welding?
Compared to traditional cellulosic ‘stovepipe’
techniques, dual torch GMAW-P mechanised welding offers
superior toughness in the weld and heat-affected zone,
minimised weld volume and joint arc-time, better-controlled
welding parameters, a more pleasing cosmetic appearance, and
it eliminates the potential for slag inclusions. Additionally, the
Figure 2. High quality mechanised tie-in welds are facilitated by using a
lightweight welding system loaded onto versatile lifting equipment.
52 World Pipelines / NOVEMBER 2015
use of an internal weld machine allows front-end construction
rates that are unattainable with manual welding methods.
However, unlike manual methods, mechanised welding
requires the re-machining of the pipe factory-ends. While
this leads to a minimised field girth weld volume, the
deployment of these crews adds to equipment and manpower
requirements.
The implementation of mechanised welding requires
a significant amount of associated equipment,
increasing equipment costs. However, it possesses
a significantly higher productivity, lowering
construction costs. Therefore, cost-benefit analyses
should be done on a project-specific basis in order to
evaluate its suitability for a given application.
Q
Are wireless technologies
useful in the welding industry?
What benefits do they bring?
Since the first implementation of the RMS MOW
II mechanised bug and band welder in 2006, all
RMS welding stations have employed digital weld
data monitoring, with Wi-Fi connectivity. The field
technician is therefore able to remotely download
weld data, update firmware, etc. The later inclusion
of GPS sensors to these stations enhanced the
usefulness of this information by linking the data to
girth weld location, allowing quick troubleshooting
of flaws identified by NDE personnel. This allows the
mechanised welding service technician to more easily
troubleshoot the data in order to improve and/or
optimise weld quality, either by identifying training
factors for welders, or optimising parameters.
Q
How do you minimise cost
without impacting quality on a
welding project?
Prior to qualification of a new weld procedure,
a significant amount of pre-work is performed,
preferably on project pipe, if available. The
optimisation process is done on pipe in the shop,
where costs are lower, and ensures that the welds
chosen for mechanical testing are optimised for the
application. This helps minimise the occurrence of
process failure in the field, where costs are high due
to the equipment and personnel employed.
Prior to production welding kickoff, welder
qualification testing is performed. In addition
to testing, this is an important opportunity for
training and practice, and alocating appropriate
resources to this is a critical investment for the
successful execution of a project. It helps ensure
that production welds will be performed to a high
standard, with the right welders for the job. This
lowers repair rates, saving costs and minimising
construction delays.
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 Q&A
Gordon Eadie,
ESAB, Sweden
Q
How can you tackle the skills
shortage in the welding sector?
How does demand for skilled
welders play into this?
The global shortage of skilled welders and the requirement
to achieve welds of the highest quality has encouraged the
development and use of welding ‘bugs’. Welding bugs are
external, mechanised welding machines used to perform
root, hot, fill and cap passes. Although these machines
still require a welder to operate them, the training time
required to become a competent and qualified operator
using these mechanised units is much shorter than training
an operator on a manual process. Automatic solutions can
substantially decrease pipeline construction times and in
Figure 1. ESAB flux-cored wire automatic welding.
54 World Pipelines / NOVEMBER 2015
many cases enable the welds to be deposited to a higher
standard than manual welding.
ESAB offers a complete range of solid and flux-cored
wire products that have been developed for this segment
of the pipeline industry.
Q
What methods are used to test
welds?
The traditional method of testing pipeline welds
is radiography; however due to safety reasons and advances
in ultrasonic testing and equipment, it is now more
common to employ automatic ultrasonic testing (AUT).
Radiographic testing (RT) uses X-rays, generated by
an X-ray tube, or gamma rays, produced by a radioactive
isotope. The basic principle of radiographic inspection of
welds is the same as that for medical radiography. This is a
slow and expensive method of non-destructive testing.
AUT offers a safer, quicker and more detailed defect
identification solution than radiography. This method of
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testing makes use of mechanical vibrations similar
to sound waves but of higher frequency. One of
the most useful characteristics of ultrasonic testing
is its ability to determine the exact position of a
discontinuity in a weld. This testing method can
be used on ferrous and non-ferrous materials, is
often suited for testing thicker sections accessible
from one side only, and can often detect finer lines
or plainer defects, which may not be as readily
detected by radiographic testing.
Q Q
How can you prevent weld
defects?
ESAB Pipeweld flux-cored wires have
been developed specifically for pipeline welding
applications and provide proven, defect-free
operation. These high productivity consumables are
designed for the commonly used manual welding
process, but also cater to semi-automatic and fully
automatic welding applications that are being
more widely adopted, particularly on long pipeline
routes.
Using these flux-cored wires, low-hydrogen
operation is possible, and good impact toughness
down to -60°C can be achieved. It is also easy to
obtain flat welds with a good penetration and
smooth wetting onto the pipe edges. In addition,
the brittle slag is easily removed to leave a smooth
rutile weld appearance. Typical positional welding
defects, such as lack of fusion and slag inclusions,
are avoided due to the spray arc operation. These
wires are also tolerant of poor joint fit-up, which
makes them especially suitable for tie-in welds.
Q
What are the pros and cons
of automated/mechanised
welding?
The primary welding process used to install
pipelines is manual welding with coated electrodes.
Because of its ease and versatility, this remains the
most popular method of pipeline welding.
However, to limit costs and increase welding
productivity – particularly on long routes – a
number of constructors have adopted the semi-
automatic or completely automatic welding
process with solid and flux-cored wires. The main
advantage of partially or fully automated processes
is that they offer a repeatable, high-quality welding
solution that can be easily adopted with minimal
training by lower-skilled operators.
The concern with the use of automated or
mechanised welding processes is that, over time,
the higher skilled manual techniques may be lost, as
they will no longer be considered.
56 World Pipelines / NOVEMBER 2015
Q&A
Q
Are wireless technologies
useful in the welding
industry? What benefits do
they bring?
Advances in wireless technology – particularly with
welding remote controls and wire feeders – are an
important step in site safety, as any cable that can
be removed from the welding habitat is also the
removal of a tripping hazard and a step towards a
safer workplace.
How do companies overcome
the unique offshore working/
welding conditions?
Overcoming unique offshore working or welding
conditions often requires extensive research and
development as well as consistency trials offshore
to prove the solution.
A good example of this is welding a root pass
on a weld clad pipe tie-in on a vessel at sea that
experiences significant swell. This presents a
condition where due to the change in elevation
of the weld joint (as a result of the rise and fall of
the vessel), conventional purging techniques are
rendered useless. A solution must be specifically
engineered to overcome this condition.
Q
What is the importance
of technical specifications
and safety requirements on
welding projects?
To comply with technical specifications and fulfil
the necessary safety requirements, special materials
and welding processes that have evolved with the
sector have been developed in recent years. The
current trend is that both technical specifications
and safety requirements are increasing.
ESAB is continually developing its products
to keep up with the increasing demands of the
customers.
Q
How do you minimise cost
without impacting quality on a
welding project?
Recent developments from ESAB, which integrate
newly developed welding consumables and welding
processes and have been proven in various ‘real
world’ applications, enable pipeline contractors to
reduce welding time by up to 30% with no need
for higher-skilled welding operators. This has a
significant impact on project timescales and labour
costs. Additional benefits include improved weld
quality and a substantial reduction in electrode
scrap rates.

Krystal Bornhop,
Sawyer Mfg.
Company, USA
Q
How can you tackle the skills shortage
in the welding sector? How does
demand for skilled welders play into
this?
The supposed skills shortage is a topic that has been discussed
in great detail lately, and is an issue likely to plague many in the
welding, fabricating and manufacturing industries in the coming
years. Despite high demand for welders – which is expected
to grow – and a glut of entry-level talent, there appears to be
a severe lack of experienced welders ready to fill the positions
currently occupied by soon-to-be retirees.
Many organisations within these sectors are fairly small
and have a limited number of jobs for welders. These positions
are often filled by welders who have been doing the work
for decades, and have untold amounts of knowledge and skill
developed over the years. Who can possibly be adequate
replacements for these workers? Certifications simply cannot
replace years of on-the-job training and experience.
The way to combat this issue is by staying ahead of the game.
Develop long-term strategies now, and more importantly, stick to
those strategies. These strategies might include rethinking hiring,
training, retention and efficiency practices.
Hire new talent while the older, more knowledgeable talent is
still around – do not let their knowledge and skill go to waste. Let
them train the new crop of tomorrow’s experts.
Develop training, leadership and mentorship programmes. To
go along with the necessary hiring, everyone must evaluate and
Figure 1. Sawyer’s coupon cutter is the ideal equipment for
pipe cutouts and weld testing straps used in destructive
testing.
Q&A
improve the ways they train employees, and foster leaders within
the organisation.
Retain top talent. Once you have hired replacements and
trained them, make sure you keep them on board. Nothing is
worse than spending several years developing an employee, and
as soon as he or she is truly up to speed, that person is off to
greener pastures. Keep your people engaged and satisfied.
Become more efficient. There is no silver bullet to cure the
skills shortage, so organisations will simply have to do more with
less at times. There are always ways to improve and work smarter,
while limiting costs.
Q
What methods are used to test welds?
Weld quality assurance is the use of technical methods
to test the quality of welds and welders to ensure they
meet the acceptable criteria. This essential process occurs prior
to pipeline construction and includes developing a set of pre-
determined standards that must be met and ordering the type of
weld tests that must be completed.
Destructive testing (DT) and non-destructive testing (NDT)
methods verify the integrity and assure the quality of the
weld after it is completed. Non-destructive testing preserves
the weld and includes X-ray and automatic ultrasonic testing
(AUT). Generally, all pipeline welds are inspected by NDT after
completion to ensure acceptability.
Destructive weld testing, as the name suggests, involves the
physical destruction of the completed weld in order to evaluate
its characteristics. This method is used to inspect a sampling of
production welds to test welding procedure, welder performance,
and failure analysis. DT includes fillet-weld break tests, tension
tests and guided bend tests. DT is often performed as a welding
procedure qualification prior to the start of construction.
Sawyer’s 15-Ton Guided Strap Bender conducts guided bend
tests while the 25- and 50-Ton Tensile Testers offer the ability to
conduct guided bend and tensile tests. These testers are portable
and are ideal for shop or field use, performing either API or ASME
tests in mere minutes.
Q
How can you prevent weld defects?
According to the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME), welding defects are caused by:
Figure 2. SMC crawlers and bands from Sawyer set the
industry standard for large diameter pipe cutting and beveling.
NOVEMBER 2015 / World Pipelines 57

)) 41% poor process conditions.
)) 32% operator error.
)) 12% wrong technique.
)) 10% incorrect consumables.
)) 5% bad weld grooves.
Every welder in the field is all too aware of these
potential flaws and the problems they cause on the line.
These imperfections can reduce the strength of the weld or
stress the weld, causing premature weld failure.
A common weld defect is arc burn, or strike, which is
caused when an arc is created outside established welding
area. Fortunately, arc burn is 100% controllable.
The Sawyer Grasshopper is the fastest and most
dependable method of securing a ground for welding to
prevent arc burn. The risk of uncontrolled arcing is all but
eliminated by a grounding clamp that grips a specially
designed bolt. The sleek engineering of the Grasshopper aids
in its ease of use. Its light weight prevents user fatigue, and
the ergonomic design allows quick and secure attachment
with powerful magnets that fasten to the pipe vertically or
horizontally.
Great thought was even given to the design of these
magnets as evidenced by their nylon insulation that further
prevents the risk of arcing. The Grasshopper also prevents
the stretching or slacking that may occur with other
grounding attachment methods, and the main pin makes
brother-in-law welding on large diameter pipe possible by
allowing multiple welders to ground to the same device.
The primary way to prevent weld defects like arc burn
is through appropriate welding techniques, including using
the proper equipment for any particular job or task. When it
comes to establishing a ground when working on pipe, the
Sawyer Grasshopper is reliable and suited equipment.
Q
What developments do you see
in the next few years of welding
products?
Sawyer is always looking at the specific needs of pipeliners
and analysing where its products can be improved for the
end-user’s benefit. The company knows how crucial it is
to get the work done quickly with as little frustration as
possible, so it keeps an ear to the industry and listen to the
customer base. Its skilled team of designers, engineers and
craftsmen know how to build quality equipment ideal for the
various requirements of the pipeline and welding customers.
During the past two years, Sawyer has introduced the
Grasshopper, Spacing Wedges, and Grinder Holder. Each of
these products were designed and improved to address a
specific need or concern heard about from the end users.
That is a standard operating procedure at Sawyer and will
continue to be, looking to the future with the latest designs
currently being developed by its engineers for future release.
Sawyer is listening and continually improving, even as it rolls
out new products.
58 World Pipelines / NOVEMBER 2015
Q&A
Q
What is the importance of technical
specifications and safety requirements on
welding projects?
Pipeline technical specifications are general construction and safety
requirements that all contractors must comply with prior to the start
of any construction activity. Effective planning and testing measures
enhance the integrity and safety of a pipeline project by assisting in
systematically identifying and evaluating anticipated hazards, and
establishing controls in advance of actual work. Specifications outline
contractual requirements, as well as establish minimum safe work
requirements, provide guidelines for potential emergencies, and suggest
the roles and responsibilities various parties have for construction
safety.
The pipeline is full of hazards, and safety is an essential component
of the construction process. All contractors endeavor to maintain safe
working conditions in all aspects of pipeline construction, and that
should extend to the equipment used.
Sawyer designs its equipment with a preeminent concentration
on safety. A consolidated effort by everyone at Sawyer to design and
produce with a focus on safety features consistently built into each
piece of equipment, has made a line of products that keep everyone
safe on the job.
Q
How do you minimise cost without
impacting quality on a welding project?
Minimising costs and making sure weld quality is top notch
actually go hand in hand, because ensuring the latter tends to produce
the former. In other words, one of the best methods for minimising cost
on a welding project is through quality welding in the first place. An
ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. Precautions and proper
techniques can prevent poor weld quality that ultimately leads to
delays, rework, and cut-outs, which are all costly to the pipeline.
It is better and cheaper to do the job right the first time as opposed
to doing it more than once. Using best practices and materials increases
efficiency and minimises weld defects, leading to faster completion and
lower costs. Some of these best practices include ensuring proper fit-up
and joint design, selecting appropriate filler metals, training protocols,
and properly setting up the welding area with a grounding device like
Sawyer’s Grasshopper to prevent arc burn.
Figure 3. Sawyer’s Grasshopper is the fastest most dependable
way of securing a ground for welding.
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 Q&A
Jan van der Ent
and Randolf
Weterings,
Applus RTD, the
Netherlands
Q
How important is testing of welds?
Which methods are used?
To answer the question, in order to understand the
advantages and disadvantages and how important this testing
is for the overall pipeline integrity, one needs to go back to
into history.
For the construction of cross country pipelines in
Canada back in the 80s and 90s, the use of a manual welding
process for pipeline girth welds was common practice, and
conventional radiographic inspection was the standard
inspection methodology. Acceptance criteria for this
methodology were based on a workmanship.
During that time, the mechanised welding process on
long onshore cross-country pipeline projects was introduced,
which increased the speed of pipeline production significantly.
The inspection of these mechanised welded welds with
conventional radiography using crawlers on these projects
showed disadvantages:
)) The requirement to break the mainline into sections due
to the limited battery capacity of the RT crawler used
Figure 1. RTD RotoscanTM system used on a landline project.
60 World Pipelines / NOVEMBER 2015
inside the pipe which need to be re-charged from time to
time.
)) Due to radiation safety it was required to maintain a
safe distance between the mainline welding and the
radiographic inspection.
)) As a consequence, the RT inspection is lacking one
pipeline section behind, resulting in having the quality
feedback the following shift one day later.
Having an automatic welding process it is of paramount
importance in order to have feedback about the welding
quality as soon as possible, as mechanical welding equipment
breakdowns could be the cause of many and large repairs,
certainly when soonest identified the next day. As a
consequence, the crews are forced to go back and make huge
efforts to repair a lot of welds.
Introduction of automated welding also introduced
different welding defects as to the nature of the welding
process. Where slag inclusions and porosity are the common
(volumetrically) defects associated with a manual welding
process, mechanised welding is more prudent for causing
planar defects, such as lack of fusion.
This initiated the introduction of a mechanised ultrasonic
inspection technique (AUT) for the quality assessment of the
pipeline girth weld inspection for the following reasons:
)) AUT inspection can be performed on the same pipeline
section, directly behind the welding crew(s).
)) This allows for immediate welding quality feedback to
the welders. This allows for the welding process to be
monitored/adjusted continuously, avoiding small welding
imperfections that will gradually turn into welding defects.
)) The use of AUT prohibits the
possibility of having many repairs
afterwards as the weld quality is
known that same day.
As the AUT inspection
methodology offers three dimensions
of welding anomalies in terms of
height, depth and length, the use
of acceptance criteria based upon
engineering critical assessment
(ECA) became possible. The use of
ECA criteria reduces the repair rate
compared to workmanship acceptance
criteria, together with the speed of the
AUT inspection, were the main drivers
to introduce AUT in the onshore new
construction pipeline industry.
Before the AUT inspection
methodology was accepted by the
industry – being the standard for new
construction pipelines in relation with
automatic welding – it needed several
 Q&A
updates to become mature. The systems were enhanced with
the mapping and TOFD inspection functionalities, which could
visualise the presence of porosity/porosity clusters and welding
profile, such as root penetration and cap reinforcement. The
latter to significantly reduce the so-called ‘false call’ rate.
Today AUT being finally accepted by the new construction
pipeline industry, company specifications and standards
are re-written to make the use of AUT inspection possible.
System and performance requirements for this inspection
methodology were introduced.
Although AUT became the main method for inspection of
automatic welding on pipeline girth welds, radiography is still
mainly used for manual welding processes and has the biggest
share in the overall NDT market worldwide.
Similar to the introduction and improvements of the
AUT system, due to the advent of digitalisation, also the
radiographic inspection technology started to develop. In
2010, Applus RTD introduced the Rayscan for the first time
into the market; a real time digital radiography system (RTR)
that introduces some of the same advantages launched
within the AUT methodology to the radiographic inspection
technique. Rayscan improved the capabilities of radiographic
inspection significantly and has the following main advantages:
)) Increased operational efficiency (compared to
conventional radiography).
)) Improved radiation safety (shielding).
)) Quick cycle times.
)) Advantages of digital images, software tools, data storage,
data sharing and elimination of chemical waste.
Figure 2. RTD RayscanTM smallbore system used on a landline project.
62 World Pipelines / NOVEMBER 2015
)) Improved image quality (easy to interpret and industry
acceptance towards radiographic inspection).
)) Extreme suitable for CRA pipes (partly welded).
To conclude, both technologies AUT and RTR are heavily
used in today’s new offshore and onshore construction
pipeline industry. The technologies are complementary to
each other and therefore the selection should be made
carefully based on the project specific requirements.
AUT is mainly chosen for detection of planar defects and
automatic welding (GTAW), while RTR is ideal for detection
of volumetric defects, such as slag and porosity and mainly
used for SMAW welding.
Q
How can you prevent weld defects?
When validation, qualification of the inspection
methodology is required by standard and/or
client specification it is recommended to use the inspection
methodology as during the welding procedure qualifications
(WPQ). In case AUT is used and the probability of detection
and sizing accuracy needs to be verified, it is recommended
to only use natural induced and realistic welding anomalies
within the expected severity range.
When NDT, AUT or RTR, is applied directly after the
welding process, the NDT companies can provide feedback
to the welding process that will positively influence the
quality process during pipeline construction. Especially
during the startup phase of a project this feedback is heavily
appreciated by welding companies in order to fine-tune the
settings. When the new construction projects are running
on full power, feedback is mainly provided to intercept
mechanical breakdowns.
Q
Which
certifications
and standards
are the most helpful
for the pipeline
welding industry?
For NDT inspection the
most common standards/
specifications are:
)) API 1104.
)) ASTM-E-1961-11.
)) EN ISO 17636.
)) DNV OS F101.
)) ASTM E2736-10 and E2689-10.
)) ASME.
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 zero
Countdown to

Karine Kutrowski and Murielle Bouchardy, Bureau Veritas,

France, examine a pragmatic way to obtain target aim
for zero pipeline leaks.

Z
ero leaks is the target of pipeline operators, whether they are bulk
transport operators or E&P operators with short lengths of offshore
pipeline. Both need a pipeline iIntegrity management system (PIMS)
if they are to achieve that target. But not all operators need the
same system and some, especially those operating shorter sections of
pipeline or smaller networks, may choose solutions that are too complex
and too detailed, which leads to a misallocation of resources.
A PIMS approach, which is suitable for transportation companies with
long pipelines, is overkill for an E&P operator with shorter lengths of
pipeline. All that is required is a robust, common sense system for looking
after the pipelines. Unfortunately many of the tools and systems available
to pipeline operators for planning inspection and maintenance of pipelines,
tracking their condition and predicting future integrity, are aimed at the
Figure 1. Data collection
can start at design and
construction stage.

65

Figure 2. A continuously improving loop that can be entered at
any stage.
needs of major pipeline networks. They fall into a number
of traps that E&P operators can avoid by taking a more
pragmatic approach.
Falling into traps
The first and biggest trap is to try and go for an all-
encompassing system right from the outset, which will
create a better PIMS. The second trap is to focus on the
consequences of failures rather than the threats that might
cause them. The third is to under-estimate how much
training and management of change is required within
a company, in order to implement a new and complex
system. And the final trap, is to assume that there is a fire
and forget solution. Buy the system, put it in place and all
will be well, right? No, it will not.
The danger of using a PIMS that is too complex is that
it will collect too much data – often in the wrong formats
– which then cannot be managed, stored or analysed
correctly. And a focus on consequence can blind designers,
operators and inspection planners to the simpler approach,
which is to identify and mitigate the threat before it
becomes a consequence.
The third trap springs shut when operators buy a
system or a PIMS tool, which requires them to change the
way they work. There are a lot of operators around the
world who have spent a lot of money on complex systems,
collected a mountain of data but never managed to get
their field engineers to use it in the chosen tool, simply
because they did not like or understand the new tool. The
right system is one that uses what the operator already
does and improves it, so minimising change management,
reducing the need for training and avoiding exposing the
system to user inertia.
As for the final trap, it is always tempting, especially at
a high level of management, to buy into a one stop solve-
it-this-way system. But pipelines are built to last a long
time and the integrity management systems that best keep
them delivering zero leaks are built slowly and steadily as
66 World Pipelines / NOVEMBER 2015
part of a continuously improving loop that can be entered
at any stage (Figure 2).
Avoiding the traps
So how can operators reduce complexity, better allocate
resources, and still hope to deliver zero leaks?
First and foremost, start from where you are. It is never
too late or too early to design and implement a successful
PIMS. Recognise first of all that not all pipelines are the
same. Operators of large and complex networks need
better data handling and analysis tools, while operators of
small pipelines do better to avoid complex and powerful
tools and to focus on simpler systems, which are more
cost-effective and easy to implement.
Get engineers around a table to talk PIMS. Mix up the
experienced engineers who know pipelines and problems,
with the younger ones who do not but who have fresh
ideas, and try to include external experts who can provide
a wide view of the industry. It is unlikely in one company
that one has seen all the problems of pipelines, while an
external consultant – such as Bureau Veritas – would have
been able to share information and experience from across
a wide range of situations.
Policies
This expert group sets the initial policies and later acts to
capture feedback of the system in service and so refine
the loop.
First of all, any successful PIMS depends on knowing
what one wants to achieve in terms of pipeline integrity,
and what is covered by the system. One needs to know
and have direction in order to get there. The goals of
integrity management may be part of a wider company
policy, or may need refining to aim for the zero leaks
target for the pipeline under consideration.
Take a good look at what the regulations and standards
are operated under; it may be products of the company’s
own policies or of local regulations. If one is able to
choose, then take expert advice and choose from a
number of standards that will give the best results. But
normally there is already a standard and a regulatory
framework in place, so avoid any sales talk or temptation
to opt for or add a further or different standard, which
might be better for the network.
It might in theory. Bureau Veritas’ experience shows
that in practice it will not; it is better to work with what
people are used to and to improve it with time.
What methodologies will you adopt?
This is the big decision; risk-based, threat-based or
consequence-based, or some other criteria for judging
one’s data and plans against. Can one choose or does the
company already have a way of doing this? If one can
choose, choose a threat-based methodology. It produces
the best results for the least amount of data and analysis.
Review the data already collected; how accurate is that
data and how is it stored and managed. Most operators
select either pipeline open data standard (PODS) or
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Figure 3. The BV step-by-step approach to PIMS.
Figure 4. Screenshot showing TAME+ dashboard.
ArcGIS Pipeline Data Model (APDM) structures but for a
short length E&P pipeline, a well-structured MS Access
database can be sufficient.
In the past, Bureau Veritas has seen many customers
spending a lot of money on collecting extremely accurate
data, and investing in external consultants to adapt
their data models, then finding that the data was not
used in the algorithms of the selected methodologies.
Alternatively, some data could be either missing or not
collected in the right shape for the selected methods
and tools, requiring a new data collection campaign and
again a new structure of the database. Money and effort
could have been saved if a bit more time had been taken
beforehand to define the company policy and match the
data requirements to the methodology.
The tools
This is the point where a tool is needed, and it is the
point where too many expensive mistakes are made.
Because a complex and expensive tool may not be
68 World Pipelines / NOVEMBER 2015
needed; a simple piece of software that can
be readily adapted to fit with your existing
systems would suffice. Big IT disasters occur
when new systems are bolted on to existing
ones. So the more flexible, adaptable and
simple the PIM tool is, the less likely there will
be problems.
The tool will help break down data,
identify and categorise risks and threats, and
deliver a tailored inspection plan that builds
on any existing company inspection practices.
That plan collects more data, which through
the feedback loop will be constantly refined
and tuned in terms of quality and quantity
in order to make the collection of data
more effective and to fit the needs of the
methodology and tool.
At the inspection plan level it is important
to remember the key principle of choosing
the simplest and most robust equipment and
methods, which can deliver the data and
accuracy needed. It is always tempting to go for the
latest technology and high tech inspection equipment,
but these may not be reliable; they may over-deliver
data and accuracy not required and, crucially, add
complexity and introduce more change to the operation.
Change is hard, so minimise it.
Perks of PIMS
A good PIMS uses individual resourses and capabilities,
and only makes the minimum improvements required
without revolutionising the entire way of working.
Improvement will come with time. Individual’s will
need to be convinced about the added value of the
solution. The key is to build on one’s experience and
harness enthusiasm for a system, which one can see will
help.
Bureau Veritas has turned this common-sense
approach into TAME+. It is a structured way of thinking
that is based on threat identification and mitigation,
backed by a simple software tool that analyses the data,
categorises the threats, reveals the pipeline integrity
level, and plans the future inspections in the simplest
and most rational way.
As an example, the company used TAME+ to help
Cuu Long Joint Operating Company (CLJOC) – a joint
venture of PetroVietnam Exploration – and other
production and operation companies, to devise and
implement a PIMS to cover 80 km of oil and gas
pipelines off the coast of Vietnam. It took six months
to develop a PIMS that will stand the test of time; the
TAME+ tool was customised to their practices and
local regulations, and the company itself performed
inspections.
It is all about finding the simplest way to TAME the
threats, which imperil the pathway to zero leaks.
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Putting the spotlight on

pipeline
SAFETY
 W
Mike Poland, Life ith the release of ANSI/AP RP 1173, Pipeline
Safety Management Systems in July this year,
Cycle Engineering, the corporate responsibility for managing the
safety of complex processes is once again
highlighted. A key component to this recommended practice
USA, explains and recent international standards, such as ISO 55001:2014,
Asset management – Management systems – Requirements, is
methods of the focus on stakeholder engagement in communicating risk
identification and risk management.
managing pipeline Pipeline safety in the US came into federal focus on
17 December 2002 when President George W. Bush signed
The Pipeline Safety Improvement Act of 2002 into law. This
risk within the law increased safety requirements for the operation of the
nation’s pipelines, and mandated extensive public awareness/
energy value chain. education programmes on the existence of pipelines and

71
 pipeline safety. The government’s concern for this topic how these events have heightened congressional concern
was more recently elevated by the Congressional Research about pipeline risks. Implementation of management systems
Service’s release of ‘Keeping America’s Pipe Safe and Secure: to identify and mitigate risk to an organisation’s internal and
Key Issues for Congress’ on 9 January 2013. The report external stakeholders is now widely recognised as both a legal
highlights pipeline accidents in Marshall, Michigan; San Bruno, and ethical requirement.
California; Allentown, Pennsylvania; and Laurel, Montana, and
Exemplar accident
events
The following events were
highlighted in the Congressional
report and further detailed in
both Pipelines and Hazardous
Materials Safety Administration
and National Transportation
Safety Board.

Marshall
In July of 2010, a 30 in. dia.
pipeline owned and operated
by Enbridge Incorporated
ruptured in a wetland in Marshall,
Michigan. The rupture occurred
during the last stages of a
planned shutdown and was not
discovered or addressed for
over 17 hours. During the time
Figure 1. Common framework of the management system standard.
lapse, 843 444 gal. of crude oil

Figure 2. Relationships between the risk management principles, framework and process.

72 World Pipelines / NOVEMBER 2015

was released. Clean-up efforts approached US$800 million, and more than 300
people reported symptoms consistent with crude oil exposure. Deficient integrity

The
management procedures, inadequate training of control centre personnel, and
insufficient public awareness and education were identified as key contributors to
the failure.
is leading
Allentown the cladding
industry
On 9 February 2011 in Allentown, Pennsylvania, a gas line owned and operated
by UGI Utilities leaked and resulted in an explosion. As a result of the explosion
and ensuing fire, five people lost their lives, three people required in-patient
hospitalisation, and eight homes were destroyed. The estimated property damage
from the rupture exceeded US$2.5 million.

Laurel
In Laurel, Montana, on 1 July 2011, a failure occurred on ExxonMobil’s 12 in. dia.
Silvertip Pipeline, resulting in the release of approximately 1500 bbls of crude
oil into the Yellowstone River. The cause of the release was determined to be a
severed pipeline near the south shore of the Yellowstone River that occurred after
a prolonged period of high runoff and flooding. The estimated property damage
was US$135 million, along with a financial impact to ExxonMobil of US$760 391 to
reimburse State agencies’ costs regarding the discharge and a penalty of
US$1.6 million. Debris caught on the pipe over time increased the stresses until
ultimately the critical stress of the pipe was exceeded. Procedural, training and
emergency response deficiencies were highlighted as contributors to the extent of
the loss.

San Bruno
California regulators imposed US$1.4 billion in penalties against Pacific Gas &
Electric for a 2010 gas pipeline explosion that killed eight people in San Bruno.
The company could face additional fines of more than US$1 billion if convicted of
the federal charges, which are separate from the financial penalties that the state
administrative judges weighed. Natural gas continued to flow from the pipeline
for nearly two hours after the initial explosion – fueling the intense fire, hindering
emergency response, and increasing fire damage. The long duration of flowing
gas was due to delays in the closing of manually operated valves by the pipeline
operator, and may have been exacerbated by inadequate employee training in
unIT
valve closure procedures. TIon
Produc
dard
Risk management erSTan
TIG
Several key documents provide a solid framework for developing a management
system to identify and manage risk.

ISO/IEC Directives, Part 1, Annex SL – Proposals for

management system standards
ISO/IEC Directives, Part 1, Annex SL contains the framework for all management
systems going forward and includes 10 common elements that are assembled in
a Deming ‘plan-do-check-act’ continuous improvement process (Figure 1). These leSS
elements are: S S o ld In
IT
50 un earS
)) Scope.
over Than 2 y
)) Normative references.

)) Terms and conditions.

)) Context of the organisation.

)) Leadership.

)) Planning.

www.polysoude.com
 )) Support. with specific risks and/or sectors, and does not replace
those standards. Figure 2 provides a visual depiction of the
)) Operation. standard and the integration of principles, framework and
)) Performance evaluation. processes that establish a risk management system.

)) Improvement. ISO/IEC 31010:2009, Risk management – Risk

assessment techniques
All ISO management system standards going forward will The ISO/IEC 31010:2009 risk management includes the
be created using with this format. application of logical and systematic methods for:
)) Communicating and consulting throughout this process.
OSHA 1910.119, Process safety management of
highly hazardous chemicals )) Establishing the context for identifying, analysing,
A process safety management programme is divided into 14 evaluating, treating risk associated with any activity,
elements and defined in OSHA 1910.119. These elements are: process, function or product.
)) Process safety information. )) Monitoring and reviewing risks.
)) Process hazard analysis. )) Reporting and recording the results appropriately.
)) Operating procedures.
Risk assessment is an element of risk management,
)) Training. which provides a structured process that identifies how
objectives may be affected, and analyses the risk in term
)) Contractors. of consequences and their probabilities before deciding
on whether further treatment is required. Risk assessment
)) Mechanical integrity.
attempts to answer the following fundamental questions:
)) Hot work. )) What can happen and why (by risk identification)?

)) Management of change. )) What are the consequences?

)) Incident investigation. )) What is the probability of their future occurrence?

)) Compliance audits.
)) Trade secrets.
)) Employee participation.
)) Pre-startup safety review.
)) Emergency planning and response.
Mechanical integrity is a critical component of a process
safety management system as well as pipeline safety
management systems and transmission and distribution
integrity management programmes.
ISO 31000:2009, Risk management – Principles
and guidelines
The ISO 31000:2009 international standard provides generic
guidelines and is not intended to promote uniformity of risk
management across organisations. It states that the design and
implementation of risk management plans and frameworks
will need to take into account the varying needs of a specific
organisation, its particular objectives, context, structure,
operations, processes, functions, projects, products, services,
or assets and specific practices employed.
It is the intent of this standard to be used to harmonise
risk management processes in existing and future standards. It
provides a common approach in support of standards dealing
)) Are there any factors that mitigate the consequence of
the risk or that reduce the probability of the risk?
One of the benefits of this international standard
is the comparison of risk assessment techniques, which
includes both the types of techniques used and the factors
influencing selection of risk assessment techniques.
Creating a plan and a system
In an application of the common elements of ISO 55001
in developing a system, the governance can be created
for managing corporate assets like pipelines. Once this
is complete, the business processes, capabilities and
metrics can be optimised to align with this governance
to reduce risk and create value through the execution of
asset management plans throughout the lifecycle. This
transcends the technical requirements and includes the
human behaviors and motivators. The final component is to
strive for continuous improvement.
Governance
Top management must demonstrate leadership and
commitment with respect to the asset management
system by ensuring that an asset management policy, asset
management strategy and asset management objectives
are established and are compatible with the organisational
objectives. One of those objectives is the safe operation

74 World Pipelines / NOVEMBER 2015

of pipelines within an organisation’s asset portfolio. This and other asset The
management objectives are developed from the engagement with stakeholders
who shape the organisation’s expectations and requirements.

Planning
When planning how to achieve its asset management objectives, the organisation
leaps
shall determine and document: ahead
)) The method and criteria for decision making and prioritising of the activities
and resources to achieve its asset management plan(s) and asset management
objectives.

)) The processes and methods to be employed in managing its assets over their
lifecycles.

)) What will be done?

)) What resources will be required?

)) Who will be responsible?

)) When it will be completed?

)) How the results will be evaluated?

)) The appropriate time horizons for the asset management plans.

)) The financial and non-financial implications of the asset management plans.

er rIG
IG
)) The review period for the asset management plans.
TW In-T
)) Actions to address risks and opportunities associated with managing the er 12m
T ev
assets, taking into account how these risks and opportunities can change with FIrS
time, by establishing processes for:
yy Identification of risks and opportunities.

yy Assessment of risks and opportunities.

e cTor
yy Determining the significance of assets in achieving asset management er coll
-TIG
objectives.
e r SPX ad
v he
yy Implementation of the appropriate treatment (and monitoring) of risks and FIrST e
opportunities.

The organisation must ensure that its asset management related risks are
considered in the organisation’s risk management approach, including contingency
lad dInG
planning. The application of principles, framework, and processes contained e nd-c
IG bT
er
within ISO 31000 should be used to develop the risk management approach. r T I
T eve un
FIrS
System elements
API 1173 provides the key elements of a pipeline safety management system.
These 10 elements may not appear distinctly in a single document but should be
identifiable in a clear and mandated process within the organisation’s procedures:
e
)) Leadership and management commitment. oFT War
TIve S
)) Stakeholder engagement. a daP
a nced
)) Risk management. adv

)) Operational controls.

)) Incident investigation, evaluation, and lessons learned.

www.polysoude.com
)) Safety assurance.
)) Management review and continuous improvement.
)) Emergency preparedness and response.
)) Competence, awareness and training.
)) Documentation and record keeping.
This recommended practice provides organisations
with safety management system requirements that, when
applied, provide a framework to reveal and manage risk,
promote a learning environment, and continuously improve
pipeline safety and integrity. It also provides a comprehensive
framework and defines the elements needed to identify
and address safety for a pipeline’s lifecycle. The individual
elements, when executed as deliberate, routine, and
intentional processes, are designed to result in improved
communication and co-ordination, which yield a cohesive
system and a stronger safety culture.
Conclusion
Management system requirements like ISO 55000, ISO 31000,
and API 1173 identify what is to be
done. The details associated with
implementation and maintenance
of the requirements are left up
to the individual organisations.
Adopting and implementing
a management system using
elements and requirements
described herein will provide a
plan-do-check-act continuous
improvement system and the
foundation for planning data
collection and analysis, selecting
and prioritising threats or causes,
and implementing any changes.
This system must also promote
behaviors that reduce risk. Leaders,
managers, and employees acting to
make safety performance and risk
reduction decisions over time will
improve pipeline safety, thereby
strengthening the safety culture of
an organisation.
Bibliography
• International Organisation for
Standardisation, (2015), ISO/IEC Directives
Supplement, Geneva, Switzerland.
• Occupational Safety & Health
Administration [OSHA], (2013), Process
safety management of highly hazardous
chemicals (29 CFR 1910.119).
• International Organisation for
Standardisation, (2009), ISO 31000:2009,
Risk management – Principles and
guidelines, Geneva, Switzerland.
• International Organisation for
Standardisation, (2009), ISO/IEC 31010:2009,
Risk management – Risk assessment
techniques, Geneva, Switzerland.
• International Organisation for
Standardisation, (2014), Asset management
– Management systems – Requirements,
Geneva, Switzerland.
• American Petroleum Institute, (2015), ANSI/
API RP 1173, Pipeline Safety Management
Systems, Washington, DC.
DIMP:
FINDING AND MANAGING RISKS

U
David Turner, ntil recently, many distribution operators took
a ‘compliance’ approach to pipeline safety.
T.D. Williamson, USA, In other words, they performed the required
duties necessary to comply with regulations,
examines a change in which did not include integrity management. The result?
Serious problems often overlooked until it was too
late. In 2005, the American Gas Foundation published
the way distribution a study revealing that there were 1579 incidents on US
gas distribution lines from 1990 - 2002, with 601 of them
operators gather and involving a fatality or an injury requiring hospitalisation.
Because integrity management regulations created
use data to assess by the Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety
Administration (PHMSA) are credited with helping
pipeline integrity. to reduce incidents in the transmission market, the
US Congress mandated that the PHMSA must create
a set of minimum standards for the gas distribution
lines, modelled on the Integrity Management Plan
(IMP) regulations for transmission pipelines. Today,
any distribution system put into place after 2 August
2001 must have an implemented distribution integrity
management plan (DIMP).

77
 Figure 1. Analyse system and identify threats.
DIMP
“[DIMP] has changed the mindset of the industry regarding
risks,” declared Darin Burk, Chairman of the National
Association of Pipeline Safety Representatives (NAPSR). “Since
implementation, I’ve seen clean-up of records, enhanced data
collection, and identification of training needs, among other
things.”
The new DIMP rule is especially changing the way the
distribution industry gathers and uses data from their systems, in
order to assess threats to pipeline integrity. This data serves as the
cornerstone for their integrity management plans.
Creating a plan for finding and managing risks
Distribution systems can be small and simple, or large and
complex — just like the towns and cities in which they operate.
Thus, PHMSA’s goal was to come up with a set of actions that
could be adopted by distribution operators of all sizes. Operators
take these action steps and create their own written plan. In
simple terms, DIMP is a set of procedures outlining a plan to find
risks, assess and manage them.
An operator’s DIMP must include the following action steps,
plus plans for evaluation, monitoring and record-keeping:
)) Obtain knowledge of system infrastructure: operators
should know the date that a system was placed in service, its
78 World Pipelines / NOVEMBER 2015
Figure 2. SHRIMP process.
approximate location, the people responsible for maintaining
it, and any current or previous issues.
)) Identify threats: operators must find any potential issues along
their pipeline. Common threats to a distribution pipeline
system are corrosion, natural forces, excavation damage, other
outside force damage, equipment failure, incorrect operations,
and any other concerns that could compromise pipeline
integrity.
)) Evaluate and prioritise risk: inspections and assessments
can show thousands of potential threats in a system. The
operator must be able to evaluate these risks and consider the
likelihood of a dangerous incident.
)) Identify and implement measures to mitigate risks: for each
risk, the operator must ensure that an action is being taken
to protect against incidence. This action might be general
monitoring for low-priority risks, replacing steel pipes with
polyethylene, or repairing a section of pipeline.
To create their written plans, operators go through extensive
reviews of all construction, operation and maintenance records.
“This exercise allows operators to identify the gaps in their
system knowledge,” Burk stated. “For example, many operators
know the materials within their systems but have no data
 identifying the specific locations of the various materials. To assess
effectively the existing and potential threats to the system, knowing
the exact — or at least general — location of at-risk materials
provides for a more focused approach to risk mitigation.”
All about the data
As operators explore their records and start creating DIMPs, they
often realise that they need to enhance their data collection
methods.
According to Burk, one example is that many operators discover
they have insufficient data detailing leak causality. The records
reveal that many field personnel have unclear reporting instructions,
and therefore the various causes cannot be easily determined.
High-quality data is key to an effective risk assessment.
Operators need data on
WP_HALF_AD_AUG.pdf 1
potential
7/15/15
threats
1:42 PM
before they even create
their plans because they will need to assemble and evaluate that
data to outline their next steps.
Obtaining quality data is easier for some distribution operators
than for others. Smaller gas operators often do not have the resources
to manage a programme in-house, whereas larger gas utility companies
may have a managed programme, but are still looking for new solutions
and techniques to make their DIMP more effective.
To help small distribution operators with DIMP creation, the
American Public Gas Association developed simple, handy, risk-
based integrity management plan (SHRIMP). SHRIMP is a software
application meant for gas distribution utilities that lack the in-house
engineering and management, needed to maintain a DIMP. The tool
helps operators make sense of their data and create a written plan.
Although SHRIMP is specific to small operators, both large
and small distribution operators can learn from new integrity
management solutions and technology
from the transmission market, whose
management techniques can be easily
transferred to distribution. Many companies
that offer evaluation and repair services

FASTER . for the transmission market have expanded

their expertise into distribution since
DIMP is now required. For example,

SAFER. service providers like T.D. Williamson offer

comprehensive inline inspection tools

SMARTE R.
and non-destructive evaluation (NDE)
technologies and services, for use in both
the transmission and distribution markets.
Inline inspection tools can provide data
related to internal and external material
loss in the pipes, changes inside the
pipe wall, pipeline expansion, and other
anomalies that can help predict leakage.
After gathering data on the pipeline system,
NDE is used to verify its accuracy so that
operators can effectively prioritise and
mitigate risks.

Positive changes for the

distribution market
Burk, who was heavily involved in DIMP
implementation efforts at NAPSR, says that
he has noticed that operators are making
constructive changes in the ways in which
they approach risk.
Plus, as a result of the identification of
potential threats, the distribution market as
a whole is working to reduce the number of
dangerous incidents.
In the USA, Burk stated that “over the
past four to five years, 32 states have passed
legislation that allows for accelerated
rate recovery of costs associated with
replacement of at-risk pipe. Operators may
accelerate the replacement based on the
risk analysis. And as a result of evaluating
their data, operators are now able to focus
their resources to replacement of the
VACUWORx.COM highest risk facilities.”
 To see in

U
Jérôme-Alexandre Lavoie, nbelievably, 3D scanners are still considered as new tools in pipeline
Creaform, Canada, integrity assessments. They are great tools compared to conservative
explains the benefits calculation methods. In fact, the amount of information gathered by a 3D
scanner makes it suitable for sophisticated assessment, providing local
of using a 3D scanner depths readings more precisely to indicate whether a pipe segment is fit for service.
for pipeline corrosion This article intends to go deeper in all the benefits a 3D measuring device can
assessment. provide to pipeline integrity engineers working specifically in metal loss assessments.
Basic concepts regarding 3D scanners will be briefly discussed, but the main focus
will remain on concepts such as time saving, increased accuracy and traceability.
Although the article directly addresses external corrosion on pipelines, all the 3D
scanners benefits apply to several post-construction integrity issues in refining and in
the petrochemical industry.

3D scanners: measuring devices

3D scanners are tri-dimensional measurement devices used to capture real world
objects or environments so they can be remodelled or analysed in the digital world.

81
 In this article, the term 3D scanner refers to the non-contact
measurement process between the device and the physical part.
The general output from theses measuring devices comes
in two options: point cloud or triangulated mesh file. The 3D
scanners are, from a macro point of view, 2D cameras from which
a complete 3D model of an object can be extracted using picture
registration and triangulation.
Structured-light 3D scanners
These scanners project a pattern of light onto a part, and then
process how the pattern is distorted when the light hits the
object. All kinds of light source can be used for these scanning
devices: LCD projector or diffracted laser beams are usually used.
Typically, they can deliver excellent resolution, which allows great
definition of the corroded areas. However, the overall project
speed is not always improved by this methodology. It is not rare
to see multiple scans required to cover all the circumference of
a pipe, which is very time-consuming. The light source used can
also drastically affect field performances, even in general lighting
condition.
Laser scanners
Laser scanners project one or many laser lines on an object to
analyse deformed projections and extract the 3D shape. Some
scanners are even designed to be hand held to maximise the ease
of use and scanning speed. The most advanced technologies can
Figure 1. Impact of scanning resolution on thickness profile.
Figure 2. Impact of worst case profile grid resolution on burst
pressure calculation.
82 World Pipelines / NOVEMBER 2015
acquire more than a half million points per seconds and rebuild
the 3D triangle mesh live during the scanning process.
Metal loss assessment
Scanned surfaces can directly be used in procedures for the
assessment of pressurised components, subject to local metal loss
from corrosion, erosion or both. Surface information extracted
from the scan data provides sufficient information to quantify a
component for continued operations or for rerating. Damages
affected with pitting, mechanical damage or blend grinding that
exceeds corrosion allowance can also be evaluated using 3D
scanners in conjunction with the same assessment procedure.
Since assessment procedures for this specific situation are
based on thickness profiles, pit gauges are generally used. A 3D
scanner that can gather a significant amount of points per second
is the ideal tool to maximise result accuracy, field efficiency and
conservative assessment. The goal is obviously to determine the
maximum allowable operating pressure (MAOP) or maximum fill
height (MFH) for tank.
Extracting the critical thickness profile is one of the most
time-consuming operations during the assessment process.
It requires the establishment of a grid from which users shall
extract a minimum thickness per grid square. Such operations
can be directly affected by the technician’s skills. Indeed, pit
gauge readings are rarely reliable between experienced and junior
technicians. When using 3D scanners, users can capture the entire
metal loss area and parent material surrounding the localised
corrosion faster and more easily. Some 3D scanners can even
completely remove the impact of the operators. When combined
with pipeline integrity assessment software, 3D scanners can
automatically identify critical thickness profiles and outline the
minimum thickness found on the scan data, making their use a
time saver for both data acquisition and integrity analysis.
Increased resolution vs increased accuracy
One of the key differentiations between the uses of 3D scanners
compared to traditional methods comes from the traceability of
the results. The capability to reprocess an analysis with different
parameters and obtain different results is unique to some 3D
scanners. For example, increasing the scanning resolution may help
to better understand a catastrophe on a pipe that had already
been scanned, and to ultimately prove that all precautionary
measures were taken to insure public safety.
In some solutions dedicated to pipeline integrity assessment,
changing the resolution of the grid used in the critical thickness
profile is also possible, even after a first analysis is completed,
leading to more accurate calculated safety factor.
Applicability and limitations
All assessment procedures that were developed to evaluate
the pressure boundaries of pressure vessels, boiler components,
piping, and shell course of storage tanks with a flaw resulting from
single or multiple damages, can benefit from 3D scanners. These
tools can also help the assessment of non-pressure-boundary
components such as supports.
Even components that have not been designed or
manufactured to the original design criteria can be analysed with
a 3D scanner to identify metal loss that can occur over a specific
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period of time. Several tools are available to compare scans of the

same component done at different times. Such a procedure can
be extremely useful for corrosion management.
The main limitation of all 3D scanners comes from basic
optical rules – these scanners can only digitise the exposed
surfaces. This is true for laser-based 3D scanners and structured-
light technologies.

The ultimate solution

Wouldn’t it be ideal if a solution could see through material
and directly scan the true wall thickness? Magnetic flux
leakage technology (MFL), ultrasonic (UT) and automated UT
measurements are aiming for that, but they have their own
limitations. Combining all 3D scanner benefits (i.e. accuracy,
speed and reliability) while being able to see through material to
extract the flaw’s characteristics including thickness profile and
dimensions, would set an unprecedented level of traceability for a
truly effective integrity management solution.
Although such system does not exist to this day, the next best
solution could lie in the combination of these technologies. If –
for unresolved technological challenges – it is not yet possible to
build the perfect 3D scanner, there is no reason why one should

Visit our website for complete details or call for a brochure.

Figure 4. True wall thickness assessment stretch representation.

not be able to merge measurements results from the best 3D scanner in the world, with
the best UT measurement techniques, for instance! By merging the results, integrity
engineers could benefits from the best information available and make an informed
decision to ensure public safety.
Many NDT manufacturing companies invest a substantial amount of money in
research and development to innovate and solve UT challenges (e.g. external metal loss),
but in the meantime, people should not have to wait to make safer decisions.

True wall thickness assessment

A true wall thickness assessment typically involves many NDT tools – including 3D
scanners – used in its optimal configurations. This means that one must assume that
everything is not perfect. In the case of external metal loss, UT measurements on
non-corroded surfaces to evaluate the true wall thickness are used to calculate the
maximum allowable working pressure. On one hand, as 3D scanners are faster and more
accurate at measuring the external damage surface at a much higher resolution, the use
of UT measurement will compensate for any metal loss found inside the pressurised
components.
Such level of information could be essential to assess not only damaged components
at the moment, but also to evaluate their remaining life expectancy and to establish an
appropriate in-service monitoring plan.

Conclusion
3D scanners are the newest and safest tools that integrity engineers can use to assess
the health of various pipeline components. Their use brings a whole new level of
information, crucial to make accurate and appropriate decisions. In the near future, it will
rise in importance to become an essential tool to successfully manage all integrity issues
of parts affected by corrosion, as well as any many other types of material degradation.
With detailed assessment and high accuracy, 3D scanners are already great tools for
inline inspection correlation. With the ease of use and great reliability they provide, their
use does not require any special requirements or formation. Anyone seeking a corrosion
assessment solution should benchmark the 3D scanners to see how great they perform in
live operating environments.
Nicasio Messina of Solvay explains how
rehabilitation with cost-efficient PVDF-based
liners can extend the service life of aged
oil and gas flowlines.

New life
FOR OLD PIPES
O
il operators both onshore and offshore seeking to extend the lifetime of their assets, continually
search for a viable long-term solution to the severe attacks of corrosion that can result in significant
maintenance costs and low returns, especially for their pipelines.
Petronas and Petrobras – both among some of the largest oil operators – were relying on an
increasingly ageing infrastructure and embarked on an ambitious rehabilitation programme for their pipelines.
Key challenges included to extend the service life without experiencing long production downtimes, and
to avoid the high refurbishing as well as maintenance costs associated with conventional coating or steel
replacement pipes.
In Petronas’ subsea installations, the InField LinerTM (IFL) technology with an inner surface layer of Solef®
PVDF has proven an effective rehabilitation route for hydrocarbon steel flowlines, enhancing the
resistance against internal corrosion and so extending the lifetime of the pipelines.
In a field application in Brazil, Solef PVDF has now demonstrated to Petrobras its fitness
for cost-efficient onshore pipe rehabilitation vs retrofitting with carbon steel pipes.

85
 Best liner material to
combat corrosion
Thermoplastic lining materials
have a proven fit in many oil
and gas installations, where
they can help to reduce heat
loss, prevent pipe buckling
and eliminate the need
for corrosion inhibitors or
additional coatings. However,
their anti-corrosion capabilities
are directly related to the
operating temperature of the
fluid in the lines.
Figure 1. The PVDF anti-corrosion liner Figure 2. No degredation after exposure: TGA of weight
fits tightly to the inner wall of the steel variation of Solef 60512 pipe liner samples before and While flowlines operating
pipe. after field testing. at temperatures up to 60°C
(140°F) can effectively be
protected from corrosion with
liners made of high-density polyethylene or polyamide 11 or
12 resins, respectively, these polymers show some limitations,
as the service temperature in those pipelines can easily reach
120°C (248°F).
For these pipelines, the selected liner material is a Solvay
fluorinated polymer, called polyvinylidene fluoride and known
in the industry as Solef PVDF from its use as a barrier layer in
flexible risers since 1998. Other applications of it in the oil and
gas industry include umbilicals, new high-performance piping,
tubing, and composite solutions with other plastics. Table 1
summarises the chemical stability and swelling resistance of
the material observed in long-time exposure to typical fluids
at high temperatures. Above all, the results show a very low
hydrocarbon swelling effect and stable long-term performance
in hydrogen sulfide.
In order to rehabilitate its corroded carbon steel onshore
Figure 3. Exposed Solef liner samples. line pipes on fields in the state of Sergipe in northern Brazil,
Petrobras asked Liner & Coating do Brasil Ltda. (LCB) to provide
an innovative long-term solution that would significantly
Table 1. Overview of exposure effects on PVDF in oil and gas
Ageing Fluid Temperature Time Observations
extend the lifetime of the pipes. Service conditions to take
(ºC) exposure into consideration included operating temperatures up to
(months) 120°C (248°F) with pressures of 20 bar, and a fluid composition
Thermal Water 150 12 Swelling 4%; slight of 80% production water and 20% oil with an oil viscosity of
ageing, water modifications API 25°. The pipe sections to be lined were 9 m (30 ft) long and
effect of mechanical had an inner diameter of 7.62 cm and 10.16 cm (3 and 4 in.).
performances
After considering various alternatives, LCB selected
Hydrocarbon Diesel 110 12 Maximum swelling
the Solef PVDF resin as a good liner material to handle
effects (ASTM type 130 2% at 150ºC;
(aliphatic) 2) 150 mechanical the corrosive operating environment in the long-term and
performance stable minimise on-site maintenance. LCB has extensive experience in
over time providing oil and gas services and has successfully completed
Gas effects CH4/CO2 150 12 Very low swelling work on more than 500 km (300 miles) of pipelines alone in
mixture (<1%); no
the country’s north-eastern region over the past 12 years.
(90/10) significant change
in mechanical
“In close collaboration with Solvay, we identified the
performance right Solef material that would ensure both high chemical
H2S short-term H2S + 150 2 maximum No interaction resistance in combination with excellent mechanical and
efect mixture of polymer-gas thermal performance as well as efficient manufacturing and
oils installation of the liners,” notes Javier Gallego, Chairman and
No effect on Director of Operations at LCB. “Furthermore, Solvay also
the polymer
H2S long-term H2S + oil +
100 12 due to H2S; very
supported us in investigating the liners after four months
effect water
stable long-term of non-stop operation in a field test carried out under real
properties service conditions.”

86 World Pipelines / NOVEMBER 2015

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 Tight fit, seamlessly sealed and safe
The PVDF liners were installed in a roll-down process that uses a
reduction die-box at the point of insertion. The box temporarily
reduces the outer diameter of the liner to provide sufficient
clearance for pulling it through the steel pipe. Once the tensile
load is relieved, the liner will recover its original size, resulting
in a tight fit to the inner wall of the pipe. The liners are slightly
longer than the pipe sections, so that their protruding ends can
be properly shaped and fused to form seamless liner-to-liner
configurations with API connectors thereby preventing the steel
being exposed to the fluid again.
“Next to its outstanding mechanical strength and thermal
properties, the polymer owes its superior chemical resistance
Figure 4. Composite IFL for subsea pipe rehabilitation with an
inner surface layer of Solef PVDF to withstand the corrosive
attack of sulfate-reducing bacteria.
Figure 5. Inflated to flush fit with steel pipe.
88 World Pipelines / NOVEMBER 2015
to very strong carbon-fluorine bonds that are extremely hard
to break chemically,” explains Nicasio Messina, Global Market
Manager, Oil & Gas at Solvay. “It has about the same viscosity as
PE100 and can be processed using single-screw extruders common
for pipe-grade polyethylenes. Of further advantage in corrosive
environments, the material shows very low permeation to fluids
and gases. Moreover, it contains no additives, thus ensuring a safer
control of its long-term performance.”
As an immediate benefit to end-users, the PVDF liners can
operate at the same service conditions as corrosion resistant
alloys (CRAs) or other metals while reducing the capital
expenditures required for effective pipe rehabilitation. In terms of
overall cost of ownership, the lower maintenance required by the
polymer solution can also result in substantial savings in operating
expenses. PVDF in fact allows stopping the using the chemicals
and inhibitors commonly injected to prevent the corrosion of the
pipelines.
Successful field test results confirmed in lab
analyses
After 120 days of operation under service conditions, samples
of the installed liners were dissected and submitted to a range
of laboratory inspections, carried out both at the Solvay’s
Fluoropolymers R&D Center in Bollate, Italy, and by CTGAS ER
labs in Natal, Brazil.
“Although the liners had performed on site without failure, we
were impressed by the test results that showed only little if any
changes in properties versus those obtained from virgin samples,”
stated Javier Gallego.
Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) according to ASTM
D3418 showed virtually no variations in the structure and level
of crystallinity of the polymer before and after the field test.
Thermo-gravimetric analysis (TGA) also did not indicate any
polymer degradation or any significant loss of thermal resistance
after exposure. Tensile tests carried out by machining dog-bone
liner samples confirmed the high stability of the polymer, with
only modest changes in modulus and hardly any differences in
other tensile property values.
The results have clearly validated the perfect fit of Solef PVDF
in onshore pipes. The material offers an outstanding property
profile for solid wall linings in both new and rehabilitation
projects. It lends itself to efficient roll-down as well as swagelining
processes, and can be fine-tuned to a wide range of oil and gas
services, from high temperature water injection and wet gas to
hydrocarbon and multiphase flowlines.
Composite IFL counteracting internal corrosion
in subsea pipes
Another application that has become highly sought-after
using PVDF is the rehabilitation of corroded subsea steel pipes.
Developed by Dubai-based Anticorrosion Protective Systems (APS)
together with Petronas Carigali of Malaysia, the flexible IFL design
addresses the risk of internal corrosion resulting mainly from
sulphate-reducing bacteria (SRB) in the crude.
Table 2. DSC results of Solef 60512 before and after field testing
Virgin samples Field samples
First fusion Δm1(J/g) 43.6 47.8
Second fusion Δm2(J/g) 46.1 45.3
 “The hydrogen sulfide produced by these bacteria can
reduce the service life of a carbon steel pipe to as few as four
years,” says Robert Walters, Founder and Chairman of APS. “Our
advanced composite liner technology forms a corrosion resistant
barrier between the steel pipe wall and aggressive service media.
In addition, the IFL system creates an effective dual containment
against the risk of spills in case the outer steel shell should crack
or rupture.”
The IFL inner surface layer, which has to withstand the direct
attack of the service medium, is a tailor-made Solef PVDF grade
specifically developed by Solvay.
Among the several tests undertaken, the resistance to high
contents of SRB was undertaken by ageing samples for three
months in fouled seawater, which
showed no chemical degradation, no
change in tensile properties nor any
significant pitting. Importantly also,
the growth of bacteria deposition
in the liner was greatly reduced
diameter of 150 mm (6 in.) and is operated at a pressure of 50 bar
(725 psi). Overall, the project length was 4000 m (13 000 ft).
After nine months in operation, the annular pressure was only
approximately 5 bar (73 psi).
In summary, Solef PVDF has successfully expanded its market
fit in harsh oil and gas environments by demonstrating its
suitability also for onshore and subsea rehabilitation pipe liners
that can greatly extend the service life of existing flowlines. As a
highly attractive solution to minimising the capital expenditures
and operating expenses, these liners outperform expensive
CRAs and thick metallic pipes, while the polymer adapts
easily to specific liner design, manufacturing and installation
technologies.

Optimize Your
compared to levels observed on inner
pipe walls of steel.
The composite liner is produced
in a continuous process, then
flattened and reeled to the desired
project length. Folded and taped
down to a ‘U’ shape it can easily be
Oil Well Production
pulled into the existing steel pipe over
lengths of up to 5000 m (>16 000 ft)
with ProSoft’s in-chassis Flow Computer
in a single and fast insertion process.
When fully inserted, the liner is
inflated by means of low air pressure, • Perfect for multi-well pad sites
which causes the tape to break,
allowing the liner to expand and flush • Eliminates stand-alone flow computers and RTUs
with the inner pipe wall.
“In the IFL design, it
accommodates multiple 90° bends • Meets API & AGA standards
of 5D or greater. Altogether, the
technology is a weight-saving, long- • CompactLogix™ solutions for LACT applications
life and cost-effective alternative
to metal replacement pipes,” states
Robert Walter.
“Leveraging our long experience in
flexible risers and our R&D capability,
we optimised the flexible mechanical
For more information,
properties of the PVDF grade used visit www.psft.com/BCI
for IFL applications in order to meet
the high operating pressures and the
service temperatures of up to 110°C
(230°F),” adds Nicasio Messina from
Solvay.
The first IFL installations
were completed in 2013 for the
rehabilitation of a crude oil and a gas
pipeline in the Petronas Samarang
complex in the South China Sea,
followed in November 2014 by four
gas lift pipelines in the West Lutong
field just off the coast of Sawarak,
Malaysia. The IFL installation in
the West Lutong field has an inner
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In the hazardous environments
where the offshore oil and gas
industry operates, it is vital
to have reliable gas detection
solutions in place. But a system
is only as good as its parts, and
the most important components
inside any gas detection
device are its sensors. Michail
Tzouvelekis, Europe North
Region – Dräger Marine and
Offshore, explains why.

A GAS DETECTION
SYSTEM IS ONLY AS
GOOD AS ITS PARTS
90
 Figure 1. Accidents are usually
due to a series of minor events
that add up to cause severe
consequences – detection of a
small gas leak can avert a chain
reaction, which could threaten
safety onboard.

D
ealing with potentially deadly gases is all part of a day’s work for an offshore worker. It
is therefore a given that anyone who steps foot on an oil and gas platform must plan
for, protect against, and brave any hazards that could potentially range from gas leaks to
explosive atmospheres.
Critical points where the release of gases could occur include valves, pipes and storage vessels.
They all need to be inspected alongside temperature and pressure variations, while material fatigue
and corrosion could also lead to leakage from seals and joints, filling and tapping points.
The problem with gases is that they do not often behave as they are expected to. Many
substances are undetectable to the human senses, so gas detection is the first step to ensuring
workers’ safety. But what good are these systems if the sensors do not work, leading to inaccurate or
unreliable readings and false alarms?

91
 A key component to maximise safety
A gas detector’s sensors are a key component in maximising
the protection of workers. In the past 20 years, techniques
have progressed rapidly with more sensors being developed
for faster detection of toxic gases. One thing is for certain,
the quality of the sensors being used in any system ultimately
affect its reliability.
Dräger has been developing and manufacturing sensors
and gas detectors for industrial use for more than 40 years. It
is one of the few manufacturers of gas detection instruments
that actually make its own sensors. The company has a vast
amount of experience with the technology, and with each
new instrument, drives the measurement technology further.
Explosion protection measures must be in place as
regulated by law, to ensure personnel and rig safety. Systems
are designed to trigger an alarm in enough time for its
operator to make sure measures are in place in order to
prevent a potentially explosive scenario. It is important to
therefore identify the best gas detection system to protect
a workforces’ safety. And to do this, operators need to work
out potential hazards, alarm time, and whether a project
needs portable or fixed gas detection.
Figure 2. The GSO1 wireless hydrocarbon IR detector.
Figure 3. Monitoring hazardous gases safely and effectively.
92 World Pipelines / NOVEMBER 2015
With offshore, there are environmental conditions that
the system has to withstand too. For example, operators need
to consider the possibility of a change in wind direction at
different times of the day or during different seasons. Sensors
should also be installed where they are protected from
immersion or direct contact with water.
All sensors have ambient temperature limitations, and
the installation of the sensor must be within the operating
range of each. If it operates outside of its published operating
range, the overall lifespan of the sensor could be degraded
significantly.
Without the right tools, your workforce will be unable to
identify dangers early enough to initiate counter measures. It
is the responsibility of any company operating in a hazardous
area to carry out the appropriate risk assessment depending
on the likelihood of toxic or explosive incidents. To ensure
a gas detection system is able to react quickly and precisely,
its components must be carefully matched to the particular
circumstances such as the physical and chemical properties
of the materials, assumption of the most likely leakage points,
as well as the location’s constructional, geographical and
meteorological conditions.
Different types of sensor
Gas detection systems use a variety of different techniques
in their operations. From electrochemical sensors – like those
inside the Dräger’s Polytron 8000 – which can easily detect
oxygen and various toxic gases in ambient air, to catalytic bead
sensors like those inside the Polytron SE Ex, for the continuous
monitoring of flammable gases. There is also infrared
technology in point sensors and open path sensors, as well as
flame detectors, ultrasonic sensors and gas cameras.
The GasSecure GS01 is the world’s first wireless, infrared
hydrocarbon detector, which features an unparalleled battery
lifetime as well as SIL2 approvals, including communication
with control systems. It reliably detects hydrocarbon gas
leakages with fast response times. Due to its efficient design
using ultra-low power technology, it can be operated
completely wireless with typical battery life of
24 months.
The GS01 gas detector is taking IR detection
to the next level using patented MEMS
optical filters. With this technology, Dräger
has designed a gas detector with no zero and
no span drift, capable to operate in a wide
temperature range. The GS01 can be factory-
calibrated to methane and propane.
Triple-wavelength detection and single-
beam design – achieved with unique MEMS
technology – are the reasons why lifetime
calibration is possible. In other words, field
calibration by the user will never be required for
this gas detector.
The number of sensors to be installed is a
critical factor to consider. For example, a sensor
in a point monitor can only monitor gas at a
single point and would therefore not cover a
whole area. If gas from a leak did not reach the
sensor, it would not be detected. Any sensor
should be placed between the potential leak and the ignition there may be a downturn in the oil and gas sector due to the
set to automatic
source or can be or
for combustibles, defined by the
between user
the to and
leak focuslikely
on areas of low
) oilSaltprice, this only increases the value of keeping up with
contamination.
interest. of people for toxic gases.
location maintenance of safety critical equipment.
The PTG8
Poisons, can
such asstore 100oils,
silicone 000greases
readingsandinresins
up tocan 1000 all Climatic
) Safety conditions.
is Dräger’s passion. With its comprehensive
sequential
affect or grid
a catalytic type
bead batches.
sensors Using grid
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 Chris Shannon, CEO, Fotech
Solutions, UK, discusses acoustic
visualisation for pipeline incident
prevention.

O
ver the past year, the threat to pipelines around
the world has intensified. Towards the end of
2014, Pemex revealed that it had lost an estimated
7.5 million bbls of oil from criminal activity
on its pipelines, resulting in financial repercussions of
US$1.5 billion. In Nigeria, the latest estimates suggest that
300 000 bbls are being lost to oil tapping gangs every day.
The threat to pipelines is not restricted to theft and
unauthorised drilling. Pipeline maintenance and leak
prevention is just as serious an issue, highlighted by the
recent Plains All American Pipeline LP oil spill in St. Louis that
caused 4000 gal. of lost product and resulted in a fine of
US$92 million for the operator.
With over 2 million km of pipelines around the world
and incidents rising year on year, there is continual pressure
for safety and security technologies to keep pace with the
increasing number of threats. There is no doubt that pipelines
are fundamentally difficult assets to monitor as they cover
vast expanses of land, often in very isolated areas. As such, it
is very difficult for guards on the ground to physically walk
along the length of the pipeline to prevent imminent threats.
Moreover, guards cannot monitor the entire pipeline all of
the time – there are inherent ‘gaps’ in the coverage that
guards can provide.

95
 Technological advantages and limitations
Supporting technologies, such as aerial surveillance, closed
circuit television (CCTV) and ground radars also have their
limitations. Individually each technology does not have
sufficient range to monitor the whole length of the pipeline.
They are also relatively simple for criminals to work around as
they are usually in sight.
None of these stand-alone measures, either in isolation
or in combination with each other, can provide the real time,
reliable data that operators need to effectively protect their
pipelines from malicious and accidental damage around the
clock.
With financial, reputational and environmental
consequences at stake, operators are now increasingly
deploying new technology to enhance their safety and
security measures. Engineers and security staff need increased
real-time visibility of what is happening along the pipeline,
and investment in technologies that provide this information
is already a key priority for industry shareholders.
DAS – a proven concept
One such technology is distributed acoustic sensing (DAS)
– a system that enables operators to acoustically visualise
what is happening along the entire length of the pipeline.
Each individual system has the ability to monitor a stretch
of up to 40 km of optical fibre that typically run alongside
or are attached to the pipeline. By sending 1 - 2 m pulses of
light along a fibre optic cable, DAS is able to deliver specific
information about activity anywhere along the pipeline. When
these individual pulses experience a vibration, they cause an
Figure 1. Fotech’s Helios DAS system.
Figure 2. The Helios DAS LivePipe operator interface – showing current
threat status on a pipeline section.
96 World Pipelines / NOVEMBER 2015
interference, which is reflected in the backscatter of light. In
conjunction with powerful software tools, DAS can effectively
discriminate against background noise to only provide
information of ‘real threats’ to the operator.
By simultaneously measuring amplitude and frequency,
the system can interpret what is happening on the pipeline,
pinpoint the activity’s exact location, and even determine how
fast the threat is moving. For example, DAS can distinguish
between footsteps and manual digging close to the pipeline
and larger threats such as heavy vehicles and mechanical
digging further away. In doing so, DAS provides operators
with a valuable tool to minimise the loss of product and
environmental damage. It can also provide a much more
detailed view of exactly what kind of incident is taking place
– if it is a large group or involves heavy machinery – to give
operatives in the field better information to make a decision
on how they will respond. By providing information to such an
incredibly degree of accuracy, DAS enables engineers to make
quick, well-informed decisions and prevent criminal activity in
its first stage.
Critically, DAS provides this level of insight and visibility
across the entire length of the pipeline, and in real time
– something that is simply not possible with the other
technology systems available to operators. However, the
system’s capabilities are not limited to malicious threats. DAS
also provides an additional layer of intelligence in pipeline
management systems to assist in preventing leaks in the first
place. Alongside tools like electrical current and corrosion
sensors, DAS can help detect disruptions to oil flow by
analysing the data and trends in the acoustic sensing when the
pipeline is unaffected by external factors.
Simplicity is integral to Fotech’s ‘Helios’ DAS system and
what is particularly interesting is its ability to inform pipeline
operators on exactly what they need to know – i.e. whether
there is a threat on their pipeline or not. Instead of sending
in-depth data that security staff must analyse themselves,
Fotech’s ‘Helios’ DAS system limits the number false alarms
and is optimised to send alerts about genuine threats.
Delivering this information through a simple user interface in
real time makes it easy for operators to send an appropriate
team to the exact location, and disrupt any potential criminal
or accidental activity on the pipeline.
DAS case studies
Industry conversations about DAS have slowly shifted
from educating the market about the technology’s
capabilities, to operators understanding and
acknowledging its fundamental value to pipelines.
There are two particularly interesting, recent customer
examples from Fotech, which clearly demonstrate the
elevation of DAS from a technology with theoretical
benefits, to its application in real-life situations.
Criminal prevention
The first example focuses on a DAS-enabled pipeline
in India and the prevention of a significant oil pilfering
attempt towards the end of 2014. The system detected
a group of people who were trying to dig down to the
 GIRARD INDUSTRIES Toll Free: 800.231.2861
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Figure 3. A field map indicating a disturbance along a DAS fibre optic cable.
pipeline and an alarm alerted operators almost immediately.
This enabled the operator to deploy suitable security
personnel to the exact location on the pipeline and swiftly
prevent an integrity breach. Damage to the pipeline was
averted, as was any potential environmental damage or loss of
product.
Of course the immediate prevention of the threat was
vital, but through post-acquisition analysis of the DAS data
from the incident, the operator was also able to highlight
activity indicative of a clear pattern of scouting missions. This
additional insight shows the secondary value of the ‘historic’
DAS data, not only helping the operator to tighten security
monitoring processes, but also in providing new, previously
impossible, methods to predict and pre-emptively prevent
attacks or criminal activity.
Accidental threats
The second example highlights how threats do not have to
be malicious, but can often be the result of error or accident.
The incident took place during a site acceptance test of a DAS
system installation on a pipeline in South America. The pipeline
runs through some extremely remote terrain, situated deep in
the jungle with an extremely low ‘noise’ level of background
activity in the immediate vicinity of the pipeline. Whilst this
makes it ‘easier’ to detect a threat when it occurs, the incident
in question highlights the value of both the accuracy of DAS
and the importance of minimising false alarms.
During the test, the field engineers saw extremely high
levels of acoustic energy at a specific point on the pipeline,
which raised fears of a potential explosion. Initially the
operator treated the incident as a false alarm, given the
remoteness of the location, and the fact that they had no
other work scheduled in that area that day. However, after
being convinced to investigate the threat, it emerged that
a construction team had gone off path while conducting a
blasting operation and had unknowingly ended up in very
98 World Pipelines / NOVEMBER 2015
close proximity to the
pipeline. As a result, DAS
enabled the operator
to inform its team of
their error and to cease
their activity before
damage or any other
repercussions could
occur. Without the
accuracy of the location
information from the
DAS system, or the
optimisation of the
system to avoid false
alarms, the incident
would not have been
prevented.
Demonstrating a
clear need
The need for
technologies like DAS is clear from both of the incidents
stated, where the system was integral in preventing two
potential disasters – both of which would have resulted
in extremely damaging environmental harm. The visibility
that DAS provides can enable engineers to accurately assess
whether a disturbance along the pipeline warrants further
investigation or intervention.
It also provides additional layers of value via the potential
to inform what type of response may be required. Through
classification of both the types of threats DAS detects and the
location of any given alarm, operators can more intelligently
direct their responses – for example immediately knowing
whether a threat requires a call to a local construction
crew, or a large security detail. Response times can also be
calibrated according to the classified event and to the value/
importance of a particular pipeline section.
Layered technology
Adding a new layer of technology through DAS is not a
replacement for current security measures – instead, it allows
operators to enhance their existing solutions. For example,
rather than having staff walk along the pipeline in the hope of
uncovering a threat, DAS can indicate the exact location that
the line walkers should focus their attention on.
By providing continuous monitoring of the whole pipeline
the data that DAS captures over time also becomes a powerful
new tool in the arsenal of pipeline operators. Post-acquisition
analysis of the DAS data can potentially show patterns of
activity that would have previously gone unnoticed, giving
operators the chance to prevent incidents even earlier.
Perhaps most important of all is the DAS’ ability to deliver
real time information. By giving operators the tools they
need to anticipate disasters and act quickly when threats
are impending, operators will be able optimise their security
processes and ultimately, maximise the overall safety of their
pipelines.
 Coming Next Month

• Offshore ops
• Flow metering
• Construction projects
• Global pipeline roundup ®

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No one wants
A PIG IN A POKE

V
arious methods of pig tracking have been developed over the
years as the methods of pipeline cleaning and maintenance
have developed from a closely guarded black art into an ever-
improving science. Devotees have long-since laughed at the old
story concerning the origins of the cleaning tools terminology or ‘pigs’ – as
they squeal and rumble like a pig as
they pass – but this is one of the There are numerous
oldest and most reliable detection
methods.
considerations that need to
In simple terms the tracking be made when applying pig
devices attached to the cleaning tracking systems; the last thing
tools for the purposes of tracking use
one needs is a failure due to
acoustics, electromagnetic, rare earth
high strength magnets or radioactive inaccurate information. Simon
sources. Like all tools, in order to Bell, iNPIPE PRODUCTS,
ensure that they perform as required, UK, highlights some reliable
they need to be correctly designed,
manufactured and applied. In other pipeline pig tracking methods
words, serious consideration needs that achieve quality results.
to be applied to the functionality
of the tool. Basic design parameters

101
 include the design and materials of construction of the cleaning
tool carrying the transmitter, the materials of construction
and features of the pipeline, the complexity of surrounding
geography, the medium of pigging, and finally the length of the
pipeline itself. The most frequent cause of pig tracking failure is
often the result of inaccurate information being provided to the
pig tracking supplier.
In addition to pig tracking devices, it is also possible to
calculate the theoretical position of the pig by calculating
the flowrate through the pipeline and time. However, such
calculations need to consider whether the medium is liquid or
gas and to what degree the output of the pump or compressor
Non-intrusive pig signallers for the detection of acoustic or
Figure 1. Intrusive pig signallers.
electromagnetic transmitters fitted to the cleaning tools have
Figure 2. Typical examples of 6 in. cleaning and gauging pigs designed to incorporate four methods
of pig tracking/location – neodymium iron boron magnet bracelets, an electromagnetic transmitter,
acoustic pinger, radioactive isotope, and smart gauge data logger. The innovative source container
is an integral part of the patented wet-buckle insertion tooling design developed for the Ichthys
project in Australia.
102 World Pipelines / NOVEMBER 2015
can be guaranteed. Such accurate flow characteristics also
rely upon the assumption that there is no bypass over the pig,
which is often not the case where pigs enter pipeline features
such as bends, tees, or weld beads for example. Clearly the
actual variation, compared with the theoretical assumptions,
can increase in direct proportion to the distance travelled; 1%
variance on a 330 km pipeline relates to searching 3.3 km for a
stuck pig.
Fixed point intrusive pig signallers
Intrusive pig signallers have traditionally been mounted on to pig
launchers, receivers and pipeline systems to advise when the pig
has passed a specific point. Design considerations include correct
material mating with the pipeline materials of construction, the
ability to be removed under pressure and the correct trigger
length to ensure that the pig seals/cups trigger the signal.
The innovative iNPIPE PRODUCTSTM pig signaller is designed
to operate and trigger through 360˚, which provides quick
installation and cannot be installed with the wrong orientation –
a common problem with uni-directional pig signallers. Intrusive
signallers can also be provided for connection to SCADA systems
or even with remote telecommunication so that the pig passage
can be relayed directly to mobile phones.
The benefit of the mechanical intrusive pig signaller is that it
requires nothing more than the physical passage of the cleaning
tool to trigger the device, though obviously there are whole
range of add-on features, including extensions of up to 2.5 m for
buried pipelines. Correctly designed, installed and maintained,
these units have proven they provide decades of failsafe
performances around the world and subsea applications that are
still working today.
Fixed point non-intrusive pig signallers
been developed over the last
30 years. Their performance
relies upon the detection of
either an electromagnetic
field or an acoustic ping
and consequently battery
life and size is one of the
most crucial considerations.
Over recent years battery
technology has rapidly
improved so transmitters are
gradually becoming smaller
and more reliable; additional
technologies, such as pressure
activation switches have
enabled transmitters to remain
dormant for many months
until they are energised by an
increase in pressures as the
cleaning tool is launched. This
conserves the battery power
until it is needed when the pig
is moving.
 Externally mounted, handheld or ROV operated detection medium and potential power requirement based on the pipe
units can then be used to detect the cleaning tool/pig as it length and duration of pigging; for example, certain subsea
passes by means of the acoustic ping or the magnetic field installations may need to remain in place for some months
generated. In addition to battery powered electro-transmitters, before operation.
rare earth neodymium iron boron magnets can be mounted in a Pigging regimes can change throughout the lifecycle of a
bracelet arrangement or within the spacer discs on smaller pigs, pipeline so pig tracking and pig location should be considered
depending on the cleaning tool and bend radius size, which can independently. Pig tracking is best used as part of the ongoing
also be detected non-intrusively. Orientation of the magnet pipe cleaning, gauging and inspection processes. Non-intrusive
arrangement requires careful consideration to ensure optimum systems are often used as part of a periodic but temporary
performance. tracking, and have the benefit of installation and removal of
The tracking benefits of acoustic pingers in the field are the monitors to the pipelines without production interruption.
strong. Their range can be several kilometres and tracking is Unfortunately, this installation method can occasionally lead
possible to within a few metres with the use of directional to easy theft in remote areas of the world. The flexibility of
headphones and an ROV or diver in
shallow water. Different frequencies can
also allow for the individual identification
of every cleaning tool within a train of
tools so it is possible to gain a better Committed to Safety, Quality and Environment
insight inside the pipeline. The acoustic OHSAS 18001:2007, ISO 9001:2008 and ISO 14001:2004 certified
pinger has to be in water in order to
transmit a signal and the pipeline must be
surrounded by water for the signal to be
detected by the hydrophone. Complex
pipe in pipe constructions, pipe coatings
and burials also decrease effectiveness
and accuracy of signal. Solid obstacles,
such as offshore platforms, sea-bottom
outcrops, and layers of water with differing
temperatures can all reflect and corrupt
the pinger energy signal.
Radioactive isotope pig tracking
systems have been developed and have
proved extremely effective, relying on a

We’re truly one of a kind...

small radioactive source attached to the
pig. The radioactive source is again tailored
to the size of the pipeline, wall thickness
or pipe in pipe arrangement with project
specific source duration of up to two years and wear many hats.
on some applications. The project specific
tailoring enables the level of radiation
to be kept to the absolute minimum to
Mears Integrity Solutions is the only corrosion control
minimise the potential hazard to divers company providing inline inspection tools, and an inline
and launching technicians. Externally
mounted, handheld or ROV operated inspection company offering complete turnkey pipeline
detection units can then be used to detect
the cleaning tool as it passes by means of
integrity services, all under one hat.
the isotope source. Specialised technical
support and transportation is required with
transportation containers necessary for
For a complete list of services visit: www.mearscorrosion.com
mobilisation and disposal.

Design considerations for

www.mearscorrosion.com
tracking method selection
It is evident from the preceding
information that effective pig tracking Toll Free: (US & Canada) 844 802 4195 | Worldwide: +1 832 834 2800
or potential location is an important
consideration. Designers should consider
the relevant features of the pipeline,
 Advertisers’
Directory
Advertiser Page
ABC 87
Aegion 61, 79
AOG 69
Bug-O Systems 67
CRC-Evans 17
Creaform 99
DeFelsko Corporation 46
DENSO GmbH 29
Denso North America, Inc. OFC, 45, 63 Figure 3. Bespoke Ichthys project pig test loops.
Enduro Pipeline Services, Inc. OBC
Farwest Corrosion Control Company 84 the system can also lead to misuse when the transmitters,
Girard Industries 97 receivers and signal corruption by the pipeline features, wall
51
thicknesses and locations are not correctly considered.
Holdtight Solutions, Inc.
Jotun 76
Design considerations for pig/cleaning tool
Maats Pipeline Equipment 4 design
Magnatech International IBC The method of pig location signal to the receiver basically
Mears Group, Inc. 103 depends on the size and location of the transmitter carried
2
by the pig; the battery powered acoustic or electromagnetic
Midwestern
transmitter, radioactive isotope or the neodymium iron boron
NACE International 55
magnets. In simple terms, it is desirable to have the largest
NDT Global 15 power source (battery) available, which is generally fine in
No-Dig 59 larger pig bodies, but the smaller the diameter the more
Online Electronics 93 difficult it is to fit everything in. Similarly, the complexity and
OPUS s.r.l 97 location of bends and other features can often impact upon
the length of the pig body and again constrain the size of
Pigs Unlimited International, Inc. 35
battery and consequent transmitter.
Pipeline Inspection Company Ltd. 83
PLCA 36 Conclusion
Polyguard Products 25 To ensure that intrusive signallers, non-intrusive magnetic or
Polysoude 73, 75 ultrasonic signallers, acoustic pingers and electromagnetic
Prosoft Technology 89
transmitters work correctly it is most important that all the
pipeline data is provided to the supplier of the pig tracking
Quest Integrity 41
equipment. Pig body material, pipewall material and wall
RAE Energy 39 thickness, water depth, burial depth, pipeline length, flowrates,
Rosen IFC and products being transported are all things that can affect
Schoenbeck GmbH & Co. KG 99 the reliability of the pig tracking method being used. Most of
Shaw Pipeline Services 9 the equipment is simple to use and with very little training
most people are able to operate it to good effect. However,
ShawCor Ltd. 7
if the equipment is abused and poorly maintained then it may
T.D. Williamson 11
not perform as expected.
Vacuworx Global 80 There is a system to suit most applications, be they for
Vermeer 19 permanent or temporary installation or for subsea or above
Vietz GmbH 53 ground applications, and pipe within pipe requirements. All
Wasco 23
of the systems are reliable if treated and deployed correctly
and most importantly properly maintained. Best results will be
World Pipelines 33, 42, 99, 100
achieved if personnel using the equipment are properly trained
in its use.
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User friendly interface Robust design for any Increase productivity Lower repair rates
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MAGNATECH INTERNATIONAL The Netherlands P (+31) 321 386 677 E info magnatech-international.com
 From Sketch

To Signals
Our Enduro Pig Popper™ is an intrusive pig signal that is manually reset once it has

been tripped by a pig. The Enduro Pig Popper is available in several different options -

Manual Visual alert, Electrical alert, and Electrical/Manual Visual alert. Extensions are

available in six inch increments for buried pipe locations. All units are also available in

a lighted version. The Pig Popper is designed to be tted on most existing 2" ttings.

800-752-1628 • 918-446-1934 • w w w.enduropls.com • info@enduropls.com