Emil Schu - Rer Ge - Za Verme - S Fergus Millar The History of The Jewish People in The Age of Jesus Christ 175 B.C.-A.D. 135 Vol. 3, Part 1 1986 PDF

THE HISTORY
OF T H E J E W I S H PEOPLE
IN T H E A G E OF J E S U S C H R I S T
(175 B.G.-A.D. 135)
BY
EMIL SCHURER
A NEW ENGLISH VERSION

R E V I S E D A N D E D I T E D BY
(;EZA V E R M E S FERGUS MILLAR
MARTIN GOODMAN
Literary Editor
PAMELA VERMES
Organizing Editor
M A T T H E W BLACK
V O L U M E III, PART I
I ,i)iNBURGH T. & T. C L A R K L T D 5 9 GEORGE STREET

Revised English Edition
Copyright © 1986 T . & T. CLARK LTD.
SET IN MONOTYPE BASK.ERVILLE lo ON u POINT

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PRINTED BY PAGE BROS (NORWICH) LIMITED
BOUND BY HUNTER & FOULIS LIMITED, EDINBURGH
FOR
T. & T . CLARK L T D E D I N B U R G H
FIRST EDITION AND REPRINTS 1885-1924

REVISED EDITION 1986
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Schiirer, Emil
T h e history o f the Jewish p e o p l e i n the a g e of J e s u s Christ.
— N e w English version
V o l . 3 Pt. 1
I . J e w s — H i s t o r y — 1 7 5 B.C.—135 A . D .
I. Title IL Vermes, Geza III. Millar, Fergus
I V . G o o d m a n , Martin V. Geschichte d e s j i i d i s c h e n
Volk.es i m Zeitalter J e s u Christi. English
933 DS122
I S B N 0—567-02244—7
All Rights Reserved. .No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mnhanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior
permission of T. & T. Clark Ltd.
Preface
L a u n c h e d i n 1964 b y Professor M a t t h e w B l a c k , t h e revised E n g l i s h

e d i t i o n of E m i l S c h i i r e r ' s Geschichte des judischen Volkes im êitalter Jesu
Christi h a s , w i t h t h e p r e s e n t v o l u m e , r e a c h e d its c o m p l e t i o n after t w e n t y -
niie y e a r s of c o n c e r t e d effort.
T h e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s u n d e r l y i n g t h e r e v i s i o n a r e set o u t in t h e Preface t o
\ o l u m e I , w h e r e it is also m a d e p l a i n t h a t t h e i n t e n t i o n of t h e e d i t o r s ( o r
I a t h e r c o - a u t h o r s ) is t o offer s t u d e n t s o f t o d a y a r e j u v e n a t e d a n d e n l a r g e d
1 o i n p e n d i u m t o s e r v e as a basis for h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h . I n p u r s u i n g t h i s
task, t h e y h a v e felt free t h r o u g h o u t t o i n t r o d u c e n e w e v i d e n c e , a n d t o
H j ) l a c e t h o s e v i e w s a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of S c h i i r e r w h i c h a p p e a r
u n t e n a b l e in t h e l i g h t of c o n t e m p o r a r y k n o w l e d g e .
Modernization reaches a climax i n volume I I L Diaspora J u d a i s m
for w h i c h F e r g u s M i l l a r h a s t a k e n p r i m a r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , h a s
i t ( i u i r e d e x t e n s i v e r e v i s i o n a n d s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n i n t h e w a k e of t h e
1 o n s i d e r a b l e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l a n d e p i g r a p h i c discoveries of t h e l a s t
•*(venty-five y e a r s . I n the J e w i s h l i t e r a t u r e s e c t i o n s (§§32-33) s u b s t a n t i a l
tfvtrganization h a s b e e n n e c e s s a r y b e c a u s e t h e o l d d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n
I'.iU'sdnian a n d H e l l e n i s t i c J u d a i s m , w i t h its m e c h a n i c a l c o r o l l a r y t h a t
.ill H e b r e w a n d A r a m a i c c o m p o s i t i o n s o r i g i n a t e d in t h e H o l y L a n d , a n d
r \ ( r y J e w i s h b o o k w r i t t e n i n G r e e k d e r i v e d from t h e H e l l e n i s t i c d i a s p o r a
11 n o t f r o m A l e x a n d r i a itself), is n o l o n g e r a c c e p t a b l e . A fresh
1 l.issification h a s t h e r e f o r e b e e n i n t r o d u c e d . §32 d e a l s w i t h w r i t i n g s of
S e m i t i c o r i g i n ; §3 3 A w i t h w o r k s c o m p o s e d i n G r e e k ; a n d § 3 3 6 w i t h
I (-wish b o o k s t h e p r i m i t i v e l a n g u a g e o f w h i c h c a n n o l o n g e r b e
.is( c r t a i n e d . G e z a V e r m e s h a s r e v i s e d §32, M a r t i n G o o d m a n § 3 3 A , a n d
l i M i h of t h e m j o i n t l y , § 3 3 6 .
The S e m i t i c s e c t i o n h a s b e e n e n r i c h e d t o a l a r g e e x t e n t t h a n k s to t h e
<.)uinran finds. Scrolls m a t e r i a l j u d g e d to b e free f r o m s e c t a r i a n f e a t u r e s
I n s been i n s e r t e d i n t o t h e e x i s t i n g d i v i s i o n s of §32. A n a d d i t i o n a l l e n g t h y
• h.ipter ( § 3 2 . V I I I ) a c c o m m o d a t e s t h e l i t e r a r y c r e a t i o n s o f the Q u m r a n
I ssrne) c o m m u n i t y ,
riie e d i t o r s a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y g r a t e f u l to M r s J e n n y M o r r i s ( W y c o m b e
Nbhcy S c h o o l ) for r e w o r k i n g t h e w h o l e o f §34; to D r P h i l i p A l e x a n d e r
\ L u i c h e s t e r U n i v e r s i t y ) for c o n t r i b u t i n g a n a p p e n d i x o n 3 E n o c h
vi Preface
(§32.V.2), a n d a n i n s t r u c t i v e a n d c o m p r e h e n s i v e essay o n J e w i s h
i n c a n t a t i o n s a n d m a g i c ( § 3 2 . V I I ) ; a n d t o D r S e b a s t i a n Brock ( O x f o r d
U n i v e r s i t y ) for d i s c u s s i n g the O d e s o f S o l o m o n (§336. A p p e n d i x i) a n d
for the g e n e r o u s l o a n of his u n p u b l i s h e d s u p p l e m e n t s t o A , - M . D e n i s ,
Introduction aux pseudepigraphes grecs d'Ancien Testament.
A s u s u a l , P a m e l a V e r m e s h a s c h e c k e d t h e e n t i r e typescript, c o m p a r i n g
it t o the s u r v i v i n g G e r m a n o r i g i n a l , a n d g e n e r a l l y e m e n d i n g it w h e r e v e r
necessary.
B i b l i o g r a p h i c a l c o v e r a g e e x t e n d s n o r m a l l y t o 1983, a l t h o u g h
o c c a s i o n a l l y a few l a t e r s t u d i e s are also u s e d . T h e e d i t o r s regret t h a t they
h a v e b e e n u n a b l e t o a v a i l t h e m s e l v e s to t w o i m p o r t a n t books, b e a r i n g the
d a t e 1984, Die aramdischen Texte vom Toten Meer by K l a u s Beyer, a n d The
Apocryphal Old Testament, e d i t e d b y H . F . D . S p a r k s .
At a n a d v a n c e d s t a g e , it b e c a m e c l e a r t h a t v o l u m e I I I w o u l d b e too
l a r g e t o be c o n v e n i e n t l y h a n d l e d . I t h a s t h e r e f o r e b e e n divided i n t o I I I . i ,
c o n t a i n i n g § § 3 1 , 3 2 a n d 3 3 A , a n d I I I . 2 , w i t h §§33B a n d 3 4 , as w e l l a s t h e
i n d e x t o the e n t i r e w o r k , c o m p i l e d b y D r L e o n i e A r c h e r (Oxford C e n t r e
for P o s t g r a d u a t e H e b r e w S t u d i e s ) . I I I . 2 is also d u e t o a p p e a r i n t h e
c o u r s e of 1986. C o n t i n u o u s p a g e - n u m b e r i n g has been r e t a i n e d
throughout.
T h e p u b l i c a t i o n of t h i s final v o l u m e o f The History of the Jewish People in
the Age of Jesus Christ is to t a k e p l a c e a c e n t u r y after t h e first E n g l i s h
t r a n s l a t i o n o f S c h i i r e r s a w t h e l i g h t of d a y u n d e r t h e i m p r i n t o f t h e s a m e
p u b l i s h i n g h o u s e o f T . & T . C l a r k . T h e e d i t o r s a n d publishers h o p e t h a t
b y b r i n g i n g to c o m p l e t i o n t h i s revised a n d r e s h a p e d version o f o n e of t h e
o u t s t a n d i n g t e x t - b o o k s of t h e l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , they will h a v e
s e c u r e d its useful s u r v i v a l i n t o t h e twenty-first.
I O c t o b e r 1985
Contents
V o l u m e III, P a r t i
Preface v
Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . xiii
§31. J u d a i s m in t h e D i a s p o r a : G e n t i l e s a n d J u d a i s m . . i
I. G e o g r a p h i c a l S u r v e y . . . . . . 3
Mesopotamia, Media, Babylonia . . . 5
Dura-Europos . 1 0
Syria. . . . . . . . 13
A r a b i a n Peninsula . . . . 15
Asia M i n o r . . . . . •
N o r t h Coast of t h e Black Sea . . . . 36
Egypt 38
Lower Egypt . . . . . . . 46
Middle Egypt 50
Upper Egypt 57
Cyrenaica . . . . . . . . 6 0
Africa . . . . . . . . 62
Macedonia and Greece . . . . . 64
Greek Islands 68
Balkans . . . . . . . . 72
Rome . . . . . . . . 73
Italy 81
Spain, Gaul and G e r m a n y . . . . . 84
I I . I I n t e r n a l O r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e C o m m u n i t i e s 87
I I . 2 C o n s t i t u t i o n a l P o s i t i o n of t h e C o m m u n i t i e s . . 107
I I I . Civic R i g h t s 126
I V . R e l i g i o u s Life 138
V. Gentiles a n d J u d a i s m : ' G o d - F e a r e r s ' a n d Proselytes . 150
§32. J e w i s h L i t e r a t u r e C o m p o s e d in H e b r e w o r A r a m a i c
PreUminary Remarks . 177
I. H i s t o r i o g r a p h y
1. T h e F i r s t B o o k o f M a c c a b e e s . . . 1 8 0
2. T h e H i s t o r y of J o h n H y r c a n u s . . . 1 8 5
3. J o s e p h u s — H i s t o r y of t h e J e w i s h W a r . . . 1 8 6
Vlll Contents
I I . Religious Poetry
1. M a c c a b a e a n P s a l m s . 187
2. A p o c r y p h a l P s a l m s . 188
3 . T h e P s a l m s of S o l o m o n 192
I I I . Wisdom Literature
1 . J e s u s S i r a c h o r J e s u s b e n Sira 198
2. W i s d o m L i t e r a t u r e from Q u m r a n 213
3. Pirqe Aboth . . . . 214
I V . D i d a c t i c a n d P a r a e n e t i c a l Stories
1 . T h e B o o k of J u d i t h . 216
2. T h e B o o k o f T o b i t 222
3 . T h e S t o r y of A h i q a r . 232
V . Prophetic-Apocalyptic Pseudepigrapha 240
1 . T h e B o o k of D a n i e l . 245
2 . T h e E t h i o p i c Book of E n o c h 250
Appendix: 3 Enoch 269
3 . T h e A s s u m p t i o n o r T e s t a m e n t of M o s e s 278
4. T h e A p o c a l y p s e of A b r a h a m 288
5 . T h e C h r o n i c l e s of J e r e m i a h 292
^. T h e Fourth Book of Ezra . 294
7. Q u m r a n P s e u d e p i g r a p h i c P r o p h e c i e s 306
V I . Biblical M i d r a s h . . . . 308
1 . T h e B o o k of J u b i l e e s . 308
2 . T h e Genesis A p o c r y p h o n from Q u m r a n 318
3 . P s e u d o - P h i l o ' s B o o k of B i b l i c a l A n t i q u i t i e s 325
4. T h e B o o k of N o a h . . . . 332
5 . T h e T e s t a m e n t of K o h a t h . 333
6. T h e T e s t a m e n t of A m r a m . 334
7. A S a m u e l A p o c r y p h o n 335
8. T h e M a r t y r d o m of I s a i a h . 335
9. A p o c r y p h a l F r a g m e n t s 341
V I I . I n c a n t a t i o n s a n d B o o k s of M a g i c 342
1 . Sefer h a - R a z i m ( T h e B o o k of M y s t e r i e s
= ShR) 347
2 . H a r b a d e M o s h e h ( T h e S w o r d of M o s e s
• = HdM) 350
3 . I n c a n t a t i o n Bowls a n d A m u l e t s in
Hebrew and Aramaic 352
4. J e w i s h M a g i c a l T e x t s P r e s e r v e d in G r e e k 357
5 . T h e u r g y in t h e H e k h a l o t T e x t s . 361
6. T h e D e a d S e a Scrolls 364
7. R a b b i n i c P h y s i o g n o m y 366
8. T r e a t i s e of S h e m ( = T r S h e m ) . 369
9. T e s t a m e n t of S o l o m o n ( = T S o l ) 372
Contents IX
V I I I . T h e W r i t i n g s of t h e Q u m r a n C o m m u n i t y . 380
A . T h e Rules
1 . T h e C o m m u n i t y R u l e o r M a n u a l of D i s c i p l i n e 381
2. T h e R u l e of t h e C o n g r e g a t i o n or M e s s i a n i c R u l e 386
3. T h e D a m a s c u s R u l e o r Z a d o k i t e F r a g m e n t s 389
4. T h e W a r R u l e 398
5. T h e T e m p l e S c r o l l . . . . 406
B . Bible I n t e r p r e t a t i o n . . . . 420
i. I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of P a r t i c u l a r Books 421
1 . T h e Genesis A p o c r y p h o n (i Q a p G e n ) . 421
2. T h e A g e s of t h e C r e a t i o n ( 4 Q 1 8 0 ) 421
3. T h e Blessings of J a c o b (4QPBless) 422
4. P e n t a t e u c h A n t h o l o g y ( 4 Q 1 5 8 ) . 423
5. T h e W o r d s o f M o s e s ( I Q D M = 1 Q 2 2 ) 424
6. C o m m e n t a r i e s o n I s a i a h . 425
7. T h e N e w J e r u s a l e m . . . . 427
8. C o m m e n t a r i e s o n H o s e a (4QpHos =
4Q166-167) 429
9. C o m m e n t a r y on M i c a h ( i Q p M i c = i Q , i 4 ) 430
1 0 . C o m m e n t a r y on N a h u m ( 4 Q p N a h = 4 Q 1 6 9 ) 430
1 1 . C o m m e n t a r y on H a b a k k u k ( I Q p H a b ) 433
1 2 . C o m m e n t a r i e s o n Z e p h a n i a h ( 1 Q 1 5 a n d 1Q70) 437
1 3 . C o m m e n t a r i e s o n t h e P s a l m s (4QpPss*~^ or
173) 438
1 4 . P r a y e r of N a b o n i d u s (4QprNab) 440
1 5 . P s e u d o - D a n i e l C y c l e (4QpsDan ar^"^) 442
i i . I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of D i v e r s e Biblical T e x t s
I. O r d i n a n c e s o r C o m m e n t a r i e s on B i b U c a l L a w s
UQj59, 513, 514) 443
2. F l o r i l e g i u m o r M i d r a s h on t h e L a s t D a y s
(4QFlor = 4 Q 1 7 4 ) 445
3- T e s t i m o n i a o r M e s s i a n i c A n t h o l o g y (4QTest
= 4Qi75) . . . . . . . 446
4. T a n h u m i m o r W o r d s o f C o n s o l a t i o n ( 4 Q T a n h
= 4Qi76) 448
5- C a t e n a o r M i d r a s h on t h e P s a l m s ( 4 Q 1 7 7 ) 448
6. T h e M e l c h i z e d e k M i d r a s h ( i i Q M e l c h ) 449
C . Poetry 451
I. T h e H o d a y o t h o r T h a n k s g i v i n g H y m n s
. (iQH) 452
D . Liturgical Texts . . . . . . . 456
I. T h e M a s t e r ' s Blessings (I Q S b ) . . . . 457
2. Blessings a n d C u r s e s . . . . . . 458
3- D a i l y P r a y e r s 459
Contents
4. P r a y e r s for Festivals . . . . . . 460

5. M a r r i a g e R i t u a l (?) (4Q3G2) . . .461
6. T h e A n g e l i c L i t u r g y or S e r e k h S h i r o t h ' o l a t h
ha-Shabbath 462
7. S m a l l L i t u r g i c a l F r a g m e n t s . . . . 464
E. Miscellaneous T e x t s
1. ' H o r o s c o p e s ' (4QCryptic = 4 Q 1 8 6 ) . . . 464
2. C a l e n d a r s . . . . . . . . 466
3 . T h e C o p p e r Scroll ( 3 0 , 1 5 ) 467
§ 3 3 A . J e w i s h L i t e r a t u r e C o m p o s e d in G r e e k
Introduction . . . . . . . . 470
I . T r a n s l a t i o n s of t h e C a n o n i c a l Bible
1. T h e Septuagint 474
2. Aquila a n d Theodotion . . . . . 493
I I . T r a n s l a t i o n s i n t o G r e e k of N o n - S c r i p t u r a l S e m i t i c
Texts 505
I I I . Prose Literature a b o u t the Past . . . . 509
I. D e m e t r i u s . . . . . . . . 513
2. Eupolemus. . . . . . - 5 1 7
3- A r t a p a n u s . . . . . . . - 5 2 1
4- A r i s t e a s t h e E x e g e t e . . . . . . 525
5- C l e o d e m u s o r M a l c h u s . . . . . 526
6. A n A n o n y m o u s W r i t e r ( P s e u d o - E u p o l e m u s ) . 528
7- J a s o n o f C y r e n e a n d t h e S e c o n d B o o k o f
Maccabees . . . . - 5 3 1
8. T h e T h i r d B o o k o f M a c c a b e e s . - 5 3 7
9- P h i l o ' s H i s t o r i c a l W r i t i n g s . . . . . 542
lO. Thallus 543
11 Josephus 545
12. Justus of Tiberias . . . . . . 546
13. Joseph and Asenath . . 546
1 4 . T e s t a m e n t of J o b 552
15- Philo the Elder 555
16. Theophilus . . . . . . . 556
17- L o s t G r e e k H i s t o r i e s W r i t t e n by J e w s . - 5 5 7
IV. Epic Poetry and D r a m a 559
1. Philo t h e E p i c P o e t 559
2. T h e o d o t u s . . . . . . -561
3. E z e k i e l the T r a g i c P o e t 563
V. Philosophy 567
1. T h e W i s d o m of S o l o m o n . . . . 568
2. A r i s t o b u l u s . . . . . . . 579
3- P h i l o 587
4. T h e F o u r t h Book of M a c c a b e e s . . . . 588
Contents
V I . Apologetics . . . . . . 594
i. T h e L i t e r a r y O p p o n e n t s 595
I. M a n e t h o 595
2. M n a s e a s . . . . . . 597
3- A p o U o n i u s M o l o n . . . . 598
4. L y s i m a c h u s . . . . . 600
5- C h a e r e m o n . . . . . 601
6. A p i o n . . . . . . 604
7- O t h e r L i t e r a r y O p p o n e n t s . 607
ii. J e w i s h A p o l o g e t i c s . . . . 609
V I I . Jewish Writings u n d e r Gentile Pseudonyms 617
I. T h e S i b y l l i n e O r a c l e s . 618
2. [ H y s t a s p e s ] . . . . . 654
3- F o r g e d V e r s e s of G r e e k P o e t s 656
4. P s e u d o - H e c a t a e u s . . . . 671
5- P s e u d o - A r i s t e a s . . . . . 677
6. P s e u d o - P h o c y l i d e s . . . . 688
7- P s e u d o - M e n a n d e r . . . . 693
8. D u b i o u s F r a g m e n t s u n d e r G e n t i l e N a m e s for
which a Jewish Origin has been Claimed 695
1. [Letters of Heraclitus] 695
2 . [A L e t t e r of D i o g e n e s ] 696
3. [Hermippus] . 696
4. [ N u m e n i u s ] . 697
5. [Hermes Trismegistus] 698
6. [ G r e e k G h r o n o g r a p h e r s ] . 699
Pseudo-Tages 700
V I I I . T h e O r a t o r C a e c i l i u s of G a l a c t e 701
Volume III, Part 2

(J:i;^B. J e w i s h L i t e r a t u r e of w h i c h the O r i g i n a l L a n g u a g e
is U n c e r t a i n . . . . . . . 705
I. R e v i s i o n a n d C o m p l e t i o n of Biblical L i t e r a t u r e 706
I. T h e G r e e k E z r a o r I E s d r a s 708
2. T h e A d d i t i o n s t o E s t h e r 718
3- T h e A d d i t i o n s t o D a n i e l . 722
4. T h e P r a y e r of M a n a s s e h , 730
5- T h e B o o k o f B a r u c h ( = i B a r u c h ) 734
6. T h e L e t t e r of J e r e m i a h 743
II. Pseudepigraphic Apocalypses . 746
1. 2 ( S l a v o n i c ) E n o c h . 746
2. T h e S y r i a c A p o c a l y p s e of B a r u c h ( = 2 B a r u c h ) 750
xii Contents
I I I . Biblical M i d r a s h 757
1. T h e Life o f A d a m a n d E v e ( A p o c a l y p s e o f
Moses) 757
Appendix: Other Writings about A d a m . . 760
2. T h e T e s t a m e n t of A b r a h a m . . . .761
3. T h e T e s t a m e n t s of t h e T w e l v e P a t r i a r c h s . 767
4. T h e Book of J a n n e s a n d J a m b r e s . . 7 8 1
5. T h e B o o k of E l d a d a n d M o d a d . . . . 783
6. T h e Lives of t h e P r o p h e t s 783
A p p e n d i x : W o r k s o f U n c e r t a i n (Jewish o r C h r i s t i a n )
Origin
1. T h e O d e s of S o l o m o n 787
2. T h e G r e e k A p o c a l y p s e of B a r u c h (3 B a r u c h ) 789
3. A p o c r y p h o n o f Ezekiel . . . . . 793
4. Lost P s e u d e p i g r a p h a . . . . . . 796
1. T h e P r a y e r o f J o s e p h . . . . . 798
2. T h e A p o c a l y p s e o f E l i j a h . . . . 799
3. T h e A p o c a l y p s e o f Z e p h a n i a h 803
5. S m a l l F r a g m e n t s of A n o n y m o u s J e w i s h L i t e r a t u r e
in Christian Texts . 805
§34. T h e Jewish Philosopher Philo . 809
1. Life a n d W o r k s . 813
2. P h i l o ' s P h i l o s o p h i c a l T h o u g h t 871
Index 891
Translators/Revisers*
T h e R e v . C. H . CAVE, E x e t e r U n i v e r s i t y (§31).
Professor G . J . KUIPER, J o h n s o n C . S m i t h U n i v e r s i t y (§33).
Professor A. R . C. LEANEY, N o t t i n g h a m U n i v e r s i t y (§31).
Professor R. M c L . WILSON, S t . A n d r e w s U n i v e r s i t y (§34).
* The figures in parentheses indicate the sections for which the Translators/Revisers
supplied the Editors with a first draft.
Abbreviations
AAAScHung Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae

AAB A b h a n d l u n g e n d e r D e u t s c h e n (Preussischen) A k a d e m i e
der Wissenschaften z u Berlin
AAM A b h a n d l u n g e n d e r Bayerischen A k a d e m i e d e r Wissen
schaften, M i i n c h e n
AArchAcSc Acta Archaeologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungar-
Hung icae
.\fO A r c h i v fur O r i e n t f o r s c h u n g
AlPhOS A n n u a i r e d e I T n s t i t u t d e P h i l o l o g i e et d ' H i s t o i r e
O r i e n t a l e s et S l a v e s
AJA A m e r i c a n J o u r n a l of A r c h a e o l o g y
A) A H A m e r i c a n J o u r n a l of A n c i e n t H i s t o r y
AJPh A m e r i c a n J o u r n a l of P h i l o l o g y
AjS R e v i e w A s s o c i a t i o n for J e w i s h S t u d i e s R e v i e w
AJSL A m e r i c a n J o u r n a l of S e m i t i c L a n g u a g e s a n d L i t e r a t u r e s
AjTh A m e r i c a n J o u r n a l of T h e o l o g y
ALGHJ Arbeiten zur Literatur und Geschichte des hellenistischen
Judentums
ALU O S A n n u a l of L e e d s U n i v e r s i t y O r i e n t a l S o c i e t y
ANET J . B. P r i t c h a r d ( e d . ) . Ancient Jiear Eastern Texts Relating to
the Old Testament (1969)
AiiglThR Anglican Theological Review
ANRW H . T e m p o r i n i ( e d . ) , Aufstieg und JViedergang der romischen
Welt
A I' A. Cowley, Aramaic Papyri of the Fifth Century B.C.
(1923)
M'AT E . K a u t z s c h ( e d . ) . Die Apokryphen undPseudepigraphen des
Alten Testaments (1900)
\ !•() E . S a c h a u , Aramdische Papyrus und Ostraka aus einer Militar-
Kolonie zu Elephantine ( 1 9 1 1 )
\I'()T R . H . C h a r l e s , Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old
Testament I - H ( 1 9 1 2 - 1 3 )
\K\V A r c h i v fiir R e l i g i o n s w i s s e n s c h a f t
\S Anatolian Studies
XIV Abbreviations
ASTI A n n u a l of t h e S w e d i s h T h e o l o g i c a l I n s t i t u t e
Ath. Mitt. M i t t e i l u n g e n des D e u t s c h e n A r c h a o l o g i s c h e n I n s t i t u t s ,
Athenische Abteilung
AWH A k a d e m i e d e r Wissenschaften, Heidelberg
BA Biblical Archaeologist
BAAJ J . J . C o U i n s , Between Athens and Jerusalem (1983)
BAG Bulletino di Archeologia Cristiana
BAR British Archaeological Reports
BASOR B u l l e t i n of t h e A m e r i c a n S c h o o l s of O r i e n t a l R e s e a r c h
BASP B u l l e t i n of t h e A m e r i c a n S o c i e t y of P a p y r o l o g i s t s
BAW Bayerische Akademie d e r Wissenschaften
BBB B o n n e r Biblische B e i t r a g e
BCH Bulletin de Correspondance Hellenique
BE Bulletin fipigraphique, in R E G
BGU Aegyptische Urkunden aus den Koeniglichen (Staatlichen)
Museen zu Berlin, Griechische Urkunden
Bibl Biblica
BIFAO Bulletin de ITnstitut franâis d'archeologie orientale
BIOSCS B u l l e t i n of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l O r g a n i z a t i o n for S e p t u a g i n t
and Cognate Studies
BJPES B u l l e t i n of t h e J e w i s h P a l e s t i n e E x p l o r a t i o n Society
BJRL B u l l e t i n of t h e J o h n R y l a n d s L i b r a r y
BL British Library
BMC Catalogue of the Greek Coins in the British Museum
BO Bibliotheca Orientalis
BP E. G. Kraeling, The Brooklyn Museum Aramaic Papyri
(1953)
BSAA B u l l e t i n d e la Societe d ' A r c h e o l o g i e d ' A l e x a n d r i e
BSOAS B u l l e t i n of t h e S c h o o l of O r i e n t a l a n d African S t u d i e s
Bull. a r c h . Bulletin Archeologique d u C o m i t e des Travaux
H i s t o r i q u e s et Scientifiques
BWA(N)T Beitrage z u r Wissenschaft v o m Alten ( u n d N e u e n )
Testament
Byz. Z B y z a n t i n i s c h e Zeitschrift
BZ Biblische Zeitschrift
BZAW Beihefte z u r Zeitschrift fur d i e A l t t e s t a m e n t l i c h e
Wissenschaft
BZNW Beihefte z u r Zeitschrift fiir d i e N e u t e s t a m e n t l i c h e
Wissenschaft
CBCi Catholic Biblical Q u a r t e r l y
CCAGr Catalogus Codicum Astrologorum Graecorum
CCAR C e n t r a l C o n f e r e n c e o f the A m e r i c a n R a b b i s
CCL C o r p u s C h r i s t i a n o r u m , series L a t i n a
CE Chronique d'Egypte
Abbreviations xv
CERP A . H . M . J o n e s , Cities of the Eastern Roman Provinces

(^1971)
CG P . E. K a h l e , The Cairo Geniza (21959)
CIG Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum
CIH Corpus Inscriptionum Hebraicarum
CIHJ A . S c h e i b e r , Corpus Inscriptionum Hungariae Judaicarum
(i960)
CIJ J . B. F r e y , Corpus Inscriptionum ludaicarum I—II ( 1 9 3 9 ,
195O
GIL Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum
CIRB I . S t r u v e , Corpus Inscriptionum Regni Bosporani (1965)
GIS Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum
GJZC G . L u e d e r i t z , Corpus jUdischer êugnisse aus der Cyrenaika
(1983)
GNRS C e n t r e N a t i o n a l d e la R e c h e r c h e S c i e n t i f i q u e
GPh Classical Philology
GPJ V . T c h e r i k o v e r , A . F u k s , M . S t e r n , Corpus Papyrorum
Judaicarum I - I I I ( 1 9 5 7 - 6 4 )
GPR C . Wessely et al., Corpus Papyrorum Raineri
GQ Classical Q u a r t e r l y
GRAI C o m p t e s - r e n d u s d e r A c a d e m i e des I n s c r i p t i o n s et Belles-
lettres
GSCO Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium
GSEL Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum
GSHB Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae
G-W L . C o h n , P. W e n d l a n d a n d S . R e i t e r , Philonis opera quae
supersunt
DAC(L) Dictionnaire d'Archeologie Chretienne et de Liturgie
DB Dictionnaire de la Bible
DBS Dictionnaire de la Bible, Supplement
DCB Dictionary of Christian Biography
DF B . Lifshitz, Donateurs et fondateurs dans les synagogues juives
(1967)
DJD Discoveries in the Judaean Desert
DOP Dumbarton Oaks Papers
DSS G . V e r m e s , The Dead Sea Scrolls: Qumran in Perspective
( 1 9 7 7 , 1982)
DSSE G . V e r m e s , The Dead Sea Scrolls in English (1962, ^ 1 9 7 5 )
DThC Dictionnaire de la Thiologie Catholique
DWA Denkschriften der Wiener Akademie
EB E s t u d i o s Biblicos
EE A . D u p o n t - S o m m e r , Les ecrits esseniens decouverts pres de la
Mer Morte ( 1 9 5 9 , ^1964)
EHR E t u d e s sur I ' H i s t o i r e d e s R e l i g i o n s
XVI Abbreviations
EJ Encyclopaedia Judaica
ESJL B . Z. W a c h o l d e r , Eupolemus: A Study of Judaeo-Greek
Literature ( 1 9 7 4 )
EThL Ephemerides Theologicae Lovanienses
EvTh Evangelische Theologie
FGrH F . J a c o b y , Die Fragmente der griechischen Historiker
FHG I . M i i l l e r , Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum
FHJA G . R . H o U a d a y , Fragments from Hellenistic Jewish Authors,
I: Historians (1983)
FIR A S. R i c c o b o n o , Fontes luris Romani Anteiustiniani
FJB Frankfurter Judaistische Beitrage
FPG A . - M . D e n i s , Fragmenta Pseudepigraphorum quae supersunt
Graeca (1970)
FRLANT Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen
Testaments
GAQ, J . A . F i t z m y e r , The Genesis Apocryphon of Qumran Cave L A
Commentary (1966, ^ 1 9 7 1 )
GCS Die Griechischen Christlichen Schriftsteller der ersten drei
Jahrhunderte
GJV E . Schiirer, Geschichte desjiidischen Volkes im êitalter Jesu
Christi
GLAJJ M . S t e r n , Greek and Latin Authors on Jews and Judaism I - 1 1 1
(1974-84)
GRBS Greek, R o m a n a n d B y z a n t i n e Studies
HDB Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible
Hell. L . R o b e r t , Hellenica I - X I I I ( 1 9 4 0 - 6 5 )
HERE Hastings' Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics
HJ Historisches J a h r b u c h
HSCPh H a r v a r d S t u d i e s i n Classical Philology
HThR H a r v a r d Theological Review
HUCA H e b r e w U n i o n College A n n u a l
HZ H i s t o r i s c h e Zeitschrift
IBM G . T . N e w t o n et al. The Collection of Ancient Greek
Inscriptions in the British Museum
ICC International Critical Commentary
ID Inscriptions de Dilos
IDB The Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible
IDBS The Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible, Supplementary Volume
lEJ Israel Exploration J o u r n a l
IG Inscriptiones Graecae
I G Bulg Inscriptiones Graecae in Bulgaria Repertae
IGLS Inscriptions grecques et latines de la Syrie
IGR R . C a g n a t et al., Inscriptiones Graecae ad Res Romanas
Pertinentes
Abbreviations xvii
IGUR Inscriptiones Graecae Urbis Romae

IK Inschriften griechischer Stddte aus Kleinasien
ILAlg Inscriptions latines de I'Algerie
ILChV Inscriptiones Latinae Christianae Veteres
ILS Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae
Ins. Cret. Inscriptiones Creticae
lOSCS I n t e r n a t i o n a l O r g a n i z a t i o n for S e p t u a g i n t a n d C o g n a t e
Studies
lOSPE I. L a t y s c h e v , Inscriptiones Antiquae Orae Septentrionalis Ponti
Euxini Graecae et Latinae
lOTG H . B . S w e t e a n d R . O t t l e y , Introduction to the Old Testament
in Greek (1920)
IPG AT A . - M . D e n i s , Introduction aux pseudepigraphes grecs d'Ancien
Testament (1970)
1st. M i t t . Mitteilungen des D e u t s c h e n Archaologischen Instit' t s
Istanbuler Abteilung
J AC J a h r b u c h fiir A n t i k e u n d C h r i s t e n t u r n
JAOS J o u r n a l of t h e A m e r i c a n O r i e n t a l S o c i e t y
JBL J o u r n a l of BibUcal L i t e r a t u r e
JBR J o u r n a l of B i b l e a n d R e l i g i o n
JDAI J a h r b u c h des D e u t s c h e n A r c h a o l o g i s c h e n I n s t i t u t s
JE The Jewish Encyclopedia
JEA J o u r n a l of E g y p t i a n A r c h a e o l o g y
JHS J o u r n a l of H e l l e n i c S t u d i e s
JIH A. Scheiber (ed.), Jewish Inscriptions in Hungary
(1983)
JJP J o u r n a l of J u r i s t i c P a p y r o l o g y
JJS J o u r n a l of J e w i s h S t u d i e s
JLBBM G . W . E . N i c k e l s b u r g , Jewish Literature between the Bible and
the Mishnah ( 1 9 8 1 )
JNES J o u r n a l of N e a r E a s t e r n S t u d i e s
JOAI J a h r b u c h des O s t e r r e i c h i s c h e n A r c h a o l o g i s c h e n I n s t i t u t s
JPFC S. Safrai a n d M . S t e r n ( e d s . ) . The Jewish People in the First
Century I - I I ( 1 9 7 4 - 7 6 )
JPOS J o u r n a l of t h e P a l e s t i n e O r i e n t a l S o c i e t y
JPTh J a h r b i i c h e r fiir P r o t e s t a n t i s c h e T h e o l o g i e
JQR Jewish Quarterly Review
JRAS J o u r n a l of t h e R o y a l A s i a t i c S o c i e t y
JRS J o u r n a l of R o m a n S t u d i e s
}S J o u r n a l des S a v a n t s
JSHRZ JUdische Schriften aus hellenistischer und romischer êit
JSJ J o u r n a l for t h e S t u d y o f J u d a i s m
}SS(t) J o u r n a l of S e m i t i c S t u d i e s
JThSt J o u r n a l of T h e o l o g i c a l S t u d i e s
xviii Abbreviations
JWSTP M . E. S t o n e ( e d . ) , Jewish Writings of the Second Temple

Period (1984)
JZWL J i i d i s c h e Zeitschrift fur Wissenschaft u n d L e b e n
KAI H . D o n n e r a n d W . R o l l i g , Kanaandische und Aramdische
Inschriften I - I I (^ 1 9 7 1 - 6 )
LASBF L i b e r A n n u u s S t u d i i Biblici F r a n c i s c a n i
LThK L e x i k o n fiir T h e o l o g i e u n d K i r c h e
MAMA Monumenta Asiae Minoris Antiqua
MDAI M i t t e i l u n g e n des D e u t s c h e n A r c h a o l o g i s c h e n I n s t i t u t s
MEFR M e l a n g e s d e I'ficole f r a n ^ a i s e d e R o m e
MGH Monumenta Germaniae Historica
MGWJ M o n a t s s c h r i f t fiir G e s c h i c h t e u n d W i s s e n s c h a f t d e s
Judentums
MPAT J . A. F i t z m y e r a n d D . J . H a r r i n g t o n , A Manual oj
Palestinian Aramaic Texts (1978)
MQ, L . M o r a l d i , I manoscritti di Qumran ( 1 9 7 1 )
MRR T . R . S . B r o u g h t o n , Magistrates of the Roman Republic I - I I
MT Masoretic Text
MUSJ M e l a n g e s d e I ' U n i v e r s i t e St. J o s e p h
NA(W)G N a c h r i c h t e n der A k a d e m i e d e r Wissenschaften in
Gottingen
NC Numismatic Chronicle
NedThT N e d e r l a n d s T h e o l o g i s c h e Tijdschrift
NESE N e u e E p h e m e r i s fiir d i e S e m i t i s c h e E p i g r a p h i k
NGGW N a c h r i c h t e n v o n d e r ( K g l . ) Gesellschaft d e r W i s s e n
schaften z u G o t t i n g e n
N o t . d . Sc. N o t i z i e degli S c a v i
NRTh Nouvelle Revue Theologique
NT Novum Testamentum
NTS(t) New Testament Studies
NTT N o r s k T e o l o g i s k Tidsskrift
OAW Osterreichische A k a d e m i e d e r Wissenschaften
OGIS W . D i t t e n b e r g e r , Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae I - I I
OLZ Orientalische Literaturzeitung
OTP J . H . C h a r i e s w o r t h , Old Testament Pseudepigrapha I ( 1 9 8 3 )
PA P . M . E r a s e r , Ptolemaic Alexandria I - I I I ( 1 9 7 2 )
PAAJR P r o c e e d i n g s of t h e A m e r i c a n A c a d e m y for J e w i s h
Research
PBJS G . V e r m e s , Post-Biblical Jewish Studies
PBSR P a p e r s of t h e British S c h o o l a t R o m e
PCPhS P r o c e e d i n g s of t h e C a m b r i d g e P h i l o l o g i c a l S o c i e t y
PEFQSt Palestine Exploration F u n d , Quarterly Statement
PEQ Palestine Exploration Quarterly
PG J - - P - M i g n e , Patrum Graecorum Cursus Completus
Abbreviations XIX
PGM K . P r e i s e n d a n z , Papyri Graecae Magicae
P. H i b . B. P . Grenfell a n d A. S . H u n t , The Hibeh Papyri I
(1906)
PIR Prosopographia Imperii Romani
PL J - P - M i g n e , Patrum Latinorum Cursus Completus
PMRS J . H . C h a r i e s w o r t h , The Pseudepigrapha and Modern
Research with a Supplement ( 1 9 8 1 )
PRE Realencyclopddie JUr Protestantische Theologie und Kirche
PSBA P r o c e e d i n g s of t h e S o c i e t y of B i b l i c a l A r c h a e o l o g y
PVTG Pseudepigrapha Veteris Testamenti Graeca
QAL Q u a d e r n i di A r c h e o l o g i a della L i b i a
Q-E J . M a i e r a n d K . S c h u b e r t , Die Qumran-Essener ( 1 9 7 3 )
RA Revue Archeologique
RAC Reallexikon fiir Antike und Christentum
RB Revue Bibhque
RBibIt Rivista Biblica Italiana
RBT Realencyclopddie fiir Bibel und Talmud
RE P a u l y - W i s s o w a , Realencyclopddie der classischen Altertums-
wissenschaft
REA R e v u e d e s fitudes A n c i e n n e s
REG Revue des Etudes Grecques
REJ Revue des Etudes Juives
REtSl R e v u e des Etudes Slaves
RGG Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart
RhM Rheinisches M u s e u m
RHP(h)R R e v u e d ' H i s t o i r e et d e P h i l o s o p h i e R e l i g i e u s e s
RHR R e v u e d e I ' H i s t o i r e des R e l i g i o n s
RIU L. B a r k o c z i a n d A . M o c s y , Die romischen Inschriften
Ungarns
R i v . fil. R i v i s t a d i filologia e d ' i s t r u z i o n e p u b b l i c a
RN Revue Numismatique
RPh R e v u e d e Philologie
RQ Revue de Qumran
RQCA R o m i s c h e Q u a r t a l s c h r i f t fiir C h r i s t l i c h e A l t e r t u m s k u n d e
RS(c)R Recherches d e Science Religieuse
RSem Revue semitique
RSPhTh R e v u e d e s sciences p h i l o s o p h i q u e s e t t h e o l o g i q u e s
RS(t)0(r) Rivista degli Studi Orientali
RThLouv R e v u e Theologique de L o u v a i n
RThPhil R e v u e d e T h e o l o g i e et d e P h i l o s o p h i e
SAB S i t z u n g s b e r i c h t e d e r D e u t s c h e n A k a d e m i e d e r Wissen
s c h a f t e n zu B e r l i n
SAM S i t z u n g s b e r i c h t e d e r B a y e r i s c h e n A k a d e m i e d e r Wissen
schaften
XX Abbreviations
SAW Sitzungsberichte der Osterreichischen Akademie der

Wissenschaften
SB F . Preisigke, Sammelbuch griechischer Urkunden aus Agypten
SBFLA Studii Bibhci Franciscani Liber A n n u u s
SBL S o c i e t y of Biblical L i t e r a t u r e
SC Sources Chretiennes
SCI S c r i p t a Classica I s r a e l i c a
SCO S t u d i Classici e O r i e n t a l i
SEG Supplementum Epigraphicum Graecum
SEHHW M . Rostovtzeff, Social and Economic History of the Hellenistic
World
SIG W . D i t t e n b e r g e r , Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum^
SMS S. J e l l i c o e , The Septuagint and Modern Study (1968)
SNTS(MS) S t u d i o r u m Novi T e s t a m e n t i Societas (Monograph
Series)
SP Studia Patristica
ST Studi e Testi
STJ G . V e r m e s , Scripture and Tradition in Judaism ( 1 9 6 1 , ^ 1 9 7 3 )
Str.-B. H . L. S t r a c k a n d P. B i l l e r b e c k , Kommentar zum Neuen
Testament aus Talmud und Midrasch ( 1 9 2 4 - 2 8 )
StTh Studia Theologica
SVT S u p p l e m e n t s to V e t u s T e s t a m e n t u m
TAM Tituli Asiae Minoris
TAPhA T r a n s a c t i o n s of t h e A m e r i c a n Philological A s s o c i a t i o n
TDNT Theological Dictionary of the New Testament
T h e o l . Bl. Theologische Blatter
ThLZ Theologische Literaturzeitung
ThQ Theologische Quartalschrift
ThR Theologische Revue
ThStKr Theologische Studien u n d Kritiken
ThStud Theological Studies
ThWNT Theologisches Worterbuch zum Neuen Testament
ThZ T h e o l o g i s c h e Zeitschrift
TLS Times Literary Supplement
T Q J . C a r m i g n a c , Les textes de Qumrdn I - I I ( 1 9 6 1 - 6 3 )
TQHD E. L o h s e , Die Texte von Qumran hebrdisch und deutsch (1964,
TS Y. Y a d i n , The Temple Scroll I - I I (1983)

TTM J . M a i e r , Die Texte vom Toten Meer I - I I (i960)
TU Texte und Untersuchungen
VC Vigiliae C h r i s t i a n a e
VDI V e s t n i k D r e v n e Istorii
VT Vetus Testamentum
VTS Vetus Testamentum, Supplement
Abbreviations XXI
WUNT Wissenschaftliche U n t e r s u c h u n g e n z u m N e u e n Testa

ment
WZKM W i e n e r Zeitschrift z u r K u n d e d e s M o r g e n l a n d e s
YCS Y a l e Classical S t u d i e s
ZAW Zeitschrift far d i e A l t t e s t a m e n t l i c h e W i s s e n s c h a f t
ZDPV Zeitschrift des D e u t s c h e n P a l a s t i n a - V e r e i n s
ZKTh Zeitschrift fiir K a t h o l i s c h e T h e o l o g i e
ZNW Zeitschrift fiir d i e N e u t e s t a m e n t l i c h e W i s s e n s c h a f t
ZPE Zeitschrift fiir P a p y r o l o g i e und E p i g r a p h i k
ZRGG Zeitschrift fiir R e l i g i o n s - u n d G e i s t e s g e s c h i c h t e
ZSS Zeitschrift d e r S a v i g n y - S t i f t u n g : R o m a n i s t i s c h e A b t e i l
ung
ZTK Zeitschrift fiir T h e o l o g i e u n d K i r c h e
ZWTh Zeitschrift fiir W i s s e n s c h a f t l i c h e T h e o l o g i e
§ 31. J U D A I S M IN T H E D I A S P O R A :
GENTILES AND JUDAISM
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pp. 292-302.
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Bamberger, B. J., Proselytism in the Talmudic Period (1939; ^ 1968).
Braude, W . G., Jewish Proselytizing in the First Five Centuries of the Common Era. The Age of the
Tannaim and Amoraim (1940).
Simon, M . , Verus Israel: itude sur les relations entre Chritiens et Juifs dans I'Empire romain
r/55--^5/'(1948;''1964) •
Feldman, L. H . , '"Jewish Sympathisers" in Classical Literature and Inscriptions',
TAPhA 81 (1950), pp. 200-8.
Tcherikover, V. A., and Fuks, A., Corpus Papyrorum Judaicarum I-III (1957-64).
2 §31 - Judaism in the Diaspora
Scheiber, A., Corpus Inscriptionum Hungariae ludaicarum (i960); rev. Eng. e d . , Jewish
Inscriptions in Hungary (1983).
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Applebaum (1961), pp. 269-377.
Kuhn, K. G., Stegemann, H., 'Proselyten', R E Suppl. IX (1962), cols. 1248-83.
Neusner, J . , A History of the Jews in Babylonia I (1965 ; ^1969), pp. 1-67.
Lifshitz, B., Donateurs et fondateurs dans les synagogues juives. Repertoire des dedicaces grecques
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Stern, M., 'The Jewish Diaspora', J P F C I (1974), p p . 117-83.
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Kasher, A . , The Jews in Hellenistic and Roman Egypt (1978) (Hebrew).
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since Sukenik', A N R W II.19 (1979), pp. 477-510.
Rabello, A. M., 'The Legal Condition of the Jews in the Roman Empire', A N R W II.13
(1980), pp. 662-762.
G u t m a n n , J . (cd.), Ancient Synagogues: The State of Research (1981).
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Paul, P., Le mondejuifd. I'heure de Jisus (1981).
Saulnier, C , 'Lois romaines sur les Juifs selon Flavius Josephe', R B 88 (1981), pp. 161-98.
Kraabel, A. T., 'The Disappearance of the "God-fearers'", Numen 28 (1981), pp. 113—26.
Kraabel, A. T., 'The Roman Diaspora: Six Questionable Assumptions', Essays in Honour
of T. Yadin, ed. Vermes, G., and Neusner, J. = JJS 3 3 (1982), pp. 445-64.
Brooten, B., Women Leaders in the Aruient Synagogue (Brown Judaic Studies X X X V I , 1982).
Oppenheimer, A . (with Isaac, B., and Lecker, M.), Babylonia Judaica in the Talmudic Period
[Beihefte zum Tubinger Atlas des Vorderen Orients, Reihe B, Geisteswissenschaften,
X L V I I , 1983).
Collins, J . J., Between Athens and Jerusalem: Jewish Identity in the Hellenistic Diaspora (1983).
Solin, H . , 'Juden und Syren im westlichen Teil der romischen Welt. Eine ethnisch-
demographische Studie mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung der sprachlichen
Zustande', A N R W II.29.2 (1983), pp. 587-789, 1222-49.
Hanfmann, G. M . A., Sardis from Prehistoric to Roman Times (1983), ch. 9 , 'The Synagogue
and the Jewish Community' (by A. R. Seager and A. T. Kraabel).
/. Geographical Survey 3
Hengel, M., 'Messianische Hoffnung und polidscher "Radikalismus" i n der "jiidisch-

hellenistischen Diaspora". Zur Frage der Voraussetzungen desjiidischen Aufstandes
unter Trajan 115-117 n. Chr.', Hellhoim, D. (ed.), Apocalypticism in the Mediterranean
World and the Near East (1983), pp. 6 5 5 - 8 6 .
Luederitz, G., Corpus judischer .^ca^nijje aus der Cyrenaika. Mit einem Anhang von J. M.
Reynolds (Beih. Tubinger Atlas Vord. Or., Reihe B, LIII, 1983).
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Antiquity (1983).
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The Persian Period (1984), ch. 13B, 'The Babylonian Captivity' (by E. J. Bickerman);
13D, 'The Jews in Egypt' (by B. Porten).
Rajak, T., 'Was there a Roman Charter for the Jews ?', JRS 74 (1984), p p . 107-23.
I. D i a s p o r a : Geographical Survey
T h e h i s t o r y of J u d a i s m i n t h e t i m e o f J e s u s C h r i s t is n o t l i m i t e d to t h e
n a r r o w c o n f i n e s of t h e H o l y L a n d . J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s o f g r e a t e r o r
lesser e x t e n t a n d significance h a d s e t t l e d in a l m o s t e v e r y p a r t of t h e
t h e n civilized w o r l d , a n d r e m a i n i n g o n t h e o n e h a n d in l a s t i n g r e l a t i o n
w i t h t h e m o t h e r l a n d a n d , o n t h e o t h e r , in a c t i v e c o n t a c t w i t h t h e
n o n - J e w i s h w o r l d , they w e r e of g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e to t h e i n t e r n a l
d e v e l o p m e n t o f J u d a i s m a s w e l l as t o its influence o n t h e rest of t h e
civilized n a t i o n s . T h e causes o f t h i s d i s p e r s i o n w e r e v a r i o u s . I n t h e
earlier p e r i o d , t h e A s s y r i a n a n d B a b y l o n i a n c o n q u e r o r s h a d forcibly
d e p o r t e d l a r g e masses o f t h e p e o p l e to t h e i r e a s t e r n p r o v i n c e s . T h e
s a m e h a p p e n e d l a t e r , t h o u g h t o a f a r s m a l l e r d e g r e e , a s for e x a m p l e
w h e n P o m p e y c a r r i e d off h u n d r e d s o f J e w s to R o m e a s p r i s o n e r s of w a r .
B u t of g r e a t e r significance i n t h e H e l l e n i s t i c - R o m a n a g e w a s t h e
v o l u n t a r y m i g r a t i o n of J e w i s h settlers i n t o t h e a r e a s b o r d e r i n g o n
P a l e s t i n e , a n d i n d e e d i n t o all t h e m a j o r cities of t h e civilized w o r l d .
These movements must h a v e been specially n u m e r o u s at t h e beginning
of t h e H e l l e n i s t i c e r a . T h e sucessors of A l e x a n d e r t h e G r e a t a n d t h e i r
d e s c e n d a n t s w e r e f r e q u e n t l y i n n e e d of c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r s o f settlers
for t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e i r n e w cities, a n d i m m i g r a n t s t o t h e s e p l a c e s
w e r e often g r a n t e d c i t i z e n s h i p o r p r i v i l e g e s w i t h o u t f u r t h e r a d o .
A t t r a c t e d by such conditions, J e w s in p a r t i c u l a r a p p e a r to h a v e been
p e r s u a d e d t o e m i g r a t e o n a g e n e r o u s s c a l e . Difficult c i r c u m s t a n c e s in
t h e i r o w n l a n d , in p a r t i c u l a r i t s e x p o s e d p o s i t i o n — f o r P a l e s t i n e s e r v e d
as a t h e a t r e o f w a r for e v e r y i m b r o g l i o b e t w e e n S y r i a a n d E g y p t — m a y
h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d t o this. M a n y J e w s t h e r e f o r e m a d e their w a y t o
n e i g h b o u r i n g S y r i a a n d E g y p t , w h e r e , n o t a b l y in t h e c a p i t a l s , A n t i o c h
a n d A l e x a n d r i a , b u t also in o t h e r n e w l y - f o u n d e d H e l l e n i s t i c cities,
specific r i g h t s seem t o h a v e b e e n g r a n t e d to t h e m . T h e y also m o v e d in
4 §3 ^ • Judaism in the Diaspora
l a r g e n u m b e r s i n t o A s i a M i n o r , p a r t i c u l a r l y t o t h e cities of t h e I o n i a n
c o a s t , a n d t o m a n y of t h e m o r e i m p o r t a n t p l a c e s i n t h e G r e e k - s p e a k i n g
p a r t s o f the M e d i t e r r a n e a n a n d t h e B l a c k S e a .
N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e r e a s o n s a d d u c e d for i t , t h e e x t e n t of t h i s J e w i s h
D i a s p o r a c o n t i n u e s to p u z z l e w h e n o n e c o n s i d e r s h o w s m a l l t h e J e w i s h
c o m m u n i t y i n t h e m o t h e r l a n d w a s , e v e n as l a t e as t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e
M a c c a b a e a n p e r i o d . I t scarcely r e a c h e d b e y o n d t h e b o r d e r s o f J u d a e a '
p r o p e r (see v o l . I I , p p . 1 - 1 3 ) . C a n this s m a l l p o p u l a t i o n h a v e p r o v i d e d
s u c h m u l t i t u d e s o f settlers a s a r e f o u n d , a t least as e a r l y a s t h e first
c e n t u r y B.C., t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d ? O r w a s it g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d b y
c o n v e r t s to J u d a i s m in t h e l a s t c e n t u r i e s B.C. ?
A l r e a d y i n t h e fiirst c e n t u r y B.C. (as i t s e e m s ) , t h e S i b y l w a s a b l e t o
d e c l a r e of t h e J e w i s h p e o p l e t h a t e v e r y l a n d a n d e v e r y sea w a s fiiUed
w i t h t h e m . ' I n t h e p r e v i o u s c e n t u r y ( 1 3 9 - 1 3 8 B.C.), t h e R o m a n S e n a t e
issued a c i r c u l a r l e t t e r to t h e kings of E g y p t , S y r i a , P e r g a m u m ,
C a p p a d o c i a a n d P a r t h i a , a n d to m a n y o f t h e a r e a s , cities a n d i s l a n d s o f
t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n , in s u p p o r t of t h e J e w s ( i M a c . 15 -.2'^-^).^ We must
therefore assume that they were a l r e a d y present i n greater o r smaller
n u m b e r s in a l l t h e s e r e g i o n s a n d cities. A s r e g a r d s t h e t i m e o f S u l l a {c.
8 5 B.C.), S t r a b o s a y s t h a t t h e J e w i s h p e o p l e a t t h a t t i m e ' h a d a l r e a d y
m a d e t h e i r w a y i n t o e v e r y city, a n d scarcely a n y p l a c e i n t h e w o r l d c a n
b e f o u n d w h i c h h a s n o t received m e m b e r s o f this r a c e a n d n o t b e e n
c o n q u e r e d b y t h e m ' . ^ J o s e p h u s * a n d Philo^ e x p r e s s t h e m s e l v e s s i m i l a r l y
f r o m t i m e t o t i m e . B u t t h e e x t e n t of t h e J e w i s h d i s p e r s i o n is d e s c r i b e d
b e s t i n the l e t t e r of K i n g A g r i p p a I t o C a l i g u l a r e p o r t e d b y P h i l o .
' J e r u s a l e m ' , i t states, 'is t h e c a p i t a l city, n o t o n l y o f J u d a e a , b u t of m o s t
c o u n t r i e s , b e c a u s e of t h e c o l o n i e s w h i c h it h a s sent o u t a t s u i t a b l e
o p p o r t u n i t i e s i n t o t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g l a n d s o f Egypt, Phoenicia, Syria,
Coele-Cyria, a n d i n t o t h e m o r e d i s t a n t Pamphylia a n d Cilicia, i n t o m o s t
p a r t s o f Asia as far a s Bithynia a n d t h e r e m o t e s t c o r n e r o f Pontus;
1. Or. Sib. iii 271 : irdaa Se yaia aiOev irXi)pi]s (cat irdaa ddXaaaa. For a detailed discussion
of the date of this work, see V . Nikiprowetzky, La troisiime Sibylle (1970), pp. 195-217.
2. For problems about the authenticity o f the letter o f the Roman consul 'Lucius' ( i
Mac. 15:16-21), see vol. I , pp. 194-7. Besides the kings o f Egypt, Syria, Pergamum,
Cappadocia and Parthia, i M a c . 15:22-3 mentions also Sampsame (?), Sparta, Sicyon (in the
Peloponnese), the islands of Delos and Samos, the city o€ Gortyn in Crete, the district o f
Caria with the cities of Myndus, Halicamassus and Cnidus, the islands of Cos and Rhodes, and
the district of Lycia with the city of Phaselis, the district o f Pamphylia with the city of Side,
the Phoenician city of Aradus, and finally Cyprus and Cyrene. The individual districts, cides
and islands mentioned together with the five kingdoms, were more or less independent,
and were listed separately for that reason (see vol. I, pp. 194-5). ^'^^ ^ highly speculative
idendfication of'Sampsame' with Amisus (later Samsun), see Abel ad loc.
3. Strabo a/>. Jos. Ant. xiv 7, 2 (115) = FGrH 91 F 7 = GLAJJ I, no. 105.
4. Jos. B.J. ii 16, 4 (398); vii 3, 3 (43).
5. Philo, In Flaccum 7 (45-6).
likewise i n t o Europe, Tkessaly, Boeotia, Macedonia, Aetolia, Attica, Argus,

Corinth, a n d i n t o m o s t of t h e finest p a r t s o f the Peloponnese. A n d n o t o n l y
is t h e m a i n l a n d full of J e w i s h colonies, b u t also t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t
i s l a n d s : Euboea, Cyprus a n d Crete. A n d I s a y n o t h i n g o f t h e l a n d s b e y o n d
t h e Euphrates. F o r e x c e p t for a v e r y s m a l l p a r t , t h e w h o l e of Babylonia,
a n d t h o s e s a t r a p i e s w h i c h e n c i r c l e t h e fertile l a n d , h a v e J e w i s h
i n h a b i t a n t s . ' ^ Acts also m e n t i o n s J e w s a n d proselytes from Parthia,
Media, Elam a n d Mesopotamia, from Cappadocia, Pontus a n d Asia, Phrygia
a n d Pamphylia, Egypt a n d Cyrenaica, from Rome, Crete a n d Arabia (Acts 2 :
I n Mesopotamia, Media a n d Babylonia lived t h e d e s c e n d a n t s of

m e m b e r s of t h e k i n g d o m of t h e t e n t r i b e s , a n d of t h e k i n g d o m o f J u d a h ,
once d e p o r t e d there b y the Assyrians a n d t h e Babylonians.^ It w a s
a g r e e d i n A n t i q u i t y t h a t t h e ' t e n t r i b e s ' h a d n e v e r r e t u r n e d f r o m exile,^
a n d it w a s still d i s p u t e d a t t h e t i m e of A k i b a w h e t h e r t h e y w o u l d e v e r
d o s o . ' " E v e n t h e r e t u r n o f t h e t r i b e s of J u d a h a n d B e n j a m i n c a n n o t b e
r e g a r d e d as h a v i n g b e e n t o t a l . T h e d e p o r t a t i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y those b y
t h e Assyrians from t h e k i n g d o m o f t h e t e n t r i b e s , t o o k p l a c e a t a t i m e
w h e n t h e religion o f I s r a e l w a s still m u c h m o r e fluid, less c o n s o l i d a t e d
a n d less diflferentiated from p a g a n i s m t h a n it b e c a m e l a t e r . I t is
t h e r e f o r e o p e n to d o u b t h o w far t h e g r e a t e x p a n s i o n of n o r m a t i v e
J u d a i s m in t h e l a t e r p e r i o d is t o b e r e l a t e d t o t h e a n c i e n t d e p o r t a t i o n s .
S o m e s o r t of c o n n e c t i o n is n e v e r t h e l e s s p r o b a b l e . R e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e
h o m e l a n d will h a v e n e v e r b e e n w h o l l y severed. T h e a n c i e n t t r i b a l
c o n f e d e r a t i o n f o r m e d t h e p o i n t of d e p a r t u r e f o r the l a t e r p r o p a g a t i o n of
J u d a i s m . T h i s a t l e a s t a p p f i e s to B a b y l o n i a , w h e r e t h e d e s c e n d a n t s of
t h e tribes of J u d a h a n d B e n j a m i n l i v e d . D o c u m e n t s f r o m B a b y l o n i a in
t h e P e r s i a n p e r i o d , a t a n y r a t e f r o m t h e fifth c e n t u r y , n o w p r o v i d e
s u b s t a n t i a l e v i d e n c e of t h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y still settled t h e r e , a n d
i l l u s t r a t e b o t h t h e i r e x p o s u r e t o foreign influences a n d t h e i r c o n t i n u e d
6. Philo, Legatio 36 (281-2).

7. The words 'lovSaioi re (cai irpoarfXvroi, Acts 2 :io, are probably only in apposition to
'PcDfiatot (see further Haenchen's commentary ad loc). But even if only proselytes or
sympathisers are meant, their existence implies the presence o f Jews in the countries
listed.
8. On the Assyrian dejKjrtations see A. M a l a m a t s.v. 'Exile, Assyrian', EJ V I (1971),
cols. 1034-6, and B. O d e d , Mass Deportations and Deportees in the Neo-Assyrian Empire (1979).
9. Jos. Ant. xi 5 , 2 (133); 4 Ezra 13 :39-47 ; Origen, Epist. ad Africanum 14; Commodian,
Carmen apologet. 9 3 6 - 4 0 / 9 4 3 - 6 (9? tribes are still trans Persidaflumine clausi).
10. mSanh. x 3 ^ n ; 'The ten tribes shall not return, for it is written o f them (Dt.
29 :28): "He shall cast them into another land, a s at this day." As this day passes and
does not return, so shall they pass and not return.' So R. Akiba. But R . Eliezer says: 'As
the day becomes dark and again light, so for the ten tribes for whom it became dark, it
shall also one d a y become again light.' Cf o n this above, vol. II, pp. 5 3 0 - 1 .
6 § 3 1 . Judaism in the Diaspora
a t t a c h m e n t to t h e G o d of Israel." Moreover, further dispersals are

reported b y late sources to h a v e t a k e n place d u r i n g t h e Persian p e r i o d .
A c c o r d i n g to E u s e b i u s a n d l a t e r c h r o n i c l e r s , A r t a x e r x e s O c h u s , d u r i n g
one of h i s E g y p t i a n campaigns, perhaps that of 3 4 5 - 3 4 3 B . C . , t o o k
J e w i s h p r i s o n e r s a n d s e t t l e d t h e m in H y r c a n i a b y t h e C a s p i a n S e a , a n d
p e r h a p s a l s o i n B a b y l o n i a . " * F a u s t u s of B y z a n t i u m also a l l e g e s that
Tigranes, during his d o m i n a t i o n of Syria (83-69 B.c, see vol. I,
pp. 1 3 4 - 6 ) , transported a large n u m b e r o f J e w s to A r m e n i a (iv 5 5 ,
French translation in F H G V, p.275). V o l u n t a r y emigration, moreover,
will n o d o u b t h a v e s e r v e d to i n c r e a s e t h e s c a l e of J e w i s h settlement
11. For Jews in Babylonia under the Persians, see e.g., S. Daiches, The Jews in Babylonia
at the Time of Ezra and Nehemiah (1910) ; E. Klamroth, Die judischen Exulanten in Babylonien
(1912); E. EbeUng, Aus dem Leben der judischen Exulanten in Babylon (1914); D. Sidersky,
'L'onomastique hebraique des tablettes de Nippur', REJ 78 (1929), p p . 177-99; ^ .
Meissner, 'Die Achameniden-Konige und das Judentum', AAB, Ph.-hist. Kl. (1938), p p .
6 - 2 6 ; G. Cardascia, Les archives de Murald (1951); B. Porten, s.v. 'Exile, Babylonian', EJ
VI (1971), cols. 1036-41 ; M. D . Coogan, 'Life in the Diaspora: Jews at Nippur in the
Fifth Century B.C.', BA 37 (1974), p p . 6 - 1 2 ; idem. West Semitic Personal Names in the
Muraid Documents ( 1 9 7 6 ) ; R. Zadok, The Jews in Babylonia in the Chaldaean and Achaemenian
Periods in the Light of the Babylonian Sources (1976; 1 9 7 9 ) ; On West Semites in Babylonia during
the Chaldaean and Achaemenian Periods: An Onomastic Study ( 1 9 7 7 ) ; E . J. Bickerman, 'The
Babylonian Captivity', in W . D. Davies and L. Finkelstein (eds.), The Cambridge History of
Judaism I (1984), pp. 342-58.
12. Euseb. Chron., ed. A. Schoene, II, p. 112 ad ann. Abr. 1657 (according to the
Armenian text): 'Ochus partem aliquam de Romanis Judaeisque cepit et habitare fecit i n
Hyrcania juxta mare Cazbium'. C f Jerome, e d . R. Helm (1956), p. 121 ; Syncellus, e d .
Dindorf, I, p . 4 8 6 ; Orosius iii 7. Those who follow Eusebius merely copy this. In the
Armenian translation, the text is distorted through the addition of 'de Romanis';
Syncellus adds TOUS S< iv Ba^vXwvi. This may receive some support from Hccatacus o f
Abdera, quoted by Jos. C. Ap. i 194 (GLAJJ I, no. 12), who states that 'many myriads' o f
Jews had been deported t o Babylonia by the Persians. For a possible historical context
and for archaeological evidence of destruction which might be associated with such
deportations, see D . Barag, 'The Effects of the Tennes Rebellion o n Palestine', B A S O R
183 (1966), pp. 6-12. The events narrated in Josephus, Ant. xi 7, i (297-301) m a y have
occurred, n o t in the time of Artaxerxes III Ochus, but eariier, under Artaxerxes I I
Mnemon (404-358 B.C.), since the personalities named there—the high priest Yohanan
and the governor Bagoas— can reasonably be identified with those who, according to a n
Aramaic papyrus originally published b y Sachau, were in office under Darius II (424—4
B.C.). Sec E. Sachau, Drei aramdische Papyrusurkunden (1907), pp. 16 ff. = A. Cowley,
Aramaic Papyri, nos. 30-1 = P. Grclot, Documents aramiens, n o . 102. Tov aXXov 'Apraîpôv
in the text ofJosephus would thus be confirmed. But for a different sequence, based on the
Samaria papyri, sec F. M . Cross, 'A Reconstruction of the Judean Restoration', JBL 9 4
(1975). PP- 3 - 1 8 .
Cf. on Artaxerxes and the Jews in general, W . Judeich, Kleinasiatische Studien,
Untersuchungen zurgriechisch-persischen Geschichte des IV. Jahrhunderts V. Chr. (1892), p p . 170-6,
and i n RE I I , cols. 1318 ff. s.v. 'Artaxerxes'; G. Holscher, Paldstina in derpersischen und
hellenistischen (1903), p p . 4 6 - 5 0 ; J. Bright, History of Israel (^1980), pp. 410-14.
T h e confused notice in Solinus concerning the conquest of Jericho is usually related t o
the war of Artaxerxes Ochus, Solin. 35 4 : 'ludaeae caput fuit Hierosolyma, sed excisa est.
Succcssit Hierichus: et haec desivit, Artaxerxis bello subacta.'
beyond the Euphrates. As a resuk, the Jewish p o p u l a d o n there during

the Roman period is r e p o r t e d as numbering tens of thousands.'^
Because they h v e d near the e a s t e r n frontier o f the R o m a n Empire—
u n t i l t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y A.D., as s u b j e c t s of t h e P a r t h i a n s , a n d later
(those settled in N. Mesopotamia) as inhabitants of the Roman
p r o v i n c e of M e s o p o t a m i a , w h i c h w a s d i s p u t e d first b y P a r t h i a a n d t h e n
b y S a s s a n i d P e r s i a ' " ^ — t h e i r a t t i t u d e w a s of s t r a t e g i c c o n c e r n to the
Roman Empire. For instance, the legate of Syria, P. Petronius,
r e g a r d e d it as h a z a r d o u s i n A.D. 40 t o p r o v o k e t h e m to e n m i t y vis-a-vis
Rome.'^ During the revolt o f A.D. 66—73-4 t h e rebels in Palestine
a t t e m p t e d to a r o u s e s u c h hostility a m o n g t h e i r co-religionists beyond
t h e E u p h r a t e s . ' ^ I t was a s o u r c e o f d a n g e r f o r T r a j a n , i n his a d v a n c e
13. Jos. Ant. xi 5, 2 ( 1 3 3 ) : Ai hi 8€«o ^vXal nepav eiVtv Ewl>pa.Tov icas Sevpo, nvpidSfs
airetpoi Kai api6fu2> yvcoodrjvai firj Swafjievai,. Cf. Ant. xv 2 , 2 (14) and 3 , i (39). O n the
history of Babylonian Jewry in the Parthian period, cf. especially also Ant. xviii 9
(310-73): in the reign of Tiberius, in the region of Nehardea on the Euphrates, two
brothers named Asinaus and Anilaus founded a Jewish robber-state which, owing to the
weakness of the Parthian king, held firm for several decades, namely for fifteen years
during the Hfetime of Asinaus {Ant. xviii 9, 4 (330)), and after his death, for a further long
period under Anilaus. For comments see also A. v o n Gutschmid, Kl. Schr. iii, pp. 5 3 - 5 .
Note also xvii 2, 1-2 ( 2 3 - 8 ) ; C. Ap. i 7 (33).
I n the Mishnah, account is taken from time to time o f the Babylonian and Median
Jews. See mShek. 3:4 (half-shekel tax from Babylon and Media) ; mHal. 4:11 (first fruits
not accepted from Babylon); mYom. 6 : 4 (Babylonians plucked the hair of the scapegoat
on the D a y of Atonement); mMen. 11:7 (Babylonian priests); mB.M. 7:9 (Yaddua the
Babylonian); mShab. 6:6 (Median Jewesses); mB.K. 9:5 = mB.M. 4 : 7 (on the
obligadon to restore stolen goods even to Media) ; mShab. 2 : 1 , mNaz. 5:4, mB.B. 5:2
(Nahum the Median). That Jews lived in Media is attested also by the book of Tobit
(Tob. 1:14, 3:7 etc.).
O n the subject in general, see S. Funk, Die Juden in Babylonien (1908); S. Krauss, s.v.
'Babylonia', JE I I (1902), pp. 403-15 ; J. Engel, Die Juden in Babylonien unter den persischen
Konigen wdhrend des zweiten Tempels bis nach dem barkochbaischen Kriege, (Diss. Bern, 1907); J.
Juster, Les Juifs dans I'empire romain I (1914), pp. 1 9 9 - 2 0 3 ; G. F. Moore, Judaism in the first
centuries of ^ Christian Era \ ( 1 9 2 7 ) , p p . i o 2 - 6 ; J . N e w m a n , The Agricultural Life of the Jews
in Babylonia ( 1 9 3 2 ) ; J. Neusner, A History of the Jews in Babylonia I : The Parthian Period
(1965; 1969); I I : The Early Sasanian Period ( 1 9 6 6 ) ; I I I : From Shapur I to Shapur H
(1968); I V : The Age of Shapur U (1969); V : The Later Sasanian Times (1970). Note also
the important discussion by G. Widengren, 'The Status of the Jews in the Sassanian
Empire', Iranica Antiqua i (1961), p p . 117-62. S e e now the major work of reference by
A. Oppenheimer, Babylonia Judaica in the Talmudic Period (1983).
14. For relations between R o m e a n d Parthia, see W. C . Debevoise, A Political History of
Parthia (1938); M . G. A . BertineUi, 'I Romani oltre I'Euphrate nel II sec. d. c.', A N R W
I X . I (1976), pp. 3 - 4 5 ; Cambridge History of Iran I I I . i (1983), pp. 2 1 - 9 9 ; R. N . Frye, The
History of Ancient Iran (1984), p p . 233—44.
15. Philo, Legatio 31 (216-17). For all these issues, see J . Neusner, 'The Jews East o f the
Euphrates and the Roman Empire I . ist-3rd Centuries a.D.', A N R W I X . i (1976), pp.
46-69.
16. Jos. B.J. v i 6, 2 (343). Titus reproaches the J e w s : Kal •npeaPetai fj.€v vfiatv npos rovs
vnep Ev^pdr-qv ewi vtutTtpiaiitp. Jews from beyond the Euphrates fought also among the
against t h e Parthians, t h a t he w a s t h r e a t e n e d i n the r e a r b y an u p r i s i n g

of M e s o p o t a m i a n J e w s (see vol. I , p . 5 3 2 ) .
J o s e p h u s n a m e s t h e fortified t o w n s of Nehardea a n d Nisibis as t h e
p r i n c i p a l s e t t l e m e n t s of J e w s in Babylonia. N e h a r d e a ( K S n n i ) is
c l e a r l y a t t e s t e d b o t h in J o s e p h u s a n d in T a l m u d i c s o u r c e s as a m a j o r
J e w i s h c e n t r e in B a b y l o n i a p r o p e r , a n d as a s t r o n g - p o i n t of t h e
semi-independent Jewish 'state' which, according to Josephus' n a r
r a t i v e flourished b e t w e e n a b o u t A.D. 20 a n d 3 5 . ' ^ B y 'Nisibis' i t w o u l d
s e e m n a t u r a l t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e w e l l - k n o w n city of t h a t n a m e i n
N o r t h e r n M e s o p o t a m i a s i n c e i t is s i t u a t e d in t h e c e n t r e o f the d i s t r i c t s
to w h i c h the ten t r i b e s w e r e d e p o r t e d b y t h e A s s y r i a n s , w h e r e a s
N e h a r d e a fies f u r t h e r s o u t h , i n B a b y l o n i a p r o p e r , w h e r e t h e t r i b e s o f
J u d a h a n d B e n j a m i n w e r e settled b y t h e B a b y l o n i a n s . ' ^ H o w e v e r , i n
the c o n t e x t of J o s e p h u s ' n a r r a t i v e , ' N i s i b i s ' s e e m s a l s o to b e a t o w n i n
B a b y l o n i a n e a r N e h a r d e a a n d n o t f a r f r o m t h e m a j o r cities of S e l e u c i a
a n d C t e s i p h o n . ' ^ If t h i s v i e w is c o r r e c t , w e a r e left o n t h e o n e h a n d w i t h
the e v i d e n c e o f the A s s y r i a n d e p o r t a t i o n s t o t h i s a r e a , a n d o n t h e o t h e r
w i t h a fair a m o u n t of T a l m u d i c e v i d e n c e for a J e w i s h p r e s e n c e t h e r e
f r o m a t l e a s t t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y A.D. o n w a r d s . ^ " T h e r e m a y t h e r e f o r e
rebels in Palestine (Dio Ixvi 4, 3 ; Jos. B.J. ii 19, 2 (520), vi 6, 4 (356) mentions relatives of
Monobazus and Izates in particular. Neusner, op. cit., pp. 58-64.
17. Jos. Ant. xviii 9, i (310-13) and 9 (379). See the full account by Oppenheimer,
Babylonia Judaica, pp. 276-93.
18. On Msibis see R E X V I I , cols. 714-57; C. Ritter, Erdkunde X I , pp. 413 ff.;
Oppenheimer, Babylonia Judaica, pp. 311-25. For the geographical context see L.
Dillemann, Haute Misopotamie orientale et pays adjacents (1962). Nisibis lay on the
Mygdonius, a tributary o f the Chaboras, itself a tributary o f the Euphrates. It served as
the centre o f the localities named in 2 Kings 17:6, 18:11, to v^rhich the members of the
kingdom o f the ten tribes were deported by the Assyrians. Nehardea, by contrast, lay
much further south, in Babylonia proper.
19. For this point, see J . Wellhausen, Israelitische und jiidische Geschichte (''^1901), 2o6n.,
and W . Bousset, Die Religion des Judentums (^1926), p. 62. T h e existence of a separate place
called 'Nisibis', and situated in Babylonia proper, is assumed by Oppenheimer, Babylonia
Judaica, pp. 319 and 325. According t o Jos. Ant. xviii 9, i (311), Nehardea was not easily
accessible because it was completely encircled by the Euphrates and its canals. 'Nisibis'
was also situated o n the same stretch surrounded by the Euphrates (lartv 8e /cat Nlaipis
ffoAij Kara tov oi5tov tov -norafiov irepippow). Both cities, according to the account in xviii
9, 8—9 (371—2) were not far from Seleucia and Ctesiphon. bKidd. 70b reports that Nehardea
(SVTini) lay on the King's Canal (XD'jO inj) connecting the Euphrates with the Tigris.
It is mentioned also in the Mishnah (mYeb. 16:7) and was a centre of rabbinical learning
(Hamburger, RBT II, pp. 852 f.; C. Ritter, Erdkunde X , pp. 146 f ) .
20. The 'Nisibis' referred to by Josephus {loc. cit.) may perhaps be identical with the
in rabbinical literature, but the reference in bKidd. 72a is clearly to the major
northern city, and Oppenheimer, Babylonia Judaica, pp. 311-25, is probably correct to
take all the rabbinic allusions as referring to 'the' Nisibis.
For the places o f residence of Jews in Babylonia in general, cf. especially A. Neubauer,
La giographie du Talmud (1868), pp. 3 4 3 - 6 8 ; A. Berliner, Beitrage zur Geographic urui
Ethnographic Babyloniens im Talmud und Midrasch (1884), and S. Funk in Monumenta Judaica,
h a v e b e e n c o n t i n u i t y of s e t t l e m e n t , b u t it c a n n o t b e p r o v e d .
D o c u m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e , o r d a t e d a n d l o c a l i s a b l e l i t e r a r y references,
for J e w i s h s e t t l e m e n t i n N o r t h e r n M e s o p o t a m i a , w h i c h w e m i g h t use t o
furnish e v i d e n c e o n t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r J o s e p h u s ' N i s i b i s c o u l d
h a v e b e e n ' t h e ' Nisibis, is n o t e x t e n s i v e . O f t h e t o w n s o f N o r t h e r n
M e s o p o t a m i a , t h r e e g r a v e i n s c r i p t i o n s in H e b r e w l e t t e r i n g a r e r e p o r t e d
from Edessa: o n e o f t h e m h a s a p a r a l l e l G r e e k t e x t i d e n t i f y i n g t h e
p e r s o n s b u r i e d t h e r e as J e w s , a n d is t h o u g h t t o b e o f t h e e a r l y t h i r d
c e n t u r y A.D.*' B y t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y a t least, t h e r e w a s a J e w i s h
c o m m u n i t y , w i t h a s y n a g o g u e , a t Mcephorium {Callinicum) o n t h e
E u p h r a t e s ( A m b r o s e , Ep. 4 0 - 1 ) .
I n Babylonia, t h e i n d i v i d u a l p l a c e s a t t e s t e d , a p a r t f r o m Nehardea
( a b o v e ) a r e Seleuceia, Ant. xviii 9, 8 (372—7) a n d Ctesiphon, xviii 9, 5
(377—8). F o r t h e s e p l a c e s s e e O p p e n h e i m e r , Babylonia Judaica, pp. 2 0 0 - 1 6
(Seleuceia) a n d 191—200 ( C t e s i p h o n ) .
A s r e g a r d s t h e a r e a s o u t h of B a b y l o n i a , a s t o r y in J o s e p h u s reveals a
J e w i s h m e r c h a n t n a m e d A n a n i a s o p e r a t i n g in Spasinou Charax, in t h e
r e g i o n k n o w n a s C h a r a c e n e or M e s e n e a t t h e h e a d o f t h e P e r s i a n Gulf,
Ant. XX 2, 3 ( 3 4 ) ; a n d i n t h e t h i r d o r f o u r t h c e n t u r y , a J e w i s h l a d y
n a m e d S a r a f r o m Mesene w a s b u r i e d a t B e t h S h e a r i m ( C I J I I , n o .
1 1 2 4 ; M . S c h w a b e , B. Lifshitz, Beth Shearim I I , n o . 1 0 1 ) . F o r t h e
b a c k g r o u n d see S. A , N o d e l m a n , ' A P r e l i m i n a r y H i s t o r y of C h a r a c e n e ' ,
B e r y t u s 1 3 (i960), p p . 8 3 - 1 2 1 , e s p e c i a l l y p p . 1 0 0 a n d 1 1 2 . T h e
q u e s t i o n s o f t h e p u r i t y of t h e J e w s o f M e s e n e is discussed i n b K i d 7 1 b .
See t h e e x c e l l e n t a c c o u n t in O p p e n h e i m e r , Babylonia Judaica, p p .
235-49-
T h e c o n v e r s i o n o f Q u e e n H e l e n a oi Adiabene n e a r t h e T i g r i s , a n d h e r
son I z a t e s , in t h e m i d d l e o f t h e first c e n t u r y , w a s also effected b y a J e w
t h e r e . Ant. xx 2 , 3 ( 3 5 ) ; a n o t h e r , n a m e d E l e a z a r , l a t e r a r r i v e d f r o m
Altera pars: Monumenta Talmudica I (1906), pp. 20—4 (a full collection of the source
material concerning the cities and localides of Babylonia from rabbinical literature).
Juster, op. cit. I, pp. 199-202; G. F. Moore, Judaism I, pp. 102-4. Note however that J .
Neusner, op. cit., p . 47, n . 2, does not accept the hypothesis o f a second 'Nisibis' in
Babylonia, and prefers the view that Josephus' geographical indications are vague. See
now above all Opp>enheimer, Babylonia Judaica (1983), passim.
T h e ninth-century account by Eldad ha-Dani is legendary: for cridcal editions see A .
Epstein, Eldad ha-Dani, seitu Berichte iiber die Stamme and deren Ritus in verschiedenen Versionen
nach Handschriften und alten Driicken (1891); H. Miiller, 'Die Recensionen und Versionen
des Eldad had-Dani u.s.w. veroffendicht und kritisch untersucht', D W A ph.-h.Kl. 41
(1892), pp. 1-80; Epstein, REJ 25 (1892), p. 4 3 . H. L . Strack and P. Billerbeck,
Kommentar zum Neuen Testament aus Talmud und Midrasch II (1924), pp. 6 0 6 - 8 , 6 8 3 ff., I V
(1928), pp. 9 0 3 - 6 ; G. F. Moore, Judaism II, p p . 368 ff. See EJ VI (1972), cols. 5 7 6 - 8 s.v.
'Eldad ha-Dani'.
21. Published by G. H. Pognon, Inscriptions simitiques de la Syrie, de la Misopotamie et de la
region de Mossoul (1907), p p . 78 ff., nos. 4 0 , 41, 4 3 (bilingual); note also J. B. Segal, Edessa
the Blessed City (1970), pp. 41 ff. (speculative).
Io § 3 1 . Judaism in the Diaspora
G a l i l e e . F o r t h e full e v i d e n c e o n t h e c o n v e r s i o n , a n d J e w i s h p r e s e n c e in
t h i s r e g i o n see O p p e n h e i m e r , Babylonica Judaica, p p . 1 4 - 1 7 .
A c t s 2 , if t a k e n l i t e r a l l y , i m p l i e s t h e p r e s e n c e of J e w s f u r t h e r east of
t h e T i g r i s , i n Parthia, Media a n d Elam ( E l y m a i s S u s i a n a ) . I t m a y b e
r e l e v a n t t h a t I I K i n g s 17:6 r e c o r d s A s s y r i a n d e p o r t a t i o n o f J e w s t o
M e d i a , a n d t h a t t h e b o o k of T o b i t (see p p . 222—32 b e l o w ) v i v i d l y reflects
J e w i s h s e t t l e m e n t t h e r e , w h i l e b K i d 7 1 b i n d i c a t e s s u s p i c i o n of t h e
p u r i t y o f J e w s from M e d i a , a s from M e s e n e . S e e f u r t h e r W i d e n g r e n , op.
cit. p p . 1 1 8 f
A c c o r d i n g to A r m e n i a n s o u r c e s , T i g r a n e s (see a b o v e , p . 6) a l s o
d e p o r t e d J e w s to A r m e n i a , while the Persians d e p o r t e d significant
n u m b e r s from A r m e n i a i n t h e l a t e r f o u r t h c e n t u r y A.D. F o r a
d i s c u s s i o n see J . N e u s n e r , ' T h e J e w s i n P a g a n A r m e n i a ' , J A O S 84
( 1 9 6 4 ) , p p . 2 3 0 - 4 0 , a c c e p t i n g as a fact t h a t t h e r e will h a v e b e e n J e w i s h
settlement there a t a n y r a t e b y the fourth century.
F o r o n e p l a c e o n t h e E u p h r a t e s itself, n a m e l y Dura-Europos, w e n o w
h a v e s u b s t a n t i a l e v i d e n c e of a J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y a n d i t s synagogue.'*'*
A M a c e d o n i a n settlement o f the early Hellenistic period, the t o w n
p a s s e d u n d e r P a r t h i a n r u l e i n t h e late s e c o n d c e n t u r y B.C., a n d u n d e r
R o m a n rule in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y A.D. I t w a s d e s t r o y e d b y t h e
P e r s i a n s in a b o u t A.D. 256. E x c a v a t i o n s c o n d u c t e d in t h e 1920s a n d
1930s h a v e r e v e a l e d , a m i d m u c h else of t h e g r e a t e s t interest, t h e
s y n a g o g u e c r e a t e d b y t w o successive r e - m o d e l l i n g s of a p r i v a t e h o u s e .
T h e first version w a s c o n s t r u c t e d in t h e l a t e second a n d e a r l y t h i r d
c e n t u r y A.D., a n d t h e s e c o n d , n o t a b l e for its m a g n i f i c e n t n a r r a t i v e
frescoes d e p i c t i n g O l d T e s t a m e n t scenes a n d o t h e r s , w a s c o m p l e t e d i n
A.D. 2 4 4 - 5 . T h e c e n t r a l r o o m c o n t a i n e d a n i c h e in the west w a l l
( t o w a r d s J e r u s a l e m ) , p r e s u m a b l y for t h e T o r a h scrolls, a n d w a s
surrounded b y benches.
T h e excavations have revealed no archaeological o r d o c u m e n t a r y
e v i d e n c e for t h e c o m m u n i t y p r i o r t o t h e p e r i o d o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f
t h e t w o p h a s e s o f t h e s y n a g o g u e . F r o m t h a t t i m e , h o w e v e r , t h e r e is
s o m e w r i t t e n e v i d e n c e : (a) a n i n s c r i p t i o n in P a l m y r e n e c h a r a c t e r s
r e v e a l s a J e w i s h p a i n t e r T h o m a s B e n a i a (n"'33 X[a]Sn) a t w o r k , a l o n g
w i t h n o n - J e w s , o n a P a l m y r e n e h o u s e in D u r a ( C I J I I , n o . 8 2 5 ) ; ( b )
t h r e e f r a g m e n t s o f a H e b r e w p a r c h m e n t , t h o u g h t to b e o f t h e t h i r d
c e n t u r y A.D. a n d c o n t a i n i n g a b e n e d i c t i o n after m e a l s , w e r e f o u n d i n
t h e vicinity of t h e s y n a g o g u e [Excavations at Dura-Europos, Final Report
22. Only the essential bibliography on the Synagogue and the Jewish community c a n
be given here: C. H . Kraeling, Excavations at Dura-Europos, Final Report V I I I . i : The
Synagogue (1956; augmented 2nd ed., 1979); E . R. Goodenough, Jewish Symbols in the
Greco-Roman Period I X - X I : Symbolism in the Dura Synagogue (1964); EJ VI (1971), cols.
275-98 s.v. 'Dura Europos'; J . Gutmann (ed.). The Dura-Europos Synagogue: A
Re-Evaluation (1972).
V . I . The Parchments and Papyri ( 1 9 5 9 ) , n o . 1 1 ; a f r a g m e n t a r y A r a m a i c

p a p y r u s , p r o b a b l y o f A.D. 200, is a l s o likely t o h a v e e m a n a t e d from t h e
J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y , see J . T . M i l i k , ' P a r c h e m i n j u d e o - a r a m e e n d e
D o u r a - E u r o p o s , a n 200 a p . J . - C , S y r i a 4 5 (1968), p p . 97—104; (c) f o u r
A r a m a i c graffiti f r o m t h e first s y n a g o g u e , r e c o r d i n g ( p e r h a p s ) t h e
p a i n t e r ( C I J I I , 8 2 6 a ; Final Report WW. 1 . p . 2 7 4 , n o . 2 0 ) , a n d p r o b a b l y
t h e d o n o r s ( 8 2 6 b - c ; n o s . 2 1 - 2 ) of t h e p a i n t e d p a n e l s o f t h a t s t a g e , as
w e l l as t h e single n a m e VSK (827) ; (d) i m p o r t a n t G r e e k a n d A r a m a i c
graffiti r e l a t i n g to t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e final v e r s i o n of t h e s y n a g o g u e :
I. A n A r a m a i c graffito g i v i n g t h e d a t e 5 5 6 of t h e S e l e u c i d e r a (see v o l .
I, p . 126) a n d t h e s e c o n d y e a r of P h i l i p (A.D. 244—9), so 244—5, i'^ t h e
p r e s b y t e r a t e (nmttrtrj?3) o f S a m u e l cohen, s o n of Y d y w , archon
([p]D"lK) ( C I J I I , n o . 8 2 8 a ; definitive t e x t i n Final Report V I I I . i . , p .
267, n o . l b ) 2 . T h e s a m e d a t e , a n d t h e p r e s b y t e r S a m u e l , a l o n g w i t h
t h e officials of t h e c o m m u n i t y , a p p e a r i n t h e p a i n t e d A r a m a i c
i n s c r i p t i o n o n t w o ceiling tiles, c o n s t i t u t i n g t h e f o r m a l r e c o r d of t h e
completion of the synagogue.
( T i l e A)
n
"•anxn-'a p i n i
l-'Kan nxa tran nwa 2
-an ]•'^n h t t s ? Vs? 6

1 m p p [12] VxiTatn m 7
^rynh n''S7-in''n] n n a .nnrj 8
. y? rrm yh^^ ymi^rvs ir^ tswi 9
....idrni - I . . 10
.. .a iVayi nn a n
T3tt?pnnD-ia 12
.. .rK7Ti*??3» •'nVai 1 3
.pn prr-aai prr't&p*?! pnV] n»Vtr 14
D"nrDi 15
(TileB)
ai I
.. .[pn^nx -[D] iVas7n pnVa u^-ys 2
h s o D a T pn*?D 3
[]^^t&]«^3 r i T D n a i 4
12 § 3 1 - Judaism in the Diaspora
[xann] naVy riTaVD "pn-iXK 5

n '•nxT 6
. . . .Qtr pn*? na*'p 7
[pn-'T] po-iD natp VDS 8
.na q
( T i l e A ) T h i s h o u s e w a s b u i l t in t h e y e a r 5 5 6 , t h i s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o
t h e s e c o n d y e a r of P h i l i p J u l i u s C a e s a r ; in t h e e l d e r s h i p of t h e p r i e s t
S a m u e l s o n of Y e d a ' y a , t h e A r c h o n . N o w t h o s e w h o stood in c h a r g e of
this w o r k w e r e : A b r a m t h e T r e a s u r e r , a n d S a m u e l son of S a p h a r a h ,
and the p r o s e l y t e . W i t h a willing s p i r i t t h e y [ b e g a n to b u i l d ] i n
this fifty-sixth y e a r ; a n d t h e y sent a n d they m a d e haste
a n d t h e y l a b o r e d in a blessing f r o m t h e
e l d e r s a n d f r o m all t h e c h i l d r e n of t h e y l a b o r e d a n d toiled
P e a c e t o t h e m , a n d to t h e i r w i v e s a n d c h i l d r e n all.
( T i l e B) A n d l i k e a l l t h o s e w h o l a b o r e d [ w e r e t h e i r b r e t h r e n
] , a l l of t h e m , w h o w i t h t h e i r m o n e y a n d in t h e
e a g e r d e s i r e o f t h e i r souls T h e i r r e w a r d , all w h a t e v e r
t h a t t h e w o r l d w h i c h is to c o m e assured to
them on every s a b b a t h spreading o u t [their
h a n d s ] i n it (in p r a y e r ) ( C I J I I , 828b; text a n d translation from
Final Report WW.I., p. 263 no. la).
3. S a m u e l is n a m e d a l s o in a briefer G r e e k t e x t : Eafxov^X EtSSeov

iTp€a^vT€pos Twv TovBioiv €KTia€v ( C I J I I , u o . 8 2 9 ; bcst text i n Final
Report V I I I . I . , p . 2 7 7 , n o . 2 3 , w h e n c e Lifshitz, D F , n o . 5 8 ) . T o u n d e d '
{cKTiaev) m u s t h e r e , as W e l l e s a n d Lifshitz c o m m e n t , m e a n ' m a d e ' o r
b u i l t , for a s e c o n d ' f o u n d e r ' a p p e a r s o n a n o t h e r very s i m i l a r
i n s c r i p t i o n (4) : 2aiJLOvriXBapaa<f)dpa fjuvyjadrj CKITÎOCV ravra OVTIOS (CIJ II,
n o . 8 3 1 ; best text i n Final Report V I I I . , p . 2 7 7 , n o . 24, w h e n c e Lifshitz,
D F , n o . 59). 5. F o u r o t h e r p e r s o n s w h o ' a i d e d ' (the c o n s t r u c t i o n ,
e v i d e n t l y ) a r e also n a m e d : "A^pafi Kal *Apadxov KUI HiXas xe EaX^dv-q
eôTjOTjaav ( C I J I I , n o . 8 3 0 ; Final Report, p . 2 7 8 , no. 2 5 , w h e n c e Lifshitz,
D F , n o . 60. 7. T w o G r e e k graffiti f r o m t h e s y n a g o g u e r e c o r d s i n g l e
names,*0pj8a^ and*/acu ( C I J I I , nos. 8 3 2 - 3 ) . 7. O n t h e n a r r a t i v e frescoes
r e p r e s e n t i n g O . T . s c e n e s , a series of p a i n t e d i n s c r i p t i o n s in A r a m a i c
a n d G r e e k identify s o m e of t h e c h a r a c t e r s a n d o c c a s i o n a l l y d e s c r i b e
t h e i r a c t i o n s ( C I J I I , nos. 8^^-4.2; Final ReportVlW.i, pp. 269-74). 8. A
graffito i n A r a m a i c p e r h a p s r e c o r d s o n e ' U z z i w h o m a d e t h e T o r a h
s h r i n e (K31")X Dâ m a » 'TS7 K3X), Final Report V I I I . i , p . 269 n o . 2. F o r
a q u i t e different r e a d i n g see l e C o m t e M e s n i l d e Buisson, ' L ' i n s c r i p t i o n
d e la n i c h e c e n t r a l e d e la s y n a g o g u e d e D u r a - E u r o p o s ' , S y r i a 40
( 1 9 6 3 ) , p p . 3 0 3 - 1 4 : ' M R T Y N ' w h o [ m a d e ] t h e w o r k o f t h e Byt ' a r o n

. . . ' N o t e a l s o a n A r a m a i c graffito f r o m a d e t a c h e d b l o c k i n t h e
s y n a g o g u e VxiOXtr? 1 3 *3'3n ( C I J I I , n o . 8 4 3 ; Final Report V I I I . i , p .
2 7 3 , n o . 16) ; a b r i c k s t a m p o f E u l a l i s , w i t h w h a t m a y b e a l u l a b (844)
a n d a n A r a m a i c e p i t a p h (?) f o u n d s o m e l O o m n o r t h o f t h e s y n a g o g u e
(845), T h e r e a r e a l s o a n u m b e r o f p a i n t e d o r s c r a t c h e d m i d d l e - I r a n i a n
i n s c r i p t i o n s m a d e b y visitors t o t h e s y n a g o g u e [Final Report V I I I . i , p p .
2 6 3 - 3 1 7 ) . I t should b e noted t h a t the synagogue both could a n d did
d r a w o n t h e a r t i s t i c r e s o u r c e s o f its e n v i r o n m e n t t o c r e a t e a f o r m of
n a r r a t i v e a r t , i g n o r i n g t h e l o n g - e s t a b l i s h e d rules a b o u t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
( c f v o l . I, p . 5 5 6 , n . 1 9 2 ) . F o r w h a t c a n b e k n o w n o r s u r m i s e d
c o n c e r n i n g t h e h i s t o r y a n d n a t u r e of t h e c o m m u n i t y a n d its r e l a t i o n s t o
a w i d e r b a c k g r o u n d see Final Report V I I I . i, p p . 3 2 2 - 3 9 .
Syria is d e s c r i b e d b y J o s e p h u s a s t h e r e g i o n w i t h t h e l a r g e s t
p e r c e n t a g e o f J e w i s h i n h a b i t a n t s . A g a i n , t h e c a p i t a l , Antioch, w a s
especially p r o m i n e n t i n this respect.*^ T h e h i s t o r i a n s t a t e s t h a t J e w s
w e r e s e t t l e d t h e r e a n d g i v e n 17 TToXireia (see p p . 1 2 6 - 7 b e l o w ) b y t h e
f o u n d e r , S e l e u c u s I ( 3 1 2 - 2 7 1 B.C.), see Ant. xii 3 , i ( 1 1 9 ) ; C. Ap. ii 4
(39). H e a l s o c l a i m s , B.J. vii 3 , 3 (44), t h a t t h e successors of A n d o c h u s
E p i p h a n e s ( 1 7 5 - 1 6 4 B.C.) r e s t o r e d t o t h e synagoge a t A n t i o c h brass
offerings t a k e n f r o m t h e T e m p l e ; g i v e n t h e a m b i g u i t y of t h e t e r m , it
r e m a i n s u n c e r t a i n w h e t h e r t h e a l l u s i o n is t o t h e c o m m u n i t y o r its
b u i l d i n g , b u t t h e l a t t e r is q u i t e p r o b a b l e . J o s e p h u s ' n a r r a t i v e of e v e n t s
i n A.D. 67 a n d 7 0 , B.J. vii 3 , 3—4 ( 4 3 - 6 2 ) , r e v e a l s t h a t t h e r e w a s a
significant level o f p r o s e l y t i s m (see p p . 1 6 0 - 4 b e l o w ) a n d t h a t t h e
c o m m u n i t y possessed a c h i e f official w i t h t h e t i t l e archon. A p a g a n
p e t i t i o n t o T i t u s in A.D. 7 0 failed t o o b t a i n t h e r e m o v a l of J e w i s h
privileges, a l l e g e d l y r e c o r d e d on b r o n z e t a b l e t s , vii 5, 2 ( l o o - i i ) . I n t h e
second half of t h e fourth c e n t u r y , w h e n c e comes the next substantial
e v i d e n c e o n t h e c o m m u n i t y , m o r e t h a n o n e s y n a g o g u e s t o o d i n t h e city
a n d t h e r e w e r e officials w i t h t h e titles archon a n d prostates (see K r a e l i n g ,
op. cit.). B u t i n o t h e r t o w n s o f S y r i a a l s o , t h e J e w s c o u l d s o m e t i m e s b e
c o u n t e d b y t h o u s a n d s , a s for e x a m p l e i n Damascus, w h e r e , s o J o s e p h u s
'J3. B.J. vii 3 , 3 ( 4 3 ) : TO yap 'lovSatcov yfvos noXii fjêv Kara irdaav rrjv olKov/jifVTjv
naptanapTai rots €Tn)(a}piois, nXfiarov 8e TJJ Evpia Kara ttjv yeirviaaiv dva^fjxiyfxevov,
Tâiperco? 8' €771 rrjs 'Avroixfias •^v ttoXv Std TO ttjs TTOACO^S fiiycOos. Cf. also A . Neubauer,
Im giographie du Talmud, pp. 3 1 1 ff.; J. Hamburger, RE s.v. 'Andochien'; S. Krauss, REJ
.^5 ( 1 9 0 2 ) , pp. 2 7 - 4 9 ; C. H . Kraeling, 'The Jewish Community a t Antioch', J B L 5 1
1 1 9 3 2 ) , pp. 1 3 0 - 6 0 (the fullest account) ; G. H a d d a d , Aspects of Social Life in Antioch
' 1 9 4 9 ) ; V . Tcherikover, Hellenistic Civilization and the Jews ( 1 9 6 2 ) , p. 2 8 9 . See G. Downey,
.1 History of Antioch in Syria from Seleucus to the Arab Conquest ( 1 9 6 1 ) ; W . A. Meeks, R. L.
VVilken, Jews and Christians in Antioch in the First Four Centuries of the Common Era ( 1 9 7 8 ) ; R.
I.. VVilken, John Chrysostom and the Jews ( 1 9 8 3 ) .
14 ^'î. Judaism in the Diaspora
r e p o r t s , 10,500 (in a n o t h e r p a s s a g e 18,000) J e w s w e r e m a s s a c r e d a t t h e

t i m e of the war.'^* T h i s is r e l a t e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e v i o l e n t
i n t e r - c o m m u n a l d i s t u r b a n c e s w h i c h t o o k p l a c e i n a . d . 66, on t h e
o u t b r e a k of t h e g r e a t r e v o l t [B.J. ii 18, 1—5 ( 4 5 7 - 8 0 ) , see vol. I , p . 4 8 7 ) .
M o s t of t h e m o c c u r r e d i n t h e G r e e k cities closest t o t h e m a i n J e w i s h
a r e a (discussed in vol. I I , p p . 8 5 - 1 8 3 ) , s u c h a s D a m a s c u s itself, w h e r e
we could naturally expect Jewish settlement. But while J o s e p h u s
i n f o r m s us t h a t ' t h e w h o l e of S y r i a ' w a s filled w i t h disaster, a n d t h a t
e v e r y c i t y h a d b o t h J e w s a n d ' J u d a i s e r s ' (ii 18, 2 (462-3) : lovhatlovTas),
of t h e cides n o t d i s c u s s e d a b o v e , h e m e n t i o n s b y n a m e o n l y Tyre, ii
1 8 , 5 (428), w h e r e J e w s w e r e e x e c u t e d o r i m p r i s o n e d , a n d Sidon, Apamea
a n d Antioch, w h e r e t h e J e w i s h r e s i d e n t s w e r e s p a r e d , ii 18, 5 (479).
As is t h e c a s e in r e g a r d to o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e G r e e k w o r l d (see b e l o w ) ,
significant, if s c a t t e r e d a n d i n c o m p l e t e , d o c u m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e n o w
exists for J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s in t h e cities of S y r i a i n t h e G r a e c o -
R o m a n p e r i o d ; as e l s e w h e r e , m u c h of i t c o m e s from t h e l a t e - R o m a n
p e r i o d . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e G r e e k e p i t a p h s from the J e w i s h n e c r o p o l i s a t
B e t h S h e a r i m , d a t i n g t o the t h i r d a n d e a r l y f o u r t h c e n t u r i e s , p u b l i s h e d
b y M . S c h w a b e a n d B . Lifshitz, Beth Shearim IT. The Greek Inscriptions
( 1 9 6 7 ) , r e c o r d J e w s f r o m t h e following p l a c e s in S y r i a : Palmyra ( n o s .
9 2 , 1 0 0 ) ; Byhlos ( 1 3 6 - 7 ) ; Tyre ( 1 4 7 , 149) Phaene ( 1 7 8 ) , a n d Antioch
( 1 4 1 , a gerousiarches); also a n archisynagogos from Sidon, B. Lifshitz,
Z D P V 72 (1966), p . 57) ; Beirut ( 1 4 8 , a n d e s p e c i a l l y 164, also r e c o r d i n g
a n archisynagogos).
F r o m Apamea in S y r i a w e h a v e a g r o u p of n i n e t e e n m o s a i c
i n s c r i p t i o n s from t h e floor o f a s y n a g o g u e , d a t i n g to t h e l a t e f o u r t h
c e n t u r y . O n e is specifically d a t e d t o t h e y e a r 703 of t h e Seleucid e r a ,
A . D . 3 9 1 . See C I J II, nos. 8 0 3 - 1 8 , a n d t h r e e e x t r a inscriptions ( w i t h
i m p r o v e d t e x t s a n d e x t e n d e d c o m m e n t a r i e s ) in I G L S I V ( 1 9 5 5 ) , n o s .
1 3 1 9 - 3 7 , w h e n c e Lifshitz, D F , n o s . 3 8 - 5 6 . N o t e e s p e c i a l l y I G L S ,
n o . 1 3 1 9 , s h o w i n g t h a t in a . d . 3 9 1 t h e s y n a g o g u e h a d t h r e e archi-
synagogi, a gerousiarchos a n d a t least four presbyteri a t t h e m o m e n t w h e n
t h e m o s a i c w a s c o n s t r u c t e d b y Ilasios, dpxiawaycoyo? *Avrioxôiv, who
w a s r e l a t e d b y m a r r i a g e t o the c o m m u n i t y of A p a m e a ( I G L S , n o .
1 3 2 0 ) . H e w a s also a d e s c e n d a n t of the gerousiarchos from A n t i o c h b u r i e d
a t B e t h S h e a r i m ( a b o v e ) . N o t e also I G L S , n o . 1 3 2 1 , d a t e d b y
N e e m i a h , hazzan a n d ' d e a c o n ' {iirt iVe/xia dâva Kal tov SiaKovos).
As r e g a r d s Palmyra, l a r g e c l a i m s h a v e often b e e n m a d e , o n the b a s i s
o f n o m e n c l a t u r e , for a J e w i s h p r e s e n c e . See m o s t r e c e n t l y L . D . M e r i n o ,
' I n f l u e n c i a s j u d i a y c r i s t i a n a en los signos e i n s c r i p c i o n e s p a l m i r e n a s ' ,
L A S B F 21 ( 1 9 7 1 ) , p p . 7 6 - 1 4 8 . B u t t a k i n g o n l y t h e c e r t a i n e v i d e n c e ,
24. 1 0 , 5 0 0 : B.J. ii 2 0 , 2 ( 5 6 1 ) ; 1 8 , 0 0 0 : B.J. vii 8 , 7 ( 3 6 8 ) .

three H e b r e w inscriptions survive, from w h a t m a y be the door of a

synagogue, c o n t a i n i n g O l d T e s t a m e n t texts ( C I J I I , n o s . 8 2 1 - 3 ) . T h e
o n l y t e x t t h a t i n d u b i t a b l y reflects a J e w i s h family is a b i l i n g u a l
P a l m y r e n e - G r e e k i n s c r i p t i o n of A.D. 2 1 2 , w h i c h t w o b r o t h e r s , Z e n o -
b i o s - Z e b e i d a h a n d S a m u e l , p u t u p o n t h e i r f a m i l y t o m b in h o n o u r of
t h e i r f a t h e r L e v i s o n o f J a c o b s o n of S a m u e l ( C I J I I , no.820). A n
A r a m a i c graffito f r o m t h e t e m p l e of B e l may be r e a d "13 NinS
-iTrVx a n d may t h e r e f o r e be J e w i s h ( C I J I I , n o . 8 2 4 ) . B e t t e r e v i d e n c e is
p r o v i d e d b y a n u m b e r of t h i r d - c e n t u r y e p i t a p h s in P a l m y r e n e from
B e t h S h e ' a r i m , clearly s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e p e r s o n s r e f e r r e d to w e r e J e w s
from P a l m y r a , b u r i e d t h e r e like o t h e r s (see a b o v e ) from o u t s i d e
P a l e s t i n e . S e e B. M a z a r , Beth She'arim I : Catacombs 1-4 ( 1 9 7 3 ) , p . 198,
n o . 1 2 ; 199, n o s . 1 7 - 1 8 ; 202, n o . 8 3 ; 2 0 3 , n o . 8 6 ; 206, n o . 1 2 6 ; 207,
nos. 1 3 0 , 1 3 2 , 1 3 3 . C f a l s o O p p e n h e i m e r , Babylonia Judaica, p p . 432—5.
A n u m b e r of J e w i s h , o r p o s s i b l y J e w i s h , i n s c r i p t i o n s o r i g i n a t e from
t h e a r e a on t h e b o r d e r s of P a l e s t i n e w h e r e , as m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , a
J e w i s h p r e s e n c e is t o b e e x p e c t e d (e.g., C I J I I , n o s . 848—69) ; for n o s .
866-7 s e e C. H . K r a e l i n g ( e d . ) , Gerasa ( 1 9 3 8 ) , p . 4 7 3 , n o s . 283, 287. T h e
m o r e s u b s t a n t i a l o f t h e s e i n s c r i p t i o n s a r e r e - e d i t e d i n Lifshitz, D F , n o s .
6i-3)-
F o r t h e Phoenician coast, t h e e v i d e n c e is v e r y s l i g h t : a f e w J e w i s h
n a m e s from Tyre ( C I J I I , n o s . 8 7 9 - 8 0 ; see also J . - P . R e y - C o q u a i s ,
Inscriptions de la necropole ( 1 9 7 7 ) , n o s . 1 6 4 ; 1 6 7 : p r i e s t s , p r e s u m a b l y
J e w i s h ; 1 6 8 : S a m a r i t a n s ) ; a b r o n z e p l a q u e f r o m Ornithopolis w i t h
avvayoyris (sic) 'OpvidoKOfirjs (878) ; t w o c e r t a i n l y J e w i s h i n s c r i p t i o n s
from Beirut ( 8 7 3 - 4 ) ; ^^^^^ ^ f r a g m e n t s from Byblos ( 8 6 9 - 7 2 ) . A
heavily d a m a g e d l a t e G r e e k i n s c r i p t i o n from Sepphoris ( C I J I I , n o . 9 9 1 )
seems t o m e n t i o n archisynagogi from Tyre a n d Sidon. I t is n o t y e t possible
10 say w h e t h e r t h e l i m i t e d e p i g r a p h i c r e c o r d of J e w i s h s e t t l e m e n t in
Syria, c o m p a r e d f o r i n s t a n c e t o A s i a M i n o r , reflects a h i s t o r i c a l fact, a
less w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d t r a d i t i o n of i n s c r i b i n g o n s t o n e , o r the relatively
limited p r o g r e s s of a r c h a e o l o g y a n d e p i g r a p h y in t h a t a r e a .
As f a r as t h e e x p a n s i o n of J u d a i s m in t h e Arabian Peninsula is
( o n c e r n e d , i t is n o l o n g e r p o s s i b l e to d e t e r m i n e w h e n this first t o o k
p l a c e . E v i d e n c e h o w e v e r exists of J e w i s h s e t t l e m e n t a n d influence
j r , . For Jewish presence and influence i n Arabia before the Hegira, a complex topic
\\lii(h cannot b e pursued here, see e.g. R. Leszynski, Die Juden in Arabien zur êit
Miihammeds (1910); H . Lammens, L'Arabie occidentale avant I'Hegire (1928); D . S.
M.iigoliouth, The Relations between Arabs and Israelites prior to the Rise of Islam (1924); C . C .
I ortcy. The Jewish Foundations of Islam ( 1 9 3 3 ) ; H . Z. Hirschberg, Yisra'l bArav (1946);
I A. Montgomery, Arabia and the Bible ( 1969). It is not easy to accept as evidence
lor Jewish settlement in North Arabia in the sixth century B.C. the documents discussed
l>v C . J. Gadd, 'The Harran Inscriptions of Nabonidus', A S 9 (1958), p p . 35-92.
t h e r e from, a t t h e latest, t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y A.D. o n w a r d s . T h e m o s t

significant i t e m of d o c u m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e is p r o b a b l y t h e e p i t a p h f r o m
B e t h S h e ' a r i m ( h e n c e t h i r d - f o u r t h c e n t u r y A.D.) w h i c h is t o be r e a d
Mavarj Trar-qp, irpeaf^vrepos) 'OprjpiTwv ( C I J I I , n o s . 1 1 3 7 + 8 = Beth
She'arim I I , n o . 1 1 , to b e r e a d as o n e , s e e B. Lifshitz, R B 67 ( i 9 6 0 ) , p .
6 1 ) . T h e d e c e a s e d M e n a h e m w a s t h e r e f o r e a n e l d e r of t h e ' H i m y a r i t e s ' ,
t h e J e w s from H i m y a r , i.e., t h e Y e m e n . F r o m t h e Y e m e n itself t h e r e
have n o w been published a S a b e a n - H e b r e w bilingual inscription
p r o b a b l y of t h e l a t e f o u r t h c e n t u r y , a n d a list o f priestly c o u r s e s i n
H e b r e w , p e r h a p s of t h e fifth c e n t u r y ; s e e N E S E 2 ( 1 9 7 4 ) , p p . m ff'.;
1 1 7 8 " . ; 166 ff. T h u s it is n o t i m p o s s i b l e t h a t w h e n , u n d e r C o n s t a n t i u s ,
efforts w e r e m a d e to s p r e a d C h r i s t i a n i t y in H i m y a r , t h e mission m e t
w i t h J e w i s h o p p o s i d o n , as P h i l o s t o r g i u s reports.^ A n E t h i o p i c h a g i o -
g r a p h i c n a r r a t i v e set i n t h e fifth c e n t u r y also p r e s u p p o s e s J e w i s h
o p p o n e n t s . ' ' ^ I n t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y , t h e k i n g o f H i m y a r ,
Yiisuf M u s u f A s ' a r , w a s a c o n v e r t to J u d a i s m . H e was o v e r t h r o w n b y
t h e C h r i s t i a n k i n g of A b y s s i n i a c. A.D. 5 2 5 b e c a u s e h e p e r s e c u t e d
C h r i s tians.^^
J e w i s h w o m e n from A r a b i a a r e also m e n t i o n e d in t h e M i s h n a h . ' ^ ^
T h e r e f e r e n c e m i g h t b e to ' H i m y a r i t e s ' , o r t o p e o p l e f r o m t h e N - E o f
t h e A r a b i a n peninsula or even from w i t h i n the R o m a n p r o v i n c e o f
' A r a b i a ' , t h e f o r m e r k i n g d o m o f Nabataea, a b s o r b e d in A.D. 1 0 6 .
D o c u m e n t s d i s c o v e r e d in t h e N a h a l H e v e r in 1 9 6 1 , b u t n e v e r fully
p u b l i s h e d , r e v e a l a J e w i s h family settled a n d o w n i n g p r o p e r t y a t
M a h o z a n e a r Z o a r , f r o m t h e l a t e r first c e n t u r y A.D. t o s h o r t l y b e f o r e
t h e r e v o l t of A.D. 132.^°
It is accepted however by I. Ben-Zvi, 'The Origins of the Settlement of Jewish Tribes in

Arabia', Eretz Israel 6 (i960), pp. 130-48 (Hebrew), which is speculative.
26. Philostorgius iii 4 (ed. J . Bidez, F. Winkelmann, 1972). Philostorgius says here that
of the population there ovk oXlyov nXrjdos 'lovbaicov dveiTf<l>vpTai.
27. Trans. H . Winckler, 'Zur Geschichte des Judentums in Jemen', Altorientalische
Forschungen, Erste Reihe IV (1896), pp. 329-36. See J. Ryckmans, 'Le christianisme e n
Arabic d u Sud preislamique', L'Oriente cristiana (Acc. naz. Lincei, Quad. 6 2 , 1964), pp.
413-54-
28. Cf. T. Noldeke, Geschichte der Perser und Araber zur Zît der Sasaniden, aus der arabischen
Chronik des Tabari iibersetzt (1879), pp. 174 ff., 185, 187 ff.; for subsequent work and
surveys o f new evidence see e.g. J. Ryckmans, La persecution des chritiens himyarites an sixiime
siecle (1956); I. Shahid, The Martyrs of Majran: Mew Documents (1971); 'Byzantium i n
South Arabia', DOP 3 3 (1979), pp. 23-94.
29. According to mShab. 6:6, Arabian Jewesses are permitted to wear their veils also
o n the Sabbath.
30. See the report in lEJ 12 (1962), p p . 235—48, o f the archive of Babatha, which
remains unpublished. For publication of a few o f these documents, see H. J . Polotsky,
'Three Greek Documents from the Family Archive of Babatha', Eretz Israel 8 (1967), pp.
46-51 (Hebrew). The three documents are republished as SB, no. 10288; two are also
F r o m the southernmost p a r t of the N a b a t a e a n k i n g d o m , t h e ancient

E g r a o r H e g r a ( M a d a ' in S a h h ) t h e r e is a n e x t e n s i v e g r a v e - i n s c r i p t i o n
from t h e f a c a d e of a t o m b , w r i t t e n in N a b a t a e a n b u t e x p h c i t l y
i d e n t i f y i n g t h e f a m i l y a s J e w i s h . I t is d a t e d t o t h e t h i r d y e a r of M l k w
king of N a b a t a e a ( M a l i c h u s I I , A.D. 4 0 - 7 0 ) , h e n c e A.D. 42 ( C I S I I . i,
NO. 2 1 9 = C I S I I , NO. 1 4 2 2 ) . F o r f u r t h e r r e p o r t s o f J e w i s h a n d possibly
J e w i s h i n s c r i p t i o n s f r o m t h i s a r e a SEE F . A l t h e i m a n d R . S t i e h l , Die
Araber in der Alten Welt V . i ( 1 9 6 8 ) , p p . 3 0 5 - 9 .
C o n c e r n i n g Asia Minor, P h i l o s a y s , AS OF S y r i a , t h a t J e w s i n h a b i t e d
e v e r y t o w n IN g r e a t t h r o n g s . ^ ' A s e a r l y AS t h e m i d - f o u r t h c e n t u r y B.C.
A r i s t o t l e , d u r i n g h i s STAY IN A s i a M i n o r (348—345 B.C.), h a d e n c o u n t e r
e d AN e d u c a t e d J e w w h o h a d c o m e t h e r e a n d w h o ' w a s G r e e k n o t o n l y
IN l a n g u a g e b u t IN s p i r i t ' ; this is r e p o r t e d BY C l e a r c h u s , a p u p i l OF
A r i s t o t l e , IN his On Sleep, w h i c h gives f u r t h e r details.^'* A n t i o c h u s t h e
G r e a t (223—187 B.C.) IS s a i d TO h a v e s e t t l e d t w o t h o u s a n d J e w i s h
families f r o m M e s o p o t a m i a a n d B a b y l o n i a IN P h r y g i a a n d Lydia.^^
republished, with an EngHsh translation, b y N. Lewis, Illinois Classical Studies 3 (1978),

pp. 100-14. See Y. Yadin, 'The Nabataean Kingdom, Provincia Arabia, Petra and
Engeddi in the Documents from Nahal Hever', E x Oriente Lux 6 (1959-61), pp. 227-41,
and G. W . Bowersock, Roman Arabia (1983), esp. p p . 75-9.
31. Philo, Legatio 3 3 (245) : ^lovSaioi KaO' iKaarrfv woXiv etat TrafinX-qOets 'Aaias re Kal
Evpias.
32. T h e report of Clearchus is preserved by Josephus, C. Ap. i 22 (i 76-82) = F H G II,
p. 323 (Clearchus F 69) = GLAJJ I, no. 15. Josephus is the source of the story in Bus.
Praep. Ev. ix 5. There is also a brief mention in Clem. Alex. Strom, i 15, 70. Cf. A . von
Gutschmid, Meue Beitrage zur Geschichte des alten Orients {i8y6) p. 77 = Kl. Schr. IV (1893),
pp. 578 ff.; o n the authenticity o f Clearchus' informadon see E. Silberschlag, 'The
FLarliest Record of Jews in Asia Minor', J B L 52 (1933), pp. 6 6 - 7 7 ; Lewy, 'Aristotle
and the Jewish Sage according to Clearchus of Soli', H T h R 31 (1938), pp. 2 0 5 - 3 5 ; D . M.
Lewis, 'The First Greek Jew', J S S 2 (1957), pp. 2 6 4 - 6 ; V . Tcherikover, Hellenistic
(civilisation and the Jews (1961), pp. 278 ff.; and Stern, GLAJJ ad loc.
33. Ant. xii 3, 4 (147-53). T h e authendcity of the letter of Antiochus, giving instrucdons
(or this setdement, has often been disputed, see e.g., H. Willrich, Juden und Griechen
(1895), pp. 41 ff., cf A. Biichler, Die Tobiaden und die Oniaden (1899), pp. 144 fF.; for
further literature R. Marcus, Loeb Josephus VII, App. D ; note A. Schalit, 'The Letter of
Antiochus III to Zeuxis', J Q R 50 (1959-60), pp. 289-318, and most recently J . D.
(Jaugcr, Beitrage zur judischen Apologetik: Untersuchungen zur Authentizitdt von Urkunden bet
Flavius Josephus und im L Makkebderbuch (1977). But there are no conclusive formal or
historical arguments against authenticity. An interesting parallel is the settlement in
Lydia, as early as the Persian period, of colonists from Hyrcania. 'The Hyrcanian Plain'
ill the triangle between Thyadra, Magnesia a n d Sardis, as well as a community of
Hyrcanians situated there,*)we their names to them. For the plain: Strabo xii 4, 13
1629); Livy xxxvii 38, i ; Stephanus, Byz. s.v. For the city: Tac. Ann. ii 47, 3 ('Macedones
Myrcani'); Pliny, Mat. Hist, v 120 (as Tacitus). For inscriptions see Robert, op. cit. below,
l o r coins : B. V. Head, Historia Numorum (* 1911), p . 652 ; BMC Lydia, pp. Ixiv-vi; 122-6.
O n the s i t e : W . M. Ramsay, Historical Geography of Asia Minor (1890), p. 124. O n its
IMJ)()rtance as a Macedonian military colony: A . Schulten, Hermes 32 (1897), p. 533.
F r o m t h e first c e n t u r y B . C , s u b s t a n t i a l t e s t i m o n y exists of a c o n s i d e r a b l e
J e w i s h d i a s p o r a i n Asia M i n o r . M o s t o f t h e m a t e r i a l d e r i v e s f r o m
J o s e p h u s , Ant. xiv 10 ( 1 8 5 - 2 6 7 ) a n d x v i 6 ( 1 6 0 - 1 7 8 ) . N e x t t o it in
i m p o r t a n c e is t h e p a s s a g e f r o m C i c e r o ' s pro Flacco 28 (see t h e t e x t
b e l o w , p . 1 1 8 ) . T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n is s u p p o r t e d b y a n o t a b l e a n d g r o w i n g
m u s t e r o f i n s c r i p t i o n s , m a n y h o w e v e r of l a t e r d a t e . O n t h e basis of t h i s
e v i d e n c e , it is possible t o e s t a b l i s h t h e e x i s t e n c e o f J e w s a n d J e w i s h
c o m m u n i t i e s i n t h e following districts a n d cities of Asia M i n o r in t h e
G r a e c o - R o m a n p e r i o d ( t h e list b e g i n s i n t h e n o r t h - w e s t c o r n e r of A s i a
M i n o r a n d m o v e s r o u n d a p p r o x i m a t e l y a n t i - c l o c k w i s e to B i t h y n i a ) .^^
I n Adramytttum, J e w i s h f u n d s w e r e confiscated i n t h e t i m e o f C i c e r o
( 6 2 - 6 1 B.C.) b y t h e legatus of F l a c c u s {pro Flacco 28/68).
F o r Pergamum, t h e earliest definite e v i d e n c e is t h e s a m e p a s s a g e of
C i c e r o (pro Flacco 2 8 / 6 8 ) . C i c e r o s a y s t h a t ' n o t m u c h ' w a s t a k e n f r o m
t h e r e . J o s e p h u s , Ant. x i v 10, 22 ( 2 4 7 - 5 5 ) , refers t o a p u b l i c d e c r e e
t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e P e r g a m e n e s assured t h e J e w s a n d t h e i r h i g h p r i e s t
H y r c a n u s of P e r g a m e n e f r i e n d s h i p . A l l u s i o n is m a d e in t h e d e c r e e to t h e
e x i s t e n c e of f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n J e w s a n d P e r g a m e n e s since t h e
t i m e of A b r a h a m (ojs Kal ev TOIS Kara "A^pa/xov Kaipois, os "tjv irdvTwv
'E^paiuiv Trar-qp, 01 Trpoyovoi tÎJLWV IJOAV a u T o i s <f>l\oi, KaOcjs xal iv TOIS
8r)ij,oaiois evpioKOfxev ypdp.p.aaiv). T h a t s o m e t h i n g of this s o r t w a s
b e l i e v e d in t h e H e l l e n i s t i c - R o m a n p e r i o d u n d e r t h e influence of
J u d a i s m is n o t i m p o s s i b l e . I t t h e r e f o r e p r o v i d e s n o c o n c l u s i v e r e a s o n t o
d o u b t t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y o f this d e c r e e ; o n t h e c o n t r a r y it m i g h t b e t a k e n
as p r o o f of t h e i n f l u e n c e of J u d a i s m i n t h a t r e g i o n . T h e t e x t of t h e
d e c r e e a s J o s e p h u s gives it c o n t a i n s t h e t e r m s o f p a r t of a R o m a n senatus
consultum. If i n fact this b e l o n g e d t o it o r i g i n a l l y , t h e P e r g a m e n e d e c r e e
w i l l h a v e b e e n issued a l r e a d y i n t h e t i m e of t h e h i g h p r i e s t H y r c a n u s I .
B u t t h e senatus consultum w a s p r o b a b l y i n s e r t e d i n t o t h e P e r g a m e n e
d e c r e e b y m i s t a k e , a n d s h o u l d b e d i s s o c i a t e d from it c o m p l e t e l y ; (see
vol. I, p . 1 9 7 , a n d n o t e n o w T , R a j a k , G R B S 22 ( 1 9 8 1 ) , p p . 6 5 - 8 1 ) .
T h e n a m e of t h e prjtanis, K r a t i p p o s , b y w h i c h t h e P e r g a m e n e d e c r e e is
d a t e d , a p p e a r s a l s o as t h a t o f a n e p o n y m o u s official in a f r a g m e n t a r y
i n s c r i b e d list of e p h e b e s from P e r g a m u m ( M D A I ( A t h e n s ) 2 7 ( 1 9 0 2 ) ,
Note especially L. Robert, Hell. VI (1948), pp. 16—26, for a full review o f the evidence.
34. For surveys see e.g., J . Weiss, s.v. 'Kleinasien' i n Herzog-Hauck, Real-Enc. I l l
1901), cols. 5 3 5 - 6 3 ; W. M . Ramsay, 'The Jews in the Graeco-Asiatic Cities', Exp.
(Jan. 1902), p p . 1 9 - 3 3 ; (Feb. 1902) pp. 9 2 - 1 0 9 ; Juster, op. cit. I, pp. 1 8 8 - 9 4 ; F.
Blanchetiere, 'Juifs et non-Juifs. Essai sur la Diaspora en Asie Mineure', R H P h R 5 4
(1974), p p . 367-82, and A . J . Marshall, 'Flaccus and the Jews of Asia (Cicero, Pro Flacco
28, 67-69)', Phoenix 29 (1975), p p . 139-54; A . Ovadiah, 'Ancient Synagogues in
Asia-Minor', Proc. X. Int. Cong. Class. Arch., igj3 (1978), pp. 857-66. A full study o f
Judaism in Asia Minor is expected from A. T . Kraabel.
p . 126) a n d also i n a festal c a l e n d a r f r o m t h e r e {Ins. v. Pergamon, n o .

2 4 7 ) ; see J O A I 8 ( 1 9 0 5 ) , p . 2 3 8 . F o r a n a l t a r from P e r g a m u m w i t h the
j u d a i s i n g i n s c r i p t i o n 0 e o s Kvpios, 6 cov eis del see B E 1 9 5 8 , n o . 4 1 3 , a n d
Lifshitz, D F , n o . 1 2 .
I n Lydia g e n e r a l l y , a s n o t e d a b o v e , J e w i s h colonists w e r e s e t t l e d by
A n t i o c h u s t h e G r e a t , Ant. xii 3 4 ( 1 4 7 - 1 5 3 ) .
I n Phocaea, or Kyme, o n t h e I o n i a n c o a s t t h e f o l l o w i n g J e w i s h
i n s c r i p t i o n w a s f o u n d . I t is i n t e r e s t i n g f r o m several p o i n t s of v i e w
( r e p o r t e d b y T h . R e i n a c h R E J 1 2 (1886), p p . 2 3 6 - 4 3 a n d B C H 10
(1886), p p . 3 2 7 - 3 5 = I G R I V , n o . 1 3 2 7 = C I J I I , no. 7 3 8 = D F , no.
1 3 = I K K y m e , n o . 4 5 ) : Tdnov ErpaToyvos TOV 'EvneSwvos t o v OIKOV
KAL TOV TTCpiPoXov TOV vTTaidpov KaTaoKevdaaaa CK Td)[v ISJ/COV ixaptaaTO

T[ois To]v8aiois. 'H avvaycoyrj €[T€ifjL'q]a€v TOTV ^lovhalcov TARTOV
I!\TpdTô)vos TOV ÊvireSiovos XP^^V oT€fl>dvcp /CAT Trpoehpia. O n the
p e r s o n a l n a m e s i n -lov ( m a s c u l i n e a n d f e m i n i n e p e t - f o r m s ) see A.
Z i m m e r m a n , Philologus 64 ( 1 9 0 5 ) , p p . 4 9 9 - 5 0 5 , a n d L. R o b e r t , Hellenica
V I (1948), p . 90.
F r o m Thyatira t h e r e t a i l e r of p u r p l e o r i g i n a t e d , n a m e d L y d i a (Acts
1 6 : 1 4 ) , a a€pop,€V7} TOV deov. S i n c e she is m e t only i n P h i l i p p i , it is n o t
k n o w n w h e t h e r s h e h a d a l r e a d y b e e n c o n v e r t e d t o t h e J e w i s h faith in
h e r h o m e l a n d . A UapLâdeiov is m e n t i o n e d on a n i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m
T h y a t i r a , d a t i n g from b e t w e e n the m i d - s e c o n d a n d e a r l i e r t h i r d
c e n t u r y ; I G R I V , no. 1281 ; C I J I I , n o . 7 5 2 . T h e notion t h a t such a
b u i l d i n g m i g h t b e a s a n c t u a r y of t h e C h a l d a e a n S y b i l S a m b e t h e
m e n t i o n e d i n t h e S i b y l l i n e O r a c l e s h a s b e e n a d e q u a t e l y refuted b y S.
K r a u s s , Synagogale Alterttimer, p p . 2 5 ff. See a l s o V . T c h e r i k o v e r , ' T h e
S a m b a t h i o n s ' , Scripta H i e r o s o l y m i t a n a i (1954), pp. 78-98, on pp.
83-4, a n d t h e further discussion in C P J I I I , p p . 4 3 - 8 7 , ' T h e S a m b a t h
ions'. I t is m u c h m o r e p r o b a b l e t h a t aap,âBeiov is s i m p l y the
e q u i v a l e n t o f aa^Pareiov, m e a n i n g ' S a b b a t h H o u s e ' (cf. J o s e p h u s , Ant.
xvi, 6, 2 (164) a n d v o l . I I , p . 440). T h e c o m m u n i t y to w h i c h this
' S a b b a t h H o u s e ' b e l o n g e d c a n n o t , h o w e v e r , h a v e b e e n a fully o r t h o d o x
Jewish o n e for, a c c o r d i n g to t h e i n s c r i p t i o n , a b u r i a l p l a c e w a s s i t u a t e d
in its v i c i n i t y .
In Magnesia ad Sipylum t h e f o l l o w i n g i n s c r i p t i o n h a s b e e n f o u n d ( R E J
10 ( 1 8 8 5 ) , p . 7 6 ; C I J I I , n o . 7 5 3 ; I K M a g n e s i a , n o . 27) : ETpaTOiv
Tvpdvvov TovSaios £,u)v T O p,r]fjL€iov KaTeaaKeaae {sic) iavTU) Kal yvvaiKi Kal
TfKVOlS-
Smyrna w a s c e r t a i n l y i n h a b i t e d b y a J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y , o n e r e p o r t e d
.IS h a v i n g s h o w n hostility t o C h r i s t i a n s ( c f e.g., R . K n o p f , Das
Sachapostol. êitalter ( 1 9 0 5 ) , p p . 1 4 2 - 4 ; C . J . C a d o u x , Ancient Smyrna
11)38), ch. 1 1 - 1 2 ) . i ) . As e a r l y a s t h e b o o k of R e v e l a t i o n m e n t i o n is
m a d e o f t h e a b u s e t h a t C h r i s t i a n s in S m y r n a h a d t o e n d u r e a t the
h a n d s o f the J e w s ( R e v . 2 -.cj). 2 ) . T h e J e w s t h e r e p l a y a p r o m i n e n t p a r t
in t h e m a r t y r - a c t o f P o l y c a r p , p a r a s . 1 7 - 1 8 ; s e e J . B . Lightfoot, Apostolic
Fathers I I , p t . 3, p p . 3 6 3 - 4 0 1 ; K . L a k e , Apostolic Fathers ( L o e b ed.) I I ,
p p . 3 1 2 - 4 5 ; K n o p f - K r i i g e r - R u h b a c h , Ausgewdhlte Martyrerakten, no.
I ; H . A . M u s u r i l l o , Acts of the Christian Martyrs, n o . i. C f also t h e
l e g e n d a r y Vita Polycarpi auctore Pionio, e d . L. D u c h e s n e ( 1 8 8 1 ) , d a t i n g
f r o m a b o u t t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y A.D. ; see T h . R e i n a c h , R E J 1 1 ( 1 8 8 5 ) ,
p p . 235—8); o t h e r l i t e r a t u r e a b o u t this Vita i n O . B a r d e n h e w e r , Gesch.
der altkirchl. Literatur I I , p . 6 1 6 ; B. A l t a n e r , Patrology, p . 1 1 2 . 3 ) .
S i m i l a r l y in t h e Martyrium Pionii, r e l a t i n g t o the D e c i a n p e r s e c u t i o n ,
A.D. 2 5 0 , t h e J e w s in S m y r n a a p p e a r as e n e m i e s of the C h r i s t i a n s ; see
K n o p f , op. cit., p p . 96—143 f. T e x t in O . v o n G e b h a r d t , Ausgewdhlte
Martyrerakten (1902), p p . 96—114; K n o p f - K r i i g e r - R u h b a c h , n o . 1 0 ;
M u s u r i l l o , n o . 1 0 ; o t h e r l i t e r a t u r e o n t h i s Martyrium in B a r d e n h e w e r ,
op. cit., I I , p p . 631 f.; A l t a n e r , op. cit., p . 1 1 2 . A n i m p o r t a n t s t u d y of t h i s
text w a s expected from L . R o b e r t .
A n i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m t h e t i m e of H a d r i a n , g i v i n g a Ust of d o n o r s of
gifts to t h e c i t y , m e n t i o n s also oi-nore TovSaioi ( C I G , n o . 3 1 4 8 = I G R I V ,
n o . 1 4 3 1 = C I J I I , n o . 7 4 2 , l i n e 2 9 ; cf a l s o 740 = D F , n o s . 1 4 - 1 5 ) .
A p a r t from a b r i e f J e w i s h i n s c r i p t i o n , a b u i l d i n g - i n s c r i p t i o n p u t u p
b y I r e n o p o i o s son o f J a c o b , a n d e n d i n g C I G , n o . 9897 = C I J I I , n o .
739, t h e m o s t i n f o r m a t i v e i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m S m y r n a is I G R I V , n o . 1 4 5 2
= C I J I I , n o . 7 4 1 = I K S m y r n a I , n o . 2 9 5 : 'PoVtfxtva TovSata
apxt'OVvdywyos KareaKevaaev TO evaopiov TOIS aTreXcvdepois Kat dpip,aaiv.
fjLTjSevos aX(^Xyov eôvaiav eôvros ddijiai rivd. EI Be TI TOA/XR/AEI, hioaei
TU) lepoiTdTcp rajLieioi (Srjvdpia) a(f>' Kat TO) edvei TU>V 'lovSalwv (Srjvdpia)
a'. TttUTT^s T17S e'inypa(f>rjs TO dvTiypa(f>ov aTro/ceiTai els TO dpxîôv. T h e
i n s c r i p t i o n d a t e s a t t h e e a r l i e s t to t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y A.D. N o t e also I K
S m y r n a I, n o . 296, a ypap-fxaTevs t o u iv Zp,vpvr) Xaov (for t h e J e w i s h
c o n n o t a t i o n s of AAOS see L . R o b e r t , Hellenica X I - X I I (i960), p p . 260—2),
a n d n o . 297, a g r a v e s t o n e of J u d a s , e r e c t e d b y his m o t h e r A n n a .
I n Sardis a J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y may h a v e b e e n in existence a s e a r l y as
t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y B.C O b a d i a h v. 20, w r i t i n g in t h e l a t e s i x t h or fifth
c e n t u r y , refers to ' ( t h e ) c a p t i v i t y of J e r u s a l e m w h i c h is in S e p h a r a d '
(TIDOU) in t h e c o u r s e of a p r o p h e c y o f d e s t r u c t i o n . N o i n d i c a t i o n o f
t h e l o c a l i s a t i o n o f t h e p l a c e is g i v e n . H o w e v e r , in 1 9 1 6 a L y d i a n -
A r a m a i c b i l i n g u a l i n s c r i p t i o n from S a r d i s w a s p u b l i s h e d , b e l o n g i n g t o
t h e P e r s i a n p e r i o d , f r o m e i t h e r t h e fifth o r t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y ; see
D o n n e r a n d R o l l i g , K A I , n o . 260, w i t h text, t r a n s l a t i o n a n d c o m m e n t
a r y . I t is d a t e d ' o n t h e fifth o f M a r h e s h v a n , y e a r 1 0 of K i n g A r t a x e r x e s
i n t h e fortress S e p h a r a d (XnT3 T1D03)'. T h e t w o p l a c e - n a m e s a r e
i d e n t i c a l . B u t a l t h o u g h t h e r e is l a t e e v i d e n c e for P e r s i a n s e t t l e m e n t o f
J e w s i n H y r c a n i a (p. 6 a b o v e ) , t h e r e is n o n e for s u c h s e t t l e m e n t i n
t h e S a r d i s a r e a , i.e., L y d i a , u n t i l the S e l e u c i d p e r i o d ( p . 1 7 ) . I n a n y
case, t h e i d e n t i t y of t h e t w o n a m e s is h a r d l y a n a d e q u a t e basis. I n
s h o r t , t h o u g h S a r d i s may h a v e b e e n t h e ' S e p h a r a d ' to w h i c h O b a d i a h
a l l u d e s , J e w i s h s e t t l e m e n t i n this a r e a is n o t a t t e s t e d u n t i l a l a t e r p e r i o d .
T h e e x i s t e n c e of a J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y t h e r e in t h e first c e n t u r y B.c. is
r e c o r d e d b y v a r i o u s p a s s a g e s in J o s e p h u s . I n a l e t t e r o f L. A n t o n i u s to
t h e a u t h o r i t i e s i n S a r d i s (50-49 B . C . ) , i t is s a i d t h a t t h e J e w s in t h e city
have their o w n court. H e n c e even J e w s w h o a r e R o m a n citizens are
a u t h o r i z e d t o b r i n g t h e i r d i s p u t e s before t h e J e w i s h c o u r t i n s t e a d of
before t h a t set u p for R o m a n citizens. Ant. x i v 1 0 , 17 ( 2 3 5 ) . T h r o u g h a
d e c r e e of t h e city of S a r d i s , o f u n c e r t a i n d a t e , the J e w s t h e r e a r e a s s u r e d
o f t h e u n h i n d e r e d p r a c t i c e o f t h e i r r e l i g i o n . Ant. x i v 10, 24 ( 2 5 9 - 6 1 ) . I n
a l e t t e r of t h e p r o c o n s u l , G . N o r b a n u s F l a c c u s , to t h e a u t h o r i t i e s in
S a r d i s in t h e t i m e of A u g u s t u s , t h e c i t y a u t h o r i t i e s a r e r e q u e s t e d n o t t o
p r e v e n t t h e J e w s f r o m c o n s i g n i n g m o n e y for s a c r e d p u r p o s e s t o
J e r u s a l e m , Ant. x v i 6, 6 ( 1 7 1 ) .
T h e r e is n o w e x t e n s i v e i n s c r i p t i o n a l a n d a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e for
t h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y of S a r d i s a n d t h e i r s y n a g o g u e in t h e I m p e r i a l
p e r i o d . T h e o l d e r e v i d e n c e c o n s i s t s of t w o f r a g m e n t a r y i n s c r i p t i o n s , o n e
m e n t i o n i n g a w o m a n d e s c r i b e d as 'E^pea ( C I J I I , n o . 750) a n d t h e
o t h e r listing a m o n g t h e f o u n t a i n s of t h e c i t y t h a t o f the s y n a g o g u e ,
avvayoiyrj\s Kprivrf\ ( n o . 7 5 1 ) . By f a r t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t r e c e n t e v i d e n c e
for J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s i n A s i a M i n o r is h o w e v e r p r o v i d e d b y t h e
s y n a g o g u e itself, d i s c o v e r e d in 1 9 6 2 , a n d e x c a v a t e d a n d r e s t o r e d
s i n c e . I t is t h o u g h t t h a t t h e b u i l d i n g , c l e a r l y i d e n t i f i e d a s J e w i s h b y
d e c o r a t i v e e l e m e n t s a n d i n s c r i p t i o n s , h a d o r i g i n a l l y b e e n c o n s t r u c t e d as
p a r t o f a l a r g e b a t h a n d g y m n a s i u m c o m p l e x b e g u n i n t h e first c e n t u r y
A.D., w i t h w o r k c o n t i n u i n g well i n t o t h e s e c o n d , a n d h a d c o m e i n t o use
as a s y n a g o g u e b y t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f the t h i r d c e n t u r y . I t w a s t h e n
f u r t h e r r e m o d e l l e d in t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y , a n d m a y h a v e r e m a i n e d i n
service u n t i l t h e e a r l y s e v e n t h . I n c l u d i n g a n u m b e r of s m a l l f r a g m e n t s ,
more than eighty inscriptions h a v e b e e n found there. T h e only g r o u p to
b e fully p u b l i s h e d so far i n c l u d e s t w o m o s a i c i n s c r i p t i o n s of p e r s o n s
d e s c r i b e d a s deoae^-jjs ( R o b e r t , Sardes, nos. 4 - 5 = D F , n o s . 1 7 - 1 8 ) ; a
p l a q u e r e c o r d i n g s o m e o n e ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n to t h e b u i l d i n g CK TWV Scopewv
35. T h e bibHography of the Sardis synagogue, including many annual or semi-popular

reports, is already extensive. The essential items are: L. Robert, Nouvelles Inscriptions de
•Sardes I (1964), pp. 37-58, 'Inscriptions d e la Synagogue'; A . R. Seager, 'The Building
History of the Sardis Synagogue', AJA 76 (1972), pp. 425-35 ; G. M. A. Hanfmann, Sardis
from Prehistoric to Roman Times (1983), ch. 9, 'The Synagogue and the Jewish Community'
(by A. R. Seager and A. T . Kraabel); A . R. Seager et al., The Synagogue and its Setting
f .Archaeological Exploration of Sardis, Report V), forthcoming. For a brief account, Kraabel,
'1 he Diaspora Synagogue', pp. 483-8.
TOV TTavTOKpoLTopos 0<eo)>i5 ( n o . 7 = D F , no. 2 0 ) ; a n d t h r e e p o t t e r y

f r a g m e n t s w i t h the n a m e s S a b b a t i o s , T h e o k t i s t o s a n d J a c o b (nos. 2 0 - 2 ) .
See D F , nos. 2 1 - 7 . T h e r e m a i n d e r , on w h i c h a b r i e f r e p o r t h a s b e e n
m a d e ( B A S O R 1 8 7 ( 1 9 6 7 ) , p p . 2 7 - 3 2 ) , i n c l u d e a n o t i c e of t h e
p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a m e n o r a h {heptamyxion) ; a p l a q u e w h i c h p r o b a b l y
c o m e s f r o m t h e T o r a h s h r i n e {nomophylakion); a n d t h e f o u r t h - c e n t u r y
i n s c r i p t i o n of a m a n d e s c r i b e d as hiereus a n d sophodidaskalos. A n u m b e r
of f r a g m e n t a r y H e b r e w i n s c r i p t i o n s h a v e also b e e n f o u n d a n d a w a i t
publication.
T h a t J e w s lived i n Philadelphia, s o u t h - e a s t of S a r d i s , is a p p a r e n t f r o m
t h e l e t t e r in t h e b o o k of R e v e l a t i o n t o t h e C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t i e s t h e r e
( R e v . 3 : 9 ) . I t is c o n f i r m e d b y a n i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m D e l i l e r n e a r b y , C I J
II, no. 754 = DF, no. 28: [ t J i j dyiOT{a.Trj a\vvay<x}yfi tcov 'E^paCojv
EvoTadios 6 deoaePrjs vTrep puvias {sic) TOV dSeXcftov 'Epp,o<f>CXov TOV
p.aaKavXr)v...
I n Hypaepa, s o u t h of S a r d i s , t h e f o l l o w i n g i n s c r i p t i o n h a s b e e n f o u n d :
7ou5a[t]a>v v€uiTkp(ov. I t d a t e s f r o m a b o u t t h e e n d of t h e s e c o n d , or t h e
b e g i n n i n g of t h e t h i r d , c e n t u r y A.D., T h . R e i n a c h , R E J 1 0 ( 1 8 8 5 ) , p p .
74FIR.= C I J I I , no. 7 5 5 .
I t is p e r h a p s a sign of J e w i s h influence i n Colophon t h a t t h e O r a c l e of
A p o l l o C l a r i u s o n c e issued a r e p l y t h e r e c o n c e r n i n g the g o d '/aa> (see
t h e o r a c l e in M a c r o b i u s , Sat. i 1 8 , 1 9 - 2 1 = S t e r n , G L A J J I I , n o . 4 4 5 ) ;
on its a u t h e n t i c i t y see G . B a u d i s s i n , Studien zur semitischen Religions-
geschichte I ( 1 8 7 6 ) , p p . 2 1 3 - 1 8 ; C. B u r e s c h , Klaros ( 1 8 8 9 ) , p p . 4 8 - 5 5 ) ;
C h . P i c a r d , Ephese et Claros ( 1 9 2 2 ) , p p . 705, 7 1 5 .
T h e archisynagogos a t t e s t e d a t n e a r b y Teos ( C I J I I , n o . 744) w a s
p r o b a b l y a J e w i s h official. T h e n a m e w a s c o r r e c t l y r e - r e a d by L .
R o b e r t , Hell. I (1940), p p . 2 7 - 8 , a s T. 'POVT(IXIOS) TCDOTJS: hence a
R o m a n c i t i z e n , p e r h a p s o f t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y A.D. S e e Lifshitz, D F , n o .
16.
R e f e r e n c e s t o the J e w s i n Ephesus a r e n u m e r o u s . J o s e p h u s c l a i m s t h a t
t h e y w e r e g r a n t e d l o c a l c i t i z e n s h i p a s e a r l y as t h e t i m e of t h e D i a d o c h i ,
p r o b a b l y t h r o u g h A n t i o c h u s I I T h e o s ( 2 6 1 - 2 4 6 B . C ) , J o s e p h u s , Ant. xii
3, 2 ( 1 2 5 ) ; C. Ap. ii 4 ; cf p . 1 2 9 . W h e n t h e c o n s u l , L . C o r n e l i u s
L e n t u l u s C r u s , a c t i n g i n the i n t e r e s t of t h e P o m p e i a n p a r t y i n A s i a
M i n o r , s u m m o n e d R o m a n citizens t o m i l i t a r y service i n 49 B.C., t h e
J e w s in E p h e s u s w i t h R o m a n c i t i z e n s h i p w e r e e x e m p t e d , yln^ x i v 10, 1 3
( 2 2 8 - 3 0 ) ; 16 ( 2 3 4 ) ; 19 ( 2 3 9 - 4 0 ) . T h i s p r i v i l e g e w a s r e n e w e d i n 43 B.C.
by D o l a b e l l a , a n d t h e y w e r e a t the s a m e t i m e a s s u r e d of t h e f r e e d o m t o
p r a c t i s e t h e i r r e l i g i o n in g e n e r a l . Ant. xiv 1 0 , 1 1 — 1 2 ( 2 2 3 - 2 7 ) . T h e s a m e
g u a r a n t e e w a s g i v e n by M . l u n i u s B r u t u s in 42 B.C., Ant. xiv 10, 2 5
( 2 6 2 - 4 ) , w h e r e the c o r r u p t n a m e is p r o b a b l y t o b e r e a d in t h i s w a y .
U n d e r A u g u s t u s , t h e a u t h o r i t i e s in E p h e s u s w e r e often s h a r p l y
r e m i n d e d t h a t t h e J e w s w e r e n o t to b e p r e v e n t e d f r o m d e s p a t c h i n g
s a c r e d m o n e y to J e r u s a l e m ; see t h e l e t t e r s o f C. N o r b a n u s F l a c c u s in
P h i l o , Legatio 40 ( 3 1 5 ) ; of A g r i p p a , J o s e p h u s Ant. xvi 6, 4 ( 1 6 7 - 8 ) ; of
l u l l u s A n t o n i u s , Ant. x v i 6, 7 (172—3). T h e l a t t e r w a s c o n s u l in 10 B.C
a n d p r o c o n s u l of A s i a a few y e a r s l a t e r .
T h e s y n a g o g u e in E p h e s u s is m e n t i o n e d i n A c t s 1 8 : 1 9 , 2 6 ; 19:8. A
f r a g m e n t a r y i n s c r i p t i o n of u n c e r t a i n d a t e f r o m t h e city s e e m s to refer to
t h e officials of t h e s y n a g o g u e : TUiv dpxi-(,a)vvay(ii'y(ûi)v Kai TO)V
Trp€a^(vT€pajv),]OAl 5 2 ( i 9 7 8 - 8 0 ) , p . 50, n o . 94 ( B E 1 9 8 1 , n o . 428) =
I K E p h e s o s , n o . 1 2 5 1 . F r o m t h e s e c o n d to t h i r d c e n t u r y a . d . c o m e t h e
f o l l o w i n g t w o e p i t a p h s f o u n d in E p h e s u s : i) P u b l i s h e d in t h e f o r m , t o
pLvr)p,ei6v iari Map MovaaiovÎalpeos. Crj. K-qSovrai oi'IovSatoi ( I B M I I I . 2 ,
E p h e s o s (1890), n o . 6 7 6 = C I J I I , n o . 746). Map h a s b e e n s u p p o s e d
e q u i v a l e n t t o mar, title o f a r e s p e c t e d r a b b i , a n d Movaaios to M o s e s . But
it is m o r e likely t h a t w h a t w e h a v e is t h e a b b r e v i a t e d n a m e o f a R o m a n
c i t i z e n , M(dpKos) A<^vyp('q\ios) Movaaios. T h e w o r d laipeajs is p r o b a b l y
n o t a p r o p e r n a m e b u t t h e g e n i t i v e Upews, ' p r i e s t ' . So L . R o b e r t , Hell.
X I - X I I (i960), p p . 3 8 1 - 4 , followed i n I K E p h e s o s , n o . 1 6 7 6 . 2) [ t o
fjLvrjpetov eCTTi] '/o[i»Aiou ? ...] apx^'drpov [/cat rrjs yvvaLKôs avrov UovXias
[ ]rjs Kat T€KVCov avTOiv. [C,a)]atv. [TavTr)s Trj]s aopov Kri8ov[Tat 01 ev
'E<j>€a]u) Tovbioi ( I B M I I I . 2 , n o . 6 7 7 = C I J I I , 7 4 5 = I K E p h e s o s , no.
1 6 7 7 ) . T h e title ' c h i e f d o c t o r ' m a y i m p l y t h a t t h e m a n w a s a m o n g t h e
d o c t o r s r e c o g n i z e d b y a c i t y in t h e p r o v i n c e o f A s i a ; t h e y enjoyed
i m m u n i t y f r o m a l l o b l i g a t i o n s . A c c o r d i n g t o a l e t t e r of A n t o n i n u s Pius
[Dig. x x v i i I , 6, 2 ) , i m m u n i t i e s c o u l d b e g r a n t e d for five i n the s m a l l
t o w n s , s e v e n in conventus c e n t r e s a n d t e n i n metropoleis. F o r these city
chief p h y s i c i a n s i n g e n e r a l , see J . M a r q u a r d t , Das Privatleben der Romer
I I ( 1 8 8 2 ) , p p . 749 ff.; R E I I , cols. 4 6 4 - 6 ; W . L i e b e n a m , Stddteverwaltung
in rom. Kaiserreiche (1900), p p . 1 0 0 - 4 ; J- K e i l , ' A r z t e i n s c h r i f t e n aus
Ephesos', J O A I 8 (1905), p p . 1 2 8 - 3 8 ; P . W o l t e r s , J O A I 9 (1906), pp.
2 9 5 - 7 ) . T h e r e w a s a J e w i s h apxlo-rpos a l s o i n V e n o s a ( G I J V, no. 600).
f'or a full d i s c u s s i o n of t h e m e a n i n g of t h e t e r m , c o n c l u d i n g t h a t , i n the
c o n t e x t of a n A s i a M i n o r c i t y a f t e r A n t o n i n u s P i u s ' l e t t e r , it m o s t
p r o b a b l y d o e s refer t o o n e of t h e d o c t o r s g r a n t e d i m m u n i t y , s e e V .
N u t t o n , ' A r c h i a t r i a n d t h e M e d i c a l Profession in A n t i q u i t y ' , P B S R 45
( 1 9 7 7 ) , p p . 1 9 1 - 2 2 6 . C f a l s o t h e d i s c u s s i o n oi archiatri in G . H . R.
1 lorsley, New Documents Illustrating Early Christianity I I ( 1 9 8 2 ) , n o . 2.
For t h e l a t e r p e r i o d n o t e also t h e i n s c r i b e d l e t t e r of b i s h o p H y p a t i o s
m e n t i o n i n g t h e (ftiXapyvpia TovSaiKrj, H . G r e g o i r e , Rec. Ins. Or. Asie
.Min. I , no. 1 0 8 ; Ephesos I V : die Marienkirche ( 1 9 3 2 ) , no. 3 5 = I K
I'-phesos, n o . 4 1 3 5 . T h i s is o f c o u r s e n o t e v i d e n c e for J e w i s h s e t t l e m e n t
III ihe city. F o r t h e f r a g m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e a v a i l a b l e from this p e r i o d see
( Foss, Ephesos after Antiquity ( 1 9 7 9 ) , p . 4 5 .
I t w a s n e c e s s a r y for a R o m a n p r o c o n s u l , p r o b a b l y i n t h e t i m e of
C a e s a r , t o c o m p e l t h e a u t h o r i t i e s i n Tralles t o a l l o w J e w s to p r a c t i s e
t h e i r religion, as a p p e a r s f r o m a c h a n c e allusion i n t h e l e t t e r of t h e
L a o d i c e a n s i n Ant. x i v l o , 20 (242). T h e i n s c r i p t i o n of a g r a n d l a d y
f r o m T r a l l e s , C a p i t o l i n a , -q d$i.6Xoy(os?) Kat <^dy€oa€P(ris), may refer t o
h e r J e w i s h beliefs (see also t h e f o r m u l a vnep evxrjs, U. 6 - 7 ) , as a r g u e d b y
L. R o b e r t , Etudes Anatoliennes ( 1 9 3 7 ) , p p . 4 0 9 - 1 2 ) , f o l l o w e d b y Lifshitz,
D F , no. 30.
I n t h e n e i g h b o u r h o o d oiNysa, in t h e M a e a n d e r v a l l e y , t h e f o l l o w i n g
inscription h a s been f o u n d : Mcvavhpos Vl7roAA6uv<i>8ou cTroirjaev
otKo(^8yoiJLriaas rov tovov dvo ttjs emypa(f>rjs ttjs Trpog dvaT[oA]'))v to) Xaw
Kat rrj avv68(x) t[u)u Ttepi] AojaiOcov ©eoyevov ( A t h . M i t t . 22 ( 1 8 9 7 ) , P-
484, n o . 2 ) . T h e e d i t o r n o t e s : ' T h e e x p r e s s i o n Xaos m i g h t suggest t h a t
t h e avvoSos w a s a J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y ' . T h i s i s v e r y p r o b a b l e , see L .
R o b e r t , Hell. X I - X I I (i960), p . 261 (from w h i c h t h e text g i v e n h e r e is
t a k e n ) ; D F , n o . 3 1 . W i t h r e g a r d to Aads, c o m p a r e t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s f r o m
H i e r a p o l i s in P h r y g i a , M a n t i n e a , a n d L a r i s s a collected o n p . 89. P e r
s o n a l n a m e s w i t h Seos w e r e s p e c i a l l y p o p u l a r a m o n g J e w s . N y s a lies
between Tralles and Laodicea.
T h a t J e w s w e r e l i v i n g in Caria, p a r t i c u l a r l y in t h e t o w n s of Myndus,
Halicamassus a n d Cnidus, as e a r l y a s t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B.C m a y b e
d e d u c e d from i M a c . 1 5 : 2 3 (see a b o v e , p . 4 ) . G o o d e v i d e n c e exists
for H y l l a r i m a , P r i e n e (?), M i l e t u s , l a s u s , H a l i c a m a s s u s a n d M y n d u s .
A t Hyllarima in t h e i n t e r i o r , a n i n s c r i p t i o n o f the l a t e - R o m a n p e r i o d
r e c o r d s a d e d i c a t i o n b y Avp. Evadv^Tios (sic) Trpcâ^jSurepo? a n d Avp.
EvTvvx(..av}ovaa w h i c h m e n t i o n s (1. 5) rfj dyiiOTaTrj avvaywyfj ( B C H 5 8
( 1 9 3 4 ) , p . 3 7 9 , n o . 44 a n d p p . 5 1 6 - 1 7 ) ; n o t e L . R o b e r t , Hell. I l l , p .
1 0 5 , n. 5 , r e c o r d i n g f r o m a u t o p s y t h a t t h e i n s c r i p t i o n is in situ in t h e
r u i n s of w h a t m a y w e l l b e the s y n a g o g u e . C f D F , n o . 3 2 .
A t Priene, n o l i t e r a r y o r e p i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e exists for a J e w i s h
c o m m u n i t y , b u t a h o u s e o r i g i n a l l y built i n t h e H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d a n d
r e c o n s t r u c t e d u n d e r t h e E m p i r e h a s c l e a r l y J e w i s h d e c o r a t i v e motifs
( m e n o r a h , l u l a b , e t h r o g , shofar) a n d c a n r e a s o n a b l y b e r e g a r d e d a s a
synagogue. See K r a a b e l , 'Diaspora S y n a g o g u e ' , pp. 4 8 9 - 9 1 .
T h e a u t h o r i t i e s i n Miletus w e r e specifically i n s t r u c t e d b y a l e t t e r of
t h e p r o c o n s u l of A s i a n o t to h i n d e r t h e J e w s i n t h e p r a c t i c e of t h e i r
religious c u s t o m s . Ant. x i v 10, 2 1 ( 2 4 4 - 6 ) . T h e l e t t e r p r o b a b l y d a t e s t o
t h e t i m e of C a e s a r ; in o u r t e x t o f J o s e p h u s , t h e p r o c o n s u l ' s n a m e is
c o r r u p t (see b e l o w , p . 1 1 6 , n. 3 7 ) .
I n t h e t h e a t r e of M i l e t u s b e l o n g i n g to t h e R o m a n p e r i o d , t h e
f o l l o w i n g h a s b e e n f o u n d , besides m a n y o t h e r i n s c r i p t i o n s o n s e a t s :
TOTTOs Elovhioiv TOiv Kat ©coaeîov ( p u b l i s h e d b y A. D e i s s m a n , Licht vom
Osten ( 1 9 0 8 ; ^ 1 9 2 3 ) , p p . 3 9 1 - 2 f ; E T , Light from the Ancient East ( 1 9 1 0 ) ,
p p . 446 f. = C I J I I , n o . 748). T h i s i n s c r i p t i o n h a s g i v e n rise to v e r y

extensive discussion. See most recently H . H o m m e l , J u d e n und
C h r i s t e n im k a i s e r z e i t l i c h e n M i l e t . U b e r l e g u n g e n z u r T h e a t e r i n s c h r i f t ' ,
1st. M i t t . 25 ( 1 9 7 5 ) , p p . 1 6 7 - 9 5 . S e e p p . 167—8 b e l o w .
M i l e t u s also h a s a s m a l l o b l o n g b u i l d i n g w h i c h t h e e x c a v a t o r s
h y p o t h e t i c a l l y i d e n t i f i e d as a s y n a g o g u e of t h e l a t e R o m a n p e r i o d . See
Milet 1.6 ( 1 9 2 2 ) , p p . 80-2 a n d 17 ( p l a n ) , a n d K r a a b e l , ' D i a s p o r a
Synagogue', p p . 488-9.
I n lasus o n t h e c o a s t b e t w e e n M i l e t u s a n d H a l i c a m a s s u s , a list of
c o n t r i b u t o r s t o t h e festival o f t h e D i o n y s i a i n c l u d e s a c e r t a i n N i c e t a s , a
J e r u s a l e m i t e , w h o is q u a l i f i e d f u r t h e r m o r e as a metoikos (a foreigner
living i n l a s u s ) . H e d o n a t e d o n e h u n d r e d d r a c h m a s ( L e B a s et
W a d d i n g t o n , Inscriptions, I I I , n o . 294 = C I J I I , n o . 749). T h e
i n s c r i p t i o n d a t e s from s o m e t i m e i n t h e m i d d l e o f the s e c o n d c e n t u r y
B.C. (see t h e discussion in L e Bas et W a d d i n g t o n I I I . 2 , p . 8 7 , on nos.
2 5 2 ff".). J e w i s h s u p p o r t of a p a g a n festival recalls p a r a l l e l e v e n t s in
J e r u s a l e m b e f o r e the b e g i n n i n g of t h e M a c c a b a e a n u p r i s i n g . I t is
h o w e v e r n o t c e r t a i n t h a t N i c e t a s w a s a J e w . T w o o t h e r i n s c r i p t i o n s (L.
R o b e r t , Hell. I, p p . 2 8 - 9 ; I I I , p p . l O O - i ) e a c h m e n t i o n t h e n a m e J u d a s .
A d e c r e e of t h e city of Halicamassus g u a r a n t e e s the J e w s o f t h e city
free exercise of t h e i r r e l i g i o n . Ant. xiv 1 0 , 23 (256—8). T h i s d e c r e e was
also p a s s e d u n d e r R o m a n i n f l u e n c e , p e r h a p s i n t h e t i m e o f C a e s a r .
I n Myndus, w e s t o f H a l i c a m a s s u s a n d o n t h e s a m e p e n i n s u l a , a
w o m a n a p p e a r s o n a n i n s c r i p t i o n from the b e g i n n i n g o f the B y z a n t i n e
p e r i o d z.% archisynagogos ( R E J 42 ( 1 9 0 1 ) , 1-4 = C I J I I , n o . 7 5 6 = D F ,
n o . 29).
F r o m t h e n e w l y e x c a v a t e d city of Aphrodisias in i n l a n d C a r i a , t h e r e is
a new i n s c r i p t i o n of m a j o r i m p o r t a n c e w h i c h is t o be p u b l i s h e d b y J .
M . R e y n o l d s , O . M a s s o n a n d R . T a n n e n b a u m as a S u p p l e m e n t a r y
V o l u m e of t h e P r o c e e d i n g s o f the C a m b r i d g e P h i l o l o g i c a l Society.
T h e text is i n s c r i b e d on two faces of a m a r b l e b l o c k w h i c h m a y
possibly h a v e f u n c t i o n e d as a d o o r - j a m b . T h e l e t t e r i n g on face b. (see
below) suggests a d a t e i n t h e l a t e s e c o n d or e a r l y t h i r d c e n t u r y . T h a t on
face a. is diflferent, a n d c a n n o t b e assigned t o a specific c e n t u r y w i t h i n
t h e I m p e r i a l or l a t e - R o m a n p e r i o d . It r e m a i n s u n c l e a r w h e t h e r o r not
t h e t w o inscribed faces c o n t a i n a single t e x t .
F a c e a. c o n t a i n s the n a m e s a n d functions o f p e r s o n s w h o c o n t r i b u t e d
for the f o u n d a t i o n of s o m e t h i n g ( p r e s u m a b l y a b u i l d i n g ? ) d e s c r i b e d in
1. I by t h e t r a n s l i t e r a t e d L a t i n w o r d patella, m e a n i n g d i s h . I t s function
is d e s c r i b e d as b e i n g 'for t h e relief of s o r r o w [apenthesia) a m o n g the
p e o p l e ' . T h e s e a n d o t h e r p r o b l e m s a r i s i n g from t h e h e a d i n g c a n n o t be
discussed h e r e . T h e J e w i s h c h a r a c t e r of t h e i n s c r i p t i o n is u n m i s t a k e a b l e
from t h e n a m e s w h i c h follow, i n c l u d i n g a f e m a l e p a t r o n e s s {prostates)
n a m e d l a e l , w i t h h e r son l o s o u a , a n arch(on) ; S a m o u e l , a presbeutes a n d

p r i e s t ; B e n i a m i n , a psalmo(logos?) ; t h r e e p e r s o n s d e s c r i b e d asproselutos
( v a r i o u s l y a b b r e v i a t e d ) , w i t h t h e n a m e s S a m o u e l , loses, a n d E i o s e p h
son of E u s e b i o s ; a n d t w o p e r s o n s d e s c r i b e d as theosebf es).
T h e c o n c l u d i n g lines o f this face a r e lost, as is p e r h a p s o n e l i n e at t h e
t o p of face b. T w o f u r t h e r lines h e r e a r e c o m p l e t e l y o r a l m o s t
c o m p l e t e l y lost. It is t h e r e f o r e u n c l e a r w h e t h e r the list of n a m e s w h i c h
follows (in a different e p i g r a p h i c h a n d , see a b o v e ) h a d a s e p a r a t e
h e a d i n g , o r c o n t i n u e s t h e list o f c o n t r i b u t o r s .
W h a t is c l e a r is, o n c e a g a i n , t h a t this is a list of t h e m a l e m e m b e r s of
a Jewish community. A m i d the Greek, a n d transliterated Latin names,
t h e r e a r e a s u b s t a n t i a l n u m b e r of H e b r e w n a m e s : l a k o b (3 t i m e s ) ,
Manases, loudas (7), l o s e p h (3), R o u b e n , S a m o u e l , S y m e o n ,
Z a c h a r i a s ; t h e n a m e E u s a b b a t h i o s a l s o o c c u r s four t i m e s .
After this list t h e r e is a o n e - l i n e b r e a k a n d t h e n a s u b - h e a d i n g : ' a n d
s u c h as a r e theosebis' (sic). T h e n e w list b e g i n s w i t h n i n e p e r s o n s e a c h
d e s c r i b e d as ' t o w n - c o u n c i l l o r ' {bouleutes) ; h e r e a n d in t h e r e s t of it,
again recording only males, there a r e no H e b r e w names, although the
n a m e E u s a b b a t h i o s occurs once. T h e n e w inscription thus provides t h e
c o n c l u s i v e e v i d e n c e for t h e r e a l i t y of a d e f i n e d c a t e g o r y o f g e n t i l e
' G o d - f e a r e r s ' a t t a c h e d t o a J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y (see p p . 166—8 b e l o w ) .
N o t e also t h a t t h e e d i t o r s will p u b l i s h , a l o n g w i t h o t h e r m i n o r
J e w i s h , o r possibly J e w i s h , i n s c r i p t i o n s , s o m e l a t e - R o m a n graffiti f r o m
t h e O d e o n a t A p h r o d i s i a s : o n e r e a d s ' p l a c e of (the) H e b r e o i ' , a n d
a n o t h e r ' p l a c e of ( t h e ) b l u e H e b r e o i , t h e e l d e r s ' {paleoi). T h e r e f e r e n c e
is t o the c i r c u s - a n d t h e a t r e - f a c t i o n o f the ' b l u e s ' .
I n Sala, on t h e b o r d e r s of L y d i a a n d P h r y g i a , e p o n y m o u s m a g i s t r a t e s
(Melito a n d Andronicus) whose father w a s n a m e d ' S a l a m o n ' a p p e a r on
c o i n s f r o m t h e time of T r a j a n , A n t o n i n u s Pius a n d M a r c u s A u r e l i u s . a)
I n t h e t i m e of T r a j a n : CTTI MCXITCDVOS SaX(afjiutvos) dpxiepecDS UaXrjvcov,
R N 4^ ser. 2 ( 1 8 9 8 ) , p p . 5 3 5 - 6 , nos. 6436, 6 4 4 1 , 6446. B M C L y d i a , p .
2 2 7 . b) U n d e r A n t o n i n u s P i u s : int AvSpoveiKov UaXapa)vos SaXrjvwv,
B M C L y d i a , p . 2 3 2 ; F. I m h o o f - B l u m e r , Kleinasiatische Miinzen ( 1 9 0 1 ) ,
p. 1 8 3 . T h e n a m e EaXafxwvos is w r i t t e n i n full on b o t h e x a m p l e s a n d
t h e r e b y m a k e s possible t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f t h e n a m e o n the coins of
M e l i t o . c) I n t h e t i m e of M a r c u s A u r e l i u s : €TTI 'Av8po(vetKov)
2aXap,(x)vos ZaXiqvojv, R N 4^ ser. 2 (1898), p . 5 5 6 , no. 6453.
T h e city officials w h o s e n a m e s a p p e a r on t h e s e coins w e r e p r e s u m
a b l y n o t p r a c t i s i n g J e w s . M e l i t o w a s e v e n a p a g a n h i g h priest. T h e
n a m e ' S a l a m o n ' h a s suggested nevertheless t h a t they were of Jewish
o r i g i n . C f W . M . R a m s a y , Exp. ( F e b . 1902) p . 102. B u t it is h o w e v e r
m o r e likely t h a t t h e n a m e is L y d i a n , see L . Z g u s t a , Kleinasiatische
Personennamen ( 1 9 6 4 ) , p . 4 5 1 .
I n Phrygia, a c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r o f J e w s w e r e s e t t l e d b y A n t i o c h u s
t h e G r e a t , Ant. xii 3, 4 ( 1 4 7 - 5 3 ) '•> a b o v e , p . 17. T h e i r m a i n c e n t r e s of
p o p u l a t i o n s e e m to h a v e b e e n L a o d i c e a a n d A p a m e a . F o r J e w s in
P h r y g i a in g e n e r a l , see R a m s a y , The Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia 1.2
(1897), pp. 667-76.
I n Laodicea, r a t h e r m o r e t h a n t w e n t y p o u n d s o f gold d e s t i n e d for t h e
T e m p l e w e r e c o n f i s c a t e d o n t h e o r d e r s of F l a c c u s ( 6 2 - 6 1 B.C.) ( C i c e r o ,
pro Flacco 2 8 - 6 8 : ' L a o d i c e a e v i g i n t i p o n d o p a u U o a m p l i u s p e r h u n c L.
Peducaeum iudicem nostrum').
I n a l e t t e r t o t h e p r o c o n s u l , C . R a b i r i u s , p e r h a p s in t h e t i m e of
C a e s a r ( b o t h n a m e a n d t i t l e a r e u n c e r t a i n , see b e l o w p . 1 1 6 ) , t h e
a u t h o r i t i e s o f L a o d i c e a a s s u r e h i m t h a t , in o b e d i e n c e t o R o m a n o r d e r s ,
t h e y w i l l n o t h i n d e r t h e J e w s in t h e free p r a c t i c e of t h e i r r e l i g i o n , Ant.
x i v 10, 20 ( 2 4 1 - 3 ) .
I n Hierapolis a n u m b e r of J e w i s h e p i t a p h s h a v e b e e n f o u n d .
1) ri aopos... AvpTjXias rXvKOJVijSos *Ap.p.Lavoij Kal T[OI)] dvSpos avrijs
M(dpKov) Avp(riXiov) AXiâvhpov @€0<f>(Xov eTTtKX[7]V Aa?^d<f> [Xa]ov
*Iov8aiuiv.. €Tepip Se ovSevi iîarai KrjSevaaL ev avrfj riva. el 8e p.r],
aTTOTeiaei TCO Xaw TWV 'Iov8ai[w]v 7rpoaT€(î)p,ov 6v[6p,]aTt, 8r]vdpia xetAia.
TavTTjs TTJs €TnYpa<f>'fjs aTrXovv a [v] T i y p a ^ o v dneredrj eis r a dpxla (Alter-
tiimer von Hierapolis, b y H u m a n n , C i c h o r i u s , J u d e i c h , W i n t e r ; J D A I ,
4. E r g a n z u n g s h e f t (1898), i n s . n o . 69 = C I J I I , n o . 776.
2) aopos.. Avp(r)Xias) Avyovaras ZojTeiKov ... el 8e I n eTepos
Kr)8evaei, 8oiaei Trj KaToiKia TWV ev TepanoXei KaTOLKOvvrwv *Iov8aiwv
TrpoareCp,ov (8T)vdpia) [...] /cat TW e/c^T/TiJaavTi (8rfvdpia Biax^Xia).
dvTiypa<j>ov direTedT] ev TCO dpxltp TWV TovBaicov {Altertiimer von Hierapolis,
ins. n o . 212 = I G R I V , no. 834 = C I J I I , n o . 7 7 5 . T h e J e w i s h archive
m e n t i o n e d h e r e is p r o b a b l y t h e o n e m e a n t a l s o i n t h e p r e v i o u s
inscription.
3) E s p e c i a l l y r e m a r k a b l e is t h e e p i t a p h o f a c e r t a i n P u b l i u s A e l i u s
G l y k o n , in w h i c h it is s t a t e d t h a t t h e d e a d m a n h a s b e q u e a t h e d a s u m
t o the g u i l d of p u r p l e - d y e r s (TTJ aefivoTdTrj 7rpoe8piq. TWV 'nop<f>vpo^d<f>wv)
s o t h a t , o u t of t h e i n t e r e s t , h i s g r a v e c o u l d b e d e c o r a t e d y e a r l y w i t h a
w r e a t h ev TTJ eopT-fj TWV dl,vpiwv. F u r t h e r , h e left t o a n o t h e r g u i l d (TW
axn>e8pCcp TWV Kaipo8aTTtoTwv) a s u m for t h e d e c o r a t i o n o f his g r a v e ev TTJ

eopT-fj 7r€VTr)Ko[aTijs]. A c c o r d i n g t o this, t h e d e a d m a n a t least w a s a J e w ,
since r d dôfxa c a n o n l y refer to P a s s o v e r , n o t to t h e C h r i s t i a n festival of
E a s t e r . But t h e m e m b e r s of t h e g u i l d s m u s t also h a v e b e e n i n f l u e n c e d
b y J u d a i s m . T h e i n s c r i p t i o n w a s p u b l i s h e d by A . W a g e n e r , R e v . d e
r i n s t r u c t i o n p u b l i q u e e n B e l g i q u e X V I * a n n e e 1 1 ( i 8 6 g ) , p p . i ff. See
P h i l o l o g u s 3 2 ( 1 8 7 3 ) , p . 380 ; R a m s a y , The Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia
I 2, p . 5 4 5 ; a n d J u d e i c h , Altertiimer von Hierapolis, n o . 3 4 2 = C I J I I , n o .
7 7 7 . F o r d i s c u s s i o n see R a m s a y , Exp. ( F e b . 1902), 9 8 - 1 0 0 . O n t h e
c u s t o m of d e c o r a t i n g g r a v e s y e a r l y w i t h flowers, s e e a l s o J u d e i c h , op.
cit., 129 ff". ( o n n o . 195) a n d t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s nos. 1 3 3 , 1 5 3 , 1 9 5 , 209,
234, 2 7 8 , 293, 3 1 0 , 336. I t o c c u r s also i n the w e s t : C I L V , n o s . 2 3 1 5 ,
4 0 1 7 ; X I , n o . 1 3 2 . J . P . W a l t z i n g , Etude historique sur les corporations
professionelles chez les Romains I V (1900), p . 5 4 2 . N o t e also t h e e p i t a p h of
Avp-qXiov AvvLov Eivovios (?) Tov8€[ov?] ( C I J I I , n o . 778. Nos. 779 a n d
780 m a y p e r h a p s b e J e w i s h ) , a n d t h e m o r e r e c e n t l y p u b l i s h e d e p i t a p h
f r o m a t o m b w i t h J e w i s h s y m b o l s : 77 aopos, Kal 6 jSco/xo? Kad' oS
eneiKecTai Mdp( KOV) Avp(TJXIOV) îXovpievov UTpr]V€LOJVos 'lovSaiov, as
w e l l as a s a r c o p h a g u s w i t h m e n o r a h a n d the w o r d TovSeojv ( B E 1 9 7 1 ,
no. 645).
I n Apamea, J e w i s h m o n e y a m o u n t i n g t o a b o u t o n e h u n d r e d p o u n d s
of gold w a s confiscated o n t h e o r d e r s of F l a c c u s ( 6 2 - 6 1 B.C.). ( C i c e r o ,
pro Flacco 28-68: ' A p a m e a e m a n i f e s t o c o m p r e h e n s u m a n t e p e d e s
p r a e t o r i s in foro e x p e n s u m esse a u r i p o n d o c e n t u m p a u l l o m i n u s p e r
Sex. Caesium, e q u i t e m R o m a n u m , castissimum h o m i n e m a t q u e
integerrimum'.)
A n i n s c r i p t i o n i n A p a m e a r u n s a s follows: Avp. 'Poiôs TovXiavoi) B'
e'iroi[r]aa t o rjptoov ifiavrcp K€ [ti^ avpLîo) /x]ou Avp. Tariavfj- Is 0 erepos ov
Tedrj. et 8e' TIS eTnrrjSevaei, TOV v6p,ov oiSev TWV ElovSeojv ( R a m s a y , The
Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia I I . 2 , p . 5 3 8 = C I J I I , n o . 7 7 4 ) . N o t e a l s o
t h e p a r a l l e l i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m A p a m e a ( C I J I I , n o . 773 d a t i n g to A.D.
2 5 3 - 4 ) , o n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of a -qpioov a n d u s i n g t h e f o r m u l a earai avrw
npos, T[6V] deov. O n heroon = t o m b or b u r i a l - p l a c e , see b e l o w , p . 3 3 ,
t h e r e m a r k s o n the i n s c r i p t i o n from T l o s .
I t is a l s o possible t h a t t h e l o c a l i s a t i o n a n d a d o p t i o n of t h e N o a h s a g a
in A p a m e a is to b e a s c r i b e d t o J e w i s h i n f l u e n c e . D e f i n i t e e v i d e n c e for
this localization a d m i t t e d l y derives only from the Christian period,
l u l i u s A f r i c a n u s n o t e s t h a t s o m e believe A r a r a t to b e in t h e n e i g h b o u r
h o o d of C e l a e n a e i n P h r y g i a ( q u o t e d b y G e o r g i u s S y n c e l l u s , Chron. ed.
D i n d o r f I, p p . 3 8 - 4 2 ; a l s o i n R o u t h , Reliquiae Sacrae I I , p . 2 4 3 ) . I t is
l o c a t e d i n t h e s a m e p l a c e , i.e. n e a r the s o u r c e s of t h e M a r s y a s , b y t h e
a u t h o r of Or. Sib. i 261 ff". A c c o r d i n g t o S t r a b o xii 8, 15 ( 5 7 7 ff.),
C e l a e n a e lay n e a r t h e s o u r c e s of t h e M a r s y a s a n d the M e a n d e r . T h e
i n h a b i t a n t s w e r e forced b y A n t i o c h u s S o t e r t o l e a v e t h e t o w n , a n d to
settle f u r t h e r d o w n s t r e a m a t t h e j u n c t i o n of t h e M a r s y a s a n d M e a n d e r ,
w h e r e A n t i o c h u s f o u n d e d t h e city o f A p a m e a i n h o n o u r of his m o t h e r ,
A p a m a . A p a m e a t h u s t o o k t h e p l a c e of C e l a e n a e ( S t r a b o , loc. cit.; L i v y
xxxviii 1 3 , 5 ; P h n y , Nat. Hist, v 29-106. O n t h e l o c a t i o n a n d h i s t o r y of
t h e t o w n , see especially t h e t h o r o u g h t r e a t m e n t by G . H i r s c h f e l d , A A B
( 1 8 7 5 ) , p p . 1 - 2 6 ; also D . G . H o g a r t h , J H S 9 (1888), p p . 3 4 3 - 9 ; G.
W e b e r , Dinair, Celenes, Apamee Cibotos, avec un plan et deux cartes ( 1 8 9 2 ) ;
H i r s c h f e l d in R E I , cols. 2664 ff".; R a m s a y , The Cities and Bishoprics of
Phrygia 1.2 ( 1 8 9 7 ) , p p . 3 9 6 - 4 8 3 ; H . L e c l e r c q in D A C 1.2 (1907), cols.

2 5 0 0 - 2 3 ; R E X X ( 1 9 4 1 ) , c o l . 8 1 5 ( b i b l i o g r a p h y ) ; D . M a g i e , Roman
Rule in Asia Minor ( 1 9 5 0 ) , p p . 9 8 3 - 4 ; J o n e s , C E R P ' , p p . 6 9 - 7 1 . W e n o w
h a v e c o i n s f r o m A p a m e a d a t i n g f r o m t h e first h a l f of t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y
A.D., f r o m t h e t i m e of S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s , M a c r i n u s , S e v e r u s A l e x a n d e r
a n d P h i l i p t h e A r a b , d e p i c t i n g N o a h a n d h i s wife s t e p p i n g o u t o f the
A r k . T h e n a m e NQE is a d d e d in e x p l a n a t i o n . T h e coins, a l r e a d y
k n o w n to e a r l i e r n u m i s m a t i s t s , P . E c k h e l , Doctr. Num. I l l , p p . 1 3 2 ff".,
•wext d e s c r i b e d a n d p u b U s h e d in g r e a t e s t d e t a i l i n F . W . M a d d e n , N C
( 1 8 6 6 ) , p p . 173—219 a n d p i . 6; n e w e x a m p l e s in t h e W a d d i n g t o n
collection, R N ( 1 8 9 8 ) , p p . 397 ff"., nos. 5 7 2 3 , 5 7 3 0 , 5 7 3 1 ; B M C
P h r y g i a , p . l o i ; full b i b l i o g r a p h y in L e c l e r c q , D A C loc. cit.; B . V .
H e a d , Hist. Num. ( ^ 1 9 1 1 ) , p p . 6 6 5 - 7 ; ^ôte also E. R . G o o d e n o u g h ,
Jewish Symbols I I ( 1 9 5 3 ) , p p . 1 1 9 - 2 0 . S i n c e t h e c o i n s w e r e s t r u c k b y the
p a g a n a u t h o r i t i e s of A p a m e a , t h e y testify to t h e a c c e p t a n c e o f the
l e g e n d in t h e s e d i s t r i c t s also. B u t it is i m p r o b a b l e t h a t this first c a m e
a b o u t t h r o u g h C h r i s t i a n i n f l u e n c e ; J u d a i s m o b t a i n e d a foothold t h e r e
l o n g before C h r i s t i a n i t y . T h e a d o p t i o n of t h e N o a h s a g a m a y b e in
s o m e w a y c o n n e c t e d t o t h e p r e v i o u s a d o p t i o n of t h e n i c k n a m e KI^COTOS,
b y w h i c h A p a m e a w a s k n o w n a s e a r l y as S t r a b o , x i i 8, 1 3 ( 5 7 6 ) :
'ATTOLixeia -q KIÔOTOS XeyofievT). C f P l i n y , Nat. Hist, v 2 9 - 1 0 6 : ' A p a m e a m
a n t e a p p e l l a t a m C e l a e n a s d e i n C i b o t o n ' ; P t o l e m . ¥ 2 , 2 5 : 'Andfieia
KIÛ)T6S. KL^WTOS is t h e t e r m u s u a l l y e m p l o y e d in the L X X for N o a h ' s
A r k . I t is t h e r e f o r e possible t h a t A p a m e a received its n i c k n a m e d i r e c t l y
i n c o n s e q u e n c e of a d o p t i n g t h e N o a h s a g a (so S. v o n G u t s c h m i d , R h M
( 1 8 6 4 ) , p . 4 0 0 ; Kl. Schr. I I , p . 392 ; E. B a b e l o n , R H R 23 ( 1 8 9 1 ) , p. 1 7 6 ) .
I t m u s t h o w e v e r be a d m i t t e d t h a t kibotos o c c u r s e l s e w h e r e as a
p l a c e - n a m e . A c c o r d i n g to S t r a b o xvii i , 10 ( p . 7 9 5 ) , t h e i n n e r ,
a r t i f i c i a l l y - e x c a v a t e d h a r b o u r of A l e x a n d r i a w a s called kibotos a n d
A n n a C o m n e n a , Alexias xi i ; x i v 5 ; x v i, m e n t i o n s a Kibotos o n the
c o a s t o f B i t h y n i a , in t h e e a s t e r n c o r n e r of t h e P r o p o n t i s (see R a m s a y ,
Historical Geography of Asia Minor ( 1 8 9 0 ) , p . 186). I t s h o u l d f u r t h e r be
n o t e d t h a t o n t h e coins of A p a m e a , KI^COTOI a p p e a r s a l s o in t h e p l u r a l
a s an a d j e c t i v e ( F . I m h o o f - B l u m e r , Kleinasiatische Miinzen I ( 1 9 0 1 ) , p .
2 1 1 : c o i n s from t h e t i m e o f H a d r i a n w i t h the i n s c r i p t i o n A-rratxewv
Mapavas KI^CDTOI, t h e p l u r a l b e i n g q u i t e clearly l e g i b l e in s o m e
e x a m p l e s ) . F i v e chests a r e d e p i c t e d in t h e field, a t t h e t o p . P r e s u m a b l y ,
t h e r e f o r e , t h e t o w n ' s n i c k n a m e h a d s o m e o t h e r o r i g i n a n d only
s u b s e q u e n t l y p r o v i d e d t h e r e a s o n for t h e l o c a l i z a t i o n o f the N o a h saga
( R a m s a y e x p r e s s e d d o u b t s i n The Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia 1.2, p p .
6 6 9 - 7 2 ) . O n the o t h e r h a n d , t h e r e a p p e a r t o be n o g r o u n d s w h a t e v e r
for s u p p o s i n g t h a t a p a g a n flood l e g e n d o r i g i n a l l y existed i n A p a m e a ,
a n d t h a t it w a s l a t e r c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e J e w i s h story (as for e x a m p l e
J . G . D r o y s e n , Gesch. des Hellenismus, I I I . 2 CîSyy), p . 271 ; R e i n a c h , Les

monnaies juives ( 1 8 8 7 ) , p p . 71 fF.; H . U s e n e r , Die Sintfluthsagen (1899),
p p . 4 8 - 5 0 ) . A g a i n s t t h i s , see especially B a b e l o n , ' L a t r a d i t i o n p h r y g -
i e n n e d u d e l u g e ' , R H R 23 ( 1 8 9 1 ) , p p . 1 7 4 - 8 3 ) ; J u s t e r , Les Juifs dans
I'empire romain I ( 1 9 1 4 ) , p . 1 9 1 , n. 1 9 . I t s h o u l d therefore b e m a d e c l e a r
a t t h e e n d o f this discussion t h a t t h e b a c k g r o u n d a n d c o n t e x t of t h e
a p p e a r a n c e of N o a h a n d t h e A r k o n t h e s e c o i n s r e m a i n s w h o l l y
unintelligible
Besides t h e l e g e n d of N o a h , l i t e r a r y e v i d e n c e also relates t h e E n o c h
l e g e n d t o P h r y g i a . I n Steph. Byz. s.v. 'IKOVLOV ( = F G r H 800 F 3), i t is
s t a t e d t h a t a t the t i m e o f a c e r t a i n A n n a c u s , w h o lived t o be o v e r t h r e e
h u n d r e d y e a r s old, t h e P h r y g i a n s w e r e i n f o r m e d b y t h e O r a c l e t h a t
after his d e a t h all w o u l d be d e s t r o y e d a s h a p p e n e d after t h e flood of
D e u c a l i o n . T h e n c e t h e r e d e r i v e d t h e s a y i n g T O int 'AwaKov KXavacLv.
T h e a p p e a l t o t h e p r o v e r b i a l s a y i n g i n d i c a t e s t h a t the n o t e o r i g i n a t e s
f r o m t h e s a m e s o u r c e as t h e closely s i m i l a r s a y i n g i n Z e n o b i u s , Prov. vi
10 {Paroemiographi graeci, e d d . E . L. v o n L e u t s c h a n d F . W . S c h n e i d e w i n
1.1, p . 164) a n d t h e S u d a s.v. NdvvaKos. Z e n o b i u s , w h o s e w o r k is s i m p l y
a n e x t r a c t from o l d e r collections of s a y i n g s , lived a t the t i m e of
H a d r i a n . H e , a n d after h i m t h e S u d a , h a s N a n n a c u s i n s t e a d of
A n n a c u s , call h i m ' K i n g of t h e P h r y g i a n s ' , a n d q u o t e as a u t h o r i t y
' H e r m o g e n e s in t h e Phrygia'. W h e t h e r t h i s H e r m o g e n e s is i d e n t i c a l w i t h
t h e a u t h o r of t h e s a m e n a m e k n o w n from o t h e r sources, is i m p o s s i b l e to
s a y (see F H G I I I , p . 5 2 3 : t e x t s in F G r H 7 9 5 ) . H e m a y b e t h e p e r s o n
r e f e r r e d to b y J o s e p h u s a m o n g w r i t e r s w h o a l s o m e n t i o n J e w s , C. Ap. i
2 3 ( 2 1 6 ) . I n a n y case, b e c a u s e of t h e i r s u b s t a n t i a l a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e
b i b l i c a l story, t h e r e is n o d o u b t c o n c e r n i n g t h e J e w i s h o r i g i n of t h e
l e g e n d s , d e s p i t e t h e s t r o n g a t t e s t a t i o n of t h e f o r m ' N a n n a c u s ' ( H .
U s e n e r , Die Sintfluthsagen, p . 5 0 ) . P r o b a b l y , t h e p r o v e r b i a l s a y i n g s p o k e
of KXavaeiv im NavvaKov, a n d u n d e r J e w i s h influence this w a s
s u b s e q u e n t l y e x p l a i n e d o n t h e basis of t h e E n o c h l e g e n d . H e r e a l s o ,
t h e r e f o r e , t h e r e is n o r e a s o n to a s s u m e t h e existence of a n o r i g i n a l
r e l a t e d P h r y g i a n s a g a ( a s for e x a m p l e i n P. C . B u t t m a n , Mythologus I,
p p . 176 ff., a n d R a m s a y , Exp. ( S e p t . 1 9 0 5 ) , p p . 199 ff.) O n a J e w i s h
o r i g i n see B a b e l o n , R H R 23 ( 1 8 9 1 ) , p . 180. F o r a r i g h t l y s c e p t i c a l v i e w
of these c o n n e c t i o n s see S t e r n , G L A J J I, n o . Ixxiv ( H e r m o g e n e s ) .
I n t h e t e r r i t o r y of Acmonia i n P h r y g i a a n i n s c r i p t i o n h a s b e e n f o u n d
h o n o u r i n g several s y n a g o g u e officials w h o r e s t o r e d ' t h e s y n a g o g u e b u i l t
b y l u l i a S e v e r a ' (first r e p o r t e d from a c o p y m a d e b y R a m s a y i n R A 12
(1888), p . 2 2 5 ; a fresh a n d b e t t e r c o p y b y R a m s a y i n R E A 3 ( 1 9 0 1 ) , p .
2 7 2 ; following t h i s R A 41 ( 1 9 0 2 ) , p . 3 5 7 = I G R I V n o . 655 =
M A M A V I , n o . 264 ( t h e b e s t t e x t ) , followed in D F , n o . 33) ; cf also
C I J I I , n o . 766 ( o n w h o s e deficiencies see L. R o b e r t , BE 1954, n o . 2 4 ) :
TOV /caTaCT/<'ei»aCTê[v]Ta o[R]>cov vvo '/ouAias Xeovrjpas TI. Tvppwvios

KXdSos 6 Std jSiou apxt'OVvdyajyos Kat Aovkios Aovkiov apxiavvdywyos Kat
IIoTTiXios ZuiTiKOs dpxciiv i7r€oK€vaaav Ik t € t c o v iSicov Kat twv
avvKaradepevcov Kat eypaif/av rovg TOtxovs Kat r-qv 6po<f>'f)v Kat inoirjaav Trjv
TWV dvpiSwv da<l>dX€iav Kat tov [AvJttov rrdvTa Koayiov, ovaTivas /ca[t] rj
avvaywyrj eTeip-rjaav ottXw CTTixpvaw 8id t€ ttjv evdpcTOV avTwv
8[i]d^[€]aiv Kat T'qv npos Trjv avvaywyrjv evvoidv t€ Kat a[TTOV^8'qv. T h e
l u l i a S e v e r a n a m e d h e r e as b u i l d e r is k n o w n f r o m i n s c r i p d o n s a n d
c o i n s f r o m A c m o n i a as a l a d y of h i g h r a n k ( C I G n o . 3 8 5 8 , o r b e t t e r ,
R a m s a y , Cities and Bishoprics 1.2, p . 6 3 7 ; a n o t h e r i n s c r i p t i o n ibid. p . 647,
n o . 5 5 0 ; full e v i d e n c e in P I R ^ I 7 0 1 . A l o n g w i t h h e r h u s b a n d ,
S e r v e n i u s C a p i t o , s h e w a s several t i m e s ' h i g h priestess' ( o n c o i n s : iirt
dpx- TO y' ZepoxrqvCov KaniTwvos Kat TovXias Ueoirqpas, B M C P h r y g i a ,
p p . 6, 1 0 , s i m i l a r l y p p . 9, 1 0 , 11 ; cf p . x x i i ; o t h e r e x a m p l e s in t h e
s u r v e y b y W a d d i n g t o n , R N ( 1 8 9 8 ) , p . 384, nos. 5488, 5490, 5494.
O l d e r m a t e r i a l on t h e s e c o i n s in T . E. M i o n n e t , Description de medailles
I V , p p . 198 fF. S u p p l . vii, p . 484. T h e v i e w t h a t dpx- = dpxiepewv ( a n d
n o t dpxovTwv) is r e c o m m e n d e d in v i e w o f the i n s c r i p t i o n i n R a m s a y , p .
647, n o . 5 5 0 : VouAta ZeovTJpa dpxiepeiq Kat dytovodeTiSi,. Cf. also P I R ' S
4 0 4 ; R a m s a y , The Cities and Bishoprics, 1.2, p p . 6 3 7 - 4 0 , 6 7 3 fF. T h e c o i n s
in q u e s t i o n a l l d a t e to t h e t i m e o f N e r o . T h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y in
A c m o n i a t h e r e f o r e h a d f r i e n d s in t h e h i g h e s t social circles a t t h a t t i m e ,
l u l i a Severa c a n n o t , of course, h a v e b e e n J e w i s h : she was a 'high
p r i e s t e s s ' , i.e., of t h e I m p e r i a l cult. B u t s h e b u i l t t h e s y n a g o g u e for t h e
J e w s as t h e i r p a t r o n e s s . O u r i n s c r i p t i o n b e l o n g s t o a l a t e r a g e ; t h e
p e o p l e i t h o n o u r s h a d restored t h e s y n a g o g u e s h e h a d o n c e b u i l t .
S u b s t a n t i a l f u r t h e r e v i d e n c e n o w exists of J e w i s h s e t t l e m e n t in
A c m o n i a . S e e m o s t r e c e n t l y L. R o b e r t , J S 1 9 7 5 , p p . 158—60, a n d
A . R . R . S h e p p a r d , ' J e w s , C h r i s t i a n s a n d H e r e t i c s in A c m o n i a a n d
E u m e n e i a ' , A S 29 ( 1 9 7 9 ) , p p . 1 6 9 - 8 0 . N o t e G I J I I , n o . 764, t h e e p i t a p h
of a m a n d e s c r i b e d as 'lovSatos; n o . 769 (from V e n i c e n e a r A c m o n i a ) a
g r a v e - c u r s e w i t h t h e f o r m u l a ( d e r i v e d f r o m Z e c h . 5 : 2 - 4 L X X ) [LAJRAT
avTW npos TOV deov TOV vtjtiaTov, Kat t o dpds 8penavov els TO SKOV (sic)
avTov [iaeXdoiTo]; for g r a v e - c u r s e s s h o w i n g ( a t least) J e w i s h i n f l u e n c e
see also M A M A V I , n o s . 2 7 7 ; 2 8 7 ; 3 1 6 ( C I J I I , n o . 7 6 8 ) ; 3 2 5 ;
3 3 5 - 3 3 5 a ( = C I J I I , n o . 760, w r o n g l y a t t r i b u t e d to B l a u n d o s ) . O n
these i n s c r i p t i o n s n o t e t h e e x p l i c i t r e f e r e n c e to Deuteronomy—OAAI
dpat ev TW A€xnepovop,Ccp elat yeypap,pevai et sim. e t c . T h e s e c o n d of
t h e m s h o w s t h a t t h e d o n o r of t h e m o n u m e n t , d a t e d to A.D. 248-9, h a d
filled a n u m b e r of local m a g i s t r a c i e s . F o r this f e a t u r e c o m p a r e also a n
i n s c r i p t i o n o f A.D. 2 3 3 , c o p i e d a t U § a k b u t a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y f r o m
A c m o n i a (see L. R o b e r t , Hell. X , p p . 2 4 9 - 5 3 ) . F o r a n o t h e r s e p u l c h r a l
i n s c r i p t i o n ( B . L a u m , Stiftungen I I , n o . 1 7 4 ) of t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y , a l m o s t
c e r t a i n l y e m a n a t i n g f r o m a J e w i s h m i l i e u i n A c m o n i a , see L . R o b e r t ,
Hell. X I - X I I , p p . 4 0 9 - 1 3 . M A M A V I , n o . 3 3 4 is a b i l i n g u a l i n s c r i p t i o n
in Greek (fragmentary) and H e b r e w , of uncertain date. For m e n o r a h s ,
see C I J I I , n o . 7 7 1 , M A M A V I , n o . 3 4 7 .
F o r t w o f u r t h e r d e d i c a t i o n s t o Theos Hypsistos from Yenice Koy a n d
Corum ( J o r u m l a r ) n e a r A c m o n i a , see T . D r e w - B e a r , ' L o c a l C u l t s i n
G r a e c o - R o m a n P h r y g i a ' , G R B S 17 ( 1 9 7 6 ) , p p . 2 4 7 - 6 8 , n o s . 1 - 2 ,
r e p r o d u c e d i n S E G X X V I , n o s . 1 3 5 5 - 6 , a n d b y G . H . R . H o r s l e y , JVew
Documents Illustrating Early Christianity ( 1 9 8 1 ) , n o . 5, w i t h a v a l u a b l e
d i s c u s s i o n . F o r t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e J e w i s h o r p a g a n c h a r a c t e r o f t h e
w o r s h i p of t h e ' H i g h e s t G o d ' , see p p . 3 8 , 6 7 - 8 , 7 0 - 2 , 169 b e l o w .
F o r t r a c e s of J u d a i s m o r J e w i s h influence a t Eumeneia, see L . R o b e r t ,
Hell. X I - X I I , p p . 4 1 4 - 3 9 , a n d S h e p p a r d , op. cit., w i t h C I J I I , n o . 7 6 1
( g r a v e - c u r s e s ) . T h e i n s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e a r e a also s h o w a c l e a r a n d
e x t e n s i v e C h r i s t i a n p r e s e n c e , see E . G i b s o n , The 'Christians for Christians'
Inscriptions of Phrygia ( 1 9 7 8 ) .
F r o m Synnada, f u r t h e r e a s t , a f r a g m e n t a r y i n s c r i p t i o n ( M A M A I V ,
n o . 90 = C I J I I , n o . 7 5 9 ) h a s [a]pxiavv[dyaiyos?].
Antioch in Pisidia, w h e r e a J e w i s h s y n a g o g u e s t o o d a t t h e t i m e o f t h e
a p o s t l e P a u l (Acts 1 3 : 1 4 ) , a l s o b e l o n g e d o r i g i n a l l y t o P h r y g i a . A J e w i s h
w o m a n , D e b o r a h , from a c i t y called ' A n t i o c h ' , is n a m e d o n a n e p i t a p h
i n A p o l l o n i a : [A^vTLOXf-oaa Trdrprjs yovecov TToXvTetptcov ovvop-a Ae^ôipd
B C H 1 7 ( 1 8 9 3 ) , p . 2 5 7 ; C I J I I , n o . 7 7 2 , n o t u s i n g t h e revised t e x t i n
M A M A I V , n o . 202, s e e L . R o b e r t , Noms indigenes ( 1 9 6 3 ) , p p . 4 0 1 - 6 .
S h e evidently h a d p a r e n t s w h o h a d w o n m a n y honours in their n a t i v e
l a n d . T h e d a t e is t h e e n d o f t h e s e c o n d o r t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y A.D. T h e
t o n e o f the e p i t a p h n e v e r t h e l e s s s t r o n g l y suggests t h a t she h a d c o m e
f r o m a n A n t i o c h m o r e d i s t a n t t h a n this o n e , p e r h a p s t h e C a r i a n
A n t i o c h on t h e r i v e r M e a n d e r ; so M A M A V I I , p . x, n . i , followed b y
B . M . L e v i c k , Roman Colonies in Southern Asia Minor ( 1 9 6 7 ) , p . 1 2 8 .
F r o m Sidibunda ( m o d e r n Z i v i n t ) in P i s i d i a c o m e s a d e d i c a t i o n deep
vipioTU) Kal 'Ayeia KaTa<f)vy'fj (AS l O (i960), p . 70, n o . 1 2 2 ) w h i c h c a n
r e a s o n a b l y b e a r g u e d t o reflect J u d a i s m o r J e w i s h i n f l u e n c e (so L .
R o b e r t in B E 1 9 6 1 , n o . 7 5 0 ; 1965, n o . 4 1 2 ) .
I n Lycia, p a r t i c u l a r l y in t h e t o w n o f Phaselis, J e w s a r e a s s u m e d t o
h a v e lived, a c c o r d i n g t o i M a c . 1 5 : 2 3 , a l r e a d y i n t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y
B.C. (cf. p . 4 a b o v e ) .
I n Limyra in L y c i a t h e r e is a n e p i t a p h w i t h t h e w o r d s ElovSa eipov
( P e t e r s e n a n d L u s c h a n , Reisen in Lykien, Milyas und Kibyratis ( 1 8 8 9 ) , p .
66 = C I J I I , no. 7 5 8 ) .
I n Tlos i n L y c i a , a r e m a r k a b l y i n t e r e s t i n g i n s c r i p t i o n h a s b e e n f o u n d
( p u b l . b y H u l a in Eranos Vindobonensis ( 1 8 9 3 ) , p p . 9 9 - 1 0 2 = C I J I I , n o .
7 5 7 ; revised text i n T A M I I . 2 , n o . 6 1 2 ) . I t r u n s : nroXepLatos /le[i>]/ciou
TAwcu? KaT€aK€vaa€v e/c TWV iSiwv t o ripwov OLTTO defjueXioiv avros Kat vrrkp
TOV vlov avTov nToXcfxaiov j8' t o u AevKiov v-nep dpxovTeias TeXovfxevas
nap' ripiilv *Iov8aiois ware avro etvai ndvTwv TWV *IovhaCwv, Kat p.'qhiva
iôv etvai CTCpov Tedrjvai ev avTw- edv Be' t i j evpeOeir] Tivd T(.\^$]WV,
6<f>€iXia€i. TXoewv TW hrjfxw... T h e e n d is m i s s i n g . T h e w o r d heroon, w h i c h

s t r i c d y signifies t h e b u r i a l - p l a c e o f a h e r o ( G . R o h d e , Psyche I I , p p . 149
AT.), h a s in t h i s c a s e t h e m e a n i n g of a b u r i a l - p l a c e in g e n e r a l (see for
e x a m p l e s J . K u b i n s k a , Les monuments funeraires dans les inscriptions grecques
de I'Asie Mineure ( 1 9 6 8 ) , i n d e x s . v . ; also (for e x a m p l e ) G . E. B e a n , T . B.
M i t f o r d , Journeys in Rough Cilicia in 1^4-68 ( 1 9 7 0 ) , s.v. i n I n d e x 7 d ; cf
i n g e n e r a l D . C . K u r t z , J . B o a r d m a n , Greek Burial Customs ( 1 9 7 1 ) ,
e s p e c i a l l y c h . 1 6 . I t is v e r y c o m m o n also on C h r i s t i a n e p i t a p h s in
P h r y g i a (see R a m s a y , Cities and Bishoprics 1.2, p p . 5 1 4 - 6 8 ) . T h u s
P t o l e m a e u s b u i l t a b u r i a l - p l a c e for t h e J e w s i n T l o s in t h a n k s g i v i n g for
h i s s o n ' s a t t a i n m e n t t o archonteia, t h e office o f a n archon, in t h e J e w i s h
c o m m u n i t y . F r o m t h e n a t u r e o f t h e script a n d o r t h o g r a p h y , the
i n s c r i p t i o n w o u l d a p p e a r to d a t e f r o m t h e e n d of t h e first c e n t u r y A.D.
F r o m Termessos i n P i s i d i a t h e r e is a t h i r d - c e n t u r y e p i t a p h o n a
s a r c o p h a g u s from t h e n e c r o p o h s i n s c r i b e d b y a f a t h e r TTJ dvyoTpt avTov
Avp. *ApT€p,€i [sic) Tov84a p-ovrj, T A M I I I , n o . 448, see L . R o b e r t , Hell.
X I - X I I (i960), p . 386.
F o r the s p r e a d of J u d a i s m in Pamphylia w e h a v e t h e t e s t i m o n y of i
M a c . 1 5 : 2 3 a n d P h i l o , Legatio 3 6 ( 2 8 1 ) ; cf. a l s o A c t s 2 : 1 0 . N o t e in
a d d i d o n t h e p u z z l i n g e p i t a p h f r o m B e t h S h e ' a r i m , M . S c h w a b e a n d B.
Lifshitz, Beth She'arim I I : The Greek Inscriptions ( 1 9 6 7 ) , n o . 2 0 3 : TaKws
(sic) Kaiaapevs apxiavvdywyos nav<f>vXCas. DlVtZ?. A c c o r d i n g t o i M a c .
1 5 : 2 3 , t h e t o w n o f Side i n p a r t i c u l a r is t o be r e g a r d e d as a J e w i s h c e n t r e .
T h e f o l l o w i n g is a n i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m Side d a t i n g to the e a r l y
B y z a n t i n e p e r i o d ( J H S 28 (1908) p . 1 9 5 , n o . 29 = C I J I I , n o . 7 8 1 4 =
D F , n o . 36) : \Iaa\Kis ^povTioT-qs TTJS dyia>TaT[i7s] avvaycoyqs eaTi/v.
€VT[vx<jo]S Kat dvcTrXripuiaa T-qv papp.dpuiaiv dno [rov] d/x^wvos ews TOV
aip.p.a Kat eap^rjâ [tAJS 8VO €TTTap,v$ovs Kat TO. 8VO KiovoK€(f>aXa,
IvB(iKTiwvos) i€, Ijlt}(V6S) 8'. S i m i l a r l y from t h e l a t e p e r i o d (fifth-sixth
centuries) comes a n o t h e r inscription from Side, published by A . M .
M a n s e l , G. E . B e a n , J . I n a n , Die Agora von Side ( 1 9 5 1 ) , n o . 69, a n d
r e - i n t e r p r e t e d as J e w i s h b y L . R o b e r t , R e v . P h i l . 3 2 (1958) p p . 3 6 - 4 7 ;
Lifshitz, D F , n o . 3 7 : [cJtti AeovTiov rrpea^. Kat t,vy. [icjai (f>povTiaTov,
velov '/oKcojS dpx- Kat ^vy. eyeveTov rj KprjVTj avv TCO p.€aavXw IV8(IKTIOVI)
y , p.r}(vt) C'. T h e r e f e r e n c e to ' t h e f o u n t a i n w i t h t h e c o u r t y a r d ' is

noteworthy.
Cilicia, t o o , is s a i d b y P h i l o , Legatio 3 6 ( 2 8 1 ) , t o h a v e b e e n i n h a b i t e d
b y J e w s . J e w s f r o m Cilicia l i v e d i n J e r u s a l e m in c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r s
(Acts 6:9). Tarsus, t h e c a p i t a l o f Cilicia, w a s , a s is w e l l - k n o w n , t h e
h o m e t o w n o f t h e a p o s t l e P a u l (Acts 8 : i i ; 2 1 : 3 9 ; 2 2 : 3 ) . S e e C . B.
W e l l e s , ' H e l l e n i s t i c T a r s u s ' , M U S J 38 ( 1 9 6 2 ) , p p . 41—75. A g r a v e
i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m J a f f a refers t o a c e r t a i n *Iov8as vlos Toarj Tapaevs, G I J
I I , n o . 9 2 5 . F o r J e w s in T a r s u s in g e n e r a l , see also W . M . R a m s a y , Exp.
( J u l y 1906), p p . 32—47; A u g . , p p . 1 5 1 - 6 0 . T h e name7a>(n7? a l s o o c c u r s
o n a n e p i t a p h f r o m Selinus ( B E 1 9 6 5 , n o . 4 2 6 ) . E p i p h a n i u s r e l a t e s in
p a s s i n g t h a t t h e J e w i s h p a t r i a r c h J u d a h ( f o u r t h c e n t u r y A.D.) sent a n
apostolos to C i l i c i a to collect c o n t r i b u t i o n s f r o m t h e J e w s t h e r e
( E p i p h a n i u s , Haer. 30, 1 1 ) . H e m e n t i o n s also t h e i r archisynagogi, priests,
e l d e r s a n d s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s {dCavtrai = hazzanim).
F r o m Seleucia o n t h e C a l y c a d n u s t h e r e is o n e J e w i s h e p i t a p h ,
i d e n t i f i e d as s u c h b y t w o m e n o r a h s ( M A M A I I I , n o . 23 = C I J I I , n o .
7 8 3 ) , a n d , e n g r a v e d o n t h e d o o r of a f u n e r a r y c h a m b e r , t h e w o r d s
napaarariKov 'E^pecDv ( M A M A I I I , n o . 32 = C I J I I , n o . 7 8 4 ) , a n d
f r o m Olba t h e e p i t a p h of t w o b r o t h e r s d e s c r i b e d as TovSeujv (795).
F r o m Corycus in C i l i c i a a n u m b e r of J e w i s h f u n e r a r y i n s c r i p t i o n s a r e
k n o w n . C o l l e c t e d i n M A M A I I I ( 1 9 3 1 ) b y J . K e i l a n d A. W i l h e l m ,
t h e y a r e r e p r o d u c e d b y F r e y , C I J I I . T h e M A M A n u m b e r is g i v e n
first: 205 = 7 8 5 : acoiJ.aTod'qK'q *A^d Svp.oiivos rov p.aKapiov etepewv
( m e n o r a h ) ; 2 2 2 = 786: ivddSe Keirai 'AXeâvSpos 'Av€p.ovpi€vs lovSatos;
237 ~ 7^7" ooipiaTodTjKri 'Avaaraoiov Kal TaKwfôv) KaXiyapiwv
(menorah); 262 = 788: aoipt-arodrfK-q Avp(rjXiov) Evaavâriov
Mevdvhpov KcopvKiwTov ôvXevTov ( m e n o r a h ) ; 295 = 7 8 9 : [diJKr)
Aâp,ia[v]o[6] Tov84ov; 344 = 790: drJKrf Evaap-Pariov TovSeov
•npea^vrepov p.vpiôv ( t w o m e n o r a h s ) ; 440 = 791 : ivOdSe kcitc TovSas
Kal 'AXe^ds Niaaiov [ u i j e t j TovSaioi; 448 = 7 9 2 : aa}p.aTO0rJK7) TovXCov
p,vp€ijiov vlov *IovXlov TTpea^vrepov ( m e n o r a h ) ; 607. = 793 : acofjLaTodiJKrj
[M](i)at TTporavpapCov 'E^pios; 679 = 794 : Uapiorj Koxnd k(al) Avîvrios
EiovBecjv ( m e n o r a h ) .
T h e r e w a s a J e w i s h s y n a g o g u e i n Iconium i n L y c a o n i a in t h e t i m e of
t h e a p o s t l e P a u l (Acts 1 4 : 1 ) . T h a t i n S t e p h . B y z . s.v. t h e E n o c h l e g e n d
is l o c a t e d in I c o n i u m in a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e flood l e g e n d of D e u c a l i o n ,
is p e r h a p s d u e to t h e i n f l u e n c e of P h r y g i a , w h e r e t h e E n o c h l e g e n d m a y
first h a v e b e e n a d o p t e d (see a b o v e , p . 30). C f e s p e c i a l l y for J e w s in
L y c a o n i a ( ' S o u t h G a l a t i a ' ) in g e n e r a l , R a m s a y , H D B I I , 88b.
F o r Galatia p r o p e r t h e e v i d e n c e is v e r y s p a r s e . I t is s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t
J e w s a r e n o t discussed in t h e e x c e l l e n t a n a l y s i s b y S. M i t c h e l l ,
' P o p u l a t i o n a n d L a n d i n R o m a n G a l a t i a ' , A N R W I I . 7 , 2 (1980), p p .
1 0 5 3 - 8 1 . T h e e d i c t of A u g u s t u s i n f a v o u r o f t h e J e w s , Ant. xvi 6, 2
(162-5), previously r e g a r d e d a s such because o f the instruction at
its c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e t e x t s h o u l d b e e x h i b i t e d i n Ancyra, t h e c a p i t a l
c i t y of G a l a t i a . B u t AyKvprj is n o m o r e t h a n a c o n j e c t u r e o n t h e p a r t of
S c a l i g e r . T h e m a n u s c r i p t s all h a v e apyvp-q, a n d t h e c o n t e x t d e m a n d s a
r e f e r e n c e to t h e s i t e of t h e t e m p l e of R o m e a n d A u g u s t u s in Asia,
namely P e r g a m u m .
Recently collected epigraphical evidence from N . Galatia, however,
gives s o m e i n d i c a t i o n o f a J e w i s h p r e s e n c e , or a t l e a s t J u d a i s i n g
influences. S e e S. M i t c h e l l , Regional Epigraphic Catalogues of Asia Minor
I I : The Ankara District. The Inscriptions of North Galatia {Br. Inst. Arch.
Ankara. Monogr. 4; B A R I n t . S e r . 1 3 5 , 1982) : no. 1 3 3 ( = C I J I I , n o .
796 w i t h s u b s t a n t i a l r e v i s i o n s ) , f r o m K a y a k e n t n e a r t h e colonia of
G e r m a , has t h e n a m e s J a c o b ' a n d ' E s t h e r a s ' ( p e r h a p s f r o m t h e
B y z a n t i n e p e r i o d ) ; 1 4 1 , from t h e s a m e p l a c e , h a s SUVA/xi? 'YijiiaTov a n d
m a y be J e w i s h ; 209B f r o m K a l e c i k , N E o f A n k a r a , h a s TCO fieydXco Oew
'YtpiaTO) Kal 'ETTOvpaviu) Kal TOIS 'Ayiois avrov ÂvyeXois Kal rfj TrpoaKvvrjrfj
avTov TTpoaevxf}, a n d is p r o b a b l y J e w i s h ( t h i r d c e n t u r y a . d . ? ) . S e e A . R .
R . S h e p p a r d , ' P a g a n C u l t s o f A n g e l s in R o m a n A s i a M i n o r ' , T a l a n t a
12—13 ( 1 9 8 0 - 1 ) , p p . 77—101. N o t e also n o . 4 1 8 , f r o m n e a r T a v i u m , a
d e d i c a t i o n to T h e o s H y p s i s t o s ; 509—12, g r a v e s t o n e s , possibly J e w i s h , of
t h e B y z a n t i n e p e r i o d , f r o m E v c i , N E of T a v i u m .
I t is t o be a s s u m e d f r o m i M a c . 1 5 : 2 2 ( t h e l e t t e r of t h e R o m a n s to
K i n g A r i a r a t h e s ) t h a t J e w s lived in t h e r e g i o n o f t h e k i n g d o m of
Cappadocia. Cf. also Acts 2:9; mKet. 1 3 : 1 1 ( w h e r e it is d e b a t e d in w h a t
m o n e y t h e ketubah is to b e p a i d w h e n a m a n m a r r i e s in P a l e s t i n e a n d
dismisses his wife i n C a p p a d o c i a , o r v i c e v e r s a m a r r i e s i n C a p p a d o c i a
a n d dismisses h e r i n P a l e s t i n e , or finally, m a r r i e s h e r i n C a p p a d o c i a
a n d dismisses h e r t h e r e ) . J e w s f r o m C a p p a d o c i a l i v i n g i n Sepphoris a r e
m e n t i o n e d mySheb. 9:5. J e w i s h s c h o l a r s f r o m C a p p a d o c i a also a p p e a r :
R. J u d a h the C a p p a d o c i a n , R . J a n n a i t h e C a p p a d o c i a n , R . S a m u e l the
C a p p a d o c i a n . I n Caesarea Mazaca, t h e c a p i t a l of C a p p a d o c i a , t w e l v e
t h o u s a n d J e w s a r e a l l e g e d t o h a v e b e e n p u t to d e a t h a t t h e t i m e of
S a p o r . S e e in g e n e r a l , A . N e u b a u e r , Giographie du Talmud, p p . 3 1 7 - 1 9 ;
H a m b u r g e r , R E s.v. ' K a p p a d o c i e n ' ; S. K r a u s s , Griech. und lat. Lehn-
worter im Talmud 11 ( 1 8 9 9 ) , P- 5 5 ^ 5 B a c h e r , Die Agada der paldst.
Amorder I I I , p p . 106, 7 4 9 ; K r a u s s , ' C a p p a d o c i a ' , J E I I I (1902), cols.
5 5 8 - 9 . F r o m Jaffa c o m e s t h e f o l l o w i n g J e w i s h e p i t a p h tottos EtaKoj^^y
KandboKos k€ AxoXias avv^lov avTOv k€ 'Aarepiov ( P E F Q S t ( 1 8 9 3 ) , p .
290 = C I J I I , n o . 9 1 0 ) . E q u a l l y f r o m J a f f a c o m e s t h e e p i t a p h EV<^>DSE
K<(R^T<[E^ 'laaKis Trpea^vTcpos Trjs KanaSoKOJV Tdpaov XivonuiXov, or
a c c o r d i n g to a n o t h e r r e a d i n g AivottcoAov = XivoTTwXcbv ( P E F Q S t (1900),
p. 1 1 8 , n o . 1 2 2 = G I J I I , n o . 9 3 1 ) . T h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of this t e x t is n o t
clear.
F r o m Amastris i n P a p h l a g o n i a t h e r e is t h e d e d i c a t i o n D F , n o . 35 Ocoi
dveiKrjTcp Kal rrj Kvpia Trpoaevxfj ev^d/xevos, p e r h a p s o f the t h i r d c e n t u r y .
F o r Bithynia a n d Pontus w e h a v e P h i l o ' s e v i d e n c e , Legatio 3 6 ( 2 8 1 ) :
dxpi Bidvvias Kal tcuv TOV LIOVTOV p,vxo>v. I t is j u s t possible t h a t
' S a m p s a m e ' in i M a c . 1 5 : 2 3 c o u l d be u n d e r s t o o d as Amisus i n P o n t u s

(p. 4 above).
A q u i l a , t h e c o m p a n i o n o f P a u l , c a m e from P o n t u s ( A c t s 1 8 : 2 :
Tovbaiov.. UovTiKov TO) yevei) a n d similarly t h e p r o s e l y t e A q u i l a , t h e
t r a n s l a t o r of t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t (see p p . 4 9 3 - 9 ) . C o m p a r e also A c t s 2:9.
F r o m Nicomedia in B i t h y n i a w e h a v e a n e p i t a p h w i t h a p e n a l t y
p a y a b l e rfj avvay(xi[y^fi TCJVTOVSCCOV ( C I J I I , n o . 799 = T A M I V . i , n o .
3 7 7 ) a n d a n o t h e r , a d o r n e d w i t h J e w i s h s y m b o l s , w h i c h is c e r t a i n l y
J e w i s h (798, revised t e x t in Hell. X I - X I I , p p . 3 9 5 - 7 . See n o w T A M
I V . I , n o . 374. M o r e recently discovered grave-inscriptions include o n e
w i t h a p e n a l t y p a y a b l e TTJ avvaycDyij a n d a n o t h e r w i t h t h e i m p r e c a t i o n
e^2j Kpiaiv -rrpos TOV deov (L. R o b e r t , Hell. X I - X I I , p p . 3 8 6 - 9 = T A M
I V . I , n o . 3 7 5 . All four a p p e a r to d a t e t o t h e m i d - t h i r d c e n t u r y .
T A M I V . I , n o . 376 h a s a g r a v e - m u l t p a y a b l e rrj avyaywyfj, and 3 1 9 ,
o n e p a y a b l e tjj dy€icoT[dTrj...], almost certainly a reference to a J e w i s h
c o m m u n i t y (see B E 1 9 7 6 , n o . 684 a n d 1 9 7 9 , n o . 5 5 7 ) .
Also from B i t h y n i a , i n t h e n e i g h b o u r h o o d of t h e B o s p h o r u s , n o r t h
e a s t of Ckalcedon, c o m e s a l a t e G r e e k i n s c r i p t i o n w h i c h c a n b e r e s t o r e d
as ivOdSe KaTdK(^€iyT<âiy 2'avj3dTi<(o)s', u^tôs J'€/)<(o)vT<^t)ou
Trp(ca^vTcpov), ypap,(^pyaT€vs «{at)> <(€)>7r<î)>CTTd<(T'>7^? T<^d)yv 7raA{ai)>a>i'
( R E J 2 6 ( 1 8 9 3 ) , PP- 1 6 7 - 7 1 = C I J I I , n o . 800 = I K K a l c h e d o n , n o .
7 5 , a n d from Chrysopolis, i m m e d i a t e l y o p p o s i t e I s t a n b u l , the e p i t a p h o f
EloKovôs TTpea^vrepos velos Aeovriov rrpea^vripov ( C I J I I , n o . 801 =
I K K a l c h e d o n , n o . 76). B o t h a r e a d o r n e d w i t h m e n o r a h s .
J e w s w e r e also l i v i n g on t h e North Coast of the Black Sea from a n

early period. An organised Jewish community existed in
Panticapaeum (modern Kerch) o n t h e C i m m e r i a n Bosporus (the
C r i m e a ) in, a t t h e latest, t h e first c e n t u r y A.D., as is a t t e s t e d b y a n
i n s c r i p t i o n d a t e d 377 of t h e B o s p o r a n era = A.D. 8 1 ( C I G I I , p .
1005, A d d e n d a n o . 2 1 1 4 ^ ' ' = l O S P E I I , n o . 52 = I G R I, n o . 881 =
G I J I^, no. 683 = C I R B , n o . 70). I n t h e i n s c r i p t i o n , a J e w i s h w o m a n
d e c l a r e s t h e m a n u m i s s i o n o f a s l a v e : d<l)€ir]p,i i-nl TTJS 7T[po]a€vxr}S
dpcTTTOV pov 'HpaKXdv... dvcTTiKwXvTws Kadoi? T^[l5]^djLlT;V, x^P^^ ''"['')]*'
Trpoaevx'^v dojveias T€ K a l TTpoaKa\^pT€p]i]a€io[s^, avveTTivevadvTcov 8e K a t
TcDv KXrjp(ôyv6p,it)v piov'HpaKXeiSov Kat'EXiKcovidSos, ovve'[7TiT]poTT€vovorjs
Kat T7][s^ avvaya)yf][s] TWV TovSaCwv. T h e p u r p o s e of t h e final
r e m a r k , t h a t the heirs h a v e also assented a n d t h a t t h e J e w i s h
c o m m u n i t y is s u p e r i n t e n d i n g the m a t t e r , is t o r e n d e r t h e l e g a l effect
o f the a c t p e r m a n e n t l y s e c u r e ( o n t h e f r e q u e n c y of s u c h i n d i c a t i o n s
see L. M i t t e i s , Reichsrecht und Volksrecht in den dstlichen Provinzen des
romischen Kaiserreichs ( 1 8 9 1 ) , p p . 3 7 2 ff.). O n the f o r m u l a x">piV Is rrjv
TTpoaevx'TjV Owrreias re Kal TTpoaKapTep-qaws s e e B. N a d e l , V D I ( 1 9 5 8 ) ,
p p . 2 0 3 - 6 a n d b e l o w , p . 105. O f v e r y s i m i l a r c o n t e n t a r e t h r e e
o t h e r , m o r e d a m a g e d , i n s c r i p t i o n s , also from P a n t i c a p a e u m : a) C I R B ,
n o . 71 = C I J n o . 6 8 3 a ( p r o l . p . 6 5 ) , w i t h b i b l i o g r a p h y ; b) C I R B ,
n o . 72 = C I J \ \ n o . 6 8 3 b ( p r o l . , p . 66) ; c) C I G n o . 2 1 1 4 b = l O S P E
I I , n o . 53 = C I R B 7 3 = C I J R , n o . 684. N o t e in p a r t i c u l a r the
c o n c l u d i n g f o r m u l a o f a) : aweviTpoTrevovorjs rrjs avvayojyrjs TCUV
TovSaioiv Kat deov AEJSCOV, a n d for t h e issues r a i s e d by this a n d

c o m p a r a b l e e x p r e s s i o n s see H . B e l l e n , '2Jvvaycoyri tmv '/OUSAICOV Kat
Oeoae^cbv. ' D i e A u s s a g e e i n e r b o s p o r a n i s c h e n Freilassungsinschrift
( C I R B 71) z u m P r o b l e m d e r " G o t t e s f l i r c h t i g e n " , J A C 8-9 ( 1 9 6 5 - 6 ) ,
p p . 1 7 1 - 6 , a n d p p . 165—8 b e l o w .
N o m o r e t h a n m e a g r e f r a g m e n t s of n a m e s a r e r e c o g n i z a b l e on a few
J e w i s h g r a v e i n s c r i p t i o n s f o u n d in P a n t i c a p a e u m ( l O S P E I I , nos.
3 0 4 - 6 = C I J V, n o s . 687, 686, 6 8 5 = C I R B , n o . 7 3 5 ; l O S P E I V , no.
405 = C I J P , n o . 689. M o r e n o t e w o r t h y is a b i l i n g u a l e p i t a p h in
H e b r e w a n d G r e e k of t h e t h i r d - f o u r t h c e n t u r y , l O S P E I V , n o . 404 =
C I R B , n o . 7 3 6 = C I J V no. 688. C f a l s o f r o m n e a r K e r c h , a n e p i t a p h
a d o r n e d w i t h a m e n o r a h ivdd K(etrai) ( o n o p p o s i t e side) I!ap.orjX VL^Ô^S
Eeêpo<v> , C I R B , n o . 743 ; C I J I ^ n o . 689a (p. 66).

T h e J e w i s h c h a r a c t e r o f t w o i n s c r i p t i o n s f r o m Gorgippia ( m o d e r n
A n a p e ) on t h e T u m a n p e n i n s u l a , e a s t of t h e C i m m e r i a n B o s p o r u s ,
d a t e d t o t h e y e a r 338 of t h e B o s p o r a n era = A.D. 4 1 , is b y c o n t r a s t
d i s p u t e d . T h e y a r e C I J T , n o . 690 = C I R B , n o . 1 1 2 3 ; C I J I"*, no. 690a
( p . 67) = C I R B , n o . 1 1 2 6 . T h e f o r m u l a dew vipiaro) TvavroKpaTopi
evXoyrfrw w i t h w h i c h t h e y b e g i n s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e y a r e J e w i s h . D o u b t
m i g h t b e r a i s e d b y t h e fact, s h o w n by L a t y s c h e v , t h a t the final
o a t h - f o r m u l a is t o be r e a d VTTO ACa, r-fjv, "HXiov ( l O S P E I I , n o . 400, cf
v o l . I, n o t e o n n o . 98). T h e f o r m u l a op-vvoj ACa, F-qv, "HXiov is not r a r e ,
see e.g. O G I S , n o s . 229, 60, 7 0 ; 266, 2 3 , 5 1 ; 5 3 2 , 8 ; for t h e d e c l a r a t i o n
t h a t a slave is to b e freed VTTO Ala, rrjv, "HXiov see a l s o l O S P E I I , n o . 5 4 ;
P . O x y . , n o s . 4 8 , 1. 6 a n d 49, 1. 8. H o w e v e r , e v i d e n c e from the
E l e p h a n t i n e p a p y r i s h o w s t h a t o b s e r v i n g J e w s m i g h t m a k e u s e of p a g a n
o a t h - f o r m u l a s , w h i c h i n this case will h a v e b e e n a legal necessity. N o t e
also i n C I J I'^, n o . 690, 11. 8 - 9 , t h e e x p r e s s i o n dveOjjKev (iv) T[T/]
[TTpoa]€vxrj KaT ei5x[^]f. T h e i n s c r i p t i o n s s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e b e r e g a r d e d ,
o n b a l a n c e , as J e w i s h . T h e j u d a i z i n g i n t r o d u c t o r y f o r m u l a c a n a l s o be
r e s t o r e d in t h e m u t i l a t e d i n t r o d u c t i o n of a n o t h e r i n s c r i p t i o n , e q u a l l y
from G o r g i p p i a ( l O S P E I I , n o . 4 0 1 = I G R I, n o . 9 1 1 = C I R B , no.
1 1 2 5 ) . N o t e also C I J I ^ p p . 6 8 - 9 ( C I R B , n o . 1 1 2 4 ) , a f u r t h e r
m a n u m i s s i o n - i n s c r i p t i o n , p r o b a b l y f r o m G o r g i p p i a , d a t i n g t o A.D. 59,
a n d w i t h (1. 10) [ T O yeVos] Tovhai[o]v{s..'\, a n d C I R B , n o . 1 1 2 7 , t h e end
o f a m a n u m i s s i o n - i n s c r i p t i o n from Gorgippia, with the words
TTpoap.e\yovâa TTJ TTpoaev[xrj]. Less c e r t a i n is t h e J e w i s h c h a r a c t e r of
C I R B , no. 985 = C I J I^, n o . 6 9 1 ( a n d see p r o l . p . 69), a
m a n u m i s s i o n - i n s c r i p t i o n c e r t a i n l y d a t e d to A.D. 16, in w h i c h 11. 8-9 c a n

h y p o t h e t i c a l l y be r e s t o r e d c [ 7 r i ] T\f\s npoaevxri?], a n d of C I R B , n o .
1 1 2 8 , w h e r e a s i m i l a r r e s t o r a t i o n c a n b e m a d e . I G R I, n o . 873 =
C I R B , n o . 64, from P a n t i c a p a e u m , d a t e d to A.D. 306, is a d e d i c a t i o n
to T h e o s H y p s i s t o s E p e k o o s a n d r e c o r d s t h e b u i l d i n g of a proseuche.
S i m i l a r l y , l O S P E I ' , n o . 176 = C I J I ' , n o . 682 (cf. p r o l . p. 64), from
O l b i a , r e c o r d s the r e s t o r a d o n of a proseuche.
I n s p i t e t h e r e f o r e of s o m e u n c e r t a i n t y as t o t h e significance of t h e
terminology employed, it can be taken as certain t h a t observant Jewish
c o m m u n i t i e s w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d o n t h e n o r t h e r n coast of t h e Black Sea by
t h e first c e n t u r y A.D. See E. R . G o o d e n o u g h , ' T h e B o s p o r u s
I n s c r i p t i o n s t o t h e M o s t H i g h G o d ' , J Q R 47 ( 1 9 5 6 - 7 ) , p p . 1 - 4 4 ; B.
Lifshitz, 'Le c u l t e d u D i e u T r e s H a u t a G o r g i p p i a ' , R i v . fil. 92 (1964),
p p . 157—61, M . T a c e v a - H i t o v a in V D I 1978, p p . 1 3 3 - 4 2 , a n d p . 72
below.
J e w i s h s e t t l e m e n t in Egypt is n o w k n o w n f r o m d o c u m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e
to h a v e b e g u n not l a t e r t h a n t h e sixth c e n t u r y B.C. T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t
e a r l y e v i d e n c e , in t h e f o r m o f A r a m a i c p a p y r i of t h e P e r s i a n p e r i o d ,
relates t o the J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y of E l e p h a n t i n e in U p p e r E g y p t . T h e
m a i n collections of d o c u m e n t s a r e as follows:
S a c h a u , E . , Aramdische Papyrus und Ostraka aus einer Militdr-Kolonie zu
Elephantine ( 1 9 1 1 ) ( A P O ) .
C o w l e y , A . , Aramaic Papyri of the Fifth Century B.c. ( 1 9 2 3 ) (a
r e - e d i t i o n of all the A r a m a i c p a p y r i t h e n k n o w n ) ( A P ) .
K r a e l i n g , E . G., The Brooklyn Museum Aramaic Papyri: JVew Documents
of the Fifth Century B.c. from the Jewish Colony at Elephantine (1953)
(BP).
N o t e a l s o : Bresciani, E . , ' P a p i r i a r a m a i c i e g i z i a n i di e p o c a p e r s i a n a
presso il M u s e o Civile d i P a d o v a ' , R S O 3 5 (i960), p p . 11—24; R .
Degen, 'Neue Fragmente aramaischer Papyri aus Elephantine', N E S E
2 (1974), pp. 7 1 - 8 ; 3 (1978), p p . 1 5 - 3 1 -
See f u r t h e r : Y a r o n , R . , Introduction to the Law of the Aramaic Papyri
(1961).
P o r t e n , B . , Archives from Elephantine: The Life of an Ancient Jewish
Military Colony (1968).
Muffs, Y . , Studies in the Aramaic Legal Documents from Elephantine
(1969)-
P o r t e n , B., ' T h e J e w s in E g y p t ' , in D a v i e s , W . D . , F i n k e l s t e i n , L.
(eds.). The Cambridge History of Judaism I ( 1 9 8 4 ) , p p . 3 7 2 - 4 0 0 .
N o t e especially G r e l o t , P . , Documents arameens d'Egypte ( 1 9 7 2 ) , a
s u b s t a n t i a l collection of A r a m a i c p a p y r i a n d o s t r a c a in t r a n s l a t i o n w i t h
n o t e s a n d c o m m e n t a r y c o v e r i n g n o t only the J e w i s h m i l i t a r y c o l o n y of
E l e p h a n t i n e b u t t h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e of the P e r s i a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .
w h i c h u s e d A r a m a i c ( n o t e e s p e c i a l l y D r i v e r , G . R., Aramaic Documents of

the Fifth Century B.C., 1 9 5 4 , ^ 1 9 5 7 ) , a n d n o n - J e w i s h A r a m a i c - s p e a k i n g
p e r s o n s s e t t l e d in E g y p t .
F o r p r e l i m i n a r y notices o f a p a p y r u s of t h e l a t e P e r s i a n or e a r l y
Ptolemaic period written in demotic characters but containing a
c o l l e c t i o n of n o n - J e w i s h l i t e r a r y t e x t s i n A r a m a i c see R . A. B o w m a n ,
' A n A r a m a i c ReUgious T e x t in D e m o t i c S c r i p t ' , J N E S 3 (1944), p p .
2 1 9 - 3 1 ; S. P . V l e e m i n g , J . W . W e s s e h u s , ' A n A r a m a i c H y m n from the
F o u r t h C e n t u r y B.C.', B O 3 9 ( 1 9 8 2 ) , p p . 5 0 1 - 9 . F o r n i n e J e w i s h -
A r a m a i c g r a v e - i n s c r i p t i o n s o f the P e r s i a n p e r i o d , p e r h a p s a r o u n d 400
B.C., f r o m E d f u in U p p e r E g y p t , s e e W . K o r n f e l d , ' J i i d i s c h - a r a m a i s c h e
G r a b i n s c h r i f t e n a u s E d f u ' , O A W A n z e i g e r n o ( 1 9 7 3 ) , p p . 123—37, ^ i t h
corrections b y R. D e g e n , N E S E 3 (1978), pp. 59-66.
T w o J e w i s h n a m e s a r e n o w a t t e s t e d in t h e s u b s t a n t i a l g r o u p of
largely f r a g m e n t a r y A r a m a i c ( a n d P h o e n i c i a n ) p a p y r i , a p p a r e n t l y of
t h e Persian period, found a t t h e excavations a t N. S a q q a r a n e a r
M e m p h i s , a n d p u b l i s h e d b y J . B . S e g a l , Aramaic Texts from North
Saqqara with some Fragments in Phoenician ( 1 9 8 3 ) . I n d o c . 47. 1. 8 t h e r e
a p p e a r s the n a m e 0(1)1111'' = Y e h o r a m , ' Y e h o is lofty' (also a l r e a d y
a t t e s t e d at S a q q a r a in N . A. G i r o n , Textes aramSens d'Egypte ( 1 9 3 1 ) , 3 3 ,
1. i ) ; a n d d o c . 54, 1. 4, t h e n a m e o f a female slave, Y e h o m o r i , ' Y e h o is
m y t e a c h e r , o r g u i d e ' . I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t the e x i s t e n c e o f a J e w i s h
c o m m u n i t y a t M e m p h i s in t h e first h a l f of t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y i n a l r e a d y
a t t e s t e d by J e r e m i a h (44:1).
S i n c e the h i s t o r y of t h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y o f E l e p h a n t i n e is n o w well
k n o w n , a n d also falls o u t s i d e t h e c h r o n o l o g i c a l Umits w i t h w h i c h w e a r e
c o n c e r n e d , o n l y a few salient p o i n t s n e e d be m e n t i o n e d .
T h e o r i g i n s of t h e J e w i s h m i l i t a r y c o l o n y o n the i s l a n d of E l e p h a n t i n e
a r e u n k n o w n , b u t it is c l e a r l y a t t e s t e d i n a d o c u m e n t o f 410 B.C ( A P ,
n o . 3 0 - 1 ; G r e l o t , n o . 102) t h a t t h e J e w s believed t h a t t h e i r t e m p l e of
' Y a h o ' w e n t b a c k to ' t h e d a y s o f the K i n g s of E g y p t ' , t h a t is, a s is
explicitly s t a t e d , t o before t h e c o n q u e s t b y C a m b y s e s in 5 2 5 . T h e
colony was thus established at some p o i n t in t h e Saite period, a n d
passed i n t o t h e service o f the P e r s i a n E m p i r e . T h e d o c u m e n t m e n t i o n e d
r e c o r d s t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f the t e m p l e (N111N) a t t h e i n s t a n c e o f the l o c a l
E g y p t i a n priests. I n t h e t h i r d y e a r of A r t a x e r x e s I I (402), t h e t e m p l e
h a d e v i d e n t l y b e e n r e b u i l t , a n d t h e a r e a was still u n d e r P e r s i a n c o n t r o l
(BP, n o . 1 0 ; G r e l o t , n o . 5 1 ) , as a l s o in t h e f o u r t h y e a r , 401 (BP, n o s .
1 1 - 1 2 ; G r e l o t , n o s . 5 2 - 3 ) . B u t by ( p r o b a b l y ) 400, a d a t i n g is m a d e by
' t h e fifth y e a r of A m y r t a e u s ' ( A P , n o . 3 5 ; G r e l o t , n o . 7 ) , n a m e l y , the
E g y p t i a n k i n g w h o a t t h e e n d of t h e fifth c e n t u r y e s t a b l i s h e d
i n d e p e n d e n c e from Persia. T h e c o l o n y h a d p r e s u m a b l y n o w passed i n t o
his service. T h e l a t e s t k n o w n d o c u m e n t o f t h e J e w i s h c o l o n y a n n o u n c e s
t h e accession of t h e r i v a l E g y p t i a n king N e p h e r i t e s in 3 9 9 o r 398 B . C .

(BP, n o . 1 3 ; G r e l o t , n o . 1 0 3 ) .
N o a t t e m p t will b e m a d e t o s u m m a r i z e t h e c o m p l e x e v i d e n c e on t h e
n o m e n c l a t u r e , family r e l a d o n s , l a w a n d b u s i n e s s p r a c d c e of t h i s J e w i s h
c o l o n y (see especially P o r t e n , opp. cit.). T w o p o i n t s m a y h o w e v e r b e
stressed. Firstly t h e t e m p l e a t E l e p h a n t i n e w a s clearly c o n c e i v e d of a s a
t e m p l e in which G o d d w e l t . S e e e.g. B P , n o . 1 2 = G r e l o t n o . 5 3 : ' Y a h u
t h e god w h o dwells in Y e b t h e fortress' (Nm"»a T p l T NHVk I T ) ; cf
A P , n o . 30 = G r e l o t , n o . 39 : ' t h e T e m p l e o f Y a h u t h e g o d w h o is in
Y e b t h e fortress' (KD-T-a 3^3 "-T NH^'N 'T KIIIX), see K r a e l i n g , op. cit., p .
85. I t t h u s p r o v i d e s a p a r a l l e l t o t h e l a t e r t e m p l e at L e o n t o p o l i s (see p p .
145-7 below).
S e c o n d l y , t h e well k n o w n b u t u n f o r t u n a t e l y f r a g m e n t a r y p a p y r u s of
4 1 9 B.C. seems to r e v e a l t h a t D a r i u s I I g a v e o r d e r s for s o m e o b s e r v a n c e
to last from t h e 15th to t h e 2 1 s t of N i [ s a n ] , w h i c h i n v o l v e d a b s t e n t i o n
from a n y t h i n g l e a v e n e d o r f e r m e n t e d (T'Sn) ( A P , n o . 2 1 ; G r e l o t , n o .
96). W h i l e c e r t a i n t y is i m p o s s i b l e , especially in v i e w of the d a m a g e d
s t a t e of t h e text, i t seems a t least p r o b a b l e t h a t this is a reference to
P a s s o v e r . If s o , t h e r e is a c l e a r p a r a l l e l t o t h e earUer r o y a l b a c k i n g for
t h e r e f o r m i n g mission of N e h e m i a h .
J e w i s h s e t t l e m e n t in E g y p t in t h e e a r l y sixth c e n t u r y is also a t t e s t e d
b y J e r . 44:1 a n d 46:14, a n d for t h e S a i t e a n d P e r s i a n p e r i o d s b y t h e
Letter of Aristeas 1 3 (the l a t t e r refers to m e r c e n a r y services a g a i n s t t h e
E t h i o p i a n s a n d t h u s , if i n a n y w a y historical, m a y r e l a t e to t h e c o l o n y
at Elephantine).
F i n a l l y , from t h e P e r s i a n p e r i o d , w h a t a p p e a r to b e J e w i s h n a m e s a r e
f o u n d o n A r a m a i c d o c u m e n t s from M e m p h i s . S e e p . 39 a b o v e .
E v i d e n c e for J e w i s h s e t t l e m e n t in E g y p t for most of t h e f o u r t h
century, marked by E g y p t i a n i n d e p e n d e n c e until t h e Persian re-
c o n q u e s t of 3 4 3 B . C . , is thus e n t i r e l y l a c k i n g . H o w e v e r , from t h e l a t e
f o u r t h o r e a r l y t h i r d c e n t u r y , after A l e x a n d e r ' s c o n q u e s t , we m a y n o t e
a n A r a m a i c p a p y r u s of n o e x a c t p r o v e n a n c e w h i c h c o n t a i n s a list of
p a y m e n t s a n d includes a significant n u m b e r o f b o t h J e w i s h a n d G r e e k
n a m e s ( A P , n o . 8 1 ; G r e l o t , n o . 1 3 ; see especially J . H a r m a t t a ,
' I r a n o - A r a m a i c a ( z u r G e s c h i c h t e d e s f r u h h e l l e n i s t i s c h e n J u d e n t u m in
A g y p t e n ) ' , A A A S c H u n g 7 (1959), p p . 3 3 7 - 4 0 9 , s u g g e s t i n g a d a t e close
to 3 1 0 B . C . ) . T h e p a p y r u s attests t h e p r e s e n c e of J e w s in M i g d a l in t h e
N . E . D e l t a , T h m u i s a n d S y e n e , a n d p o s s i b l y in o t h e r places. T w o
priests a r e m e n t i o n e d , o n e resident i n T h m u i s . T h e d e d u c t i o n from this
t h a t s u c h a p r e s e n c e implies a t e m p l e i n t h e s a m e p l a c e ( K r a e l i n g , op.
cit., p p . 1 1 8 - 1 9 ; H a r m a t t a , op. cit., p . 406), possibly identical w i t h t h a t
in I s a i a h 19:19, is w i t h o u t f o u n d a d o n .
A n o t h e r A r a m a i c p a p y r u s , w h o s e s c r i p t is t h o u g h t to b e of a s i m i l a r
c h a r a c t e r , is t h e r e f o r e r e g a r d e d as b e i n g of a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e s a m e
d a t e ( A P , n o . 8 2 ) . H e r e t o o t h e r e is n o e x a c t p r o v e n a n c e , b u t it possibly
m e n t i o n s T h e b e s (1. 3 : n3t3!3). A n u m b e r of J e w i s h n a m e s a p p e a r a n d
t h e r e a r e allusions t o j u d g e s (1. i : X''2''T), p e r h a p s n o t J e w i s h , a n d to t h e
' h e a d s of t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n ' (1. 5 : [Nn]lS7 •'tJ^XI *?»). T h e w o r d m i n
a p p e a r s i n 1. 1 0 , b u t its m e a n i n g is n o t q u i t e c e r t a i n .
I t t h u s r e m a i n s a l t o g e t h e r u n c l e a r h o w far t h e r e w a s a c o n t i n u i t y of
Jewish settlement i n E g y p t from t h e Persian t o the Ptolemaic period.
Nevertheless, o u r evidence presupposes, w i t h o u t a n y d o u b t , t h a t there
w a s a s u b s t a n t i a l i m m i g r a t i o n of J e w s i n the e a r l y H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d ,
a n d from t h e late f o u r t h c e n t u r y o n w a r d w e a r e a l m o s t w h o l l y
d e p e n d e n t on d o c u m e n t s a n d l i t e r a r y sources i n Greek.^^
T h e Letter of Aristeas, w h i c h r e p o r t s J e w i s h m e r c e n a r y s e r v i c e in t h e
Saite period ( a b o v e ) , also claims t h a t P t o l e m y I L a g u s transported
100,000 J e w s t o E g y p t , a r m e d 30,000 of t h e m a n d q u a r t e r e d t h e m as
occupation troops i n t h e f o r t r e s s e s . T h e old, the children a n d t h e
w o m e n a r e s a i d to h a v e b e e n h a n d e d o v e r as slaves to h i s soldiers a t
t h e i r d e m a n d , for services r e n d e r e d ( 1 4 ) . P t o l e m y I I P h i l a d e l p h u s is
t h e n s t a t e d to h a v e s e c u r e d t h e l i b e r a t i o n of a l l t h e s e J e w i s h slaves b y
p a y i n g t w e n t y d r a c h m a s for e a c h s l a v e t o t h e i r o w n e r s ( 1 5 - 2 7 , cf 3 7 ) .
As J o s e p h u s , w h e n r e l a t i n g t h e s a m e s t o r y , C. Ap. ii 4 (44—47), Ant. xii i
( 7 - 9 ) , follows A r i s t e a s ( i n t h e first p a s s a g e t h i s is clear, in t h e o t h e r
p r o b a b l e ) , A r i s t e a s is o u r o n l y witness. B u t i n s p i t e of the fictional
c h a r a c t e r of t h e n a r r a t i v e , it is a t least c r e d i b l e t h a t P t o l e m y L a g u s
brought J e w i s h prisoners t o E g y p t a n d e m p l o y e d t h e m o n g u a r d duties
in t h e f o r t s ; f o r t h e fact t h a t P t o l e m y I c a p t u r e d J e r u s a l e m is a t t e s t e d
by A g a t h a r c h i d e s , J o s . C. Ap. i 22 ( 2 0 9 - 1 1 ) ; Ant. xii i (4-6) = G L A J J
I, n o s . 3 o a - b ; c f A p p i a n , Syr. 5 0 / 2 5 2 = G L A J J I I , n o . 3 4 3 . A g a i n , t h e
s t a t e m e n t a b o u t t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n o f J e w i s h p r i s o n e r s of w a r t o E g y p t ,
Ant. xii I ( 7 - 8 ) , a p p e a r s t o d e r i v e f r o m a s o u r c e i n d e p e n d e n t of A r i s t e a s .
T h e e m p l o y m e n t o f J e w s in m i l i t a r y roles in specific places is in a n y
case c o n f i r m e d b y t h e existence still l a t e r , i n different districts o f E g y p t ,
o f ' J e w s ' c a m p s ' {lovSaicov oTparoneSa, castra ludaeorum). See b e l o w p .
48. I t is also p o s s i b l e t h a t 'after t h e d e a t h of A l e x a n d e r n o t a few J e w s
m i g r a t e d of t h e i r o w n free will to E g y p t o n a c c o u n t of t h e u n r e s t i n
Syria', as reported b y H e c a t a e u s , a c o n t e m p o r a r y source.
36. On Jews in Egypt in the Graeco-Roman period, see J. Juster, Les juifs dans I'empire
romain I (1914), 2 0 4 - 7 ; L . Fuchs, Die Juden Agyptens (1924) ; H. I. Bell, Jews and Christians
in Egypt (1924), a n d Juden und Griechen im romischen Alexandreia ( 1 9 2 6 ) ; V . Tcherikover,
Hellenistic Civilization and the Jews (1961), and CPJ I , pp. i — i n ; A. Kasher, The Jews in
Hellenistic and Roman Egypt (1978) (Hebrew).
37. Aristeas 3 (12-13). Cf. also 4 (35-6).
38. Hecataeus ap. ]os. C. Ap. i 22 (194), cf. also 22 (186 ff.); both passages in GLAJJ I,
no. 12. The authenticity of these reports has often been questioned, but it seems probable
M i l i t a r y settlers a l s o o c c u r f r e q u e n t l y i n the G r e e k sources o f t h e

P t o l e m a i c p e r i o d . P r e v i o u s l y , t h e s e w e r e t a k e n for v e t e r a n s to w h o m
l a n d h a d b e e n a s s i g n e d , b u t s u b s e q u e n t discoveries h a v e l o n g s h o w n
this i n t e r p r e t a t i o n to b e u n t e n a b l e . T h e katoikoi w e r e a c t i v e soldiers o f
alien n a t i o n a l i t y , a n d t h e i r kleroi w e r e passed o n from f a t h e r to son.^^
T h e A r a m a i c d o c u m e n t s n o w s h o w us t h a t this system w a s p r a c t i s e d a s
e a r l y as t h e P e r s i a n p e r i o d , a n d a t t h a t p e r i o d also c o u l d b e a p p l i e d t o
J e w s . E v e n A l e x a n d e r t h e G r e a t is alleged t o h a v e t r a n s p o r t e d
S a m a r i t a n soldiers to U p p e r E g y p t ( t h e T h e b a i d ) , w h e r e h e g r a n t e d
t h e m plots of l a n d a n d e m p l o y e d t h e m on g a r r i s o n duties.*" S i m i l a r l y ,
I d u m e a n s a r e a t t e s t e d as s e r v i n g in t h e P t o l e m a i c a r m y . * ' It w o u l d
t h e r e f o r e n o t b e s u r p r i s i n g if J e w s fulfilled the s a m e r o l e . * ' A J e w i s h
settle r is p r o b a b l y a t t e s t e d in a G r e e k d o c u m e n t of t h e t w e n t y - s i x t h
y e a r o f P t o l e m y I I P h i l a d e l p h u s ( A p r i l 260 B.c.),*^ a n d a n o t h e r in a
s i m i l a r d o c u m e n t from the t i m e o f P t o l e m y I I I Euergetes.** I t r e m a i n s
u n c e r t a i n w h e t h e r o n l y a n u r b a n plot w a s a l l o t t e d to t h e soldiers s e t t l e d
i n t h e fortresses, or l a n d o u t s i d e as w e l l ; the J e w s t r a n s p o r t e d b y
A n t i o c h u s t h e G r e a t t o P h r y g i a a n d L y d i a possessed b o t h , s e e J o s . Ant.
xii 3, 4 ( 1 5 1 ) .
I n A l e x a n d r i a , so J o s e p h u s c l a i m s , a l r e a d y at t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e
city b y A l e x a n d e r J e w i s h settlers w e r e a c c e p t e d u n d e r the s a m e r i g h t s
t h a t they are, at least substantially, the work of Hecataeus of A b d e r a , rather than a later
Jewish pseudepigraphical composition. See Stern, G L A J J I, no. v. For t h e a r g u m e n t
against authenticity see now J . - D . G a n g e r in J S J 13 (1982), p p . 6-46.
39. T h e material as far as 1900 was edited by P. Meyer, Das Heerwesen der Ptolemder und
Romer in Agypten (1900), a n d W. Schubart, Qtiestiones de rebus militaribus, quales fuerint in
regno Lagidarum (1900); see also A . Bouche-Leclercq, Histoire des Lagides I V (1907), p p .
1-69; J . Lesquier, Les institutions militaires de I'Egypte sous les Lagides (1911); more recently
CPJ I (1957), pp. 1 1 - 1 5 ; see especially n o . 37; P . M. Fraser, 'Inscriptions from Ptolemaic
Egypt', Berytus 13 (i960), p p . 123-61, on p p . 1 4 7 - 5 2 ; F . Cbel, Die Kleruchen Agyptens unter
den ersten seeks Ptolemdem (1968); A . Kasher, 'First Jewish MiHtary Units in Ptolemaic
Egypt', J S J 9 (1978), pp. 57-67-
40. J o s . Ant. xi 8 (345). T h e authenticity of this narrative, which concerns t h e
Jewish-Samaritan schism a n d the relation of b o t h groups to Alexander, is however o p e n
t o dispute. See Loeb Josephus vol. V I , A p p . B a n d C, and cf. A. Momigliano, 'Flavius
J o s e p h u s and Alexander's Visit to Jerusalem', A t h e n a e u m 57 (1979), pp. 4 4 2 - 8 . T h e r e is
n o certain evidence of Samaritan katoikoi or klerouchoi i n Ptolemaic E g y p t ; see U b e l , op.
cit., p p . 189 a n d 198 ; M. Nagel, C E 49 (1974), p p . 356-65.
41. See p. 45 below.
42. Note also the publication b y E. Breccia, BSAA 9 (1907), p p . 35-86 (cf also 23
(1930), p. 108, for another posibly Jewish tomb) of the early Ptolemaic necropolis of
El-Ibrahimiyye, Alexandria, see CPJ I , p. 3 and I I I , p p . 139-9 (inscriptions nos.
1 4 2 4 - 3 1 ) ; Breccia regarded this as a necropolis for foreign mercenaries, including J e w s , a
characterisation which remains unproven.
43. P . Hib. no. 96 = CPJ I, no. 18. See further p. 50 below.
44. C P J 1, no. 19 (226 B . C . ) : AcDai\B€os...îov 'lovSaios TTJS ijnyovqs. On this see below,
P-5I-
as G r e e k s , as a r e w a r d for t h e m i h t a r y assistance (avix/jLaxla) which

t h e y h a d r e n d e r e d , B.J. ii 1 8 . 7 ( 4 8 7 ) ; C. Ap. ii 4 ( 4 2 - 4 4 ) . T h i s h a s
b e e n w i d e l y c o n t e s t e d b y l a t e r critics a n d c a n n o t b e e i t h e r fully
s u b s t a n t i a t e d or finally refuted. S u p p o r t i n g e v i d e n c e seems to b e
p r o v i d e d by t h e e d i c t of t h e e m p e r o r C l a u d i u s , q u o t e d b y J o s . Ant. xix
5, 2 ( 2 7 9 - 8 5 ) , w h i c h i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e J e w s in A l e x a n d r i a settled
t h e r e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h t h e A l e x a n d r i a n s . H o w e v e r , i n the p a p y r u s
c o p y of C l a u d i u s ' l e t t e r to t h e A l e x a n d r i a n s of A.D. 42, the E m p e r o r
expresses h i m s e l f i n m u c h v a g u e r t e r m s : 'to t h e J e w s w h o h a v e b e e n
d w e l l i n g in t h e s a m e c i t y for m a n y y e a r s ' ( C P J H , no. 1 5 3 , 11. 8 3 - 4 ) .
T h i s t e x t is a l s o r e l e v a n t to t h e a s s o c i a t e d c l a i m to e q u a l r i g h t s , w h i c h
w a s a l r e a d y c o n t r o v e r s i a l in A n t i q u i t y , a n d w h i c h will be discussed
further below (pp. 1 2 7 - 9 ) .
I n t h e p e r i o d o f the D i a d o c h i , t h e J e w s i n A l e x a n d r i a a r e said to
h a v e b e e n a l l o t t e d t h e i r o w n q u a r t e r s e p a r a t e from t h e r e s t of t h e c i t y ,
'so t h a t they c o u l d live a life of g r e a t e r p u r i t y b y m i x i n g less w i t h
strangers'.*^ T h i s J e w i s h q u a r t e r l a y a l o n g t h e h a r b o u r l e s s s h o r e n e a r
t h e r o y a l p a l a c e , t h a t is, in t h e n o r t h - e a s t e r n p a r t of t h e city.*^ L a t e r
this s e p a r a t i o n seems n o t t o h a v e b e e n o b s e r v e d w i t h a b s o l u t e
strictness. F o r a c c o r d i n g to P h i l o , J e w i s h houses o f p r a y e r w e r e to b e
f o u n d in all p a r t s o f the city,*'' a n d t h e r e w e r e q u i t e a few J e w s l i v i n g
in all t h e q u a r t e r s . * ^ B u t P h i l o also s t a t e s t h a t of t h e five city d i st r i ct s.
45. B.J. ii 18, 7 (488) : (01 SidSoxoi) TOTTOV I8iov avroig a.<j>o)piaav, oirws KadapoDrepav
exoiev TTjv Siairav, '^TTOV CTriîoyojuevcyv TWV dXXo<t>vXo}v. Strabo ap. Jos. Ant. xiv 7, 2 (117)
= G L A J J I, no. 105: rfjs TCOV lAXeâvSpewv TroXews d<f>a)piaTo fieya p-epos T<^ eOvei TOVTW.
Jos. C. Ap. ii 4 (35) implies t h a t Alexander the G r e a t h a d allotted this q u a r t e r to the
Jews. B.J. ii 18, 7 (488), however, states that this measure was first taken by the
Diadochi. O n J e w s in Alexandria see especially H . I. Bell, Jews and Christians in Egypt
(1924); idem, Juden und Griechen im romischen Alexandreia (1926); E. Breccia, Juifs et
Chretiens de I'ancienne Alexandrie (1927); C P J I, p p . i ff.; V. Tcherikover, Hellenistic
Civilisation and the Jews (1961), pp. 2 7 2 - 8 7 ; 4 1 0 - 1 5 ; P. M . Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria
(1972), p p . 54 ff.; A. Kasher, op. cit..
46. Jos. C . Ap. ii 4 (33, 36) (quoting from A p i o n ) : kXdovTe^ a-no Evpias coKrjaav Trpo?
aXiftevov ddXaaaav, yeiTVidoavTes r a t s tcov Kvp.d.Twv eKôXais Qosephus himself a d d s ) : irpos
Toi? fiaaiXiKots •fjaav iSpu/aevoi. T h e great h a r b o u r of Alexandria, along which lay the
greater p a r t of t h e city, is bounded o n the west b y the island of Pharos a n d the d a m
connecting the island w i t h the m a i n l a n d , on the east by t h e headland Lochias which juts
out into t h e sea from t h e mainland (see the m a p i n H. Kiepert, ..^Mr Topographie des alten
Alexandria (1872)). O n t h e headland of Lochias a n d nearby lay t h e palace {basileia) with
the numerous buildings belonging t o it, see S t r a b o xvii i, 9 (794), which together
accounted for a fifth of t h e city (Pliny, J^.H. v 10/62); see especially T. D . Neroutsos-Bey,
L'ancienne Alexandrie (1888); D. Puchstein, 'Alexandreia', i n RE I, cols. 1376 ff., each with
m a p ; G. Lumbroso, L'Egitto dei Greci e dei Romani ( 1895), PP- ' 5 4 ff-J R A C s.v.
'Alexandria', with m a p ; Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, ch. i, with m a p . T h e Jewish Q u a r t e r
therefore l a y on t h e coast eastwards from the h e a d l a n d of Lochias.
47. Philo, Legatio 20 (132).
48. Philo, In Flaccum 8 (55). See following note.
w h i c h w e r e k n o w n by t h e first five letters of t h e a l p h a b e t , t w o w e r e

c a l l e d ' J e w i s h ' b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e o c c u p i e d m a i n l y by J e w s . * ^ I n t h e
m a i n , h o w e v e r , it is p r o b a b l e t h a t s o m e s e p a r a t i o n w a s m a i n t a i n e d
a n d t h a t the m a i n J e w i s h q u a r t e r s a t the t i m e of P h i l o w e r e still in t h e
s a m e a r e a as before, t h a t is i n the east o f the city.^° A c c o r d i n g to a n
i n c i d e n t a l reference by J o s e p h u s , t h e J e w s lived especially in t h e
'so-called D e l t a ' , t h a t is, i n t h e f o u r t h district.^'
O n t h e diffusion of t h e J e w s t h r o u g h o u t the rest o f E g y p t t h e

l i t e r a r y s o u r c e s give us o n l y a few s c a n t y r e p o r t s . T h e m o s t significant
is P h i l o ' s assertion t h a t the total n u m b e r o f J e w i s h i n h a b i t a n t s of
E g y p t a m o u n t e d t o a m i l l i o n , in t h a t t h e y lived 'from K a t a b a t h m o s
n e a r L i b y a to the E t h i o p i a n f r o n t i e r ' . T h e ' E t h i o p i a n f r o n t i e r ' is a t
E l e p h a n t i n e , w h e r e a c c o r d i n g to t h e A r a m a i c d o c u m e n t s a J e w i s h
c o m m u n i t y existed as e a r l y as t h e sixth c e n t u r y B.c. ( p p . 3 8 - 4 0
a b o v e ) . W h i l e P h i l o ' s figure m u s t b e r e g a r d e d as a r h e t o r i c a l
exaggeration, the d o c u m e n t a r y evidence now available does illustrate
t h e p r e s e n c e o f J e w s t h r o u g h o u t E g y p t , from the l a t e f o u r t h or t h e
t h i r d c e n t u r y B.C. o n w a r d s . ^ ^
I t m a y b e r e l e v a n t at this p o i n t to n o t e the e v i d e n c e for
o t h e r g r o u p s of S e m i t i c o r i g i n w h o a r e a t t e s t e d i n G r a e c o - R o m a n
Egypt.
(a) Phoenicians. A c o l o n y of P h o e n i c i a n s ( T y r i a n s ) h a d existed in t h e

t i m e of H e r o d o t u s a t M e m p h i s , H e r o d , ii 1 1 2 .
W h a t m a y be P h o e n i c i a n n a m e s o c c u r i n a list of a g r i c u l t u r a l
w o r k e r s from J a n u a r y 240 B.c. ( C P J I, n o . 3 6 ) ; h e r e a f a r m e r in t h e
nomas of B u b a s t i s gives for t a x a t i o n p u r p o s e s a list of h i s e m p l o y e e s ,
a m o n g t h e m : 'Payeao^daX a n d Narav^daX. S i n c e n a m e s c o m p o u n d e d
w i t h ' B a a l ' h a d at t h a t t i m e l o n g b e e n p r o h i b i t e d , t h e b e a r e r s o f t h e s e
49. Philo, In Flaccum 8 (55) : nevre ixoipai Ttjs TToXews €iaiv, eTrJjvvfjLoi TWV TrpwTcov
oTOixîwv (Tnypa.p.p.a.TOv (fxvvrjs- TOVTWV 8VO 'lovBuLKai Aeyovrai, Std TO TrXtioTov^
lovSaiovs €v TavTais KaroiKeiv. oiKovai Se /cat ev TUIS aXXais OVK oXiyoi anopdSei. T h e
division of Alexandria i n t o five districts named after the first five letters of the a l p h a b e t is
attested elsewhere, see Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, p p . 34-5.
50. Josephus says expressly, C. Ap. ii 4 (35), that t h e J e w s even later h a d not given u p
the place occupied by them.
51. B.J. ii 18, 8 (495). O n the Jewish necropolis in A l e x a n d r i a : T . D. Neroutsos,
L'ancienne Alexandrie (1888), pp. 8 2 - 4 ; C . C l e r m o n t - G a n n e a u , Rec. d'Arch. or. 8, p p . 5 9 - 7 1 ,
and see n. 42 above.
52. Philo, In Flacc. 6 ( 4 3 ) : OVK dnoSeovai fivpidScov tKaTov 01 T-qv 'AXe^dvSpfiav Kai riyv
Xwpav '/ouSaiot /carotKowTCS dwo TOV npos AiPvrjv Karafiadfiov fiexpt TWV opiwv AtQiomas.
53. Subsequent discoveries of papyri and inscriptions h a v e conclusively disproved t h e
view of H. Willrich, Juden und Griechen vor der makkabdischen Erhebung (1895), t h a t before
the M a c c a b a e a n period there was virtually no Jewish diaspora in Egypt.
n a m e s w e r e p r o b a b l y n o t J e w s . But it is not a l w a y s possible to

d i s t i n g u i s h P h o e n i c i a n from o t h e r S e m i t i c n a m e s i n G r e e k t r a n
s c r i p t i o n . F o r a b r i e f s k e t c h of t h e l i t e r a t u r e o n S e m i t i c t h e o p h o r i c
n a m e s see J . T e i x i d o r , The Pagan God ( 1 9 7 7 ) , p p . 156 ff. F o r S e m i t i c
n a m e s i n p a p y r i see H . W u t h n o w , Die semitischen Menschennamen in
griechischen Inschriften und Papyri des vorderen Orients (1930) ; S. M . R u o z z i
S a l a , Lexicon JVominum Semiticarum quae in papyris graecis in Aegypto repertis
ah anno 323 a. Ch. n. usque ad annum yo p. Ch. n. reperiuntur ( 1 9 7 4 ) .
(b) Syrians. ' V i l l a g e s of S y r i a n s ' {Evpojv Kojpai) a r e a t t e s t e d i n a

n u m b e r of d i f f e r e n t p a r t s of E g y p t , as a r e S y r i a n q u a r t e r s i n t o w n s ;
see C P J I, p p . 4 - 5 .
(c) Samaritans. O n t h e i r s e t t l e m e n t i n E g y p t f r o m t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y
B.C. o n w a r d s see b e l o w , p . 5 9 . T h e references in J o s e p h u s (Ant. xi 8, 6
( 3 4 5 ) ; 1 2 , I ( 7 - 1 0 ) ) a r e o p e n to d o u b t ; p a p y r u s d o c u m e n t s a t t e s t t h a t
t h e r e w a s a v i l l a g e Sajxapeia in M i d d l e E g y p t a l r e a d y in t h e t h i r d
c e n t u r y B.C, see C P J I , no. 2 2 , n . 6. T h e significance o f this r e m a i n s
uncertain.
(d) Idumaeans. See in g e n e r a l U . R a p a p o r t , 'Les I d u m e e n s en

E g y p t e ' , R P h 43 (1969), p p . 73—82 ( s p e c u l a t i v e ) ; n o t e also F r a s e r ,
Ptolemaic Alexandria, p p . 280—1 a n d n o t e s . A s e t t l e m e n t of I d u m a e a n s
a t M e m p h i s is k n o w n t o us f r o m a d e c r e e w h i c h it p a s s e d in h o n o u r of
a h i g h - r a n k i n g official c a l l e d D o r i o n ( O G I S , n o . 7 3 7 = SB, n o . 8929).
I t s o p e n i n g r e a d s : CTOUS €KTOV inl awaywyrjs TTJS yevTjdeiarjs iv TCO dvco
'ATTOXXCOVICICO TOV TToXiTevp,aTOS Kat TCOV oiTTO rrfs rroXecos Îhvfxaicov etc.
T h e d a t e of t h e d e c r e e is u n c e r t a i n , t h o u g h t h e first c e n t u r y B . c m a y
b e slightly m o r e p r o b a b l e t h a n t h e s e c o n d . T h e politeuma is c e r t a i n l y
n o t t h a t of t h e c i t y of M e m p h i s ( w h i c h w o u l d be r e f e r r e d to as polis or
demos), b u t t h e m i l i t a r y c o l o n y o f I d u m a e a n s settled n e a r M e m p h i s ,
w i t h w h o m the I d u m a e a n s l i v i n g in t h e c i t y h a v e associated
t h e m s e l v e s ( o n t h e f r e q u e n t d e s i g n a t i o n of s u c h c o m m u n i t i e s as
politeuma see p . 88 b e l o w ) . T h e I d u m a e a n s c o n c l u d e b y s a y i n g t h a t
D o r i o n s h o u l d k n o w h o w grateful t h e c i t y (polis) w a s to h i m .
T o m u c h the s a m e p e r i o d as this h o n o r i f i c d e c r e e b e l o n g s a stele,
also f o u n d i n M e m p h i s , on w h i c h a r e listed the n a m e s of those w h o
c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e e r e c t i o n o f a b u i l d i n g , p r o b a b l y a t e m p l e (SB, no.
6 8 1 ) . T h e n o m e n c l a t u r e is p r e d o m i n a n t l y G r e e k , b u t a m o n g t h e m
o c c u r q u i t e a few n o n - G r e e k , p r e d o m i n a n t l y S e m i t i c n a m e s . A m o n g
these t h e r e a r e a significant n u m b e r w h i c h are c o m p o u n d s of ' K o s ' .
T h e s e a r e c e r t a i n l y I d u m a e a n , for K o s w a s a h i g h g o d of the
I d u m a e a n s ; see T . C. V r i e z e n , The Edomitic Deity Qaus ( 1 9 6 5 ) . See also
M . S a r t r e i n I G L S X I I I ( 1 9 8 2 ) , n o . 9003 a n d c o m m e n t a r y . T h e s e
I d u m a e a n s a p p a r e n t l y b e l o n g e d t o t h e politeuma k n o w n to u s from the
p r e v i o u s i n s c r i p t i o n ; n o t e also t h a t t h e S e m i t i c n a m e s o c c u r ( w i t h few
e x c e p t i o n s ) a l m o s t exclusively as p a t r o n y m i c s . T h e s e c o n d g e n e r a t i o n
is h e l l e n i z e d .
(e) Arabs ( ? ) . N u m e r o u s S e m i t i c n a m e s o c c u r a l s o on a n i n s c r i p t i o n
f o u n d i n H e r m u p o l i s M a g n a , i n t h e s o u t h of M i d d l e E g y p t , w h i c h like
t h e foregoing gives a l o n g list of t h o s e w h o h a v e e r e c t e d a b u i l d i n g to
t h e h o n o u r of the k i n g a n d q u e e n (SB, n o . 4206), of b e t w e e n 80 a n d
69 B.C. T h e c o n t r i b u t o r s i n this i n s t a n c e a r e c e r t a i n l y soldiers.
A l o n g s i d e a g r e a t n u m b e r of G r e e k n a m e s o c c u r also a few
M a c e d o n i a n , T h r a c i a n a n d E g y p t i a n , b u t especially Semitic names.
See P. M e y e r , Das Heerwesen der Ptolemder und Romer in Agypten (1900),
p p . 9 5 - 7 ; C. C l e r m o n t - G a n n e a u , Rec. d'Arch. or. 6 ( 1 9 0 5 ) , p p . 2 1 3 ff.;
M . L i d z b a r s k i , Eph. sem. Epigr. I I . 3 (1908), p p . 3 3 8 ff. S o m e of t h e
S e m i t i c n a m e s (e.g. Z a b i n a s ) a r e A r a m a i c ; A b d o k o s (i.e. ' S e r v a n t of
K o s ' ) is p r e s u m a b l y I d u m a e a n ; m o s t a r e p r o b a b l y to b e r e g a r d e d as
r e l a t e d t o A r a b i c . F o r a c o m p a r a b l e list see SB, n o . 8066, a l s o f r o m
Hermupolis Magna.
F o r t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of J e w i s h s e t t l e m e n t in E g y p t w e
h a v e t h e following e v i d e n c e . O n l y i t e m s of a r e a s o n a b l y c l e a r d a t e ,
l o c a t i o n a n d c h a r a c t e r h a v e b e e n i n c l u d e d . T h i s s u r v e y is not i n t e n d e d
as a g e n e r a l h i s t o r y of t h e J e w s in A l e x a n d r i a a n d E g y p t , a n d d o e s n o t
c o n s i d e r in d e t a i l e v e n t s ( s u c h as those of A.D. 3 8 - 4 1 ) r e c o u n t e d i n
literary sources.
I . Lower Egypt
Third Century B.C.

T h a t J e w s c a m e t o E g y p t in c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r s , possibly a l r e a d y
u n d e r A l e x a n d e r t h e G r e a t a n d c e r t a i n l y u n d e r P t o l e m y I L a g u s , is,
from the evidence, scarcely in d o u b t . U n d e r P t o l e m y II P h i l a d e l p h u s
( 2 8 5 - 2 4 7 B.C.) M a n e t h o w r o t e his h i s t o r i c a l w o r k c o n t a i n i n g l e g e n d
a r y m a t e r i a l o f a n a n t i - J e w i s h c h a r a c t e r (Jos. C. Ap. i 2 6 - 7 ( 2 2 7 - 5 3 ) =
G L A J J I , n o . 2 1 , see b e l o w ) . I t is p e r h a p s u n l i k e l y t h a t h e w o u l d
h a v e e n g a g e d i n t h i s p o l e m i c i f t h e r e h a d n o t b e e n a significant J e w i s h
s e t t l e m e n t in E g y p t .
F r o m t h e r e i g n o f P t o l e m y I I I E u e r g e t e s ( 2 4 7 - 2 2 1 B.c.) c o m e s t h e
following i n s c r i p t i o n f o u n d in S c h e d i a n e a r A l e x a n d r i a : v-nkp jSamAeco?
nToXepaiov Kal âaiXlacrr]? BepeviKTjs d8€X<f)7Js Kal yiyyaiKOs Kal rcDv
T€Kva)v TTJv TTpoaevx'^v olTovSaLOi ( O G I S , n o . 7 2 6 = C I J I I , no. 1440, c f
C P J I I I , p . 1 4 1 ; cf. vol. I I , p . 4 2 5 ) . T h e i n s c r i p t i o n is c e r t a i n l y n o t
l a t e r , for the o n l y y o u n g c o n s o r t of t h e k i n g n a m e d B e r e n i c e ( m a r r i e d
successively t o P t o l e m y X I a n d P t o l e m y X I I ) h a d no c h i l d r e n a n d
would h a v e b e e n called C l e o p a t r a Berenice. F u r t h e r , t h e o r t h o g r a p h y

suggests P t o l e m y I I I .
T h e e x i s t e n c e o f this i n s c r i p t i o n m a k e s i t possible t h a t a n o t h e r ,
o t h e r w i s e n o t so e a s y t o d a t e , also b e l o n g s to t h e t i m e of P t o l e m y I I I . If
so, it h a s n o t s u r v i v e d i n its o r i g i n a l f o r m b u t o n l y a s r e i n s c r i b e d i n t h e
I m p e r i a l p e r i o d . T h i s l a t e r i n s c r i p t i o n , f o u n d in L o w e r E g y p t , n o w in
t h e A e g y p t i s c h e s M u s e u m i n B e r l i n , r u n s a s follows: PamXLoatjs Kal
jSaatAeo)? TTpoara^dvTwv dvrl T 1 7 ? TTpoavaKeifievrjs rrepl r-ijs dvadeaecjs TTJS
TTpoaevx'fjS TrXdKos rj vnoyeypappLevrj iviypacfyijTO}. âaiXevs FlToXeixaios
Ev€py€Tr)s rrjv Trpoaevx-qv davXov. Regina et rex iusserf un)t ( C I L I I I S u p p l .
n o . 6 5 8 3 = O G I S , n o . 129 = C I J I I , n o . 1 4 4 9 , c f C P J I I I , p . 1 4 4 ) .
O n this e v i d e n c e , a P t o l e m y E u e r g e t e s h a d o n c e g r a n t e d t h e r i g h t of
a s y l u m t o t h e proseuche i n q u e s t i o n , a n d t h e t a b l e t c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e
m a t t e r w a s l a t e r r e p l a c e d b y a n o t h e r ' a t t h e c o m m a n d of t h e q u e e n
a n d k i n g ' . ' T h e q u e e n a n d k i n g ' a r e p e r h a p s , as M o m m s e n w a s t h e
first to s u g g e s t , Z e n o b i a a n d V a b a l l a t h u s , d u r i n g t h e b r i e f P a l m y r e n e
occupation of E g y p t c. A.D. 269—72 • ( t h e f o r m u l a âaiXeoiv
•npoara^dvTOiv is f o u n d f o r e x a m p l e in t h e Tebtunis Papyri I (1902), n o .
7 ; cf M . T . L e n g e r , Corpus des Ordonnances des Ptolemies (^1980), p . 3 5 7 ) .
However, J . Bingen, 'L'asylie p o u r u n e synagogue, C I L I I I Suppl.
6583 = C I L 1449', Studia Paulo JVaster Oblata I I ( 1 9 8 2 ) , p p . 1 1 - 1 6 ,
a r g u e s t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l G r e e k i n s c r i p t i o n s h o u l d b e assigned to
C l e o p a t r a a n d C a e s a r i o n o r P t o l e m y X I V a n d t h a t t h e L a t i n is
c o n t e m p o r a r y , reflecting R o m a n i n f l u e n c e a t t h e e n d o f the P t o l e m a i c
period.
I n a n e c r o p o l i s in A l e x a n d r i a h a v e b e e n f o u n d , a l o n g w i t h m a n y
a n o n y m o u s g r a v e s t o n e s , a few w i t h i n s c r i p t i o n s o f p e r s o n s from v e r y
diflferent n a t i o n a l i t i e s , w h i c h m a y suggest t h a t m e r c e n a r i e s from t h e
e a r l y P t o l e m a i c p e r i o d , t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y B.C., w e r e b u r i e d h e r e . T h e r e
a r e also J e w s a m o n g t h e m ; o n o n e g r a v e s t o n e ( C I J I I , n o . 1424) t h e
n a m e ' A q a b i a h s o n o f E l y d e n a i ' c a n b e r e a d . S e e E . Breccia, ' L a
N e c r o p o l i d e I ' l b r a h i m i e h ' , B S A A 9 (1907), p p . 3 5 - 8 6 ; o n t h e J e w i s h
graves p p . 38—42, o n t h e d a t e , p p . 6 5 - 9 ; especially p . 67. O n t h e J e w i s h
trraves see a l s o : C . C l e r m o n t - G a n n e a u , C R A I 1 9 0 7 , p p . 234—43,
;^75-80 a n d Rec. d'Arch. orientale W\\\, p p . 5 9 - 7 1 a n d p l a t e s I I - V ; cf
C I J I I , nos. 1 4 2 4 - 3 1 ; c f C P J I I I , p p . 1 3 8 - 9 .
Second Century B.C.

U n d e r P t o l e m y V I P h i l o m e t o r , i n a b o u t 1 6 0 B.C., t h e J e w i s h H i g h
I'riest O n i a s f o u n d e d a J e w i s h t e m p l e a t L e o n t o p o l i s ( T e l l e l - Y e h u d i e h )
ill the nomos of H e l i o p o l i s o n t h e e a s t e r n side of t h e D e l t a , in w h i c h
sacrifice w a s r e g u l a r l y offered f r o m t h e n u n t i l it w a s d e s t r o y e d o n t h e
oiciers o f V e s p a s i a n , J o s . Ant. xii 9, 7 ( 3 8 7 - 8 ) ; xiii 3 , 1 - 3 ( 6 2 - 7 3 ) ! ^ o , 4
2H3-7 = S t r a b o , G L A J J I, n o . 99) ; xx 10, 3 (236), B J . i 9, 4 (190) ; vii
1 0 , 2 - 4 ( 4 2 1 - 3 6 ) . See C I J I I , p p . 3 7 8 - 4 3 8 ; C P J I I I , p p . 1 4 5 - 6 8 , o n the
e x t e n s i v e g r o u p o f J e w i s h e p i t a p h s from the site ( n o t e G P J , p p . 1 6 2 - 3 ,
n o s . 1 5 3 0 A - D , n o t i n c l u d e d in C I J ) . T h e p l a c e w a s called ' t h e l a n d of
O n i a s ' , ^ 'Oviou x^P°- {Ant. x i v 8, i ( 1 3 1 ) ; B.J. i 9, 4 ( 1 9 0 ) ; c f C I J I I ,
n o . 1 5 3 0 : *OvLov yd Tpv(f>6s dp-erepa in a m e t r i c a l e p i t a p h ) . T h e J e w s
living h e r e m u s t h a v e r e p r e s e n t e d a c o n s i d e r a b l e force, since they l a t e r
t h r e a t e n e d t o p r e v e n t t h e p a s s a g e of a n a r m y m a r c h i n g from Palestine
t o the s u p p o r t of C a e s a r , Ant. x i v 8, i ( 1 3 1 ) , cf. B.J. i 9, 4 ( 1 9 0 - 2 ) .
W i l l r i c h therefore a r g u e d t h a t t h e y w e r e m i l i t a r y settlers. A r c h , f P a p .
I ( 1 9 0 1 ) , p p . 4 8 - 5 6 . I t was i n d e e d by m i h t a r y exploits t h a t t w o sons of
O n i a s , C h e l k i a s a n d A n a n i a s , t h e g e n e r a l s of C l e o p a t r a i n the w a r
a g a i n s t h e r son P t o l e m y L a t h y r u s , d i s t i n g u i s h e d t h e m s e l v e s . Ant. xiii
10, 4 ( 2 8 5 - 7 ) ; 1 3 , 1 - 2 (348—55). T h e son o f a C h e l k i a s ( n o t C h e l k i a s
himself) is m e n d o n e d i n a f r a g m e n t a r y i n s c r i p t i o n from the H e l i o p o l i t e
n o m e , in w h i c h t h e p e r s o n c o n c e r n e d is referred to as strategos a n d is
h o n o u r e d b y the a w a r d of a g o l d e n c r o w n , C I J I I , n o . 1 4 5 0 , see C P J
I I I , p p . 144—5 5 secure c o n c l u s i o n s c a n be b a s e d o n t h i s .
S o m e c o m m e n t a t o r s h a v e a p p l i e d t o t h e f o u n d a t i o n by O n i a s the
p a s s a g e Isa. 1 9 : 1 8 - 1 9 , w h e r e it says t h a t Y a h w e h will h a v e a n a l t a r in
E g y p t . I n t h a t case t h e p a s s a g e m u s t h a v e b e e n i n s e r t e d into t h e t e x t of
I s a i a h n o t before the s e c o n d c e n t u r y , a n d t h e s t a t e m e n t of J o s e p h u s ,
t h a t O n i a s himself a p p e a l e d t o it. Ant. xiii 3 , i (68), w o u l d be
u n h i s t o r i c a l . H o w e v e r , we k n o w i n a n y case from the A r a m a i c p a p y r i
t h a t a J e w i s h s h r i n e existed in E g y p t a s e a r l y as t h e sixth c e n t u r y B.C.
A s t r o n g e r a r g u m e n t for r e l a t i n g t h e texts to t h e T e m p l e of O n i a s
w o u l d b e t h e m e n t i o n of t h e ' C i t y of t h e S u n ' (i.e. Heliopolis) i n Isa.
1 9 : 1 8 , if this r e a d i n g w e r e c e r t a i n . T h e s t a t e m e n t t h a t t h e l a n g u a g e of
C a n a a n w a s s p o k e n a t t h a t t i m e in five E g y p t i a n t o w n s ( I s a . 19:18)
c o u l d still b e consistent w i t h t h e H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d (see p p . 40—1 a b o v e ) .
W i t h t h e s e t t l e m e n t of O n i a s m a y r e a s o n a b l y b e c o n n e c t e d the castra
ludaeorum w h i c h , a c c o r d i n g t o Notitia Dignitatum xxviii, 4 2 , e d . Seeck, p .
60, l a y w i t h i n t h e p r o v i n c e o f A u g u s t a m n i c a , n a m e l y t h e t e r r i t o r y east
o f the D e l t a , w h e r e in a n y c a s e t h e c o l o n y of O n i a s was l o c a t e d . If, as is
n o w g e n e r a l l y a g r e e d , i t is i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e m o d e r n T e l l - e l - Y e h u d i e h ,
a little n o r t h o f H e l i o p o l i s (see f u r t h e r b e l o w , p p . 1 4 5 - 6 ) , the
e x p r e s s i o n castra ludaeorum w o u l d fit well w i t h this, for T e l l - e l - Y e h u d i e h
h a s ' a l t o g e t h e r t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f a fortress' (E. N a v i l l e , The Academy
( 1 8 8 8 ) , PI. 4 9 b ; cf. t h e d e s c r i p t i o n by F l i n d e r s P e t r i e , Hyksos and Israelite
Cities ( 1 9 0 6 ) , p p . 1 9 - 2 7 ) .
T h e ' J e w i s h c a m p ' (TO KaXovpevov 'lovSaloiv arpaTOTreSov, J o s . Ant. xiv
8 5 2 ( 1 3 3 ) = B.J. i 9, 4 ( 1 9 1 ) ) o n t h e w e s t e r n side of t h e D e l t a is i n a n y
case d i s t i n c t from the a b o v e castra ludaeorum. T h e a r m y of M i t h r i d a t e s
o f P e r g a m o n , h u r r y i n g from P a l e s d n e to t h e s u p p o r t o f C a e s a r , c a m e
i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h it after p a s s i n g M e m p h i s a n d t h e h e a d of t h e D e l t a .
O n t h i s e v i d e n c e , it is c l e a r t h a t this c a m p vôuld h a v e lain o n t h e west

side. T h e r e is n o c a u s e to a s s u m e a n e r r o r o n t h e p a r t of J o s e p h u s (so
W . J u d e i c h , Caesar im Orient ( 1 8 8 5 ) , P P - 92—7) for it is very Hkely t h a t
t h e r e w e r e s e v e r a l J e w i s h c a m p s ' ( J u d e i c h himself s h o w e d t h a t t h e
final c a m p a i g n s o f M i t h r i d a t e s m u s t h a v e t a k e n p l a c e on t h e w e s t e r n
side o f t h e D e l t a ) .
T h e Vicus ludaeorum m a y b e a l s o m e n t i o n e d h e r e . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e
Itinerarium Antonini it l a y n o r t h - e a s t of H e l i o p o l i s , o n t h e e a s t e r n side of
t h e D e l t a t h e r e f o r e {Itinerarium Antonini e d . O . C u r t z , p . 2 3 ) . I t is
c e r t a i n l y t o be d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m t h e castra ludaeorum of t h e Notitia
Dignitatum.
I t is p r e s u m a b l y t o t h e t i m e of P t o l e m y V I P h i l o m e t o r t h a t t w o
i n s c r i p t i o n s b e l o n g testifying to t h e e x i s t e n c e of a J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y i n
A t h r i b i s in t h e s o u t h e r n p a r t of t h e D e l t a ( O G I S , n o s . 96, l o i = C I J
I I , n o s . 1 4 4 3 - 4 , c f C P J I I I , p p . 1 4 2 flf.). T h e first r e a d s : {mep jSaaiAecus
UroXeixaiov Kal âaiXlaarjs KXeonaTpas IlToXepaLOS 'ETTLKVSOV 6
eiriaraT'j^? r o i v (f)vXaKi,TO)v Kal ol iv Adpiêi *Iov8a£oi TTJV irpoaevx'qv deip
vifiiarcp. T h e s e c o n d r e a d s : vnep âaiXims nToXep,alov KOL âaiXiaarjs
KXeoTrdrpas Kal TWV TCKVWV 'Epp,ias Kal 0iX6T€pa 17 yvyq Kat ra iraihia
TTjvSe iêhpav rrj Trpoaevxfj-
W h e t h e r t h e iTnaTaTrj? TWV ^vXaKirwv c a l l e d P t o l e m y w a s himself a
J e w is d o u b t f u l ; p e r h a p s h e w a s only a friend t o t h e J e w s . H e a n d t h e
J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y b u i l t t h e proseuche ' t o t h e m o s t h i g h G o d ' , w h i l e
H e r m i a s a n d his wife a n d c h i l d r e n i n s t a l l e d t h e exedra for t h i s proseuche.
A g a i n , since t h e r e w e r e four P t o l e m i e s w h o h a d a wife n a m e d
C l e o p a t r a , P t o l e m y V , V I , V I I a n d V I I I , t h e d a t e is u n c e r t a i n . T h e
friendly a t t i t u d e of P t o l e m y V I to t h e J e w s , h o w e v e r , m a k e s i t m o s t
n a t u r a l to t h i n k o f his t i m e .
T w o i n s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e p e r i o d 143 t o 1 1 7 B.C. a t t e s t t h e p r e s e n c e o f
s y n a g o g u e s in t h e w e s t e r n D e l t a (cf vol. I I , p . 4 2 5 , n. 5) : (a) from
X e n e p h y r i s , C I J I I , n o . 1 4 4 1 ; (b) f r o m N i t r i a i , 1 4 4 2 ( C P J I I I , p p .
141-2).
First Century B.C.

A n i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m A l e x a n d r i a ( G a b b a r y ) , of u n c e r t a i n d a t e , b u t m o s t
p r o b a b l y 3 7 B.C., r e a d s : [tJTrcp] âa\iXCaarj\s Kal j3[aatA]€a>s' Bew
[juejyaAoj €[7n^/co]a>, 'Âu7r[os' TT)V] TT poae\yxr]v^ iiroei [vacat?^
(erovs) a McixeCp..] ( O G I S n o . 742 = C I J I I , n o . 1 4 3 2 , c f C P J I I I ,
P- 139)-
A n u m b e r o f p a p y r i of t h e l a t e first c e n t u r y B.C. d a t e d b y
the reign of A u g u s t u s (i.e. f o l l o w i n g t h e R o m a n a c q u i s i t i o n o f
I'-gypt in 30 B.C.), n a m e p e r s o n s w h o mcy b e J e w i s h : G P J I I , n o .
144 ( 1 3 B . C . ) — A p o l l o n i a d a u g h t e r o f S a m b a t h i o n ; 146 ( 1 3 B.C.) —
I'heodote d a u g h t e r o f D o s i t h e o s ; 1 4 7 ( 1 4 B . C . ) — M a r t h a ; 1 4 8 ( 1 0
B . C . ) — M a r t h a ; 1 4 9 ( 1 0 B . C . ) — L y s i m a c h u s son of T h e o d o t o s , his
wife M a r i o n d a u g h t e r o f Isakis, a n d T r y p h o n son of T h e o d o t o s . N o .
1 4 5 refers to t h e ' l a n d o f H e l k i a s ' i n t h e B o u s i r i t e d i s t r i c t . B u t t h e o n l y
r e l i a b l e p a p y r u s e v i d e n c e for a J e w i s h p r e s e n c e is firstly a n a l l u s i o n in
n o . 143 to t h e will of T h e o d o r o s (also r e f e r r e d to i n 142) w h i c h he h a d
d e p o s i t e d in t h e ' a r c h i v e of t h e J e w s ' : Kad' rjv edero hia9rjK(rjv) hid t o v
TCOV TovSaiojv dpxeiov ( a n d e v e n h e r e the r e a d i n g TovSaicov is n o t e n t i r e l y
c e r t a i n ) . S e c o n d l y t h e r e is a d o c u m e n t o f 5-4 B.c. w h i c h is of
c o n s i d e r a b l e i m p o r t a n c e for t h e q u e s t i o n of J e w i s h s t a t u s in A l e x a n d r i a
(see p p . 1 2 7 - 9 b e l o w ) . A c o m p l a i n t a d d r e s s e d to t h e Prefect of E g y p t
b y a J e w n a m e d H e l e n o s , i t is w r i t t e n by a scribe. T h e p e t i t i o n e r
a p p e a r s as ' H e l e n o s son of T r y p h o n a n A l e x a n d r i a n (crossed o u t ) — a
J e w of those from A l e x a n d r i a ' ( w r i t t e n a b o v e t h e line) : Trapd 'EXevov
To(v) Tpv(f>covo(s) [[AX€âv8p€0)(s)]] — 'lovSaiov TCOV diTo 'AXeâv8-
p€(ias) ( C P J n, no. 1 5 1 ) . T h e s a m e p a p y r u s a l l u d e s to t h e
laographia, t h e p o l l - t a x t o w h i c h A l e x a n d r i a n J e w s , b u t n o t t h e G r e e k
citizens of A l e x a n d r i a , b e c a m e l i a b l e i n the e a r l y R o m a n p e r i o d (see
C P J I, p p . 60 fi-.).
First Century a . d .
T h e m a j o r d o c u m e n t f r o m t h e first c e n t u r y A.D. is t h e f a m o u s l e t t e r of
C l a u d i u s to t h e A l e x a n d r i a n s ( P L o n d , n o . 1 9 1 2 = C P J I I , n o . 1 5 3 ) , to
b e discussed f u r t h e r b e l o w ( p p . 1 2 8 - 9 ) . T h a t a p a r t , t h e r e is t h e s t r i k i n g
l e t t e r ( G P J I I , no. 1 5 2 ) of t h e s a m e y e a r , A.D. 4 1 , a d d r e s s e d b y a n E g y p t i a n
G r e e k n a m e d S a r a p i o n t o his a g e n t in A l e x a n d r i a , i n w h i c h h e tells h i m
t h a t , l i k e e v e r y o n e , he s h o u l d k e e p c l e a r of t h e J e w s {a>s dv ndvTeg Kal
av jSAtTTc aarov [sic) drro tcov TovSaicov). T h e significance o f this r e m a i n s

c o n t r o v e r s i a l , b u t it m a y be a reference to t h e c u r r e n t conflicts in t h e
city.
F r o m B a b y l o n i n t h e d i s t r i c t of H e l i o p o l i s , n e a r t h e s o u t h e r n b o r d e r
of L o w e r E g y p t , a d o c u m e n t of A.D. 59 ( C P J I I , n o . 4 1 7 ) shows a l o a n
m a d e b y a R o m a n soldier t o P e t o s son of H e l k i a s a n d his t w o s o n s ,
H e l k i a s a n d D o r [ . . .]koas, ' a l l t h r e e J e w s , P e r s i a n s of t h e epigone f r o m
t h e S y r i a n v i l l a g e ' (01 rpt? '/ouSaioi, Flepaai rijs eTnyovrj? tcov [djiro
IJvpcov K(op.rjs).
2. Middle Egypt
Third Century B.C.

P a p y r u s from the t w e n t y - s i x t h y e a r of P t o l e m y I I P h i l a d e l p h u s , A p r i l
260 B.C., f o u n d at H i b e h ( t h e G r e e k n a m e is u n k n o w n ) i n t h e nomos of
H e r a c l e o p o f i s , P H i b e h I , n o . 96 = C P J I, n o . 18. I t is a n a g r e e m e n t
b e t w e e n two persons w i t h grievances a g a i n s t one a n o t h e r w h o n o w
c o m e t o t e r m s to e n d t h e i r d i s p u t e . T h e text is w r i t t e n twice. F r o m t h e
w o r d i n g , w h i c h i n b o t h i n s t a n c e s c o n t a i n s l a c u n a e , the o p e n i n g c a n be
r e s t o r e d as follows: avyypa<^r\ aTToaraaiov ['AvSpovtKov TOV — 15
letters — T17? €7Tiyovrj]s Kal 'AXe^dvSpov TOV 'AvSpoviKov
Tovbaiov p.€Td [20 letters — TCOV ZoiXov ScKaviJKov. T h e n a m e
of the first p a r t y t o t h e d i s p u t e , A n d r o n i c u s , is s u p p l i e d from the l a t e r
p a r t o f t h e text. His o p p o n e n t , A l e x a n d e r s o n of A n d r o n i c u s , is
p r e s u m a b l y n o t h i s son. T h e first is c h a r a c t e r i s e d a s a m i l i t a r y settler by
t h e p h r a s e , TTJS iinyovris. I n t h e c a s e of t h e J e w A l e x a n d e r , this a d d i t i o n
is l a c k i n g ; b u t h e a p p e a r s t o h a v e a p a r t n e r w h o is a soldier, for t h e
l a t t e r is classified w i t h t h e p e o p l e o f t h e dekanikos Z o i l u s , a n d dekanikos is
a military rank.
P a p y r u s f r o m t h e t e n t h y e a r of P t o l e m y I I I E u e r g e t e s , i.e. 238 B.C.,
d i s c o v e r e d i n the nomos of A r s i n o e , t h e p r e s e n t F a y u m , C P J I , n o . 126.
A will of P h i l o s o n o f H e r a c l i d e s , w h o b e q u e a t h s t o his wife a n d
d a u g h t e r s , a l o n g w i t h o t h e r t h i n g s , a l s o h i s slaves, a m o n g t h e m (11.
14—16) ATTOXX\O}VLOV^^ 7Tap€TTi8rjp.ov, OS Kal SvpioTi Tcovadds KaXeiTai.
H e is e v i d e n t l y a J e w .
A c c o r d i n g to a p a p y r u s f r o m t h e s a m e p e r i o d a n d d i s t r i c t (the d a t e
h a s n o t s u r v i v e d ) , c e r t a i n t a x e s w e r e to b e p a i d in t h e village o f Psenyris
€LS rd aTToSoxiOL TYJS KcopLTjs Trapd TCOV ^lovhaioiv Kal TCOV 'EXXrivojv e K a a r o v
(jcop.aTos, C P J I, n o . 3 3 . S6ma is s o m e t i m e s u s e d f o r a slave, b u t i n this
case t h e e x p r e s s i o n m e a n s s i m p l y 'from e a c h p e r s o n ' . C l e a r l y the J e w s
a n d Hellenes formed a distinct g r o u p alongside the indigenous
population.
O n t h e v i l l a g e Psenyris s e e C . Wessely, Topographie des Fayyum, p p .
163 ff.
A p a p y r u s f r o m 226 B.c. i n t h e r e i g n of P t o l e m y I I I E u e r g e t e s , in
t h e nomos o f A r s i n o e , C P J I , n o . 19, c o n t a i n s a c o l l e c t i o n of legal
decisions, a m o n g t h e m a case of a c o m p l a i n t b y a J e w a g a i n s t a J e w e s s ,
II. 13—14. T h e d e s c r i p d o n 'of t h e epigone'' c h a r a c t e r i s e s the m a n
c o n c e r n e d a s a m i l i t a r y settler, m o r e o v e r o n e n o t o f the first g e n e r a t i o n .
The d o c u m e n t is c l e a r e v i d e n c e o f J e w i s h m i l i t a r y settlers in t h e t i m e of
P t o l e m y I I P h i l a d e l p h u s at t h e l a t e s t (see e . g . C P J I, p . 1 3 ) . C o m p a r e
t h e l o a n - c o n t r a c t of 2 2 8 - 2 1 B.C. f r o m T e b t y n i s b e t w e e n M o u s a i o s son
o f S i m a s , a J e w o f t h e epigone, a n d L a s a i t e s s o n o f I z [ . . .]is, ' J e w o f the
fpigone' ( P T e b t . n o . 8 1 5 = C P J I , n o . 2 0 ) , a n d t h e r e p o r t by t h e village
scribe of A p o l l o n i u s ( F a y u m ) in 2 1 0 o f a r o b b e r y b y t h r e e ' J e w s o f t h e
epigone' ( C P J I, n o . 2 1 ) .
A p a p y r u s f r o m ' t h e fifth y e a r ' , p r o b a b l y of P t o l e m y I V , therefore
-.'18 B.C., i n a n y case still f r o m t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y B.C., f o u n d a t
. \ l a g d o l a i n t h e nomos of A r s i n o e , C P J I, n o . 1 2 9 , c o n t a i n s a p e t i t i o n
fiom a w o m a n t o the k i n g a b o u t the theft o f a c l o a k , w h i c h t h e thief
K-I'uses to h a n d o v e r . A t t h i s p o i n t t h e r e o c c u r t h e w o r d s [to IpjaTiov
»y rfj TTpoaevxfj rcov TovSatcov ( t h e t h i e f a p p e a r s to h a v e d e p o s i t e d
t h e c l o a k w i t h t h e w a r d e n o f the proseuche). M e n t i o n o f the proseuche

m a k e s it clear t h a t t h e r e w e r e n o t o n l y i n d i v i d u a l J e w s in M a g d o l a b u t
a J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y . C P J I, n o . 1 2 8 , f r o m t h e s a m e p l a c e a n d y e a r ,
a l s o c o n t a i n s a c o m p l a i n t a g a i n s t a J e w , t h i s t i m e b y his wife.
I n a n o t h e r p a p y r u s f r o m M a g d o l a , C P J I, n o . 3 7 , c o m p l a i n t is m a d e
b y t h r e e persons, T h e o d o t u s , G a d d a e u s a n d P h a n i a s , a g a i n s t a c e r t a i n
D e m e t r i u s c o n c e r n i n g i n f r i n g e m e n t of a lease c o n t r a c t . A l l t h r e e
petitioners are probably Jews.
T h e n a m e M a g d o l a is itself S e m i t i c (VlTlO), b u t o c c u r s f r e q u e n t l y in
E g y p t . See C . W e s s e l y , Topographie des Fayyum ( 1 9 0 4 ) , p p . 101—4;
P T e b t I I (1907), p . 388. A Migdol i n t h e n e i g h b o u r h o o d o f P e l u s i u m is
m e n t i o n e d in Jer. 4 4 : 1 ; 46:14; also E x o d . 1 4 : 2 ; N u m . 3 3 : 7 ; Ezek.
2 9 : 1 0 ; 30:6.
A n i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m A r s i n o e - C r o c o d i l o p o l i s of t h e r e i g n of P t o l e m y
I I I (246—221 B.C.), u n f o r t u n a t e l y b r o k e n a t t h e c r u c i a l p o i n t , a p p e a r s
to r e c o r d a J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y a n d s y n a g o g u e t h e r e : S B , n o . 8939 =
C P J I I I , n o . 1 5 3 2 A , n o t i n C I J I I : 01 ev KPOK-[o]SiAa>v TTOACI
7 o u [ S a i ] o i TTjv Trpo[a\€[vxriv\ (cf v o l . I I , p . 4 2 5 , n . 5). I n C P J I, no.
38 (218 B.C.) a w o o l - d e a l e r l i v i n g i n A r s i n o e - C r o c o d i l o p o l i s c o m p l a i n s
of b e i n g w r o n g e d b y a J e w n a m e d Seos. T h e six J e w s w h o a c t e d as
witnesses to a c o n t r a c t i n S a m a r e i a in t h e F a y u m (see p . 4 5 a b o v e )
m a y also h a v e b e e n m i l i t a r y settlers ( C P J I, n o . 22).
Individual Jews, and other persons with Semitic n a m e s who m a y be
J e w i s h , a r e also a t t e s t e d in t h e F a y u m in t h e Z e n o n p a p y r i of t h e
m i d - t h i r d c e n t u r y B . C , see C P J I, n o s . 7 - 1 7 . T h o s e w h o a r e c e r t a i n l y
J e w i s h a r e n o . 8: AvTiyovr\s {sic) TovSaios, a n d g a - b : 'Pasis the J e w ' ; c f
also no. 1 3 : napd Tap.arj\ov, a n d n o s . 1 4 - 1 5 w i t h t h e n a m e Uap.o-qX.
Second Century B.C.

J e w s of t h e epigone' c o n t i n u e t o be a t t e s t e d in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y in t h e
F a y u m . O n e m a k e s a l o a n t o a n o t h e r , w i t n e s s e d b y six o t h e r s , in P .
T e b t . 8 1 7 = C P J I , no. 2 3 ( 1 8 2 B . C ) ; t h e last t w o witnesses a r e soldiers
of t h e first h i p p a r c h y settled b y D o s i t h e o s a n d h o l d i n g e i g h t y arourai of
l a n d . A n o t h e r J e w of t h e epigone' a p p e a r s o n a c o n t r a c t of 1 7 2 - 1 B.C.
( C P J I, n o . 26) a n d a J e w i s h w a t c h m a n o r p o l i c e m a n {phylakites) i n a
c o n t r a c t of 1 7 3 B.C. ( C P J I , no. 25). J e w i s h settlers a r e p r o b a b l y
a t t e s t e d also i n no. 28 f r o m S a m a r e i a (see a b o v e ) a n d 2 9 - 3 2 .
P a p y r u s , e n d of t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B.C. in T e b t y n i s , i n the nomos of
A r s i n o e , P T e b t I, n o . 86 = C P J I , n o . 1 3 4 , a l a n d - s u r v e y in w h i c h a
Trpoo€vxri '/ouSaicuv is t w i c e m e n d o n e d , 11. 18 a n d 29, to w h i c h b e l o n g s a
p o r t i o n of g r o u n d d e s c r i b e d a s ' s a c r e d g a r d e n - l a n d ' {Upd TrapdSciaos).
T h i s is p r e s u m a b l y t o b e e x p l a i n e d o n t h e basis of E g y p t i a n u s a g e , a n d
t h u s m e a n s t e m p l e p r o p e r t y . T h i s m a y w e l l b e the s a m e s y n a g o g u e as
that mentioned above.
O n T e b t y n i s see C. W e s s e l y , Topographie des Fayyum, p p . 146 ff.;

P T e b t I I , p . 404.
P a p y r u s f r o m t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B.C., nomos of A r s i n o e , C P J I, n o .
4 7 , a f r a g m e n t a r y l a n d tax a c c o u n t . T h e w o r d i n g , w i t h figures a n d
signs o m i t t e d , is as follows :
r a Aoyia yi)s a [ . . . ] 81a. /7ToAe/u.aio[t»]

©eoSoTO? V4AeâvSpou 0eoSoT[oj;]...
©eoScopa AeovTis Mapiov ...
©eop^vrjoTOS [A]ajai9€ov QeoScopov...
Mcaop-q d
Ua^^dOlOV ÂpiaTlTTTTOV TaKOV^LOS...
Za^^ddiov XajSjSaiou 8(^) K a l Mapiov..
AwaiOea @€O86TOV ©eoSaipov ...
Since TaKovîos a n d Ua^^dOiov are H e b r e w n a m e s , a n d since a

s t r i k i n g l y l a r g e n u m b e r of n a m e s a r e c o m p o u n d e d w i t h theos, i t is
r e a s o n a b l e t o a s s u m e t h a t all t h e s e p e r s o n s a r e J e w s . B u t since o n t h e
r e c t o o f t h e p a p y r u s t h e w o r d s TWV irepl Uapapciav a p p e a r , all the
persons m e n t i o n e d here m a y b e S a m a r i t a n s .
A p a p y r u s f r o m P h i l a d e l p h i a ( F a y u m ) , w h o s e s c r i p t i n d i c a t e s the
second c e n t u r y B . C , c o n t a i n s a p e t i t i o n by ' J u d a s son of D o s i t h e o s , a
J e w ' w h o w a s a f a r m e r i n t h e a r e a ( C P J I, n o . 43). N o t e also C P J I , no.
1 3 3 f r o m t h e F a y u m , m i d - s e c o n d c e n t u r y B.C
T h e l e t t e r - f o r m s also i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e following i n s c r i p t i o n f o u n d in
t h e F a y u m , C I J I I , n o . 1 5 3 1 , cf C P J I I I , p . 1 6 3 , is of t h e H e l l e n i s t i c
p e r i o d : 'JÂeaâpos NiKoXdov riycp^wv virep iavTOv Kal Eiprjvris rrjs
yvvaiKos TO cLpoXoyiov Kal T O <f>peap. T h e t e r m hegemon h e r e is p r e s u m a b l y
a military title.
A p a p y r u s of t h e s e c o n d o r first c e n t u r y B.C. ( B G U , n o . 1 2 8 2 = C P J
I, no. 46) c o n t a i n s a n a g r e e m e n t for j o i n t use of a p o t t e r y m a d e b y two
J e w i s h p o t t e r s f r o m t h e 'village o f S y r i a n s ' (see p . 45 a b o v e ) w i t h two
Egyptians.
First Century a.d.

A p a p y r u s o f A.D. 3 f r o m P h i l a d e l p h i a i n the F a y u m r e c o r d s a l o a n of a
q u a n t i t y of b a r l e y to S a m b a t h i o n son of D i o n y s i u s , a ' P e r s i a n o f the
epigone', w h o m a y b e J e w i s h ( C P J I I , n o . 4 1 1 ) ; a n o t h e r S a m b a t h i o n in
n o . 4 1 3 ( T e b t y n i s , A.D. 1 6 ) . T h e n a m e s A b r a m o s , S a m b a t a i o s a n d
D o s i t h e o s a p p e a r on a list of o w n e r s o f s h e e p a n d g o a t s from
H e r m u p o l i s M a g n a , A.D. 8-9 ( 4 1 2 ) , a m a n n a m e d J o s e p o s i n an
O x y r h y n c h u s p a p y r u s of A.D. 21 ( 4 1 4 ) , a n d t a x - p a y e r s called l o s e p o s
a n d S a m b a t h i o n a t P h i l a d e l p h i a in A.D. 2 5 ( 4 1 6 ) . N o n e o f t h e s e is
t'xplicitly i d e n t i f i e d as J e w i s h ( n o t e h o w e v e r t h e i s o l a t e d w o r d 'lovSaiov
in no. 4 1 5 , f r o m H a w a r a , A.D. 2 4 - 5 ) . F o r J e w i s h n a m e s on a p a p y r u s
p r o b a b l y r e l a t i n g t o O x y r h y n c h u s in t h e first c e n t u r y A.D. see C P R

V I I , G r i e c h i s c h e T e x t e I V ( 1 9 7 9 ) , n o . 2.
U n a m b i g u o u s e v i d e n c e of t h e p r e s e n c e of J e w s i n M i d d l e E g y p t in
t h e first c e n t u r y A.D. is s u p p l i e d b y p a r t s o f a l a r g e p a p y r u s listing
t a x - p a y e r s a n d t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e liabilities in A r s i n o e in t h e F a y u m in
A.D. 73 ( C P J I I , n o . 4 2 1 ) . T h e d o c u m e n t c o n t a i n s the r e p o r t s of t h e
A m p h o d a r c h e s of a q u a r t e r o f the t o w n , i n w h i c h h e gives a n e x a c t list
of t h o s e obliged t o p a y t h e '/ouSatKov reXeafj-a, t h e t w o - d r a c h m a t a x
i m p o s e d after the d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e T e m p l e (see also p . 1 2 2 b e l o w ) .
O n l y t h e w o m e n a n d c h i l d r e n are listed, since the m e n w e r e e n t e r e d in
a n o t h e r register w h i c h is n o t p r e s e r v e d . H o w e v e r w e c a n c a n o b t a i n
t h e i r n a m e s f r o m t h e list of w o m e n . T h e list r u n s as follows :
Tpv(f>aiva, a g e 6 1 .
Aojadpiov, d a u g h t e r o f TaKovôs a n d of Sapiôvs, wife of Uip-cov, 22
y e a r s of a g e .
<1>LXOVS, d a u g h t e r of [. . . ] a n d UTOXXOVS, wife of ©eohwpos, 20 y e a r s of
age.
2âp^dd[Lov], d a u g h t e r of Z'ajStvo? a n d of'Hpais, wife of ©rjyevrjs, 18
y e a r s of age.
! ! [ . . . , d a u g h t e r o f . . . ] a n d SevSovs, wife of I!apâd(iujv?), i [.] y e a r s
of a g e .
' E[pu)Tiov, d a u g h t e r o f . . . ] a n d EvTepirr], wife of UroXXds, 22 y e a r s of
age.
Boys:
<îXiaKos, s o n of/JroAAd? a n d Epoiriov, 4 y e a r s of a g e .
Zevdrjs, son oi Oeohoypos a n d îXovs, 3 y e a r s of a g e .
Girls:
TIPWTOVS, d a u g h t e r of ©edScupo? a n d 4>LXOVS, 5 y e a r s of a g e .
npcDTovs, d a u g h t e r of Z[p,oiv a n d Amadpiov, 4 y e a r s of a g e .
T o t h e s e a r e a d d e d t h e five m e n , Zip,cov, @e68(opos, @€y€vr]s,
Eaixâd(icov?), TlToXXXds: fifteen p e r s o n s i n all, as is specifically
s t a t e d . {<PiXovs at t h e a g e of 20 a l r e a d y h a s a five-year-old d a u g h t e r . )
T h e t a x a m o u n t e d in e a c h c a s e to 8 d r a c h m a s , 2 obols. O n its r e l a t i o n
to t h e d i d r a c h m a t a x see p p . 1 2 2 - 3 b e l o w .
I n c i d e n t a l i t e m s of i n f o r m a t i o n i n c l u d e P O x y , n o . 276 = C P J I I , n o .
4 2 2 , a r e c e i p t from O x y r h y n c h u s o f A.D. 77 m e n t i o n i n g s o m e o n e w h o
is t h e son o f l a k o u b o s , a n d a p a p y r u s o f a b o u t A.D. 8 5 , f r o m
O x y r h y n c h u s , P O x y , n o . 3 3 5 = C P J I I , no. 4 2 3 , r e c o r d i n g t h e sale of
t h e sixth p a r t of a h o u s e err' dpi.(f>6Sov Tovhaiî}K(ov), w h i c h w a s sold to
NiKaia 2IX[â]vcp ôvîov TCOV drr' *0$(vpvyxcov) TroXfecos)
TovSaicov. Cf. also a s o m e w h a t l a t e r p a p y r u s of A.D. 1 3 3 ( P O x y , n o .
100 = C P J I I I , n o . 454) f r o m O x y r h y n c h u s : in' dp.(f>68ov KprjTLKov
Kai Tov8a'iKrjs < Xavpas >. T h e r e s t o r a t i o n of a f e m i n i n e n o u n
m e a n i n g ' a l l e y ' o r ' l a n e ' is c o n j e c t u r a l . B u t it is e v i d e n t t h a t t h e
a d j e c t i v e ' J e w i s h ' is a t t a c h e d t o s o m e t o p o g r a p h i c a l f e a t u r e .
T h e r e is a l s o a l e t t e r of A.D. 87, a d d r e s s e d b y a l a d y n a m e d J o a n n a
to s o m e o n e a t P t o l e m a i s H e r m e i o u ( C P J I I , n o . 4 2 4 ) , a n d J e w i s h
n a m e s o n d o c u m e n t s of A.D. 9 3 f r o m O x y r h y n c h u s (no. 425) a n d o f c.
94 from t h e nomos o f A r s i n o e ( n o . 4 2 6 ) .
Second Century a.d.

P a p y r u s from t h e y e a r A.D. 1 0 1 - 2 from the F a y u m , B G U I I I (1903),
n o , 7 1 5 = C P J I I , n o . 428, a Ust of sitologoi, i n c l u d i n g Tcoarjs 6 Kal
T€v<f>iXo(s), STpdrctiv e7TiKaXov(jxevos) TadK(is), 'EXedllapos] /7T[oAe/u.]-
aiov, 'Appdix[ios], a n d Eap.âd(icov) *IaKovôv.
P a p y r u s f r o m t h e f o u r t h y e a r of T r a j a n , 10 F e b r u a r y , A.D. IOI, f r o m
A p o l l o n i a s i n the F a y u m , B G U I V , n o . 1068 = C P J I I , n o . 4 2 7 . A
f a t h e r r e p o r t s to t h e r o y a l c l e r k t h e d e a t h of his s o n J o s e p h , w h o w a s
still a m i n o r a n d so h a d n o t b e e n i n c l u d e d i n t h e last c e n s u s ( w h i c h
t o o k p l a c e o n l y e v e r y f o u r t e e n y e a r s ) . T h e f a t h e r asks t h e r e f o r e t h a t he
be registered a m o n g the d e a d . T h e n a m e s ( J o s e p h — t w i c e — a n d
S a r r a ) s h o w t h a t the f a m i l y w a s J e w i s h . N o t e t h e l i a b i l i t y of the
d e c e a s e d for t h e p o l l - t a x {laographia) a n d the o a t h t a k e n b y t h e n a m e of
t h e E m p e r o r a t t h e e n d of t h e d e c l a r a t i o n . Cf. the c e n s u s - r e t u r n of A.D.
105 f r o m A r s i n o e , w i t h t w o J e w i s h n a m e s ( C P J I I , n o . 4 3 0 ) .
P a p y r u s a b o u t A.D. I 10, nomos o f A r s i n o e , i.e. t h e F a y u m , P F a y , no.
1 2 3 = C P J I I , n o . 4 3 1 : a l e t t e r of a c e r t a i n H a r p o c r a t i o n to h i s b r o t h e r
S a b i n u s , in w h i c h h e tells h i m a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s t h a t the J e w
T e u p h i l o s h a s r e p o r t e d h a v i n g b e e n i m p r e s s e d for w o r k i n t h e fields (of
u n c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r ) a n d d e m a n d s to b e e x c u s e d b e c a u s e h e w a n t s to
g o to S a b i n u s . T h e a n n o u n c e m e n t s e e m s to h a v e b e e n m a d e s u d d e n l y
t h a t s a m e d a y . C l e a r l y H a r p o c r a t i o n wishes t o w a r n his b r o t h e r a g a i n s t
the untrustworthy worker.
P a p y r u s o f A.D. 1 1 3 , C P J I I , n o . 4 3 2 , w h i c h c o n t a i n s t h e a c c o u n t s of
t h e four c o m m i s s i o n e r s for t h e w a t e r w o r k s of A r s i n o e . I n the l o n g list of
items o f i n c o m e for t h e s u p p l y o f w a t e r t h e following a r e m e n t i o n e d
a m o n g o t h e r s (11. 57—61): dpxdvrojv '/[ouJSaicov Trpoaevxris @r]âia)v,
128 d r a c h m a s m o n t h l y . T h e s a m e s u m a l s o for the eucheion. T h e a m o u n t
is r e m a r k a b l y h i g h ; t h e e x p l a n a t i o n m a y p e r h a p s lie i n the n e e d for a
l a r g e a m o u n t of w a t e r for r i t u a l p u r p o s e s . T h e ' P r o s e u c h e of the
r h e b a n s ' is of c o u r s e t h e proseuche of t h e J e w s f r o m T h e b e s (in U p p e r
E g y p t ) . I n A r s i n o e t h e s e w e r e a p p a r e n t l y so n u m e r o u s t h a t they h a d
t h e i r o w n proseuche, w h i c h p e r h a p s i m p l i e s t h a t t h e r e w e r e o t h e r J e w i s h
proseuchai in t h e t o w n . A eucheion d i s t i n c t f r o m t h e proseuche o c c u r s h e r e
Ibr the first t i m e . T h e p r e c i s e m e a n i n g o f t h e t e r m ( ' p l a c e of p r a y e r ' ) is
not known.
T h e p a p y r i ( C P J I I , n o s . 4 3 5 - 5 0 ) r e l a t i n g , or p o s s i b l y r e l a t i n g t o the
Jewish r e v o l t of A.D. I 1 5 - 1 7 (see vol. I, p p . 5 2 9 - 3 4 , a n d M . P u c c i ,
' C . P . J . I I 1 5 8 , 4 3 5 e la r i v o l t a e b r a i c a a l t e m p o d i T r a i a n o ' , Z P E 5 1
( 1 9 8 3 ) , p p . 9 5 - 1 0 3 ) give little precise e v i d e n c e on t h e a r e a s o f J e w i s h
s e t t l e m e n t in n o r m a l t i m e s . A n e x c e p t i o n is n o . 4 4 5 , a l e t t e r of t h e
strategos o f t h e H e r a k l e o p o l i t e nomos to t h e strategos o f the O x y r h y n c h i t e
nomos ( a n d m e n t i o n i n g o n e a d d r e s s e d to t h e strategos of t h e K y r i o p o l i t e
nomos), r e f e r r i n g t o a r e g i s t e r of p r o p e r t y f o r m e r l y held by J e w s a n d
n o w e v i d e n t l y confiscated. T h e d a t e is p r e s u m a b l y n o t l o n g after A.D.
1 1 7 . A d o c u m e n t o f A.D. 130 ( n o . 448) a l l u d e s to s i m i l a r confiscations
of l a n d o w n e d by J e w s i n t h e A t h r i b i t e nomos.
A s e c o n d - c e n t u r y d o c u m e n t from t h e O x y r h y n c h i t e nomos ( C P J I I ,
n o . 452b) m a k e s a reference to a t a x c a l l e d ipTTopia TovSaicov, n o t
o t h e r w i s e k n o w n , o r e x p l i c a b l e . I s a k o u s , d a u g h t e r of H e r a k l e i d e s ,
f a r m i n g n e a r T h e a d e l p h i a i n A.D. 1 3 2 ( n o . 4 5 5 ) m a y h a v e b e e n
J e w i s h , a s m i g h t t h e f a r m e r H e r a s , also c a l l e d Azakiel, a t S o k n o p a i o u
Nesos ( n o . 464). A t K a r a n i s i n t h e A r s i n o i t e nomos t h e J e w i s h t a x w a s
b e i n g c o l l e c t e d in t h e m i d - s e c o n d c e n t u r y (no. 460).
I n A n d n o o p o l i s on t h e s o u t h e r n b o u n d a r y o f M i d d l e E g y p t a
H e b r e w g r a v e i n s c r i p t i o n w a s f o u n d , C I J I I , n o . 1 5 3 4 , cf. C P J I I I , p .
1 6 5 . T h e d a t e , s e c o n d c e n t u r y A.D. at t h e earliest, is q u i t e u n c e r t a i n .
F o r a G r e e k g r a v e i n s c r i p t i o n from A n t i n o o p o l i s w i t h n a m e s w h i c h may
be J e w i s h , see C I J I I , n o . 1 5 3 5 = C P J I I I , p . 1 6 5 .
A p a p y r u s of t h e l a t e second o r e a r l y t h i r d c e n t u r y r e c o r d s t h e
e x i s t e n c e at H e r m u p o U s (as possibly a t A r s i n o e , p . 5 4 a b o v e ) o f a
' J e w i s h l a n e ' , 'Iov8(aiKrjs) Xavpas ( C P J I I I , n o . 468).
P a p y r u s of A.D. 1 9 9 - 2 0 0 f r o m O x y r h y n c h u s , P O x y , n o . 705 = C P J
I I , n o . 4 5 0 . I t c o n t a i n s a p e t i t i o n from a c e r t a i n O r i o n t o the e m p e r o r s
S e p t i m i u s Severus a n d C a r a c a l l a , i n w h i c h h e refers to t h e fact t h a t t h e
i n h a b i t a n t s o f O x y r h y n c h u s h a d p r o v e d t h e i r l o y a l t y to t h e R o m a n s b y
fighting alongside t h e m i n t h e w a r a g a i n s t t h e J e w s a n d b y c e l e b r a t i n g
a n n u a l l y the d a y c o m m e m o r a t i n g t h e v i c t o r y (11. 3 1 - 4 ) . T h e r e f e r e n c e
is c e r t a i n l y to t h e w a r i n t h e r e i g n o f T r a j a n o f A.D. I 1 5 - 1 7, w h i c h h a d
e x t e n d e d over M i d d l e E g y p t w h e r e so m a n y J e w s lived, see v o l . I, p p .
529-34-
A p a p y r u s from O x y r h y n c h u s c o n t a i n i n g a n i n e - l i n e l a m e n t a t i o n in
H e b r e w is p u b l i s h e d by F . K l e i n - F r a n k e , ' A H e b r e w L a m e n t a t i o n f r o m
R o m a n E g y p t ' , Z P E 51 ( 1 9 8 3 ) , p p . 80-4, a n d c o n j e c t u r a l l y r e l a t e d to
t h e a f t e r m a t h of t h e w a r of A.D. I 15—17.
Third Century A . D .
A d o c u m e n t w h i c h is c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e r e v e a l i n g t h a n m o s t from t h e
s e c o n d a n d t h i r d c e n t u r i e s is a p a p y r u s o f A.D. 291 from O x y r h y n c h u s
( P O x y , n o . 1 2 0 5 = C P J I I I , n o . 4 7 3 ) c o n c e r n i n g t h e m a n u m i s s i o n of
s o m e J e w i s h slaves. A s u m h a s b e e n p a i d to t h e i r o w n e r ' b y t h e
c o m m u n i t y o f t h e J e w s ' {Trapa TTJS avvaycoly^Tjs rwv TovSaicov)
t h r o u g h t h e a g e n c y of two o r m o r e m e n , o n e o f w h o m w a s a t o w n
c o u n c i l l o r o f O n o in P a l e s t i n e a n d also ' f a t h e r of t h e ( c o m m u n i t y ? ) ' —
iraTpos TTJs [avvaycoyrjs?^.
P a p y r u s f r o m A.D. 2 9 5 , O x y r h y n c h u s , P O x y , n o . 43 = C P J I I I , n o .
4 7 5 , v e r s o c o l . ii, 1. 1 3 : six w a t c h m e n in t h e S e r a p e u m , a m o n g t h e m
J a c o b son o f Achilles. T h e n a m e J a c o b p e r h a p s suggests t h a t this
w a t c h m a n i n the t e m p l e of S e r a p i s was b y b i r t h a J e w .
J e w i s h n a m e s o c c u r also i n the l a t e r s o u r c e s f r o m M i d d l e E g y p t . See
e.g. C P J I I I , n o s . 4 7 4 a - b ; 4 7 7 ; 480; 5 0 3 ; 506—12; 5 1 7 . N o t e also
P O x y , n o . 3 3 1 4 ( f o u r t h c e n t u r y ) . I n v i e w of t h e r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e v o l u m e
o f e v i d e n c e for J e w s i n E g y p t i n the p e r i o d w i t h w h i c h t h i s b o o k is
m a i n l y c o n c e r n e d it is n o t n e c e s s a r y t o c o n s i d e r t h e s e references in
detail.
3. Upper Egypt
Second Century B . C .
A m o n g the m a s s of t a x r e c e i p t s o n s h e r d s of p o t t e r y ( o s t r a c a ) w h i c h
h a v e b e e n f o u n d i n t h e n e i g h b o u r h o o d of T h e b e s , t h e r e are s o m e w i t h
J e w i s h n a m e s b e l o n g i n g to t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B.C. S e e U . W i l c k e n ,
Griechische Ostraka aus Agypten und Mubien I ( 1 8 9 9 ) , p p . 523—4, for t h e
first s y s t e m a t i c c o l l e c t i o n o f J e w i s h ( o r S e m i t i c ) n a m e s from these
s o u r c e s . See n o w C P J I , section V , p p . 1 9 4 - 2 2 6 ( n o s . 4 8 - 1 2 4 ) : ' J e w i s h
T a x - C o l l e c t o r s , G o v e r n m e n t Officials a n d P e a s a n t s i n U p p e r E g y p t ' .
T h e n a m e s w h i c h c a n b e r e g a r d e d w i t h r e a s o n a b l e c e r t a i n t y as J e w i s h
a r e n o w listed in C P J I , p p . 2 0 0 - 2 .
F o l l o w i n g W i l c k e n ' s s u g g e s t i o n we s h o u l d t h i n k of these p e r s o n s to
w h o m r e c e i p t s a r e issued n o t as i n d i v i d u a l t a x - p a y e r s b u t as c o n t r a c t o r s
w h o b r o u g h t in t h e t a x e s a n d p a i d t h e g o v e r n m e n t a n a n n u a l l u m p
s u m for t h e m . W e m u s t r e c k o n w i t h t h e possibility t h a t t h e b e a r e r s of
these H e b r e w n a m e s a r e n o t r e a l l y J e w s b u t S a m a r i t a n s , for A l e x a n d e r
t h e G r e a t is a l l e g e d t o h a v e s e t t l e d S a m a r i t a n soldiers in t h e T h e b a i d ,
J o s . Ant. xi 8 , 6 ( 3 4 5 ) .
T o the s e c o n d c e n t u r y B.C. b e l o n g s also a l e t t e r , f o u n d i n t h e
T h e b a i d , w r i t t e n by a c e r t a i n M e n o n t o H e r m o c r a t e s , i n w h i c h a J e w is
m e n t i o n e d a s h a v i n g failed t o h a n d o v e r a h o r s e a n d (?) c a r r i a g e , C P J
I, no. 1 3 5 .
First Century B . C .
A d i n i n g - a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h J e w i s h m e m b e r s m a y b e a t t e s t e d in C P J I ,
no. 139, from Apollinopolis M a g n a (Edfu).
First Century a.d.

A c o n t i n u e d J e w i s h p r e s e n c e in U p p e r E g y p t is a g a i n a t t e s t e d b y t h e
a p p e a r a n c e of J e w i s h n a m e s o n o s t r a c a (see a b o v e ) , t h i s t i m e f r o m
A p o l l i n o p o l i s M a g n a ; t h e y a r e collected a n d d i s c u s s e d i n C P J I I , p p .
108—77 (jôs. i6o-4o8d). I n p a r t i c u l a r t h e o s t r a c a i l l u s t r a t e t h e
p a y m e n t of t h e t w o - d r a c h m a t a x i m p o s e d o n a l l J e w s after t h e
d e s t r u c t i o n of the T e m p l e in A.D. 70 (see v o l . I, p . 5 1 3 ) ; i n t h e s e
d o c u m e n t s it is called TovSa'iKov TeXeajxa o r TI/LIT) hrjvapiwv bvo TovBaicov,
a n d its p a y m e n t is a t t e s t e d from A.D. 7 1 - 2 ( n o . 160) to A.D. 1 1 6 ( n o s .
227—9). P a y m e n t of o t h e r t a x e s is a t t e s t e d f r o m A.D. 56 (no. 230) t o
1 1 6 (no. 369) ; nos. 371—2 b e l o n g t o u n c e r t a i n d a t e s in t h e r e i g n of
T r a j a n (A.D. 9 8 - 1 1 7 ) . W h e t h e r t h e cessation is to b e r e g a r d e d as a
side-effect of t h e r e v o l t of A.D. I 1 5 - 1 7 , or a s c r i b e d t o s o m e o t h e r c a u s e ,
or m e r e l y the a c c i d e n t s of discovery, r e m a i n s u n c l e a r .
H o w n u m e r o u s t h e J e w s in t h e T h e b e s w e r e is s u g g e s t e d by t h e fact
t h a t J e w s from T h e b e s i n A r s i n o e h a d t h e i r o w n proseuche. S e e t h e
p a p y r u s from t h e r e i g n of T r a j a n d e s c r i b e d a b o v e , p . 5 5 .
Second Century a.d.

S o m e e v i d e n c e for t h e e x i s t e n c e of a s u b s t a n t i a l J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y i n
U p p e r E g y p t is p r o v i d e d by t h e fact t h a t the u p r i s i n g i n the t i m e o f
T r a j a n is r e p o r t e d b y l a t e r sources t o h a v e e x t e n d e d into t h e T h e b a i d
( E u s e b . Chron. ed. S c h o e n e I I , p p . 164 ff. o n t h e e i g h t e e n t h y e a r o f
T r a j a n ; O r o s i u s vii 1 2 ) .
As characterisdc illustrations o f t h e b r o a d m i n d e d n e s s of this
E g y p t i a n J e w r y t h e r e a r e t w o i n s c r i p t i o n s i n the t e m p l e of P a n a t
A p o l l o n o p o l i s M a g n a in U p p e r E g y p t , O G I S , n o s . 7 3 - 4 ; C I J I I , n o s .
1 5 3 8 , 1 5 3 7 ( C P J I I I , p p . 1 6 5 - 6 ) . O n e r e a d s : euAoyei TOV deov
IlToXepatos Aiovvaiov TovSaios. T h e o t h e r r e a d s : Oeov evXoyia GevoSoros
Acopicovos '/ouSaios acoOeis €K 7reA<(ay)ot»s. T h e s e c o n d t h u s gives t h a n k s for
r e s c u e from d a n g e r at s e a ; b o t h p a y h o m a g e to ' t h e g o d ' w i t h o u t
m e n t i o n o f his n a m e . W h e t h e r this w a s P a n o r Y a h w e h seems n o t t o
h a v e b e e n of g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e t o t h e m .
A f u r t h e r g r o u p o f o s t r a c a f r o m A p o l l i n o p o l i s M a g n a d a t i n g to t h e
150S a n d 160S ( C P J I I , n o s . 375—403) h a s b e e n r e g a r d e d as r e v e a l i n g t h e
p r e s e n c e of a J e w i s h f a m i l y ; b u t t h e positive e v i d e n c e for this is n o t
clear.
Consistent with their great n u m b e r s a n d importance, the J e w s of

A l e x a n d r i a a n d E g y p t w e r e also involved i n v a r i o u s m a j o r conflicts w i t h
the p a g a n i n h a b i t a n t s a n d w i t h t h e R o m a n a u t h o r i t i e s ; this w a s t h e
case w i t h t h e g r e a t p e r s e c u t i o n u n d e r C a l i g u l a (vol. I , p p . 3 9 0 - 4 ) , w i t h
the conflicts u n d e r N e r o a n d Vespasian,^* a n d i n t h e t i m e of T r a j a n ( v o l .
I, p p . 5 2 9 - 3 4 ) . T h e very h i s t o r y of these conflicts is a t t h e s a m e t i m e
54. B.J. ii 18, 7-8 (487-98); vii 10 (407-36).

p r o o f o f t h e c o n t i n u i n g i m p o r t a n c e of E g y p t i a n J e w r y i n t h e R o m a n
p e r i o d also.
A p a r t from J e w s p r o p e r , h o w e v e r , S a m a r i t a n s a l s o l i v e d i n Egypt.^^
A l e x a n d e r t h e G r e a t h i m s e l f is r e p o r t e d to h a v e s e t t l e d S a m a r i t a n s in
t h e T h e b a i d . P t o l e m y I L a g u s , o n h i s c o n q u e s t of P a l e s t i n e , t o o k
m a n y p r i s o n e r s of w a r , n o t o n l y f r o m J u d a e a a n d J e r u s a l e m , b u t also
T r o m t h e i n h a b i t a n t s of S a m a r i a a n d M t . G e r i z i m ' , a n d s e t t l e d t h e m in
Egypt.57
A village ' S a m a r e i a ' i n M i d d l e E g y p t o c c u r s i n p a p y r u s s o u r c e s as
e a r l y a s t h e m i d d l e o f t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y B.C.^ T h e i n h a b i t a n t s
c e r t a i n l y i n c l u d e d J e w i s h settlers in t h e P t o l e m a i c p e r i o d , a n d t h e
significance o f t h e n a m e is u n c l e a r ( p . 45 a b o v e ) . A t t h e d m e of
P t o l e m y V I P h i l o m e t o r , J e w s a n d S a m a r i t a n s in E g y p t a r e a l l e g e d b y
J o s e p h u s to h a v e b r o u g h t t h e i r d i s p u t e o n t h e t r u e p l a c e o f w o r s h i p
( J e r u s a l e m o r G e r i z i m ) b e f o r e t h e K i n g ' s c o u r t . I n t h e fictional l e t t e r
of H a d r i a n t o S e r v i a n u s g i v e n in t h e Historia Augusta t h e s a m e is s a i d of
t h e S a m a r i t a n s in E g y p t as o f t h e J e w s a n d C h r i s t i a n s t h e r e , t h a t t h e y
a r e a b u n c h o f ' a s t r o l o g e r s , diviners a n d q u a c k healers'.^° This evidence
is of n o v a l u e as r e g a r d s t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y A.D. A n u m b e r o f possible
o r p r o b a b l e S a m a r i t a n s a r e a t t e s t e d in t h e p a p y r i o f t h e R o m a n p e r i o d
( P M i l V o g l , n o . 2 1 2 : UafiapeiTfjs, T e b t y n i s , A.D. 1 0 9 ; P M i c h , n o .
2 2 3 - 4 : G a i n s l u l i u s M a x i m u s ZaixapeiTrjs, K a r a n i s , A.D. 1 7 1 - 2 ) , b u t
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n is c o m p l i c a t e d b y t h e possibility t h a t all t h a t is i n d i c a t e d
is o r i g i n f r o m t h e village S a m a r e i a ; s e e M . N a g e l , ' U n S a m a r i t a i n
d a n s I ' A r s i n o i t e a u 2^ siecle a p r e s J . - C , C E 4 9 ( 1 9 7 4 ) , p p . 3 5 6 - 6 5 . F o r
t h e late R o m a n p e r i o d t h e r e is t h e d i v o r c e - d e e d o f A.D. 586 ( C P J I I I ,
n o . 5 1 3 = S B , n o . 9278) f r o m H e r m o p o l i s M a g n a , in w h i c h t h e t w o
parties are called ' S a m a r i t a n s b y o b s e r v a n c e ' {ZafxapiTai TT)V
dp7]aK(^€yiav). T h e e x i s t e n c e o f S a m a r i t a n s in E g y p t is also p r e s u p p o s e d in
a letter of t h e e m p e r o r s V a l e n t i n i a n , T h e o d o s i u s a n d A r c a d i u s t o t h e
5 5 . Cf. T . G. J . Juynboll, Commentarii in historiam gentis Samaritanae ( 1 8 4 6 ) , pp. 3 8 - 4 1 ,

4 3 - 5 ; M . Nagel, C E 4 9 ( 1 9 7 4 ) , pp. 3 5 6 - 6 5 -
5 6 . Ant. xi 8, 6 ( 3 4 0 - 5 ) .
5 7 . Ant. xii I ( 7 ) .
5 8 . PPetrie I I , pp. [ 1 4 ] 2, [ 8 8 ] 9, [ 9 3 ] 4 , [94] 2 2 , [ 9 6 ] 1 2 . I l l , nos. 66b i v . 3 , 8 7 b ii.2,
I i 2 e ii.4, 1 3 9 b i . 3 . All these sources of the Petrie collection belong t o the third century
11.c. and were found in the F a y u m {nomos o f Arsinoe). See also P T e b t I I , nos. 566, 6 0 9 ;
I I I , no. 8 2 0 = C P J I, n o . 2 2 ; 8 8 2 = CPJ I , no. 2 8 ; P R y l . no. 7 1 ( 9 7 - 5 B . C . ) . T h e village
was later also called Kerkesephis, a n d still existed five h u n d r e d years later, A.D. 289,
IKiU no. 9 4 ; it does n o t a p p e a r t h a t the two places were identical in t h e Ptolemaic
period, see PPetrie I I , p p . 383—4.
59. Ant. xiii 3 , 4 ( 7 4 - 9 ) . Cf xii i ( 1 0 ) .
()(). H A Vita Saturnini 8 : ' n e m o illic archisynagogus l u d a e o r u m , n e m o Samarites, nemo
< :hristianorum presbyter non m a t h e m a d c u s , non h a r u s p e x , non aliptes.'
6o § 3 1 . Judaism in the Diaspora
praejectus Augustalis in 390.^' T h e l e t t e r o f a b i s h o p E u l o g i u s r e p o r t s a

s y n o d w h i c h h e h a s held a g a i n s t t h e S a m a r i t a n s . If, as is n o w g e n e r a l l y
a s s u m e d , this is t h e w e l l - k n o w n E u l o g i u s o f A l e x a n d r i a ( p a t r i a r c h
A.D. 5 8 1 - 6 0 7 ) , it is n a t u r a l to p r e s u m e t h a t t h e r e w a s a k n o w n
S a m a r i t a n c o m m u n i t y in E g y p t in t h e sixth c e n t u r y (as t h e
d i v o r c e - d e e d of A.D. 5 8 1 also suggests) .^^ T h e i r e x i s t e n c e t h e r e c a n
h o w e v e r be p r o v e d for t h e M i d d l e Ages a n d o n i n t o t h e s e v e n t e e n t h
c e n t u r y A.D. ^ C o m p a r e t h e e v i d e n c e c i t e d b e l o w for S a m a r i t a n s Hving
in D e l o s in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B.C. ( p p . 7 0 - 1 ) a n d for a S a m a r i t a n
s y n a g o g u e at T h e s s a l o n i k a ( p p . 6 6 - 7 ) .
T h e J e w i s h d i s p e r s i o n is also well a t t e s t e d f u r t h e r w e s t a l o n g t h e
N o r t h A f r i c a n coast. I n Cyrenaica, w h i c h was s e t t l e d by G r e e k s in t h e
s e v e n t h c e n t u r y B.C., a n d r e m a i n e d G r e e k - s p e a k i n g , J e w s w e r e v e r y
s t r o n g l y r e p r e s e n t e d . A l r e a d y P t o l e m y I L a g u s is said to h a v e s e n t
J e w i s h settlers there.^* T h e R o m a n l e t t e r m e n t i o n e d in i M a c . 1 5 : 2 3
p r e s u p p o s e s J e w i s h i n h a b i t a n t s of C y r e n e . A c e r t a i n J a s o n of C y r e n e
c o m p o s e d t h e w o r k on w h i c h 2 M a c c a b e e s is b a s e d (2 M a c . 2:23).
A c c o r d i n g t o S t r a b o , a t t h e t i m e of S u l l a ( a r o u n d 85 B.c.) t h e
i n h a b i t a n t s of the c i t y of Cyrene fell i n t o four c a t e g o r i e s : i ) c i t i z e n s ; 2)
f a r m e r s ; 3) r e s i d e n t a h e n s ; 4) Jews.^^ T h e J e w s of t h a t t i m e p l a y e d a
p r o m i n e n t p a r t in t h e d i s t u r b a n c e s in C y r e n e w h i c h L u c u l l u s himself,
b e c a u s e of h i s a c c i d e n t a l p r e s e n c e t h e r e , h a d to settle.^^ A J e w i s h
6 1 . Cod. Theod. xiii 5, 1 8 .

6 2 . This work of Eulogius is known to us only from the report in Photius, Biblioth. cod.
2 3 0 s. fin. (ed. 1. Bekker, p. 2 8 5 ; ed. R . Henry, vol. V ( 1 9 6 7 ) , pp. 6 0 - 1 ) . Photius takes the
a u t h o r to be Eulogius of Alexandria (end of sixth c e n t u r y ) , but this is inconsistent with
the textual report that t h e Synod was held i n the seventh year of the emperor M a r c i a n u s
(A.D. 450—7). It is normally accepted t h a t MapKiavos should be e m e n d e d to read
MavpiKios, i.e. Mauricius, who reigned A.D. 5 8 2 - 6 0 2 .
6 3 . T. E. J . J u y n b o l l , Commentarii in historiam gentis Sam., p p . 43—5. A. Briill, 'Die
S a m a r i t a n e r in K a i r o ' , J a h r b . fur jiidische Gesch. und L i t e r a t u r 7 ( 1 8 8 5 ) , p p . 4 3 - 5 ; R.
Gottheil, 'Egypt' i n J E V , pp. 7 0ff".N o modern survey of the evidence for the S a m a r i t a n
diaspora appears to be available.
6 4 . Jos. C. Ap. ii 4 ( 4 4 ) . For the history of Cyrenaica in general see F. C h a m o u x , Cyrene
sous la monarchie des Battiades ( 1 9 5 3 ) ; P. Romanelli, La Cirenaica romana ( 1 9 4 3 ) ; R. G.
Goodchild, Cyrene und Apollonia ( 1 9 7 1 ) ; Beurlier s.v. 'Cyrene', in F. Vigouroux, DB I I ,
cols. 1177—84. Note esp. S. A p p l e b a u m , Jews and Greeks in Ancient Cyrene ( 1 9 7 9 ) , a n d G.
Luederitz, Corpus jiidische êugnisse aus der Cyrenaika ( 1 9 8 3 ) .
6 5 . Strabo ap. Jos. Ant. xiv 7, 2 ( 1 1 5 ) = G L A J J I, n o . 1 0 5 : Terrapes 8' -qaav iv rrj
TToAei TWV Kvp-qvaiwv, rj re TCOV TTOXITWV Kal r) TCOV yewpywv, TpiTrj 8' rj TWV fieToiKOiv,
TeTapTT] 8' rj TWV 'lovSaiwv.
66. Strabo ap. J o s . Ant. xiv 7, 2 (i 15—18) = G L A J J , loc. cit. O n the activities of Lucullus
in Cyrene see Plutarch, Luc. 2 ; M R R II, p p . 55—6. His main object was to requisition
ships for Sulla. I n doing so h e had, however, also to settle internal disturbances, since
condidons in Cyrene were sdll in great disorder. T h e last king, Ptolemy Apion of Cyrene,
h a d died in 96 B.C., after n a m i n g the R o m a n s as his h e i r s ; but Cyrene was n o t incorpo
r a t e d as a province until 74 B.C.
/. Geographical Survey 6i
politeuma in the city o f Berenice in C y r e n a i c a is r e v e a l e d in t h r e e

i m p o r t a n t i n s c r i p t i o n s of t h e first c e n t u r y A.D., r e c e n t l y re-edited b y J .
M . R e y n o l d s in J . A. L l o y d ( e d . ) , Excavations at Sidi Khrebish, Benghazi
(Berenice) I ( L i b y a A n t i q u a , S u p p . V L 1 9 8 1 ) , p p . 2 4 2 - 7 ( h e n c e f o r w a r d
R e y n o l d s ) : a ) S E G X V I I , n o . 8 2 3 = A E i960, n o . 1 9 9 = R e y n o l d s ,
n o . 16 = C J Z C , n o . 72, of A.D. 5 5 r e c o r d i n g a d e c i s i o n b y the
c o m m u n i t y {awaywyq) of t h e J e w s i n B e r e n i c e t o list the n a m e s of
s u b s c r i b e r s t o t h e r e p a i r o f the s y n a g o g u e (also avvayouyrj); of the
s u b s c r i b e r s , t e n a r e d e s c r i b e d as dpxov a n d o n e as tcpcvs, cohen, see also
D F , n o . 100 ; b) C I G I I I , n o . 5 3 6 1 = I G R I, n o . 1024 ~ R e y n o l d s , no.
1 7 = C J Z C , no. 7 1 , d a t i n g to e i t h e r 4 1 B.C. or ( m o r e p r o b a b l y ) A.D.
24, a n d r e c o r d i n g a v o t e a t S u k k o t {irrl avWoyov T-fjs aKrjvoTTrjyias) by
t h e politeuma of t h e J e w s in B e r e n i c e in r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e services of a
R o m a n official, M . T i t t i u s ; c ) C I G I I I , no. 5 3 6 2 = S E G X V I , n o . 931
= R e y n o l d s , n o . 18 = C J Z C , n o . 70, also a n h o n o r i f i c d e c r e e passed
b y the politeuma, d a t e n o t g i v e n .
T h e c e m e t e r y of Teucheira ( T o k r a ) has also y i e l d e d a s u b s t a n t i a l
n u m b e r of H e b r e w n a m e s t r a n s l i t e r a t e d i n t o G r e e k , a n d of t h e o p h o r i c
n a m e s ; the e v i d e n c e , in s p i t e o f m a n y diflficulties of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ,
i n d i c a t e s a significant J e w i s h p o p u l a t i o n t h e r e in t h e first c e n t u r y
A.D.^'' S o m e J e w i s h n a m e s a r e a l s o a t t e s t e d o n e p i t a p h s from Apollonia
( C J Z C , nos. 1 - 2 , p o s s i b l y 3 - 5 ) , as from Ptolemais ( n o s . 3 1 - 4 ; A p p . , nos.
4—8). A c a t a l o g u e of e p h e b e s f r o m t h e city of Cyrene, d a t i n g to A.D.
3—4, c o n t a i n s a few c l e a r l y J e w i s h n a m e s . ^ S i m i l a r l y , a list of city
oflficials [nomophylakes] from A.D. 6 0 - 1 i n c l u d e s ' E l a z a r son of J a s o n '
( C J Z C , no. 8 ) . A u g u s t u s a n d A g r i p p a issued r u l i n g s i n f a v o u r o f the
J e w s o f C y r e n e . ^ ^ R e f e r e n c e s in t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t a r e m a n y : M t .
2 7 : 3 2 ; M k . 1 5 : 2 1 ; Lk. 23:26 ( S i m o n o f C y r e n e ) ; A c t s 2 : 1 0 ( C y r e n e a n s
a t the feast o f Passover i n J e r u s a l e m ) ; A c t s 6:9 ( C y r e n e a n s y n a g o g u e in
J e r u s a l e m ) ; A c t s 1 1 : 2 0 ( C y r e n e a n s c o m e to A n t i o c h f r o m J e r u s a l e m ) ;
A c t s 1 3 : 1 ( L u c i u s of C y r e n e i n A n t i o c h ) ; cf C J Z C , n o . 29, n o t i n g t h a t
s u c h d e s i g n a t i o n s m a y i n d i c a t e t h e r e g i o n of C y r e n a i c a r a t h e r t h a n the
c i t y of C y r e n e itself A t the t i m e of V e s p a s i a n , J e w i s h Sicarii f o u n d a
following a m o n g t h e i r c o - r e l i g i o n i s t s i n C y r e n e , a t least ( a c c o r d i n g to
J o s e p h u s ) a m o n g the p o o r . As a r e s u l t , as m a n y as t h r e e t h o u s a n d
w e a l t h y J e w s lost t h e i r lives a n d p r o p e r t y . T h e g r e a t J e w i s h rebellion
67. See Applebaum, Jews and Greeks, pp. 1 4 4 - 6 0 ; C J Z C , nos. 4 1 - 6 9 , a n d A p p . nos. 9 - 2 5 .

T h e identification as Jewish is often very u n c e r t a i n .
68. S E G X X , no. 7 4 1 = C J Z C , n o . 7 : e.g., col. 1,1. 3 4 , Bap9vâs Bapdi^pa (sic) ; 1. 57,
'lovXio? 'IrjaovTos; col. II, 1. 47, BapOvâs Bapdvâ; 1. 48, 'EXa.a£,ap 'EXdlâpos- See
Applebaum, Jews and Greeks, p . 1 7 7 , and cf. C J Z C , no. 6, with o n e certainly Jewish name.
For Jewish epitaphs from the area of Cyrene see C J Z C , nos. 1 0 - 1 2 , a n d App., nos. 1 - 3 .
69. Jos. Ant. jiVi 6,1 ( 1 6 1 ) .
70. J o s . B.J. vii I I , 1 - 2 ( 4 3 7 - 4 6 ) . Vita 7 6 ( 4 2 4 ) - ' t w o thousand' induced to j o i n the
K'hellion.
in C y r e n a i c a d u r i n g T r a j a n ' s r e i g n was a f o r m i d a b l e affair.'"
A c c o r d i n g to P r o c o p i u s t h e r e w a s i n Boreum ( B u - G r a d a , o n t h e G u l f of
Syrtis s o u t h o f B e r e n i c e ) a J e w i s h ' t e m p l e ' {naos, m e a n i n g o f c o u r s e
synagogue) which the e m p e r o r Justinian converted into a Christian
church.
S o m e e v i d e n c e also exists o f the p r e s e n c e o f J e w s in L a d n - s p e a k i n g

N o r t h Africa i n t h e I m p e r i a l p e r i o d , from T r i p o l i t a n i a t o the A t l a n t i c
c o a s t . T h e r e is n o t h i n g to i n d i c a t e h o w a n d w h e n this i m m i g r a t i o n
t o o k p l a c e , b u t as n e i g h b o u r i n g C y r e n a i c a w a s c o l o n i z e d b y J e w s as
e a r l y as t h e P t o l e m a i c p e r i o d , it m i g h t b e s u p p o s e d t h a t t h e s e t t l e m e n t
of Africa b e g a n t h e n , i n Africa proconsularis a t a n y r a t e , followed b y
N u m i d i a a n d M a u r e t a n i a . B u t so far as o u r p r e s e n t e v i d e n c e goes, t h e r e
is i n fact no clear sign o f J e w i s h s e t t l e m e n t i n L a t i n - s p e a k i n g N o r t h
Africa u n t i l t h e second c e n t u r y A.D.^*
a ) Africa proconsularis. I n Carthage, a n e x t e n s i v e J e w i s h n e c r o p o l i s h a s
been excavated, with more than one hundred tombs, each containing
a r o u n d fifteen to s e v e n t e e n b u r i a l - p l a c e s . T h e f r e q u e n t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
of t h e s e v e n - b r a n c h e d c a n d l e s t i c k ( m e n o r a h ) testifies t o its J e w i s h
o r i g i n (see A. L . D e l a t t r e , Gamart on la necropole juive de Carthage ( 1 8 9 5 ) ;
L e B o h e c , op. cit., nos. 2 4 - 6 3 . L a t i n i n s c r i p t i o n s f o u n d in t h e s a m e
p l a c e (a little over a d o z e n ) m o s t l y give o n l y the n a m e s of t h e d e a d ,
sometimes with t h e a d d i t i o n 'in p a c e ' ( C I L V I I I , Suppl. nos.
1 4 0 9 7 - 1 1 4 , M o n c e a u x , RA (1904), p p . 363—6). A s m a l l n u m b e r of
e p i t a p h s h a v e also b e e n f o u n d elsewhere i n C a r t h a g e (Le B o h e c , op. cit.
7 1 . Dio Ixviii 3 2 ; Euseb. Hist. Eccl. iv 2 , 4. F o r the substantial archaeological a n d

inscriptional evidence see vol. I , pp. 5 3 1 - 2 , a n d C J Z C , nos. 1 7 - 2 5 .
7 2 . Procop. de aedific. vi 3. See R. G. Goodchild, 'Boreum of Cyrenaica', J R S 4 1 ( 1 9 5 1 ) ,
pp. 1 1 - 1 6 3 , and CJZC, no. 76.
7 3 . A Jewish object which m a y well have come t o Carthage through Phoenician t r a d e
was the subject of a report by Ph. Berger, C R A I ( 1 9 0 5 ) , pp. 7 5 7 - 8 . I t is a n engraved
stone from a sarcophagus of t h e third century B.C., bearing the name J o a b i n Hebraic
script a n d the image of a d e m o n with outspread wings. F r o m the script and other
characteristics it must originate from the sixth or seventh century B.C. T h e C a r t h a g i n i a n
interred in the sarcophagus therefore wore t h e stone as an a n d q u i t y by t h e n already three
to four hundred years old. T h i s remains the sole identifiable Jewish object from N o r t h
Africa of t h e Punic period, see L e Bohec, op. cit., pp. 2 0 1 - 2 .
7 4 . Cf especially P. M o n c e a u x , 'Les colonies juives d a n s I'Afrique r o m a i n e ' , R E J 44
( 1 9 0 2 ) , p p . 1 - 2 8 , repr. in Les Cahiers d e Tunisie 18 ( 1 9 7 0 ) , p p . 1 5 7 - 8 4 . Also, the compilation
ofjewish inscriptions from N o r t h Africa in R e v . Arch., 3 ( 1 9 0 4 ) , p p . 3 5 4 - 7 3 . M. R a c h m u t h ,
'Die J u d e n in Nordafrika bis zur Invasion der Araber', MGWJ (1906),
pp. 2 5 - 5 8 . Cf J . J u s t e r , Les Juifs dans I'empire romain I ( 1 9 1 4 ) , p. 2 0 7 , n. I 2 ; H . Z. (J. W.)
Hirschberg, A History of the Jews in JVorth Africa I ( 1 9 7 4 ) , pp. 2 1 - 8 6 ; J . - M . Lasserre,
Ubique Populus ( 1 9 7 7 ) , p p . 4 1 3 - 2 6 ; Y . Le Bohec, 'Inscriptions juives et judaisantes de
I'Afrique romaine', Antiquites Africaines 1 7 ( 1 9 8 1 ) , p p . 165—207; cf. idem, 'Juifs et
judaisants dans I'Afrique r o m a i n e : remarques onomastiques', ibid., pp. 2 0 9 - 2 9 . Note?? ?also
H. Solin, 'Juden und Syren i m westlichen Teil d e r romischen Welt', A N R W I I . 2 9 . 2
( 1 9 8 3 ) . PP- 5 8 7 - 7 8 9 . 1 2 2 2 - 1 2 4 9 , on p p . 7 7 1 - 5 .
n o s . 1 6 - 2 1 ) , one o f w h i c h ( 1 8 ) h a s a b r i e f i n s c r i p t i o n in H e b r e w . I t has
m o r e o v e r often b e e n a s s e r t e d t h a t T e r t u U i a n ' s Adversus ludaeos p r e s u m e s
t h e p r e s e n c e of J e w s i n C a r t h a g e (the a u t h e n t i c i t y of 1 - 8 o f this w o r k
m a y b e r e g a r d e d as c e r t a i n , t h o u g h 9 - 1 4 h a s raised d o u b t s . S e e O .
B a r d e n h e w e r , Gesch. der altkirchl. Literatur I I ( 1 9 0 3 ) , p p . 3 5 7 - 9 , A.
H a r n a c k , Gesch. der altchristl. Literatur I I . 2 (1904), p p . 2 8 8 - 9 2 ; B.
A k a n e r , A. S t u i b e r , Patrologie ( 1 9 7 8 ) , p . 1 5 3 , a c c e p t i n g t h e w h o l e as
g e n u i n e . ) B u t see T . D . B a r n e s , Tertullian ( 1 9 7 1 ) , p p . 9 0 - 3 ; 2 7 3 - 5 5 fo'"
a different v i e w , C . A z i z a , Tertullien et lejudaisme ( 1 9 7 7 ) . T h e fact t h a t
Tertullian writes a b o u t the J e w s proves n o t h i n g ; only concrete and
localisable r e f e r e n c e s h a v e a n y v a l u e i n this c o n t e x t (e.g., t h e a n e c d o t e
c o n c e r n i n g a l a p s e d J e w , a p p a r e n t l y in C a r t h a g e , i n Ad. Nat. i 14, 2 ) .
At Hammam-Lif ( N a r o ) , n o t far from C a r t h a g e , t h e f o u n d a t i o n s h a v e
b e e n f o u n d o f a s y n a g o g u e f r o m t h e R o m a n p e r i o d w h o s e m o s a i c floors
c a r r y J e w i s h i n s c r i p t i o n s in L a t i n (for t h e l i t e r a t u r e o n this s u b j e c t see
vol. I I , p . 4 3 4 , a n d F. M . B i e b e l , T h e M o s a i c s o f H a m m a m Lif, Art.
B u l l e t i n 18 ( 1 9 3 6 ) p p . 5 4 1 - 5 1 , a n d for the t e x t o f the i n s c r i p t i o n s also
C I L V I I I , S u p p l . n o . 1 2 4 5 7 j P- M o n c e a u x , R A (1904), p p . 3 6 6 - 8 (nos.
1 3 8 - 9 ) ; Le B o h e c , op. cit., n o s . 13—15).
O n a n i n s c r i p t i o n i n Utica, a n archon a p p e a r s , p e r h a p s a J e w i s h
s y n a g o g u e official ( C I L V I I I , n o . 1 2 0 5 , a n d A d d . p . 9 3 1 ; L e B o h e c ,
op. cit., n o . 6 5 , w i t h references a n d d i s c u s s i o n ) .
F r o m Thaenae t h e r e is t h e c e r t a i n l y J e w i s h e p i t a p h o f a b o y n a m e d
A b e d o , w i t h a H e b r e w i n s c r i p t i o n a n d a m e n o r a h ( L e B o h e c , n o . 7)
a n d from Sullecthum a n o t h e r i n s c r i p t i o n w i t h a m e n o r a h (8), as also
from Thagura (67).
In Oea i n T r i p o l i t a n i a , a C h r i s t i a n b i s h o p d u r i n g t h e t i m e of
A u g u s t i n e c o n s u l t e d l o c a l J e w s c o n c e r n i n g a p a s s a g e in the new
t r a n s l a t i o n o f the Bible b y J e r o m e ( A u g u s t i n e , Ep. 7 1 , 3 , 5 ; c f J e r o m e ,
Ep. 1 1 2 , 2 1 - 2 ) .
F r o m the s a m e p l a c e t h e r e a r e a few p r o b a b l y J e w i s h e p i t a p h s (Le
B o h e c , nos. 1 - 6 ) , o n e o f w h i c h c o m e s f r o m a s m a l l c a t a c o m b , a d o r n e d
w i t h t h e m e n o r a h , a n d m e n t i o n s a l a d y n a m e d MalalavXa (possibly a
L i b y a n n a m e ) , d e s c r i b e d as a TrpeaêTeprjaa.
In Lepcis Magna in T r i p o l i t a n i a a G r e e k i n s c r i p t i o n c o n t a i n s the
n a m e loses T h e u d o r o s {sic) w i t h a s e c o n d l i n e w h i c h m a y be
t r a n s l i t e r a t e d P u n i c , F . V a t t i o n i , A n t . Afric. 1 9 ( 1 9 8 3 ) , p p . 6 3 - 4 .
O n t h e P e u t i n g e r M a p , a p l a c e a p p e a r s i n the s a m e district n a m e d
locus ludaeorum Augusti (see L e B o h e c , p . 1 7 1 ) .
b) Numidia. T h e existence of J e w s in Hippo is e v i d e n t from A u g u s t i n e ,
Sermo 196, 4.
I n Cirta, m o d e r n C o n s t a n t i n e , t h e f o l l o w i n g J e w i s h i n s c r i p t i o n s h a v e
b e e n f o u n d : C I L V I I I , nos. 7 1 5 0 = I L A l g I I , n o . 8 2 6 = L e B o h e c ,
n o . 69 : lulius Anianus ludaeus; 7 1 5 5 = I L A l g I I , n o . 827 = 70 : Pompeio
Restuto ludeo; 7530 = 19468 = I L A l g I I , no. 828 = 7 1 : luliae Victoriae

[lu Jdeae.
F r o m Henchir Fouara n e a r T e b e s s a , the brief L a t i n i n s c r i p t i o n , w i t h a
m e n o r a h , ' D [ e u s A b r j a h a m , D e u s I s a ( a ) c ' , C I L V I I I , n o . 16701 =
I L A l g I , no. 2 9 1 2 = Le B o h e c , no. 68.
(c) Mauretania. Sitifis, L a t i n i n s c r i p t i o n s , C I L V I I I , n o . 8 4 2 3 = L e
B o h e c n o . 73 : Caelia Thalassa ludaea; 8499 = L e B o h e c , n o . 7 4 : Avilia
Aster ludea, M. Avilius lanuarius pater sinagogae Jil(iae) dulcissimae. I n t h e
s a m e p l a c e , J e w i s h c o n v e r t s a p p e a r in a C h r i s t i a n g r a v e - i n s c r i p t i o n ,
C I L V I I I , n o . 8640 = 2 0 3 4 : Memoria innocenti(um)> Istablici qui et
Donati. P(osuit) frater ips(i)us Peregriniu(s) q(ui et) Mosattes de ludeus
(sic). T h e p l u r a l innocentium i n s t e a d o f innocentis is u n d o u b t e d l y a
m i s t a k e o n t h e p a r t of t h e s t o n e m a s o n . S i n c e it carries the C h r i s t i a n
m o n o g r a m , t h e i n s c r i p t i o n c a n o n l y r e l a t e to c o n v e r t s from J u d a i s m to
Christianity.
F r o m Auzia, C I L V I I I , n o . 20759 ~ Le B o h e c , no. 76: Furfanius
Honoratus ludeus.
I n Tipasa a J e w i s h s y n a g o g u e w a s t e m p o r a r i l y e s t a b l i s h e d i n the l a t e
R o m a n p e r i o d {Passio Sanctae Salsae 3). I n Caesarea, t h e h o u s e of t h e
p r e s i d e n t of a J e w i s h s y n a g o g u e is m e n t i o n e d {Acta Marcianae 4 ; see P.
M o n c e a u x , R E J 44 (1902), p . 8). E v e n i n Volubilis, in t h e w e s t e r n m o s t
p a r t of M a u r e t a n i a , a n u m b e r of H e b r e w i n s c r i p t i o n s h a v e b e e n f o u n d ,
see G. V a j d a in Inscriptions antiques du Maroc ( 1 9 6 6 ) , ed. L . G a l a n d , J .
F e v r i e r a n d G . V a j d a , p p . 1 3 5 - 7 . O f t h e six k n o w n i n s c r i p t i o n s , o n e
d a t e s t o the s e v e n t e e n t h a n d o n e t o the e a r l y e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y . I t is
i m p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r a n y o f t h e o t h e r s g o b a c k to t h e
R o m a n I m p e r i a l p e r i o d . H o w e v e r , t h e r e is n o d o u b t t h a t t h e r e w a s
t h e n a J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y in Volubilis. T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t i t e m of
e v i d e n c e is t h e t h i r d - c e n t u r y e p i t a p h , R . T h o u v e n o t , R E A 7 1 (1969),
p p . 357—9 = AE 1969-70, n o . 748 = L e B o h e c , n o . 7 9 : c58e Koifj-dre
KaiKiXiavos 6 npajTOTToXiTes {sic), Trarrip TTJS avvaywyijs rojv
TovBeov. F o r TTpwTOTToXlrrjs c o m p a r e S E G X X , n o . 1668 ( K h i r b e t
Zif, n e a r H e b r o n ) , a n d see F . V a t t i o n i in S t u d i a P a p y r o l o g i c a 16
( 1 9 7 7 ) , p p . 2 3 - 9 . F r o m Sala t h e r e is also the i n s c r i p t i o n ( L e B o h e c , n o .
78) of Mapeivos IlToXepaios '/ouSco?.
I n t h e p r e s e n t s t a t e of o u r e v i d e n c e it is therefore r e a s o n a b l e to
r e g a r d J e w i s h s e t t l e m e n t in L a t i n - s p e a k i n g N o r t h Africa a s h a v i n g
t a k e n p l a c e d u r i n g t h e I m p e r i a l p e r i o d a n d o n a s m a l l scale.
J e w i s h d i s p e r s i o n in Macedonia a n d Greece is a t t e s t e d in t h e first

i n s t a n c e by t h e l e t t e r r e c o r d e d by P h i l o , Legatio 36 ( 2 8 1 ) , from A g r i p p a
to C a l i g u l a . Thessaly, Boeotia, Macedonia, Aetolia, Attica, Argos, Corinth
a n d finally t h e largest a n d b e s t p a r t s o f the Peloponnese are t h e a r e a s
n a m e d by h i m a s i n h a b i t e d by J e w s . If this g e n e r a l a s s e r t i o n is
c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e m e a g r e i n d i v i d u a l i t e m s of d o c u m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e ,
it b e c o m e s c l e a r h o w p a t c h y o u r i n f o r m a t i o n is.
Because of their d a t e and c o n t e n t , a n inscription from O r o p u s , and
t w o f r o m D e l p h i , a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t . T h e i n s c r i p t i o n from
O r o p u s d a t e s to t h e first h a l f of t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y B.C. a n d r e c o r d s the
m a n u m i s s i o n of a slave. I t w a s p u t u p i n the s h r i n e of A m p h i a r a o s t h e r e
b y Moaxos Moax^covos '/ouSaio? ivvTrviov I'ScDv TTpoardâvTOS TOV deov
'AiJi(f>iapdov Kal TTJS 'Yyieias ( C I J V, p r o l . p . 8 2 , see D . M . Lewis, J J S 11
( 1 9 5 7 ) , p p . 2 6 4 - 6 ) . M o s c h o s son o f M o s c h i o n is t h u s t h e earliest J e w
k n o w n from t h e G r e e k m a i n l a n d ; it is n o t e w o r t h y t h a t h e is p r e p a r e d
t o receive i n s t r u c t i o n s i n a d r e a m f r o m t w o p a g a n d e i d e s . T h e two
i n s c r i p t i o n s f r o m D e l p h i a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e m a n u m i s s i o n of J e w i s h
slaves i n t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B.C. a n d a r e a m o n g a l a r g e n u m b e r of
similar d o c u m e n t s from t h a t p l a c e . I n o n e , a c e r t a i n A t i s i d a s d e c l a r e s
free t h r e e f e m a l e J e w i s h slaves {aoip-ara yvvaiKeta TpCa ats ovofxaTa
'AvTiyova TO yevos TovSaiav Kal r d ? dvyarepas avTas QeoScopav Kal

AwpoOeav), s e e C. W e s c h e r e t P . F o u c a r t , Inscriptions recueillies a Delphes
( 1 8 6 3 ) , no. 5 7 = H . CoUitz et al., Sammlung der griechischen Dialekt-
Inschriften, n o . 1 7 2 2 = C I J I^, n o . 709. I n t h e o t h e r , t h e p e r s o n t o be
freed is d e s c r i b e d a s aoypua dvhpetov <S 6vop.a TovSaios, TO yevos 'lovSaiov,
see W e s c h e r e t F o u c a r t , no. 364 = Collitz op. cit., n o . 2029 = C I J I^,
n o . 7 1 0 . T h e n a m e TovSaios m u s t = Tov8as. B o t h d o c u m e n t s b e l o n g to
t h e s a m e p e r i o d , 1 7 0 - 1 5 6 B.C. T h e s e c o n d d a t e s to 162 B . C T h e y
t h e r e f o r e possibly r e l a t e to p r i s o n e r s o f w a r f r o m t h e M a c c a b a e a n
p e r i o d , sold as slaves a n d t a k e n to G r e e c e . A t h i r d m a n u m i s s i o n -
i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m D e l p h i d a t e s to 1 1 9 B.C. a n d r e c o r d s t h e freeing of a
slave b y a m a n n a m e d Tov8aios ( C I J V, n o . 7 1 1 ) . I t is n o t c l e a r w h e t h e r
this implies t h a t h e was J e w i s h .
I n t h e t i m e of t h e a p o s t l e P a u l , t h e r e w e r e J e w i s h s y n a g o g u e s in
P h i l i p p i , T h e s s a l o n i c a , B e r o e a , A t h e n s a n d C o r i n t h (Acts 1 6 : 1 2 — 1 3 ;
1 7 : 1 , 1 0 , 1 7 ; 18:4, 7).
J e w i s h - G r e e k i n s c r i p t i o n s h a v e b e e n f o u n d in t h e f o l l o w i n g p l a c e s .
Athens: I G I I I , n o s . 3 5 4 5 - 7 = C I J I'^, n o s . 7 1 2 - 3 ; (714?) 7 1 5 ; cf ibid.
nos. 2 8 9 1 - 3 ( S a m a r i t a n ) ; I G 11"^, n o s . 8 9 3 4 ; 10949; 12609 (o^ the
second c e n t u r y B.C., see BE 1 9 5 8 , n o . 2 1 1 a n d C I J V, p r o l . p . 8 3 ) ;
8 2 3 1 - 2 ; 8 3 5 8 ; 9 7 5 6 ; I I I , n o . 3496 ( p p . 8 4 - 5 ) . Piraeus: C I J I ^ no. 7151
(prol. p . 85). N o t e L . B. U r d a h l , J e w s i n A t t i c a ' , S y m b . O s l . 4 3 (1968),
p p . 39—46, w i t h n u m e r o u s e r r o r s , d i s c u s s e d in B E 1969, n o . 206.
Corinth: A. D e i s s m a n n , Licht vom Osten ( ^ 1 9 2 3 ) , p . 1 2 , n o . 8; E T , Light
from the Ancient East ( 1 9 1 0 ) , p . 1 3 , n o . 7 = Corinth V I I I . i : Greek
Inscriptions, n o . i i i = C I J I'^, no. 7 1 8 : [owajycoyiy EPp[aioiv\;
ICorinth V I I I . 3 , n o . 304 = C I J no. 7 1 8 a ( p r o l . p . 8 5 ) . T w o s m a l l
b u t q u i t e informative J e w i s h inscriptions from C o r i n t h have recently
b e e n p u b l i s h e d . A r c h . E p h e m e r i s 1 9 7 7 , p p . 8 0 - 2 , s e e B E 1980, no. 230.
N o . 29, w i t h the n a m e ["^wa]? a n d fxtoKa^, ' t o m b ' ; no. 30 ( S E G

X X I X , no. 300), p e r h a p s to b e r e s t o r e d SiSda[KaXos] Kat dpx-
[iavvdya)y]os TJJ[S avvaycDyfjg Kopivdov?]. Five further fragment
a r y H e b r e w i n s c r i p t i o n s , of u n c e r t a i n d a t e , a r e to b e f o u n d in C o r i n t h
M u s e u m , see Corinth V I I I . 3 ( 1 9 6 6 ) , p . 2 1 4 . Patrae i n A c h a e a : C I G n o .
9896 = C I J I ' , n o . 7 1 6 . Laconia: R E J 1 0 ( 1 8 8 5 ) , p . 77 IG V.i, no.
1 3 4 9 = C I J R , n o . 721 ; C I J R , n o . 7 2 1 b ( p r o l . p . 86) = D F , n o . 9a
( p e r h a p s t h i r d c e n t u r y A.D.). Argos: W . Vollgraff, B C H 27 ( 1 9 0 3 ) , p .
2 6 2 , n o . 4 = C I J I ^ n o . 7 1 9 . Messenia, n o . 7 2 1 c , t w o p e r s o n s n a m e d
Avp. Tojarjs i n an e p h e b e - l i s t of A.D. 246. Mantinea: B C H 20 ( 1 8 9 6 ) , p .
1 5 9 = R E J 3 4 ( 1 8 9 7 ) , p . 148 = I G V . 2 , no. 295 = C I J I ' , n o . 720 =
Lifshitz, D F , n o . 9. ?Tegea: B C H 2 5 ( 1 9 0 1 ) , p . 281 = C I J I^, a p p . l o i .
Taenarum: I G V . i , no. 1 2 5 6 , see Hell. I l l , p . 100. Corone: I G V . i , n o .
1398,11.91-2.
Larissa Pelasgiotis in Thessaly: I G I X . 2 , n o s . 9 8 5 - 9 0 , C I J I^, n o s .
6 9 9 - 7 0 8 , e p i t a p h s w i t h t h e f o r m u l a TCI Xaw x^lpî-v, a m o n g t h e m o n e
w i t h J e w i s h n a m e s , no. 988, C I J I^, n o . 701 : Mapia '/ouSa. A c c o r d i n g l y ,
t h e o t h e r s m a y also safely be r e g a r d e d as J e w i s h . F r o m Larissa n o t e a l s o
C I J I^, nos. 6 9 7 - 8 , a n d t w o e p i t a p h s , n o s . 7o8a-b (prol. p . 80), a n o t h e r ,
p r o b a b l y from Larissa, a n d n o t y e t fully p u b l i s h e d (prol. p . 8 1 ) , a n d a
c o l u m n i n s c r i b e d w i t h a n a m e a n d a m e n o r a h , BE 1980, n o . 2 9 1 , S E G
X X I X , no. 5 3 7 . F r o m Almyra in T h e s s a l y , n o s . 6 9 5 - 6 . T h e f o r m u l a
Xao) xaipe[iv] r e c u r s in a n e p i t a p h from Pherae in T h e s s a l y , C I J P , n o .
7o8d ( p r o l . p . 8 1 ) . F r o m Achaea Phthiotis c o m e s a m a g i c a l a m u l e t w i t h
J e w i s h a n g e l i c n a m e s , C I J I^, no. 7 1 7 , s e e p r o l . p . 8 5 ; a n d f r o m Thebes
in P h t h i o t i s , t h r e e e p i t a p h s , ibid. p . 79 a n d BE 1980, n o . 284, S E G
X X I X , no. 556.
M a c e d o n i a n o w supplies m a t e r i a l o f c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e r e s t a n d of
v a r i e d d a t e s . F r o m Thessalonica t h e r e is a l a t e - R o m a n e p i t a p h of
' A b r a m e o s ' a n d his wife ' T h e o d o t e ' ( C I J n o . 6 9 3 = I G X . 2 , i, n o .
6 3 3 ) , w h i c h m a y h o w e v e r be C h r i s t i a n ; t w o g r a v e - i n s c r i p t i o n s w i t h t h e
m e n o r a h (nos. 693b-c, p r o l . p p . 75—6; D . Feissel, Recueil des inscriptions
chretiennes de Macedonie ( 1 9 8 3 ) , p . 242, n o s . 2 9 2 - 3 ) ; a n d m u c h m o r e
significant, t h e b i l i n g u a l ( G r e e k a n d S a m a r i t a n ) i n s c r i p t i o n o f a
S a m a r i t a n c o m m u n i t y ( C I J I^, n o . 693a, p r o l . p p . 7 0 - 5 = I G X . 2 , i,
n o . 789), T h e G r e e k i n s c r i p t i o n i n c l u d e s t h e S a m a r i t a n v e r s i o n of t h e
b l e s s i n g of t h e priests i n N u m b e r s 6 : 2 2 - 7 , w h i l e t h e S a m a r i t a n has t h e
t w o blessings
1.1 •*?is7'? ii^nVx
1. 2 D*?1S7*? 1»tr "1113
F o r discussion see also B. Lifshitz a n d J . S c h i b y , ' U n e s y n a g o g u e
s a m a r i t a i n e a T h e s s a l o n i q u e ' , R B 7 5 (1968), p p . 3 6 8 - 7 8 ; BE 1969, n o .
3 6 9 ; G . H . R . H o r s l e y , New Documents Illustrating Early Christianity
( 1 9 8 1 ) , no. 69; D . Feissel, op. cit., p . 240, n o . 2 9 1 . T h e i n s c r i p t i o n
b e l o n g s to t h e l a t e - R o m a n p e r i o d b u t n o m o r e e x a c t d a t e has b e e n
a s s i g n e d to i t . S e e J . D . P u r v i s , ' T h e P a l a e o g r a p h y of t h e S a m a r i t a n
I n s c r i p t i o n s from T h e s s a l o n i c a ' , B A S O R 221 ( 1 9 7 6 ) , p p . 1 2 1 - 3 ,
s u g g e s t i n g f o u r t h - s i x t h c e n t u r y . I t d o e s not p r o v e the e x i s t e n c e o f a n
a c t u a l b u i l d i n g , nor i n d e e d o f a n y c o m m u n a l o r g a n i s a t i o n of
Samaritans in Thessalonica.
Also f r o m T h e s s a l o n i c a c o m e s t h e i n s c r i p t i o n C I J I'^, n o . 693d,
p r o l . p . 76 = I G X . 2 , I, n o . 72: ©ecO 'YI/JIOTW Kar' iTTLrayrjv lOYEU,
w h i c h is possibly J e w i s h . T h e last w o r d m a y be a n a t t e m p t t o r e n d e r
t h e T e t r a g r a m m a t o n . F o r t h e q u e s t i o n of s y n c r e t i s m a n d t h e w o r s h i p
of the ' H i g h e s t G o d ' , see p p . 3 2 , 3 8 , 68, 7 0 - 2 , 169.
F r o m Beroea i n M a c e d o n i a t h e r e a r e t w o J e w i s h e p i t a p h s of t h e
l a t e - R o m a n p e r i o d ( C I J I^, 6 9 4 a - b , p r o l . p p . 7 7 - 8 ; Feissel, op. cit., p p .
2 4 3 - 4 , OS. 2 9 4 - 5 ) .
T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t e v i d e n c e for a J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y in
M a c e d o n i a is p r o v i d e d by a s u b s t a n t i a l G r e e k i n s c r i p t i o n from the
i n l a n d t o w n of Stobi, i n t h e n o r t h of the p r o v i n c e . T h e i n s c r i p t i o n
p r o b a b l y d a t e s f r o m t o w a r d s t h e e n d of t h e s e c o n d or t h e t h i r d
c e n t u r y A.D. T h e p i l l a r o n w h i c h i t w a s i n s c r i b e d w a s a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y
i n c o r p o r a t e d l a t e r in its p r e s e n t a r c h i t e c t u r a l s e t t i n g , a p p a r e n t l y a
C h r i s t i a n basilica of t h e fifth-sixth c e n t u r i e s ( a n d t h e r e f o r e , c o n t r a r y to
v a r i o u s e a r l i e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , n o t to b e r e g a r d e d as the s y n a g o g u e
r e f e r r e d to i n t h e i n s c r i p t i o n ) . C I J I^, no. 694 a n d p r o l . , p p . 7 6 - 7 ;
Lifshitz, D F , n o . 10. T h e e s s e n t i a l s t u d y is M . H e n g e l , ' D i e
S y n a g o g e n i n s c h r i f t v o n S t o b i ' , Z N W 5 7 (1966), p p . 1 4 5 - 8 3 ; r e p r i n t e d
i n J . G u t m a n n ( e d . ) . The Synagogue ( 1 9 7 5 ) , p p . 00-0. T h e i n s c r i p t i o n
r u n s : \ETOVS TIA?^ [^^-l T'tjSeptos" UoXvxo-PlJ'OS, o Kal Axvpios, 6 Trarrip
TTJS ev UTOÔIS avvaycoyrjs os TToAetxeuaa/xevos' Trdaav iroXeiTeiav Kara TOV
lovhaiapiov evxrjS evcKev rovs ftev OLKOVS rip dyiip TOTTIO Kal T O rpiKXeivov
airv Tu> rerpaaTocx) €K TCJV OIKCIWV xp^/^ciTtov p,T)8€v oAco? napaipapievos rwv
dyiwv, rrjv 8e iôvaiav rcov vnepcocov rravrcov ndaav Kal rqv (^SyeoTTorciav
€X€iv e/xe TOV KX. Tiîpiov noXvxa.pp.ov Kal TOIIS (^Kai TOVS} KXTJPOVO/JIOVS
Tovs ip,oi)s 8id n a v r o s jSiou, os dv 8e ôvXrjdrj r i Kaivorop,rjoai trapd r d VTT'

ipiov SoxOivra, 8u)a€i ro) TrarpidpxT) Srjvapiwv (^pyvpid8as eiKoai irevTC.
ovrco yap p o i avveSoêv, TTJV 8e iTTioKevrjv rrjs Kepdpov TWV vrrepoiwv
rroi€iad(a)i ip-e K a i KXr)ppv6p,ovs ipiovs. T h e i n s c r i p t i o n s e e m s to r e c o r d
t h e g r a n t of p a r t of a p r i v a t e h o u s e for use as a s y n a g o g u e a n d o t h e r
a s s o c i a t e d c o m m u n a l p u r p o s e s , w i t h t h e o w n e r r e t a i n i n g possession of
t h e u p p e r floor a n d a c c e p t i n g r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for m a i n t e n a n c e o f the r o o f
T h e v e r y l a r g e ( a n d p r e s u m a b l y u n e n f o r c i b l e ) fine p a y a b l e ' t o t h e p a t
r i a r c h ' i n c a s e of c o n t r a v e n t i o n s e e m s t o reflect t h e p e r i o d of t h e g r o w t h
o f the p o w e r of t h e P a t r i a r c h - E t h n a r c h - N a s i i n P a l e s t i n e , i.e., from the
late second c e n t u r y o n w a r d s .
F u r t h e r e x c a v a t i o n s c o n d u c t e d i n 1 9 7 0 o n the site o f t h e C h r i s t i a n
basilica p r o d u c e d a n u m b e r of fresco f r a g m e n t s , d a t e d by a s s o c i a t e d
p o t t e r y a n d coins to the t h i r d c e n t u r y , a n d c o n t a i n i n g s e v e r a l
e x a m p l e s of a p a i n t e d l e g e n d : noAvxapp-os 6 irarrip evx^jv. A b r o n z e
p l a q u e was also d i s c o v e r e d , b e a r i n g t h e d e d i c a t i o n /ZoaiSovia dech
'Ayicp evxrjv. T h e e v i d e n c e suggests t h a t t h e s y n a g o g u e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
P o l y c h a r m o s was b u i l t i n t h e s e c o n d or t h i r d c e n t u r y a n d r e p l a c e d by
a m o r e e l a b o r a t e b u i l d i n g w i t h a m o s a i c floor, itself d e s t r o y e d before
t h e e n d of t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y , a n d r e p l a c e d b y t h e C h r i s t i a n basilica.
S e e J . W i s e m a n a n d D . M a n o - Z i s s i , ' E x c a v a t i o n s a t S t o b i , 1970', A J A
75 ( 1 9 7 O ) o n p p . 4 0 6 - 1 1 ; A. T . K r a a b e l , ' D i a s p o r a S y n a g o g u e ' ,
A N R W I I . 1 9 . 1 ( 1 9 7 9 ) , on p p . 4 9 4 - 7 ; W . P o e h l m a n , ' T h e P o l y
c h a r m o s I n s c r i p t i o n a n d S y n a g o g u e I a t S t o b i ' , Studies in the Antiquities
of Stobi I I I , e d . B. A l e k s o v a a n d J . W i s e m a n ( 1 9 8 1 ) , p p . 2 3 5 - 4 6 .
A n u m b e r o f e p i g r a p h i c references t o the w o r s h i p of ' Z e u s
H y p s i s t o s ' a r e k n o w n f r o m M a c e d o n i a ; it h a s t o be d e t e r m i n e d in
e a c h c a s e w h e t h e r these a r e p a g a n or J e w i s h , a n d c e r t a i n t y is often
u n a t t a i n a b l e ; see f u r t h e r p . 7 2 b e l o w , a ) I G X . 2 , i , n o . 62*, possibly
from Thessalonica; b) Beroea, see J . M . R . G o r m a c k , ' D e d i c a t i o n s to
Z e u s H y p s i s t o s a t B e r o e a ' , J R S 3 1 ( 1 9 4 1 ) , p p . 1 9 - 2 3 ; c) Edessa,
d e d i c a t i o n s t o ' Z e u s H y p s i s t o s ' , S. Pelekides, A r c h . D e l t i o n 8 ( 1 9 2 3 ) ,
p p . 2 6 8 - 9 ; d ) Kozani, S E G X X I V , n o s . 4 8 1 - 2 ; e) T h e m o s t s t r i k i n g
find c o m e s from n e a r a n c i e n t Pydna, a d e d i c a d o n e r e c t e d in A.D. 250
b y a g u i l d of w o r s h i p p e r s of Z e u s H y p s i s t o s (01 aweXdovTis dprjoKevral
inl deov A 16s 'Yipiarov) w h o s e officials i n c l u d e d an archisynagogos.
P u b l i s h e d b y J . M . R . C o r m a c k , ' Z e u s H y p s i s t o s at Pydna',
Melanges helleniques offerts d Georges Daux ( 1 9 7 4 ) , p p . 5 1 - 5 , a n d
r e p r o d u c e d b y G . H . R . H o r s l e y , Jiew Documents Illustrating Early
Christianity ( 1 9 8 1 ) , n o . 5.
O n t h e l a r g e islands of Euboea, Cyprus a n d Crete, J e w s w e r e v e r y

n u m e r o u s . P h i l o n a m e s all t h r e e i n t h e l e t t e r of A g r i p p a [Legatio 36
(282)).
F o r Cyprus cf also i M a c . 1 5 : 2 3 ; Acts 4:36; 1 1 : 2 0 ; 13:4 ff".; J o s e p h u s ,
Ant. xiii 10, 4 (284—7), ^ l a t e - H e l l e n i s t i c O n i a s from K o u r i o n , B E 1 9 7 2 ,
n o . 583. A t t h e t i m e of T r a j a n , the J e w s i n C y p r u s m a s s a c r e d t h o u s a n d s
of t h e n o n - J e w i s h i n h a b i t a n t s a n d d e s t r o y e d S a l a m i s , t h e c a p i t a l c i t y ;
for this they w e r e b a n n e d from t h e island ( D i o Ixviii 3 2 , 1 - 3 ; E u s e b .
Chron. e d . S c h o e n e I I , p p . 164 ff'. e t c . , see vol. I, p p . 529—34). T h e b a n
w a s n o t effective indefinitely, h o w e v e r , a s is s h o w n by a t h i r d - c e n t u r y
i n s c r i p t i o n r e - e d i t e d by T h . R e i n a c h , R E J 48 (1904), p p . 1 9 1 - 6 = C I J
I I , n o . 7 3 6 = D F , n o . 8 3 , a n d a f o u r t h - c e n t u r y i n s c r i p t i o n from G o l g o i ,
C I J I I , no. 7 3 5 = D F , n o . 8 2 ; also, from S a l a m i s , B y z a n t i o n 20
(1950), p . n o , n o . 3 ( = D F , n o . 8 5 ) a n d p . 1 4 1 , n o . 12 ( = D F , no. 84).

Yox Crete, cf. i M a c . 1 5 : 2 3 ( G o r t y n ) ; J o s e p h u s , Ant. xvii 1 2 ( 3 2 7 ) ;
B.J. ii 7, I ( 1 0 3 ) ; Vita 7 6 (427).
F o r Euboea n o t e t h e j u d a i s i n g f o r m u l a in a s e c o n d - c e n t u r y A.D. g r a v e
i m p r e c a t i o n f r o m C h a l c i s , d i s c u s s e d b y L . R o b e r t , C R A I 1 9 7 8 , p p . 245
ff.
O f t h e o t h e r i s l a n d s , Delos, Samos, Cos a n d Rhodes a r e n a m e d i n i
M a c . 1 5 : 2 3 . A s t h e last t h r e e lie n e a r t h e c o a s t of C a r i a , the s e t t l e m e n t
of J e w s t h e r e m a y h a v e b e e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e i r m o v e m e n t i n t o
C a r i a . I n Cos, M i t h r a d a t e s seized s u b s t a n t i a l funds from t h e m ( S t r a b o ,
ap. J o s e p h u s , Ant. x i v 7 ( 1 1 2 ) = G L A J J , n o . 1 0 2 ) . T h e e n o r m o u s size of
t h e s u m (800 t a l e n t s ) is e x p l a i n e d b y J o s e p h u s as o w i n g t o t h e fact t h a t
it w a s T e m p l e m o n e y c o l l e c t e d i n A s i a M i n o r a n d t a k e n t o C o s to
e s c a p e M i t h r a d a t e s . E v e n so, t h e s u m is still r e m a r k a b l y l a r g e . F o r this
r e a s o n , R e i n a c h c o n s i d e r e d it t o h a v e b e e n t h e p r i v a t e c a p i t a l of
refugee J e w s ( R E J 16 ( 1 8 8 8 ) , p p . 2 0 4 - 1 0 ) , a n d H . W i l l r i c h , t h a t it
c o n s t i t u t e d t h e c a p i t a l of A l e x a n d r i a n J e w s , b e c a u s e C l e o p a t r a ' s
m o n e y is m e n t i o n e d d i r e c t l y b e f o r e h a n d [Hermes 3 9 (1904), p . 250). I n
a n y c a s e , it c a n n o t be c o n c l u d e d from this p a s s a g e t h a t g r e a t J e w i s h
b a n k e r s w e r e l i v i n g in C o s ( a s J . J . H e r z o g , Koische Forschungen (1899),
p . 3 5 ; cf. also J E V I I , c o l . 5 6 3 s.v. ' C o s ' ) ; o n the s o u r c e of t h e m o n e y ,
n o t e a l s o S. M . S h e r w i n - W h i t e , Z P E 21 ( 1 9 7 6 ) , p . 1 8 3 , n . 3, s u g g e s t i n g
t h a t it c a m e f r o m m a i n l a n d A s i a M i n o r a n d t h a t i t s b e i n g d e p o s i t e d on
C o s implies a J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y t h e r e . S h e r w i n - W h i t e , ibid., p p . 1 8 3 - 8 ,
r e p u b l i s h e s t h r e e brief i n s c r i p t i o n s f r o m C o s o r i g i n a l l y p u b l i s h e d by
P a t o n a n d H i c k s , Inscriptions of Cos ( 1 8 9 1 ) : a) n o . 3 0 3 , t h e n a m e
E u t y c h o s w i t h q o p p a a n d m e n o r a h ; b ) n o . 3 2 3 , e p i t a p h w i t h (?)
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of g a b l e d T o r a h s h r i n e ; c ) n o . 63, a d e d i c a t i o n to T h e o s
H y p s i s t o s . S h e a l s o n o t e s ( p . 186) no. 278, ' E i r e n e theosebes\ a n d (p.
184), J o s e p h u s , Ant. xiv 10, 1 5 ( 2 3 3 ) , a l e t t e r from G a i n s F a n n i u s t o the
magistrates of Cos a b o u t the protection o f j e w i s h ambassadors. F o r a
s u m m a r y of t h e e v i d e n c e , S. M . S h e r w i n - W h i t e , Ancient Cos ( 1 9 7 8 ) , p p .
249-50.
F r o m Rhodes t h e r e is v i r t u a l l y n o significant e v i d e n c e . I n t h e first half
of the first c e n t u r y B.C., t w o e m i n e n t a u t h o r s l i v i n g t h e r e w r o t e
against the J e w s , Posidonius a n d Apollonius M o l o n ( b o t h a r e attacked
b y J o s e p h u s i n his w o r k Contra Apionem; cf G L A J J , nos. x x x v i i i - i x ) . I n
T i b e r i u s ' t i m e , a g r a m m a r i a n lived t h e r e c a l l e d D i o g e n e s , of w h o m it is
s a i d t h a t h e used to d e b a t e o n l y o n t h e s a b b a t h ( S u e t . Tib. 3 2 =
GLAJJ II, n o . 3 0 5 : 'Diogenes grammaticus, disputare sabbatis Rhodi
solitus, v e n i e n t e m e u m , u t se e x t r a o r d i n e m a u d i r e t , n o n a d m i s e r a t ac
per servolum suum in septimum diem distulerat'). A Menippus
d e s c r i b e d as T€p[oavX?]vixiTa[s], i.e. ( p e r h a p s ) f r o m J e r u s a l e m , a p p e a r s
o n an i n s c r i p t i o n i n R h o d e s ( I G X I I . i , no. 1 1 ) . N o t e h o w e v e r C I J I^,
no. 7 3 i e (prol. p . 8 9 ) , d i s c u s s e d by L . R o b e r t , Etudes anatoliennes ( 1 9 3 7 ) ,

p . 4 4 1 , n . 5 : Ev(f>po'(ôyvva deoae^rjs xPl^"^^ x^'-P^-
Delos b e c a u s e o f its p o l i t i c a l a n d c o m m e r c i a l i m p o r t a n c e in t h e
H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d w a s a p l a c e o f a s s e m b l y for o r i e n t a l m e r c h a n t s . T h a t
J e w s of G r e e k e d u c a t i o n lived t h e r e i n , a t t h e l a t e s t , a r o u n d 100 B.C., is
a p p a r e n t , firstly, f r o m t w o G r e e k i n s c r i p t i o n s o r i g i n a t i n g f r o m t h e
i s l a n d o f Rheneia, t h e b u r i a l - p l a c e o f t h e i n h a b i t a n t s of D e l o s , w h i c h
contain maledictions calling d o w n G o d ' s v e n g e a n c e on the u n k n o w n
m u r d e r e r s of t w o girls. T h e p r a y e r s a r e u n d o u b t e d l y J e w i s h , a n d f r o m
t h e o r t h o g r a p h y t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s d a t e to n o t l a t e r t h a n t h e e n d of t h e
s e c o n d , o r t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e first, c e n t u r y B.C. (See A . W i l h e l m ,
J O A I 4 ( 1 9 0 1 ) , S u p p . cols. 10—18; A . D e i s s m a n n , Philologus 61 (1902),
p p . 2 5 2 - 6 5 ; Licht vom Osten (1908), p p . 3 0 5 - 1 6 , (^1923), p p . 3 5 1 - 6 2 ;
E T Light from the Ancient East ( 1 9 1 0 ) , p p . 423—35; Inscriptions de Delos,
n o . 2 5 3 2 , C I J V, n o . 7 2 5 . ) B e c a u s e of t h e r e m a r k a b l e i n t e r e s t of its
c o n t e n t , a l m o s t e x a c t l y i d e n t i c a l t o t h e o t h e r , t h e w o r d i n g of t h e
b e t t e r - p r e s e r v e d i n s c r i p t i o n is g i v e n h e r e : ÊTTiKaXovpai Kal dîcu r o v
Qeov TOV viffiaTov, TOV Kvpiov TCOV TTvevpaTOiv Kal Trdarjg aapKOS, ITTI rovs
SoXoii (fyovevaavTas rj ((>app.aK€voavTas TTJV ToXaLTTOipov dp^pov 'HpdKXeav
ixx^^^'^^s (lOTrjs TO dvaiTiov atpa dhiKws, iva OVTOJS yevrjTai TOIS
(f)ov€vaaaiv auTTjv 17 <j>app.aK€vaaaiv Kal TOIS TCKVOLS avTwv, Kvpie 6 rrdvra

e<f>opwv Kal ol dyyeAoi © e o u , <L rrdaa ifivxr] e v TTJ arip,€pov rjp-epa T a T r e i v o O r a i
ped' iKCTeias, iva iySiK-rjarjs TO atpa TO dvaiTiov ^r^Tiâei? Kal TTJV
TaxloTTjv. T h e d a y ' o n w h i c h a l l h u m b l e t h e m s e l v e s ' is e i t h e r t h e D a y o f

A t o n e m e n t o r s o m e o t h e r d a y of fasting.
T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t e v i d e n c e f o r J e w s in D e l o s in t h e H e l l e n i s t i c
p e r i o d is h o w e v e r t h a t w h i c h relates t o t h e b u i l d i n g n o w g e n e r a l l y
a c c e p t e d as h a v i n g b e e n a s y n a g o g u e . S e e A . Plassart, ' L a s y n a g o g u e
j u i v e d e D e l o s ' , Melanges Holleaux ( 1 9 1 3 ) , p p . 2 0 1 — 1 5 ; P h . B r u n e a u ,
Recherches sur les cultes de Delos ( 1 9 7 0 ) , p p . 480—93. T h e f o l l o w i n g
inscriptions a r e k n o w n from this building :
I D , n o . 2 3 2 8 = C I J I^, n o . 7 2 8 : Avaipaxos Seep 'Yij/iaTcp xapi'OT'qpiov.
2 3 2 9 = 7 2 6 : 'AyadoKXijs Kal Avaipaxos inl TTpoaevxfj-
2 3 3 0 = 728 : AacoSiKT] Qeu) 'YifjioTtp oojdetaa r a t s v(f>' avTov
depaiT'qats evx^jv.
2 3 3 1 = 727 : Zoads Lldpios Oeip 'YtpioTO) e u ^ ^ v .
2332 = 730 : 'YifjloTcp evx'Tjv MapKia.
2 3 3 3 ~ 731 • [••] yev6p.€vos iXevdepos.
(also Lifshitz, D F , nos. 3 - 8 ) . T h e first t h r e e d a t e t o t h e first c e n t u r y
B.C., t h e last t h r e e t o t h e I m p e r i a l p e r i o d . So f a r as c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d ,
t h e s y n a g o g u e seems to h a v e b e e n i n use also f r o m s o m e t i m e i n t h e first
c e n t u r y B.C. t o t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y A.D. ( B r u n e a u , op. cit., p p . 491—3).
N o t e a l s o t h e IlpavXos Zapapevs w h o a p p e a r s in a n i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m
D e l o s o f the l a t e s e c o n d o r e a r l y first c e n t u r y B . C , I D , 2 6 1 6 , c o l . ii, 1. 5 3
( B r u n e a u , p . 486). T h i s r e f e r e n c e i m m e d i a t e l y g a i n s a d d e d significance
from t h e p u b l i c a t i o n of t w o n e w H e l l e n i s t i c i n s c r i p t i o n s w h i c h e x p l i c i t l y
a t t e s t t h e p r e s e n c e of a S a m a r i t a n c o m m u n i t y o n D e l o s ; see P h .
B r u n e a u , ' " L e s I s r a e l i t e s d e D e l o s " et l a j u i v e r i e d e l i e n n e ' , B C H 106
(1982), p p . 4 6 5 - 5 0 4 . B o t h i n s c r i p t i o n s w e r e d i s c o v e r e d a t a p o i n t j u s t
o v e r 90 m e t r e s n o r t h of t h e s y n a g o g u e . O n e {op. cit., p . 4 7 1 , n o . 2) is
c o n s i d e r e d to d a t e t o t h e first h a l f o f t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B.C. a n d r e a d s :
[01 €v Zl-Âoj] 'loparjXirai ol dTTapxdp.evoi eis lepov dyiov 'Apyapi(,€lv irip,-
T]aav MeviTTTTOv 'ApTepuSatpov 'HpaKXelov, avrov Kal toIjs iyyovovs avrov,
KaraaK€vdaavra Kal avdOevra €k TCOV iSicov iirl Trpoaevxfi rov ê[oi3]
T O i V [ . . . ( f r a g m e n t a r y ) . T h e o t h e r {op. cit., p . 467, n o . i ) is c o m p l e t e :
ol iv Ai]Xa) TapaeXeirai 01 a.Trapxdp'Cvoi eis Upov Apyapit,€LV aT€(f>avovoiv
Xpvou) are<j>dvcp Zapa-nioova Tdaovos Kvcoaiov evepyealas €V€Kev ttjs els
iavrovs. T h e l e t t e r - f o r m s suggest a d a t e b e t w e e n 1 5 0 a n d 50 B.C. T h e
' I s r a e l i t e s w h o p a y first fruits to s a c r e d (holy) G e r i z i m ' w e r e b e y o n d
q u e s t i o n S a m a r i t a n s . T h e e a r l i e r i n s c r i p t i o n s e e m s t o d a t e f r o m before,
a n d t h e l a t e r p r o b a b l y from after, t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e t e m p l e o n
M o u n t G e r i z i m b y J o h n H y r c a n u s c. 129 B.C. (vol. I , p . 2 0 7 ) ; b u t , a s is
w e l l k n o w n , t h e site r e m a i n e d ( a n d r e m a i n s ) s a c r e d t o t h e m .
T h e t w o i n s c r i p t i o n s s e e m t o d e r i v e f r o m a b u i l d i n g ( n o t e also t h e
r e f e r e n c e to c o n s t r u c t i o n , KaraoKevdaavra, i n the e a r l i e r i n s c r i p t i o n )
p r e s u m a b l y associated w i t h t h e S a m a r i t a n c o m m u n i t y . This therefore
leaves o p e n v a r i o u s possibilities. E i t h e r a) the s y n a g o g u e (whose
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n as s u c h is d e f e n d e d b y B r u n e a u , op. cit., p p . 489—95) w a s
S a m a r i t a n . I n this c o n n e c t i o n , n o t e w h a t is s a i d b y P s e u d o - E u p o l e m u s
( E u s e b . Praep. Ev. i x 17, 5 = F G r H 724 F i (5)), p e r h a p s in t h e s e c o n d
c e n t u r y , s p e a k i n g o f A b r a h a m : êviaSrjval re avrov vtto iToXeojs lepov
Apyapi^Lv, 0 etvai pL€deppLT]vev6p.evov opos vijjiarov. A l t e r n a t i v e l y b) t h e
s y n a g o g u e w a s J e w i s h , a n d t h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y e i t h e r s u c c e e d e d or
co-existed w i t h t h e ' I s r a e l i t e ' o n e . T h e s e q u e s t i o n s c a n n o t be d e c i d e d ;
f u r t h e r l i g h t m i g h t b e t h r o w n b y e x c a v a t i o n s of t h e a r e a b e t w e e n a n d
a r o u n d t h e t w o sites, s o m e n i n e t y m e t r e s a p a r t a n d b o t h close to t h e
sea.
D o c u m e n t s from t h e t i m e o f C a e s a r in f a v o u r of t h e J e w s of D e l o s a r e
g i v e n in J o s . Ant., x i v 10, 8 ; 1 4 ( 2 1 3 — 1 6 ; 2 3 1 - 2 ) .
F u r t h e r r e f e r e n c e m a y be f o u n d to J e w s i n Paros, Ant. xiv 10 ( 2 1 3 )
a n d Melos, Ant. xvii 12 ( 3 2 7 ) , B.J. ii 7, i ( 1 0 3 ) .
T h e e p i t a p h s f r o m Thera, w h i c h c o n t a i n t h e w o r d dyyeXos a n d t h e
n a m e of t h e d e a d p e r s o n in t h e g e n i t i v e , or o n l y dyyeXos or dyyeXov,
m a y as easily be J e w i s h or C h r i s t i a n ( I G X I I . 3 , n o s . 9 3 3 - 7 4 ; for
C h r i s t i a n o r i g i n see especially H . A c h e l i s , Z N W (1900), p p . 87—100).
T h r e e J e w i s h e p i t a p h s a r e k n o w n from Crete, C I J I'^, p r o l . p p . 8 7 - 9 1 ,
n o . 7 3 1 b (Elyros) : Ilav^dOi(s) 'Eppifi fxvdpas X'^P'-^ ( d u b i o u s ) ; 7 3 1 c
( C i s a m u s ) : So<f>ia rrpea^vrepa KOL dpxtavvayioyiaaa KiadpLOV... (fourth-

fifth c e n t u r y ) ; 7 3 i d , f r o m I n s . C r e t . I, p . 1 2 , n o . 17 ( A r c a d e s ) : Îo)ari<f>os
@€oS(x)pov TovSa TO) via) avrov.
F r o m Samos, n o . 7 3 1 6 (see G. D u n s t , ' E i n e jiidische Inschrift a u s
S a m o s ' , Klio 52 ( 1 9 7 0 ) , p p . 7 3 - 8 ) ; B E 1 9 7 1 , n o . 5 0 8 : [. .K]al ol
npeo^vrepoi Kal [ Tcb]v TovSaicov Trjs Kara [Udpov?. . .av]v-
ayajyrjs irlp^rjaav AP[. . . .•np€a^v]T€pov. .. ( p r o b a b l y t h i r d century
A.D.).
F i n a l l y , t h e r e a r e t w o w e l l - k n o w n i n s c r i p t i o n s o n m o s a i c from t h e
i s l a n d o f Aegina, C I J I'^, n o s . 7 2 2 - 3 ( a n d p r o l e g o m e n o n , p . 8 7 ) ; Lifshitz,
D F , n o s . 1—2: OeoScopog dpxi-ovv[dycoyog (fyjpovrlaas errj riaaepa
[ ] €K dcpeXicov TTfv CTway[a)yi)v] olKoSoprfaa... The second
refers t o ' T h e o d o r u s t h e y o u n g e r ' , a n d t o t h e e x e c u d o n of t h e m o s a i c
[IpLovacodrj). T h e d a t e is p e r h a p s t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y .
J e w i s h i n s c r i p t i o n s a r e also k n o w n f r o m t h e G r e e k - s p e a k i n g a r e a s of
t h e B a l k a n r e g i o n . F r o m Moesia Inferior t h e r e is a p o s s i b l y J e w i s h
i n s c r i p t i o n from Tomi ( C I J V, n o . 6 8 i b , p r o l . , p . 63), a n d a
f r a g m e n t a r y d e d i c a t i o n t o T h e o s H y p s i s t o s , S E G X X I V , no. 1065, see
D . M . P i p p i d i , S t u d i i C l a s i c e 16 ( 1 9 7 4 ) , p p . 260—3, a r g u i n g a g a i n s t
J e w i s h influence. T h e r e is a l s o a n i n s c r i p t i o n (surprisingly) i n L a t i n
f r o m Oescus o n t h e D a n u b e : ' l o s e s a r c i s i n a ( g o ) g o s et principal<(e)>s'
( C I J I^, no. 6 8 1 ; c o r r e c t i o n s i n p r o l . p . 6 3 ; A . S c h e i b e r , C I H J , n o . 8
= J I H , no. 10). Also from O e s c u s a f r a g m e n t a r y G r e e k i n s c r i p t i o n
a c c o m p a n i e d by a m e n o r a h is r e p o r t e d (BE i960, no. 2 3 3 ; C I J I^,
p r o l . , p . 63). I n t h e p r o v i n c e of Thrace, a n i n s c r i p t i o n w h i c h m a y b e
J e w i s h c o m e s f r o m A s e n o v g r a d n e a r Sofia ( S e r d i c a ) : ÊIA 'EXev-q
dvedrjKev cvXoyrjTU) evx-jjv ( I G B u l g I I I , n o . 1 4 3 2 ; C I J V, n o .
681 a, p r o l . , p . 63), as m a y t h e d e d i c a t i o n to T h e o s Hypsistos from t h e
s a m e place ( I G Bulg I I I , n o . 1 4 3 1 ) a n d a similar dedication from
P h i l i p p o p o H s (no. 9 3 7 ) . T h e J e w i s h c h a r a c t e r of t h e s e a n d a n u m b e r of
o t h e r d e d i c a t i o n s to T h e o s H y p s i s t o s is firmly d e n i e d by M .
T a c h e v a - H i t o v a , ' D e m H y p s i s t o s g e w e i h t e D e n k m a l e r in T h r a k i e n ' ,
Thracia I V ( 1 9 7 7 ) , p p . 271—301, e a d e m , ' D e m H y p s i s t o s g e w e i h t e
D e n k m a l e r i n d e n B a l k a n l a n d e r n ' , Balkan Studies 19 (1978), p p .
5 9 - 7 5 , a n d i n her Eastern Cults in Moesia Inferior and Thracia ( 1 9 8 3 ) , p p .
1 9 0 - 2 1 5 . F r o m Bizye t h e r e is a J e w i s h e p i t a p h , w i t h m e n o r a h a n d
e t h r o g ( C I J V, n o . 692, see L . R o b e r t , Hell. I l l , p p . 1 0 7 - 8 ) a n d f r o m
Heraclea—Perinthos a n o t h e r , w i t h m e n o r a h , l u l a b , e t h r o g , shofar (?)
a n d m a h t a h (?), C I J I^, n o . 692a ( p r o l . , p . 70).
T h e L a t i n - s p e a k i n g (or a t least L a t i n - w r i t i n g ) p r o v i n c e s of t h e
B a l k a n s a n d c e n t r a l E u r o p e , n a m e l y Dalmatia a n d Pannonia, h a v e a l s o
y i e l d e d a s m a l l n u m b e r of J e w i s h i n s c r i p t i o n s . F r o m Dalmatia t h e r e is
C I J I'^, n o . 680 ( a n d p r o l . , p . 6 1 ) ; from Senia ( Z e n g g ) , see L . R o b e r t ,
Hell. I l l , p . 1 0 7 , a n d a J e w i s h t o m b of t h e t h i r d - f o u r t h c e n t u r y f r o m
D o l c e a ( D u k l j u n e a r T i t o g r a d ) , C I J V, p r o l . p . 6 2 ; I L l u g . , no. 1 3 1
(fourth c e n t u r y ) may reflect a J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y in S a l o n a . F r o m
Pannonia, a p a r t f r o m t w o J e w i s h e p i t a p h s in L a t i n , b u t w r i t t e n (like t h e
p r e v i o u s i n s c r i p t i o n ) in G r e e k l e t t e r s , C I J I'^, n o . 6 7 5 = C I H J , n o . i =
S c h e i b e r , J I H , no. 2 ( A q u i n c u m ) , a n d n o . 676 ( w i t h p r o l . p . 59) = C I H J ,
n o . 3 (Solva) = I . Bilkei, ' D i e g r i e c h i s c h e n I n s c h r i f t e n d e s r o m i s c h e n
H u n g a r n s ' , A l b a R e g i a 17 (1979), nos. 9 and 8 = R I U I I I (1981), no.
787 = J I H , n o . I, a n d a L a t i n e p i t a p h o f ' S e p t i m a (sic) M a r i a l u d e a '
from Siklos ( C I H J , n o . 2 = J I H , n o . 7), t h e r e is a difficult L a t i n
i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m Intercisa, w h i c h s e e m s t o refer to a ' s y n a g o g u e of t h e
J e w s ' , C I L I I I , n o . 3 3 2 7 = I L S , n o . 3 9 8 1 = C I J I ^ n o . 677 = C I H J ,
n o . 4. I t h a s b e e n r e - s t u d i e d b y F . F i i l e p , ' N e w R e m a r k s on t h e
Q u e s t i o n of t h e J e w i s h S y n a g o g u e at I n t e r c i s a ' , A A r c h A c S c H u n g 18
(1966), p p . 9 3 - 8 , w h e n c e A E 1966, n o . 302. S e e n o w J I H , n o . 3. T h i s
d e d i c a t i o n for the safety of S e v e r u s A l e x a n d e r a n d l u l i a M a m m a e a
( h e n c e A.D. 2 2 2 - 3 5 ) m a d e b y C o s m i u s , d e s c r i b e d as P R ( a e p o s i t u s ? )
S T A ( t i o n i s ) S P O N D I L L A S Y N A G ( o g a e ) l U D E O R ( u m ) (last w o r d
i n s c r i b e d s e p a r a t e l y on t h e side. T h e w o r d ' s p o n d i l l a ? ' is not o t h e r w i s e
k n o w n , a n d has b e e n t a k e n t o be a p l a c e - n a m e ; b u t it m a y
h y p o t h e t i c a l l y , as F i i l e p a r g u e s , b e i n t e r p r e t e d as t h e n a m e of a n oflfice
or function i n t h e s y n a g o g u e . T h e A m a y p e r h a p s go w i t h t h e
following w o r d , h y p o t h e t i c a f l y producing A(rchi)SYNAG(ogus).
Persons w i t h S e m i t i c n a m e s a r e a t t e s t e d at I n t e r c i s a (see e.g., C I H J
nos. 5 - 7 ; J I H , n o s . 4-6) b u t n o n e c a n b e p r o v e d specifically to h a v e
b e e n J e w i s h . A S y r i a n a u x i h a r y u n i t w a s s t a t i o n e d t h e r e , see J . Fitz, Les
Syriens a Intercisa ( 1 9 7 2 ) .
A t Mursa a d a m a g e d i n s c r i p t i o n ( C I J I'^, n o . 678a, p r o l . , p . 60 =
J I H , n o . 8) refers to a [ p r o ? ] S E U C H A M , w h i c h m a y m e a n a
s y n a g o g u e , b u t c a n h a r d l y b e a s s u m e d to d o s o , as b y A . M o c s y ,
Pannonia and Upper Moesia ( 1 9 7 4 ) , p . 228.
I n Italy, Rome itself w a s the c e n t r e of a J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y n u m b e r i n g

thousands. T h e first a p p e a r a n c e of J e w s t h e r e r e a c h e s b a c k into t h e
7 5 . Cf. in general for the J e w s in R o m e : A. Berliner, Geschichte der Juden in Rom von der
dltesten Zeit bis zur Gegenwart I - I I ( 1 8 9 3 ) ; H . Vogclstein a n d P. Rieger, Geschichte der Juden
in Rom I (from 1 3 9 B.C. to A.D. 1 4 2 0 ) ( 1 8 9 6 ) , ( E T History of the Jews in Rome, 1940) ; A.
Bludau, ' D i e J u d e n R o m s im ersten christlichen J a h r h u n d e r t ' , Katholik 83 ( 1 9 0 3 ) , pp.
1 1 3 - 3 4 , 1 9 3 - 2 2 9 ; S. Ochser, s.v. ' R o m e ' in J E X, p p . 4 4 4 - 6 7 (only briefly for the ancient
p e r i o d ) ; J . J u s t e r , Les Juifs dans I'empire romain I - I I ( 1 9 1 4 ) , especially I , p. 1 8 0 , n. 6 ; H.
Gressmann, J e w i s h life in ancient R o m e ' , Jewish studies in memory of Israel Abraham ( 1 9 2 7 ) ,
p p . 1 7 0 - 9 1 ; G. L a Plana, 'Foreign G r o u p s in R o m e during t h e First Centuries of the
Empire', H T h R 20 ( 1 9 2 7 ) , p p . 183—403, especially 3 4 1 — 9 3 ; S. W. Baron, A social and
religious history of the Jews I - I I ( 1 9 5 2 ) ; H. J . Leon, 'The Jewish Community of Ancient
Porto', H T h R 4 5 ( 1 9 5 2 ) , p p . 1 6 5 - 7 5 (showing that the majority, at least, of the
identifiably Jewish inscripdons from Porto h a d been brought there from R o m e ) , and The
M a c c a b a e a n p e r i o d . A l r e a d y J u d a s M a c c a b a e u s s e n t a n e m b a s s y to t h e
Roman s e n a t e to c o n c l u d e an alliance with the Romans, or more
p r e c i s e l y , to r e q u e s t a n a s s u r a n c e of t h e i r f r i e n d s h i p a n d s u p p o r t (i
Mac. 8 : 1 7 - 3 2 ; cf v o l . I , p . 1 7 1 ) . H i s b r o t h e r a n d s u c c e s s o r , J o n a t h a n ,
p r o b a b l y followed his e x a m p l e (i M a c . 12:1—4, 1 6 ; vol. I , p . 1 8 4 ) . O f
g r e a t e r significance w a s t h e e m b a s s y d e s p a t c h e d t o R o m e in 140-139
by the third of t h e Maccabaean brothers, Simon, which saw the
conclusion of a g e n u i n e alliance of p r o t e c t i o n and trust with the
Romans (i M a c . 14:24; 15:15-24; v o l . I, p p . 194-7). During their
r a t h e r l e n g t h y s t a y in R o m e , it is possible, b u t n o t s e c u r e l y attested,
t h a t p e o p l e i n t h e c o m p a n y o f t h i s e m b a s s y also a t t e m p t e d to make
religious p r o p a g a n d a . A c c o r d i n g t o the text preserved i n the epitome
m a d e b y J u l i u s P a r i s , V a l e r i u s M a x i m u s i 3, 2 r e a d s : ' I d e m (i.e., t h e
praetor Hispalus) ludaeos, qui Sabazi lovis cultu R o m a n o s inficere
m o r e s c o n a t i e r a n t , r e p e t e r e d o m o s suas coegit'.^^ J u p i t e r S a b a z i u s is in
fact a Phrygian and Thracian deity corresponding to the Greek
Dionysus.But since the word ludaeos is a t t e s t e d in this t e x t , the
p r e s e n c e of h i s n a m e in t h e p a s s a g e m a y b e d u e t o a c o n f u s i o n of t h e
Jewish Sabaoth {êba'oth) with Sabazius, an error that occurs
elsewhere.^^ H o w e v e r , a n o t h e r e p i t o m e , t h a t o f l a n u a r i u s N e p o t i a n u s ,
2
Jews of ancient Rome (i960), especially bibliography o n pp. 347-64. CIJ I (1975),
especially introduction, p p . liii-cxliv, and prolegomena, p p . 2 5 - 3 9 ; U. M . Fasola, 'Le d u e
c a t a c o m b e ebraiche di Villa T o r l o n i a ' , Riv. Arch. C r . 52 (1976), p p . 7 - 6 2 ; A. T . Kraabel,
'Jews in Imperial Rome : More Archaeological Evidence from an Oxford Collection', J J S 30
(1979), p p . 41-58. Note the survey by R . Penna, 'Les Juifs a R o m e au
temps de I'apotre Paul', N T S 28 (1982), pp. 321-47, and SoHn, op. cit., p p . 655-66.
76. T h e text of the first book of Valerius M a x i m u s contains a considerable lacuna. T w o
extant epitomes from his works serve to restore t h i s : those of lulius Paris a n d l a n u a r i u s
N e p o d a n u s (both published b y A. M a i , Scriptorum veterum nova collectio III.3 (1828) ; for
the lacuna see also K e m p f s edition of Valerius Maximus (1854)). For this question, see H .
Vogelstein, The History of the Jews in Rome, pp. 10—14; J- Leon, The Jews of Ancient
Rome, p p . 2 - 4 ; GLAJJ I, no. 147a—b; S. Alessandri, ' L a presunta caccia dei Giudei d a
R o m a nel 138 a. Cr.', S C O 17 (1968), pp. 187-98; M. Simon, 'Jupiter-Yahve', N u m e n
23 (1976), pp. 4 0 - 6 6 ; E . N. L a n e , 'Sabazius and t h e J e w s in Valerius M a x i m u s ' , J R S 69
(1979), P P - 3 5 - 8 .
77. O n Sabazius see F . Cumont, Les religions orientales dans le âganisme romain ( 1929),
p p . 6 0 - 2 ; M. P . Nilsson, Geschichte der Griechischen Religion II ( 1961), pp. 6 5 8 - 6 7 ; C h .
Picard, 'Sabazios, Dieu thraco-phrygien', R A 1961, pt. 2, pp. 129-76; R . Fellmann, ' D e r
Sabazios-Kult', in M . J . Vermaseren (ed.). Die orientalischen Religionen im Romerreich
(1981), p p . 316-40.
78. In itself, Zebaoth is of course not a proper name. Since however Yahweh Sebaoth is
rendered Kvpios SaâcuO (so t h e L X X , particularly in Isaiah, see the Concordances by
T r o m m i u s , and by H a t c h a n d R e d p a t h , a n d 2Jaâu)9 is the better-attested form, not
Sa^âdid), Saâojd w a s treated by Jews, Christians a n d pagans as a divine name. See
Orac. Sibyll. i 304, 316 ; ii 240; xii 132 ; Celsus quoted in Origen C. Cels. i 24; v 41, 45 ; the
Gnostics quoted in Irenaeus i 30, 5 ; Origen C. Cels. vi 3 1 - 2 ; Epiphanius, Haer. 26, 10 ; 40,
2 ; see G. W . H . L a m p e , Patristic Greek Lexicon s.v. Eaâdtd. It is found frequently on gems
(see W. Baudissin, Studien zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte I (1876), pp. 187 ff.; for
m a k e s n o reference to S a b a z i u s : ' l u d a e o s q u o q u e , q u i R o m a n i s t r a d e r e
sacra sua conati erant, idem Hispalus u r b e exterminavit, arasque
p r i v a t a s e p u b l i c i s locis a b i e c i t . ' R e c o n s t r u c t i o n s b a s e d o n a s u p p o s e d
s y n c r e t i s m of t h e J e w i s h G o d a n d S a b a z i u s a r e t h e r e f o r e insecure. All
t h a t r e m a i n s is the s t a t e m e n t t h a t t h e p r a e t o r of 1 3 9 B.C., w h i c h c a n n o t
b e p r o v e d to b e t h e e x a c t y e a r of S i m o n ' s e m b a s s y , e x p e l l e d s o m e J e w s
for p r o s e l y t i s m . A c o n n e c t i o n w i t h S i m o n ' s e m b a s s y is n o t i n d i c a t e d in
o u r sources a n d r e m a i n s h y p o t h e t i c a l . I t c o n s e q u e n t l y also r e m a i n s
u n c l e a r from this w h e t h e r R o m e h a d a s y e t a n y p e r m a n e n t J e w i s h
r e s i d e n t s at t h a t t i m e . S u c h s e t t l e m e n t s a p p e a r n e v e r t h e l e s s to h a v e
t a k e n p l a c e a l r e a d y in t h e first t h i r d of t h e first c e n t u r y B.C., for J e w i s h
m o n e y w a s b e i n g e x p o r t e d f r o m I t a l y t o J e r u s a l e m e v e n before 61.^^
R o m a n J e w r y g r e w to g r e a t e r i m p o r t a n c e after P o m p e y . W h e n he
c o n q u e r e d J e r u s a l e m in 63, h e b r o u g h t b a c k w i t h h i m t o R o m e g r e a t
n u m b e r s of J e w i s h p r i s o n e r s o f w a r w h o w e r e sold t h e r e as slaves, b u t
m a n y of w h o m w e r e m a n u m i t t e d soon afterwards, p e r h a p s because
t h e y p r o v e d t r o u b l e s o m e to t h e i r m a s t e r s o n a c c o u n t of t h e i r strict
a d h e r e n c e t o J e w i s h o b s e r v a n c e s . G r a n t e d — i n the case of freed
s l a v e s — t h e r i g h t s of R o m a n c i t i z e n s h i p , t h e y settled o n t h e f u r t h e r
b a n k o f the T i b e r a n d r e i n f o r c e d t h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y p r o b a b l y
a l r e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d there.^" F r o m t h e n on, t h e c o l o n y in T r a s t e v e r e
c o n s t i t u t e d a n o t i n s i g n i f i c a n t e l e m e n t i n R o m a n life. I n 59 B.C., w h e n
C i c e r o s p o k e in d e f e n c e of F l a c c u s , t h e r e w a s a c o n s i d e r a b l e c r o w d of
J e w s in his a u d i e n c e . ^ ' A t t h e d e a t h of C a e s a r , t h e i r g r e a t p r o t e c t o r , a
t h r o n g o f J e w s l a m e n t e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e n i g h t b e s i d e his f u n e r a l pyre.^^
I n the r e i g n of A u g u s t u s , J e w s a l r e a d y n u m b e r e d several t h o u s a n d s .
J o s e p h u s , in a n y case, r e l a t e s t h a t e i g h t t h o u s a n d R o m a n J e w s
s u p p o r t e d t h e e m b a s s y w h i c h c a m e to R o m e from J u d a e a i n 4 B.c.^^
T h e r e i g n of T i b e r i u s s a w t h e o n s e t of r e p r e s s i v e m e a s u r e s . T h e w h o l e
c o m m u n i t y w a s e x p e l l e d f r o m R o m e in A.D. 19 b e c a u s e , a c c o r d i n g to
I
examples of its use in magical papyri see K . Preisendanz, Papyri Graecae Magicae (^1973),
no. iv, 11. 9 8 1 ; 1485; 3052 f ; v, 352. T h e r e is certainly no question of a n y connection with
the Hebrew Sabbath, for it is impossible to see h o w it could be conceived of as a divine
name.
79. Cicero,pro Flacco 28/67 (GLAJJ I , no. 6 8 ) : ' C u m a u r u m l u d a e o r u m nomine quotannis
ex Italia et ex omnibus provinciis Hierosolyma exportari soleret, Flaccus sanxit edicto, n e ex
Asia exportari liceret.' Flaccus was p r o p r a e t o r of Asia in 62 B . C . If Jewish
money w a s being exported from Italy to J e r u s a l e m , the s e t d e m e n t ofJ e w s in Italy cannot
be regarded as dating to after the t r i u m p h of Pompey (61 B . C . ) . See Leon, The Jews of
Ancient Rome, p p . 4-9.
80. Philo, Legatio 23 (155).
81. Cicero, pro Flacco, 28/69.
82.Suetonius,Div.lul. 8 4 ( G L A J J I , no. 3 0 2 ) : ' I n s u m m o p u b l i c o l u c t u e x t e r a r u m g e n t i u m
m u l d t u d o circuladm suo q u a e q u e more lamentata est, praecipueque ludaei, qui
etiam noctibus continuis bustrum frequentarunt.'
8^. B.J. ii 6, I (80-3) •,Ant. xvii 11, i (299—302). See vol. I, p p . 330-5.
J o s e p h u s , a few J e w s h a d s w i n d l e d a d i s d n g u i s h e d c o n v e r t by t h e n a m e
of F u l v i a out o f l a r g e s u m s of m o n e y on t h e p r e t e x t of s e n d i n g i t to t h e
T e m p l e i n J e r u s a l e m . F o r this, four t h o u s a n d J e w s fit to b e a r a r m s w e r e
deported to S a r d i n i a to combat the brigands there; the rest were
banished from the city. On this point, the reports of Tacitus,^'^
S u e t o n i u s ^ ^ a n d J o s e p h u s ^ ^ a r e e s s e n t i a l l y in a g r e e m e n t . A c c o r d i n g t o
E u s e b i u s , Philo, a c o n t e m p o r a r y , h a d stated t h a t these m e a s u r e s w e r e
carried out a t the r e q u e s t o f the t h e n powerful Seianus.^^ Without
g i v i n g d e t a i l s , P h i l o asserts i n t h e s u r v i v i n g Legatio that Seianus w a s
r e s p o n s i b l e for a n t i - J e w i s h m e a s u r e s , a n d t h a t after his fall (A.D. 3 1 ) ,
Tiberius had recognized that the J e w s living in Rome had been
s l a n d e r e d baselessly by h i m , a n d h a d o r d e r e d t h e officials in a l l a r e a s
n o t to o p p r e s s t h e m or o b s t r u c t t h e m in t h e p r a c t i c e of t h e i r r e l i g i o n .
P re su m a b l y , therefore, t h e y were also p e r m i t t e d to r e t u r n to Rome;
84. Ann. ii 85 (GLAJJ I I , no. 284): 'Actum et de sacris Aegyptiis ludaicisque pellendis,
factumque p a t r u m consultum, u t quattuor milia liberdni generis ea supersddone infecta,
quis idonea aetas, in insulam Sardiniam veherentur, coercendis illic latrociniis et, si ob
gravitatem caeli interissent, vile d a m n u m ; ceteri cederent Italia, nisi certam ante diem
profanos ritus exuissent.'
85. Tib. 36 (GLAJJ I I , no. 3 0 6 ) : 'Externas caerimonias, Aegypdos ludaicosque ritus
compescuit, coactis qui superstitione ea t e n e b a n t u r religiosas vestes c u m instrumento
o m n i comburere. l u d a e o r u m iuventutcm p e r speciem sacramenti in provincias gravioris
caeli distribuit, reliquos gentis eiusdem vel similia sectantes urbe summovit, s u b poena
perpetuae servitutis nisi obtemperassent.'
86. Josephus, Ant. xviii 3, 5 (84), states definitely t h a t four thousand J e w s were
impressed into military service and despatched t o Sardinia. Tacitus gives the same
n u m b e r b u t writes of Egyptians and J e w s . According to Tacitus, t h e rest were expelled from
I t a l y ; according to J o s e p h u s , from R o m e only. Suetonius agrees m o r e with
Josephus.
T h e severe punishment (instead of simple expulsion) w a s explained b y Mommsen on
the g r o u n d s that as libertini t h e j e w s in R o m e were R o m a n citizens ('Der Religionsfrevel n a c h
romischen Recht', Ges. Schr. I l l (1907), pp. 389-422).
Seneca, Ep. Mor. 108, 22 (GLAJJ I, no. 189) contains a n allusion to this edict: 'his ego
instinctus abstinere animaHbus coepi . . . quaeris, q u o m o d o desierim ? in p r i m u m Tiberii
Caesaris principatum iuventae tempus inciderat. alienigena tum sacra movebantur, sed
inter argumenta superstitionis ponebatur q u o r u n d a m animalium abstinentia. p a t r e
itaque meo rogante, qui non c a l u m n i a m timebat, sed philosophiam oderat, ad pristinam
consuetudinem redii.'
87. Euseb. Chron. ad ann. Abr. 2050 (ed. Schoene I I , p. 150) according to the A r m e n i a n
version: 'Seianus Tiberii procurator, qui intimus erat consiliarius regis, universam
gentem l u d a e o r u m d e p e r d e n d a m exposcebat. Meminit a u t e m huius Philon i n secunda
relatione.' C f Syncellus, ed. Dindorf I , p . 621.
J e r o m e , Chron. {ap. Euseb. Chron. e d . Schoene I I , p. 151 ; ed. Helm, p . 176: 'Seianus
praefectus Tiberii qui a p u t e u m plurimum poterat instantissime cohortatur, u t gentem
l u d a e o r u m deleat. Filo meminit in libro legationis secundo.'
T h e same statement o n the authority of the same work of Philo occurs also in Euseb. Hist.
Eccl. ii 5, 7.
Cf. on this work of Philo, below, pp. 856-64.
8 8 . Philo, Legatio 24 (159-61). See Smallwood ad loc.
and this would explain how Philo took for granted the renewed
e s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e R o m a n c o m m u n i t y as e a r l y a s t h e r e i g n of G a i n s .
Claudius' reign began with a general edict of t o l e r a n c e t o w a r d s the
J e w s , issued at t h e request of k i n g A g r i p p a I and his brother king
Herod;^^ but later, this emperor, too, found it necessary to bring
m e a s u r e s i n t o force a g a i n s t t h e j e w s . A c c o r d i n g t o b r i e f r e p o r t s in A c t s
a n d S u e t o n i u s , a n a c t u a l e x p u l s i o n of J e w s f r o m R o m e t o o k p l a c e on
his orders.^" B u t from D i o it a p p e a r s t h a t C l a u d i u s o n l y f o r b a d e the
Jews the right to assemble, for an expulsion would not have been
enforceable without great disturbance.^' But even this would have
b e e n e q u i v a l e n t t o a b a n o n r e l i g i o u s f r e e d o m a n d n o d o u b t h a v e l e d to
m a n y l e a v e t h e c i t y . T h e d a t e of t h e e d i c t c a n n o t be d e t e r m i n e d with
certainty; it probably belongs to the later part of C l a u d i u s ' reign,
perhaps A.D. 49.^^ Suetonius' words imply that it w a s caused by
89. J o s . Ant. xix 5, 3 (286—91). O n Claudius' reign see Leon, op. cit., p p . 2 1 - 7 , with
bibliography.
90. A c . 18:2 : 8ia TO Siarerapêrai KXavhuov ;â>pi'{eaflai TravTas rovs 'lovSaiovs dno Trjs
'Ptufjirjs.SceHacnchcn ad loc.Suet. Claud. 25 ( G L A J J I I , no. 3 0 7 ) : ' l u d a e o s impulsoreChresto
assidue t u m u l t u a n t e s R o m a expulit.'
9 1 . D i o Ix 6 (GLAJJ I I , no. 4 2 2 ) : TOVS T€ TovSaiovs rrXeovdcravTas avOis, cooTf
XaAeiroJ? av avev Tapax'ljs VTTO TOV O^XOV a<f>ci)v Trjs rroXews eipxdrjvaL, OVK e^rfXaae jxev, TW Be
Srj iraTpLO) îw xpoj/LteVov? (KeXevae p.r) avvadpoil,€cf6ai. T h e passage occurs in Dio a t the
beginning of t h e reign of C l a u d i u s , whereas t h e measure reported in Acts probably
h a p p e n e d m u c h later (see n. 9 2 ) . However, Dio is n o t at this point writing
chronologically b u t presenting a general characterisation of C l a u d i u s ; for this feature of
his treatment of the reigns of emperors compare F . Millar in J E A 48 ( 1 9 6 2 ) , p p . 124—5 j ^
Study of Cassius Dio ( 1 9 6 4 ) , p . 40. W i t h t h e words Xe^w 8c Ka6' eKaoTov <Lv fTToirjae in
chapter 3 , Dio does not swîtch t o chronological narrative, but t o a description of
Claudius' good features. An edict unfavourable t o the J e w s is n o t likely to belong t o the
earliest years of his reign for it was just t h e n t h a t he published an edict of tolerance in
their regard. T h e edict referred to b y Dio is therefore very likely identical with t h a t of
Suetonius. It would certainly be strange for one o f them to mention only the latter edict,
a n d the other, only t h e former. T h e word 'expulit' in Suetonius could be interpreted on
the analogy of Suet. Tib. 3 6 : 'expulit e t mathematicos, sed deprecantibus . . . veniam dedit.'
Expulsion was n o doubt intended, but when it was realized t h a t it would r u n into difficulties, it
was a b a n d o n e d . This might explain the silence o f Tacitus a n d Josephus. However, the
wording of Acts seems both t o imply something more specific a n d m o r e effective a n d to
indicate a d a t e in t h e late 40s. F o r a different view see Stern, G L A J J cit. I I , pp.
115-16.
92. T h e edict in question h a s been identified by many a s that mentioned b y Tacitus for
the year 5 2 , T a c . Ann. xii 5 2 : ' D e mathematicis Italia pellendis factum senatus consultum
atrox et irritum.' But ' m a t h e m a t i c i ' c a n n o t possibly b e taken to refer to the R o m a n
Jewish c o m m u n i t y .
In the Chronicle of Eusebius and J e r o m e there is no allusion t o an expulsion of the Jews
by Claudius. O n l y Orosius vii 6, 1 5 (ed. Zangemeister, 1 8 8 2 ) provides an exact d a t e for
the edict (the ninth year o f Claudius A . D . 4 9 ) : ' A n n o eiusdem nono expulsos per
(Haudium urbe l u d a e o s losephus refert. Sed me magis Suetonius movet, qui ait hoc modo
.. .' However, since Josephus does n o t discuss the matter at all, the notice is in a n y case
erroneous and therefore unreliable. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , this date would fit with the
implications of Acts (see above).
t r o u b l e s t i r r e d u p by ' C h r e s t u s ' ( ? ' C h r i s t u s ' ) , w i t h i n t h e J e w i s h

c o m m u n i t y . ^ ^ Its effects i n a n y c a s e w e r e also n o t p e r m a n e n t . E v e n a
m e a s u r e such as t h i s c o u l d n o t a g a i n u p r o o t t h e firmly s e t t l e d J e w i s h
c o m m u n i t y o r w e a k e n i t lastingly. E x p e l l e d fi:-om t h e c i t y , s o m e of its
members may have moved into the surrounding district, in the
d i r e c t i o n of Aricia,^^ to r e t u r n s u b s e q u e n t l y t o R o m e . A c t s 28:17—28
reflects a s t a b l e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y i n R o m e i n t h e r e i g n of N e r o . T h e
h i s t o r y o f the J e w s i n t h e c a p i t a l m a y b e s u m m a r i z e d i n the w o r d s of
D i o . ' O f t e n r e p r e s s e d , t h e y n e v e r t h e l e s s i n c r e a s e d m o s t s t r o n g l y , so
t h a t t h e y t h e m s e l v e s o b t a i n e d t h e free p r a c t i c e of t h e i r o b s e r v a n c e s ' . ^ ^
I t is t r u e t h a t p r o m i n e n t R o m a n s r e g a r d e d t h e m w i t h s u s p i c i o n , b u t
t h e f r e q u e n t a l l u s i o n s b y t h e s a t i r i s t s t h e m s e l v e s testify t o t h e e x t e n t to
w h i c h t h e J e w s w e r e t a k e n n o t e o f in R o m a n s o c i e t y . A l s o , from as
e a r l y as the r e i g n of A u g u s t u s , t h e r e w a s n o lack of d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s
b e t w e e n t h e m a n d t h e I m p e r i a l c o u r t ; i n d e e d , in t h e d m e of N e r o t h e
empress P o p p a e a herself m a y h a v e been a t t r a c t e d t o J u d a i s m .
9 3 . On Chrestus = Christus see A. von Harnack, Die Mission und Ausbreitung des Christentums I
( 1906), p p . 346, 3 4 8 ; E T The Expansion of Christianity in the First Three
Centuries I I (1905), p. 16. See G L A J J II, p p . 116-17. Even i n T a c . Ann. xv 44 the
Mediceus has 'Chresdanos', see G L A J J II, p . 92.
94. Such a move is indicated b y the scholiast on J u v e n a l iv 117: ' q u i ad p o r t a m Aricinam
sive ad clivum mendicaret inter ludaeos, qui a d Ariciam transierant ex U r b e missi' (Stern,
G L A J J II, no. 538). The story might alternatively refer to the expulsion under Tiberius, o r to
another event, or be fictional.
95. Dio xxxvii 17, i (GLAJJ I I , no. 406) : c a n Kal napd TOIS 'Pcofuiiois TO yevos TOVTO,
Ko\ova6ev <^/iev) TTOXXOLKIS, av^rjOkv 5e CTTI TrXeioTov, toCTxe Kal is TrappTjoiav TT/S vop,iaeo)S
iKviKTiaai.
96. O n the social position of Jew's in R o m e , see the literature cited in n. 74 above.
Sources in GLAJJ I - I I . M . Stern, ' T h e j e w s in Greek a n d Latin Literature', J P F C I I ,
pp. i i o i - 5 9 ; J . N . Sevenster, The Roots of Pagan Anti-Semitism in the Ancient World (1975).
97. T h e names AvyovoTqatot. and 'AypnTirriaioi, used by two of the Jewish communities
in R o m e , point to the reladonship t h a t existed between the J e w s a n d Augustus a n d
Agrippa (see below, pp. 96).
T h e empress Livia owned a Jewish slave-girl n a m e d Akme, J o s . Ant. xvii 5, 7 (141);
B.J. i 32, 6 (641) ; 33, 7 (661), a n d presented ornaments to the Temple i n Jerusalem, J o s .
B.J. V. 13, 6 (563); Philo, Legatio 40 (319).
T h e emperor Claudius had as friend the Jewish alabarch, Alexander, w h o had served his
mother Antonia zsprocurator, Ant. xix 5, i (276). See CPJ I I , nos. 418-20 a n d com.
A n inscription from t h e time of Claudius mentions a '[Cljaudia Aster [Hi]erosolymitana
[ca]ptiva', perhaps a Jewish slave-girl belonging to Claudius ( C I L x,
no. 1971 = ILS, no. 8193 = C I J I , n o . 556).
I n the court of Nero there was a Jewish actor named Alityrus, J o s . Vita 3 (16).
P o p p a e a is herself described as deocrePrjs a n d was always ready t o bring Jewish petitions
to t h e notice of t h e emperor, J o s . Ant. xx 8, 1 1 (195); Vita 3 (16). Tacitus Ann. xvi 6
observes t h a t after death she w a s not cremated in accordance with R o m a n tradition, b u t
was embalmed 'after the custom of foreign kings'. It remains uncertain, however, whether
this evidence can prove a specific attachment to Judaism. For a negative view see E. M .
Smallwood, 'The Alleged Jewish Tendencies of Poppaea Sabina', J T h S t 10 (1959), p p .
329-35-
G r a d u a l l y t h e y s p r e a d t h r o u g h t h e city. T r a s t e v e r e did n o t r e m a i n t h e
o n l y q u a r t e r w h e r e t h e y w e r e to b e f o u n d . L a t e r , t h e y w e r e l i v i n g also
in C a m p u s M a r t i n s , a n d in t h e m i d d l e of t h e business a r e a o f R o m e ,
the Subura (cf p p . 97 b e l o w ) . J u v e n a l j o k e s o v e r t h e fact that the
s a c r e d g r o v e of E g e r i a b e f o r e P o r t a C a p e n a is o c c u p i e d by J e w s and
swarms with Jewish beggars {Sat. iii 1 2 - 1 6 = GLAJJ II, no. 296).
Their presence in other parts of the city, and their condnuing
prosperity into the later Imperial period, is a l s o attested by the
d i s c o v e r y of J e w i s h b u r i a l - p l a c e s , o r c a t a c o m b s , k n o w l e d g e of w h i c h
c o n t i n u e s to i n c r e a s e . T h e f o l l o w i n g is a g e n e r a l list of t h o s e k n o w n so
far.9«
i) T h e oldest cemetery is p r o b a b l y that on the V i a Portuensis,
discovered in 1602 by Bosio b u t n o t f u r t h e r explored a t t h a t time.^^
W i t h o u t d o u b t t h e b u r i a l - p l a c e of t h e T r a s t e v e r e J e w s , i t r e m a i n e d lost
t o sight for a l o n g t i m e u n t i l v a r i o u s a c c o u n t s of i t w e r e p u b l i s h e d in
about t h e mid-eighteenth c e n t u r y . T h e inscriptions found then were
dispersed among various collections.Subsequently, it stayed
J o s e p h u s lived in R o m e u n d e r Vespasian, Titus and D o m i d a n , and was supported and

honoured by all three emperors, Jos. Vita 76 (422-3).
T h r o u g h Flavius Clemens, t h e cousin ofDomitian, even t h e imperial family was affected by
Jewish customs', understood a s atheism; so Dio Ixvii 14, r—3 = G L A J J 11, no. 435, cf Suet.
Dom. 15, This is n o t to be taken a s a reference to Christianity, see Stern
ad loc.
Also t o be noted is t h e lively relationship of H e r o d a n d his dynasty with Augustus and
his successors. M o s t of H e r o d ' s sons were e d u c a t e d in R o m e . Agrippa I spent the greater
part of his life, until his n o m i n a d o n as king, in R o m e . As a boy h e was t h e friend of
Drusus, t h e son of Tiberius, a n d later of Caligula, Jos. Ant. xviii 6, i (143). T h e close
association of Agrippa H and Berenice with Vespasian a n d T i t u s is well known. (See e.g.,
J. A. Crook, ' T i t u s a n d Berenice', A J P h 62 (1951), pp. 1 6 2 - 7 5 ! cf Z. Yavetz, 'Reflections
on Titus and J o s e p h u s ' , G R B S 16 (1975), p p . 411—32.)
For Christians at t h e imperial court compare A . von H a r n a c k , Mission und Ausbreitung
des Christentums I I ( 1906), p p . 3 2 - 4 0 ; E T The Expansion of Christianity in the First Three
Centuries I I (1905), p p . 1 9 2 - 4 ; cf W . E c k , ' D a s Eindringen des Christentums i n den
Senatorenstand biszu K o n s t a n d n d . Gr.', C h i r o n i (1971), pp. 381-406.
98. Cf earlier surveys in H . Vogelstein a n d P. Rieger, Gesch. der Juden in Rom I (1896),
p p . 49 ff. Also p p . 459—83, a compilation o f inscriptions. See S. Krauss s.v. ' C a t a c o m b s ' ,
J E I I I , p p . 614-18.
T h e Greek-Jewish inscriptions from R o m e as then known were collected in C I G IV,
nos. 9901-26. S e e several L a t i n inscriptions in C I L V I , nos. 29755-63. See above V o l . I,
p p . 15-16 for the literature on the inscripdons in general. O n the catacombs, see J . Juster, Les
Juifs dans I'empire romain (1914), I, p p . 4 7 ^ - 8 5 ; E. R. Goodenough, Jewish Symbols in
the Greco-Roman Period I I (1953), ch. i ; CIJ I , p p . Ivi-lxii and p r o l e g o m e n o n ; H . J . Leon,
The Jews in Ancient Rome (1961), p p . 46 ff. O n inscriptions, C I J I , n o s . 1-531 ; Leon, op.
cit., pp. 67-74, 263-346. For a full account of t h e successive stages of discovery, H . J .
Leon, ' T h e Jewish C a t a c o m b s of R o m e : A n Account of their Discovery and Subsequent
History', H U C A 5 (1928), p p . 299-314.
99. A. Bosio, Roma Sotterranea II (1632), c h . 22, p p . 141—3.
100. See e.g. t h e descripdon by R . V e n u t i in Giornale dei letterati (Rome, 1748). Most of
ilu' inscriptions went t o the Museo B o r g i a n o at Velletri, a n d from there to Naples a n d the
u n k n o w n for a f u r t h e r l o n g p e r i o d u n t i l i t w a s r e - d i s c o v e r e d in O c t o b e r
1904. T h e e x c a v a t i o n , v e r y l a b o r i o u s b e c a u s e the site h a d b e e n filled
i n , was c a r r i e d o u t b y N . M i i l l e r . ' " '
2) A n i m p o s i n g c e m e t e r y w a s f o u n d i n 1 8 5 9 on t h e v i a A p p i a in t h e
Vigna Randanini, now named Vigna San Sebastiano, somewhat
further out t h a n the Calixtus C a t a c o m b s . This, too, yielded a large
n u m b e r of R o m a n - J e w i s h e p i t a p h s . ' " ' '
3) I n 1866, a J e w i s h c e m e t e r y w a s u n c o v e r e d in t h e V i g n a of C o n t e
C i m a r r a , w h i c h is also o n t h e via A p p i a , a l m o s t o p p o s i t e t h e C a U x t u s
c a t a c o m b s . D e Rossi p u b l i s h e d a b r i e f n o t i c e o f this.'°^
4) A J e w i s h c e m e t e r y on t h e v i a L a b i c a n a , n o w via C a s i l i n i , in t h e
n e i g h b o u r h o o d of t h e E s q u i l i n e a n d V i m i n a l , d a t i n g to s o m e t i m e in
t h e A n t o n i n e p e r i o d . T h i s w a s identified b y M a r u c c h i in 1883.'°"^
5) A p r e l i m i n a r y a c c o u n t w a s p u b l i s h e d b y N . M i i l l e r of a J e w i s h
c e m e t e r y d i s c o v e r e d in 1885 on t h e v i a A p p i a , o p p o s i t e t h e V i g n a
R a n d a n i n i . N o full r e p o r t on this c a t a c o m b w a s e v e r p u b h s h e d a n d n o
t r a c e of it n o w r e m a i n s . ' ° ^
6) T h e latest significant J e w i s h c a t a c o m b t o be d i s c o v e r e d w a s t h a t
f o u n d i n 1 9 1 9 in t h e g r o u n d s of t h e V i l l a T o r l o n i a . It w a s e x p l o r e d in
t h e 1920s, a n d p l a n s a n d a s u b s t a n t i a l n u m b e r o f i n s c r i p t i o n s w e r e
p u b l i s h e d . ' " ^ R e n e w e d e x c a v a t i o n s c a r r i e d o u t in 1 9 7 3 a n d 1 9 7 4 h a v e
r e v e a l e d t h a t the c o m p l e x in fact consists of t w o s e p a r a t e c a t a c o m b s a t
diflferent levels. T h e s e r e s e a r c h e s h a v e a l s o yielded a s u b s t a n t i a l n u m b e r
of new inscriptions, including the striking epitaph of an
Capitol, some to the M u s e u m K i r c h e r i a n u m , and to the collection of t h e Benedictines of

S a n Paolo fuori (details in S. d e Ricci, op. cit. in next note).
101. F o r the redicovery see S. de Ricci, C R A I (1905), pp. 245-7, and A . de W a a l ,
R Q C A 19 (1905), I , p p . 140-2. SeefurtherN. Miiller, Diejiidische Katakombe am Monteverde zu
Rom (1912); N . Miiller a n d N. A. Bees, Die Inschriften der judischen Katakombe
am Monteverde zu Rom (1919); C I J I , p p . 206-359, nos. 2 9 1 - 4 9 3 ; Leon, op. cit., p p . 4 6 - 5 1 ,
6 8 - 7 3 , 307-36-
102. Cf. R. Garrucci, Cimitero degli antichi Ebrei scoperto recentemente in Vigna Randanini
(1862); Dissertazioni archeologiche di vario argomento I I (1865), pp. 150-92. O n the site of the
cemetery see the plan in G. B. de Rossi, BAG 5 (1867), p . 3, with the explanation op. cit.,
p p . 51, 70—1, 274—305. For a note on a number of largely fragmentary inscriptions mainly
deriving from Vigna R a n d a n i n i and n o t included i n CIJ, see L. Moretti, Tscrizioni greco-
giudaiche di R o m a ' , R A C 50 (1974), p p . 213-19, o n p. 215.
103^. G. B. de Rossi, BAG 5 (1867), p. 16. For the inscripdons from this cemetery see
C I J I , p p . 194-7, "OS. 277-81 ; Leon, op. cit., pp. 5 1 , 305.
104. O . Marucchi, ' D i un nuovo cimitero giudaicho scoperto sulla via Labicana', Diss.
Pont. Acc. Rom. di Arch. ser. ii, 2 (1884), p p . 499-532 ; idem, Le catacombe romane (1903),
p p . 279-97 (revd. ed. 1932, p p . 6 7 8 - 8 1 ) ; C I J I , p p . 4 6 - 9 , nos. 7 3 - 8 ; Leon, op. cit., p . 52.
105. N. Miiller, 'Le c a t a c o m b e degli Ebrei presso la via A p p i a Pignatelli', M D A I (Rome) i
(1886), p p . 4 9 - 5 6 ; CIJ I , pp. 5 0 - 3 , nos. 79, 8 0 ; Leon, op. cit., pp. 52-3, 274.
106. See R. Paribeni, ' C a t a c o m b a giudaica sulla V i a N o m e n t a n a ' , Not. d. Sc. 17 (1920),
p p . 143-55; W. Beyer and H . Lietzmann, Die jiidische Katakombe der Villa
Torlonia in Rom (1930); C I J I , pp. 9—46, nos. 6-72 ; Leon, op. cit., pp. 53, 73, 265-73.
/. Geographical Survey 8i
dpxiyepovaidpxrjs (the only a p p e a r a n c e of this t e r m to d a t e ) a n d

a n o t h e r of jfaiavo? ypappareovs (sic) i//a\p,io86s <f>iX6vopLos, o n e of only
t w o explicit references so far k n o w n t o p s a l m - s i n g i n g i n t h e D i a s p o r a
s y n a g o g u e o f t h e classical p e r i o d (for a p a r a l l e l from A p h r o d i s i a s in
C a r i a , see p . 26 a b o v e ) . T h e t w o c a t a c o m b s s e e m t o d a t e t o the
t h i r d - f o u r t h c e n t u r i e s . T h e age o f t h e s e c e m e t e r i e s as a g r o u p , a n d of
t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s s u r v i v i n g in t h e m , c a n o n l y be s t a t e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y .
F o r the most p a r t , they p r o b a b l y b e l o n g t o a b o u t t h e second-fourth
c e n t u r i e s A.D., a l t h o u g h t h o s e m e n t i o n e d first, o n the V i a P o r t u e n s i s ,
m a y be older.
Besides J e w s p r o p e r , t h e r e w e r e , as i n A l e x a n d r i a , S a m a r i t a n s living
in R o m e . ' ° ^ O n e n a m e d T h a l l u s , a freed slave of e m p e r o r Tiberius,
o n c e l e n t a l a r g e s u m o f m o n e y to A g r i p p a I in R o m e . ' ° ^ T h e existence
o f S a m a r i t a n s in t h e city as late as tfie t i m e of t h e O s t r o g o t h i c king
T h e o d o r i c is a t t e s t e d by a l e t t e r , i n c o r p o r a t e d i n C a s s i o d o r u s '
c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , from this k i n g t o C o u n t A r i g e r n u s . " ° T h e I m p e r i a l
legislation f r e q u e n t l y d i r e c t e d at t h e m i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e S a m a r i t a n s , in
t h e R o m a n E m p i r e in g e n e r a l , w e r e still not w i t h o u t i m p o r t a n c e i n the
later I m p e r i a l p e r i o d . ' ' '
I n t h e r e s t of Italy, J e w s a r e m a i n l y n o t t r a c e a b l e u n t i l the l a t e r
I m p e r i a l p e r i o d . T h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y in Puteoli ( D i c a e a r c h i a ) , the
m a i n p o r t for t r a d e b e t w e e n I t a l y a n d t h e O r i e n t , w a s h o w e v e r
c o m p a r a t i v e l y e a r l y . I n a d d i t i o n to P h o e n i c i a n s a n d o t h e r O r i e n t a l s ,
J e w s a r e f o u n d h e r e a r o u n d , at t h e l a t e s t , t h e b e g i n n i n g o f o u r era
( i m m e d i a t e l y following the d e a t h o f H e r o d i n 4 B . c . ) . " ^
T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t e v i d e n c e for a fairly e a r l y J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y in
I t a l y r e l a t e s , h o w e v e r , t o Ostia, w h e r e e x c a v a t i o n s h a v e b r o u g h t to light
t h e r e m a i n s of a s y n a g o g u e of t h e first c e n t u r y A.D., a l o n g w i t h two
v e r y r e l e v a n t i n s c r i p t i o n s , c o v e r e d b y a m o r e e x t e n s i v e s y n a g o g u e of
t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y . " ^ T h e first o f the t w o i n s c r i p t i o n s c o m e s from the
107. U . M. Fasola, 'Le d u e catacombe e b r a i c h e di Villa T o r l o n i a ' , Riv. Arch. C r . 52

(1976), p p . 7-62. for the epitaph of Gaianos see p p . 19-20. T h e two epitaphs mentioned
a r e reproduced and discussed by G. H. R. Horsley, Documents Illustrating Early Christianity
(1981), nos. 73—4 (note also nos. 75—6 from the s a m e c a t a c o m b ) .
108. See T. E . J . JouynboU, Commentarii in historiam gentis Samaritanae (1846), pp. 47-9.
F o r general surveys n o t e also J . A. M o n t g o m e r y , The Samaritans (1907 ; 1968).
109. J o s . Ant. xviii 6, 4 (167).
110. Cassiodorus, Var. iii 45.
111. C. Theod. xiii 5, r8; xvi 8, 16 and 28 ; JVOW. Just. 129 and 144.
112. J o s . Ant. xvii 2, i ( 2 3 - 5 ) ; £.J. ii 7, i (101-5). Note also CIJ I , no. 561, a
gerusiarches. T h e r e was also a Christian c o m m u n i t y here as early as Nero's reign (Acts
28:13-14).
113. See F. Zevi, ' L a sinagoga d i Ostia', Rassegna mensile di Israel 38 (1972), pp.
131-45 ; M. F. Squarciapino, La sinagoga di Ostia (1964) ; R. Meiggs, Roman Ostia ( 1973),
p p . 5 8 7 - 8 ; Kraabel, 'Diaspora Synagogue', pp. 4 9 7 - 5 0 0 .
site of t h e s y n a g o g u e itself, is p a r t l y in L a t i n a n d p a r t l y i n G r e e k , a n d
c o n t a i n s a reference to a s h r i n e or A r k {kibotos) for k e e p i n g the scrolls of
t h e T o r a h ( A E 1967, n o . 7 7 ; see M . G u a r d u c c i , Epigrajia greca I I I
(1974), pp. 1 5 - 1 7 , with p h o t o g r a p h ) : 'Pro salute Aug(usti),
oiKoSofirjaev K€ aiTrorjaev {sic) €K TCOV aSrov hopaTOiv Kal rrjv K€IÛ)T6V
dvedrjKev vofxcp dyicp MivSis 'Pavaros T h e s e c o n d , from a n a r e a to

t h e s o u t h of O s t i a , p r o v i d e s e v i d e n c e of a n archisynagogus n a m e d Plotius
F o r t u n a t u s : " * ' P l o t i o F o r t u n a t o a r c h i s y n ( a g o g o ) fec(it or - e r a n t )
P l o t i u s A m p l i a t u s S e c u n d i n u s S e c u n d a P. T . N . et OfiUa Basilia
c o < n > iugi B . M . ' (it is n o t c e r t a i n h o w t h e n a m e s i n 11. 2 - 4 s h o u l d b e
divided).
T h e e x i s t e n c e of this n e w e v i d e n c e m a k e s it m u c h m o r e r e a s o n a b l e to
r e s t o r e a l o n g - k n o w n i n s c r i p t i o n from Castel Porziano, s o m e t e n
k i l o m e t r e s s o u t h - e a s t of O s t i a ( C I J I^, n o . 5 3 3 ) as a l l u d i n g to t h e
c o m m u n i t y {universitas? cf. Cod. Just, i 9, i : ' u n i v e r s i t a t i l u d a e o r u m q u i
in A n t i o c h e n s i u m c i v i t a t e c o n s t i t u t i s u n t ' ) of t h e j e w s living i n O s t i a :
' [ u n i v e r s i t a s ] l u d e o r u m [in col. O s t . c o m m o r j a n t i u m . . . ' ; it also
c o n t a i n s two references t o a gerusiarches. T h e i n s c r i p t i o n is t h o u g h t to
d a t e to t h e first h a l f of t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y A.D.
N o t e also a f r a g m e n t a r y G r e e k i n s c r i p t i o n , p r o b a b l y f r o m Portus
n e a r O s t i a , w i t h t h e w o r d s &€ohw{pov /caji 'EXX-qX (f>povTiaTwv, G.
S a c c o , A r c h . Class. 3 1 ( 1 9 7 9 ) , p . 2 5 2 , no. 4 = S E G X X I X , no. 9 8 1 .
F o r f u r t h e r J e w i s h , a n d possibly J e w i s h , i n s c r i p t i o n s from Portus see
n o w G. S a c c o ( e d . ) , Iscrizionigreche dTtalia : Porto (1984), n o s . 84-94.
Pompeii supplies s o m e v e r y slight e v i d e n c e for the p r e s e n c e of J e w s , or
for J e w i s h influence in t h a t city, before t h e m o m e n t of its d e s t r u c t i o n in
A.D. 79."^ I n the l a t e r I m p e r i a l p e r i o d , J e w s w e r e w i d e l y d i s p e r s e d .
114. T h i s inscription appears only t o have been published by M . F. Squarciapino, ' M .

Plotius Fortunatus, archisynagogus', Rassegna mensile di Israel 36, nos. 7-9 (1970), p p .
183-91, a n d has not a p p a r e n t l y been reproduced in a n y standard collection, nor by
Lifshitz in C I J I ^ .
115. O n the walls of a house is a graffito with ' S o d o m a , Gomora', CIJ I , no. 567.
Besides ' M a r i a ' , which might be a Jewish name, ' M a r t h a ' also appears. T h e r e is in
addition a graffito which may b e in Hebrew (no. 562), a n d an inscription of Felix (slave)
of l o u d a i k o s ( C I L IV, n o . 6990 = n o . 563). O n p o t t e r y : ' m u r [ i a ] cast[a]' and ' g a r [ u m ]
cast[um]' o r 'cast[imoniale]'; c o m p a r e with this, Pliny JV.//. xxxi 95 (A. M a u , Pompeii in
Leben und Kunst (1900), p p . 15 ff.).
G . B. d e Rossi proposed to i n t e r p r e t the 'princeps Ubertinorum' who recommends the
election of a certain Cuspius Pansa to the aedileship (CIL I V , no. 117 = ILS, no. 6 4 i 9 g ,
'Cuspium Pansam aed. Fabius Eupor princeps libertinorum') as the head of a synagogue
of freedmen (Bull. arch. cr. (1864), pp. 70, 92 ff.). This suggestion has been revived
subsequently, e.g., by Della Corte (below), b u t can b e confidently dismissed; see P . Castren,
Ordo Populusque Pompeianus (1975), p . 166. Cf i n general J . B. Frey, 'Les Juifs a
Pompei', R B 42 (1933), pp. 3 6 5 - 8 3 ; M. Delia Corte, Case ed abitanti a Pompeii ( 1 9 6 5 ) ,
nos. 14; 18 ; 186-7 j 217 ; 401; 462 ; 776 and p . 386 (speculative).
especially i n southern Italy. In s o m e o f the cities of Apulia and

Calabria in t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y , t h e l o c a l offices c o u l d n o t b e r e g u l a r l y
filled b e c a u s e t h e J e w i s h i n h a b i t a n t s tried to c l a i m i m m u n i t y from
t h e m . " ^ In Venosa ( V e n u s i a in A p u l i a , t h e b i r t h p l a c e of H o r a c e ) , a
Jewish catacomb has b e e n discovered, with n u m e r o u s Greek, Latin
a n d H e b r e w inscriptions, from a b o u t t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y A.D."^ They
a r e e n c o u n t e r e d a l s o i n this l a t e r p e r i o d in Taranto, Capua a n d Naples,
and in all the principal cities of Sicily—Syracuse, Palermo and
Agrigento.^^^ From Bruciano in the territory of Nola note two
recently-published inscriptions o f the third-fourth century: a) •1*?t£^
€v6a KiT€ 6 'Pe^PI 'A^â Mdpis 6 evripos (shofar, menorah, palm-
116. See G. I. Ascoli, Iscrizioni etc. (1880), pp. 3 3 - 8 ; A . N e u b a u e r , ' T h e early

settlement of t h e Jews in Southern Italy', J Q R 4 (1892), pp. 606-25 > H. M . Adler, 'The
J e w s in Southern Italy', JQ_R 14 (1902), p p . 111-15 (inscriptions from t h e museum in
Taranto). See J. Juster, Les Juifs dans I'empire romain I ( i 9 i 4 ) , p p . 180—3, ^'^^ ^^P- Levi,
'Ricerchedi epigrafia ebraica nell'Italia meridionale', VoL spec, in memoria diF. Luzzatto, Rass.
mens, di Israel 38.3-4 (1962), pp. 132-53.
117. Letter o f the emperors Arcadius a n d Honorius from a . d . 398 i n Cod. Theod. xii i,
158 : 'Vacillare per Apuliam C a l a b r i a m q u e plurimos ordines civitatum comperimus, quia
l u d a i c a e superstitionis sunt, e t q u a d a m se lege, q u a e in Orientis p a r t i b u s lata est, necessitate
subeundorum m u n e r u m aestimant defendendos.'
118. T h e c a t a c o m b was discovered already in 1853 a n d was described in t w o notes (by
P. De Angelis, R . Smith a n d S. D'Aloe). Both, however, lay buried for some years in the
archives of the m u s e u m at Naples. T h e i r contents were m a d e known i) t h r o u g h G. I. Ascoli,
Iscrizioni inedite 0 mal note greche latine ebraiche di antichi sepolcri giudaici del Mapolitano,
Torino e Roma ( 1 8 8 0 ) ; and 2) in C I L I X (1883), p p . 6 6 0 - 5 , 6195-241 ; cf 647, 648.
Cf. also T h L Z (1880), pp. 485-8. H . G r a t z , M G W J (1880), p p . 433 ff.;J. Derenbourg,
R E J 6 (1883), p p . 200-7.
In addition to the c a t a c o m b inscriptions, d a t e d ninth-century H e b r e w epitaphs are
known from Venosa, see Ascoli, op. cit.; T h L Z (1880), p . 485. O n t h e Venosa catacomb
see now C I J I , p p . 420-43, nos. 569-619, a n d prol., p p . 46-8 (five further e p i t a p h s ) ; H.
J . Leon, ' T h e j e w s o f Venusia', J Q R 44 (1954), pp. 2 6 7 - 8 4 ; B. Lifshitz, 'Les Juifs a
Venosa', Riv. fil. 40 (1962), pp. 367-71 ; SoHn, op. cit., p p . 734-5, 737-8 (noting a
n u m b e r of newly-published fragmentary inscriptions).
119. Taranto: Ascoli, Iscrizioni etc. (1880), p. 8 4 ; Notizie degh Scavi (1882), p p . 386,
387; (^1883), p p . 179 ff.; C I L I X , nos. 6400-2 ; H . M. Adler, J Q R 14 (1902), pp. 111-15;
C I J I , nos. 6 2 0 - 3 1 . Capua: C I L X , no. 3905 = C I J I , n o . 553. Note also a Jewish
ossuary in Jerusalem with t h e inscription Mapia ÂXiâvbpov ywq, d-nro Kanovy]s, C I J I I ,
no. 1284. Maples: Procop. Bell, v 8, 41 a n d 10, 2^—5. F o r inscriptions from Naples, C I J I ,
nos. 555-60, i n c o r p o r a d n g C I L X , nos. 8059* and 1971. Syracuse: C I G n o . 9 8 9 5 ; P.
Orsi, 'Nuovi ipogei d i Sette cristiane e giudaiche ai Cappuccini in Siracusa', R o m .
Quartalschr. f chr. Altertums. 14 (1900), p p . 1 8 7 - 2 0 9 ; CIJ I , nos. 651-3. Palermo and
Agrigento : in letters of Gregory the Great contained in M G H , Epistolae I - I I (index s.vv.
H e b r a e u s ' a n d ' l u d a e u s ' ^ ; see S. K a t z , ' P o p e Gregory the G r e a t a n d the J e w s ' , J Q R 24
(1933), p p . 113 ff.; C I J I ,no. 654. F u r t h e r inscripdons in C I J I from Southern Italy (nos.
5 5 2 ; 5 5 4 ; 5 6 8 ; 6 3 2 - 5 ) ; Sicily (no. 6 5 0 ; 6 4 9 a ; 6 5 o a - b ; prol., p p . 51—2; 653 = D F , no.
102), a d d SoHn, op. cit., p p . 7 4 6 - 7 ; Malta (no. 655); two Greek inscriptions from the
( a t a c o m b of R a b a t a r e now known, one m e n t i o n i n g a yepovaidpxns, SoHn, op. cit., p . 747.
Sardinia (nos. 6 5 6 - 6 0 a n d 66oa-b, prol., p . 55).
b r a n c h ) ; b) evda KITC Beviap.lv 6 vpoaTar'qf s) 6 Keoapevs.^^"

J e w s d o n o t s e e m to h a v e s e t t l e d so t h i c k l y in n o r t h e r n I t a l y , but
t h e r e t o o , t h e y a r e f o u n d i n m o s t of t h e l a r g e r cities—- Ravenna, Aquileia,
Bologna, Brescia, Milan a n d Genoa.^^^
In regard to the remainder of the western provinces, evidence
s i m i l a r l y does n o t a p p e a r u n t i l the l a t e r I m p e r i a l period.'*'^ F o r Spain,
evidence concerning the Jewish dispersion in about A.D. 300 is
p r o v i d e d by t h e c a n o n s o f t h e s y n o d of E l v i r a . F o r t h e p e r i o d p r i o r t o
t h a t , a c o m p r e h e n s i v e recent review has p r o d u c e d n o reliable t e s t i m o n y
r e l a t i n g t o s e t t l e d J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s . ' ^ * O u r m o s t vivid e v i d e n c e for
120. E. M i r a n d a , ' D u e iscrizioni greco-giudaiche della C a m p a n i a ' , R i v . Arch. Cr. 55

(i979)> PP- 337-41. see B E 1980, no. 585, S E G X X I X , nos. 968-9.
121. Ravenna: Anonymus Valesianus ii, ch. 81—2, printed i n an appendix to most editions
of A m m i a n u s Marcelhnus. Aquileia: C I J I , no. 1 4 7 (from R o m e ) : Ovyarrjp OvpaaKiov
aTTo 'AKovXtias yepovaidpxov; n o . 643 (Aquileia); 643a (epitaph of a Jew converted to
Christianity). For a fourth-century building a t Aquileia dedicated 'd(omi)no S a b ( a o t h ) ' ,
with inscripdons b y persons some of w h o m have Semitic, o r specifically Jewish, names see
CIJ I , prol., p. 5 0 . Cf Solin, op. cit., p p . 739, 745. Bologna : Ambrose, Exhortatio virginitatis
I . Brescia: C I L V , no. 4411 = ILS, n o . 6724 = C I J I , n o . 6 3 9 ; IG X I V , n o . 2304 =
CIJ I , no. 638. Milan: Cassiodorus, Variae v 3 7 ; G I L V, nos. 6294, 6251, 6310 = C I J I ,
nos. 644-6. Genoa : Cassiodorus, Variae ii 27. F o r other inscriptions from central a n d northern
Italy, CIJ I , nos. 636-7, 640-2, 647-9. ^ê n o w L. Ruggini, 'Ebrei e orientali nell'Italia
settentrionale fra il IV e il V I secolo d. C r . ' , Stud. et. d o c . hist, et iur. 25 (1959), p p .
186-308.
122. For the late appearance ofjewish communities in t h e Latin-speaking provinces of
Western Europe see e.g., T . D. Barnes, Tertullian (1921), A p p . 28.
123. T e x t in K. J. Hefele, H . Leclerq, Histoire des Conciles I . i , p p . 212-64; A- C. V e g a ,
Esparui sagrada 56 (1957), p p . 196-222. Relevant are C a n o n 4 9 : ' a d m o n e r i placuit
possessores ut non patiantur fructus suos . . . a l u d a e o benedici'; Canon 5 0 : 'si vero quis
clericus vel fidelis cum ludaeis cibum sumpserit'; C a n o n 7 8 : 'si quis fidelis habens
uxorem c u m l u d a e a vel gentili fuerit moechatus'.
124. W. P . Bowers, 'Jewish Communities in Spain in the T i m e ofP a u l the A p o s d e ' , J T h S t 26
(1975). PP- 395-402, a n d cf Solin, op. cit., pp. 749-52.
a) Trilingual (Hebrew, Latin?, Greek) inscripdon from Tarragona, of uncertain d a t e ,
CIJ I , no. 660c (prol. p p . 5 5 - 6 ) .
b) Trilingual (Hebrew, Latin, Greek) inscription from Tortosa of uncertain d a t e between
the second and sixth century, C I J I , no. 661 = G. Alfoldy, Die romischen
Inschriften von Tarraeo (1975), n o . 1076.
c) An early third-century inscripdon from Adra of a Jewish girl called Salo[mo]nida,
CIJ I ^ no. 665.
d ) A bilingual inscription from Tarragona, from about t h e end of the fifth century or
later, referring to a local archisynagogos, Alfoldy, op. cit., no. 1075.
e) A Latin inscription from Pallaresos dated to t h e fourth century, a n d decorated with
menorah a n d lulab, C I J I , n o . 66od = Alfoldy, op. cit., n o . 1074: epitaph of 'Jonatus'
and A x i a : 'pauset anima eius in pace c u m o m n e Israel, a m e n , amen, a m e n ' .
f) T h e L a t i n inscription mentioning ' R a b b i Se[muel?]' a n d ' R a b b i J a [ c o b ] ' from Emerita
(Merida) which m a y be a s early as the fourth century (or as l a t e as t h e eighth-tenth), C I J I ,
no. 665a (Prolegomenon, p . 57).
g) T h r e e very fragmentary inscriptions in Greek from t h e floor of what is taken to b e a
synagogue at Elche, CIJ I , nos. 662-4, see prol., p. 5 7 and D F , no. l o i .
this a r e a derives from a Christian account of t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e

community of M i n o r c a in 4 1 7 o r 418.'^^ As f o r Southern Gaul it is
possible t h a t J e w s resided there in t h e earlier I m p e r i a l period, since
C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t i e s w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d in L y o n a n d V i e n n e a l r e a d y i n
the second century, and the Christian missions, at least in New
Testament t i m e s , t e n d e d t o follow in t h e t r a c e s o f t h e J e w s . ' ^ ^ A p a r t
f r o m v e r y s c a t t e r e d i n d i v i d u a l i t e m s of a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e , t h e r e is
h o w e v e r n o definite a t t e s t a t i o n o f a J e w i s h settlement i n G a u l until the
fifth c e n t u r y / I n Germany, a Jewish community was certainly
established i n C o l o g n e in 3 2 1 . ' ^ ^ T h e e v i d e n c e r e l a t i n g t o this later
dispersion i n the west c a n n o t be p u r s u e d further h e r e / ^ ^
125. See E. D . H u n t , 'St. Stephen i n M i n o r c a : A n Episode inJewish-Ghristian Relations in

t h e Early 5th C e n t u r y A.D.', J T h S t 33 (1982), p p . 106—23 (based on the letter of Severus
printed in PL X X , cols. 731-46 a n d X L I , cols. 8 2 1 - 3 2 ) .
126. T h . Reinach, ' L a c o m m u n a u t e j u i v e d e Lyon a u deuxieme siecle d e notre ere',
R E J 51 (1906), p p . 245-50, is based o n Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. v i , 26: t h e martyred
w o m a n , Biblis, bears witness that Christians a r e not p e r m i t t e d to consume blood. From
this it h a s sometimes been concluded t h a t Jewish butchers traded in Lyon, otherwise the
small C h r i s d a n communities, dependent o n p a g a n butchers, would have been unable to
obey this prohibition. T h e fragility of this d e d u c t i o n is obvious.
127. See B. Blumenkranz, 'Les premieres implantations d e s Juifs en France', C R A I
1969, p p . 162-74; idem, Histoire des Juifs en France (1972), p p . 13 ff.; 'Premiers
temoignages epigraphiques s u r les Juifs e n F r a n c e ' , S. W. Baron Jubilee Volume (1975), p p .
229-35 ; Solin, op. cit., pp. 753-5. I n the late R o m a n period, J e w s setded i n the greatest
n u m b e r s in t h e commercial towns of N a r b o , Arelate a n d Massilia. See H . Gross, Gallia
Judaica, Dictionnaire geographique de la France d'apris les sources rabbiniques (1897), p p . 73-90
CVlN Aries), p p . 3 6 6 - 8 4 (N"'''7'TNA Marseilles), p p . 393 f (NS**! Mice), pp. 401-30 (NNSIA
Jârbonne), pp. 4 8 9 - 9 3 ( S 0 r 3 T 1 D Provence).
Inscriptions: L a t i n inscriptions at N a r b o n n e dated to A . D . 6 8 8 , C I J I , n o . 670.
H e b r e w : D. Chwolson, Corpus inscr. hebr., p p . 179 ff.; M . S c h w a b , 'Inscripdons
hebraiques en F r a n c e du V I I I a u X V siecle'. Bull. arch. (1897), pp. 1 7 8 - 2 1 7 ; a n d
' R a p p o r t sur les inscripdons hebraiques de F r a n c e ' , Nouvelles archives des missions
sciendfiques 12.3 (1904), p p . 143-402 ; p p . 169-89 give t h e inscripdons of the early M i d d l e
Ages. C I J I , nos. 671-2, 672. C f J . J u s t e r , Les Juifs dans I'empire romain I (1914),
p p . 184-6.
128. Cod. Theod. xvi 8, 3 : ' I m p . Constantinus A . Decurionibus Agrippiniensibus:
Cunctis ordinibus generali lege concedimus, ludaeos vocare ad c u r i a m ' (dated t o A.D.
321). Sec Solin, op. cit., p. 754.
129. O n this see e.g. Juster, Les Juifs I, p p . 183—6; idem, La condition legale des juifs sous les
Rois visigoths ( 1 9 1 2 ) ; rev. e d . by A . M . R a b e l l o , The Legal Condition of the Jews under the
Visigothic Kings (1976) ; B. Blumenkranz, Juifs et Chretiens dans le monde occidental (430-1066)
( i 9 6 0 ) ; Juifs et chritiens. Patristique et Moyen Age (1977). Note Gli Ebrei nell'Alto Medioevo
(Sett, d e Stud, del Centro I t . di S t . sull' Alto M e d i e v o , Spoleto, 26, 1980). Note also J .
Caro, 'Die J u d e n des Mittelalters in i h r e r wirtschaftlichen Betatigung', M G W J (1904),
pp. 423—39; 5 7 6 - 6 0 3 . Pp. 4 2 3 - 9 are devoted to later antiquity. H e refers inter alia to a passage
in Jerome's C o m m e n t a r y o n Isaiah 66:20, in which t h e latter argues against a literal
interpretation of t h e biblical passage, according t o which all t h e J e w s are to b e
( xpected to r e t u r n to t h e H o l y L a n d , the p r o m i n e n t personalities a m o n g them, in carriages:
'<)iii senatoriae fuerint dignitatis et locum principum obtinuerint, d e Britannis,
Hispanis, Gallisque extremis h o m i n u m Morinis, et u b i bicornis finditur Rhenus, in
carrucis veniant . . . ' If J e r o m e is not merely allowing his imagination t o run riot, there
must already have been Jews i n Britain and Belgium (the Morini are a Belgic people)
who belonged to municipal senates. N o t e however S. A p p l e b a u m , ' W e r e there Jews in
R o m a n Britain?', Trans. Jewish Hist. Soc. England 17 (1951—2), p p . 189-205, reviewing all
the possible evidence and finding nothing concrete.
II
I. Internal Organization of the Communities

T h e s u r v i v a l of t h e J e w i s h r e l i g i o n a n d w a y of life a m o n g t h e v a r i o u s
g r o u p s dispersed t h r o u g h o u t the w o r l d was o b v i o u s l y possible o n l y if
t h e J e w s , e v e n a m o n g foreigners, in t h e m i d s t o f t h e p a g a n w o r l d ,
organized themselves into self-supporting communities within which
t h e faith a n d law o f t h e f a t h e r s c o u l d b e o b s e r v e d a s in t h e H o l y L a n d .
T h i s m a y w e l l h a v e b e e n t h e case e v e n i n e a r l i e r p e r i o d s , b u t is c e r t a i n
from t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d o n w a r d s . T h e a c t u a l form
o f o r g a n i z a t i o n differed a c c o r d i n g to t i m e a n d p l a c e , d e p e n d i n g on
w h e t h e r t h e s e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s t o o k o n the c h a r a c t e r of p u r e l y
p r i v a t e a s s o c i a t i o n s o r , at o t h e r t i m e s , w e r e s t r e n g t h e n e d b y the
e n j o y m e n t o f c o n s i d e r a b l e , o r a t least s o m e , p o l i t i c a l r i g h t s . I n all
i n s t a n c e s h o w e v e r a n i n d e p e n d e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n c o u l d be e s t a b l i s h e d
o n l y w h e r e J e w s lived n e a r o n e a n o t h e r i n s o m e n u m b e r s . '
F r o m this p o i n t of v i e w , least is k n o w n of t h e e a s t e r n D i a s p o r a ;
i n d e e d for t h e D i a s p o r a in t h e l a n d b e y o n d t h e E u p h r a t e s n o d e t a i l e d
e v i d e n c e is a v a i l a b l e before t h e T a l m u d i c p e r i o d . M a t e r i a l is also s c a r c e
for t h e D i a s p o r a even in t h e r e g i o n o f G r e e k civilization. H o w e v e r ,
s o m e c o n c l u s i o n s m a y b e d r a w n in t h e first p l a c e f r o m t h e different
t e r m s used for t h e n o t i o n ' c o m m u n i t y ' w h i c h w e m e e t in this
connexion. T h e y show h o w m u c h t h e form of these communities
varied.
I. T h e s i m p l e t e r m ol TovSaioi, is u s e d on s o m e i n s c r i p t i o n s from the
earlier p a r t o f t h e p e r i o d , a n d o c c a s i o n a l l y l a t e r .
(a) I n s c r i p t i o n from S c h e d i a n e a r A l e x a n d r i a , d a t i n g to t h e d m e of
P t o l e m y I I I E u e r g e t e s ( 2 4 7 - 2 2 1 B.C) : w e p jSaaiAews. . r-qv irpoaevxrjv
ol lovSaioi (see a b o v e , p . 46). ' T h e J e w s ' is h e r e t h e t e r m for the
c o m m u n i t y of t h e locality.
I . P . Wesseling, Diatribe de Judaeorum archontibus ad inscriptionem Berenicensem (1738), is

still of interest today. S e e J . Juster, Les Juifs dans I'empire romaine I (1914), p p . 4 0 9 - 9 6 ; S.
Krauss, Synagogale Altertiimer (1922); M . La Plana, 'Foreign groups i n R o m e ' , H T R 20
(1927), pp. 341-93 ; J . B. Frey, 'Les c o m m u n a u t e s juives a R o m e a u x premiers temps de
rfiglise', R S R 20 (1930), p p . 267-97 a n d 21 (1931), pp. 129-68; Frey, C I J I ( ed.
Lifshitz, 1975), Introduction, pp. Ixviii-cxi; V. Tcherikover, Hellenistic Civilization and the
Jews (1961), pp. 2 9 6 - 3 4 3 ; B. Lifshitz, 'Foncdons et dtres honorifiques d a n s les
(ommunautesjuives. Notes d'epigraphie palestinienne', RB 6 7 ( i 9 6 0 ) , pp. 5 8 - 6 4 ; H . J .
Leon, The Jews of Ancient Rome [igSi),pp. 167-194. N o t e also B. Brooten, Women Leaders
in the Ancient Synagogue (1982).
( b ) I n s c r i p t i o n f r o m A t h r i b i s in t h e s o u t h e r n p a r t o f t h e D e l t a
( p r o b a b l y from t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B.C.) : o l i v 'Adpiêi 'lovSatoi (see
a b o v e , p . 48).
(c) I n s c r i p t i o n of t h e s e c o n d o r t h i r d c e n t u r y A.D. from E p h e s u s , p .
23 above.
2. noXiTcvfia. F o r this t e r m , a s a p p l i e d t o J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s , t h e r e
are t h r e e a t t e s t a t i o n s .
( a ) Ps.-Aristeas 3 1 0 : Kadojs 8e dveyvaiadr) r d revxri (i.e. of t h e
t r a n s l a t i o n o f the P e n t a t e u c h ) , aravTcs ol Upels Kal TCOV epp'qvicDv ol
TTp€O^VT€p0l Kal Ttbv ( 1 7 7 0 TOV TToXlTCVpaTOS 01 T€ 'qyOVpeVOl TOV TTXIÔOVS
eiTTov. A l o n g s i d e t h e priests a n d e l d e r s o f t h e t r a n s l a t o r s , ' t h e e l d e r s

T C O V O T T O TOV TToXiTcvpaTos' a n d t h e ' l e a d e r s ' {rjyovpLevoi) are n a m e d .
Ol aTTo TOV TToXiT€vp,aros is h e r e t h e e n t i r e J e w i s h p e o p l e i n
A l e x a n d r i a , s y n o n y m o u s w i t h T O TTXTJOOS.^ T h e l a t t e r e x p r e s s i o n is
u s e d b y Aristeas also in a p r e v i o u s p a s s a g e , 3 0 8 .
( b ) T w o i n s c r i p t i o n s f r o m B e r e n i c e in C y r e n a i c a : a) p r o b a b l y A.D.
2 4 ( C I G , n o . 5 3 6 1 e t c . , see p . 6 1 a b o v e ) , lines 21 ff.: eSofe T O I S
dpxovaiKalTajTToXiTevpaTiTcovivBep€viKr)*Iov8aict}v. b ) C I G , n o . 5362 =
S E G X V I , n o . 9 3 1 (see p . 6 1 a b o v e ) , 11. 1 2 - 1 3 : e[8o^€ TOLS d]pxovai
Kal TO) TToXiTcvpaTL T[a>v] iv BepeviKihi 'lovSaCwv (first c e n t u r y B . C . o r
A.D.). I n l a t e r G r e e k politeuma c a n m e a n n o t o n l y t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
a n d s t r u c t u r e of t h e p o l i t i c a l b o d y b u t also t h a t b o d y itself, or i t s
m e m b e r s . ^ I t c a n h o w e v e r also refer t o q u i t e a s m a l l c i v i l i a n
c o m m u n i t y , o r g r o u p o f m e r c e n a r i e s , w h i c h is o r g a n i z e d Uke a c i t y
c o m m u n e a n d enjoys a m e a s u r e o f i n d e p e n d e n t e x i s t e n c e a l o n g s i d e
t h e city c o m m u n e ; in t h i s sense t h e t e r m a l w a y s refers t o a g r o u p o f
d i f f e r e n t n a t i o n a l i t y f r o m t h e local c o m m u n i t y a s a whole.'* T h e
2. O n this passage see P. W e n d l a n d , Festschriftfiir Vahlen (1900), p . 128, and t h e edition

by A. Pelletier (1962), a d loc. O n the basis of the free rendering of the passage in J o s e p h u s
[Ant. xii 2.13 (108) : rwv tpfnjvewv ol rrpeaPvTepoi Kal TOV TToXirevfiaTOS ol npeaTrjKores) one
is t e m p t e d to erase 01 rjYovîevoi with Wilamowitz, omitting re. It is read however not only
in all the manuscripts of Aristeas b u t also i n all those of Eusebius, Praep. ev. viii 5, 6
(354b), a n d is certainly to b e retained (so Wendland, op. cit.). See V . Tcherikover,
Hellenistic civilization and thejews (1961), p. 297.
3. HoXiTtvfia m e a n i n g 'political b o d y ' or 'citizens' occurs even earlier than Polybius
a n d is frequent after h i m ; O G I S , nos. 229,11. 60, 72 (Magnesia) ; 332,1. 56 ( E l a n a ) ; O .
K e r n , Die Inschriften von Magnesia am Meander (1900), no. looa, 11. 12—13: TW awiravTi
irX-qdei r o d rroXiTevfiaros, also n o . i o i , 1. 14; 2 M a c . 12:7: J u d a s wished t o return Kal TO
avfiirav TWV 'loirmrwv e^pi^coaai noXiTevfia. Philo, De corf. ling. 23 (109): i<f>iefifvos
iyYpa<fnjs TTJS ev TW fuyiarw Kal dpicrro) TToXiTevfiaTi TovSe TOV Koap-ov. Cf. De Josepho 14
(69). See also Paul, Phil. 3:20 a n d commentaries; T h W N T vi, 516 ff.; W. T a r n a n d G. T .
Griffith, Hellenistic Civilization (^1952), pp. 147, 222.
4. For example, interesting material is offered by the epitaphs o f mercenaries in Sidon
discovered and published by T h . Macridy, R B 1904, p p . 5 4 7 - 5 6 : p. 5 4 9 : Kavvlwv TO
iroXiTevfjLa ; p. 5 5 1 : Tepfirjaaecov r w v npos OivodvSois Hiaihwv TO TroXtT€vp,a; p. 5 5 2 :
Uivapiwv TO iToXiT€vp,a. According t o the rest of t h e content of the epitaphs they a r e
//./. Internal Organization of the Communities 89
significant f e a t u r e of such a politeuma is t h a t it h a s oflficials a n d c a n

pass d e c r e e s i n d e p e n d e n t l y of t h e rest of t h e c o m m u n i t y .
3 . KaroiKia. Inscription from Hierapolis in Phrygia from t h e R o m a n
p e r i o d : o n u n a u t h o r i z e d use of a g r a v e a fine is t o be p a i d T17 KaroiKla
Ta>v ev 'lepaTToXei KaTOLKOvvrajv '/ouSaicov (see a b o v e , p . 2 7 ) . T h e t e r m s
katoikos a n d katoikia c a n h a v e a w i d e v a r i e t y of m e a n i n g s . ^ A katoikia
m a y b e a s e p a r a t e s e t t l e m e n t , w h e t h e r e s t a b l i s h e d b y r o y a l a u t h o r i t y or
n o t , or a d e f i n e d g r o u p w i t h i n a l a r g e r c i t y c o m m u n i t y , as is c l e a r l y t h e
sense h e r e ; i n a p a r a l l e l i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m H i e r a p o l i s t h e g r a v e - m u l t is
p a y a b l e to t h e Aaos of t h e J e w s (see b e l o w ) .
4. Aaos. T h i s w o r d , in b i b U c a l G r e e k t h e m a i n d e s i g n a t i o n o f t h e
c h o s e n p e o p l e , o c c u r s a l s o as t h e d e s i g n a t i o n o f a l o c a l c o m m u n i t y .
(a) T h e i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m H i e r a p o l i s i n P h r y g i a o f t h e R o m a n p e r i o d ,
m e n t i o n e d a b o v e : t h e u n a u t h o r i z e d u s e r o f the g r a v e m u s t p a y a fine
TW Xau) TCOV Tov8ai[u)]v (see also p . 27 a b o v e ) .
(b) M a n t i n e a : TraTrjp Xaov 8id ^lov.
(c) I n s c r i p t i o n s f r o m L a r i s s a P e l a s g i o t i s a n d e l s e w h e r e i n T h e s s a l y
w i t h the f r e q u e n t f o r m u l a , TO) Xaip xatpeiv ( t h e d e a d p e r s o n bids
farewell t o t h e c o m m u n i t y ) , see a b o v e p . 66. T h a t t h e s e i n s c r i p t i o n s
are J e w i s h c a n be t a k e n a s v i r t u a l l y c e r t a i n f r o m t h e n a m e of Mapia
TovSa o c c u r r i n g on t h e m .
(d) W e c a n t a k e as c e r t a i n t h e J e w i s h o r i g i n o f the i n s c r i p t i o n from
Nysa given above, p . 24: a certain M e n a n d e r has erected T O V TOTTOV
( p r e s u m a b l y t h e s y n a g o g u e ) roi Xacp Kal TTJ avvoScp r[u)v Trcpi]
unquestionably corporations of mercenaries w h o originate from various parts o f Asia

Minor, but a r e established in Sidon. T h e members call themselves T r o A i r a t ( p p . 551, 554).
Part of the material also in L . J a l a b e r t , R e v . Arch. 4 (1904), pp. i—16. F o r the
inscription of the mercenaries from C a u n u s , a t o w n in Caria, see O G I S , n o . 592.
Corporations of a similar kind a r e for example : mXirevfia TCOV ^pvyanv on a n inscription
found in Pompeii a n d probably originating in Egypt, O G I S , no. 6 5 8 ; the politeuma of the
Idumaeans i n Memphis, O G I S , no. 737, see p . 45 a b o v e ; t h e politeuma of Boeodans, SB,
no. 6 6 6 4 ; o f Cilicians, n o . 7270; the politeuma of the Cretans on a papyrus in M i d d l e
Egypt, P T e b t I, n o . 32 = Wilcken, Chrestomathie, n o . 448. For further examples, and
discussions of the t e r m , see J . Lesquier, Les institutions militaires de I'Egypte sous les Lagides
(1911), pp. 1 4 2 - 5 5 ; W. R u p p e l , 'Politeuma. Bedeutungsgeschichte eines staatsrecht-
lichen T e r m i n u s ' , Philologus 82 (1927), pp. 2 6 8 - 3 1 2 ; 433—54 (the fullest discussion of
the t e r m ) ; M . Launey, Recherches sur les armies hellinistiques I - I I (1949-50), pp. 1064-85;
P. M . Fraser, Berytus 13 (1962), pp. 147-52.
5. For opinions o n the possible uses oi katoikia see e.g. F. Oertel i n RE s.v. 'Katoikoi'
(1922); L. R o b e r t , Etudes Anatoliennes (1937), pp. 1 9 1 - 4 ; E . Bikerman, Institutions des
Seleucides (1938), p p . 1 0 0 - 5 ; M . Rostovtzeff, S E H H W (1941), p p . 4 9 9 - 5 0 1 ; D . M u s d ,
'Lo stato d e i Seleucidi', S C O 15 (1966), pp. 6 1 - 2 0 0 , on p p . 178 ff. The use of t h e term
katoikos for military settlers in Ptolemaic Egypt, from the second century B.C. onwards, is
well-established, see J . Lesquier, Les institutions militaires (1911), esp. pp. 48 ff.; katoikia
could also denote a Seleucid military settlement, see B. Bar-Kochva, The Seleucid Army
(1976), pp. 22-7.
6. CIJ I , no. 720 (see p . 66 above).
go § 3 1 . Judaism in the Diaspora
Awaideov ©eoyevov. T h e d o u b l e d e s c r i p d o n is i n t e n d e d to i n d i c a t e
t h a t t h e ' p e o p l e ' forms a n a s s o c i a t i o n w h i c h is g r o u p e d r o u n d
D o s i t h e u s , s o n of T h e o g e n e s (similar d e s i g n a t i o n s of associations a r e
n o t i n f r e q u e n t ) . T h e i n s c r i p t i o n is p r e s u m a b l y p r e - C h r i s t i a n ,
(e) N o t e also the ''grammateus o f the laos i n S m y r n a ' , p . 20 a b o v e .
5. "Edvos. I n s c r i p t i o n f r o m S m y r n a , t h i r d c e n t u r y A.D. (see a b o v e , p .
20) : the u n a u t h o r i z e d u s e r of t h e g r a v e m u s t p a y a fine TO) edvei TU>V
TovSaicov. T h e use o f the expression T O WVOS shows that there was n o
strict differentiation b e t w e e n t h e t e r m o Aao? for the c h o s e n p e o p l e a n d
T t t edv-q for the g e n t i l e ' p e o p l e s ' .
A l l t h e t e r m s m e n t i o n e d so f a r reflect t h e fact t h a t t h e J e w s lived as a
foreign p e o p l e a m o n g s t r a n g e r s . T h e t w o l a s t - m e n t i o n e d i n s t a n c e s
express t h i s d i r e c t l y , w h i l e politeuma a n d katoikia i n d i c a t e t h e fact t h a t
t h e y o c c u p i e d a position i n s o m e w a y s p o l i t i c a l l y i n d e p e n d e n t a l o n g s i d e
the rest o f the i n h a b i t a n t s .
6. UvvoSos. T h e J e w s f r o m S a r d i s , w h o are s i m u l t a n e o u s l y R o m a n
citizens, a s s u r e L. A n t o n i u s ( g o v e r n o r of t h e p r o v i n c e of A s i a i n 5 0 - 4 9
B.C.) t h a t t h e y h a v e t h e i r o w n avvoSos, J o s . Ant. x i v 1 0 , 17 (235) :
avroiis avvo8ov exîv iSlav Kara TOVS narplovs vofxovs OLTT' apx^js Kal TOTTOV
iSiov €v <5 T O T€ TTpdypuara K a l rds Trpos dXX'qXovs avriXoyias Kplvovaiv. B y

this they m e a n t h a t i n s p i t e of t h e i r s p e c i a l p o s i t i o n a s R o m a n c i t i z e n s
t h e y a b s t a i n f r o m s e e k i n g j u s t i c e before t h e R o m a n assizes, or conventus.
As t h e e x p r e s s i o n synodos o c c u r s i n o p p o s i t i o n to this conventus, no c e r t a i n
c o n c l u s i o n c a n be d r a w n from t h e s t a t e m e n t a b o u t t h e w a y i n w h i c h
the c o m m u n i t y d e s i g n a t e d itself. O n the o t h e r h a n d synodos is used i n
this sense in t h e i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m N y s a m e n t i o n e d a s no. 4 a b o v e . I n
c o n n e c t i o n w i t h G r e e k c u l t - a s s o c i a t i o n s synodos o c c u r s a n d m e a n s (i) a
festive m e e t i n g of t h e a s s o c i a t i o n , (ii) a n a s s o c i a t i o n itself See E .
Z i e b a r t h , Das griechische Vereinswesen (1896), p p . 1 3 6 - 8 . T h e f o r m e r
sense ( a n assembly for o b s e r v i n g a feast) a p p e a r s a l s o i n the J e w i s h
i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m B e r e n i c e ( C I G , n o . 5 3 6 1 , see p . 6 1 a b o v e a n d 9 4
b e l o w ) , 11. 2 3 - 4 : Kad' eKaarrfv avvoSov Kal vovp,r)vCav.
7. Svvaywyrj, the u s u a l d e s i g n a t i o n of t h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y in t h e
later period. T h e d o c u m e n t a r y evidence includes :
( a ) I n s c r i p t i o n s f r o m P a n t i c a p a e u m (see a b o v e , p . 3 6 ) , c o n t a i n i n g
d e c l a r a t i o n s of t h e m a n u m i s s i o n o f slaves. A t the e n d t h e y h a v e t h e
f o r m u l a aweTTiTpOTrevovarjs Se Kal rijs avvaycoyrjs TWV ^lovSalcov. T h e
significance is a p p a r e n t l y t h a t the m a n u m i s s i o n t o o k p l a c e u n d e r t h e
s u p e r v i s i o n of t h e c o m m u n i t y , w h i c h t h e r e b y a t t h e s a m e t i m e
g u a r a n t e e d t h e p e r m a n e n c e o f the a r r a n g e m e n t .
( b ) I n s c r i p t i o n f r o m P h o c a e a ( a b o v e , p . 19) : avvaywyrj €[T€ipir)]aev
TCOV TovSaltov. ..
(c) I n s c r i p t i o n f r o m A c m o n i a ( a b o v e , p . 3 1 ) : ovoTivas Kal 77
crvvayojyq €T€ip.r]a€v OTTXO) €TTixpva(p etc.
(d) A n i n s c r i p t i o n o f A.D. 55 f r o m B e r e n i c e i n C y r e n a i c a (p. 61

a b o v e ) w h e r e awayioyri is u s e d b o t h o f t h e c o m m u n i t y a n d of t h e i r
synagogue.
(e) N o t e a l s o ' t h e m o s t s a c r e d synagoge of the Hebraioi' a t t e s t e d at
D e h l e r n e a r P h i l a d e l p h i a , p . 22 a b o v e .
(f) A p a p y r u s of A.D. 291 f r o m O x y r h y n c h u s in E g y p t r e c o r d s a s u m
p a i d ' b y t h e synagoge o f the J e w s ' , p . 56 a b o v e .
T h e t e r m synagoge is f r e q u e n t , w i t h t h e m e a n i n g ' c o m m u n i t y ' , on
R o m a n e p i t a p h s . O n t h i s see b e l o w p p . 96 ff. I n t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t
see especially A c . 6:9; 9:2. O n t h e l a t e r u s a g e see vol. I I , p p . 429—31.
O r i g i n a l l y synagoge like synodos is t h e a s s e m b l y itself, a n d o c c u r s in this
sense also in c o n n e x i o n w i t h G r e e k cult a s s o c i a t i o n s ( e x a m p l e s vol. I I ,
p . 430, n . 1 3 ) . F r o m t h e m e a n i n g ' a s s e m b l y , g a t h e r i n g ' the m e a n i n g
' c o m m u n i t y ' d e v e l o p s , a s w i t h synodos. T h i s is t h e t e r m c o n s i s t e n t l y u s e d
b y the L X X for mS7, w h i c h m e a n s t h e a s s e m b l e d c o m m u n i t y of I s r a e l .
I n the l a t e r p e r i o d h o w e v e r synagoge is n o r m a l l y a p p l i e d t o a l o c a l
community.
T h e s u p p r e s s i o n of t h e t e r m s politeuma, katoikia, laos a n d ethnos by
synagoge m a y h a v e b e e n f a c i l i t a t e d b y the fact t h a t t h e l a t t e r w a s
r e n d e r e d familiar b y t h e t e r m i n o l o g y of t h e L X X . B u t i t m a y p e r h a p s
also h a v e reflected a c h a n g e of e m p h a s i s , f r o m t h e c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n of
J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s as e t h n i c g r o u p s to o n e w h i c h reflected t h e i r
c h a r a c t e r as p r i v a t e r e h g i o u s a s s o c i a t i o n s .
8. I n L a t i n t h e d e s i g n a t i o n universitas a l s o o c c u r s . A n i m p e r i a l rescript
of the y e a r A.D. 2 1 3 is c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e l e g a c y of a w o m a n to t h e
universitas ludaeorum, qui in Antiochensium civitati constituti sunt.^ T h i s
d e s i g n a t i o n s h o u l d p r o b a b l y a l s o b e restored in t h e m u t i l a t e d
inscription from Castel P o r z i a n o n e a r Ostia (p. 82 above):
' [ u n i v e r s i t a s ] l u d e o r u m [in c o l . O s t . c o m m o r j a n t i u m ' ; i t also s u r v i v e d
i n t o the M i d d l e Ages.^
T h e i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e s of t h e c o m m u n i t i e s o f c o u r s e v a r i e d g r e a t l y in
different t i m e s a n d places. T h e d i f f e r e n t e x t e r n a l s i t u a t i o n s a n d t h e
g r e a t e r o r m o r e Umited p o l i t i c a l r i g h t s o f the c o m m u n i t i e s w e r e b o u n d
to exercise t h e i r i n f l u e n c e on t h e i r i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e s . T w o e x t r e m e s a r e
represented by Alexandria and R o m e . I n the former a united
c o r p o r a t i o n o f J e w s , n u m b e r i n g m a n y t h o u s a n d s , w i t h significant
p o l i d c a l p o w e r , i n the l a t t e r , in s p i t e o f c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r s , o n l y
isolated p r i v a t e a s s o c i a t i o n s w i t h o u t special p o l i t i c a l r i g h t s . T h e s e t w o
c o s m o p o l i t a n cities are i n c i d e n t a l l y the only ones a b o u t w h o s e J e w i s h
p o p u l a t i o n w e a r e i n f o r m e d i n a n y d e t a i l . I n these cases a l o n e a m o r e
d e t a i l e d analysis o f t h e i r s t r u c t u r e c a n b e a t t e m p t e d . S o m e r e l a t i v e l y
7. Cod. Just, i 9, I .
8. E.g. in Marseilles in the fourteenth century, REJ 47 (1903), p. 73: 'Universitatis
l u d a e o r u m . . . civitads Massiliae'. I b . p. 63 : 'Universitas l u d a e o r u m ' .
d e t a i l e d e v i d e n c e a l s o c o n c e r n s C y r e n a i c a . For t h e r e s t , o u r e v i d e n c e for
J e w i s h c o m m u n a l s t r u c t u r e consists of i n c i d e n t a l a n d isolated e v i d e n c e
w h i c h c a n best b e c o n s i d e r e d i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h a t c o n c e r n i n g t h e
R o m a n communities.
I t c a n b e p r e s u m e d as p r o b a b l e t h a t t w o c a t e g o r i e s of officials existed
p r a c t i c a l l y e v e r y w h e r e : ( i ) t h e dpxovres, a n d ( 2 ) t h e apxiawdycoyoi.
I n A l e x a n d r i a , a c c o r d i n g t o P s e u d o - A r i s t e a s , the J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y
in t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y B.C. f o r m e d a. politeuma a t w h o s e h e a d s t o o d e l d e r s
[iTpea^vrepoi) a n d ' l e a d e r s ' (-^you/u-cvoi) (see a b o v e , p . 8 8 ) . S i n c e
t h e J e w s — a t least i n t h e t i m e of P h i l o — a r e said t o h a v e m a d e u p
a b o u t two-fifths o f t h e i n h a b i t a n t s (see a b o v e , p p . 43 ff.), t h i s m u s t
h a v e b e e n a c o m m u n i t y o f c o n s i d e r a b l e i m p o r t a n c e . Hegoumenoi is o n l y
a g e n e r a l d e s i g n a t i o n , n o t a t i t l e ; p r e s u m a b l y it m e a n s t h e s a m e as
archontes ( t h e office-holders a m o n g t h e presbyteroil), b u t it remains a n
u n d e c i d e d q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r t h e l a t t e r w e r e a l w a y s h e a d e d b y a single
l e a d e r . A t t h e t i m e of S t r a b o t h e r e s t o o d a t t h e h e a d o f the J e w s a n
ethnarches, ' w h o d i r e c t s t h e p e o p l e a n d e n a c t s j u d g e m e n t a n d is
c o n c e r n e d with t h e discharge o f obligations a n d obedience to
r e g u l a t i o n s , like t h e archon of a n i n d e p e n d e n t c i t y - s t a t e ' . ^ T h e j e w s t h e n
f o r m e d i n A l e x a n d r i a , a l t h o u g h t h e y c l a i m e d t o possess t h e A l e x
a n d r i n e cidzenship, a n a u t o n o m o u s organisation w i t h i n or alongside
t h e rest o f t h e city, as i n C y r e n e . T h i s a u t o n o m o u s p o s i t i o n m a y h a v e
b e e n m a d e possible b y t h e fact t h a t A l e x a n d r i a from A u g u s t u s u n t i l t h e
t i m e of S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s , in c o n t r a s t w i t h a l m o s t a l l o t h e r H e l l e n i s t i c
cities, h a d n o city c o u n c i l . ' "
I n t h e l a t t e r p a r t of A u g u s t u s ' r e i g n s o m e k i n d o f m o d i f i c a t i o n seems
to h a v e a p p e a r e d i n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f A l e x a n d r i n e J e w r y . I t i s i n d e e d
s t a t e d i n a n e d i c t o f the e m p e r o r C l a u d i u s t h a t A u g u s t u s himself, after
t h e d e a t h o f t h e e t h n a r c h a t t h e t i m e of t h e Prefect A q u i l a (A.D.
9. S t r a b o ap. J o s . Ant. xiv 7, 2 (117) = Stern, G L A J J I, n o . 105: KaOiararai 8e Kal

eOvdpxvs oLVTwv, os Sioi/cci re TO edvos Kal Siatro Kpiaeis Kal av(J.poXai<uv eirifxeXeiTai Kat
TTpoaTay)ji.a.TU)v, c o s o v T r o A i T e t o s dpx<^v avroreXovs.
10. Cassius Dio li 17, 2 : rots 8' 'AXeâvSpevaiv avev ôvXevrwv iroXiTeveadai eKeXevae (sc.
Augustus); HA, v. Sept. Sev. 1 7 : 'Alexandrinis ius buleutarum dedit, qui sine publico
consilio i t a ut s u b regibus a n t e vivebant, u n o iudice contend'. Cf. also O G I S , no. 709.
F r o m Cassius D i o it might be deduced that Augustus b r o u g h t t o an e n d the boule which
h a d existed up t o then (whereas the Historia Augusta states t h a t none h a d ever existed).
In fact there is j u s t sufficient evidence from the Hellenistic period to show t h a t a council
h a d originally existed, a n d t h e probability is that i t was indeed suppressed by Augustus,
see P. M . Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria (1972), pp. 94-5. U n d e r Augustus o r one o f his
immediate successors an Alexandrian embassy pedtioned the E m p e r o r for the
establishment of a council (SB, no. 7448 = Musurillo, Acta Alexandrinorum, n o . i = C P J
I I , no. 150); a n d Claudius' famous letter t o Alexandria of A.D. 41 (PLond, n o . 1912 =
C P J II, n o . 153, 11. 66-72) shows t h a t a further embassy had claimed (apparently with
reason) t h a t a council had existed u n d e r t h e Ptolemies. Claudius promises t o have the
matter invesdgated. But no change w a s in fact m a d e undl Severus' reign.
1 0 — 1 1 ) , ' h a d n o t o b j e c t e d t o t h e existence o f e t h n a r c h s ' . " T h e sole

c o n c e r n of C l a u d i u s in this e d i c t is to e m p h a s i z e t h a t u n d e r A u g u s t u s
a l s o t h e political r i g h t s a n d t h e religious f r e e d o m o f t h e J e w s in
A l e x a n d r i a h a d n o t b e e n d i m i n i s h e d . T h i s p r i n c i p l e m i g h t still h a v e
a l l o w e d a c e r t a i n m o d i f i c a t i o n of t h e i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e of t h e
c o m m u n i t y . S u c h a t h i n g h a d a c c o r d i n g to P h i l o b e e n c a r r i e d o u t by
A u g u s t u s ; for h e s a y s t h a t t h e l a t t e r , on t h e d e a t h o f the J e w i s h genarch,
i n t r o d u c e d a gerousia for the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f j e w i s h affairs, t h r o u g h
i n s t r u c t i o n s a d d r e s s e d t o M a g i u s M a x i m u s w h o w a s o n t h e p o i n t of
t a k i n g o v e r t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of E g y p t , as h e in fact d i d in A.D. I I."^
O n this e v i d e n c e t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n the p r e v i o u s a n d s u b s e q u e n t
o r g a n i z a t i o n w a s e i t h e r t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l a u t h o r i t y o f the ethnarches
w a s s u p e r s e d e d b y t h a t of a gerousia, o r t h a t a gerousia w a s e s t a b l i s h e d
a l o n g s i d e h i m . T h e l a t t e r v i e w g a i n s s u p p o r t f r o m t h e fact t h a t t h e
e d i c t of C l a u d i u s s e e m s t o p r e s u p p o s e t h e p e r s i s t e n c e o f the E t h n a r c h
e v e n after t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n of A u g u s t u s ; b u t it is a d m i t t e d l y also
possible t h a t C l a u d i u s o n l y m e a n s to s t a t e i n g e n e r a l t h a t t h e J e w s
c o n t i n u e d to h a v e t h e i r o w n c o m m u n a l officials {edvdpxo-i)-^^ I n a n y
c a s e t h e J e w i s h gerousia w a s first i n t r o d u c e d b y A u g u s t u s in t h e y e a r
A.D. I I , or m o r e precisely, r e i n t r o d u c e d ; for P s e u d o - A r i s t e a s r e
p r e s e n t s a gerousia a s a l r e a d y i n e x i s t e n c e i n t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y B . c . ; i f so,
it h a d g i v e n w a y s u b s e q u e n t l y t o a m o r e m o n a r c h i c a l r e g i m e . T h e
gerousia a n d t h e archontes a r e m e n t i o n e d by P h i l o s e v e r a l t i m e s in his
n a r r a t i v e of e v e n t s in A.D. 3 8 . ' * T h e l a t t e r a r e p r e s u m a b l y i d e n t i c a l
w i t h ( o r i n c l u d e ? ) t h e npaJTcvovres rrjs yepovaia? w h o o c c u r in
11. Jos. Ant. xix 5,2 (283): KUO' OV Kaipov AKVXUS IJV ev AXeâvBpeia TeXevTijaavTos TOV
TWV 'lovSatwv edvdpxov TOV Eeâarov (xr) KeKitiXvKevai eOvdpxas yiyveadai. For the d a t e of
Aquila's prefecture see P I R I 165.
12. Philo, In Flacc. 10 (74) : TTJS ripueTepas yepovaCas, T}V 6 awT-qp Kal evepyeTTjs EefiaoTOs
iTTip.€Xriaofj,evr]v TWV 'lovSaiwv eiXero p.€Td TIJV TOV yevdpxov TeXevTrjv Std TWV Trpos Mdyvov
MdîpLOV ivToXwv fieXXovTa ndXiv (?) en' AiyvnTOV [read 'AXeâvSpeias Kal TTJS ;fc5pa?
iniTponeveiv]. In place o{ Mdyvov, the r e a d i n g of t h e Philo manuscripts, Mdyiov should be
read ( C I L I X , n o . 1125 = I L S , no. 1335: ' M . M a g i o M . f M a x i m o praef. Aegypti').
T h e word rrdXiv is dubious, since the m a n u s c r i p t reading i n this entire phrase is disturbed,
and there is no other evidence for iteration of t h e Prefecture, until a single case in the
fourth century. J . R. R e a , C E 43 (1968), p p . 365-7, suggests hypothedcally that the
reading might b e fieXXovTa noXiv ^TTyv^ an' AlyvnTOV Kat TTJV xwpav eniTponevciv. At any
rate the only d o c u m e n t a r y evidence for the dates o f any tenure o f a Prefecture by Magius
Maximus are A.D. 11-12 (SB, no. 5235) a n d the first E g y p d a n year of Tiberius, A.D.
14-15, see G. Wagner, B I F H O 70 (1971), p p . 21-9.
13. P. Wesseling, De Judaeorum archontibus (1738), c h . 8, p p . 65—9, supposed two
different ordinances of Augustus, one when Aquila was governor of Egypt, a n d one later
when Magius M a x i m u s was governor. T h i s view is r e n d e r e d very unlikely by the
chronology of the governors.
14. Philo, In Flacc. 10 (76) : TWV diro T-ijs yepovalas Tpeis avSpes, a n d fj,eTaTTep.iliap.evw
npoTepovTovsruieTepovsdpxovTas. Flacc. 8o.TovsdpxovTas,T-^vyepovaiav. Flacc. 14(117) : TWV
fxev apxovTwv.
J o s e p h u s . ' ^ W i t h r e g a r d t o t h e n u m b e r o f m e m b e r s of t h e gerousia, n o t e
t h a t F l a c c u s a t o n e p o i n t o r d e r e d t h i r t y - e i g h t m e m b e r s of it to be
d r a g g e d into the t h e a t r e a n d to b e fettered t h e r e . I t is not unlikely
t h a t t h e t o t a l n u m b e r was s e v e n t y ( m o r e e x a c t l y , s e v e n t y - o n e ) as
rabbinic tradition presumes.'^
T h a t t h e J e w s i n C y r e n e also o c c u p i e d a special political p o s i t i o n is
s u g g e s t e d by t h e r e m a r k of S t r a b o t h a t t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f the c i t y w e r e
d i v i d e d i n t o four c l a s s e s : ( i ) citizens, (2) f a r m e r s , (3) r e s i d e n t aliens,
(4) J e w s . ' ^ I n spite of this s p e c i a l position t h e J e w s a r e s t a t e d by
J o s e p h u s to h a v e e n j o y e d e q u a l civil r i g h t s (laovo/nia).'^
V e r y v a l u a b l e c o n c l u s i o n s a b o u t c o m m u n a l s t r u c t u r e in t h e J e w i s h
D i s a p o r a are m a d e possible b y t h e J e w i s h i n s c r i p t i o n s from t h e city of
B e r e n i c e in C y r e n a i c a . O n e of these w a s f o u n d i n T r i p o h a n d from
t h e r e w a s b r o u g h t to A i x en P r o v e n c e , a n d is n o w in T o u l o u s e . ^ ° W e
see from this t h a t t h e j e w s in B e r e n i c e f o r m e d their o w n politeuma (lines
17 ff. a n d 21 ff.) a t w h o s e h e a d s t o o d n i n e (of course J e w i s h ) archontes
(lines 2—8, 2 1 , 2 5 ) . O n politeuma see a b o v e p p . 88 ff. T h e i n s c r i p t i o n is
d a t e d t o the y e a r 5 5 of a local era w h i c h will h a v e b e g u n e i t h e r from 96
B.C., g i v i n g 41 B.C. o r , m o r e p r o b a b l y , f r o m 3 1 B.C. ( t h e e r a of
A c t i u m ) , giving A.D. 24.
A s e c o n d , m o r e d a m a g e d i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m B e r e n i c e , n o w in t h e
m u s e u m at C a r p e n t r a s , also c o n t a i n s a d e c r e e of t h e politeuma of t h e
J e w s i n Berenice, on this o c c a s i o n for a R o m a n citizen w h o w a s
15. Jos. B.J.wn 10, I (412).

16. Philo, In Flacc. 10 (74).
17. tSuk. 4:6; ySuk. 5:1 : in the great synagogue at Alexandria there stood 71 golden
chairs corresponding to the 71 elders (cf. vol. II, p. 211).
18. Strabo a/). Jos. Ant. xiv 7, 2 (115) = Stern, G L A J J I , no. 105.
19. J o s . Ant. xvi 6, i (160). See i n general S. A p p l e b a u m , Jews and Greeks in Ancient
Cyrene.
20. C I G III, n o . 5361 = I G R I, n o . 1024. Re-edited b y G. a n d J. Roux, ' U n decret du
politeuma des Juifs de Berenike en Cyrenaique', R E G 62 (1949), pp. 2 8 1 - 9 6 ; p h o t o g r a p h
on PI. I V . Restudied by J. M . Reynolds (see p . 61 a b o v e ) ; see n o w C J Z C , no. 71:
[ejrous ve' $aco<^ /ce' IIRI avXKoyov rrjs AKRJVOTRRJYIAS eirt DPXOVTCJV KXedvSpov TOV
ErpaTovlKov Ev(f>pdvopos TOV 'ApioTcuvos Ewoiyevovs TOV Huiaimrov 'AvSpopdxov TOV
'AvSpoîaxov MdpKov AaiXiov Ovaaicovoj TOV 'ATTOXXOJVIOV 'PiXwviSov TOV Âyqp.ovos
AVTOKXIOVS TOV ZT)V0}VOS EOJVIKOV TOV 0€O86TOV 7c0Cnj77Oll TOV ZTPDTTJDVOS VAC. MDPKOS
TiTTios E4^TOV vtos AtfjiiXia dvijp KaXos KAI dyados TRAPAYEVRJDETS els TTJV (TRAPXEIAV AVTWV
enoiÂATO (J>tXav9pu)TTU>s KAL KaXcbs EV re T19 DVAATPO<frfj rjavxi'OV •IjOos (vSiKvvfifvos dei
SiareAcov TVYXDVEI ov FJ.6vov 8e ev TOVTOIS dâp'Q EAVTOV TRAPEAXRJTAI dXXd KAL TOIS KOT' I8iav
evTvyxdvovai TUTV TTOXLTWV V. ert Se KAL TOIS EK TOV noXiTevÂTOS T]p.<JIIV 'lovSaiois KAL KOIVFJ KAI
KUT' Ihiav EVXPTQOTOV TRPOAOTAAIAV TROIOVFIEVOS ov SiaXeiTrei TTJS i8ias KAXOKDYADIAS Dîa
TTPDAAAIV cov X^P'-^ eSoê TOIS apxovoi KAL TW TROXITEVFJIATI TCOV ev BepeviKrj 'lovSaiojv e-NAIVEAAI
Tc AVTOV KAL ATE<F>avovv OVOFIAATI KA8' EKDOTRJV avvoSov KAI VOVFITJVIAV OTE^DVWT eXaivcoi KAI
Xrjp.VIAKU}i TOVS 8e DPXOVTAS dvaypdijiai TO >IITJ(J)iap.a ELS arrjXrjv Xidov Tlapiov KAL DEIVAI EIS TOV
ETNOT]p.6TATOV TOTTOV TOV dfi<f>iOedTpov.
21. For the d a t e see J . M. Reynolds in J . A. Lloyd, Excavations at Sidi Krebish, Benghazi
(Libya Antiqua, Supp. V), p p . 244-5.
a p p a r e n t l y o n e of t h e i r m e m b e r s , a n d w h o h a d b e e n r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e
p l a s t e r i n g of a floor a n d t h e p a i n t i n g of walls i n t h e a m p h i t h e a t r e (also
mentioned i n the previous inscription). T h e names o f (apparently)
seven archontes a r e g i v e n . T h e d a t e is missing, b u t t h e letter-forms
suggest t h e A u g u s t a n p e r i o d o r n o t m u c h l a t e r . S e e G . a n d J . R o u x ,
R E G 62 (1949), p p . 2 8 5 ff". a n d P I . I l l ; S E G X V I , n o . 9 3 1 ; J . M .
R e y n o l d s , op. cit., p . 2 4 5 , n o . 1 8 ; C J Z C , n o . 70.
I n v i e w of w h a t is s a i d a b o v e ( p . 9 1 ) a b o u t t h e t e n d e n c y for synagoge
to r e p l a c e o t h e r t e r m s for a J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y i n a G r e e k city, i t is
i n t e r e s t i n g to find t h i s t e r m i n use i n t h e t h i r d k n o w n d e c r e e o f the J e w s
of B e r e n i c e [ ? ] , d a t e d t o 3rd D e c e m b e r of t h e s e c o n d y e a r of N e r o ,
A.D. 5 5 (G. C a p u t o , P a r o l a d e l P a s s a t o 12 ( 1 9 5 7 ) , p p . 132—4; S E G
X V I I , n o . 8 2 3 ; A E i960, n o . 1 9 9 ; R e y n o l d s , op. cit., p . 2 4 2 , no. 1 6 ;
C J Z C , n o . 7 2 ) . T h e d e c r e e of t h e c o m m u n i t y is r e c o r d e d i n t h e following
t e r m s (11. 3—6) : i<f>dvT) rfj avvaycoyrj TCOV ev BepeviKiSi ^lovSaicov TOVS
imSiSovT<a>-s cis eTTiaKivrjv rrjs avvaycvyrjs dvaypai/FAI avrovs E I < s >
aTTJ\r)v Xidov rrapiov. I t is s t r i k i n g t h a t synagoge is t h u s u s e d h e r e in t h e
s a m e s e n t e n c e to refer t o t h e c o m m u n i t y a n d t o t h e i r b u i l d i n g , or ' s y n
a g o g u e ' . T h e synagoge of t h e J e w s v o t e s t o inscribe o n s t o n e t h e n a m e s of
t h o s e w h o h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d to t h e r e p a i r o f t h e synagoge. E i g h t e e n
n a m e s o f c o n t r i b u t o r s a r e listed before t h e t e x t b r e a k s off. T e n a r e d e
scribed a s archon a n d o n e as a priest {hiereus).
O u r fullest i n f o r m a t i o n relates t o t h e c o m m u n i t y s t r u c t u r e of t h e
J e w s in R o m e , a n d in I t a l y i n g e n e r a l , t h r o u g h t h e n u m e r o u s J e w i s h
e p i t a p h s d i s c o v e r e d in t h e c e m e t e r i e s i n R o m e a n d V e n o s a . T h e y
suggest t h a t h e r e c o n d i t i o n s r e m a i n e d e s s e n d a l l y u n c h a n g e d for
h u n d r e d s of y e a r s ; for t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s i n V e n o s a f r o m t h e sixth c e n t u r y
A.D. give m u c h t h e s a m e p i c t u r e a s t h e R o m a n , f r o m w h i c h t h e oldest
b e l o n g p r e s u m a b l y to t h e first c e n t u r i e s of t h e C h r i s t i a n e r a . F r o m t h e
R o m a n i n s c r i p t i o n s it b e c o m e s i m m e d i a t e l y c l e a r t h a t t h e J e w s in
R o m e f o r m e d a l a r g e n u m b e r of i n d i v i d u a l , i n d e p e n d e n t l y - o r g a n i z e d
c o m m u n i t i e s {synagogai), e a c h w i t h its o w n s y n a g o g u e , i t s o w n gerousia
a n d its o w n c o m m u n i t y officials. O f a u n i o n of all t h e R o m a n J e w i s h
g r o u p s u n d e r o n e gerousia t h e r e is n o t r a c e . W h i l e b y c o n t r a s t t h e J e w s
in A l e x a n d r i a f o r m e d a single m a j o r p o l i t i c a l c o r p o r a t i o n , h e r e in
22. For what follows see: E . Schiirer, Die Gemeindeverfassung der Juden in Rom in der
Kaiserzeit nach den Inschriften dargestellt (1879) ; H. Vogelstein and P . Rieger, Gesch. der Juden
in Rom I (1896), pp. 3 8 ff.; G. La Plana, 'Foreign Groups i n R o m e d u r i n g the First
Centuries of the E m p i r e ' H T h R 20 (1927), p p . 183-403, on p p . 341-71 ; J. B . Frey, 'Les
c o m m u n a u t e s juives a R o m e a u x premiers temps d e I'Eglise' R S R 20 (1930), p p . 269—97!
21 (1931), pp. 1 2 9 - 6 8 ; C I J I, p . liii-cxliv, a n d nos. 1-499; ^^-J- Leon, The Jews of Ancient
Rome (1961), p p . 2 6 8 - 3 4 6 ; C I J I^, e d . B. Lifshitz (1975), prolegomenon, p p . 21-42. See
also pp. 73-81 above. O n t h e different organization of the Jewish c o m m u n i t y in the
l a l m u d i c period see M . Weinberg, M G W J (1897), 588 ff., 639 ff., 673 ff. For the
inscriptions from Venosa see C I J I^, nos. 569-619.
gS § 3 1 . Judaism in the Diaspora
Rome they had t o be content with the more modest situation of

individual religious associations. The individual communities used
d i f f e r e n t n a m e s , of w h i c h t h e following a r e a t t e s t e d o n i n s c r i p t i o n s : ( i )
a awayoiyr] AvyovoTTjaicov,^^ (2) a avvaywyq Aypnnnqaicov,^'^ (3) a
synagoga Bolumni (read Volumni) or BoXovuvrjaicov.^^ These three
c o m m u n i t i e s a r e a l l n a m e d a f t e r p r o m i n e n t p e r s o n s . S i n c e as w e l l as t h e
Augoustesioi, Agrippesioi a r e also found, t h e former will h a v e t a k e n t h e i r
n a m e f r o m t h e first A u g u s t u s a n d t h e l a t t e r t h e i r s from his friend and
adviser, M. A g r i p p a . Augustus a n d Agrippa may perhaps h a v e b e e n
p a t r o n s of t h e c o m m u n i t i e s c o n c e r n e d , o r t h e c o m m u n i t i e s m a y have
o r i g i n a l l y c o n s i s t e d of slaves a n d f r e e d m e n o f A u g u s t u s o r of A g r i p p a
(cf. 01 €K TTJs Kaiaapos oUias, P h i l . 4 : 2 2 ) . T h e l a t t e r is t h e m o r e likely.
W h e t h e r t h e s e s m a l l a s s o c i a t i o n s c o n t i n u e d t o exist e v e n after t h e d e a t h
of t h o s e w h o s e n a m e s t h e y b o r e w e d o n o t k n o w . T h e Augoustesioi might
also h a v e derived their name from the current Augustus.Other
c o m m u n i t i e s w e r e n a m e d a f t e r t h e p a r t of t h e c i t y of R o m e i n w h i c h
the members lived, such as (4) the Kaprnjaioi after the Campus
23. C I J I^, no. 2 8 4 : ' M a r c u s Cuyntus Alexus grammateus ego ( = CK) ton
AUGUSTHSION (= Augustesion) mellarcon E C C I O N Augustesion'. 3 0 1 :
yepova(,iydpx'riS avvayoryris 'Ayovareaiov. 368: y€poDCTidp;f)js avvayciyyfjs Avyovarrfaiwv.
496: [ / x i j ] t i j p awa[y(t)yqs] AvyovaTr)[aia)v]. See in general C I J I^, p . Ixxi.
24. N o . 365; TTpoaraTTjs 'Aypiirirrfaicov. 425 : yepov[ciidpx^f1S cn>[vayciry^rjs 'Aypi[TnTr)aiu)v.
503 : awaycDyijs 'Aypi.ir-m]aio)v. See C I J I , p p . Ixxi-ii.
25. N o . 343: dpx<jov diTO awayaiyijs BoXvp-vriaiatv. 402 : fi€XXdpx<ov BoXovfivrjaiwv. 4 1 7 -
avvaywyfjs BoXvp.vria<uv (sic). 5 2 3 : 'mater synagogarum C a m p i et Bolumni'. See C I J I ,
p p . Ixxii-iii.
26. T h e following parallels may b e cited: the Traianesioi in Ostia, I G X I V , no. 9 2 5 :
ayvTJs €va4fivoio umlpifs Tpaiavrâiuiv oiSe Upets Upetd re deov fieydXov Aicovvaov ; according
to a L a t i n inscripdon, C I L X I V , n o . 4, these Traianenses also worshipped Diana. O n
L a t i n inscriptions there occur, for e x a m p l e : Augustiani ( C I L V I , no. 8532), a collegium
Faustinianum ( C I L I I I , no. 6077 = I L S , n o . 1505), Aeliani ( C I L VI, n o . 978). According
to J . P. Waltzing {ttude historique sur les corporations professionelles chez les Romains I V (1900),
p p . 153 ff) these should b e regarded as associadons formed by persons within the
imperial service. T h e following designations o f Greek brotherhoods h a v e a n o t h e r
m e a n i n g : Aiovvaiaaral Xaipr)p.6vfioi (P. E. Foucart, Des associations religieuses chez les Grecs
(1873), p . 230), Ayadohaip,oviaaro.l 0iX6v€ioi [ibid.), Aioaara^vpiaaral Ev<f>pav6pfioi ol avv
'AdT]vaiu> KviUiu {ibid., p. 229), AiooKovpiaaral 0 € u 8 o t € i o i ( B C H 10 (1886), p. 4 2 5 ) .
Foucart, probably rightly, regards Chaeremon, Philon, E u p h r a n o r e t c . in these cases as
t h e founders of the respective associations (BCH 10 (1886), p p . 203, 205). A different
significance is t o be attached to the designations Pompeiastai (worshippers of Pompeius i n
Delos, I D , nos. 1641, 1797) a n d Agrippiastai (worshippers of Agrippa i n Sparta, I G V . i ,
n o . 374 = C I L I I I , n o . 494). H e r e it is a matter of a rehgious cult, analogous t o t h e
emperor cult. T h e word-formation is the same as in Apolloniastai (Syll.^, nos. 726; 746),
Asklepiastai (Syll.^, no. 1114) etc. See E. Z i e b a r t h , Das griechische Vereinswesen (1896); F .
Poland, Geschichte des griechischen Vereinswesens (1909). See also P. Bruneau, Recherches sur les
cultes de Dilos a I'ipoque hellinistique et a I'ipoque impiriale (1970), p p . 585 ff.; 621 ff., a n d L .
Cracco Ruggini, 'La vita associativa nelle citta dell'Oriente greco: tradizioni locaH e
influenze romane', in D . M . Pippidi (ed.). Assimilation et risistance a la culture grico-romaine
dans le monde ancien (1976), p p . 463-91.
Martius,^^ a n d (5) t h e Ziôvp-qaioL a f t e r t h e S u b u r a , o n e of t h e m o s t

populous quarters of a n c i e n t R o m e , well-known as a trading area.^
Other synagogue names known t o us a r e : (6) a avvayojyq 'E^pecjv.
E x a c t l y w h a t is i m p l i e d b y t h i s , w h e t h e r c o n t i n u e d use of H e b r e w or
relatively recent immigration from Palestine (true at least of one
' H e b r e w ' , identified as c o m i n g f r o m Caesarea), remains uncertain;*^
(7) a auvaycoyi) BepvaKXrjaiojv or BepvaKXajpcov, i.e. vernaculorum,
therefore (apparently) 'of t h e i n d i g e n o u s (Jews)';^° (8) a avvaycoyrj
'EXalas—the significance of the name is q u i t e uncertain;^' (9) a
avvayoiyrj KaXKaprjaicov, which may have owed its name to the
p r o f e s s i o n of i t s m e m b e r s {calcarienses, i.e. l i m e - b u r n e r s ) , o r a l t e r n a t i v e l y
have derived it f r o m s o m e locality;^^ ( 1 0 ) a awaycoyi) TpirroXeiTcov is
27. No. 88 : 7rarp6[s] avvayojyrjs KafXTTrjoCuiv. 319 : rrarpos awayoyyris Kap,Tr7)aicov 'PcofXTjs.
Cf. 433 a n d 523 (n. 25 above). See C I J I , p . Ixxiv.
28. N o . 18: ypafxpLaTfiis Eiôvprfaoav. 2 2 : apx[ovros avvayojy'\rj{s] Ei,ôvpri[awv^. 37:
\apxoiv IJiPovp?^T]aiwv. 6 7 : [ypafifjiarjeos Uipovpr}aio)v. 140: dpxoiv E[Lô^vprfaio)v. 380:
apxoiv Siôvpriaioiv. O n tiie S u b u r a see R E V I , s.v.; S. B. Plainer, T. Ashby, Topographical
Dictionary of Ancient Rome (1929), p p . 5 0 0 - 1 . I n the city of R o m e proper, within the
pomerium, it is t r u e that even i n the b e g i n n i n g of t h e imperial period no foreign sacra could
be performed, see J . M a r q u a r d t , Romische Staatsverwaltung I I I (1978), p . 35; O . Gilbert,
Geschichte und Topographie der Stadt Rom in Altertum I I I (1890), p p . 65 ff., esp. 109-115. But
from the second c e n t u r y onwards the situation w a s different. Cf. G. Wissowa, Religion und
Kultur der Romer (^1912), pp. 3 7 3 ff. F r o m t h e n on even Jewish synagogues were probably
permitted within the pomerium. O n the c o m m u n i t y of t h e Suburenses see C I J 1 , pp.
Ixxiii-lxxiv.
29. N o . 291: [a]pxovTOS'EPpewv. 317- i^dpxoiv TCOV 'El^peajv. 510: rrarpos avvaycoyrjs
Al^piwv. 535: rrarpos TCOV 'E^pecov. Individuals are also sometimes identified a s H e b r e w s :
nos. 354; 379. N o t e 3 7 0 : MaKeSovis 6 Al^peos, Keaapevs rrjs IlaXeaTiirqs- A [avvajytoyij
'EPp[eojv'îs also attested at Corinth (p. 65 above). For the 'synagogue of t h e Hebrews'
see CIJ I , pp. Ixxvi-vii.
30. N o . 3 1 8 : ypap,fiaTevs avv[â]ya)yTJs Se/ova(cAc6/)co[v]. 3 8 3 : dpxiaw[d]ycoyos
[av^vaycoyl-qs BêpvdKXcov. 398 : (dpxwv?) Std jStou BepvaKArjoiatv. 494: 7T[aT]i)p awaycoyl'^s
B]€pvdKXcov. C I J I , p. Ixxvii.
31. N o . 281 ; avva[ya}y]rjs ÊXeas. 5 0 9 : naTep (sic) avvaywyrjs 'EXaias. Frey, CIJ I , pp.
Ixxvii-viii, discusses various towns n a m e d ' E l e a ' which might provide a n explanation for
this name. But n o convincing explanation is available.
32. N o . 304: dpxojv KaXKap[r]a]icjv. 3 1 6 : KaXK[a]PTâcov Sis a,px[o)v^. 384: o Si? dpxuiv
rrjs auvaycuyijs KaXKaprjais (sic). 4 3 3 : ypafji.[p]aT€[vs auvaJywyVJy Ka[XKapr]aio)v?]. 504:
lepeiis, apxojv KaXKaprjaicov. 537 : Ovydrrip Mr/vo^lXov iraTrfp [sic) awaycoyrjs KaXKaprjaicov,
KoXois îcoaaaa ev TW Îovhaiap,w. See CIJ I , pp. Ixxv-vi, rejecting the explanation based
on the m e m b e r s ' employment as calcarienses and preferring a (hypothetical) derivation
from a locality i n R o m e . However, t h e former explanation c a n n o t be stricdy disproved.
Collegia, o r associations, whose members also observed the s a m e cult, were of various
forms in R o m a n antiquity (see the bibliography on t h e collegia below, p. 112; a m o n g
these occur also sodales calcareses ( C I L V I , n o . 9 2 2 4 ) ; calcarienses (CIL V I , n o . 9223, Cod.
Theod. xii I , 37) ; calcis coctores [Cod. Theod. xiv 6; Edict. Dioclet. vii, 4 ) ; exonerator calcariarius
( C I L V I , no. 9384). Cf W . Liebenam, Z^r Geschichte und Organisation des romischen
Vereinswesens [\8go), p. 120.
a t t e s t e d once,^^ as is ( p e r h a p s ) a awaywyr] "ApKTjs ylijSavou.^* T h e

e x p r e s s i o n ypaiip\ar€vsi\ UCKTJVCJV i n no. 7 m a y refer to a ' s y n a g o g u e ' ,
b u t if so a n y e x p l a n a t i o n (see e.g. C I J I*, p . Ixxix) m u s t b e
h y p o t h e t i c a l . T h e s u p p o s e d ' s y n a g o g u e o f t h e H e r o d i a n s ' ( C I J V, n o .
1 7 3 a n d p . Ixxii) d e p e n d s o n a q u i t e u n c e r t a i n r e s t o r a t i o n a n d s h o u l d
b e r e j e c t e d (see p r o l e g o m e n o n , p . 3 1 ) .
O f t h e officials w h o a r e m e n t i o n e d on t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s t h e gerousiarches
a n d t h e archontes s h o u l d b e specially n o t i c e d .
( I ) A yepovaidpx'TjS o c c u r s n o t o n l y o n t h e R o m a n inscriptions,^^ b u t
a l s o a t V e n o s a ^ ^ a n d e l s e w h e r e . ^ ' T h e title m u s t i n d i c a t e s o m e p o s i t i o n
of i m p o r t a n c e w i t h i n o r i n r e l a t i o n to t h e gerousia. F r o m the f o r m u l a e
yepovaidpxr}? avvaywyrjs Avyovarrjaiwv (twice) a n d yepovaiapx^s
avvaywyrjs 'Aypi[Tr7rrjaiiov] it is c l e a r h o w e v e r , as has a l r e a d y b e e n
e m p h a s i z e d a b o v e , t h a t at least s o m e o f t h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s in
R o m e h a d t h e i r o w n gerousia w i t h t h e i r o w n officials. I n v i e w of this f a c t
it is significant t h a t t h e title presbyteros a p p e a r s in the R o m a n
i n s c r i p t i o n s o n l y o n a single o c c a s i o n . T h e t e x t is u n f o r t u n a t e l y
f r a g m e n t a r y (no. 3 7 8 ) : [M\rjrp6[8]oipos {yrpea^^vrepos. O n this basis it
is n o t p o s s i b l e to say w h e t h e r presbyteros d e n o t e d a m e m b e r of t h e
gerousia or, if not, w h e t h e r t h e r e w a s a n y t e r m w h i c h r e f e r r e d to a n
' o r d i n a r y ' m e m b e r of t h e gerousia, a s o p p o s e d t o a gerousiarches. N o r is it
c l e a r h o w w e s h o u l d u n d e r s t a n d t h e t e r m archigerousiarches, n o w a t t e s t e d
i n a J e w i s h c a t a c o m b i n R o m e ( p . 81 a b o v e ) . N o r d o these texts, all
r e f e r r i n g to i n d i v i d u a l s , give a n y i n d i c a t i o n o f the n o r m a l n u m b e r s of
m e m b e r s or office-holders. (2) A very c o m m o n title i n t h e R o m a n
e p i t a p h s is archon.^^ I t is m e t also e l s e w h e r e , s c a t t e r e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e
33. N o . 390: dpxoiv avvayaiyrjs TpnroXecTWV. Cf. 408: (UpoaapxTJi {— yepovaMpxi)^)

TpiTToXiTTis. T h e city referred to is probably Tripolis in Phoenicia. Cf C I J I , pp.
Ixxvii-ix, and prolegomenon, p . 36.
34. No. 501: OLTTO rrjs away(oryTJs) Mp/c[ou Ai]pdvov. F o r an alternative restoradon a n d
interpretation see Leon, op. cit., pp. 163-5.
35. No. 368 : KvvTiavos yepovoiapxfjs avvaywyrjs Avyocrrrjaiwv. 95 : Acrrepiu) yepovadpxTI-
147: OvpaaKiov awo ÂKOviXeias yepovaidpxov. 106: Tlayxdpis yepovaidpxris. II9'
Oai6<f)iX[os yfpo^vaidpxris. 511 : ZeiXiKfs yepovaidpxus. 4 2 5 : yipov{oidpx\y)S av[vayu)y^ris
Aypi\iTrTr)aio)v^. 301: ytpovadpxy]S [sic) awaycoyfis 'Ayovcrreaiwv. 353: 'lovXiavos
yepovaidpxrii- 4 0 8 : see n. 33. 3 5 5 : [. .]oj t€poii[aiap]xwv. T h e orthography in b o t h the last
t w o cases is probably the result n o t of a mistake of t h e stone-cutter, but of phonetic
changes.
36. C I J I , no. 6 0 0 : <PavaTivos ytpovat-dpxov dpxiarpos. 6 1 3 : filius Viti ierusiarcontis.
Notice i n both cases the form gerousiarckon, while t h e R o m a n inscriptions almost
t h r o u g h o u t have gerousiarches.
37. C I J I^, no. 533 (from Castel Porziano, probably referring to the Jewish c o m m u n i t y
of Ostia), 1. 6: ' . . . ] n o gerusiarche'; 1. 8: . . .]stus gerusiarches fecit'. Cf n o . 561 : T i .
Claudius PhiHppus dia viu et gerusiarches' (Puteoli). See also C I J I^, p p . Ixxxv-vi; L e o n ,
op. cit., p p . 180-3 ; P- 14 above (Antioch and A p a m e a ) .
38. I n this connection n o t e no. 291: [d]px(ovTos) 'E^pitov and 304: 'Anep apx<ov
KaJ[Kap[7}a]ia}v. Note also 3 4 7 : dpxovres Kai Upeis Kal dBeX<f>oi. No. 538 also belongs
Jewish Diaspora, in Syria, Asia Minor, Egypt, Cyrenaica.It also

occurs in Jewish epitaphs from elsewhere in Italy,'^° a n d Tertullian
gives archon a s w e l l as levites a n d sacerdos as t y p i c a l J e w i s h titles.*' To
judge by all other existing parallels (cf especially Alexandria and
Berenice), it may be taken for granted as true for the Roman
c o m m u n i t i e s t h a t e a c h h a d s e v e r a l archontes i n office a t a n y o n e t i m e ;
t h e r e is h o w e v e r n o t h i n g to i n d i c a t e t h e i r p r e c i s e f u n c t i o n s . F r o m the
f r e q u e n t l y o c c u r r i n g t i t l e 8ls dpxwv'^^ o n e c a n see t h a t t h e archons w e r e
a p p o i n t e d for a p r e s c r i b e d time, presumably a year. A late-Roman
Christian homily records that Jewish archontes were elected in
September, i.e. at the J e w i s h N e w Y e a r : ' m e n s e m S e p t e m b r e m i p s u m
novum annum nuncupant, q u o et mense magistratus sibi designant,
q u o s A r c h o n t a s vocant'.''^^ N e v e r t h e l e s s , alongside a p p o i n t m e n t for a
fixed p e r i o d , e l e c t i o n for life a l s o a p p e a r s to h a v e o c c u r r e d . A t a n y r a t e
it is p r o b a b l e t h a t t h e f r e q u e n t l y o c c u r r i n g e n i g m a t i c t i t l e hid ^ L O V refers
t o lifelong archons.'^'^ F r o m t i m e to t i m e a n a d d i t i o n a l p h r a s e is a d d e d to
a m o n g t h e R o m a n inscriptions (see p . 7 3 above). For furtiier details see J . Juster, Les

Juifs dans I'empire romain I ( 1 9 1 4 ) , p p . 443—7; C I J I , p p . Ixxxvii-ix; Leon, op. cit., pp.
173-80.
3 9 . Antioch i n S y r i a : J o s . B.J. vii 3 , 3 ( 4 7 ) : •fjv ydp dpxoiv TCOV eir' 'Avnoxeias
'lovSaiwv; Tlos i n Lycia, inscription (above, p. 3 3 ) : vwep dpxovreias reXovfjievas (sic) Trap'
Tjfjieiv 'lovSaiois. Alexandria, see above, p. 9 3 . Arsinoe i n M i d d l e E g y p t (p. 5 5 a b o v e ) :
dpxdvTwv 'lovSaicov Trpoaevxrjs ©rjjSaiaiv. Berenike in C y r e n a i c a : dpxovTes (pp. 9 4 - 5
above).
40. N o . 5 5 3 : Alfius luda arcon arcosynagogus ( a t C a p u a ) . F o r an archon (]13")K) at
Dura-Europos i n the third century A . D . see p . 1 1 above.
4 1 . Tertullian, De corona 9, i : ' Q u i s denique patriarches, quis prophetes, quis levites
a u t sacerdos a u t archon, quis vel postea apostolus a u t evangelizator a u t episcopus
invenitur coronatus?' T h e archon occurring in a n inscription i n U d c a ( C I L V I I I , no.
1 2 0 5 , A d d e n d a p . 9 3 1 ) may therefore be a Jewish archon; see Y. Bohec, A n t . Afric. 1 7
( i 9 8 i ) , p . 189, n o . 65.
4 2 . N o . 3 9 7 : 27aj3j3aTis his dpxwv. 2 8 9 : Taawv Sis dpxwv. 3 1 6 : [ra]vS€VTis Ka[XKap]TJawv
Sis dpxwv. 3 9 1 : npwKovXos d) Srjs dpxwv. 1 2 5 : Map<hv /3' dpx(wv). 5 0 5 : ifaiAi<o>?
KveivTos. . (8' dpxwv. N o t e also nos. 1 5 , 3 3 7 , 3 8 4 . It is noticeable t h a t we have several
examples of a single re-elecdon but only o n e of a re-election repeated further ( 4 9 4 : rpiy
d[px]o)v). In t h e case of R o m a n collegia there o c c u r : magister iterum, ter, quater. See
Waltzing, Etude historique sur les corp. profess. I , p. 3 6 8 ; IV, p . 3 5 9 .
4 3 . T h e homily, on Luke's a c c o u n t of the birth o f J o h n the Baptist, is found in the older
editions o f the works o f Chrysostom until t h a t of Montfaucon, for example (according to
Wesseling, De Judaeorum archontibus, c h . 10) in Chrysostomi Opera t. I I , e d . Paris ( 1 6 8 7 ) ; or
in Opp. Chrisostomi latine veris (Paris, 1 5 8 8 ) , I I , p . 1 0 8 8 . T h e passage is given as in
Wesseling's version. See also D A C L V I I ( 1 9 2 7 ) , cols. 2 1 7 3 - 4 .
44. N o . 4 1 6 : AaTiôv TOO ^d ( = 8i,d) îov drro Trjs avvaywy^s TWV AvyovaTrjaiwv. 5 0 3 :
Zcoaip.os Sid piov avvaywyrjs 'Aypimrrjaiwv. 3 9 8 : Eaêivos Sid ^lov BepvoKXrjaiwv. 2 6 6 :
AXia TlaTpiKia TovXXio Eiprjvaio Koviovyi (Seve/aepevrt <f>r}KiT Sia ^lo (Latin in Greek letters;
it is highly uncertain w h e t h e r this is a reference to an archonship). 5 6 1 : ' T i . Claudius
Philippus dia v i u et gerusiarches' ( P u t e o h ) . 4 8 0 : 'Tettius Rufinus Melitius vicxit annis
L X X X V lA B I U S (?)'. 5 7 5 : Tdôs 'Ava Sid plov. In t h e case of some of these
inscriptions, especially where the formula Sid jSiou stands at t h e e n d , the explanation
Ioo § 3 1 . Judaism in the Diaspora
archon, w h i c h signifies a h i g h e r honour.'^^ N o p r e c i s e e x p l a n a t i o n c a n b e

offered f o ' t h e s e , o r for t h e t i t l e s proarchon (not certainly attested i n a
J e w i s h c o n t e x t ) a n d exarchon^^ T h e r e a l s o o c c u r a d d i t i o n a l p h r a s e s in
h o n o u r o f officials f r o m d i s t i n g u i s h e d f a m i l i e s ; t h e h i g h s t a t u s of s u c h
families may e x p l a i n t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f ' u n d e r - a g e archon' o r 'future
archon'."^^
A s in P a l e s t i n e , s o a l s o in R o m e a n d I t a l y , a n d i n d e e d e v e r y w h e r e in
the Diaspora, the office of archisynagogos is found.*^ The essential
d i f f e r e n c e of t h i s office f r o m t h a t o f t h e gerousiarches a n d o f t h e archontes
h a s a l r e a d y b e e n r e m a r k e d ( v o l . I I , p p . 4 3 5 - 6 ) . T h e archisynagogos is n o t
a kind of p r e s i d e n t of t h e c o m m u n i t y , but h a s t h e specific task of
l e a d i n g a n d s u p e r v i s i n g t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n a t d i v i n e service. H e c a n of
c o u r s e b e selected from a m o n g t h e archontes s o t h a t one a n d t h e s a m e
p e r s o n w a s a t t h e s a m e t i m e archon a n d archisynagogos; b u t in t h e m s e l v e s
given is open t o question. B u t in some cases (esp. nos. 398 and 561 above) this
interpretation seems relatively certain. It is supported by t h e very common occurrence of
Sid ^lov in this sense in Greek inscriptions: e.g. Upevs, dpxiepevs, ^varapxTj^ or dycovoOeryjs
Std jSiot;. I n a non-Jewish cult association in Delos there occurs a awaycoyevs Std fiiov, F.
D u r r b a c h , Choix d'inscriptions de Dilos (1921), no. 162 = I D , n o . 1641. Indeed we h a v e
two certain parallels from Jewish contexts: ( i ) a lifelong archisynagogos (inscription from
Acmonia i n Phrygia, see p. 31 a b o v e ) : F. Tvppdtvios KXdSos 6 8ia filov avvdyayyos, a n d
(2) a irarrip XaoO Std jSt'ov from M a n t i n e a , see p. 66 above. It remains u n c e r t a i n whether
we ought always to supply t h e word dpxcov. T h e analogous title magister perpetuus (in an
association of actors) is attested in C I L X I V , no. 2299 = I L S , no. 5206.
45. No. 4 7 0 : ' L . Maecius archon < e t > (?) aid ordinis' (for the sign before ' a i d ordinis'
which may signify 'et' see Leon, op. cit., p. 176, n. 3 ) . 324: 'Epfioyevrjs dpxwv trdcrqs ti/xt7s.
85 : 'AXiâvhpos dpxcov Trdarjs Teiprjs. 265: 'Stafulo arconti et archisynagogo honoribus
omnibus fu(n)ctus'.
46. N o . 539: MapKiavf rrpodpxwv. But see H. J . Leon, H T h R 45 (1952), p p . 171—2,
showing t h a t there is n o a d e q u a t e reason to regard it as Jewish. 4 6 5 : ' C . Furfanius
J u l i a n u s exarchon'. 317 : FeXdais l^dpxov ru>v 'E^peatv.
47. No. 88: 'Awiavos dpxwv [v^Jwios . . . aiTwv r{ AWICLVOS dpxojv [ i ' ^ ] 7 r i o ? . . . alrdiv r(
(eight years old, and s o n of lulianus, 'father of the synagogue of the Campesians'). 120:
ToKadtvos dpxwv vîos. 8 5 : '/lAe^dvSptfi ju.€AAd^p)>xo»'Tt. 2 8 4 : 'mellarcon eccion (read e/c
t c o v ) Augustesion an. X I I ' (twelve years old). 3 2 5 : ' ^ r ^ x o y p.€\Xd{p]x^^- 4^2 : EIKOVXOS
Eaêlvos p-eXXdpxwv BoXovjivrjaicov irwv j8' p.r)vwv t' (thus a child of two years!). T h e r e is
an analogy in t h e occurrence of decuriones w h o are minors in t h e R o m a n municipalities;
e.g. C I L V , no. 334 = I L S , n o . 6 6 7 9 ; I X , n o . 1166; I X , no. 3573 = I L S , n o . 2053; X,
no. 846 = ILS, n o . 6367 j X, n o . 1036 = I L S , no. 6365. See R E I V , cols. 2328-9.
48. In R o m e : CIJ I , no. 504: TovXiavov dpxiauvayd>yov. 2 6 5 : 'Stafulo arconti et
archisynagogo'. 336: Ev(f>pdais dpxiawaywyrjs {sic). 3 8 3 : 77oAu[/[t]ny dpxtawv<(d>ya>yos
{sic). In C a p u a : 5 5 3 : 'Alfius J u d a arcon arcosynagogus'. I n V e n o s a : 5 8 7 : Td<f>os
KaXXloTov viTTiov dpxoaaivaywyov {sic). 596 ( a n d prolegomenon, p . 45): rdtfxus AcrqXovova
dpxoarjvutyoyov {sic). 5 8 4 : t o c ^ c u s 'Ioarj<l> dpXTlovvayoiyoits viws '/ouonj^ dpxriawayoyov. In
Brescia: 6 3 8 : [dp]xiavvdywyo[s]. F o r evidence o n the occurrence of archisynagogoi in
Egypt, Asia Minor, Greece a n d Africa see above, vol. I I , p p . 435-6, a n d note Y. Bohec,
A n t . Afric^ 17 (1981), p . 178, no. 14 ( H a m m a m Lif). N o t e also the recently published
inscription of an archisynagogus from Ostia (p. 82 above). C f Juster, op. cit., I, 4 5 0 - 3 ; C I J
I^, p p . xcvii-ix; Leon, op. cit., p p . 170—3. For Syria see p. 14 above.
//./. Internal Organization of the Communities loi
t h e t w o offices a r e d i s t i n c t , as t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s c l e a r l y s h o w . O n t h e l a t e r
u s a g e o f archisynagogos as (perhaps) a mere title for c h i l d r e n still in
infancy, a n d for w o m e n , see vol. I I , p . 4 3 5 . N o t e h o w e v e r that this
p r e s u p p o s i t i o n is c h a l l e n g e d b y B . B r o o t e n , Women Leaders in the Ancient
Synagogue (1982). B e s i d e s t h e archisynagogoi a 'servant' {imrjperTjs) is
m e n t i o n e d o n c e o n a R o m a n e p i t a p h . * ^ N o t e also a hazzan a n d diakon
from Apamea (p. 14), a n d persons concerned with psalm-singing,
attested in Aphrodisias (p. 16) and Rome (p. 81). A 'scribe' or
' s e c r e t a r y ' {grammateus) is a t t e s t e d a t S m y r n a (p. 20), a s is t h e p o s t of
phrontistes ('superintendent'?) at Side (p. 33), as at Caesarea in
P a l e s t i n e ( S E G X X , n o . 4 6 2 ) . F i n a l l y , t h e titles pater synagogae a n d mater
synagogae a r e fairly f r e q u e n t i n t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s . ^ " T h e v e r y f a c t t h a t t h e
l a s t - n a m e d t i t l e o c c u r s m a k e s it p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e p o s i t i o n w a s a p u r e l y
h o n o r i f i c o n e . ^ ' I t w a s p r o b a b l y n o t i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e r o l e ofpatronus of
t h e c o m m u n i t y , ^ ^ b u t r a t h e r a n h o n o r a r y t i t l e for (elderly?) members
49. C I J I^, n o . 172 : 0Adj3to? TovXtavos vTrrjperrjs. See Juster, op. cit., I , p. 4 5 4 ; CIJ I^, p.
xcix.
50. narfjp avvaYoyyfjs '• C I J I , nos. 88; 9 3 1319; 508 (Tranjp avvaycoyicov); 509-10 ; 537
(see prolegomenon, p . 4 0 ) ; A E 1969-70, n o . 748 (Volubilis, M a u r e t a n i a ) , see Y. Bohec,
A n t . Afric. 17 (1981), p . 194, no. 7 9 . Pater synagogae: C I L V I I I , no. 8499, see Bohec, p.
192, no. 7 4 ; cf Cod. Theod. X V I 8, 4 : 'Hiereos et archisynagogos et patres synagogarum
et ceteros, qui synagogis deserviunt'. Note esp. t h e synagogue inscription from Stobi (p.
67 above), C I J I , no. 694 ( = Lifshitz, D F , no. 19): 6 Trarrip TTJS ev Eroôis avvayay/rjs.
Note also CIJ I I , no. 739: irarijp TOV aTep.(ft)aTos ( S m y r n a ) ; 720 ( = Lifshitz, DF, n o . 9 ) :
irarrip Xaov Sid jSt'ou, from M a n t i n e a , see p . 66 above. Pater (without a d d i t i o n ) : 271;
611-13 (Venosa). Mater synagogae: 5 2 3 : ' m a t e r synagogarum C a m p i e t Bolumni'
( R o m e ) ; 639: ' m a t r i synagogae B r i x i a n o r u m ' ; 4 9 6 : [/i^Jrijp owa[yu)yrjs]. Cf. Juster, op.
cit., I, p p . 448 ff.; CIJ I , pp. xcv-vi; Leon, op. cit., pp. 186-8.
51. Such is p r o b a b l y the significance o f the title Trarijp avvoSov i n inscriptions of a
monotheistic (Jewish-influenced) cult-association i n Tanais. See B. Latyschev, l O S P E II
(1890), nos. 445, 451, 455 = V . V . Struve, C I R B (1965), nos. 1227; 1282; 1288. C f E.
Ziebarth, Das griechische Vereinswesen (1896), p. 1 5 4 ; cf. C. Roberts, T . C. Skeat, A . D.
Nock, ' T h e Guild of Zeus Hypsistos', H T h R 29 (1936), p p . 39—88 = A. D. Nock, Essays
on Religion and the Ancient World I (19^72), pp. 4 1 4 - 4 3 . A Trarrip opyewviKrjs avvoSov in
Athens, Syll.^, n o . 1111 = I G I I - I I I * , n o . 2361. A rrpot^rris and Trarijp TTJJ .. rdêojs
among t h e /Zaiaviarai rov ev 'Puyprj Aios 'HXiov ij.eydXov EapdmSos, I G X I V , no. 1084 =
I G R I, no. 144 = M o r e t t i , I G U R I, n o . 77. Pater is frequent in the M i t h r a i c cult
associations, b o t h alone and i n the combinations pater sacrorum, pater patrum, pater et sacerdos,
pater et antistes, see the examples in F . C u m o n t , Textes et monuments figuris relatifs aux mysthres
de Mithra I I (1896), I n d e x p. 535.
52. As argued by T h . M o m m s e n , 'Der Religionsfrevel nach romischen Recht', H Z 64
(1890), p p . 389—429, o n p. 428, in his comparison of the tiilts pater collegi and mater collegi
in the professional a n d religious associations of t h e R o m a n s ( = Ges. Schr. I l l , p . 422). But
patronus a n d pater should probably b e distinguished (see W a l t z i n g , op. cit. I, p p . 425 ff., 446
ff.). It is only t h e latter, not t h e former, which is c o m p a r a b l e t o the Jewish pater. O n both
titles see also E . K o r n e m a n n in R E IV, cols. 4 2 4 ff., 'collegium'. Examples of pater in
Waltzing IV, p p . 372 f.; for patronus a n d patrona: W a l t z i n g IV, p p . 373—416.
w h o h a d d e s e r v e d w e l l o f it.^^ F o r t h e p a t r o n t h e G r e e k t e r m prostates
a l s o occurs.^*
T h e r e is a l s o e v i d e n c e for t h e t i t u l a r u s e presbyteros a m o n g thejews
of t h e D i a s p o r a . B u t t h e e a r l i e s t c l e a r l y d a t e d e v i d e n c e is p r o v i d e d by
the painted A r a m a i c a n d Greek inscriptions from the s y n a g o g u e of
Dura-Europos, from A.D. 244-5 (PP- 1 1 - 1 2 above), followed by
imperial pronouncements from the fourth century onwards.The
i n s c r i p t i o n s o n w h i c h t h e t i t l e o c c u r s all s e e m to b e r e l a t i v e l y late.^^
T h i s d o e s n o t of c o u r s e p r o v e t h a t ' e l d e r s ' a s a n i n s t i t u t i o n did not
exist; compare the gerousia, attested in Alexandrian and Roman
c o m m u n i t i e s , a n d n o t e a l s o t h e presbyteroi in t h e s y n a g o g u e i n s c r i p t i o n
of t h e first c e n t u r y A.D. from J e r u s a l e m , C I J I I , n o . 1404. B u t s u c h a
c o u n c i l o f ' e l d e r s ' c a n n o t be r e g a r d e d a s i d e n t i c a l w i t h presbyteroi as
officials. The attested officials from the earlier period are called
e v e r y w h e r e i n t h e D i a s p o r a — a s f a r as o u r k n o w l e d g e goes—archontes
(see p p . 9 8 - 1 0 0 ) . I t is a l s o o p e n t o q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r presbyteros in t h e
i n s c r i p t i o n s is e v e r y w h e r e m e a n t as a t i t l e , a n d n o t o n o c c a s i o n s i m p l y
as a d e s i g n a t i o n of age.^''
5 3 . Cf. t h e indications of age in C I J I^, n o . 5 0 9 : Ilayxdpios narrip avvaywyrjs 'EXaias

irdtv iKarwv {sic) SeKa. 5 2 3 : 'Beturia Paulina . . . q u a e bixit an. L X X X V I mescs V I . . .
m a t e r synagogarum Campi et Bolumni'.
54. C I J I , n o . 100 (and prolegomenon, p. 28) ; 3 6 5 ; cf p p . xciv-v. F o r a female
prostates from Aphrodisias in Caria, mother of an archon, see p . 25 above. F o r the same title
in Greek cult associadons see P . Foucart, Des associations religieuses chez les Grecs (1873), p.
28. M u c h material in E . Ziebarth, Das griechische Vereinswesen (1896), Index, s.v.; F.
Poland, Geschichte des griechischen Vereinswesens (1909), pp. 363-6.
55. Cod. Theod. xvi 8, 2 (A.D. 3 3 0 ) : ' q u i devotione tota synagogis l u d a e o r u m ,
patriarchis vel presbyteris se d e d e r u n t ' ; xvi 8, 13 ( A . D . 3 9 7 ) : 'archisynagogi sive
presbyteri J u d a e o r u m ' , Cod. Just, i 9, 15 (415): 'Si qua inter Chrisdanos et l u d a e o s sit
contentio, non a senioribus l u d a e o r u m , sed ab ordinariis iudicibus d i r i m a t u r ' ; Movell.
146.1 : olirap' auTOij apxi4>^pfKiTai rj npea^vrepoi rvxov rj SiSdoKaXoi rrpoaayopfvopifvoi.
56. Inscriptions from A p a m e a in Syria, A . D . 391 (p. 14); a presbyteros from t h e Y e m e n
attested at Beth Shearim (p. 16); S m y r n a (CIJ 11, no. 739); Corycusin CiHcia (p. 34); Bithynia
(P- 36); J o p p a (epitaph of a C a p p a d o c i a n , p . 35); R o m e and Elche i n Spain (p. 84^.
Attested for women at Bizye in T h r a c e ( C I J I ^ , no. 692, see p . 72 above). Venosa, see C I J I ,
nos. 581,590, 597; cf also no. 595, which gives the Greek text in Hebrew as well a s in Greek
script: irpeaPvTfpov- T^tJ•'3^0^D. T h e title does not seem t o be attested a s the n a m e of an
office in pagan cult associations, but it is with t h e monotheisdc (Judaising)
cult-associadon a t Tanais at t h e beginning of the third century A.D. (Latyschev, l O S P E
II, nos. 450, 452, 456 = V . V. Struve, C I R B , nos. 1285, 1283, 1286). O n presbyteroi in the
context of the Greek cities, A. Deissmann, Bibelstudien (1895), p p . 153-5 ; I. Levy, R E G 8
( 1 8 9 5 ) , p p . 231, 2 4 o ; J . H . O l i v e r , The Sacred Gerusia ( i 9 4 i ) , e s p . p . 4 1 . F o r a collection of
references see F. E . Poland, Geschichte des griechischen Vereinswesens (1909), p p . 98—102.
57. Clermont-Ganneau took presbyteros in the epitaph o f a Cappadocian in J o p p a (see
p. 35 above), for example, as referring to age {Rec. d'arch. or. I V , pp. 146 f f . ) ; cf two
Palestinian inscriptions published by him in Arch, des miss. sc. I I (1885) : p. 206, no. 28,
Tpv<f)wvos rrpea^vrepov a n d p. 208, no. 32 : êpovrapiov vewrepas. Note t h e nXrjvis vewrepos
in A . Deissmann, Licht vom Osten (^1923), p . 78; E T Light from the Ancient East (1910), p.
98; and the c a t a c o m b inscription from R o m e CIJ I , n o . 400: Zdpa Oupâa)
T h e u s e o f the e x p r e s s i o n s archontes a n d gerousia suggests t h a t t h e

J e w i s h o r g a n i s a t i o n in t h e D i a s p o r a t e n d e d t o i m i t a t e t h e c o m m u n a l
s t r u c t u r e of t h e G r e e k c i t i e s . T h e e x t e n t ofin w h i c h this e x a m p l e
g e n e r a l l y i n f l u e n c e d t h e social s t r u c t u r e of J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s is also
i n d i c a t e d by o t h e r e v i d e n c e .
N o t e first t h e loudaioi neoteroi w h o a r e a t t e s t e d o n c e , o n a n i n s c r i p t i o n
from H y p a e p a (see a b o v e p . 22). I n t h e G r e e k c o m m u n i t i e s t h e y o u n g
m e n of t h e c i t y {neoi or neoteroi) f o r m e d a n a s s o c i a t i o n , chiefly for t h e
p u r p o s e of g y m n a s t i c exercises. R e l a t e d to t h e s e a r e t h e L a t i n collegia
iuvenum.^^ T h e loudaioi neoteroi a p p e a r to h a v e b e e n a s i m i l a r a s s o c i a t i o n
of J e w s , even if n o t f o r m e d for t h e s a m e p u r p o s e .
I n t h e G r e e k cities it was c u s t o m a r y to h o n o u r b e n e f a c t o r s by t h e
b e s t o w a l of a w r e a t h a n d s o m e t i m e s o f p r e c e d e n c e [proedria) in t h e
t h e a t r e a n d a t t h e games.^" T h i s p r a c t i c e w a s t a k e n o v e r n o t only by
G r e e k a n d R o m a n , ^ " b u t also b y H e l l e n i z e d , o r s e m i - H e l l e n i z e d
o r i e n t a l a s s o c i a t i o n s , for e x a m p l e t h o s e of T y r i a n s a n d E g y p t i a n s in
Delos, o r S i d o n i a n s in A t h e n s (see p . 109 b e l o w ) a n d a l s o t h o s e of t h e
J e w s t h e m s e l v e s . I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n w e m a y also n o t e t h e n e w
i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m D e l o s w h i c h r e c o r d s t h a t t h e ' I s r a e l i t e s w h o p a y first
fruits to s a c r e d G e r i z i m ' ( S a m a r i t a n s ) t h e r e v o t e d t o a w a r d a c r o w n to
s o m e o n e in r e t u r n for his b e n e f a c t i o n s ( p . 71 a b o v e ) . T h e c o m m u n i t y of
•npea^m^tjys, which is certainly to b e understood as reference t o her age, like vfj-nios or

napdivos-
58. Compare t h e influence of city organisation o n the structure of Greek a n d R o m a n
collegia and associations, for which see E. Ziebarth, Das griechische Vereinswesen, p p . 133 ff".;
147 ff. and elsewhere. E. K o r n e m a n n in R E I V , cols. 418 fF.
59. Cf L . M. CoUignon, 'Les colleges de " N e o i " dans les cites grecques', A n n . Fac. lett.
Bordeaux 2 (1880), pp. 135-51 (pp. 136 ff". gives a table o f the inscriptions t h e n k n o w n ) ;
Ziebarth, Das griechische Vereinswesen (1896), pp. 111-15; E. K o r n e m a n n in R E IV, col.
390 ; V. C h a p o t , La province romaine proconsulaire d'Asie (1904), p p . 153-8 ; Demoulin, 'Les
collegia j u v e n u m dans I'Empire romain', Le Musee Beige i (1897), pp. 114-36 ; 200-17; 3
(1899), p p . 1 7 7 - 9 2 ; material also in Dittenberger, Syll.^, Index p . 455, and for the L a d n
collegia iuvenum in Waltzing, op. cit. I V , pp. 2 1 6 - 2 2 . M. Rostowzew, Romische Bleitesserae
(1904), p p . 81 ff.; RE X , cols. 1357-8 s.v. ' l u v e n e s ' ; C. A . Forbes, Neoi (1933); M. Della
Corte, Inventus (1934), A . H. M . J o n e s , The Greek City (1940), p. 225 a n d n. 30. Note esp.
two inscriptions from P e r g a m u m : ( i ) Ins. v. Pergamon, no. 274 = Syll.^, no. 831, a letter
of H a d r i a n addressed to the synodos of the neoi in P e r g a m u m . (2) no. 278 : the gymnasium
of t h e neoi; further the corpus quod appellatur neon in Cyzicus, CIL I I I , no. 7060 = ILS, no.
7190. Epheboi a n d neoi o r neoteroi are frequently m e n t i o n e d together, e.g. at Phintia in
Sicily, IG X I V , n o . 256.
60. S. S c h m i t t h e n n e r , De coronarum apud Athenienses honoribus, Quaestiones epigraphicae
(Diss. Berlin, i 8 g i ) ; A . Dittmar, 'De Atheniensium more exteros coronis publice
ornandi', Leipziger Studien z u r class. Philol. 13 (1891), p p . 63—248. See in general K.
Baus, Der Kranz in Antike und Christentum (1940); M. Blech, Studien zum Kranz bei den
Griechen (1982). F o r proedria see Dittenberger, Syll.^, index s.v.; M . Bieber, History of the
Greek and Roman Theatre (1961), pp. 63 ; 70-1 ; 114-15; 123, and Figs. 267-9.
61. See Z i e b a r t h , Das griechische Vereinswesen, pp. 164 f; Waltzing, op. cit. I, p p . 493 ff.;
Poland, op. cit., p p . 426 ff.
P h o c a e a h o n o u r e d a w o m a n , w h o h a d p a i d for t h e b u i l d i n g of t h e
s y n a g o g u e from h e r o w n r e s o u r c e s , w i t h a gold w r e a t h {xpvau) ar€<f>dva))
a n d p r e c e d e n c e {iTpoeSpLa), see a b o v e , p . ig; proedria h e r e p r e s u m a b l y
m e a n s t h e r i g h t to sit i n front at t h e s y n a g o g u e . T h e c o m m u n i t y i n
B e r e n i c e p a s s e d a r e s o l u t i o n t o c r o w n aT€<âvovv ovopLaarl Kad' eKaarrjv
avvohov Kat vovpr^viav arecfydvcp iXa'ivcp Kat XripvCaKcp—a R o m a n official
in t h e p r o v i n c e w h o h a d s h o w n h i m s e l f friendly t o t h e J e w s . T h i s
r e s o l u t i o n was to b e i n s c r i b e d o n a m a r b l e stele a n d set u p in t h e m o s t
p r o m i n e n t p a r t of t h e a m p h i t h e a t r e (see a b o v e , p . 61 for t h i s a n d a
s e c o n d i n s c r i p t i o n w i t h t h e s a m e f o r m u l a ) . S e t t i n g u p an i n s c r i p t i o n i n
t h e a m p h i t h e a t r e d o e s n o t s e e m to h a v e b e e n a u s u a l c u s t o m for J e w s ;
h e n c e it h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e r e f e r e n c e m i g h t b e to a J e w i s h
m e e t i n g - p l a c e of a m p h i t h e a t r a l s h a p e ; see L . R o b e r t , Les gladiateurs
dans I'Orient grec (1940), p . 34, n . i. B u t t h i s h a s n o clear p a r a l l e l s , a n d
t h e reference m u s t b e p r e s u m e d to b e t o t h e c i t y a m p h i t h e a t r e . M o r e
often s u c h h o n o r i f i c d e c r e e s w e r e p r o b a b l y set u p i n t h e forecourts of
s y n a g o g u e s ; for P h i l o says t h a t a t t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e J e w i s h
proseuchai ( s y n a g o g u e s ) i n A l e x a n d r i a e v e n t h e shields a n d g o l d e n
w r e a t h s a n d stelai a n d i n s c r i p t i o n s e r e c t e d in h o n o u r of t h e e m p e r o r s
h a d b e e n d e s t r o y e d a l o n g w i t h them.^^ O n a n o t h e r o c c a s i o n he r e m a r k s
t h a t t h r o u g h t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f the proseuchai o f the J e w s t h e a b s e n c e of
s a c r e d p r e c i n c t s r e n d e r e d i m p o s s i b l e t h e p i o u s expressions of g r a t i t u d e
d u e to b e n e f a c t o r s . T h e h o n o r i f i c d e d i c a t i o n s w e r e , t h e n , set u p in t h e
TTipiôXoL of t h e s y n a g o g u e s , t h a t is i n the o p e n f o r e c o u r t s . ^
J u s t a s cities d e d i c a t e d t e m p l e s a n d o t h e r b u i l d i n g s 'for t h e s a l v a t i o n '
{soteria) of kings a n d e m p e r o r s , so also J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s e r e c t e d
s y n a g o g u e s ' o n b e h a l f o f t h e k i n g . W e h a v e t w o e x a m p l e s of t h i s k i n d
from t h e Ptolemaic period. U n d e r Ptolemy I I I Euergetes (246-221
B.C.) t h e j e w s e r e c t e d a s y n a g o g u e i n S c h e d i a i n A l e x a n d r i a ' o n b e h a l f
of K i n g P t o l e m y a n d Q u e e n B e r e n i k e . . . ' (p. 47) a s in t h e s a m e r e i g n
d i d t h o s e of A r s i n o e - C r o c o d i l o p o l i s (p. 5 2 ) . U n d e r a l a t e r P t o l e m y ,
p r o b a b l y P t o l e m y V I P h i l o m e t o r , t h e J e w s in A t h r i b i s i n the s o u t h e r n
D e l t a b u i l t t h e i r s y n a g o g u e ' o n b e h a l f of K i n g P t o l e m y a n d Q u e e n
K l e o p a t r a ' ( t w o i n s c r i p t i o n s , see a b o v e , p . 4 9 ) . A s p e c i a l l y r e m a r k a b l e
i n s t a n c e is t h e b u i l d i n g a t C a s i u n ( Q a s y u n o r Q a t s y o n ) in n o r t h e r n
G a l i l e e from t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y A.D. I n t h e r u i n s of this b u i l d i n g
62. Philo, Leg. 20 (133): Koi aicoirw r d s avyKadaipeOeiaas xai avfJ-TTp-qaOeiaas r6)v
avTOKparopcov rijitd; dcnriSwv Kat arf<l>dva)v inixpoawv Kat anjXatv Kat iTnypa<^wv.
6 3 . Philo, In Flacc. 7 ( 4 8 ) ; t h e open-air c o u r t y a r d (TOV irepipoXov rov vrraidpov) next to
the synagogue building {oikos) is mentioned also b y the inscription from Phocaea (see
above, p . 19, a n d L. R o b e r t , Rev. Phil. 32 (1958), p p . 4 5 - 7 , mentioning also the
courtyard {jxeaavXos) with a fountain attested a t Side, p. 33 above). Cf the large
forecourt of the synagogue at Sardis, p . 21 above. Public inscriptions were put u p also in
the forecourt of t h e temple at J e r u s a l e m , see i M a c . 11, 3 7 ; 14, 27 and 48; indeed even
booty in t h e form of weapons was placed there, Jos. Ant. X V n . 3 (402).
R e n a n f o u n d t h e f o l l o w i n g i n s c r i p t i o n : vnkp awrrjpias rwv K[vpC\cov

rjpuiv avT0Kpar6pw\y] (Septimius Severus, Caracalla and Geta)
. .[7rpoa?]euYi7? lovSaiwv. The building may or may not be a
s y n a g o g u e . * T h e s t r u c t u r e w a s b u i l t t h e r e f o r e ' o n b e h a l f of t h e
e m p e r o r S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s a n d his sons C a r a c a l l a a n d G e t a . W e m a y
c o m p a r e t h e s y n a g o g u e - i n s c r i p t i o n from O s t i a , b e g i n n i n g ' P r o s a l u t e
A u g ( u s d ) ' (AE 1967, no. 77, see p. 8 2 a b o v e ) .
I n f l u e n c e f r o m G r e e k legal f o r m s c o n n e c t e d w i t h slave m a n u m i s s i o n
is a t t e s t e d b y t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s from P a n t i c a p a e u m (see a b o v e , p p . 36
ff".). T h e m a n u m i s s i o n t a k e s p l a c e CTTI TVS Trpoaevxrjs, 'in t h e s y n a g o g u e '
( p r e s u m a b l y b e f o r e t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n ) . ^ C o m p l e t e f r e e d o m is g r a n t e d
to t h e slave, b u t w i t h o n e p r o v i s o , X'*JP'? ''"H^ Trpoaevxrjv OoiTrelas n
Kal TTpoaKapTeprjoioiSj ' a p a r t from respect towards t h e synagogue a n d
regular a t t e n d a n c e ' . T h u s t h e m a n u m i t t e d s l a v e is to r e m a i n u n d e r
this o b l i g a t i o n . A p a r t i a l p a r a l l e l t o t h i s m a n u m i s s i o n a t t h e c u l t c e n t r e ,
w i t h a specific o b l i g a t i o n t o w a r d s it, t h a t is t o w a r d s t h e d e i t y , is
p r o v i d e d b y t h e w e l l - a t t e s t e d f o r m o f m a n u m i s s i o n in a n c i e n t G r e e c e
w h i c h c o n s i s t e d e i t h e r o f t h e d e d i c a t i o n of a slave to a god o r o f a
fictitious sale t o a g o d . T h e a c t is p e r f o r m e d i n t h e t e m p l e in
a c c o r d a n c e w i t h a f o r m u l a b y w h i c h t h e o w n e r , in m o s t cases, sells t h e
slave to t h e d e i t y ( a n d u s u a l l y t h e slave h i m s e l f h a s to c o n t r i b u t e t h e
purchase price). I n reality however the purchased m a n does n o t n o w
b e c o m e a t e m p l e s l a v e . H e is m a d e t h e p r o p e r t y of t h e d e i t y o n l y i n a
f o r m a l sense a n d is a c t u a l l y free, t h o u g h often s u b j e c t to t h e o b l i g a t i o n
to r e m a i n w i t h his f o r m e r o w n e r f o r a specified period.^^ Different as
the p a g a n a n d J e w i s h f o r m s a r e , t h e c o n n e x i o n is u n m i s t a k e a b l e . S e e
p. 6 5 a b o v e n o t o n l y for t h e m a n u m i s s i o n of t w o J e w i s h female
slaves a t D e l p h i , b u t for a m a n u m i s s i o n b y a J e w o f the t h i r d c e n t u r y
64. E. R e n a n , Mission de PhSnicie, p p . 7 7 4 - 6 ; I G R I I I , n o . 1106; C I J I I , n o . 972. F o r

the archaeological evidence see F . Hiittenmeister, G . Reeg, Die antiken Synagogen in Israel I
(•977). PP- 3 5 9 - 6 2 .
65. C I R B , nos. 7 0 - 1 ; 7 3 .
66. TIpoaKaprepeiv occurs also in the New T e s t a m e n t in a similar sense : Ac. 1:14; 2:42,
46; 6:4; R o m . 12:12; 13:6; Col. 4:2. T h e n o u n irpoaKapTeprjais occurs i n E p h . 6:18. O n
the inscriptions of P a n t i c a p a e u m only sincere and constant zeal for t h e synagogue, i.e.
regular a t t e n d a n c e , can b e m e a n t .
67. See L. Mitteis, Reichsrecht und Volksrecht in den dstlichen Provinzen des romischen
Kaiserreichs (1891), pp. 3 7 4 ff (referring also to t h e Christian manumissio in ecclesia, Cod.
Theod. iv 7 ; Cod. Just, i 13, etc.). A selection of t h e inscriptions relating to this form of
manumission is given i n Recueil des inscriptions juridiques grecques by R. Dareste, B.
Haussoullier and T . Reinach I I . 2 - 3 (1904), p p . 233—318 ( p . 233 gives further references).
See e.g. M . Bloch, Die Freilassungsbedingungen der delphischen Freilassungsinschriften (1914); R.
D a u x , Delphes au if et au f siecles (1936), p p . 46 fF.; W. L. Westermann, T h e P a r a m o n e
as General Service Contract', J J P 2 (1948), p p . 3-50. For t h e clause indicating consent by
heirs or relatives see W. L . W e s t e r m a n n , ' E x t i n c d o n of Claims in Slave Sales a t Delphi',
J J P 4 (1950), pp. 4 9 - 6 1 . C f also F. Pringsheim, The Greek Law of Sale ( 1 9 5 0 ) , p p . 184 ff.
io6 § 3 1 . Judaism in the Diaspora
B.C., c a r r i e d o u t a t t h e s h r i n e o f A m p h i a r a o s a t O r o p o s in B o e o t i a .
E s p e c i a l l y if t h e P a n t i c a p a e u m d o c u m e n t s a r e held to i m p l y a n
o b l i g a t o r y c o n v e r s i o n o f the freed slave t o J u d a i s m at t h e m o m e n t of
m a n u m i s s i o n , this w o u l d p r o v i d e a close p a r a l l e l t o the p a g a n f o r m of
s a l e to a d e i t y . A n i n t e r e s t i n g i n t e r m e d i a t e case is the d e d i c a t i o n to
T h e o s H y p s i s t o s f r o m G o r g i p p i a ( C I R B , n o . 1 1 2 3 , c f n o s . 1 1 2 4 - 8 , see
p . 37 a b o v e ) , w h e r e it is s t a t e d of t h e o w n e r t h a t h e h a s d e d i c a t e d a
s l a v e - w o m a n to t h e proseuche. T h e G r e e k i n f l u e n c e in t h e d o c u m e n t s
f r o m P a n t i c a p a e u m also a p p e a r s u n m i s t a k e a b l y in t h e c l a u s e d e c l a r i n g
t h a t t h e heirs also h a v e g i v e n t h e i r a s s e n t (cf n . 67).
A n o t h e r p a r a l l e l to motifs f o u n d o n p a g a n G r e e k i n s c r i p t i o n s is
p r o v i d e d b y the J e w i s h e p i t a p h s from S m y r n a , H i e r a p o l i s , T l o s in
L y c i a a n d C o r y c u s in Cilicia (see a b o v e , p p . 1 9 ff^.). T h e y t h r e a t e n t h e
u n a u t h o r i z e d user of t h e g r a v e w i t h a fine w h i c h is p a y a b l e in p a r t t o a
c i t y or I m p e r i a l t r e a s u r y , in p a r t t o the J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y . A c c o r d i n g
t o the i n s c r i p t i o n from S m y r n a ( p . 20) the g u i l t y p a r t y is o b l i g e d t o
p a y to the i m p e r i a l t r e a s u r y 1500 denarii a n d t o the 'ethnos of t h e
loudaioV 1000 denarii. T h e i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m H i e r a p o l i s (p. 27)
s t i p u l a t e s o n l y t h o s e fines w h i c h a r e to b e p a i d t o t h e J e w i s h
c o m m u n i t y , t h e laos of t h e loudaioi o r t h e katoikia of t h e loudaioi l i v i n g in
H i e r a p o l i s ; a t the same time the second inscription from Hierapolis
o r d e r s a f u r t h e r c o m p e n s a t i o n in f a v o u r o f t h e i n f o r m e r . T h e i n s c r i p t i o n
f r o m T l o s ( p . 33) b r e a k s off" a t the p o i n t w h e r e it is s t a t e d t h a t a fine is
t o be p a i d t o t h e demos of t h e T l o a n s , t h e r e f o r e t o t h e city t r e a s u r y .
T h u s w e c a n n o t s a y w h e t h e r a f u r t h e r s t i p u l a t i o n o f a fine in f a v o u r of
t h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y t r e a s u r y f o l l o w e d . A c c o r d i n g to t h e i n s c r i p t i o n
f r o m C o r y c u s in C i l i c i a (p. 34) d a m a g e to t h e g r a v e is p u n i s h e d b y a
fine of 2500 denarii, w h i c h is to b e p a i d t o t h e I m p e r i a l t r e a s u r y .
I n s c r i p t i o n s o f this k i n d a r e n u m e r o u s e v e r y w h e r e i n Asia Minor.^^
As a p a r a l l e l t o G r e e k a n d R o m a n c u s t o m s we m u s t m e n t i o n l a s t l y
68. See G. Hirschfeld, ' U b e r die griechischen Grabinschriften, welche Geldstrafen

a n o r d n e n ' , Konigsberger Studien i (1887), p p . 8 3 - 1 4 4 ; A. Merkel, ' O b e r die
sogenannten Sepulcralmulten', Festgabe der GoUinger Juristenfakultdt fur Rud. von Jhering
(1892), p p . 79-134; E . R o h d e , Psyche II (^1898), pp. 3 4 0 - 4 ; T h . M o m m s e n , Romisches
Strafrecht (1899), pp. 812 ff.; W . Liebenam, Stddteverwaltung im romischen Kaiserreiche (1900),
p p . 37-54. For further examples see I G R , index s.v. multae sepulchrales a n d F I R A ^ I I I , pp.
257 ff. See G. Wesenberg, Vertrdge zugunsten Dritter (1949), p p . 79 ff. Cf a somewhat
different kind from t h e above inscriptions is that from A p a m e a which does not state a
fixed penalty b u t in an endrely general way refers any disturber of the grave to the k n o w n
l a w of t h e J e w s : TOV vofiov olSev TMV ElovSeaov, see above, p. 2 8 ) ; b u t there are p a g a n
parallels also for this (Merkel, pp. 113-15). O n C h r i s d a n epitaphs in Phrygia the usual
formula is lorat avTO) Trpos TOV Qeov. But t h e threat of a fine also occurs, see W . R a m s a y ,
Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia 1.1-2 (1895-7), PP- 514-68, 717 ff. See L . Robert, Hellenica
X I - X I I (i960), pp. 3 9 9 - 4 0 6 ; E. Gibson, ' A U n i q u e Chrisdan E p i t a p h from the U p p e r
T e m b r i s Valley', BASF 12 (1975), pp. 151-7; T . Drew-Bear, Nouvelles inscriptions de
Phrygie (1978), p p . 106 ff., nos. 44, nos. 44-8.
II.2. Constitutional Position of the Communities 107
also t h e b e s t o w a l of titles a n d offices o n w o m e n . T h e r e a r e m a n y

e x a m p l e s of w o m e n receiving t h e t i t l e a n d office of prjtanis, stephanephoros
gymnasiarchos, agonothetes, or dekaprotos^^ I n L a t i n i n s c r i p t i o n s t h e r e
occurs t h e title mater collegi.Indeed w o m e n a r e f o u n d as a c t u a l officials
of associations.^' T h e s e p a r a l l e l s a r e c e r t a i n l y r e l e v a n t t o use of titles
archisynagogos ( a b o v e , p . l o i ) , 'presbytera a n d archisynagogissd' (p. 7 2 ) ,
presbeteresa ( p . 63) a.nd mater synagoguae ( p . l o i ) a m o n g J e w s . ^ ^
I n o t h e r cases w h e r e t h e r e a r e c l e a r p a r a l l e l s , it is n o t c e r t a i n w h i c h
of t h e t w o sides m a y c l a i m t h e p r i o r i t y . I n p a g a n c u l t associations t h e r e
o c c u r s from t i m e t o t i m e the d e s i g n a t i o n proseuche a p p l i e d to a b u i l d i n g
for d i v i n e w o r s h i p , a n d officials w i t h t h e titles sjnagogos a n d archi
synagogos (see vol. I I , p p . 429—31; 4 3 6 ) . B u t t h e e v i d e n c e for this is so
isolated a n d m o r e o v e r so l a t e t h a t t h e possibility of b o r r o w i n g f r o m
J u d a i s m cannot be excluded.
T h e influence of p a g a n models o n t h e structure ofjewish Diaspora
c o m m u n i t i e s s h o u l d n o t be o v e r - e m p h a s i z e d , in s p i t e of w h a t has j u s t
b e e n s a i d . It c o n c e r n s a l m o s t exclusively e x t e r n a l f e a t u r e s ; c e r t a i n l y t h e
i d e a of t h e a c c e p t a n c e o f G r e e k or R o m a n l a w on t h e p a r t of t h e J e w i s h
c o m m u n i t i e s , to a n y significant e x t e n t , is t o b e rejected. O n t h e
c o n t r a r y , t h e i n d e p e n d e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e c o m m u n i t i e s h a d as its
specific o b j e c t t h a t n o t o n l y J e w i s h w o r s h i p b u t also J e w i s h l a w s h o u l d
be a p p l i e d a m o n g J e w s e v e r y w h e r e . As f a r as t h e a u t h o r i t i e s a l l o w e d it
( a n d w e shall see t h a t this w a s t o a g r e a t e x t e n t the case) t h e J e w s
enjoyed even in t h e D i a s p o r a t h e i r o w n c o u r t s w h i c h f u n c t i o n e d
' a c c o r d i n g to t h e a n c e s t r a l l a w s ' , see J o s . Ant. x i v 10, 17 ( 2 3 5 ) .
2. Constitutional Position of the Communities

W i t h i n the f r a m e w o r k of t h e G r a e c o - R o m a n w o r l d t h e J e w i s h
communities were not a whoUy unique phenomenon. Overseas
s e t t l e m e n t a n d t r a d e h a d b e e n p r a c t i s e d e v e n in r e m o t e a n t i q u i t y by
N e a r E a s t e r n p e o p l e s , a b o v e a l l by t h e P h o e n i c i a n s , w h o w e r e a t t r a c t e d
to t h e w e s t n o t o n l y for fleeting j o u r n e y s b u t for l a s t i n g s e t t l e m e n t . T h e
form of s e t t l e m e n t v a r i e d h o w e v e r a c c o r d i n g t o t h e level of c u l t u r e in
t h e w e s t e r n p e o p l e s . As l o n g as t h e P h o e n i c i a n s still a p p e a r e d as t h e
b e a r e r s of a d o m i n a n t c u l t u r e , t h e y f o u n d e d t h e i r o w n cities, w h i c h
6 9 . See e.g. V . C h a p o t , La province romaine proconsulaire d'Asie (1904), pp. 1 5 8 - 6 3 ; R.

M a c M u l l e n , ' W o m e n i n Public in the R o m a n Empire', Historia 29 (1980), p p . 208—18;
R. van Bremen, ' W o m e n and Wealth', in A . Cameron a n d A. K u h r t (eds.), Images of
Women in Antiquity (1983), pp. 223-42.
70. ILS i n , index, p. 723. Cf. Waltzing, op. cit. I V , pp. 369 f
71. C I L V I , n o . 8639, or X , no. 6637 (list of the four a n n u a l officials of an association,
a m o n g w h o m several women a p p e a r ) . F u r t h e r material in Waltzing, op. cit. I V , p. 255.
72. See now t h e detailed study by B. Brooten, Women Leaders in the Ancient Synagogue
( B r o w n J u d a i c Studies X X X V I , 1982).
I o8 § 3 1 . Judaism in the Diaspora
f u n c t i o n e d as p e r m a n e n t s e t t l e m e n t s from w h i c h a g r i c u l t u r e , t r a d e a n d
m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n s w e r e c o n d u c t e d . T h i s h a p p e n e d especially in t h e
w e s t e r n h a l f o f the M e d i t e r r a n e a n , i n N o r t h Africa a n d S p a i n . ' L a t e r ,
a n d a b o v e all i n p l a c e s w h e r e a d e v e l o p e d c u l t u r e w a s a l r e a d y p r e s e n t ,
the e a s t e r n e r s c o u l d settle o n l y a s aliens ( n o n - c i t i z e n s ) w i t h i n t h e
political f r a m e w o r k of t h e G r a e c o - R o m a n w o r l d . B u t e v e n u n d e r t h e s e
c o n d i t i o n s t h e y f o r m e d d i s t i n c t u n i t s w h i c h fostered n o t o n l y t h e
m a t e r i a l b u t also t h e s p i r i t u a l interests of t h e g r o u p , a b o v e all i n
m a i n t a i n i n g t h e f o r m of w o r s h i p of t h e h o m e l a n d . T h e l a n g u a g e of t h e
h o m e l a n d too they r e t a i n e d for a relatively l o n g time.^ Besides t h e
P h o e n i c i a n s i t was p a r t i c u l a r l y E g y p t i a n s w h o i n t h e G r e e k a n d
R o m a n p e r i o d e m i g r a t e d to all the chief c e n t r e s of t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n
Sea a n d f o r m e d c o m m u n a l o r g a n i s a t i o n s t h e r e . T h u s , just as t h e r e w e r e
J e w i s h D i a s p o r a c o m m u n i t i e s , so t h e r e w e r e also P h o e n i c i a n , E g y p t i a n ,
etc. S o m e illustrative e v i d e n c e for this is as follows:^
I . I n Delos a n i n s c r i p t i o n o f 1 5 4 - 3 a t t e s t s a KOIVOV TOJV Tvpucov
'HpaKXe'iaTCJv ipvopcov Kal vavKXrjpcjv which held regular assemblies
{synodoi) for w o r s h i p , a n d also d e a l t w i t h o t h e r c o n c e r n s o f the koinon.^
E a r l i e r c o n n e c t i o n s of T y r i a n s w i t h D e l o s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d b y a b i l i n g u a l
i n s c r i p t i o n (in G r e e k a n d P h o e n i c i a n , f o u r t h c e n t u r y B . c ) a c c o r d i n g
to w h i c h t r a d e r s f r o m T y r e d e d i c a t e d to A p o l l o in Delos s t a t u e s
s y m b o l i s i n g t h e cities of T y r e a n d Sidon.^ I n t h e s a m e w a y t h e r e was i n
D e l o s a koinon of t r a d e r s a n d s h i p p e r s f r o m B e r y t u s w h o w o r s h i p p e d
P o s e i d o n . ^ A n o t h e r i n s c r i p t i o n , w h o s e o p e n i n g is lost, r e c o r d s t h e
h o n o u r s v o t e d b y a synodos to t w o of its b e n e f a c t o r s . F r o m t h e r e f e r e n c e
to t h e E g y p t i a n m o n t h M e c h e i r it a p p e a r s t h a t this is a n a s s o c i a t i o n of
E g y p t i a n s settled in D e l o s . '
1. For this see t h e works cited in vol. II, p . 60, n. 183, a n d also C. R. Whittaker, ' T h e
Western Phoenicians: colonisation a n d assimilation', P C P h S 200 (1974), pp. 5 8 - 7 9 ; H .
G. Niemeyer (ed.), Phonizierim Westen (1982).
2. T h e Phoenician and Punic inscriptions published in C I S I extend beyond t h e time of
Alexander the Great. A p a r t from those found in Phoenicia itself (nos. 1—9) they divide
into the following regions: Cyprus (nos. 1 0 - 9 6 ) ; Egypt (nos. 9 7 - 1 1 3 ) ; Delos (no. 114);
Athens (nos. 115-121); M a l t a a n d Gozo (nos. 122-132); Sicily (nos. 133-138); Sardinia
(nos. 139-163); Praeneste in I t a l y (no. 164); Marseilles (no. 165); Carthage (nos. 166
ff.); see further K A I , nos. 3 0 - 1 7 3 ; M. G. Guzzo Amadasi, Le iscrizioni fenicie epuniche delle
colonie in Occidente (1967), and cf F. Millar, 'The Phoenician Cities: A Case-Study of
Hellenisation', P C P h S 209 (1983), pp. 55-71.
3. Cf also the collections m a d e by W. L i e b e n a m , Jûr Geschichte und Organisation des
romischen Vereinswesens (1890), p p . 8 9 - 9 7 ; E. Z i e b a r t h , Das griechische Vereinswesen (1896),
pp. 26-33, 121-3.
4. I D , n o . 1519. See P h . Bruneau, Recherches sur les cultes de Delos d I'ipoque hellinistique et a
I'ipoque impiriale (1970), p . 622.
5. C I S I, no. 114; ID, n o . 50.
6. O G I S , no. 5 9 1 ; I D , nos. 1520; 1772-96; 2 3 2 3 - 7 ; 2611. See esp. B r u n e a u , op. cit.,
pp. 622-30.
7. P. Rousscl, Les cultes igyptiens a Dilos (1915-16), p . 204, no. 2 1 6 ; ID, n o . 1521.
II.2. Constitutional Position oJ the Communities 109
2. I n A t h e n s t h e r e lived aliens f r o m a l l regions o f the civilized w o r l d .

I n the s t a n d a r d c o l l e c t i o n t h e n u m b e r of t h e e p i t a p h s o f aliens f o u n d
t h e r e , d a t i n g to t h e p e r i o d f r o m t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y B . C . to t h e R o m a n
e m p i r e , c o m e s t o 2649, w h i c h a d m i t t e d l y i n c l u d e s p e o p l e f r o m
o t h e r G r e e k c i t i e s ; b u t a v e r y h i g h p r o p o r t i o n is f u r n i s h e d b y p e o p l e
from A s i a M i n o r a n d the L e v a n t . H e r e t o o t h e P h o e n i c i a n s a n d
Egyptians were organized in independent corporations, which were
a l l o w e d to b u i l d t e m p l e s in t h e P i r a e u s ( n o t in t h e c i t y ) . T h e m o s t
i m p o r t a n t e v i d e n c e for the c o m m u n i t y of S i d o n i a n s is a P h o e n i c i a n
i n s c r i p t i o n w h i c h w a s d i s c o v e r e d i n t h e P i r a e u s i n 1887.^ I t is d a t e d
from t h e fifteenth y e a r of t h e S i d o n i a n s . I f this is t h e S i d o n i a n e r a
k n o w n from o t h e r e v i d e n c e , w h i c h b e g a n i n i n B . C . , t h e i n s c r i p t i o n
w o u l d b e l o n g to t h e y e a r 96 B . C . ; b u t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e l e t t e r - f o r m s of
t h e G r e e k t e x t it is c e r t a i n l y c o n s i d e r a b l y o l d e r , a n d m o s t p r o b a b l y
d a t e s t o the m i d - t h i r d c e n t u r y B . C . T h e P h o e n i c i a n t e x t r e c o r d s t h a t
t h e c o m m u n i t y o f S i d o n i a n s h a s b e s t o w e d the h o n o u r of a g o l d e n
crown u p o n a certain S a m a b a a l , son o f M a g o n , w h o as a c o m m u n a l
oflRcial h a d b u i l t t h e f o r e c o u r t of t h e t e m p l e o f the g o d B a a l - S i d o n . T h e
G r e e k t e x t r u n s : ' T h e koinon of t h e S i d o n i a n s ( h o n o u r s ) D i o p e i t h e s the
Sidonian' (Diopeithes is t h e a p p r o x i m a t e Greek rendering of
S a m a b a a l ) . T h e S i d o n i a n s in A t h e n s w e r e , t h e n , at t h a t t i m e
o r g a n i z e d as a n a s s o c i a t i o n , a n d h a d t h e i r o w n t e m p l e in t h e P i r a e u s .
E p i t a p h s of S i d o n i a n s h a v e b e e n f o u n d in c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r s in
A t h e n s . T h e earliest a r e b i l i n g u a l a n d c o m e from the f o u r t h to t h i r d
c e n t u r y B . C . ' ° T h e r e l a t i o n s of S i d o n w i t h A t h e n s a r e s h o w n b y a n
A t h e n i a n decree h o n o u r i n g K i n g Straton of Sidon, a b o u t 367 B . c . ; "
8. IG I I - I I I , nos. 7882-10530. W e find here e.g. Antiochenes, Ascalonians, Berytians,

Gadarenes, Kideis a n d Salaminioi (both from Cyprus), Samaritans, Sidonians, Syrians,
Tyrians. O n t h e corporations of aliens in Athens see C. W a c h s m u t h , Die Stadt Athen im
Alterthum I I . i (1890), p p . 151-64.
9. See G. A. Cooke, Textbook of North Semitic Inscriptions (1903), no. 3 3 ; K A I , no. 6 0 ; J.
C. L. Gibson, Textbook of Syrian Semitic Inscriptions I I I : Phoenician Inscriptions (1982), n o . 41.
See F. Millar, op. cit. ( n . 2 above), p . 6 1 ; J . Teixidor, 'L'assemblee legislative en Phenicie
d'apres les inscripdons', Syria 57 (1980), p p . 453-64.
10. Note esp. the bilingual inscriptions of the fourth century B.C., C I S I, n o . 116 = IG
l I - I I I ^ , n o . 10270 = K A I , n o . 53 = Gibson, op. cit., no. 40, a n d , from the third century,
C I S I, n o . 119 = IG I I - I I I ^ , no. 10271 = Cooke, op. cit., no. 35. A Sidonian also erected
a tombstone for an Ascalonite n a m e d Antipater i n Athens, Cooke, op. cit., n o . 32 = IG
I I - I I I , n o . 8 7 8 8 ; cf vol. I I , p . 108, n. 115. Cf for the Phoenician inscriptions in Athens
a n d Piraeus in general, C I S I, nos. 115—21. F o r Greek epitaphs of Sidonians see IG
I I - I I I ^ , nos. i o 2 6 5 a - 8 6 .
11. SIG^, no. 185 = IG I I - I I I ^ , no. 141 = M . N. T o d , Greek Historical Inscriptions II
(1948), n o . 139. See R . A. Moysey, ' T h e Date of the Strato of Sidon Decree ( I G II ,
141)', A J A H I (1976), pp. 182-9. By t h e decree K i n g Strato of Sidon was granted
proxenia; at the same time symbola were agreed u p o n by which Sidonian ambassadors to
Athens a n d Athenian ambassadors to Sidon could establish their identity. I n a rider it
was decreed t h a t Sidonians w h o h a d citizenship status i n Sidon and visited Athens only
no § 3 1 . Judaism in the Diaspora
by t h e i n s c r i p t i o n o n the b a s e o f a s t a t u e w h i c h w a s set u p i n A t h e n s t o
Philocles ' K i n g of t h e S i d o n i a n s ' ( a b o u t 3 0 0 - 2 8 0 B . C . ) , " ^ a n d also b y
o t h e r i n c i d e n t a l m e n t i o n s o f S i d o n i a n s in A t h e n s . ' ^ L i k e t h e S i d o n i a n s ,
the m e r c h a n t s from K i t i o n (in C y p r u s ) f o r m e d t h e i r o w n a s s o c i a t i o n .
As e a r l y a s 3 3 3 B . C . t h e K i t i a n m e r c h a n t s w e r e a l l o w e d b y a d e c r e e o f
the A t h e n i a n s t o b u i l d a t e m p l e to A p h r o d i t e i n t h e P i r a e u s . ' * E v i d e n c e
for t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e i r c o m m u n i t y is afforded also b y a v o t i v e
i n s c r i p t i o n to A p h r o d i t e U r a n i a by a w o m a n from K i t i o n , as also b y
several e p i t a p h s , of w h i c h two, G r e e k - P h o e n i c i a n b i l i n g u a l s , b e l o n g t o
the t h i r d c e n t u r y B . C , a n d a f r a g m e n t p e r h a p s to t h e fifth.'^ F r o m a
f r a g m e n t a r y i n s c r i p t i o n f o u n d i n t h e P i r a e u s i t c a n b e seen t h a t t h e
S a l a m i n i o i (from S a l a m i s in C y p r u s ) a l s o m a i n t a i n e d t h e c u l t o f
A p h r o d i t e a n d A d o n i s in t h e s a m e p l a c e . I t seems t h a t t h e y too f o r m e d
t h e i r o w n association.'^ F u r t h e r , e v e n before t h e P h o e n i c i a n s , t h e
E g y p t i a n s h a d o b t a i n e d p e r m i s s i o n for t h e b u i l d i n g o f a t e m p l e of Isis
in t h e P i r a e u s , as is s h o w n b y t h e d e c r e e of 3 3 3 B . C in f a v o u r of t h e
K i t i a n s ( a b o v e ) . T h i s suggests t h a t t h e S i d o n i a n s d i d n o t b u i l d t h e i r
t e m p l e o f B a a l - S i d o n u n t i l after 3 3 3 B . C
3 . I n I t a l y , P u t e o l i w a s the m a i n p o r t f o r t r a d e w i t h t h e east a n d s o
also a n i m p o r t a n t site for e a s t e r n c o m m u n i t i e s . ' ' ' A f r a g m e n t a r y
i n s c r i p t i o n from t h e y e a r A.D. 79 c o n c e r n s t h e t r a n s f e r of a d e i t y , ' t h e
for t h e sake of trade should n o t be liable t o the t a x imposed o n metoikoi o r to other

burdens.
12. IG I I - I I I * , no. 3425 = L . Moretti, Iscrizioni storiche etlenisliche I (1967), n o . 17. F o r
the complex and controversial evidence on his career see Prosopographia Ptolemaica V I
(1968), no. 15085, and J . Seibert, 'Philokles, Sohn d e r ApoUodoros, Konig der Sidonier',
Historia 19 (1970), pp. 337-51.
13. I G I I - I I I , nos. 343, 960, 1043, 2314, 2216. I n a list of offerings from t h e second
half of t h e fourth century B.C. there occurs a [ûn8i?]ov e[X€<f>]dvTLv[ov .. ypdixiiarla
<l>oiviKiKd exo[v], perhaps a votive gift offered by Phoenicians, I G I I - I I I , no. 1456. T h e
restoration ypafifiara suggests itself from a similar inscription, no. 1485.
14. P. Foucart, Des associations religieuses chez les Grecs (1873), pp. 187-9 i II-III*, no.
337 ; Tod, op. cit., no. 189. The cult of (the Phoenician) Aphrodite was served also by t h e
thiasotai of Aphrodite, three of whose decrees are preserved o n an inscripdon in t h e
Piraeus from the years 302, 301 a n d 300 B.C., P. Foucart, B C H 3 (1879), P- 5i°> "O- 7^6
= I G I I - I I I ' , no. 1261 = S I G 3 , no. 1098. T h e formation o f this thiasos is certainly closely
connected with the settlement o f the Phoenicians; b u t it would b e incorrect to identify it
with the community of t h e Kitieis.
15. T h e votive inscription is I G I I - I I I * , no. 4636. T h e epitaphs: I G I I - I I I * , n o s .
9031-6. T h e bilingual ones are : no. 9034 = C I S I , n o . 1 1 7 = K A I , no. 55, and no. 9035
= K A I , n o . 57. T h e fragmentary 9031, with three surviving Phoenician letters, is
thought to be of t h e fifth o r fourth century.
16. I I - I I I * , no. 1290. F o r e p i t a p h s o f Salaminians in A t h e n s see I G I I - I I I * , n o s . 10216
and 10217-18.
17. See C . Dubois, 'Cultes et dieux a Pouzzoles', M E F R 22 (1902), p p . 23—68; idem,
Pouzzoles antique: histoire et topographie (1907), pp. 8 3 - 1 1 0 ; R E s.v. 'Puteoli', X X I I I . 2
(1959). esp. cols. 2052-3.
• 18
h o l y g o d of S a r e p t a ' , f r o m T y r e to P u t e o l i . A n e x t e n s i v e i n s c r i p t i o n of
t h e y e a r A.D. I 74 c o n t a i n s a l e t t e r of t h e T y r i a n s s e t t l e d in P u t e o l i to
their h o m e - t o w n , in w h i c h t h e association, m u c h reduced c o m p a r e d
w i t h f o r m e r l y , b e g s for a s u b v e n t i o n from the h o m e - t o w n for t h e
m a i n t e n a n c e of t h e i r a n c e s t r a l w o r s h i p . ' ^ O n a n i n s c r i p t i o n o f the y e a r
A.D. 1 1 6 a r e m e n t i o n e d cultores lovis Heliopolitani Berytenses qui Puteolis
consistunt, e v i d e n t l y a c o m m u n i t y o f B e r y t i a n s i n PuteoU.^*'
A p a r t f r o m a s s o c i a t i o n s of m e r c h a n t s a n d o t h e r s from foreign
c o u n t r i e s t h e r e w e r e w i t h i n t h e b o u n d a r i e s of t h e G r e e k a n d R o m a n
w o r l d also r e l i g i o u s a s s o c i a t i o n s of l o c a l p e o p l e . L i k e the J e w s the
e a s t e r n e r s w h o h a d c o m e to t h e w e s t m a d e p r o p a g a n d a for t h e i r beliefs
a m o n g G r e e k s a n d R o m a n s , s o m e t i m e s w i t h g r e a t success. F r o m the
earliest t i m e s G r e e k r e l i g i o n h a d o f c o u r s e b e e n a f f e c t e d by influences
from t h e east;*' i n the H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d c u l t s o r i g i n a t i n g i n t h e N e a r
E a s t a r e a t t e s t e d w i t h i n c r e a s i n g f r e q u e n c y o n i n s c r i p t i o n s . T h e c u l t s of
E g y p t i a n deities p e n e t r a t e d e v e n to R o m e in t h e l a s t y e a r s of the
r e p u b l i c ; i n t h e i m p e r i a l p e r i o d c u l t s of S y r i a n a n d P e r s i a n o r i g i n
followed, p a r t i c u l a r l y t h a t o f M i t h r a s (for d e t a i l s s e e p p . 155—8 b e l o w ) .
T h e s e f o r e i g n c u l t s w e r e n o t as a rule m a i n t a i n e d by t h e cities o r the
R o m a n s t a t e as t h e old i n d i g e n o u s c u l t s w e r e . I t w a s a n e x c e p t i o n if a
G r e e k city o r R o m e f o r m a l l y i n t r o d u c e d a n e w c u l t . S u c h cults w e r e
n o r m a l l y o b s e r v e d by p r i v a t e a s s o c i a t i o n s w h i c h m i g h t b e p e r m i t t e d by
the city or state b u t which i n their internal organization were
i n d e p e n d e n t , a n d therefore r e l i e d for f i n a n c e o n t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s of
t h e i r m e m b e r s . I n G r e e c e t h e s e a s s o c i a t i o n s a r e e n c o u n t e r e d from the
f o u r t h c e n t u r y B . C . u n d e r t h e n a m e s thiasoi o r eranoi, w h i c h i n s p i t e of
considerable diversity collectively manifest certain common
characteristics.** I n R o m e t h e r e w e r e collegia f r o m a n c i e n t t i m e s for
18. I G R I, n o . 420 = O G I S , n o . 594, with restorations by C. C. T o r r e y , 'The Exiled

G o d of S a r e p t a ' , Berytus 9 ( 1 9 4 8 - 9 ) , pp. 4 5 - 9 . T h e inscription is d a t e d A.D. 79. T h e text
r u n s : KaretrXevafv d[77d] Tvpov els /7oTt[d]Aoi? (sic) Oeos [dyjioj [ir[apeTTTr]v6[s], rfyayev
["??] rjXeip. Kar' €TriTo[Aijv]. O n this interpretation, dependent on a dedication published
b y Torrey, deut ayiw UapanTrfvu), is = OTK is supplied a n d the phrase is taken to m e a n 'a
m a n of t h e Elim' (Phoenician priests).
19. I G X I I , n o . 830 ; I G R I, no. 4 2 1 ; O G I S , n o . 595.
20. C I L X, n o . 1634 = I L S , no. 300. I n shorter form : corpus Heliopolitanorum, ibid., no.
1579 ~ ^^"î n o . 4291. O n J u p i t e r of Heliopolis see e.g. H. Drexler, s.v. 'Heliopolitanus'
in Roscher's Lex. der griech. und rom. Mythologie I, cols. 1987-93 ; A. B. Cook, / ^ m I (1914),
p p . 5 4 9 - 7 6 ; I I I (1940), p p . 1 0 9 3 - 5 ; I G L S V I (1967), p . 38; Y . Hajjar, La triade
d'Heliopolis-Baalbek (1977; ET, 1985).
21. N o t e t h e standard work b y W. B u r k e r t , Griechische Religion der archaischen und
klassischen Epoche (1977).
22. F o r religious associations in Greece c f : P. Foucart, Des associations religieuses chez les
Grecs, thiases, eranes, orgSons, avec le texte des inscriptions relatives d ces associations (1873); E.
Ziebarth, Das griechische Vereinswesen (1896); F. Poland, Geschichte des griechischen
Vereinswesens (1909); M. P . Nilsson, Geschichte der griechischen Religion I I * (1961), pp.
v e r y v a r i e d p u r p o s e s , e s p e c i a l l y u n i o n s o f c r a f t s m e n for t h e p u r p o s e of
m u t u a l s u p p o r t , s o m e t i m e s a l s o to e n s u r e d e c e n t b u r i a l for t h e m e m b e r s
of the collegium {collegia tenuiorum, collegia funeraticia). These craft
associations also m a i n t a i n e d a c o m m o n cult. T h e r e were h o w e v e r also
associations for strictly religious purposes. All these associations
e n j o y e d official t o l e r a t i o n i n R o m e , o n l y p o l i t i c a l c l u b s b e i n g f o r b i d d e n
from the time of C a e s a r a n d Augustus.*^
A third parallel to t h e Jewish D i a s p o r a communities is afforded,
finally, b y t h e c o r p o r a t i o n s o f G r e e k s a n d R o m a n s in n o n - G r e e k or
n o n - R o m a n c o u n t r i e s . G i v e n t h e w i d e diffusion of H e l l e n i s m , h o w e v e r ,
G r e e k s h a d Httle i n c e n t i v e for t h e f o r m a t i o n o f s u c h c o r p o r a t i o n s . B u t
as a possible e x a m p l e t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m T a n a i s (on t h e N E p o i n t of t h e
P a l u s M a e o t i s - S e a o f A z o v ) m a y b e m e n t i o n e d . H e r e w e find on t h e
o n e h a n d b o t h archontes o f t h e p e o p l e of T a n a i s a n d a Hellenarches. The
n a t u r e o f this d i s t i n c t i o n however r e m a i n s unclear.** Associations of
immigrant Romans are much more frequently attested. As the
dominant power, the Romans outside Italy everywhere claimed a
special position. T h e y n o r m a l l y s u b m i t t e d neither t o taxation by t h e
cities n o r to t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n of t h e c i t y a u t h o r i t i e s ; r a t h e r t h e y f o r m e d
i n d e p e n d e n t b o d i e s w i t h i n or a l o n g s i d e t h e c o m m u n i t i e s i n w h i c h t h e y
l i v e d . E x a m p l e s of t h i s a r e a t t e s t e d i n g r e a t n u m b e r s for l a r g e p a r t s of
the R o m a n empire.*^
117-19 (associations); 119-31 (foreign cults); pp. 672-79 ( R o m a n period, foreign cults).
See esp. P h . Bruneau, Recherches sur les cultes de Dilos d I'Spoque hellenistique et d I'ipoque
impiriale (1970).
23. For t h e R o m a n collegia see e.g. D A , s.v. 'collegium'; W. Liebenam, ûr Geschichte
und Organisation des romischen Vereinswesens, drei Untersuchungen (1890) (rich in material, b u t
different types not distinguished sharply e n o u g h ) ; E . K o r n e m a n n , s.v. 'collegium' in R E
IV, cols. 380-480 (copious synopsis of m a t e r i a l ) ; J . - P . Waltzing, 'Les colleges funeraires
chez les R o m a i n s ' , Musee Beige 2 (1898), p p . 2 8 1 - 9 4 ; 3 (1899), p p . 130-57. O n the craft
associations: J.-P- Waltzing, J^tude historique sur les corporations professionelles chez les Romains
depuis les origines jusqu'd la chute de I'Empire d'Occident I - I V ( i 895-1900). T h i s is a standard
work. Supplementary material in J . - P . Waltzing, 'Recueil des inscriptions e t c .
Supplements', Musee Beige 5 (1901), p p . 6 2 - 4 ; 127-35. ^ synoptic survey is given b y J .
M a r q u a r d t , Romische Staatsverwaltung I I I (1878), pp. 131-42. Note also F . M . d e Robertis,
// fenomeno associativo nel mondo romano (1955); idem, Storia delle corporazioni e del regime
associativo nel mondo romano I-II (1971). Much material is provided by the Indices to C I L .
For the legal side note Digest xlvii 22 : de collegiis et corporibus.
24. C I R B , nos. 1237; 1242-3; 1 2 4 5 - 8 ; 1250; 1251a; 1256; 1258?; 1260? F o r
arguments against the c o m m o n assumption t h a t the Hellenarches is to be seen as a n official
of a disdnct Greek community see V . F. Gajdukevic, Das bosporanische Reich (1971), p p .
362 ff.
25. Cf W . Liebenam, -ûr Geschichte und Organisation des romischen Vereinswesens (1890),
pp. 8 9 - 9 7 ; L- Mitteis, Reichsrecht und Volksrecht in den dstlichen Provinzen des romischen
Kaiserreichs (1891), pp. 1 4 3 - 5 8 ; E. K o r n e m a n n , De civibus Romanis in provinciis imperii
consistentibus (1892); A. Schulten, De conventibus civium Romanorum sive de rebus publicis civium
Romanorum mediis inter municipium et collegium (1892); W . Liebenam, Stddteverwaltung im rom.
Kaiserreiche (1900), pp. 2 1 7 - 1 9 ; E. K o r n e m a n n s.v. 'Conventus civium R o m a n o r u m ' , R E
T h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p o s i t i o n of J e w i s h D i a s p o r a c o m m u n i t i e s was
c e r t a i n l y v e r y different in d i f f e r e n t r e g i o n s a n d periods.*^ N o g e n e r a l
isation c a n b e v a l i d , firstly b e c a u s e t h e q u e s t i o n c o n c e r n s cities a n d
local c o m m u n i t i e s in d i f f e r e n t r e g i o n s , a n d d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e s (in m o s t
cases e i t h e r G r e e k or L a t i n ) a n d o v e r a w i d e r a n g e of t i m e . S e c o n d l y ,
l o c a l l a w s a n d r i g h t s m i g h t be a f f e c t e d if t h e c i t y or c o m m u n i t y in
q u e s t i o n w a s , or c a m e to b e , w i t h i n o n e of t h e H e l l e n i s t i c k i n g d o m s ,
s u c h a s t h o s e of t h e S e l e u c i d s o r P t o l e m i e s , u n d e r t h e r u l e of the
R o m a n R e p u b U c or ( a s w a s e v e n t u a l l y t r u e of all t h o s e w e s t o f the
E u p h r a t e s ) , u n d e r the R o m a n E m p i r e . T h e s t a t u s of t h e j e w s seems to
h a v e b e e n m o r e c o m p a r a b l e n o w to o n e a n d n o w to a n o t h e r o f the
t h r e e forms of a s s o c i a t i o n m e n t i o n e d . I n A l e x a n d r i a a n d C y r e n e the
J e w s f o r m e d s e l f - g o v e r n i n g political g r o u p s . I n t h i s respect t h e i r
p o s i t i o n m a y h a v e b o r n e s o m e r e s e m b l a n c e t o t h a t of t h e conventus civium
Romanum in cities o u t s i d e I t a l y . T h e o p p o s i t e e x t r e m e is p r o v i d e d by
t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e p r i v a t e r e l i g i o u s g u i l d s of t h e n a t i v e i n h a b i t a n t s .
T h e i r m e m b e r s r e c e i v e d n o s p e c i a l political s t a t u s ; they w e r e citizens or
n o n - c i t i z e n s , like o t h e r i n h a b i t a n t s , w i t h a l l t h e i r r i g h t s a n d d u t i e s .
W h e t h e r t h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s i n a n t i q u i t y at a n y t i m e s t o o d w i t h i n
t h i s c a t e g o r y a p p e a r s d o u b t f u l ; for i n the l a t e r i m p e r i a l p e r i o d they
still, so far a s o u r k n o w l e d g e goes, e n j o y e d t h e i r o w n j u r i s d i c t i o n i n civil
a c t i o n s i n v o l v i n g t h e i r m e m b e r s . H o w e v e r , t h e p o s i t i o n o f J e w s in
R o m e , w h e r e t h e y h a d c i t i z e n r i g h t s as d e s c e n d a n t s of libertini a n d w e r e
not organized into a unity, b u t formed separate congregations
{synagogai), c a n n o t h a v e b e e n e n t i r e l y different from t h a t of o t h e r
religious a s s o c i a t i o n s . I n m o s t a r e a s h o w e v e r the p o s i t i o n of t h e J e w i s h
c o m m u n i t i e s is p e r h a p s m o r e c o m p a r a b l e w i t h t h a t of o t h e r associ
a t i o n s of i m m i g r a n t s f r o m t h e N e a r E a s t . J e w s , like P h o e n i c i a n s a n d
E g y p t i a n s , lived a s aliens w i t h i n a foreign city. Y e t i n this c o n n e x i o n
t w o t h i n g s a r e t o be n o t e d . O n t h e o n e h a n d t h e y p l a c e d g r e a t v a l u e
u p o n t h e i r o w n j u r i s d i c t i o n . I n t h a t t h i s w a s c o n c e d e d to t h e m , a t a n y
r a t e b y the R o m a n s i n t h e c o u r s e of t h e first c e n t u r y B . C . ( w h i c h i n t h e
case o f P h o e n i c i a n s , E g y p t i a n s , e t c . is u n l i k e l y ) , t h e i r p r i v i l e g e d
p o s i t i o n b o r e s o m e r e s e m b l a n c e t o t h a t of the conventus civium
Romanorum.^^ O n the o t h e r h a n d t h e y m a y h a v e h a d c i t i z e n r i g h t s in
I V (1900), cols. 1 1 7 9 - 1 2 0 0 ; J. Hatzfeld, Les trafiquants italiens dans I'Orient hellenique

(1919); A. J. N . Wilson, Emigration from Italy in the Republican Age of Rome (1966); P. A.
Brunt, Italian Manpower 225 B.C.—A.D. 14 (1971), p p . 159 ff.
26. Cf. e.g. J . J u s t e r , Les Juifs dans I'empire romain I (1914), p p . 2 1 3 - 4 2 ; 3 9 1 - 4 0 8 ; I I , p p .
1-27; S. A p p l e b a u m , ' T h e Legal Status of t h e Jewish Communities in t h e Diaspora',
J P F C I (1974), pp. 4 2 0 - 6 3 ; A. M . Rabello, ' T h e Legal Condition of t h e j e w s in the
R o m a n E m p i r e ' , A N R W I I . 13 (1980), p p . 662-762.
27. A . Schulten, De conventibus civium Romanorum, pp. 59-60 emphasized this similarity,
but too strongly, p. 5 9 : 'eiusdem fere rationis jurisque atque civium R. sunt J u d a e o r u m
conventus'. T h i s formulation overlooked the freedom from local taxation enjoyed by the
s o m e specific c i t i e s ; in s u c h i n s t a n c e s t h e y will p r e s u m a b l y h a v e c e a s e d
to b e a l i e n s {metoikoi, peregrini) a n d h a v e t a k e n t h e i r p a r t in t h e r i g h t s
a n d d u t i e s of c i t i z e n s . T h a t i n s p i t e of t h i s t h e y r e t a i n e d t h e i r s p e c i a l
s t a t u s l e d d i r e c t l y t o conflicts i n t h e s e cities.*^
A factor which remained almost completely constant was the
p o l i t i c a l t o l e r a n c e o f t h e J e w i s h r e l i g i o n , a n d a b o v e all t h a t f r e e d o m of
movement without which the Jewish communities could not have
d e v e l o p e d a life o f t h e i r o w n . I n t h e e m p i r e s of t h e P t o l e m i e s and
S e l e u c i d s the r e l i g i o u s f r e e d o m of t h e j e w s w a s t a k e n for g r a n t e d . T h e
early Ptolemies a n d Seleucids w e n t further in conceding important
political r i g h t s to J e w s living within their e m p i r e s (see p p . 126—30
b e l o w ) . P t o l e m y I I is e v e n s a i d to h a v e i n i t i a t e d t h e t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e
Jewish Law into Greek, Ptolemy III to have offered sacrifice in
Jerusalem.*^ Antiochus the Great gave orders for the grandng of
p r o t e c t i o n a n d p r i v i l e g e s for t h e T e m p l e i n J e r u s a l e m . ^ " I t s e e m s c l e a r
cives Romani.
28. T h . Mommsen, ' D e r Religionsfrevel n a c h romischen Recht', H Z 64 (1890), p p .
389-429 o n pp. 421-6, = Ges. Schr. I H (1902), p p . 389-422, argued t h a t only until the
destruction of Jerusalem were t h e j e w s regarded a s 'a people' {gens, ethnos). From t h a t
moment o n 'in t h e place of the privileged nation t h e privileged religion' appeared. While
earlier constitutional privileges h a d been valid for a l l born Jews a n d only for these, from
that time they were valid for all confessing J u d a i s m , and only for these. There is no clear
evidence t h a t the year 70 formed so clear a boundary (except indeed i n respect of t h e
payment of the two-drachma tax, see pp. 122-3 below). For what it is worth t h e
expression 'the ethnos of t h e loudaioi' c a n be found o n inscriptions of the later period, e.g.
CIJ I I , n o . 741 ( S m y r n a ) ; n o . 776: 'the laos of t h e loudaioi' (see above, p . 27); t h e
nomenclature proves t h a t it m u s t b e dated substantially after A.D. 70. Indeed it w a s
precisely later emperors who tried to prevent t h e 'religion' extending beyond the
boundaries of the people, so t h a t belonging t o the latter a n d not t h e former bestowed t h e
privilege. Nevertheless M o m m s e n ' s position h a s some justification. Jewish communities in
the earlier period can be seen as essentially associations of immigrants with specific
privileges, while l a t e r — a n d increasingly with t i m e — t h e y a r e better understood as
private associations whose special rights were continually shrinking, while on the other
h a n d their members became citizens of city communities. Cf. above, p. 9 1 .
29. For the pro-Jewish attitude of t h e early Ptolemies i n general see J o s . C. Ap. ii 4 - 5
( 3 7 ^ 4 ) . Ptolemy I I I Euergetes (or a later Ptolemy) granted t h e right of asylum t o a
Jewish proseuche i n the form possessed by p a g a n temples (CIL I I I , Suppl. n o . 6 5 8 3 ;
O G I S , n o . 129; see the text of the inscription, p. 47 above). O n the tolerant religious
policy of t h e Ptolemies i n general see W . O t t o , Priester und Tempel im hellenistischen Agypten
II (1908), p p . 261 ff.
30. Jos. Ant. xii 3, 3—4 (129—53). Antiochus, as conqueror of the country, had an
interest in winning the good opinion o f the J e w s . T h e first of the two orders is contained
in a letter (138-44), addressed t o a certain Ptolemaeus, offering every kind of gift from the
royal stores required for sacrifices a n d for t h e completion of the T e m p l e , permitting t h e
people to live according to their ancestral laws a n d exempting t h e priests from poll a n d
crown tax. See Loeb, Josephus, vol. V I I , A p p . D , and esp. t h e classic article by E.
Bickerman, 'La charte seleucide de J e r u s a l e m ' , R E J 100 (1935), p p . 4 - 3 5 . In t h e second
order, a general edict (programma), Ant. xii 3, 4 (145), it is forbidden for a foreigner to set
foot in the forecourt of t h e T e m p l e a n d for unclean animals to be brought into J e r u s a l e m .
II. 2. Constitutional Position of the Communities 115
t h a t A n t i o c h u s E p i p h a n e s , a t least, m a d e a s e r i o u s a t t e m p t t o suppress
t h e J e w i s h religion b y force.^' T h e r e s i s t a n c e s h o w e d t h a t the
u n d e r t a k i n g was i m p r a c t i c a b l e ; a n d o n the w h o l e t o l e r a n c e r e m a i n e d
t h e r u l e l a t e r as well a s e a r l i e r . A p a r t i c u l a r friend o f the J e w s was
f o u n d i n P t o l e m y V I P h i l o m e t o r , w h o e v e n a l l o w e d a J e w i s h t e m p l e to
b e b u i l t in E g y p t (see p p . 145—6 b e l o w ) . If P t o l e m y V I I P h y s c o n
a d o p t e d a hostile a t t i t u d e t o the J e w s , this c a m e a b o u t n o t o n a c c o u n t
o f t h e i r reUgion b u t of t h e i r poHtical associations.^* R o m a n legislation
See on this E. Bickerman, ' U n e proclamation seleucide relative au temple d e Jerusalem',

Syria 25 (1946-8), pp. 67-85. The Ptolemaeus to whom the first ordinance is addressed is
Ptolemaeus son of Thraseas, who in 219 B.C. was still in t h e service of Ptolemy IV
Philopator of E g y p t (Polyb. v 65, 3 ) ; in 218 he was governor of Coele-Syria a n d Phoenicia,
as a votive inscription originating from him proves, O G I S , no. 230. A n extensive
inscription from near Scythopolis, published b y Y. H . L a n d a u , ' A Greek Inscription
found n e a r Hefzibah', l E J 16 (1966), pp. 5 4 - 7 0 , emendations i n BE 1970, n o . 627, attests
h i m again as strategos and H i g h Priest in 202-1, receiving letters from a n d addressing
m e m o r a n d a to, Andochus I I I . It is probable t h a t he defected during, or just before,
A n d o c h u s ' invasion. S e e J . E . Taylor, Seleucid Rule in Palestine (Diss. Duke Univ., 1979;
University Microfilms, 1983), pp. 108 ff. A parallel to t h e privileges granted b y Antiochus
to the Jewish temple is the allowance granted b y an Antiochus (which one is not quite
certain, b u t most likely I or I I ) to the temple of Zeus i n Baetokaeke, CIL I I I , no. 184;
O G I S , n o . 262 ; C. B. Welles, Royal Correspondence in the Hellenistic Period (1934), n o . 70;
revised text, translation and extensive c o m m e n t a r y in I G L S V I I , no. 4028. N o t e the
i m p o r t a n t ardcle by H . Seyrig, 'Arados et Baetocece', Syria 28 (1951), p p . 193-206 =
idem, Antiquites Syriennes IV (1953), pp. 172-85. Antiochus h e r e grants to t h e temple of
Zeus the village of Baetokaeke with all its revenues, freedom from m a r k e t dues for the
market o n the fifteenth and last days of e a c h m o n t h , t h e right of asylum for the temple,
exemption for t h e village from liability to billeting and furnishing of post horses.
31. See vol. I , pp. 146-63 : F. Millar, ' T h e Background to t h e M a c c a b e a n Revolution',
J J S 29 (1978), p p . 1-22; cf K. B r i n g m a n n , Hellenistische Reform und Religionsverfolgung in
Judda {igS-i).
32. F o r the polidcal history of the Jews i n E g y p t in relation t o the Ptolemies see C P J I,
p p . 19-25. Josephus tells the following story of Ptolemy V I I Physcon, C. Ap. ii 5 (51-5).
After the death of Ptolemy V I , Ptolemy V I I tried to o v e r t h r o w his widow, the successor
of the first Cleopatra, whose army was c o m m a n d e d by the Jewish general Onias. While
Ptolemy V I I took the field against Onias h e ordered t h e Jews living i n Alexandria to be
thrown bound t o the elephants so t h a t they would be trampled to d e a t h by t h e m ; b u t the
elephants instead turned on the friends o f the King, w h e r e u p o n h e desisted from the
undertaking in remorse. In m e m o r y of this miraculous deliverance t h e j e w s of Alexandria
h a d celebrated an a n n u a l thanksgiving festival ever since. T h e story of the miraculous
deliverance from the elephants forms the m a i n content of the historical romance which is
known a s the T h i r d Book of the Maccabees, w h e r e in t h e same way t h e remark is added
that t h e j e w s h a v e ever since celebrated a n a n n u a l thanksgiving festival (3 Mac. 6:36).
T h e chief actor here however is called not Ptolemy Physcon ( V I I ) b u t Ptolemy
Philopator ( I V ) . Both this parallel and the content itself m a k e t h e story more than
suspect; but if this m u c h at least is historical, t h a t Ptolemy V I I showed a hosdle attitude
to t h e j e w s , the cause of this was not religious d e n o m i n a t i o n b u t their political position on
the side of Cleopatra. H . Willrich, Juden und Griechen vor der makkabdischen Erhebung (1895),
p p . 142-53; Judaica (1900), p p . 9 - 1 4 , argued t h a t Ptolemy Physcon was a friend of the
Jews. H e regarded t h e historical nucleus of 3 M a c c a b e e s as t h e events of t h e year 88-7
B.C., u n d e r Ptolemy Alexander, see Hermes 39 (1904), pp. 2 4 4 - 5 8 . The existence of
a l s o expressly r e c o g n i z e d t h e J e w s ' r i g h t t o free p r a c t i c e of t h e i r

religion, a n d p r o t e c t e d t h e m a g a i n s t c e r t a i n a t t e m p t s at s u p p r e s s i o n b y
G r e e k cities. I t w a s C a e s a r a n d A u g u s t u s in p a r t i c u l a r w h o m t h e j e w s
h a d to t h a n k for t h e i r f o r m a l r e c o g n i t i o n in t h e R o m a n e m p i r e .
J o s e p h u s h a s p r e s e r v e d for us a c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r o f official
d o c u m e n t s , Ant. x i v 1 0 ( 1 8 5 - 2 6 7 ) ; x v i 6 (160—79)—some senatus
consulta, some e x e m p t i o n s b y C a e s a r a n d A u g u s t u s , s o m e s i m i l a r
d o c u m e n t s from R o m a n m a g i s t r a t e s or g o v e r n o r s o f the l a t e R e p u b l i c
or e a r l y E m p i r e — a l l of w h i c h h a v e the p u r p o s e of a s s u r i n g to t h e j e w s
t h e r i g h t to p r a c t i c e t h e i r r e l i g i o n a n d to r e t a i n t h e i r privileges.^^
C a e s a r ' s policy w a s in g e n e r a l r e p r e s s i v e a s r e g a r d s a s s o c i a t i o n s in
R o m e , since a t t h a t t i m e t h e y s e r v e d v a r i o u s p o l i t i c a l e n d s , a n d for t h i s
r e a s o n C a e s a r b a n n e d a l l collegia o t h e r t h a n t h o s e e x i s t i n g f r o m e a r l i e r
times.^* T h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s w e r e h o w e v e r expressly e x c e p t e d
f r o m t h i s b a n : t h e y w e r e also n o t t o be o b s t r u c t e d from m a k i n g
c o m m u n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s or from h o l d i n g assemblies.^^ I t was b y
i n v o k i n g this edict t h a t , for e x a m p l e , a R o m a n official w a r n e d t h e
a u t h o r i t i e s o f P a r o s ( o r P a r i u m ) n o t to h i n d e r the J e w s in t h e
p e r f o r m a n c e of t h e i r religious customs.^^ S i m i l a r l y i t is t o the i n f l u e n c e
of C a e s a r t h a t w e s h o u l d n o d o u b t t r a c e t h e four official d o c u m e n t s
w h i c h J o s e p h u s h a s b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r i n Ant. xiv 10, 2 0 - 4 ( 2 4 1 - 6 1 ) .
T h e y a l l serve d i r e c t l y or i n d i r e c t l y t o g u a r a n t e e t h e J e w s in A s i a
M i n o r t h e u n o b s t r u c t e d p r a c t i c e o f t h e i r r e l i g i o n . ^ ' After the d e a t h of
synagogue inscriptions 'on behalf of Physcon (vol. II, p . 426) may perhaps lend some
credence to the a r g u m e n t for friendly relations between h i m a n d t h e j e w s (see CPJ I , p .
23)-
33. O n these documents cf : L. Mendelssohn, ' S e n a d consulta R o m a n o r u m quae sunt
in J o s e p h i Antiquitadbus', Acta societatis phil. Lips. ed. Ritschelius 5 (1875), pp. 8 7 - 2 8 8 ; B.
Niese, 'Bemerkungen iiber die Urkunden bei Josephus Archaol. B. X I I , X I V , X V I ' ,
Hermes 11 (1876), pp. 466-88. For subsequent bibliography see Loeb, Josephus, vol. V I I ,
A p p . J ; H . Schreckenberg, Bibliographie zu Flavius Josephus (1968) ; E. M . Smallwood, The
Jews under Roman Rule (1976), ch. 6 a n d A p p . B ; cf. vol. I, p p . 272-5. See also C . Saulnier,
'Lois romaines sur les Juiis selon Flavius Josephe', R B 88 (1981), pp. 1 6 1 - 9 8 ; T. Rajak,
' W a s there a R o m a n Charter for the Jews?', J R S 74 (1984), pp. 107-23.
34. Suet. Div. lul. 4 2 : ' C u n c t a collegia praeter antiquitus consdtuta distraxit'. T h e
embargo was later upheld by Augustus, Suet. Div. Aug. 3 2 : 'Collegia praeter a n d q u a et
legitima dissolvit'.
35. Ant. xiv 10, 8 (215).
36. Ant. xiv 10, 8 (213-16). T h e text of these d o c u m e n t s is so corrupt that the R o m a n
names c a n often not be determined. T h e n a m e of the official from w h o m the letter t o the
Parians w a s despatched reads in the text which has come d o w n t o us, '/ouAios Faios, w h i c h
must be a corruption.
37. T h e four official documents a r e : (i) A letter of t h e authorities a t Laodicea t o the
proconsul, presumably of Asia, in which they give assurances t h a t they will n o t obstruct
t h e existing order concerning the J e w s in regard to celebration of the sabbath a n d the
practice of their religious customs. Ant. xiv 10, 20 (241-3). T h e name of the proconsul is
n o t Faios 'PajSiAAios o r 'PajSeAAios, a s the transmitted text of J o s e p h u s ' text has it, b u t ,
according to a n inscripdon found in Delos, Faios 'Pa/Sijpios (i.e. R a b i r i u s ) . See T h .
Caesar the t w o contending parties rivalled o n e another i n maintaining

J e w i s h p r i v i l e g e s . O n o n e s i d e P . C o r n e l i u s D o l a b e l l a , a s u p p o r t e r of
Antonius, who in 43 B . C . made himself master of Asia Minor,
c o n f i r m e d to t h e J e w s o f Asia M i n o r t h e f r e e d o m f r o m m i l i t a r y service
a n d t h e free r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e w h i c h p r e v i o u s g o v e r n o r s h a d p r e s e r v e d
for t h e m , a n d m a d e this k n o w n t o t h e a u t h o r i t i e s in Ephesus b y a
letter.^^ O n t h e o t h e r s i d e M . l u n i u s B r u t u s , w h o e a r l y in 42 B . C w a s
preparing for war against Antonius and Octavian, directed the
Ephesians to pass a decree to t h e eflfect that Jews should not be
o b s t r u c t e d i n c e l e b r a t i n g t h e s a b b a t h o r in t h e r e s t of t h e i r religious
customs.The effect of these measures, and further similar
pronouncements b y Augustus and Agrippa, was to secure a general
toleration and protection of Jewish communities in the Roman
Empire.*" T h a t even the J e w s in the city of R o m e enjoyed this
Homolle, B C H 6 (1882), pp. 608-12 ; T h . M o m m s e n , Ephemeris epigr. V , p. 6 8 ; C I L I I I ,

suppl. no. 7239 = I*, n o . 773 = ID, n o . 1859; cf. M R R I I , p. 4 8 1 .
(2) A letter from the proconsul of Asia to the authorities in Miletus, i n which the latter
are warned not to hinder t h e Jews in celebrating the sabbath or i n practising their
religious customs or administering their assets according to their usual manner. Ant. xiv
10, 21 (244-6). T h e proconsul will almost certainly be P. Servilius Isauricus, well attested
as proconsul in 4 6 to 4 4 B.C., see D . Magie, Roman Rule in Asia Minor (1950), ch. 17, nn.
4 1 - 2 ; M R R I I , p p . 2 9 8 ; 3 0 9 - 1 0 ; 329.
(3) Decree of the Halicarnassians allowing t h e Jews ra re ad^âra. dynv Kal r d Upd
avvreXeiv Kara roiis 'lovSaiKoiis vofiovs Kal rds trpoaevxas iroieiaBai npos rfj daXdaar) Kara TO
ndrpiov eSos, Ant. xiv l o , 23 (256-8) ; on t h e recital of prayers o n the seashore see above.
Vol. I I , p p . 441, 444. O n the correction of t h e names in t h e letter to t h e Milesians a n d in
the decree of Halicamassus, J o s . Ant. xiv 10 (245-56), see also A. Wilhelm, J O A I 8
(1905), p p . 238-42.
(4) Decree of the city of Sardis t h a t Jews a r e to b e allowed to assemble on days listed in
advance by t h e m , for celebration of their religious customs; further that a place be
allotted specially to t h e m by t h e city authorities 'for building a n d living' {els oiKoSonlav
Kat oiKTjaiv avTwv), Ant. xiv 10, 24 ( 2 5 9 - 6 1 ) . It seems however from the petition o f the
J e w s previously mentioned h e r e t h a t it is a m a t t e r only of building a synagogue. These
official d o c u m e n t s seem to relate to a single legislative a c t in R o m e , probably a senatus
consultum. But its exact d a t e a n d character c a n n o t b e recovered.
38. Ant. xiv 10, 11-12 (223-7). See MRR I I , p. 3 4 4 .
39. Ant. xiv 10, 25 (262-4). O n this, Mendelssohn, Acta V, 251-4. I n the transmitted
text the n a m e a p p e a r s as MdpKw 'lovXiifi nofiirrjio) vlu> Bpovrov (Niese: MdpKw TovXiw
riovTiov vldt BpovTiu). See M R R I I , p . 461.
40. T h e expression religio licita is never f o u n d ; only Tertullian, Apol. 2 1 , uses the p h r a s e :
'insignissima religio, certe licita'; it is not a technical t e r m in R o m a n jurisprudence. This
speaks r a t h e r o f collegia licita {Dig. xlvii 2 2 ) . T h u s the crucial point was whether the
adherents of a cult would be allowed to organize themselves corporately and to assemble
for the practice of their cult. Hence t h e formula, coire, convenire licet, which often recurs in
edicts of toleration in favour of Jews. Cf also Philo, Leg. 4 0 ( 3 1 1 - 2 0 ) ; c f Cassius D i o Ix 6
(ban by C l a u d i u s ) ; see pp. 7 7 - 8 above. M a t e r i a l on the formula coire licet is collected by
Waltzing, Etude historique sur les corporations professionelles IV, p p . 5 8 1 - 3 . T h e right of
assembly was a p a r a m o u n t m a t t e r also for the constitutional position of Christians, as is
d e a r particularly from Tertullian, Apol. 38—9. See also Juster, Les Juifs dans I'empire romain
1, pp. 338-90.
t o l e r a t i o n a n d p r o t e c t i o n is a t t e s t e d b y P h i l o for the t i m e o f A u g u s t u s . * '

N e v e r t h e l e s s i t is p o s s i b l e , by a n a l o g y w i t h o t h e r foreign c u l t s , t h a t t h e
J e w s in R o m e u n t i l t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y A.D. w e r e n o t a l l o w e d t o
p r a c t i c e their r e l i g i o n w i t h i n t h e pomerium^^
T w o i m p o r t a n t p o w e r s w e n t a l o n g w i t h p u b l i c r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e
J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s a n d t h e i r r e l i g i o n : t h e r i g h t o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of
their o w n finances, a n d j u r i s d i c t i o n as it c o n c e r n e d t h e i r o w n
m e m b e r s . * ^ T h e f o r m e r is e m p h a s i z e d several times in t h e d o c u m e n t s
f r o m t h e t i m e of C a e s a r . * * I t w a s o f p a r t i c u l a r i m p o r t a n c e to t h e J e w s
b e c a u s e only t h u s c o u l d t h e y d i s c h a r g e t h e i r o b l i g a t i o n s t o w a r d s t h e
T e m p l e a t J e r u s a l e m a n d send there the dues required b y the L a w . It
w a s precisely this e x p o r t of m o n e y f r o m t h e p r o v i n c e s w h i c h s e e m s
h o w e v e r to h a v e b e e n a s p e c i a l s t u m b U n g - b l o c k for t h e p a g a n
authorities. W e k n o w from Cicero's speech o n behalf of Flaccus t h a t
t h e l a t t e r d u r i n g h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of A s i a ( 6 2 - 6 1 B . C . ) o r d e r e d t h e
confiscation o f such J e w i s h t e m p l e m o n e y in v a r i o u s places.*^ T h e c i t y
a u t h o r i t i e s in Asia also a p p e a r to h a v e p r o c e e d e d i n the s a m e m a n n e r
e v e n after t h e edicts of C a e s a r ' s t i m e a n d in s p i t e o f t h e m . T h e official
d o c u m e n t s f r o m t h e t i m e of A u g u s t u s t h e r e f o r e c o n c e r n t h e m s e l v e s
chiefly w i t h this p o i n t . J u s t a s A u g u s t u s a l l o w e d t h e e x p o r t of s u c h
m o n e y from R o m e itself,*^ so it w a s i m p r e s s e d o n the cities of A s i a
M i n o r a n d C y r e n e t h a t t h e y w e r e t o p l a c e n o h i n d r a n c e i n t h e p a t h of
4 1 . Philo, Le^. 23 (156-7)-

4 2 . Cf. J . M a r q u a r d t , Romische Staatsverwaltung I I I , p . 35; O . Gilbert, Geschichte und
Topographie der Stadt Rom im Altertum\\\ (1890),pp. 109-15; a n d below, pp. 157-8. I t r e m a i n s
uncertain whether Jewish synagogues should in this respect be classified with p a g a n cults,
which required temples, priests and sacrifices.
4 3 . O n the parallel provided by Greek associations see E. Ziebarth, Das griechische
Vereinswesen (1896), pp. 156-83. O n administration of the finances ofjewish communities
see J . Juster, Les Juifs dans I'empire romain I, p p . 3 7 7 - 8 8 ; o n jurisdiction, Juster, op. cit., I I ,
pp. 93-214-
44. Caesar himself allowed t h e j e w s xpij/u-ara avveia(f>€p€iv, Ant. xiv 10, 8 (215). I n the
letter of t h e proconsul of Asia t o the Milesians, Ant. xiv 10, 21 (245), t h e j e w s a r e allowed
TOVS Kapnovs fifraxfipiteadai Kadws fOos iarlv ainois.
45. Cicero, pro Flacco 28-67—9 • ' C u m a u r u m l u d a e o r u m nomine quotannis ex Italia et
ex omnibus provinciis Hierosolyma exportari soleret, Flaccus sanxit edicto, n e ex Asia
exportari liceret . . . U b i ergo crimen est ? quoniam q u i d e m furtum nusquam reprehendis,
edictum probas, iudicatum fateris, quaesitum et p r o l a t u m palam non negas, actum esse
per viros primarios res ipsa d e c l a r a t : Apameae manifesto deprehensum, ante pedes
praetoris in foro expensum esse auri pondo centum paullo minus p e r Sex. Caesium,
equitem R o m a n u m , castissimum hominem a t q u e i n t e g e r r i m u m ; Laodiceae viginti p o n d o
paullo amplius p e r hunc L. Peducaeum, iudicem nostrum ; Adramyttii p e r Cn. Domitium
l e g a t u m ; Pergami non multum.' See A. J . Marshall, 'Flaccus and the J e w s of Asia
(Cicero, Pro Flacco 28-67-9)', Phoenix 29 (1975), p p . 139-54- Earlier Mithradates h a d
ordered t h e confiscation ofjewish money in Cos, Ant. xiv 7, 2 ( n 2). Cf p . 69 above.
46. Philo, Leg. 23 (156-7). T h e fact of export ex Italia is mentioned also by Cicero in the
passage given above.
t h e J e w s o v e r t h i s matter.*^ E m b e z z l e m e n t of s u c h m o n i e s is t o be
p u n i s h e d as t e m p l e robbery.*^ T h a t t h e s e rules w e r e still in force a t the
t i m e of t h e w a r of V e s p a s i a n is e v i d e n t from a n i n c i d e n t a l u t t e r a n c e of
Titus.*9
O f e q u a l i m p o r t a n c e for the J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s w a s t h e i r o w n
j u r i s d i c t i o n . S i n c e t h e M o s a i c L a w is c o n c e r n e d n o t o n l y w i t h m a t t e r s
of cult b u t a l s o w i t h civil life, a n d p l a c e s the l a t t e r u n d e r t h e d i r e c t i o n
of the d i v i n e L a w , it was a n i n t o l e r a b l e s i t u a t i o n for t h e J e w i s h
c o n s c i e n c e for J e w s t o be j u d g e d b y a n y o t h e r b u t J e w i s h law.^°
W h e r e v e r J e w s w e n t t h e y t o o k w i t h t h e m t h e i r o w n law a n d h e l d c o u r t s
of j u s t i c e a c c o r d i n g to i t s d i r e c t i o n for t h e m e m b e r s of t h e i r c o m m u n i t y .
S o m e reflections o f this a p p e a r in t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t . T h e a p o s t l e P a u l
o b t a i n e d full p o w e r s f r o m t h e S a n h e d r i n in J e r u s a l e m for t h e a r r e s t of
a n y J e w s l i v i n g i n D a m a s c u s w h o b e h e v e d i n C h r i s t ( A c . 9:2). H e also
h a d t h o s e i n o t h e r p l a c e s t h r o w n i n t o p r i s o n a n d flogged ( A c . 2 2 : 1 9 ;
2 6 : 1 1 ) . L a t e r , as a C h r i s t i a n , he h i m s e l f was flogged five t i m e s by J e w s
(2 C o r . 1 1 : 2 4 ) ; this s e e m s to refer n o t t o J u d a e a b u t t o J e w i s h
c o m m u n i t i e s in t h e D i a s p o r a . I n C o r i n t h t h e p r o c o n s u l G a l l i c i n s t r u c t s
t h e J e w s to t a k e their c o m p l a i n t a g a i n s t P a u l t o t h e i r o w n f o r u m ,
b e c a u s e he is willing t o be j u d g e o n l y i f P a u l has c o m m i t t e d a felony,
b u t n o t if i t is s i m p l y a m a t t e r o f a b r e a c h of t h e J e w i s h law (Ac.
1 8 : 1 2 - 1 6 ) . I t c a n b e s e e n f r o m a l l this t h a t t h e j e w s i n fact exercised
47. J o s . Ant. xvi 6, 2 and 7 ( 1 6 2 - 7 3 ) ; Philoi Leg. 40 (311-18). Of these documents, Ant.
xvi 6 , 5 (169-70) is concerned with Cyrene, t h e rest with t h e province of Asia. The
chronology of t h e latter is as follows :
(1) T h e letter of Agrippa t o Ephesus probably belongs to the year 14 B . C . Ant. xvi 6, 4
(167-8). W h e n Herod himself in 14 B.C. visited A g r i p p a in Asia Minor, t h e j e w s there
complained a b o u t the oppressive acts which they had t o suffer at t h e hands of t h e city
authorities; they were robbed of their sacred monies, a n d were compelled to a p p e a r in
court on the sabbath. A g r i p p a protected t h e rights of the Jews o n both matters. Ant. xvi 2,
3—5 (27—65); cf. xii 3, 2 (125—8). See vol. I, p. 292. It is precisely with these points that
the cited letter of Agrippa is concerned.
(2) I n 12 B.C. in response to Jewish embassies Augustus proclaimed in a n edict the
right of the J e w s to send money to J e r u s a l e m , the proconsul at the d m e being C. Marcius
Censorinus, Ant. xvi 6, 2 (162—5). See G. W . Bowersock, ' C . Marcius Censorinus, Legatus
Caesaris', H S C P h 68 (1964), p p . 2 0 7 - 1 0 ; c f F. Millar, J R S 56 (1966), p. 161.
(3) T h e letter of Augustus to Norbanus Flaccus, Ant. xvi 6, 6 (171), probably belongs to
soon after 12 B.C., as d o the letters of Norbanus Flaccus to the magistrates of Sardis, Ant.
xvi 6, 6 (171), and of Ephesus, Philo, Leg. 40 ( 3 1 5 ) ; for the d a t e see Smallwood a d loc.
See also F . Millar, J R S 56 (1966), p . 161.
(4) T h e proconsulate of lulius A n t o n i u s , who again impressed the orders of Augustus
a n d Agrippa u p o n the Ephesians, Ant. xvi 6, 7 (i 72-3) will belong some d m e between his
consulate in 10 B.C. a n d 3 B.C., see P I R ^ A 800.
48. Ant. xvi 6, 2 and 4 ( 1 6 2 - 5 ; 167-8).
49. B.J. vi 6, 2 (335) : SaafioXoyeiv TC vfiiv em TUI Beat Kal dvaSij/xaTa avXXeyeiv
liTeTpeâp.ev.
50. Cf. e.g. t h e rabbinic passages in J. J . Wetstein, Nov. Test., on i Cor. 6:1, or Str.-B.
ad loc.
n o t only a civil b u t even a k i n d of c r i m i n a l j u r i s d i c t i o n t o w a r d s t h e i r

o w n m e m b e r s . W h e t h e r t h e y w e r e e v e r y w h e r e formally e n t i t l e d to d o
this m a y be d o u b t e d . I n a n y case, s o m e r e s t r i c t i o n s will s u r e l y h a v e
b e e n i m p o s e d in C o r i n t h , as t h e y p r o b a b l y w e r e in J u d a e a d u r i n g t h e
p e r i o d o f the prefects a n d p r o c u r a t o r s . ^ ' But it is c e r t a i n t h a t J e w i s h
c o m m u n i t i e s e n j o y e d t h e i r o w n j u r i s d i c t i o n in civil m a t t e r s n o t only in
A l e x a n d r i a (see a b o v e , p p . 92 ff.) b u t a l s o e l s e w h e r e . T h i s is e x p r e s s l y
c o n c e d e d e v e n before t h e t i m e of C a e s a r , for e x a m p l e t o the J e w s of
S a r d i s i n a l e t t e r of L u c i u s A n t o n i u s ( 5 0 - 4 9 B . C . p r o c o n s u l of t h e
p r o v i n c e of Asia) t o the a u t h o r i t i e s of Sardis.^^ F u r t h e r , t h e l e g i s l a t i o n
of t h e C h r i s t i a n e m p e r o r s s h o w s t h a t e v e n l a t e r this r i g h t w a s still
g r a n t e d t o J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s in g e n e r a l (see b e l o w at t h e e n d of t h i s
section).
S i n c e a d h e r e n c e t o t h e J e w i s h L a w c o u l d easily b r i n g t h e J e w s of t h e
D i a s p o r a into conflict w i t h t h e laws of p a g a n cities o r states, a p e r f e c t l y
free o b s e r v a n c e of t h e i r r e l i g i o n w a s n o t a s s u r e d u n t i l a n d unless t h e
s t a t e d e m a n d e d n o t h i n g of t h e J e w s w h i c h w a s n o t d i s a l l o w e d b y t h e i r
l a w . E v e n i n this r e g a r d R o m a n t o l e r a t i o n g r a n t e d i m p o r t a n t
concessions to J e w s . A critical p o i n t h e r e w a s m i l i t a r y service. F o r a J e w
this w a s in p r i n c i p l e i m p o s s i b l e i n n o n - J e w i s h a r m i e s , since on t h e
s a b b a t h h e w o u l d n e i t h e r c a r r y w e a p o n s n o r m a r c h f u r t h e r t h a n 2000
cubits.^^ N o n e t h e less, it s e e m s c l e a r ( p p . 3 8 - 9 a b o v e ) t h a t J e w s
served a s soldiers u n d e r t h e P t o l e m i e s . H o w t h e p r o b l e m s m e n t i o n e d
a b o v e w e r e solved is n o t k n o w n . T h e q u e s t i o n a g a i n b e c a m e
p a r t i c u l a r l y r e l e v a n t w h e n a t the o u t b r e a k o f the civil w a r b e t w e e n
C a e s a r a n d P o m p e y in 49 B . C . t h e P o m p e i a n p a r t y u n d e r t o o k v a s t
r e c r u i t i n g c a m p a i g n s in t h e w h o l e o f the N e a r E a s t . I n t h e p r o v i n c e of
A s i a a l o n e t h e c o n s u l L e n t u l u s raised t w o legions o f R o m a n citizens.^*
S i n c e b y n o w , as w a s r e v e a l e d by t h i s v e r y process, m a n y J e w s in t h a t
a r e a possessed R o m a n c i t i z e n s h i p , t h e y b e c a m e l i a b l e to c o n s c r i p t i o n ;
b u t a t t h e i r r e q u e s t L e n t u l u s e x e m p t e d t h e m from w a r service, a n d
g a v e t h e a p p r o p r i a t e i n s t r u c t i o n s t o t h e v a r i o u s oflficials c a r r y i n g o u t
5 1 . O n the vexed problem of the capital jurisdiction of the Sanhedrin, see vol. II, p p .
218-23.
52. Jos. Ant. xiv 10, 17 (235) • 'lovhaioi TToXiTai 'qfj-erepoi (or vfierepoi?) •npooeXdovres fJ-oi
fiTe8ei$av avroiis avvo8ov ex*'" tSiav Kara TOWS rrarpiovs vofiovs air' dpxqs xat TOTTOV tSiov iv
(L rd T€ Trpdyfiara Kal rds rrpos dXXrjXovs avriXoyias Kpivovaiv.... O n L. Antonius (a brother
of t h e triumvir Marcus Antonius) as proquaestor pro praetore in Asia in 49 see M R R I I , p.
260. T h e letter m a y have dealt only with J e w s who possessed R o m a n citizenship. But the
text is unfortunately uncertain, and it remains unclear whether Antonius calls the J e w s
'our' cidzens (Romans) o r 'your' (of Sardis); the latter seems more likely.
53. Ban on carrying weapons : m S h a b . 6.2, 4. O n S a b b a t h journeys see vol. I I , p. 4 7 2 ;
also Ant. xiii 8, 4 (251); xiv 10, 12 (225-7).
54. Caesar, Betl. Civ. iii 4 : '(Pompeius) legiones effecerat civium R o m a n o r u m I X . . . ,
d u a s ex Asia, quas Lentulus consul conscribendas c u r a v e r a t . '
t h e levy.^^ S i x y e a r s l a t e r (43 B . C . ) C o r n e l i u s D o l a b e l l a c o n f i r m e d to
t h e J e w s t h e r e t h e i r r i g h t of e x e m p t i o n from m i l i t a r y service {astrateia)
b y express r e f e r e n c e to the f o r m e r edicts.^^ I n J u d a e a also t h e s a m e
concession w a s m a d e to t h e m b y C a e s a r . ^ ^
O f o t h e r privileges, w h i c h w e r e t h e result o f r e s p e c t for J e w i s h
legislation, i t r e m a i n s t o m e n t i o n the fact t h a t t h e J e w s , following a
r u l i n g b y A u g u s t u s , c o u l d n o t b e c o m p e l l e d t o a p p e a r before a c o u r t on
t h e SablDath;^^ a n d t h e r u l i n g b y A u g u s t u s , a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h J e w s
living i n R o m e w h o w e r e e n t i t l e d to s h a r e i n d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f g r a i n or
m o n e y , c o u l d , if t h e a p p o i n t e d d a y fell o n a S a b b a t h , collect t h e i r s h a r e
o n the following day;^^ lastly, t h e p r i v i l e g e g r a n t e d to t h e J e w i s h
c o m m u n i t y o f A n t i o c h a n d o t h e r cities b y S e l e u c u s I, a n d p r e s e r v e d , in
t h e case of A n t i o c h a t least, by t h e refusal of L i c i n i u s M u c i a n u s , as
legatus Augusti pro praetore of S y r i a in A.D. 68—9, t o r e v o k e it a l t h o u g h
t h e p a g a n p o p u l a t i o n w i s h e d to d o so. T h i s consisted in t h e r i g h t to
receive a c a s h p a y m e n t in l i e u of t h e oil d i s t r i b u t e d free to t h e citizens
for use i n t h e g y m n a s i a . ^ "
T h i s e n t i r e l e g a l p o s i t i o n was n e v e r s u b s t a n t i a l l y o r p e r m a n e n t l y
a l t e r e d in t h e l a t e r p e r i o d . I m p e r i a l l e g i s l a t i o n i n d e e d i n t r o d u c e d from
t i m e t o t i m e c e r t a i n r e s t r i c t i o n s . J u d a i s m suffered i n c i d e n t a l p e r s e c u
t i o n , s e e for i n s t a n c e J o s . C. Ap. i 8 (43) ; ii 3 0 ( 2 1 9 ) ; b u t a l a s t i n g a n d
s u b s t a n t i a l a l t e r a t i o n o f the existing s i t u a t i o n d i d not o c c u r u n t i l the
l a t e r i m p e r i a l p e r i o d . T h e m e a s u r e s of T i b e r i u s a g a i n s t R o m a n J e w s en
masse ( p p . 75-7 a b o v e ) w e r e confined to t h e city of R o m e a l o n e . I n
t h e t i m e of C a h g u l a it is t r u e t h a t a s e r i o u s crisis d e v e l o p e d ; b u t this
fact itself d e m o n s t r a t e d h o w v a l u a b l e it w a s for the J e w s t o possess
a l r e a d y a l o n g - e s t a b l i s h e d l e g a l p o s i t i o n . T h e religious freedom o f the
J e w s was indeed potentially t h r e a t e n e d b y t h e introduction and
c o n s t a n t e v o l u t i o n of t h e c u l t s o f e m p e r o r s , living o r d e c e a s e d . T h e
m o r e this w a s officially p r a c t i s e d , t h e m o r e i n e v i t a b l y i t s e e m e d
d i s l o y a l t y for J e w s not to t a k e p a r t in it. W h e n C a l i g u l a p e r e m p t o r i l y
d e m a n d e d a d h e r e n c e e v e r y w h e r e to t h e c u l t w h i c h f r o m t h e r e i g n of
A u g u s t u s o n w a r d s h a d b e e n i n t r o d u c e d i n v a r i o u s forms b y the
55. Ant. 10, 1 3 - 1 4 ; 16; 18-19 ( 2 2 8 - 3 2 ; 2 3 4 ; 236-40).

56. Ant.yAv 10, 11-12 (223—27).
57. Ant. xiv 10, 6 (202-10).
58. Ant. xvi 6, 2 a n d 4 ( 1 6 2 - 5 ; 167—8). T h e technical expression eyyvas ofioXoydv
means t o give security that o n e intends to a p p e a r before a court. On the occasion of these
rulings see above, n. 47. O n the Jewish prohibition of holding court on the sabbath see
vol. II, p . 223.
59. Philo, Leg. 23 (158). O n these distributions of money a n d grain see R E IV, col. 880
(s.v. ' c o n g i a r i u m ' ) ; W . Liebenam, Stddteverwaltung im romischen Kaiserreiche (1900), p p . 109
ff.; D. v a n Berchem, Les distributions de ble et d'argent a la plebe romaine sous I'Empire (1939).
60. J o s . Ant. xii 3, i (i 1 9 - 2 4 ) ; o n the unacceptability of p a g a n oil for J e w s see vol. I I ,
p . 84. F o r Mucianus see P I R ^ L 216.
p r o v i n c i a l s , t h e religious freedom o f t h e J e w s w o u l d h a v e b e e n lost

b e y o n d h o p e o f r e c o v e r y i f the d e m a n d h a d b e e n c o n s i s t e n t l y c a r r i e d o u t
in t h e i r case also. I n t h e r e i g n of C a h g u l a , t h e a t t e m p t t o d o this w a s
a c t u a l l y m a d e ; a n d it is a m a t t e r of h i s t o r y t h a t this c r e a t e d a s i t u a t i o n
of e x t r e m e d a n g e r for t h e J e w i s h p o p u l a t i o n o f J u d a e a (see v o l . I, p p .
394-7). F o r t u n a t e l y for t h e m h o w e v e r t h e r e i g n of C a l i g u l a did n o t l a s t
l o n g . H i s successor C l a u d i u s i m m e d i a t e l y issued a g e n e r a l e d i c t of
t o l e r a t i o n to resore t h e f o r m e r s i t u a t i o n . ^ ' F r o m t h a t time o n n o serious
s u g g e s t i o n w a s ever m a d e of c o m p e l l i n g J e w s to p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e
i m p e r i a l cult. I t c o u n t e d a s a n a n c i e n t r i g h t t h a t they w e r e free f r o m t h i s
obligation, a circumstance t h r o u g h which they enjoyed particular
a d v a n t a g e by c o m p a r i s o n w i t h C h r i s t i a n s . T h e s u b s e q u e n t m e a s u r e of
C l a u d i u s a g a i n s t t h e R o m a n J e w s w a s , like t h a t of T i b e r i u s , confined t o
t h e city o f R o m e , a n d w a s p r o b a b l y n o t of l a s t i n g a p p l i c a t i o n . T h e r e i g n
of N e r o w a s in g e n e r a l a g a i n f a v o u r a b l e t o t h e j e w s , p e r h a p s b e c a u s e of
t h e influence of h i s wife P o p p a e a (cf. a b o v e , p . 78). T h e g r e a t
V e s p a s i a n i c w a r a n d t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e T e m p l e in J e r u s a l e m d i d
h o w e v e r b r i n g as a c o n s e q u e n c e for t h e J e w s in the D i a s p o r a t h a t w h a t
h a d h i t h e r t o b e e n t h e T e m p l e t a x of t w o d r a c h m a s h a d to b e p a i d to t h e
temple of Jupiter Capitolinus.^'' This must indeed have represented a
t r a u m a t i c b l o w to J e w i s h sensibilities; b u t o t h e r w i s e t h e r e h g i o u s
f r e e d o m of t h e J e w s suffered n o e n c r o a c h m e n t t h r o u g h V e s p a s i a n . T h e i r
political r i g h t s , for e x a m p l e i n A l e x a n d r i a a n d A n t i o c h , w e r e e v e n
expressly p r o t e c t e d b y him.^^ D o m i t i a n e x a c t e d t h e t w o - d r a c h m a t a x
w i t h vigour^* a n d p u n i s h e d R o m a n s w h o c o n v e r t e d t o J u d a i s m . ^ ^ T h e
î.Ant. x i x 5 , 2 - 3 (278-91).
6 2 . Jos. B.J. vii 6, 6 ( 2 1 8 ) ; Cassius D i o Ixvi 7, 2 = G L A J J 11^ n o . 430. F o r the history of
this tax cf. O . Hirschfeld, Die kaiserlichen Verwaltungsbeamten ( 1905), p . 73; C P J I, p p .
80-2 ; II, p p . Ill—16 (the most important t r e a t m e n t ) ; see also C . J. Hemer, ' T h e Edfu
Ostraka a n d the Jewish T a x ' , P E Q , 105 (1973), pp. 6 - 1 2 . T h e following inscription belongs
to t h e d m e of the Flavian emperors ( C I L V I , no. 8604 = I L S , no. 1519): ' T . Flavio
Aug(usti) lib(erto) Euschemoni, qui fuit a b epistulis item procurator ad capitularia
l u d a e o r u m , fecit Flavia Aphrodisia p a t r o n o et coniugi bene merenti.' By far the most
important evidence for t h e tax is now provided by d o c u m e n t s from Egypt, namely ostraka
from Edfu (Apollinopolis M a g n a ) , C P J II, nos. 160-229, covering the years A.D. 71-2 to
116, a papyrus from Arsinoe (no. 421) of A.D. 73 a n d another from Karanis (no. 460).
T w o of the ostraka (164, 166) show t h a t payment was back-dated to the second year of
Vespasian (A.D. 69-70). Unlike the d i d r a c h m a paid t o the T e m p l e , the Jewish t a x (called
either nixrj Srjvapiiov Svo 'lovSaiutv or, m o r e normally, 'lovSaiKov reXeafia) was paid by b o t h
males and females from a g e 3 to 60 or 6 2 , as is shown by no. 421, where three columns of a n
extensive tax-roll concern the Jewish tax. Slaves a n d freedmen of a household were also
included ( C P J I I , p . 114). The r a t e here, as i n the ostraka, is 8 Egyptian d r a c h m a e a n d 2
obols, plus I drachma labelled anapxai ('first fruits'). O n e ostrakon (181) mentions a
'collector of the Jewish t a x ' {•npa.Krwp [7ot)8aiW]oi> reXeafxaros). No. 460 shows t h a t the t a x
was still p a i d at the same rate in the mid-second century.
6 3 . J o s . Ant. xii 3, i ( 1 1 9 - 2 4 ) ; B.J. vii 5, 2 ( l o o - i i ) ; cf p p . 127-9 below.
64. Suet. Dom. 12 = G L A J J I I , no. 3 2 0 : ' l u d a i c u s fiscus acerbissime actus est; ad quern
deferebantur, qui vel inprofessi l u d a i c a m viverent vitam, vel dissimulata origine imposita
e x i s t i n g r i g h t s of J e w s w e r e h o w e v e r n o t a b o l i s h e d , a n d u n d e r N e r v a
r e l a x a t i o n s o n c e m o r e m a d e t h e i r a p p e a r a n c e . T h e t w o - d r a c h m a tax
w a s n o t , it is t r u e , a b o l i s h e d , b u t i t w a s not p e r m i t t e d for a n y o n e t o be
p r o s e c u t e d for 'a J e w i s h w a y of life',^^ a n d t h u s t h e d e n u n c i a t i o n s a n d
m a l i c i o u s p e r s e c u t i o n s g i v e n p r e t e x t by t h e fiscus Judaicus w e r e
prevented. ^
A f u n d a m e n t a l t h r e a t t o this p r i v i l e g e d s t a t u s , t h e m o s t effective
w h i c h t h e j e w s h a d lived t h r o u g h since C a h g u l a , w i l l h a v e resulted from
t h e g r e a t conflicts u n d e r T r a j a n a n d H a d r i a n (vol. I , p p . 529—57).
H a d r i a n is s t a t e d t o h a v e i s s u e d — a n d it w a s one c a u s e of t h e r e v o l t in
his r e i g n — a f o r m a l p r o h i b i t i o n o f circumcision,^^ w h i c h is n o t Hkely to
h a v e b e e n c a n c e l l e d after t h e successful s u p p r e s s i o n of the r e v o l t . His
i m m e d i a t e successor A n t o n i n u s Pius, h o w e v e r , allowed the r e s u m p t i o n
o f c i r c u m c i s i o n for t h o s e b o r n w i t h i n J u d a i s m , a n d r e s t r i c t e d the
p r o h i b i t i o n t o n o n - J e w s . ^ ^ S i m i l a r l y S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s is alleged b y a
p o o r s o u r c e to h a v e f o r b i d d e n o n l y t h e f o r m a l a c t o f g o i n g o v e r to
Judaism.^" T h e s a m e source says o f Severus A l e x a n d e r : T u d a e i s
privilegia reservavit'.^' T h e s e p a s s i n g references in the late
f o u r t h - c e n t u r y set of I m p e r i a l b i o g r a p h i e s k n o w n a s t h e Historia Augusta
c a n n o t h o w e v e r b e u s e d as t h e basis for t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e D i a s p o r a
J u d a i s m a t t h i s t i m e , a h i s t o r y w h i c h c a n o n l y (if a t all) b e r e c o n s t r u c t e d
genti tributa n o n pependissent. Interfuisse m e adulescentulum m e m i n i , cum a procuratore

frequentissimoque consilio inspiceretur nonagenarius senex, an circumsectus esset.'
65. Cassius Dio Ixvii 14, 2 = G L A J J I I , no. 435: Kat aAAot es r d TU)V TovSaicov edrj
€$oKfXXovT€s TToXXot KaTeSiKaadfjaav... See E . M. Smallwood, ' D o m i d a n ' s Attitude towards
t h e j e w s and J u d a i s m ' , CPh 51 (1956), p p . 1-13 ; L. A . Thompson, 'Domitian a n d the
Jewish T a x ' , Historia 31 (1982), pp. 3 2 9 - 4 2 .
66. Cassius Dio Ixviii i, 2 = G L A J J I I , no. 436: OVT' dore/Seiaj o u t ' Tovha'iKov Piov
KaraiTidaOaiTivas avvexdiprjac.
67. T h i s is t h e sense of the legend on a coin of Nerva : F I S C I J U D A I C I C A L U M N I A
S U B L A T A , see e.g. B M C R o m a n E m p i r e I I I : Nerva, nos. 8 8 , 98, 105-6. I t cannot be
concerned with the abolidon of the t a x , for t h e l a t t e r was still in existence later on (Appian,
Syr. 50/253 = G L A J J II, n o . 3 4 3 ; Origen, Epist. ad African. 14; T e r t u l l i a n , Apol. 18:
'vectigalis libertas' means freedom b o u g h t at the price of a t a x ) . Also the w o r d i n g itself
would be against this, for calumnia is a hostile, malicious accusation, a n d so equivalent to
'denunciation' (see R E I I I , cols. 1414-21 s.v. ' c a l u m n i a ' ; Th. M o m m s e n , Rom. Strafrecht
(1899), p p . 491 ff.). Such accusations had evidently occurred q u i t e often u n d e r Domitian
through occasions provided b y the Jewish tax. N e r v a prohibited t h e m and thereby did
a w a y with the calumnia fisci Judaici, i.e. d e n u n c i a t i o n in t h e interest of t h e fiscus Judaicus and
t h e malicious prosecution which w e n t with it.
68. So HA, V. Had. 14, 2 = G L A J J I I , no. 5 1 1 : ' m o v e r u n t ea tempestate et l u d a e i
bellum, q u o d v e t a b a n t u r mutilate genitalia.' T h e prohibition o f circumcision was general
a n d not specially directed against J e w s , b u t was felt by t h e m most acutely. F o r details see
vol. 1, p p . 536-40.
69. Dig. xlviii 8, 11: 'Circumcidere l u d a e i s filios suos t a n t u m rescripto divi Pii
p e r m i t t i t u r : in n o n eiusdem religionis qui h o c fecerit, castrantis poena irrogatur.'
70. H A , V. Sept. Sev. 17, i = G L A J J I I , no. 515 : 'ludaeos fieri sub gravi poena vetuit.'
By 'ludaeos fieri' formal conversions involving circumcision should be understood.
71. J). Sev. Alex. 22, 4 = G L A J J I I , no. 520.
124 §31- Judaism in the Diaspora
from f r a g m e n t a r y l o c a l e v i d e n c e ( p p . 1 - 8 5 a b o v e ) . I n t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y
t h e r e is a t least a s u b s t a n t i a l b o d y of I m p e r i a l legal r u l i n g s , p r e s e r v e d i n
the Codex Theodosianus. T h e policy o f t h e C h r i s t i a n e m p e r o r s wâs n o t
a l w a y s consistent, b u t e v e n t h o s e m o s t u n f a v o u r a b l y inclined t o w a r d s
the J e w s d i d n o t abolish e x i s t i n g r i g h t s . T h e i r r e p r e s s i v e m e a s u r e s w e r e
r e s t r i c t e d to p r e v e n t i n g a n y f u r t h e r e x p a n s i o n of J u d a i s m , i n c l u d i n g
i n t e r m a r r i a g e b e t w e e n C h r i s d a n s a n d J e w s a n d the a c q u i s i t i o n b y J e w s
of n o n - J e w i s h slaves. For t h o s e b o r n as J e w s t h e existing legal s i t u a t i o n
was otherwise formally m a i n t a i n e d . ' ^ T h r e e points i n connection w i t h
this a r e w o r t h m a k i n g .
( i ) T h e J e w i s h religion r e m a i n e d i n the l a t e r , as i n t h e e a r l i e r
p e r i o d , ' ^ u n d e r the f o r m a l p r o t e c t i o n of t h e s t a t e . W h e n o n o n e o c c a s i o n
C a l l i s t u s , the f u t u r e b i s h o p , in the t i m e o f B i s h o p V i c t o r , A.D. 1 8 9 - 9 9 ,
b r o k e u p a J e w i s h s e r v i c e in R o m e , h e w a s a c c u s e d of this by t h e J e w s
before t h e city prefect, F u s c i a n u s , a n d c o n d e m n e d b y h i m t o exile in t h e
m i n e s of S a r d i n i a . ' * O f t h e C h r i s t i a n e m p e r o r s , e v e n t h o s e w h o w e r e
u n f a v o u r a b l y i n c l i n e d t o w a r d s t h e j e w s , a n d p r o h i b i t e d t h e b u i l d i n g of
n e w s y n a g o g u e s , still b r o u g h t t h e e x i s t i n g o n e s u n d e r t h e i n c r e a s i n g l y
n e c e s s a r y p r o t e c t i o n of t h e l a w . ' ^
(2) T h e r i g h t of a d m i n i s t e r i n g t h e i r o w n p r o p e r t y w a s r e t a i n e d by t h e
J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s j u s t as before. I n c e r t a i n cases t h e y c o u l d e v e n
c l a i m , o r a t t e m p t t o c l a i m , fines f r o m n o n - J e w s , for e x a m p l e for t h e
u n a u t h o r i z e d use of a g r a v e . ' ^ Specially i m p o r t a n t w a s t h e fact t h a t t h e
J e w s c o u l d still ( u n t i l t o w a r d s t h e e n d of t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y ) s e n d t h e i r
religious dues t o t h e p a t r i a r c h a t e in P a l e s t i n e ( t h e n e w c e n t r a l a u t h o r i t y
of t h e J e w i s h p e o p l e w h i c h h a d a r i s e n in t h e p e r i o d since t h e d e s t r u c t i o n
of J e r u s a l e m ) . T h e s e d u e s w e r e c o l l e c t e d a n n u a l l y a n d b r o u g h t to
P a l e s t i n e by t h e apostoli s e n t o u t b y the p a t r i a r c h s . ' ' It w a s n o t u n t i l
72. See Codex Theodosianus xvi 8 a n d cf. H a e n e l , Corpus Legum, Index, pp. 211 ff. No
adequate history of the J e w s in the later R o m a n E m p i r e exists. F o r brief histories, mainly
concentrating on the Holy L a n d , see M . Avi-Yonah, The Jews of Patestine. A Political History
from the Bar Kochba War to the Arab Conquest (1976) ; J . Maier, Grundziige der Geschichte des
Judentums im Altertum (1981); P. Schaefer, Geschichte der Juden in der Antike. Die Juden
Paldstinas von Alexander dem Grossen bis zur arabischen Eroberung (1983). F o r the gradually
worsening legal position see J . E. Feaver, Persecution of the Jews in the Roman Empire
(300-438) (1952). Note also A. Linder, Roman Imperial Legislation on the Jews (1983), giving
the texts with Hebrew translation and commentary.
73. Cf. esp. t h e decree of t h e Halicarnassians, J o s . Ant. xiv 10, 23 (256-8) : av Be TIS
KOjXvcrri rj dpxotv rj Ibiwrrjs, TtiJSe TW iC,r]p,i.d>yiaTi vrrevdvvos ICTTCO KOI 6<f>eiXeTM rfj rroXei.
74. Hippolytus, Philosophoumena ix 12.
75. C. Theod. xvi 8, 9 ; 12 ; 2 0 ; 21; 25-7.
76. Inscription of Rufina at S m y r n a , CIJ I I , no. 741, a n d inscriptions at Hierapolis, cf
p. 106 above.
77. See for these apostoli and their functions: Euseb. Comment, ad Isa. 18:1 ( P G X X I V ,
col, 213); Epiphanius, Haer. 3 0 , 4 a n d 11 ,* J e r o m e , ad Gal. 1:1 ( P L X X V I , col. 3 1 1 ) ; C.
Theod. xvi 8, 14; W. Seufert, Der Ursprung und die Bedeutung des Apostolates in der christlichen
Kirche (1887), p p . 8 ff.; A. v o n Harnack, Die Mission und Ausbreitung des Christentums I
(^1924), p p . 342-6, E . T . The Expansion of Christianity in the first three centuries I (1904), p p .
t o w a r d s t h e e n d o f t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y t h a t t h e e m p e r o r s g r a d u a l l y took
steps against this.'^
(3) F u r t h e r , t h e i r o w n j u r i s d i c t i o n w a s c o n c e d e d to t h e j e w s e v e n in
t h e l a t e r i m p e r i a l p e r i o d , of c o u r s e o n l y f o r civil c a s e s , a n d o n l y if t h e t w o
l i t i g a t i n g p a r t i e s w e r e a g r e e d o n s e e k i n g a l e g a l d e c i s i o n before J e w i s h
courts.'^ A very extensive a u t h o r i t y m u s t h a v e been enjoyed b y the
J e w i s h E t h n a r c h o r P a t r i a r c h in P a l e s t i n e w h o in t h e t h i r d a n d f o u r t h
centuries gained a position of considerable p o w e r not only w i t h i n the
Holy Land b u t o u t s i d e it ( n o t e t h e a l l u s i o n to t h e P a t r i a r c h i n the
i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m S t o b i , p . 67 a b o v e ) . H i s a u t h o r i t y w a s s o e x t e n s i v e t h a t
t h e c h u r c h f a t h e r s w e r e o b l i g e d t o give s e r i o u s a t t e n t i o n t o p r o v i n g t h a t
n o n e t h e l e s s t h e s c e p t r e h a d b e e n t a k e n a w a y from J u d a h in t h e t i m e of
Christ.^"
P e r h a p s n o t h i n g is m o r e i n d i c a t i v e o f the g u a r a n t e e d l e g a l p o s i t i o n of
t h e J e w s as w e h a v e d e s c r i b e d i t t h a n t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e t h a t during
p a g a n p e r s e c u t i o n s of C h r i s t i a n s i t h a d e v e n h a p p e n e d t h a t C h r i s t i a n s
converted to J u d a i s m to protect themselves.^'
4 0 9 - 1 4 ; J E I I , p p . 20 ff. s.v. 'apostole', ' a p o s t o l i ' ; Juster, Les Juifs I , pp. 388-90. They
seem to have h a d the primary function o f acting as intermediaries between the Jewish
communities. N o t e e.g. at Venosa, i n an epitaph o f a fourteen year-old girl, 'quel dixerunt
t ( h ) r < e > n u s ( = dpijvovs) d u o apostuh e t duo rebbites', C I J I , n o . 611. But it is not
certain whether the apostoli m e n t i o n e d in this fifth-century inscription a r e those sent b y the
Patriarch.
78. C f for a proposal to abolish t h e apostole ( n o t carried out) : J u l i a n , Epist. 25 Herdein
= Bidez-Cumont, no. 204 = Loeb I I I , n o . 51. T h e authenticity of this letter is much
disputed, and is rejected for instance by Bidez and C u m o n t . See t h e discussion by M. Stern,
GLAJJ I I , no. 486a. See C. Theod. xvi 8, 1 4 ; 17; 2 9 .
79. C. Theod. ii i, 10: 'Sane si q u i per compromissum, ad similitudinem arbitrorum,
a p u d ludaeos vel patriarchas ex consensu p a r d u m in civili d u m t a x a t negotio putaverint
litigandum, sortiri eorum indicium iure pubHco non v e t e n t u r : e o r u m e d a m sentendas
provinciarum iudices exsequantur, t a m q u a m ex sententia cognitoris arbitri fuerint
attributi' (Arcadius a n d Honorius, A.D. 398). Cf also C. Theod. x v i 8,8.
80. Pamphilus, Apol. pro Orig. in R o u t h , Reliquiae sacrae I V , p . 360 ; Cyril, Cateches. xii
17. In general also Origen, ad African. 14 (see t h e passage above, vol. I I , p . 209). H A v.
Quadr. Tyr. 8, 4 = G L A J J I I , no. 527. See o n this passage R. Syme, ' I p s e lUe Patriarcha',
Bonner Historia-Augusta-Colloquium (1366-7) (1968), pp. 119-30 = Emperors and Biography
(1971), ch. 2. I n 415 t h e patriarch Gamaliel was deposed by t h e emperor Theodosius II
because he h a d misused his power against Christians (C. Theod. xvi 8, 2 2 ; cf for this
G a m a h e l also J e r o m e , Epist. 57 ad Pammachium 3 ) . He w a s probably t h e last p a t r i a r c h , for
in the y e a r 429 t h e office is referred t o as having b e e n extinct for some time (C. Theod. xvi 8,
29). O n the Patriarchs see J . Juster, Les Juifs dans I'empire romain I, p p . 391—400. F o r the
earlier evolution of t h e office see L . I. Levine, ' T h e Jewish Patriarch (Nasi) in Third
Century Palesdne', A N R W X I X . 2 (1981), pp. 649-88 ; M . D . G o o d m a n , State and Society
in Roman Galilee A . D . 132-212 (1983), p p . 111-18.
81. Euseb., HE. vi 12, i.
III. CIVIC R I G H T S
I n m o s t o f the a n c i e n t cities of P h o e n i c i a , S y r i a a n d Asia M i n o r , as i n

G r e e c e itself, i m m i g r a n t J e w s c e r t a i n l y o c c u p i e d the p o s i t i o n of aliens
( n o n - c i t i z e n s ) . ' T h e i r c o m m u n i t i e s w e r e c o r p o r a t i o n s o f foreigners,
r e c o g n i z e d by t h e c i t y a n d g r a n t e d c e r t a i n r i g h t s , b u t t h e i r m e m b e r s
did n o t enjoy c i t i z e n s h i p a n d t h e r e f o r e t o o k n o p a r t in t h e c o n d u c t o f
city affairs. T h e r e w e r e h o w e v e r also a n u m b e r o f cities in w h i c h it w a s
c l a i m e d t h a t J e w s possessed r i g h t s o f c i t i z e n s h i p , n a m e l y the n e w l y -
f o u n d e d cities of t h e H e l l e n i s t i c a g e , a n d a m o n g t h e m p r i m a r i l y t h e
c a p i t a l cities o f t h e Seleucid a n d P t o l e m a i c e m p i r e s , A n t i o c h a n d
A l e x a n d r i a . It is possible t h a t t h e J e w s in these cities f o r m e d s e p a r a t e
' t r i b e s ' {phylae) ; since m e m b e r s h i p b y i n d i v i d u a l J e w s of t h e o t h e r c i t y
phylae, w h i c h h a d d e v e l o p e d i n close a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h p a g a n c u l t s , is
scarcely c o n c e i v a b l e in v i e w of t h e special religious p o s i t i o n of t h e j e w s .
If t h e r e f o r e P a u l w a s in r e a l i t y a c i t i z e n of T a r s u s (Ac. 2 1 : 3 9 ) , it is
possible t h a t i n s o m e o t h e r cities J e w s as a g r o u p enjoyed c i t i z e n s h i p . *
T h e following e v i d e n c e exists of cities w h e r e J e w i s h c i t i z e n s h i p is
c l a i m e d b y o u r sources.
S e l e u c u s I N i c a t o r ( d . 280 B . C . ) is s t a t e d t o h a v e b e s t o w e d
c i t i z e n s h i p on t h e J e w s i n the cities w h i c h h e f o u n d e d in Asia M i n o r
a n d Syria,^ a n d J o s e p h u s c l a i m s t h a t t h e y still possessed i t in a l l t h e s e
1. This is clear indirectly in p a r t i c u l a r from Jos. C. Ap. ii 4 (38-9), for here J o s e p h u s

emphasizes as something of an exception the fact t h a t the Jews i n Alexandria, Antioch
and the Ionian cities h a d the citizenship. I t remains uncertain whether it could be
claimed t h a t those in all the cities founded by Seleucus 1 h a d the citizenship. However it
is clear t h a t its possession was not normal. C f Juster, Les Juifs dans I'empire romain I I ,
pp. 1-40.
2. T h e view that in at least some cities Jew^s were citizens was supported by R a m s a y ,
see E x p . (1902, J a n . ) , p p . 2 2 - 9 : T h e j e w s as Hellenic citizens'. O n phylae in t h e Greek
cities under the R o m a n Empire see W . Liebenam, Stddteverwaltung im romischen Kaiserreiche
(1900), p p . 2 2 0 - 5 ; E. Szanto, 'Die griechischen Phylen', S A W 144.5 (1902); see pp. 54
ff., 62-71 o n the phylae i n the cides of Asia Minor. Cf A. H. M . Jones, The Greek City
(1940), pp. 158 ff.; K. Latte, R E XX. i (1941), cols. 994-1011, s.v. ' P h y l e ' ; B. M . Levick,
' T w o Inscriptions from Pisidian Andoch', AS 15 (1965), p p . 53-62. Further material on
the phylae i n the Greek cities of Egypt is given by a papyrus of the year A.D. 212 from
Antinoopolis, PLond III (1907), pp. i54ff. C f POxy 3053 (Tripolis); 3054 (Bostra). T h e
phylae are frequently called after gods, e.g. in M a g n e s i a : Apollonias, Dias, Hermeis, Areis,
Aphrodisias, Poseidonias (Szanto, p. 62).
3. A list of them is offered by Appian, Syr. 57. O n this see B. Niese, Geschichte der
griechischen und makedonischen Staaten seit der Schlacht bei Chaeronea I (1893), pp. 393 ff.; V .
Tscherikover, Die hellenistischen Stddtegriindungen (1927), esp. pp. 165 ff.; see also G. M .
///. Civic Rights 12 7
p l a c e s in his o w n t i m e . * T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a m o n g t h e m w a s A n t i o c h
w h e r e t h e r i g h t s o f t h e J e w s w e r e i n s c r i b e d o n b r o n z e tablets.^ I n o n e
p a s s a g e J o s e p h u s implies t h a t t h e J e w s of A n t i o c h first received
c i t i z e n s h i p f r o m t h e successors of A n t i o c h u s E p i p h a n e s . ^ S i n c e it is very
i m p r o b a b l e t h a t t h e y s h o u l d h a v e g a i n e d so g r e a t a f a v o u r j u s t a t t h a t
t i m e , w e s h o u l d p e r h a p s p r e f e r o t h e r p a s s a g e s of J o s e p h u s , a n d
u n d e r s t a n d this as a r e s t o r a t i o n after t h e t i m e of p e r s e c u t i o n b y
A n t i o c h u s E p i p h a n e s . U n d e r t h e R o m a n s also these r i g h t s w e r e n o t
d i m i n i s h e d . E v e n in t h e t i m e of t h e w a r u n d e r V e s p a s i a n , T i t u s refused
t h e r e q u e s t of t h e A n t i o c h e n e s t h a t J e w s s h o u l d be d e p r i v e d of t h e i r
citizenship by a simple a p p e a l to their a n c i e n t rights.' I t remains
however quite u n c e r t a i n w h e t h e r J o s e p h u s ' claims r e g a r d i n g Jewish
c i t i z e n s h i p i n Seleucid f o u n d a t i o n s s h o u l d b e a c c e p t e d . T c h e r i k o v e r , for
e x a m p l e , p o i n t s o u t , firstly, t h a t t h e r e is n o c o n f i r m a t i o n o u t s i d e t h e
p a g e s of J o s e p h u s for the c l a i m t h a t J e w s enjoyed c i t i z e n s h i p ; a n d
s e c o n d l y , t h a t s o m e of t h e e v i d e n c e J o s e p h u s a d d u c e s , e.g. t h e
dikaiomata o f t h e j e w s i n A n t i o c h , B.J. v i i 5, 2 ( n o ) , c o u l d j u s t as easily
refer t o the privileges o f a n i m m i g r a n t c o m m u n i t y ; a n d t h i r d l y , t h a t h e
h a s t o r e s o r t to w e a k i n d i r e c t a r g u m e n t s , s u c h as t h e e n t i t l e m e n t o f t h e
J e w s i n A n t i o c h t o receive a c a s h p a y m e n t in l i e u of oil. Ant. xii 3 , i
(120).^ T h e s e a r g u m e n t s d o n o t h o w e v e r a m o u n t t o a conclusive
d i s p r o o f of J o s e p h u s ' c l a i m s . W i t h o u t clear d o c u m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e o n
e i t h e r side, t h e q u e s t i o n m u s t be left o p e n .
The same must b e said for t h e q u e s t i o n of J e w i s h c i t i z e n s h i p i n
Alexandria, which w a s k e e n l y d i s p u t e d in A n t i q u i t y . H e r e t o o , it is
repeatedly claimed by Josephus that J e w s received citizenship already
a t the founding of t h e city.^ T h u s h e states t h a t A l e x a n d e r the G r e a t
Cohen, The Seleucid Colonies ( 1 9 7 8 ) .

4. Ant. xii 3, I (119): SeXevKos 6 NiKarajp iv ais e/criae TToXeaiv iv TTJ 'Aaia Kal TTJ KO-TU)
Zvpia Kal iv TTJ firjTpoTToXei 'AvTioxela TroAtreias avroiis rjîcoae Kal rots ivoiKiadeiaiv
laoTip-ovs diri^ve MaKeSoaiv Kat'EXXTjoiv, dis ttjv 7j-oAiT€tav Tavrrjv (TI Kal viiv Stafiiveiv.
5. B.J. vii 5 , 2 ( n o ) . Cf. for t h e whole subject, besides Ant. xii 3 , i (119-24), also C.
Ap. ii 4 (39) : auTcov ydp ij/xcuv 01 rr/v Avrioxftov KaroiKOVVTfs 'AvTioxeiS ovofxdôvrar ttjv
ydp TToXireiav avTois eSwKev 6 KTiart^s EiXevKos.
6. B.J. vii 3 , 3 (43) : fJidXiara 8' avrois dSed ttjv e/cet /caToiVrjcriv 01 fj-er' 'Avrioxov
âaiXeis iTapiaxov. Ibid. (44) : 01 8e p,er' avrov ttjv âaiXeiav TrapaXaôvres .. . avvexdiprjaav
avTois i^ iaov ttjs noXews rois 'EXXrjai fierexeiv.
7. B.J. vii 5, 2 ( l o o - i i ) ; Ant. xii 31, i ( 1 2 1 - 2 ) .
8. V. Tcherikover, Hellenistic Civilization and the Jews (1959), p p . 328—9.
9. O n the citizenship of J e w s in Alexandria see A. Bludau, Juden und Judenverfolgung im
alten Alexandria (1906) ; J . Juster, Les Juifs dans I'empire romain I I (1914), p p . 6 - 1 4 ; H. I.
Bell, Jews and Christians in Egypt (1924), also Juden und Griechen im romischen Alexandreia
(1926), esp. p p . 24-7 ; Th. R e i n a c h , ' L ' e m p e r e u r Claude et les Juifs d'apres un nouveau
document', R E J 78 (1924) ; CPJ I, p p . 3 9 - 4 3 (esp. p. 3 9 , n. 100) a n d 6 1 - 7 4 ; V.
Tcherikover, Hellenistic Civilization and the Jews, pp. 320-8 ; P. M . Fraser, Ptolemaic
Alexandria (1971), p p . 5 4 - 8 ; A. Kasher, The Jews in Hellenistic and Roman Egypt (1978)
(Hebrew).
b e s t o w e d on t h e m ' e q u a l r i g h t s w i t h the M a c e d o n i a n s ' (these w e r e t h e

full A l e x a n d r i a n c i t i z e n s ) , a n d t h a t t h e D i a d o c h i allowed t h e m also t o
call t h e m s e l v e s M a c e d o n i a n s . ' ° I n t h e R o m a n p e r i o d n o n e o f t h e s e
r i g h t s w e r e c h a n g e d . T h e y w e r e expressly c o n f i r m e d by J u l i u s C a e s a r ,
as m i g h t still b e r e a d i n the time of J o s e p h u s o n a stele e r e c t e d i n
A l e x a n d r i a . " I n t h e p e r s e c u t i o n u n d e r C a h g u l a t h e r i g h t s of
Alexandrian J e w s were admittedly t r a m p l e d o n . Flaccus even p r o m u l
g a t e d a n edict d e c l a r i n g t h e m t o be foreigners a n d a l i e n s . ' * But as s o o n
as C l a u d i u s c a m e t o t h e t h r o n e J o s e p h u s says t h a t he took steps t o
reaffirm t h e privileges of t h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y . ' ^ I n t h e e d i c t w h i c h
J o s e p h u s states t h a t he t h e n p r o m u l g a t e d , he explicitly a c k n o w l e d g e s
t h a t the J e w s w e r e c a l l e d ' A l e x a n d r i a n s ' , h a d b e e n fellow-settlers w i t h
the first A l e x a n d r i a n s a n d h a d received e q u a l r i g h t s from t h e kings.
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e r e m u s t be s o m e d o u b t as to t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y of t h e s e
w o r d s of C l a u d i u s . F o r i n his w e l l - k n o w n l e t t e r of N o v e m b e r A . D . 4 1 ,
p r e s e r v e d on p a p y r u s ( C P J I I , no. 1 5 3 ) , h e s p e a k s in r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t
t e r m s . Firstly h e tells t h e A l e x a n d r i a n s to b e h a v e g e n t l y a n d h u m a n e l y
'to t h e J e w s w h o h a v e for a l o n g t i m e b e e n d w e l h n g in t h e s a m e c i t y '
(11. 8 3 - 4 ) : ' / o u 8 a i o < ^ I ) 9 ToZs r-qv avrrjv noXeiv IK TTOAACOV xpdvwv oUovacL
[sic). T h e n , s o m e lines l a t e r (11. 92 ff.), h e tells t h e j e w s n o t to i n t r u d e
t h e m s e l v e s i n t o the g a m e s p r e s i d e d o v e r b y A l e x a n d r i a n m a g i s t r a t e s ' a s
p e o p l e w h o a r e a b l e to d r a w b e n e f i t from t h e i r o w n p r o p e r t y a n d i n a
city w h i c h belongs to o t h e r s t o enjoy a n a b u n d a n c e of p l e n t i f u l g o o d
things' {prjBe ETRTOTTRATEIV yvfxvaatapxi'Kois rj Koap,T]TLKols dywaei,
Kap7Tovp,4vovs pL€v TO. oiKia OLTToXa(^vyOVTas iv aXXoTpia TTOXCL TrepiovaCas
dirdovcjv dyadwv).
C l a u d i u s ' w o r d s c l e a r l y i m p l y t h a t he c o n c e i v e d o f the J e w s a s b e i n g
l o n g - s t a n d i n g i n h a b i t a n t s of t h e c i t y w i t h a r i g h t to b e t h e r e ; b u t
e q u a l l y t h a t h e did n o t see t h e m as possessing citizens' r i g h t s i d e n t i c a l
w i t h t h o s e of the G r e e k i n h a b i t a n t s . W h a t h e says is not i n itself
1 0 . Jos. C. Ap. ii 4 ( 3 5 - 6 ) : torj? Trapd TOIS Ma/ccSoai Tifj.rjs eneTvxov . .. Kal fiixpi vvv
avro)v Tj ^v\i\ TTJV Trpoarfyopiav elx^v MaKeSoves. B.J. ii i8, 7 (4^7) '• 'AXeâvBpos . • eScuKev
TO fjL€ToiK€iv (coTtt TTJV TTOAIV e | laoTi/Liias (Nicsc : laov fiotpas, clearly corrupt for laofioiplag)
npos Toiis 'EXXrfvas. Biefxeive 8c avrois TJ TI^TJ Kat -napd TWV 8iaB6x<uv, ot . . Kat xp^JpotTiêiv
firerpeijiav Mo«e8ovas.
1 1 . Ant. xiv 1 0 , I ( 1 8 8 ) : Kaiaap 'lovXios rots ev VlAeâvSpei'a 'lovSaiois iroiriaas X«A*CTJV
OTIJATJV eSi^Xwaev on 'AXeâvhpeaiv T T O A T T O I elaiv. C. Ap. ii 4 ( 3 7 ) : rijv OTÂTJV T^V earwaav ev
'AXeâvSpeia Kat rd SiKaid}p.aTa irepiexovaav a Kaiaap 0 fieyas TOIS 'lovSaiois e8a>»cev. Philo,
In Flaccum 1 0 (78) also emphasizes t h a t t h e j e w s h a d the legal position of MAeâvSpeis a n d
not AlyvrTTioi.
1 2 . Philo, In Flaccum 8 ( 5 4 ) : TI'ÎJOT irpoypap-fia, 81' oS êvovs Kat e7njAu8as ij/xds
dneKaXfi.
1 3 . Ant. xix 5 ( 2 8 0 - 5 ) with a retrospective survey of t h e history of the citizenship of
J e w s in Alexandria: eiriyvovs dveVaSev TOUS ev VlAefavSpeia Tov8aiovs VlAeâvSpeis
Aeyo/xevous ovyKaroiKiadevTas TOIS TrpcoTois evdv Kaipois 'AXeâvSpevsi Kat larfs W O A T T C I A S
Trapd TWV jSaaiAe'cov reTeuxoTOS. . .
///. Civic Rights 129
e v i d e n c e for t h e o r i g i n a l r i g h t s of t h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y , if for n o o t h e r
r e a s o n t h a n t h e f a c t t h a t e l s e w h e r e in t h e s a m e p a p y r u s (11. 66-7) he
confesses h i m s e l f u n a b l e t o s a y w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e city h a d possessed a
c o u n c i l {boule) in t h e P t o l e m a i c p e r i o d . B u t t h e y d o s e e m to c o m p e l the
c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e w o r d i n g o f t h e e d i c t q u o t e d b y J o s e p h u s c a n n o t be
a u t h e n t i c . A s in t h e o t h e r c a s e s , t h e r e is n o r e a s o n t o d o u b t t h a t the
J e w s enjoyed long-established rights in A l e x a n d r i a . B u t w h e t h e r these
s h o u l d b e d e s c r i b e d as r i g h t s of c i t i z e n s h i p w a s d i s p u t e d in Antiquity
(see t h e p a p y r u s q u o t e d o n p . 5 0 a b o v e ) a n d m u s t r e m a i n in d o u b t
t o d a y . J o s e p h u s h o w e v e r r e c o r d s t h a t u n d e r V e s p a s i a n a n d T i t u s the
r i g h t s o f c i t i z e n s h i p ( r d Si/caia r a TTJS TToXireias) of t h e J e w s in both
A l e x a n d r i a a n d A n t i o c h w e r e p r e s e r v e d in t h e f a c e o f d e m a n d s from
the Greek inhabitants.'*
A p a r t f r o m t h e cities w h i c h w e r e n e w l y f o u n d e d i n t h e Hellenistic
p e r i o d , J e w s w e r e c l a i m e d t o h a v e e n j o y e d t h e r i g h t of c i t i z e n s h i p i n the
cities o f t h e I o n i a n c o a s t , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n E p h e s u s . W h a t e v e r r i g h t s t h e r e
were, were probably bestowed u p o n t h e m there b y Antiochus H Theos
( 2 6 1 - 2 4 6 B . C . ) ; t h e l o n g - a c c e p t e d i d e a t h a t this w i l l h a v e b e e n i n the
c o u r s e of a g e n e r a l p r o c e s s o f g r a n t i n g d e m o c r a t i c c o n s t i t u t i o n s to these
cities rests however on very slender foundations.'^ When the city
14. Ant. xii 3 , I (121) : SfrjOevres ol'AXeâvSpeis Kal 'Avnoxfts iva TO, SiKaia rrjs iroXireias
fir/KfTi fievji TOIS Tov8aiois, OVK enervxov. F o r discussions of Josephus' claims written before
t h e p u b l i c a d o n of t h e papyrus c o n t a i n i n g Claudius' letter see e.g. T h . Mommsen,
Romische Gesch. V , p. 4 9 1 ; H . Willrich, Beitrage zur alten Geschichte I I I (1903), p p . 4 0 3 - 7 ; J .
Wellhausen, Israelit. u. jiid. Gesch. ( * i 9 0 i ) , pp. 2 3 9 ff.; F . Stahelin, Der Antisemitismus des
Altertums (1905), p. 35.
15. Ant. xii 3 , 2 (125) r u n s : TCOV ydp Îwva>v KivqQevrwv iir' avrovs Kal Seofiivoiv rov
'Aypimrov, iva Trjs rroXireias, rjv avTois fSwKev lAvrioxos d ZeXfVKOv viwvos, 6 Trapd TOIS
'EXXrjoi dtds Xeyofifvos, /xdvoi fierexcoaiv... T h e phrase rrjs TroAtrctas, rjv avrois eSwKcv could
b e construed t o m e a n 'the (democratic) constitution which h e granted to t h e m ' (so e.g.
J o s e p h u s Loeb vol. V I I , A p p . C ) . But it is m u c h m o r e n a t u r a l t o read TroAireia as
m e a n i n g 'citizenship'; avrois in t h a t case would most naturally m e a n t h e J e w s . T h e
Milesians did however g r a n t Antiochus I I t h e additional name ' T h e o s ' because he
delivered t h e m from the tyrant Timarchos (Appian, Syr. 6 5 ; confirmed b y the
inscriptions: O G I S , n o . 226 = Ins. D i d y m a , no. 358; O G I S , n o . 227 = Ins. Didyma, no.
493). Similarly, on a n inscription from S m y r n a it is stated of Seleucus I I , s o n and
successor of A n t i o c h u s I I , t h a t he upheld the city's autonomia and demokratia (11. l o - i i ) .
Since directly preceding this there is an honorific allusion to Antiochus I I , it seems that
h e was the real benefactor o f the city. Seleucus I I merely confirmed the rights bestowed
b y him. See O G I S , n o . 229 = H . H . Schmitt, Staatsvertrdge des Altertums I I I (1969), no.
492 (with bibliography and discussion). Given t h e fluctuating boundaries of the power of
t h e rival Hellenistic monarchies a n d the n a t u r e o f the diplomatic vocabulary employed in
relation to t h e king by t h e cities in their public decrees, these allusions are not of
themselves enough to establish a general policy of t h e granting o f democratic
constitutions b y Antiochus I I . If h o w e v e r we t a k e the allusion by J o s e p h u s to be to the
g r a n t i n g of citizenship to t h e Jews there, there is some support for this in J o s . C. Ap. ii 4
(39): 01 €v 'E<f>€aw Kai Kara rrlv aXXrjv Tuiviav rots avOiyeveai rroXirais op.o)vvp,ovaiv, TOVTO
TrapaaxdvTojv avrois rwv SiaSoxaiv. But o n c e a g a i n the exact n a t u r e o f the right granted is
a u t h o r i t i e s d e m a n d e d in the t i m e o f A u g u s t u s t h a t the J e w s s h o u l d
e i t h e r b e e x c l u d e d from these r i g h t s , or b e c o m p e l l e d to give u p t h e i r
o w n special c u l t , a n d w o r s h i p t h e n a t i v e g o d s , M . A g r i p p a , w h o a t t h a t
t i m e h a d overall c h a r g e o f t h e G r e e k p r o v i n c e s , p r o t e c t e d the a n c i e n t
r i g h t s of t h e j e w s , w h o s e case w a s r e p r e s e n t e d b y N i c o l a u s of D a m a s c u s
in t h e n a m e o f H e r o d ( 1 4 B . C . ) . ' ^ J e w s i n S a r d i s also enjoyed c e r t a i n
specific r i g h t s , b u t t h e t e x t w h i c h attests t h e s e is not s e c u r e e v i d e n c e for
t h e i r h a v i n g e n j o y e d t h e c i t i z e n s h i p a l s o . ' ' J o s e p h u s similarly r e p o r t s
t h a t u n d e r A u g u s t u s the J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s n o t o n l y of Asia b u t also
of C y r e n e t o o k steps t o p r o t e c t t h e ' e q u a l i t y of r i g h t s ' {isonomia)
g r a n t e d t h e m b y t h e H e l l e n i s t i c kings.'^ O n c e a g a i n the e x a c t c o n t e n t
of t h e t e r m r e m a i n s u n c l e a r .
T h e s i t u a t i o n c r e a t e d t h r o u g h t h e g r a n t i n g of all these r i g h t s to t h e
J e w s involved c e r t a i n c o n t r a d i c t i o n s . O n t h e o n e h a n d t h e y f o r m e d in
the p a g a n cities a c o m m u n i t y of s t r a n g e r s i n d e p e n d e n d y o r g a n i z e d to
t a k e c a r e of t h e i r r e l i g i o u s affairs, a n d w h o s e r e l i g i o n r e m a i n e d w h o l l y
i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h a n y k i n d of p a g a n w o r s h i p . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d t h e y
n e v e r t h e l e s s s h a r e d in t h e r i g h t s a n d d u t i e s of t h e o r d i n a r y hfe of t h e
c i t i e s ; if i t w e r e t h e case, in s o m e cities, t h a t t h e J e w s as a g r o u p also
possessed the full c i t i z e n s h i p , t h e n t h e y will h a v e enjoyed the r i g h t s of
v o t i n g i n the city assemblies a n d of h o l d i n g office.'^ I t is h o w e v e r
precisely at this p o i n t t h a t o u r e v i d e n c e b e c o m e s u n c l e a r . Firstly it
c o n t a i n s n o u n a m b i g u o u s p r o o f t h a t m e m b e r s o f the J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y
c o u l d v o t e in t h e ekklesia of a n y G r e e k city. F o r i n s t a n c e in A.D. 66,
w h e n t h e p e o p l e o f A l e x a n d r i a m e t in t h e a m p h i t h e a t r e to d e b a t e
s e n d i n g a n e m b a s s y to N e r o , s o m e J e w s w h o e n t e r e d w i t h t h e m w e r e
d r i v e n o u t as ' e n e m i e s ' a n d 'spies', B.J. ii 18, 7 ( 4 9 0 - 1 ) . As for m o r e
specific c o m m u n a l or p o l i t i c a l roles, d o c u m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e f r o m
P t o l e m a i s in C y r e n a i c a , for e x a m p l e , s h o w s p e r s o n s w i t h J e w i s h n a m e s
in lists o f epheboi from v a r i o u s y e a r s i n t h e first half o f the first c e n t u r y
A.D., a n d a c i t y official {nomophylax) of A.D. 60-1 called E l a z a r son of
not clear. Caution is enjoined b y the fact that in O G I S , no. 229 = Schmitt, Staatsvertrdge
I I I , no. 492 of c. 240, Smyrna grants citizenship to persons living in Magnesia 'provided
that they are free and Hellenes' (1. 45). F o r a discussion of t h e entire question see
Tcherikover, Hellenistic Civilization, p p . 288—90 and 329-31, and for t h e most detailed
recent treatment of the entire context see W. O r t h , Koniglicher Machtanspruch und stadtische
Freiheit (1977).
16. Ant. xii 3, 2 (126); xvi 2, 3 - 5 (27-65).
17. Ant. xiv 10, 24 (259-61), a decree of Sardis with the words ot KaroiKowres •qfiwv ev
Trj TToXei. 'lovSatoi rroXirai, where the last word seems clearly t o be a n interpolation.
18. Ant. xvi 6, I (160); see e.g. J . M a r q u a r d t , Staatsverwaltung I (1881), p. 4 6 3 ;
Tcherikover, Hellenistic Civilization, p. 3 3 1 ; S. Applebaum, Jews and Greeks in Ancient Cyrene
(1979). PP- 176 ff.
19. The essence of citizenship lay in sharing the power of government. See e.g. E.
Szanto, Das griechische Biirgerrecht (1892), pp. 2 ff.
J a s o n . * " H o w e v e r t h e m e a n i n g of such i t e m s of e v i d e n c e m u s t r e m a i n
u n c e r t a i n , s i n c e w e c a n n o t a s c e r t a i n its b e a r i n g o n the collective r i g h t s
of the J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y i n a c i t y , n o r b e c e r t a i n t h a t t h e p e r s o n s
c o n c e r n e d h a d n o t l a p s e d from J u d a i s m , like T i b e r i u s l u l i u s A l e x a n d e r
(see p . 1 3 7 b e l o w ) , or A n t i o c h u s , a m e m b e r o f the J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y of
A n t i o c h , B.J. vii 3 , 3 ( 4 7 - 5 3 ) -
O n t h e o t h e r h a n d significant c h a n g e s a r e a t t e s t e d from the e a r l y
t h i r d c e n t u r y o n w a r d s . S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s a n d C a r a c a l l a allowed J e w s
t o hold city offices {honores), w h i l e s t a t i n g t h a t t h e y w e r e e x e m p t from
o b l i g a t i o n s w h i c h infringed t h e i r religion {Dig. 1 2, 3, 3 ) . F r o m
a p p r o x i m a t e l y this p e r i o d , n o t e t h a t T i . C l a u d i u s P o l y c h a r m u s in S t o b i
h a d ' p e r f o r m e d all his p o l i t i c a l f u n c t i o n s in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h J u d a i s m '
( p . 67 a b o v e ) ; in t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y a ' f a t h e r of t h e s y n a g o g u e of the
J e w s ' a t V o l u b i l i s w a s d e s c r i b e d a s a ' l e a d i n g citizen', protopolites ( p . 64
a b o v e ) . I n t h e a l t e r e d c o n d i t i o n s o f the l a t e t h i r d a n d f o u r t h c e n t u r i e s ,
w h e n t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n l o c a l oflfices {honores) a n d o b h g a t i o n s
{munera) effectively d i s a p p e a r e d , a n d t h e cities w e r e s e e k i n g to
d i s t r i b u t e t h e functions i m p o s e d b y the s t a t e o v e r a s m a n y c a t e g o r i e s as
possible, i n c l u d i n g n o n - c i t i z e n r e s i d e n t s {incolae), t h e q u e s t i o n b e c a m e
o n e of t h e strictly l i m i t e d e x e m p t i o n of specific n u m b e r s of s y n a g o g u e
oflficials in e a c h city. T h i s s i t u a t i o n is first a t t e s t e d i n a r u l i n g of
C o n s t a n t i n e a d d r e s s e d t o t h e t o w n c o u n c i l of C o l o g n e i n A.D. 3 2 1 . * ' I n
t h e classical p e r i o d , h o w e v e r , it d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o h a v e b e e n n o r m a l
for J e w s e i t h e r to v o t e o r to h o l d l o c a l oflfice. N o n e t h e less t h e existence
w i t h i n p a g a n G r e e k cities o f J e w i s h m i n o r i t i e s e n j o y i n g e s t a b l i s h e d
r i g h t s w a s b o u n d t o l e a d to c o n t i n u o u s fi"iction. F o r a d i v i s i o n b e t w e e n
t h e spheres o f religion a n d p o H t i c a l fife was u t t e r l y a l i e n t o classical
a n t i q u i t y : i n the affairs of t h e c i t y t h e cult of t h e c i t y ' s g o d s h a d a
c e n t r a l p l a c e . It will h a v e b e e n a c o n s t a n t c a u s e of conflict to h a v e
a m o n g t h e c i t i z e n s , as a p e r m a n e n t g r o u p e n j o y i n g defined privileges,
p e o p l e w h o p e r s i s t e d n o t o n l y in w o r s h i p p i n g their o w n g o d , a s it w e r e
n e x t d o o r to the c i t y g o d s , b u t a l s o in rejecting e v e r y kind of p a g a n
w o r s h i p as a n a b o m i n a t i o n . T o l e r a n c e o f s u c h f u n d a m e n t a l l y o p p o s e d
religious systems s i d e b y side w i t h o n e a n o t h e r w a s in r e a l i t y possible
o n l y w i t h i n t h e c o s m o p o l i t a n f r a m e w o r k of t h e R o m a n e m p i r e . T h e r e
w a s t h u s r o o m h e r e for t h e J e w s as well. By c o n t r a s t , to the city
20. Ephebes: Q A L 4 (1961), p. 2 0 , no. 7 : i, 34 and ii, 47 = C J Z C , no. 7 : Bapdvâs

BapdvP(p)a. ii, 4 8 : 'EXdaâp 'EXdCopos. i, 57: 'lovXios TrjaovTos. ii, 49: 'AyadoKXrjs
'EXdâpos. Nomophylax: Q A L 4 (1961), p. 16, no. 2 = C J Z C , no. 8 : 'EXdi,a{p 'T]dao}vos.
2 1 . C. Th. xvi 8, 3. See, for a succinct treatment, A . H. M . J o n e s , The Later Roman Empire
(1964), p p . 946-8. For the general b a c k g r o u n d , F. Millar, 'Empire and City, Augustus to
J u l i a n : Obligations, Excuses a n d Status', J R S 73 (1983), pp. 76-91. I n Minorca in the
early fifth century J e w s are found occupying p r o m i n e n t local offices including t h a t of
defensorcivitatis. See E. D . H u n t , 'St. S t e p h e n in Minorca', J T h S t 33 (1982), p p . 106-24.
c o m m u n i t i e s w h i c h held fast t o the o l d w a y of life in t h e r e l i g i o u s s p h e r e

as well a s in o t h e r s , t h e e x i s t e n c e o f j e w i s h f e l l o w - i n h a b i t a n t s m u s t h a v e
b e e n a t h o r n in t h e flesh. I t is therefore n o t s u r p r i s i n g , b u t r a t h e r q u i t e
consistent with the overall historical framework, that the J e w s w e r e
p e r s e c u t e d b y t h e cities, w h i l e t h e h i g h e r a u t h o r i t y o f t h e R o m a n
imperium took t h e m u n d e r i t s p r o t e c t i o n . H a t r e d a g a i n s t t h e J e w s
r e p e a t e d l y b r o k e o u t i n the cities, a n d o f c o u r s e especially w h e r e t h e
J e w s h a d the most m a r k e d c o m m u n a l r i g h t s , a s in A l e x a n d r i a , A n t i o c h ,
m a n y cities i n A s i a M i n o r , a n d e v e n i n C a e s a r e a in P a l e s t i n e , w h e r e
p a g a n s a n d J e w s h a d received e q u a l i t y of r i g h t s from H e r o d t h e
Great.** T h e c e n t r a l c o m p l a i n t w a s precisely t h a t t h e J e w s refused to
w o r s h i p the gods o f t h e city.*^ B u t it w a s a l w a y s t h e R o m a n s u p r e m e
a u t h o r i t y w h i c h p r o t e c t e d t h e rehgious f r e e d o m of t h e J e w s , s o l o n g as
t h e l a t t e r d i d not forfeit these r i g h t s (as in J u d a e a in A.D. 66) t h r o u g h
r e v o l u t i o n a r y a c t i o n . I t is v e r y striking h o w N i c o l a u s of D a m a s c u s , in
t h e s p e e c h in w h i c h he p l e a d e d t h e r i g h t s of J e w s o f Asia M i n o r before
A g r i p p a , e m p h a s i z e d i t as s o m e t h i n g n o v e l , as a b e n e f a c t i o n first
b r o u g h t into being b y the R o m a n world-order, t h a t m e n were
e v e r y w h e r e a l l o w e d 'to live b y the w o r s h i p of t h e i r o w n gods'.**
T h e m o r e f a v o u r a b l e t h e g e n e r a l a t t i t u d e o f the R o m a n w o r l d - p o w e r
t o J u d a i s m , t h e m o r e w o r t h w h i l e it w a s for m a n y of t h e J e w s in t h e
D i a s p o r a , n o t o n l y in R o m e b u t also e l s e w h e r e , to possess R o m a n
c i t i z e n s h i p . I n R o m e , a c c o r d i n g t o P h i l o , m o s t of t h e J e w s l i v i n g t h e r e
h a d it b y v i r t u e o f t h e i r position a s d e s c e n d a n t s of f r e e d m e n . M a n y of
22. In Alexandria J e w s a n d pagans lived from the foundation of t h e city o n w a r d s in

continual disharmony, B.J. ii 18, 7 ( 4 8 7 - 9 3 ) ; at the time of Caligula it was the p a g a n
m o b there who above all persecuted the Jews, even before the emperor himself proceeded
against t h e m (Philo, In Flaccum). I n the reign of Vespasian the Alexandrians addressed
t h e emperor with the request that t h e j e w s there should be deprived of their rights, Ant.
xii 3, I (121). I n Antioch in the d m e of Vespasian it c a m e to bloodshed, B.J. vii 3, 3
( 4 3 - 5 3 ) ; Titus received a request t h a t the Jews should all be driven from t h e city, a n d
w h e n T i t u s did not g r a n t this, that a t least they should be deprived of their rights, B.J. vii
5, 2 (100—11); Ant. xii 3, i (121). I n Asia M i n o r t h e city communes continually renewed
their efforts to hinder the J e w s in t h e practice of their religion, and thus necessitated the
R o m a n edicts of toleration. Ant. xii 3, 2 (125-7) •> ' 2, 3-5 (27-65), and above all the
edicts in Ant. xiv 10 (186-267) and xvi 6 (160-78). T h e same h a p p e n e d in Cyrene, Ant.
xvi 6, I a n d 5 (160-1, 169-70). In Caesarea pagans and J e w s were repeatedly involved in
bloody conflict, Ant. xx 8, 7, 9 (173—8, 182-4)'•>^-J- " 7 (266-70); 14, 4 - 5 (284—92);
18, I (457). Even in cities where there is n o evidence t h a t the Jews enjoyed established
rights, t h e hatred of the p a g a n m o b broke out against t h e m from dme to d m e , in
p a r t i c u l a r at t h e outbreak of the Jewish war i n Ascalon, Ptolemais, T y r e , H i p p o s ,
G a d a r a , B.J. ii 18, 5 (477-8) and Damascus, B.J. ii 20, 2 (559-61). O f the Ascalonites
Philo says that they bore implacable hostiUty towards Jews, Leg. 30 (205). O f the
Phoenicians, the Tyrians were, according t o Josephus, especially hostile in their a t t i t u d e
to Jews, C. Ap.i 13 (70).
23. Ant. xii 3, 2 (126). Cf C. Ap. ii 6 (65).
24. Ant. xvi 2, 4 (36) : efetrnt Kara xwpav €Kaarot,s rd oiKcta rifjidiaiv dyetv Kal Sia^rjv.
III. Civic Rights 133
t h e J e w i s h p r i s o n e r s of w a r w h o m P o m p e y h a d b r o u g h t to R o m e and
sold i n t o slavery w e r e l i b e r a t e d b y t h e i r masters, and gained citizen
rights along with their manumission, rights which their descendants
retained from then onwards.*^ It even appears that such libertini
r e t u r n e d a g a i n to J e r u s a l e m f r o m R o m e a n d f o u n d e d t h e r e t h e i r o w n
c o m m u n i t y , for t h e ' S y n a g o g u e o f libertini' m e n t i o n e d i n A c t . 6:9 can
scarcely be o t h e r t h a n R o m a n freedmen and their descendants.*^ E v e n
in J e r u s a l e m , therefore, t h e r e lived J e w s w i t h the R o m a n citizenship;
but we find them also elsewhere as early as the late Republic,
particularly in Asia Minor.*' A Roman citizen, Marcus Laelius
O n a s i o n , a p p e a r s a m o n g t h e archontes of t h e J e w i s h politeuma o f B e r e n i c e
in a d e c r e e o f ( p r o b a b l y ) A.D. 24 ( p . 6 1 a b o v e ) . I t is t h u s n o t w h o l l y
exceptional that the apostle Paul, from Tarsus in Cilicia, was in
possession of t h e R o m a n citizenship ( A c . 1 6 : 3 7 ff-5 2 2 : 2 5 - 9 ; 2 3 : 2 7 ) ,
though t h e r e is n o w a y of d e t e r m i n i n g how this c a m e about.*^ How
s o m e J e w s i n t h e p r o v i n c e of A s i a o b t a i n e d a r i g h t to it is a l s o b e y o n d
o u r k n o w l e d g e . * ^ T h e f a c t itself is h a r d l y q u e s t i o n a b l e since it is a l s o
25. Philo, Leg. 23 (155—7) • 'PtofJ-aioi Sc •fjaav oi nXelovs aneXevdepiudevTes. at\iw,XwToi

ydp dxOevTfs cts VraAidv viro TU>V KTrjaafievwv riXevdepwdrjaav, ovSev rtov irarpicDv
•napaxapdâi ^laadevTes • • dXX' 6 plv (Augustus) cure e^wKtae rrjs 'Pcijuij? eKeivovs, ovre TTJV
'Puip.aCKrfv avTMv dêtAero TroAiTetW. Gf. T a c . Ann. ii 8 5 : ' q u a t t u o r milia libertini generis'.
Manumission could t a k e place in different ways. B y the proper a n d formal manumission
the freedman received R o m a n citizenship. S e e R E X I I I , cols. 104 ff., s.v. 'Liberdni'. This
citizenship obtained by the freed slave himself was not however of full s t a t u s ; he w a s for
instance able t o vote, but n o t to hold public office. See T h . M o m m s e n , Romisches
Staatsrecht I I I . i (1887), pp. 4 2 0 - 5 7 ; E. v o n Herzog, Gesch. und System der romischen
Staatsverfassung I I . 2 (1891), p p . 936 ff.; see also A . M. Duff, Freedmen in the Early Roman
Empire (1928), p p . 12-35 > Treggiari, Roman Freedmen during the Late Republic (1969), pp.
1-86; G. Fabre, Libertus (1981), pp. 5 - 6 8 .
26. Libertinus is distinguished from libertus only i n that the former indicates the social
a n d legal status of the freed slave, t h e latter t h e s a m e m a n as the freedman of a particular
master (often w i t h possessive genitive of a praenomen of possession). Children of freedmen
were originally subsumed u n d e r the category of libertini, b u t this was n o longer the case
according to later usage (see M o m m s e n , Romisches Staatsrecht I I I . i , pp. 422 ff.). However,
the Jerusalem congregation founded by freedmen appears to have retained its n a m e
awaywy-q Aiêprivcov also a m o n g later generations. Cf t h e commentaries on A c . 6:2.
27. As in Ephesus, Ant. xiv 10, 13, 16, 19 (228, 234, 2 4 0 ) ; ?Sardis, xiv 10, 17 (235);
Delos, Ant. xiv 10, 14 ( 2 3 2 ) ; i n g e n e r a l : xiv 10, 18 (237).
28. Doubts w e r e expressed with regard to t h e R o m a n citizenship of P a u l b y , for
example, E. R e n a n , Paulus (1869), p . 442 = Saint Paul [Oeuvres computes I V , e d . H.
Psichari, 1949), p . 1063, and F . Overbeck, Erkldrung der Apostelgesch., p p . 266 ff., 4 2 9 ff.
T h e only reason for these w o r t h consideration is t h e frequent fettering of t h e apostle (2
Cor. 11:24-5) > 'ût such infringements of t h e law occurred not infrequently. See e.g. W.
M . Ramsay, St Paul: The traveller and the Roman Citizen (1895); T h . Mommsen, 'Die
Rechtsverhaltnisse des Apostels Paulus', Z N W 2 (1901), p p . 8 1 - 9 6 = Ges. Schr. I l l
(1907), p p . 4 3 1 - 4 6 J A . N. Sherwin-White, Roman Society and Roman Law in the New
Testament (1963), pp. 144 ff.
29. O n the different ways i n which R o m a n citizenship could b e attained see R E , Suppl.
1 (1903), cols. 307 ff. s.v. 'civitas'; C. E. Goodfellow, Roman Citizenship: A Study of its
k n o w n t h a t b y t h e e a r l y first c e n t u r y B . c . m a n y t h o u s a n d s of R o m a n
citizens w e r e living in A s i a M i n o r . ^ ° T h e s i m u l t a n e o u s possession of
c i t i z e n s h i p of R o m e a n d (in s o m e sense) o f a G r e e k city, for w h i c h t h e r e
is e v i d e n c e in the case o f t h e J e w s in E p h e s u s a n d S a r d i s , as for t h e
a p o s t l e P a u l (Ac. 2 1 : 3 9 : 'lovSatos, Tapaevs T17? KiXiKias, OVK darjpLOV
TToXeui TroXtTrjs), c o r r e s p o n d s t o the c o n d i t i o n s of t h a t p e r i o d , i n w h i c h
it w a s n o t u n c o m m o n . ^ '
T h e a d v a n t a g e s g r a n t e d a l o n g w i t h t h e possession o f the R o m a n
c i t i z e n s h i p w e r e n o d o u b t c o n s i d e r a b l e . N o n e t h e less it s h o u l d b e
e m p h a s i s e d t h a t a l m o s t all t h e e v i d e n c e r e l a t i n g to t h e legal p r i v i l e g e s
of R o m a n citizens is a m b i v a l e n t a n d c o n t r o v e r s i a l , a n d t h a t few
c o n f i d e n t g e n e r a U s a t i o n s c a n b e offered. T h e following c a n be s a i d : ( i )
T h e t h i r d of t h e five edicts of A u g u s t u s from C y r e n e ( S E G I X , n o . 8,
iii) m a k e s c l e a r t h a t R o m a n c i t i z e n s h i p c o n f e r r e d i m m u n i t y n e i t h e r
from direct R o m a n taxes o n provincial l a n d n o r from personal
o b l i g a t i o n s in a m a n ' s o w n c i t y , unless s u c h r i g h t s h a d b e e n g i v e n b y a
specific g r a n t . (2) T h e i m p o r t a n t d o c u m e n t o f t h e T r i u m v i r a l p e r i o d
g r a n t i n g the R o m a n c i t i z e n s h i p to S e l e u c u s of R h o s u s in S y r i a ( I G L S ,
n o . 7 1 8 , ii) also g r a n t s f r e e d o m from t r i b u t e (aneisphoria), a n d t h e r i g h t ,
if a c c u s e d , to c h o o s e to face t r i a l in his o w n c i t y , in a free city o r before
R o m a n m a g i s t r a t e s or p r o - m a g i s t r a t e s . (3) It r e m a i n s q u i t e u n c l e a r to
w h a t e x t e n t a R o m a n citizen w a s n o r m a l l y c o n s i d e r e d t o be s u b j e c t to
t h e laws of his o w n n a t i v e city, or o f a n y o t h e r city w h e r e he h a p p e n e d
Territorial and Numerical Expansion from the Earliest Times to the Death of Augustus (1935) ; F.
Vittinghoff, Romische Kolonisation und Biirgerrechtspolitik unter Caesar und Augustus (1952) ; A.
N. Sherwin-White, The Roman Citizenship (^1973); see also B. Holtheide, Romische
Biirgerrechtspolitik und romische Neubiirger in der Provinz Asia (1983).
30. T h e atrocity committed by Mithridates in 8 8 B.C. is well-known: he ordered the
m u r d e r of all R o m a n cidzens in Asia Minor, including women and c h i l d r e n ; see the
evidence e.g. in E . K u h n , Die stadtische und biirgerl. Verfassung des rom. Reiches I, p . 25. T h e
n u m b e r of the victims is given by Valerius M a x i m u s ix 2, ext. 3 as 80,000. T h i s seems to
h a v e involved Italian-born citizens. Scarcely forty years later the n u m b e r of R o m a n
citizens in Asia Minor was so great that t h e consul Lentulus could raise two legions of
R o m a n citizens there in 49 B.C. (Caesar, B.C. iii 4 ; see t h e passage on p . 120 above). In
this case, however, they were certainly not only of Italian parentage. For the subject in
general cf. also t h e literature mentioned above, n. 29.
31. According to earlier R o m a n notions 'simultaneous multiple citizenship or
simultaneous membership of m o r e t h a n one community is logically as well as in practice
impossible' (Mommsen, Romisches Staatsrecht I I I . i , p . 47). From Augustus, however, the
opposite was the rule: ' R o m a n cidzenship can be held along with t h a t of a n y imperial
municipality' (Mommsen, op. cit., p . 699). I t even happened n o t infrequently that one
individual acquired citizenship in several cities; a n d a vain title hunter is attested as
having spent considerable sums in order to b e granted the politeia of a really large n u m b e r
of cides. See E. Szanto, Das griechische Biirgerrecht (1892), pp. 65-6. F o r the role of the
citizenship of a city see e.g. L. R o b e r t , Hellenica I (1940), p p . 37-42. M u l d p l e citizenship
is widely attested, e.g. i n inscriptions honouring famous athletes, see L. Moretti, Iscrizioni
agonistiche greche (1953), e.g. no. 79.
to b e r e s i d e n t , a n d h o w t h e s i t u a t i o n w a s affected if the c i t y w a s a 'free'

c i t y , i.e. one f o r m a l l y e x e m p t from t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n of t h e g o v e r n o r . All
t h a t is c l e a r is t h a t s u c h cities m i g h t lose t h e i r f r e e d o m for flogging or
e x e c u t i n g R o m a n citizens.^* (4) I t c a n r e a s o n a b l y be a c c e p t e d t h a t
R o m a n citizens w e r e r e g a r d e d a s b e i n g i n p r i n c i p l e e x e m p t f r o m
flogging by c i t y m a g i s t r a t e s o r R o m a n officials, f r o m t o r t u r e a n d f r o m
c r u e l o r h u m i l i a t i n g f o r m s o f e x e c u t i o n such as crucifixion.^^ (5) I t is
c l e a r t h a t t h e r e existed s o m e r i g h t o f a p p e a l for R o m a n c i t i z e n s a g a i n s t
capital sentences. T h e earliest formal s t a t e m e n t o f a right of appeal,
m a d e f o r m e r l y to t h e R o m a n populus a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y t o the e m p e r o r ,
b e l o n g s h o w e v e r t o the t h i r d c e n t u r y . O u r e v i d e n c e d o e s n o t a l l o w us
t o s t a t e , for t h e p e r i o d i n q u e s t i o n , w h a t w e r e t h e e x a c t w o r k i n g s of a n y
s u c h s y s t e m of a p p e a l , or h o w f a r it w a s e x c l u s i v e t o citizens.^* (6)
T h e r e is also s o m e e v i d e n c e of c i t i z e n s b e i n g s e n t s p o n t a n e o u s l y by
p r o v i n c i a l g o v e r n o r s to s t a n d trial i n R o m e . ^ ^
T h r o u g h possession o f e s t a b h s h e d r i g h t s i n m a n y G r e e k cities t h e
J e w s w e r e g i v e n a d e g r e e of e q u a l i t y w i t h the rest o f the p o p u l a t i o n , yet
t h e y d o n o t s e e m g e n e r a l l y t o h a v e filled a n y p r o m i n e n t p u b l i c role
t h e r e . O n t h e c o n t r a r y , possession of t h e s e r i g h t s g a v e rise t o hostility
a n d p e r s e c u t i o n , a s we h a v e s e e n . I n s o m e places, h o w e v e r , p a r t i c u l a r l y
in E g y p t , J e w s a t c e r t a i n p e r i o d s p l a y e d a p r o m i n e n t p a r t in
g o v e r n m e n t a n d p u b l i c life. T h e e a r l i e r P t o l e m i e s a r e s a i d to h a v e b e e n
in the m a i n f a v o u r a b l y i n c l i n e d t o w a r d s them.^^ I n d i v i d u a l J e w s also
s e c u r e d i m p o r t a n t positions u n d e r s o m e of t h e l a t e r P t o l e m i e s . P t o l e m y
V I P h i l o m e t o r a n d his wife C l e o p a t r a a r e s a i d to h a v e ' e n t r u s t e d t h e i r
whole kingdom t o Jews, a n d the J e w s Onias a n d Dositheus were
c o m m a n d e r s of t h e e n t i r e a r m y ' . ^ ' E v e n if t h i s a c c o u n t b y J o s e p h u s is
32. For various views see e.g. E. K u h n , Die stadtische und biirgerl. Verfassung des romischen
Reichs I I , p. 2 4 ; J . M a r q u a r d t , Romische Staatsverwaltung I (1881), p p . 75 ff.; A. H . M.
Jones, The Greek City (1940), p p . 1 1 9 ; 130—i; see also J . Colin, Les villes libres de I'Orient
grico-romain (1965); A. J . Marshall, ' R o m a n s u n d e r C h i a n L a w ' , G R B S 10 (1969), pp.
255-71-
33. See Ac. 16:37ff-'•>22:25 ff.; R E s.v. ' c r u x ' ; U . Brasiello, La repressionepenale in diritto
romano (1937); P . Garnsey, Social Status and Legal Privilege in the Roman Empire (1970), esp.
p p . 266 ff. Cf. P . A. Brunt, 'Evidence Given u n d e r T o r t u r e i n the Principate', Z S S 97
(1980), p p . 256-65.
34. See R E s.v. 'appellatio' a n d ' p r o v o c a t i o ' ; T h . Mommsen, Romisches Staatsrecht^ I I , pp.
958 if.; idem, Romisches Strafrecht (1899), pp. 242 ff.; see also H . Volkmann, Z^r
Rechtssprechung im Prinzipat des Augustus (1935); J . M . Kelly, Princeps Judex (1957); A . H.
M . Jones, Studies in Roman Government and Law ( i 9 6 0 ) , ch. 4 - 5 ; Sherwin-White, Roman
Society and Roman Law (1963), pp. 57 ff.; P . Garnsey, ' T h e Lex lulia a n d Appeal under
the Empire', J R S 56 (1966), pp. 1 6 7 - 8 9 ; F. Millar, The Emperor in the Roman World
(1977). PP- 507-16.
35. See e.g. Pliny, Ep. x 9 6 : 'Fuerunt alii similis a m e n d a e , quos q u i a cives R o m a n i
erant adnotavi i n u r b e m remittendos'.
36. Jos. C.Ap. i i 4 ( 4 4 - 7 ) .
SJ.C.Ap. ii5 (49).
e x a g g e r a t e d , i t m a y be t a k e n as c e r t a i n t h a t i n t h e f r a t e r n a l strife of
P t o l e m y V I P h i l o m e t o r a n d his wife C l e o p a t r a w i t h P t o l e m y V I I
P h y s c o n , the J e w s , u n d e r t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f t h e s e t w o g e n e r a l s , t o o k t h e
side of t h e f o r m e r a n d e a r n e d t h e i r g r a t i t u d e t h e r e b y . A n o t h e r
C l e o p a t r a , d a u g h t e r of t h e c o u p l e j u s t m e n t i o n e d , i n t h e w a r a g a i n s t
h e r son P t o l e m y L a t h y r u s , s i m i l a r l y a p p o i n t e d two J e w s , C h e l k i a s a n d
A n a n i a s , to t h e c o m m a n d of h e r forces.^^ T h e n a m e of C h e l k i a s a l s o
a p p e a r s o n t h e f r a g m e n t of a n honorific i n s c r i p t i o n a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h
t h e p e r s o n c o n c e r n e d — p e r h a p s n o t C h e l k i a s h i m s e l f b u t his s o n — w a s
h o n o u r e d w i t h the a w a r d of a g o l d e n c r o w n a s strategos}° W h e t h e r t h e
P t o l e m a i o s s o n of E p i k y d e s , epistates of t h e phylakitai, w h o h e l p e d t h e
J e w s in A t h r i b i s t o b u i l d t h e i r s y n a g o g u e , w a s himself a J e w , r e m a i n s
u n c e r t a i n : h e m a y h a v e b e e n a n o n - J e w friendly t o t h e Jews.'^'
T a x - c o l l e c t o r s w i t h J e w i s h n a m e s o c c u r o n t a x r e c e i p t s of t h e P t o l e m a i c
p e r i o d f o u n d i n Egypt.''^*
I n t h e R o m a n p e r i o d also, s o m e r i c h J e w s i n A l e x a n d r i a still p l a y e d
a p r o m i n e n t p a r t i n p u b l i c life. I n p a r t i c u l a r , w e k n o w t h a t t h e office of
alabarch, i.e. p r o b a b l y , of c u s t o m s s u p e r i n t e n d e n t o n t h e A r a b i a n side of
t h e Nile, was s o m e t i m e s d i s c h a r g e d b y J e w i s h n o t a b l e s , as in t h e case of
A l e x a n d e r , b r o t h e r of t h e p h i l o s o p h e r P h i l o , a n d l a t e r of a c e r t a i n
Demetrius.'*^^ T h e alabarch A l e x a n d e r w a s also t h e epitropos, or a g e n t , of
38. T h e description by Josephus is o n this point supported by t h e words of Apion which

he quotes, Jos. C. Ap. ii 5 (50) = G L A J J I, n o . 167 : /xerct ravra, ^rjatv, 'Ovias irri rrfv noXiv
rjyaye arparov <(oi5ic) oXiyov... C f also B. Niese, Gesch. der griech. und makedon. Staaten I I I ,
pp. 213 ff.; CPJ I , pp. 2 0 - 1 .
39. Ant. xiii 10, 4 (285); 13, 1-2 (348-55). I n the first passage Josephus quotes a
passage from Strabo (GLAJJ I , no. 9 9 , with Stern's comments) to support his account.
Chelkias a n d Ananias were t h e sons of the high priest Onias, builder of the temple at
Leontopolis.
40. CIJ I I , no. 1450; cf C P J I I I , p p . 144-5. T h e text is fragmentary and t h e overall
meaning uncertain.
4 1 . O G I S , no. 96 = S B V, n o . 8872 ; CIJ I I , no. 1443; see C P J I I I , p . 142 (text o n p.
41 above). O n t h e title Imararrfs rwv ^vXaKirwv (probably distinct from dpxt<f>vXaKirr)s)
see T h . Reinach in R E J 17 (1888), p p . 2 3 5 - 5 8 ; a n d O . Hirschfeld, SAB 1891, p. 867
(taking these terms as synonymous). Since J e w s in Egypt also rendered military service
(see above, pp. 41-2 f.) the Ptolemaeus mentioned m a y have been a J e w , as m a y
the phylakitai under him. See C P J I, p . 17.
4 2 . See C P J I, p p . 18-19, a n d pp. 194-226. Cf above, p . 57.
4 3 . O n Alexander, t h e brother of the philosopher P h i l o : Ant. xviii 6, 3 (159); 8, i
(259); xix 5, I (276); XX 5, 2 (100). D e m e t r i u s : Ant. xx 7, 3 (147). U. Wilcken, Griechische
Ostraka aus Agypten und Nubien I (1899), pp. 347-51. It is n o w generally accepted that the
term alabarches ( O G I S , no. 5 7 0 ; inscription from Chalcis in Euboea, B C H 16 (1892), p.
119, no. 4 4 , and later in Palladas, Anth. Pal. xi 383, 4) and the arabarches ( O G I S , nos. 2 0 2 ;
6 7 4 ; 685; BGU I I , no. 6 6 5 ; S E G I V , no. 5 2 0 ; C. Theod. iv 12, 9 = C. Just, iv 61, 9 (see
below); Cic. ad Att. ii 17, 3 ; J u v e n a l i 130, see C o u r t n e y ad loc.) are identical. S e e J .
Lesquier, L'armee romaine d'Egypte (1918), p p . 421 fF.; not accepted however by M .
Rostovtzeff, YCS 2 (1931), p p . 49-51. For proof t h a t the ' A r a b a r c h ' was concerned with
the collection of taxes see esp, C. Theod. iv 12, 9 = C. Just, iv 61, 9 (Gratian, V a l e n d n i a n
A n t o n i a , m o t h e r o f the e m p e r o r Claudius.''^* O n e o f his sons, M a r c u s

l u h u s A l e x a n d e r , is k n o w n f r o m a g r o u p of o s t r a k a s h o w i n g h i s a g e n t s
e n g a g e d in t r a d e o n t h e r o u t e s f r o m K o p t o s to B e r e n i k e a n d M y o s
H o r m o s . * ^ T h e o t h e r b r o t h e r , T i b e r i u s l u h u s A l e x a n d e r , s o n of t h e
alabarch A l e x a n d e r j u s t m e n t i o n e d , e v e n a t t a i n e d t h e h i g h e s t r a n k in
t h e R o m a n e q u e s t r i a n c a r e e r , t h o u g h a t t h e p r i c e o f a p o s t a s y from his
a n c e s t r a l religion.*^ J e w i s h ' c h i e f p h y s i c i a n s ' [archiatroi) o c c u r o n
i n s c r i p t i o n s i n E p h e s u s a n d V e n o s a (see a b o v e , p p . 23, 8 3 ) . I n R o m e
itself i n d i v i d u a l J e w s o c c a s i o n a l l y exercised s o m e i n f l u e n c e i n u p p e r
class society. B u t in t h e E m p i r e in g e n e r a l the few cases of office-holding
k n o w n f r o m E g y p t i n t h e e a r l y E m p i r e r e m a i n w h o l l y e x c e p d o n a l . I t is
striking t h a t s o m e J e w s i n J u d a e a h a d a t t a i n e d e q u e s t r i a n r a n k by t h e
r e i g n of N e r o . * ' B u t in g e n e r a l it s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n o n l y from a r o u n d
A.D. 200 t h a t J e w s w e r e a b l e t o h o l d e v e n c i t y offices (p. 1 3 1
a b o v e ) , a n d o n l y for a b r i e f p e r i o d in t h e l a t e f o u r t h a n d e a r l y fifth
c e n t u r i e s t h a t they m i g h t h o l d office in t h e i m p e r i a l service. B o t h civic
a n d i m p e r i a l posts w e r e f o r m a l l y f o r b i d d e n t o J e w s in t h e Novella 3 of
T h e o d o s i u s I I in A.D. 438.*^
and T h e o d o s i u s ) : ' U s u r p a t i o n e m todus licendae summovemus circa vectigal

A r a b a r c h i a e p e r Aegyptum a t q u e A u g u s t a m n i c a m constitutum, nihilque super
transductionem animalium, q u a e sine praebitione solita minime permittenda est,
temeritate per licentiam vindicari concedimus.' T h i s interpretation is established b y an
inscription from Coptos, O G I S , no. 674. T h i s contains a tariff which states how much the
contractors for t h e tariff p a y a b l e to t h e arabarchia in Coptos may levy. N o explanation can
be offered of the a p p e a r a n c e of the title on t h e brief inscription from X a n t h o s ( O G I S , no.
570), the Christian epitaph from Chalcis ( B C H 16 (1892), p . 119), or a n inscription from
Alexandria Troas, J . M . Cook, The Troad (1973), p . 405, n o . 31.
4 4 . Ant. xix 5, I (276).
4 5 . CPJ I I , nos. 4 i 9 a - c .
46. Ant. XX 5, 2 (100) : TOIS ydp iraTpiois OVK cve/xetvev oiJros ideaiv. O n Tiberius lulius
Alexander see vol. I, p. 457, n. 9.
47. A m o n g the Jews crucified in A . D . 66 b y Florus in J e r u s a l e m , there were some who
possessed the status of R o m a n equites, B.J. ii 14, 9 (308). Their execution b y Florus is
rightly characterized by J o s e p h u s as a particularly serious infringement of the law.
4 8 . See E. D. H u n t i n J T h S t 33 (1982), p p . 118-22. F o r a full collection of Imperial
legislative texts, with H e b r e w introduction a n d c o m m e n t a r y , see now A . Linder, Roman
Imperial Legislation on the Jews (1983).
IV. R E L I G I O U S LIFE
T h e Jews, though scattered throughout the ancient world, maintained

t h e i r religious i d e n t i t y for t h e m o s t p a r t w i t h r e m a r k a b l e t e n a c i t y .
T h e r e w e r e o f course cases of defection t o p a g a n i s m or s y n c r e t i s m . I f in
J e r u s a l e m itself a t t h e t i m e o f A n t i o c h u s E p i p h a n e s s o m e circles w e r e
r e a d y t o t a k e p a r t i n p a g a n c u l t s , it is scarcely s u r p r i s i n g t h a t a t O r o p u s
in G r e e c e i n the first h a l f o f the t h i r d c e n t u r y a J e w freed a s l a v e
' h a v i n g seen a d r e a m , at t h e o r d e r s of t h e g o d A m p h i a r a o s a n d
H y g i e i a ' (p. 65 a b o v e ) ; or t h a t i n l a s u s in C a r i a , for e x a m p l e , o n e
N i k e t a s from J e r u s a l e m w a s a p a t r o n of t h e festival of D i o n y s u s ( p . 25
a b o v e ) . I n t h e R o m a n p e r i o d , also, t h e e x a m p l e of T i b e r i u s l u l i u s
A l e x a n d e r w a s n o t u n i q u e (if ol TTOTC 'lovSaioL on a n i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m
S m y r n a (p. 20 a b o v e ) m e a n s ' t h e f o r m e r J e w s ' ; A. T . K r a a b e l , J J S 33
( 1 9 8 2 ) , p . 4 5 5 , asserts t h a t it m e a n s ' p e o p l e f o r m e r l y of J u d a e a ' ) .
E x a m p l e s of syncretistic a t t i t u d e s a r e also a t t e s t e d , especially i n E g y p t .
A r e m a r k a b l e e x a m p l e is the H e l l e n i s t i c J e w i s h a u t h o r A r t a p a n u s , f r o m
w h o m s o m e f r a g m e n t s h a v e b e e n p r e s e r v e d (see p p . 5 2 1 - 5 b e l o w ) . H e
t h o u g h t to e n h a n c e t h e r e p u t a t i o n of J u d a i s m b y r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e
p a t r i a r c h s a n d M o s e s n o t o n l y as c r e a t o r s of a l l t h e w o r l d civilizations,
b u t as f o u n d e r s o f the E g y p t i a n p o l y t h e i s t i c cults, as h e u n d e r s t o o d
t h e m . I n t h e t e m p l e of P a n a t A p o l l o n o p o l i s M a g n a (Edfu i n U p p e r
E g y p t ) a r e t w o i n s c r i p t i o n s i n w h i c h J e w s express g r a t i t u d e for a r e s c u e
t h e y h a v e e x p e r i e n c e d to ' t h e g o d ' (the expression is n o d o u b t
d e l i b e r a t e l y u n s p e c i f i c ) . ' S u c h t r a c e s of s y n c r e t i s m h o w e v e r n e v e r
a c q u i r e d the s a m e e x t e n t or significance as w i t h o t h e r r e h g i o n s of t h e
E a s t . O n t h e w h o l e , t h e resistant a t t i t u d e o f J u d a i s m in t h e face of
o t h e r religions r e m a i n e d a c o n t i n u i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c .
Constant contact with Greek culture could admittedly not remain
w i t h o u t influence on t h e i n t e r n a l d e v e l o p m e n t of J u d a i s m in t h e
D i a s p o r a . Particularly in places where the J e w s , t h r o u g h wealth a n d
social s t a t u s , w e r e i n a p o s i t i o n to m a k e u s e of the e d u c a t i o n a l m e a n s of
t h e i r t i m e — a s w a s specially the case i n A l e x a n d r i a (see e s p . E . G.
T u r n e r in J R S 44 ( 1 9 5 4 ) , p p . 54 ff.)—^Judaism s t r u c k o u t in a d i r e c t i o n
s u b s t a n t i a l l y different f r o m t h a t of P a l e s t i n i a n J u d a i s m . T h e e d u c a t e d
J e w of t h e D i a s p o r a w a s n o t o n l y a J e w b u t a t t h e s a m e t i m e a G r e e k b y
l a n g u a g e , e d u c a d o n a n d c u s t o m s , a n d h e w a s c o m p e l l e d by t h e force
of c i r c u m s t a n c e s t o try t o r e c o n c i l e a n d u n i t e J u d a i s m a n d H e l l e n i s m .
I . CIJ I I , nos. 1537-8 (CPJ I I I , p p . 165-6). For the texts see p . 58 above.
IV. Religious Life 139
S u c h e x t e r n a l influences are c l e a r l y s h o w n f o r i n s t a n c e in t h e u s e of
p a g a n motifs in e p i t a p h s , a n d e s p e c i a l l y o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n in a r t ,
e x t e n d i n g in t h e case o f t h e D u r a - E u r o p o s s y n a g o g u e to n a r r a t i v e
frescoes of O l d T e s t a m e n t scenes (see v o l . I, p . 5 5 6 , n. 1 9 2 ) . T h e r e is
also s c a t t e r e d e v i d e n c e o f J e w s a t t e n d i n g p u b l i c s h o w s i n G r e e k cities
( p p . 25, 128 a b o v e ) , a n d a m p l e i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t P h i l o , at least, w a s
f a m i l i a r w i t h G r e e k a t h l e d c s ; see H . A . H a r r i s , Greek Athletics and the
Jews (1976), c h . 3 (see f u r t h e r §§ 3 3 a n d 3 4 ) .
S u c h a fusion of G r e e k a n d J e w i s h religiosity was possible to a c e r t a i n
d e g r e e , so l o n g as the e m p h a s i s l a y o n g e n e r a l r e l i g i o u s a n d e t h i c a l
i d e a s , a n d t h e specifically J e w i s h , t h e c u l t i c a n d c e r e m o n i a l , e l e m e n t s
w e r e k e p t in t h e b a c k g r o u n d ; in o t h e r w o r d s , so l o n g as the p r o p h e t i c
t r e n d s i n J u d a i s m w e r e followed r a t h e r t h a n the l e g a l a n d P h a r i s a i c .
T h e O l d T e s t a m e n t itself is after all f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e t h o u g h t t h a t
o b e d i e n c e is b e t t e r t h a n sacrifice a n d heedfulness b e t t e r t h a n t h e f a t of
r a m s (i S a m . 1 5 : 2 2 ) ; t h a t G o d d e l i g h t s i n love a n d n o t i n sacrifice, a n d
in the k n o w l e d g e o f G o d r a t h e r t h a n i n b u r n t - o f f e r i n g s ( H o s . 6:6).*
E v e n s u c h a m a n as J e s u s b e n S i r a , w h o s o e n e r g e t i c a l l y u r g e s his
r e a d e r t o k e e p the L a w a n d h o l d s t h e p r i e s t l y cult i n h i g h r e g a r d , also
says t h a t sacrifice is of n o a v a i l i f a m a n a c t s u n j u s t l y t o w a r d s his
n e i g h b o u r ( E c c l u s . 7:9; 3 1 : 2 1 - 3 1 ) , t h a t G o d d o e s n o t a l l o w h i m s e l f to
b e b r i b e d b y sacrifice (32:14—26), a n d t h a t t h e t r u e gift is t o be g o o d
a n d to a v o i d evil ( 3 2 : 1 - 5 ) . T h e s e v i e w s w e r e v e r y s t r o n g l y e m p h a s i z e d ,
for i n s t a n c e , in t h e G r e e k verses q u o t e d b y C h r i s t i a n w r i t e r s , w h o
a t t r i b u t e t h e m e i t h e r to M e n a n d e r or P h i l e m o n . If, as h a s often b e e n
c l a i m e d , t h e y a r e o f j e w i s h o r i g i n , i t is s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t t h e y express t h e
v i e w t h a t it is a n e r r o r i f a m a n t h i n k s t h a t h e will o b t a i n G o d ' s f a v o u r
b y sacrifice a n d v o t i v e gifts. M a n m u s t b e g o o d a n d v i r t u o u s , d o
n o t h i n g evil. 'Sacrifice t o G o d b y b e i n g a t all t i m e s u p r i g h t . ' ^
T h i s view w a s p e r h a p s m o r e w i d e s p r e a d in t h e D i a s p o r a t h a n in t h e
m o t h e r l a n d i n t h e p o s t - M a c c a b e a n p e r i o d . T h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e G r e e k
e n v i r o n m e n t m a y h a v e t e n d e d to s u p p r e s s t h e e x t e n d e d o b s e r v a n c e of
J e w i s h l a w a n d c u s t o m as t a u g h t b y t h e P h a r i s e e s m o r e t h a n in t h e
h o m e l a n d . T h e J e w i n t h e D i a s p o r a m a y h a v e felt himself m o r e
s t r o n g l y d i r e c t e d t o p l a c e in t h e forefront his g e n e r a l religious i d e a s , t h e
2. See e.g. G. F. Moore, Judaism in the first centuries of the Christian Era I (1927), pp.
497-534-
3. The verses are in Pseudo-Justin, De monarchia 4 {Corpus Apologet., ed. O t t o , 3rd ed.,
I l l , pp. 140 ff.), and with some variations in Clem. Alex., Strom, v 14, 119 ff. a n d in
Euseb. Praep. Evang. xiii 13, 4 5 - 6 . Pseudo-Jusdn ascribes them t o Philemon, Clement to
M e n a n d e r . T h e following lines are particularly noteworthy (given according to the
recension of Clement) : c? rts Se dvalav 7rpoa<f>fpwv, <I> /Ja/LiîAe . . . ewow vo/iiêi TOV deov
KaOeardvai, irenXdvrjT' eKfivos Kal <f>p€vas K0v<l>as cx*'- Y^P "^^^ avSpa XRVî^H^^
Tr€<f>vKevai ... deep 8e ODc 8id T4XOVS SIKOIOS COV. N o t e however t h a t A. Koerte, Menander,
Reliquiae I I (1959), Fr. 683, accepts their a t t r i b u t i o n to M e n a n d e r .
n o t i o n o f a s u p r e m e G o d a n d of a f u t u r e r e w a r d . O n l y w i t h this
p r e s u p p o s i d o n c o u l d h e to a c e r t a i n e x t e n t h a r m o n i z e J e w i s h a n d
G r e e k c u l t u r e , a n d only b y e m p h a s i z i n g t h e u n i v e r s a l e l e m e n t s m a y h e
h a v e b e e n a b l e to rely o n t o l e r a n c e from his G r e e k s u r r o u n d i n g s . T h e
t a s k of a p o l o g e t i c a n d p r o s e l y t i s m m a y itself h a v e b r o u g h t a b o u t a
t e n d e n c y t o w a r d s a n ' a t t e n u a t e d J u d a i s m ' (see p . 1 5 3 b e l o w ) .
N e v e r t h e l e s s , it w a s o n l y a m a t t e r of differences of d e g r e e b e t w e e n
D i a s p o r a a n d P a l e s t i n i a n J u d a i s m . I n P a l e s t i n e itself, on t h e o n e h a n d ,
t h e s t r e a m of p r o p h e t i c r e l i g i o n w a s n o t e n t i r e l y s t o p p e d by t h e s t r i c t
o b s e r v a n c e s e m p h a s i s e d b y t h e P h a r i s e e s ; a n d on t h e o t h e r , H e l l e n i s m
e x e r c i s e d a p r o f o u n d i n f l u e n c e (see esp. v o l . H , p p . 2 9 - 8 1 ) . C o n v e r s e l y ,
t h e J u d a i s m o f the D i a s p o r a n e v e r a b a n d o n e d J e w i s h o b s e r v a n c e . ^ T h e
n o t i o n t h a t i n the D i a s p o r a a s t r o n g a n d r a d i c a l a n t i - l e g a l i s t i c c u r r e n t
existed is in no w a y a t t e s t e d b y the sources.^ A t t e n u a t i o n w a s a
t e n d e n c y o n l y , n o t a n a c c o m p l i s h e d fact. C e r t a i n l y , a c c o r d i n g to P h i l o
t h e r e w e r e t h o s e w h o , i n a s m u c h as they u n d e r s t o o d the w o r d i n g of t h e
L a w as a s y m b o l i c e x p r e s s i o n of s u p e r n a t u r a l t r u t h s , s t u d i e d t h e l a t t e r
s c r u p u l o u s l y b u t h a d little o p i n i o n of t h e former.^ B u t t h e n u m b e r of
t h e s e J e w i s h p h i l o s o p h e r s , w h o p r o g r e s s e d f r o m a l l e g o r i c a l exegesis t o a
d e p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e l i t e r a l sense, or e v e n t o a n a c t u a l d i s r e g a r d of it, c a n
h a v e b e e n v e r y s m a l l . D i a s p o r a J u d a i s m as a w h o l e a l w a y s m a i n t a i n e d
c o n t a c t w i t h P a l e s t i n e ; it s e n t e v e r y y e a r t o t h e T e m p l e t h e d u e s
r e q u i r e d by t h e L a w , it o b s e r v e d t h e S a b b a t h a n d t h e l a w s of diet a n d
p u r i t y . T h e r e are n o g r o u n d s for t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t n o n - o b s e r v a n c e of
t h e L a w w o u l d h a v e b e e n t o l e r a t e d a n y w h e r e in t h e s y n a g o g u e -
c o m m u n i t i e s of t h e D i a s p o r a . T h e m o c k i n g r e m a r k s of R o m a n satirists
t h e m s e l v e s s h o w h o w steadfastly in R o m e itself the a v e r a g e J e w k e p t to
his w a y of life b a s e d o n t h e L a w ; a n d for the e d u c a t e d circles of
A l e x a n d r i a w e h a v e t h e classical e x a m p l e of P h i l o . T h i s l e a r n e d
p h i l o s o p h e r , w h o w a s a n e x p e r t in the a r t of allegorical i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
of t h e L a w , rejects m o s t d e c i d e d l y a n y n e g l e c t of t h e h t e r a l sense. T e x t
4 . O n 'The main trends of the spirit within J u d a i s m ' see e.g. G. Hoennicke, Das
Judenchristentum im ersten u. zweiten Jahrhundert (1908), pp. 33-77.
5. This opinion was vigorously defended b y M. Friedlander, who s a w in this
law-emancipated J u d a i s m of the Diaspora the direct foundation of law-emancipated
Christianity. His writings relevant to this subject w e r e : .^wr Entstehungsgeschichte des
Christentums (1894); Das Judentum in der vorchristlichen griechischen Welt (1897); Der
vorchristliche jiidische Gnostizismus (1898); Der Antichrist in den vorchristlichen judischen Quellen
(1901); ' T h e "PauUne" emancipation from the law a product of the pre-Christian Jewish
Diaspora', J Q R 14 (1902), p p . 265—302; Geschichte der judischen Apologetik als Vorgeschichte
des Christentums (1903); Griechische Philosophie im Alten Testament (1904); Die religiosen
Bewegungen innerhalb des Judentums im êitalter Jesu (1905); Synagoge und Kirche in ihren
Anfdngen (1908). But c f e.g. G. F. Moore, Judaism I (1927), p p . 9 3 - 1 2 1 ; 3 5 9 - 6 4 ; V.
Tcherikover, Hellenistic Civilization and thejews (1961), pp. 344-77.
6. Philo, De migratione Abrahami 16 (89): ELAL ydp TLV€S 01 TOVS PRFTOVS v6p,ovs avp-BoXa
vorjrwv -IRPAYFIDTOIV vnoXapPdvovTfs rd /XEV dyav •îcpi/Scucrav, TWV Se padvpcos wXiyutprjaav.
a n d h i g h e r m e a n i n g a r e for h i m r e l a t e d as b o d y t o soul. As c a r e m u s t
b e t a k e n of t h e b o d y o n l y a s t h e d w e l l i n g - p l a c e o f t h e soul, so m u s t
t h e l i t e r a l sense o f t h e L a w b e carefully c o n s i d e r e d ( O U T C O Kal TWV
prjTwv vofiwv eTri/AeAijTeoi').' I n his r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e M o s a i c g i v i n g of
the L a w he shows t h r o u g h o u t h o w these laws are t h e most reasonable
a n d m o s t h u m a n e , w h i l e h e p r e s u p p o s e s as self-evident t h e c o n n e c t i o n
w i t h t h e i r Uteral sense.^
T h e r e g u l a r S a b b a t h services in t h e s y n a g o g u e w e r e a n a l l - i m p o r t a n t
m e a n s of m a i n t a i n i n g t h e a n c e s t r a l religion in t h e D i a s p o r a
c o m m u n i t i e s . ^ T h e r e is n o d o u b t a t all t h a t these took p l a c e w h e r e v e r
there w a s even only o n e c o n g r e g a t i o n . A c c o r d i n g to Philo, 'on the
s a b b a t h d a y s in a l l t h e cities t h o u s a n d s o f h o u s e s of l e a r n i n g w e r e
o p e n e d , in w h i c h d i s c e r n m e n t a n d m o d e r a t i o n a n d proficiency a n d
righteous living a n d indeed all virtues w e r e t a u g h t ' . ' ° T h e apostle Paul
f o u n d J e w i s h s y n a g o g u e s e v e r y w h e r e o n his j o u r n e y s in A s i a M i n o r a n d
G r e e c e : in P i s i d i a n A n t i o c h ( A c . 1 3 : 1 4 ) , I c o n i u m (Ac. 1 4 : 1 ) , E p h e s u s
(Ac. 18:19, 2 6 ; 19:8), P h i h p p i ( A c . 1 6 : 1 3 , 1 6 ) , T h e s s a l o n i c a ( 1 7 : 1 ) ,
B e r o e a ( 1 7 : 1 0 ) , A t h e n s ( 1 7 : 1 7 ) , C o r i n t h (18:4, 7 ) . J o s e p h u s m e n t i o n s
synagogues i n C a e s a r e a a n d D o r a on t h e P h o e n i c i a n c o a s t . " Jewish
TTpoaevxai a r e f o u n d o n i n s c r i p t i o n s e v e n i n t h e C r i m e a . ' * I n cities
w h e r e J e w s lived i n g r e a t e r n u m b e r s t h e y a l s o h a d several s y n a g o g u e s ,
e.g. in D a m a s c u s (Ac. 9:20) a n d i n S a l a m i s in C y p r u s (Ac. 1 3 : 5 ) . I n
A l e x a n d r i a t h e r e w e r e a c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r . ' ^ J o s e p h u s refers t o the
s y n a g o g u e i n A n t i o c h a s b e i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y m a g n i f i c e n t (i.e. t h e m a i n
s y n a g o g u e t h e r e , for t h e r e m u s t h a v e b e e n several t h e r e t o o ) . T h e
successors of A n t i o c h u s E p i p h a n e s , h e s a y s , h a d g r a n t e d t o it t h e b r o n z e
( b u t n o t t h e v a l u a b l e g o l d a n d silver) offerings w h i c h A n t i o c h u s h a d
plundered from t h e temple at J e r u s a l e m ; a n d t h e J e w s of Antioch
t h e m s e l v e s a d o r n e d t h e i r h o l y p l a c e ( T O Upov) with valuable
7. De migratione Abrahami 16 (93).

8. T h e latter point w a s given insufficient prominence i n the account by L. Treitel, 'Der
Nomos, insonderheit S a b b a t u n d Feste, in philonischer Beleuchtung', M G W J (1903), pp.
'.214-31, 3 1 7 - 2 1 , 399-417, 4 9 0 - 5 1 4 . Cf. also his essay ' D i e religions- u n d kultur-
geschichtliche Stellung Philos', T h S t K r (1904), pp. 3 8 0 - 4 0 1 . It is true that Philo
throughout gives to the Jewish laws a n interpretation which makes t h e m appear
acceptable to t h e educated citizen of the w o r l d ; but even t h e n they remain binding
according to their literal meaning. See e.g. E. R . Goodenough, An introduction to Philo
Judaeus (1940), a n d p p . 875-80 below.
9. Cf M . Friedlander, Das Judentum in der vorchristlichen griechischen Welt (1897), pp-
2 0 - 3 1 ; ' D i e Synagoge der Diiispora'; G. F. M o o r e , Judaism in the Jirst centuries of the
Christian era (1927) I, pp. 2 8 1 - 3 0 7 ; I I , p p . 12—15; 21—39; V . Tcherikover, Hellenistic
Civilization and the Jews (1961), pp. 307-8.
10. Philo, De spec. leg. ii 15 (62), quoted i n vol. I I , p. 448, n. 102.
11. Caesarea : B.J. ii 14, 4 - 5 ( 2 8 5 - 9 0 ) ; D o r a : Ant. xix 6.3 (300).
12. P p . 36-7 above.
13. Philo, Leg. 20 (132).
offerings.'* I n R o m e , t h e r e w e r e a l r e a d y i n the t i m e o f A u g u s t u s a l a r g e
n u m b e r of s y n a g o g u e s , as P h i l o testifies. I n s c r i p t i o n s p r e s e r v e t h e
n a m e s of t h e i n d i v i d u a l s y n a g o g u e c o m m u n i t i e s . ' ^
T h u s the L a w and the prophets were read and expounded a n d
religious a s s e m b h e s w e r e held on e v e r y S a b b a t h d a y w h e r e v e r J e w s
l i v e d . A s h r i n e or A r k to h o u s e the scrolls of t h e T o r a h is n o w a t t e s t e d
at D u r a - E u r o p o s ( p . 12) a n d S a r d i s ( p . 2 2 ) , a n d on a n i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m
O s t i a (p. 82).
T h e n o r m a l l a n g u a g e of t h e U t u r g y h o w e v e r w a s p r o b a b l y G r e e k
t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o m m u n i t i e s of t h e G r a e c o - R o m a n w o r l d . ' ^ T h e
e v i d e n c e from D u r a - E u r o p o s o n t h e E u p h r a t e s shows t h a t t h e r e b o t h
A r a m a i c a n d G r e e k w e r e i n u s e . T h e H e b r e w t e x t of a b e n e d i c t i o n after
m e a l s suggests t h a t it m a y h a v e b e e n g e n e r a l l y used for s a c r e d
p u r p o s e s . H o w e v e r , H e b r e w w a s i n d e e d s o little in u s e a m o n g t h e j e w s
e l s e w h e r e in t h e D i a s p o r a t h a t it w a s r a r e l y used even o n e p i t a p h s .
O n l y t h e R o m a n c a t a c o m b i n s c r i p t i o n s , a l m o s t exclusively G r e e k o r
L a t i n ( t h e l a t t e r t o a m u c h lesser e x t e n t ) , a r e s o m e t i m e s f o u n d w i t h
b r i e f f o r m u l a i c a d d i t i o n s i n H e b r e w . I t is n o t u n t i l w e c o m e to t h e l a t e
R o m a n p e r i o d , for i n s t a n c e t h e e p i t a p h s f r o m V e n o s a (from a b o u t t h e
s i x t h c e n t u r y A.D.) t h a t H e b r e w c a n b e seen.'^ B u t e v e n t h e s e a r e
p r e p o n d e r a n t l y G r e e k o r L a t i n . If H e b r e w w a s not e m p l o y e d for s u c h
m o n u m e n t s , it will h a v e b e e n used still less for r e c i t a t i o n i n d i v i n e
service. T h e r a b b i s in P a l e s t i n e e x p r e s s l y a l l o w e d t h e use of a n y
l a n g u a g e for t h e p r a y e r s , Shema a n d Shemoneh-Esreh, a n d for g r a c e a t
m e a l s . H e b r e w was d e m a n d e d only for t h e priestly b l e s s i n g a n d c e r t a i n
i n d i v i d u a l s c r i p t u r a l passages s u c h a s the f o r m u l a at t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n of
t h e first fruits a n d a t t h e haliâh.^^ A c e r t a i n R . L e v i b a r H a i t h a o n c e
h e a r d i n C a e s a r e a t h e Shema' r e c i t e d i n G r e e k ( j T l O r ^ l ^ X ) . ' ^ I t w a s
14. 5. J. vii 3, 3 (44-5).

15. Philo, Leg. 23 (155—8). Cf. p. 75. For t h e different names of the R o m a n synagogue
congregations see above, p p . 96—8.
16. O n this cf, partly for partly against, J . B. Lightfoot, Horae hebr. in epist. I ad
Corinthios, A d d e n d a ad C a p . X I V ( O p p . II, p p . 9 3 3 - 4 0 ; h e disputes the use of the L X X
in divine service); M. Frankel, Vorstudien zu der Septuaginta (1841), p p . 56 ff.; L. Herzfeld,
Gesch. des Volkes Israel I I I (1857), p . 472; C. P . Caspari, Quellen zur Geschichte des
Taufsymbols III (1869), p p . 269 ff.; L. Blau, ^ u r Einleitung in die heilige Schrijt {Jahresbericht
der Landes-Rabbinerschule in Budapest, 1894), p p . 84 ff.; K. Friedmann, Onkelos und Akylas
(1896), p p . 25 ff.; M. Friedlander, Das Judenthum in der vorchristl. griech. Welt (1897), p p .
3 2 - 8 ; V. Tcherikover, Hellenistic Civilisation and the Jews (1961), p p . 347—8; M . Hengel,
'Proseuche und Synagoge', in J . Jeremias «i a/, (eds.). Tradition und Glaube (1971), p. 159;
C. R a b i n , ' H e b r e w and A r a m a i c in the First C e n t u r y ' , J P F C II, p . 1007.
17. CIJ I ^ nos. 569-75; 5 7 8 - 9 ; 5 8 4 ; 5 8 6 ; 5 9 3 - 7 ; 599-600; 6 0 6 - 7 ; 609; 6 1 1 ; 613.
Note also e.g. no. 650 (Catania, A.D. 383).
18. 7:1-2. Cf above, vol. II.
i^. ySot 7.21b. For the passage see, e.g. Buxtorf, Lex. Chald. col. 104 (s.v. prDl^Vx);
Lightfoot, Opp. 11.937; J . Levy, Neuhebr. Wdrterb. I, 88. C f also vol. II, p . 77, n . 261 ; S.
e x p l i c i t l y p e r m i t t e d to write s c r i p t u r e in G r e e k , a n d h e r e a g a i n H e b r e w
w a s r e q u i r e d o n l y for i n d i v i d u a l p a s s a g e s , w r i t t e n f o r p a r t i c u l a r n e e d s ,
like the tejillin and mezuzoth.^° Accordingly, since Hebrew was
o b l i g a t o r y in oral a n d i n w r i t t e n u s e for i n d i v i d u a l passages only, the
r e a d i n g of S c r i p t u r e d u r i n g d i v i n e s e r v i c e m u s t a l s o , i n t h e rabbinic
view, h a v e b e e n permissible i n a n o t h e r l a n g u a g e , p r e s u m a b l y G r e e k . It
is i n a n y case m a d e a b s o l u t e l y c l e a r b y v a r i o u s c h u r c h f a t h e r s t h a t t h e
Greek t r a n s l a t i o n o f the Bible was used i n synagogues, a n d therefore at
d i v i n e service.'^' F o r all t h a t , it is p o s s i b l e t h a t S c r i p t u r e w a s r e a d in
Hebrew as w e l l a s in G r e e k , as h a p p e n e d later a t t h e t i m e of the
emperor J u s t i n i a n . B u t w h e n o n e c o n s i d e r s t h a t , for example, the
apostle Paul was familiar with the Old Testament only in Greek
t r a n s l a t i o n , ^ ^ s u c h a c o n c u r r e n t u s e of H e b r e w a n d G r e e k t e x t c a n n o t
b e r e g a r d e d a s p r o b a b l e for t h e a p o s t o l i c p e r i o d . T h e mathematician
and Stoic philosopher Cleomedes mocks the bad Greek spoken in
s y n a g o g u e s . ^ * A n i n t e r e s t i n g p r o o f o f t h e w a y i n w h i c h t h e l a n g u a g e of
the Greek Bible dominated Jewish devotional expression in the
Lieberman, Greek in Jewish Palestine (^^1965), p . 30.

20. mMeg. 1:8. ' T h e books [of Scripture] differ from phylacteries and mezuzot only in that
the books m a y b e written in a n y language, while phylacteries a n d mezuzot m a y be written
in the Assyrian script (IT'IIWH, i.e. in square H e b r e w characters) only. R a b b a n Simeon b.
Gamaliel says: T h e books, too, are only permitted t o be written i n Greek.'
21. J u s t i n , Apol. i 3 1 , 5: EFIEWAV al j3i)3Aoi Kat nap' AtyvnTiois êxpi TOU Sevpo, KAT
navraxov Trapa ndaiv eiaiv 'lovSaiois, 01 KAT DVAYIVCJAKOVTES ov avvidai rd elpr]p.EVA. Cf. also
Dial. c. Trjph. 7 2 ; Tertullian, Apol. 18: ' H o d i e a p u d S e r a p e u m Ptolemaei bibliothecae
c u m ipsis Hebraicis exhibentur. Sed et l u d a e i p a l a m lactitant. Vectigalis libertas; vulgo
aditur sabbatis o m n i b u s ' ; Pseudo-Justin, Cohort, ad Grace, (third century A.D.?) 13: ei Se'
Tis <F>DAKOI . . . FIR) RJFIIV rds (St/SAous ravras dAAd 'lovSaiois NPOARJKEIV, Sid TO en KAT vvv ev rais
avvaywyais avrdtv AUTêadai. . . ibid. : dno TTJS TWV 'lovSaiwv avvaywyrjs ravras dÎOVFIEV
NPOKOFXIÊADAI. I n all these passages t h e subject is expressly the Greek translation o f the
O l d Testament. For t h e preservation of the holy scriptures in t h e synagogues see vol. I I ,
p. 446.
22. Justinian, Novell. 146. T h e emperor says here in the introduction that h e has h e a r d ,
ws 01 P,ev fjiovrjs exovrai TTJS e^paiSos <f>wvrjs KAT avTrj KEXPRJADAI rrepl rrjv rwv LEPWV jSijSAuov
DVDYVWAIV povXovrai, 01 Se Kat RRFV 'EXXrjviSa npoaXafi^dveiv dÎOVAI, KAT noXw •qSrj xpovov
XMEP Tovrov npos a^ds avrovs araaidl,OVAIV. See e.g. V. Colorni, 'L'uso del greco nella
liturgia d e l Giudaismo ellenistico e la Novella 146 di Giustiniano', A n n . Stor. D i r . 8
(1964), p p . 19 ff.
23. See e.g. H . St J . Thackeray, The Relation of St Paul to Contemporary Jewish Thought
(1900); A . von H a r n a c k , ' D a s Alte T e s t a m e n t i n den Paulinischen Briefen und in den
Paulinischen G e m e i n d e n ' , SAB, ph.-hist. K l . (1928), p p . 1 2 4 - 4 1 ; O . Michel, Paulus und
seine Bibel (1929) ; J . Bonsirven, Exigese Rabbinique et Exigese Paulinienne (1939) ; E. E. EUis,
Paul's Use 0/the Old Testament (1957).
24. Cleomedes, De motu circulari corporum caelestium (ed. Ziegler, 1891) ii 1,91 : Epicurus,
he says, uses ill-chosen words, which come in p a r t dno p.EAR]s rrjs npoaevxfjs KAT TCOV en'
avXats NPOAAITOVVTWV, 'lovSaiKa RIVA KAT TRAPAKEXAPAYPIEVA Kat KARA rroXv RDIV EPIRERWV
RARREIVOREPA. Cleomedes probably lived later than Posidonius b u t earlier than Ptolemaeus,
thus between 50 B.C. a n d A.D. 150. See E. Zeller, Philosophie der Griechen I I I . i (^1923), p.
715; G L A J J I I , n o . 333.
D i a s p o r a as e a r l y a s l o o B . C . is a f f o r d e d by t h e inscribed execrations
from the island of Rheneia near Delos, which are cast largely in
S e p t u a g i n t a l f o r m s (see a b o v e p . 7 0 ) . I t is o b v i o u s h o w i m p o r t a n t this
Hellenization of t h e J e w i s h liturgy was for the success of Jewish
propaganda.
Apart from the Sabbath, Diaspora Jews also c e l e b r a t e d the New
Moon and annual festivals.*^ T h e w a y i n w h i c h t h e y d i d s o w a s no
doubt the same as in Palesdne outside Jerusalem. The main
characteristic was the replacement of the sacrificial system by the
s y n a g o g u e s e r v i c e . S i n c e sacrifice c o u l d o n l y b e offered in J e r u s a l e m ,
t h e essential for f e s t i v a l s outside the holy city was assembly in the
s y n a g o g u e for p r a y e r a n d s c r i p t u r e r e a d i n g s . P s a l m s also a p p e a r to
h a v e b e e n s u n g . A t any r a t e t h e J e w i s h c a t a c o m b o f the Villa T o r l o n i a
i n R o m e h a s r e v e a l e d a psalmodos ( p . 81 a b o v e ) a n d t h e m a j o r J e w i s h
i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m A p h r o d i s i a s i n C a r i a 2ipsalmo(logos?) (p. 26).
Y e t w o r s h i p w a s n o t e n t i r e l y c o n f i n e d to t h i s s p i r i t u a l f o r m . J u s t as
w i t h t h e p a g a n c u l t - a s s o c i a t i o n s , i t w a s t a k e n for g r a n t e d t h a t from
t i m e t o t i m e f e l l o w - w o r s h i p p e r s c a m e t o g e t h e r for a festival m e a l , a n d
as in J e r u s a l e m t o o t h e J e w i s h festival pilgrims held their common
s a c r i f i c i a l r e p a s t s , so a l s o t h e J e w s in t h e D i a s p o r a d i d n o t entirely
25. Cf. A. Deissmann, ' D i e Hellenisierung d e s semidschen Monotheismus', N e u e

J a h r b b . fur das class. Altertum 6 (1903), pp. 161-77.
26. T h e Jews of Berenice in Cyrenaica resolved crri avXXoyov rrjs aKrfvomjyias to c r o w n
their benefactor, a R o m a n official n a m e d M . Tittius, Kaff' fKaar-qv avvoSov Kal vovyL-qvlav.
N o t e also CPJ I I I , no. 452a (second century A.D. ; Edfu?), mentioning the navvvxls rrjs
aKTjvorrrfyias (cf p . 58 above). T h e eoprfj rwv ai^vfxwv a n d the ioprrj TrevrrjKoarrjs a p p e a r
on a n inscripdon from Hierapolis (see p. 27 above). In t h e execrations from R h e n e i a (see
p. 70 above) there is reference to a d a y on which 'everyone humbles himself before G o d
with prayer' (raTretvovTai fifd' iKereias), evidendy either t h e D a y of A t o n e m e n t or else a
fast day. I n Galatians P a u l opposes t h e celebration oifirjves and Kaipol (Gal. 4:10), a n d in
Colossians speaks against the celebration of any ioprrj or veoprjvia (Col. 2:16). F u r t h e r , in
the well-known passage of Horace, Sat. i 9, 69 ( G L A J J I, n o . 129), 'hodie tricesima
sabbata', the subject is n o t some thirtieth sabbath (nothing is known of the celebration of
a n y such d a y ) ; tricesima is the n e w m o o n which according t o him was kept also by R o m a n
J e w s ('today is t h e thirtieth, a feast d a y ' ) . Also in C o m m o d i a n tricesima occurs as a n a m e
for the n e w moon (Commodian, Instr. i 4 0 , 3 : ' E t s a b b a t a vestra spernit e t tricesimas
A l t u s ' ; Carmen apol. 688 (695) : 'Ac idolis servit, iterum tricesimam quaerit'). F o r the n e w
m o o n offering see N u m . 28:11-15; for the new m o o n festival in general; Philo, De spec,
leg. ii 17 ( 1 4 0 - 4 ) ; Wellhausen, Geschichte Israels I, p p . 115 ff. or Prolegomena, p p . 11o ff.; R.
de V a u x , Ancient Israel (1961), p p . 4 6 9 - 7 0 ; W . Nowack, Lehrb. der hebr. Archdologie I I , p p .
138 f; H a m b u r g e r , Real-Enc., Suppl., I l l (1892), s.v. 'Neumondsgottesdienst'; J E I X ,
p p . 243 ff., s.v. 'New M o o n ' ; EB I I I , cols. 3401-4, s.v. ' N e w M o o n ' ; I D B I I I , p p . 5 4 3 - 4 ,
s.v. 'New Moon'. See in general A . M. Rabello, 'L'osservanza delle feste ebraiche
n e l l ' I m p e r o R o m a n o ' , S C I 6 (1981-2), pp. 57-84. F o r t h e observance o f the S a b b a t h a n d
the major festivals in Antioch in the late fourth century see R. L . Wilken, John Chrysostom
and the Jews (1983), esp. pp. 6 4 , 66-8. Celebration o f P u r i m : CTh xvi 8, 18 (A.D. 408).
27. T h e scriptural lections for t h e a n n u a l festivals a n d the new moons a r e exactly
prescribed in the Mishnah, Meg. 3 : 5 - 6 ; see above, vol. I I , p p . 4 5 0 - 1 .
d i s p e n s e w i t h s o m e t h i n g of t h e k i n d . A c c o r d i n g t o J o s e p h u s , Caesar
a l l o w e d t h e j e w s t o a r r a n g e c o m m u n a l d i n n e r s [avvh^nrva iroietv), and
a n o t h e r official p e r m i t t e d t h e m ' t o m e e t a n d feast in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h
their ancestral customs and laws'—/card ra irdrpia CBT] Kal vo/xi/xa
avvdyeadal T€ Kal earidadai,—Niese's c o r r e c t e m e n d a t i o n of J o s . Ant. xiv
10, 8 ( 2 1 6 ) — a n d these reports m u s t c e r t a i n l y h a v e h a d an authentic
f o u n d a t i o n . O n e h a s o n l y to t h i n k o f t h e a n a l o g y o f t h e sacrificial m e a l s
in J e r u s a l e m , a b o v e a l l of Passover.*^ At the Feast of Tabernacles
( S u k k o t h ) p e o p l e a t e t o g e t h e r in b o o t h s ^ ^ r e c t e d f r o m fresh b r a n c h e s .
A l e x a n d r i a n J e w s k e p t a l s o a f e w sp'ecial feasts. T h e r e w a s o n e to
commemorate the t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e L a w into Greek,^" a n d one in
m e m o r y of t h e i r m i r a c u l o u s d e l i v e r a n c e w h e n P t o l e m y V I I P h y s c o n (?)
w i s h e d t o h a v e t h e m killed b y e l e p h a n t s . ^ '
In v i e w o f the strict c e n t r a h z a t i o n of the Jewish cult, the Jewish
t e m p l e a t L e o n t o p o l i s i n E g y p t is a r e m a r k a b l e p h e n o m e n o n . A t the
d m e of A n t i o c h u s V E u p a t o r ( 1 6 4 - 1 6 2 B . C . ) a h i g h priest's son, O n i a s
I V (a s o n o f O n i a s I I I ) , c a m e t o E g y p t w h e n h e s a w t h a t h e h a d no
p r o s p e c t of r e a c h i n g t h e oflfice o f h i g h p r i e s t i n Palestine, and was
readily accepted there by Ptolemy V I Philometor and his consort
Cleopatra.^^ The king made o v e r to him an old ruined temple at
28. I n connection w i t h the p a g a n cult associations cf. the literature mentioned above,
p p . 111 fF. In J e r u s a l e m corporate meals w e r e an essential element in t h e D''0*?ir TinT; cf
above, v o l . I I , p . 258. T h a t these euwxiai were celebrated even in t h e last period of the
Temple's existence, in particular by pilgrims to t h e a n n u a l festivals, is shown by Josephus,
Ant. iv 8, 7 (205); 8, 1 9 ; 22 (226-7 > 2 4 0 - 3 ) . T h e Passover also belonged originally t o the
same category, but this feast received a u n i q u e status through t h e legislation o f the
Priesdy Code. O f the Passover meal we k n o w for certain that it was celebrated also i n the
Diaspora, in a modified form without the sacrifice; see J . B. Segal, The Hebrew Passover
(1963), p p . 219 ff.
29. C f the description by P l u t a r c h in Qu. Conviv. iv 6, 2 {Mor. 671 D = G L A J J I , no.
258.) T h e feast of the Dedication of the T e m p l e w a s kept in a similar m a n n e r ; it w a s to
this feast that t h e Egyptian J e w s are bidden by t h e Palestinian J e w s in the letter preserved
in 2 M a c . 1-2.
30. Philo, Vit. Mos. ii 7 (42). A b a n q u e t was connected with this festival also (jner'
oiKficov Kal <l>iX(jov ioTioovTai).
31. J o s . C. Ap. ii 5 (55). I n 3 M a c . also the institution of this festival is mentioned
(6:36), b u t the event is placed in the time o f Ptolemy IV. See above, p p . 115 ff.
33. I n B.J. vii 10, 2 (423) J o s e p h u s calls this O n i a s ' t h e son o f Simon', in which case he
would b e Onias I I I , t h e last officiating high priest of this family, as is also impHed b y B.J.
i I (30-3). O n t h e other h a n d in Ant. Josephus says more than once, xii 5, i (237); xiii 3,
I (62), t h a t it was a son bearing the s a m e n a m e as this O n i a s , t h u s O n i a s I V , who
founded the T e m p l e a t Leontopolis. Clearly this is a deliberate correction of the earlier
statement and therefore more trustworthy. Again, because of its legendary n a t u r e , the
statement in t h e T a l m u d t h a t the builder of the Onias T e m p l e was a son of Simon the
J u s t (bMen. 109b; yYom. 6:3; L . Herzfeld, Gesch. des Volkes Jisrael I I I , p. 5 5 7 ; A.
Wiinsche, Der babylon. Talmud II.4, p p . 53 ff.; idem, Der jerus. Talmud, p p . 114 ff.) cannot
serve as s u p p o r t for t h e statement of B.J. I d e n d c a l n a m e for father a n d son is indeed not
c o m m o n a m o n g the J e w s , b u t certainly attested (inscription from Tlos, above, p . 33:
L e o n t o p o l i s in t h e nomos o f H e l i o p o l i s w h i c h h a d e a r l i e r b e e n a s h r i n e of
the dypia Bovâans.^^ T h i s w a s r e b u i l t b y O n i a s as a J e w i s h s h r i n e o n
the p a t t e r n of t h e T e m p l e a t J e r u s a l e m , b u t s m a l l e r , less s p l e n d i d a n d
w i t h m a n y d e v i a t i o n s in d e t a i l ; cf. the d e s c r i p t i o n in B.J. v i i 10, 3
( 4 2 6 - 3 2 ) . S i n c e t h e r e w e r e also priests t h e r e i n sufficient n u m b e r s , a
f o r m a l J e w i s h t e m p l e w o r s h i p w a s e s t a b l i s h e d , w h i c h from t h e n o n (i.e.,
f r o m a b o u t 160 B . C ) w a s c o n t i n u o u s l y in o p e r a t i o n u n t i l after t h e
d e s t r u c t i o n of J e r u s a l e m , w h e n t h i s t e m p l e t o o w a s closed b y t h e
R o m a n s (A.D. 73) .^''^ T h e c u l t w a s a d m i t t e d l y n e v e r r e g a r d e d as
Ptolemy son of P t o l e m y ; inscription from Berenice, above, p. 9 4 : A n d r o m a c h u s son of

A n d r o m a c h u s ) . Admittedly, t h e history of the O n i a d s , on account of the n u m e r o u s
inconsistencies between 2 Maccabees and Josephus, is so confused that it is quite
impossible to take u p a confident position in this area.
33. The locaHty is described most exactly i n Ant. xii 3, 2 (70): TO ev Aeovrwv woAei TOV
'HXioTToXiTov Upov avfiTTeTTTCDKos . . . TTpoaayopevofievov Se TTJS dypias Bov^dareots. T h e same
identification is suggested by Ant. xii 3, i (65). In all other passages Josephus says only in
general terms that the T e m p l e w a s situated 'in the nomos of Heliopolis', Ant. xii 9, 7 (388);
xii 10, 4 (285); XX 10, 3 (236); B.J. i 1, i ( 3 3 ) ; vii 10, 3 (426). I n one passage he a d d s
that the place lay 180 stades from Memphis, B.J. vii 10, 3 (426). Since the Leontopolis
known from elsewhere formed its own nomos, further north t h a n Heliopolis (Strabo, xvii i,
19, p . 8 0 2 ; Pliny, N.H. v 9 / 4 9 ; Ptolemy iv 5, 51 = Didot ed. (1.2, 1901), iv 5, 22),
another otherwise unknown Leontopolis in t h e nomos of Heliopolis must be m e a n t here.
For a m o r e detailed localisation the following m a y be noted. Memphis l a y on t h e
southern t i p of the Delta. Northwards from here, at a distance of 2 4 R o m a n miles, and on
the eastern side of the Delta, l a y Heliopolis. This distance corresponds fairly precisely to
the 180 stades given by J o s e p h u s , which are equivalent to 22? R o m a n miles. S o m e w h a t
further n o r t h lies, even today, Tel-el-Yehoudieh, thus a n ancient Jewish settlement,
which Naville a n d Petrie first suggested may be idendfied with t h e settlement of O n i a s .
See E. Naville, The mound of the Jew and the city of Onias (1890). T h e remains of the O n i a s
T e m p l e itself are thought to have been idendfied here b y Flinders Petrie, Hyksos and
Israetite cities (1906), p p . 19-27. I n favour of this supposition speak not only the
a p p r o x i m a t e position a n d the n a m e Tel-el-Yehoudieh, b u t also t h e circumstance t h a t in
the vicinity a necropolis has been found with Jewish-Greek epitaphs, C I J II, nos.
1451-1530; CPJ I I I , p p . 145-63 (with nos. i53oa-d, not in C I J ) , on which the n a m e
O n i a s perhaps occurs {Oviov Trari/p, C I J II, n o . 1455). (Since the stone is very defective, a
longer n a m e may of course have been there originally.) A p a r t from this there a r e Bapxtos
Bapxtov (1454),'£Aed$apos (1453, 1466, 1473), Sop-oriXos (1451, 1469), MIKKOS NfSdvecus
(1452), VouSaj TovSov (1465). Again, t h e building remains described by Petrie correspond
to J o s e p h u s ' account relating t o the O n i a s T e m p l e t h a t it was 'like a tower', B.J. vii 10, 3
(427). For a brief description see J . Baines a n d J . Malek, Atlas of Ancient Egypt (1980), p.
174. Cf p p . 47-8 above.
34. See i n general Jos. Ant. xii 9, 7 (387-8) ; xii 3 , 1-3 (62-73) ! xiii 10, 4 ( 2 8 5 ) ; xx 10
(236^7); B.J. i I , I ( 3 1 - 3 ) ; vii 10, 2 - 4 (420-36). Or. Sib. v 11. 492-511 is apparently not
concerned with the Onias Temple. See J. Geffcken, Komposition und Entstehungszeit der
Oracula Sibyllina (1902), p. 26. See H . Willrich, Juden und Griechen vor der makkabdischen
Erhebung (1895), p p . 77 ff.; 126-42. A . Biichler, Die Tobiaden und die Oniaden im Zweiten
Makkabderbuche (1899), p p . 239—76.
See also Du Mesnil du Buisson, B I F A O 35 (1935), p p . 59—71 (subsequent
excavations); D B Supp. V (1957), p p . 359—72; Tcherikover, Hellenistic Civilization, p p .
2 7 5 - 8 1 ; M . Delcor, ' L e T e m p l e d'Onias e n Egypte', R B 75 (1968), p p . 1 8 8 - 2 0 3 ; R.
H a y w a r d , 'The Jewish T e m p l e at Leontopolis: a Reconsideration', J J S 33 (1982), p p .
l e g i t i m a t e b y t h e P a l e s t i n i a n s a g e s , a n d the sacrifices ofTered t h e r e w e r e

r e g a r d e d as v a l i d o n l y t o a v e r y l i m i t e d degree.^^ B u t t h e E g y p t i a n J e w s
t h e m s e l v e s s h o w e d n o sign o f p a y i n g a n y a t t e n t i o n to t h i s t e m p l e , a n d
m a i n t a i n e d c o n t a c t w i t h J e r u s a l e m . T h e y w e n t o n p i l g r i m a g e to
J e r u s a l e m j u s t t h e s a m e , like all t h e others,^^ a n d w h e n t h e i r priests
m a r r i e d , t h e y a l w a y s h a d t h e g e n e a l o g y of t h e i r wives e x a m i n e d
there.37
As w i t h t h e L a w in g e n e r a l , so also d i r e c t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t a x e s d u e to
t h e T e m p l e a n d festival j o u r n e y s t o J e r u s a l e m w e r e o b s e r v e d , as f a r as
w a s p o s s i b l e , b y t h e J e w s o f t h e D i a s p o r a . T h i s w a s e s p e c i a l l y t r u e of
t h e t a x e s . J o s e p h u s r e m a r k s in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e l o o t i n g o f t h e
T e m p l e by G r a s s u s t h a t it w a s n o t a t a l l s u r p r i s i n g t h a t s u c h riches w e r e
h e a p e d u p t h e r e since a l l t h e J e w s a n d all t h e sebomenoi t h r o u g h o u t t h e
w o r l d , in A s i a a n d E u r o p e , h a d from a n c i e n t t i m e s s e n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s
t h e r e . P h i l o d e s c r i b e s t h e c o l l e c t i o n a n d d e s p a t c h of t e m p l e t a x e s in
d e t a i l . T h e r e v e n u e s of t h e T e m p l e a r e d e r i v e d n o t o n l y f r o m l a n d e d
e s t a t e s b u t a l s o f r o m o t h e r a n d f a r g r e a t e r sources w h i c h t i m e will n e v e r
d e s t r o y . F o r as l o n g a s t h e h u m a n r a c e e n d u r e s , a n d i t will e n d u r e for
ever, t h e r e v e n u e s of t h e T e m p l e also will r e m a i n s e c u r e , c o - e t e r n a l
w i t h t h e w h o l e u n i v e r s e . F o r it is o r d a i n e d t h a t e v e r y o n e , b e g i n n i n g a t
429-43-
35. M i s h n a h Men. 13:10: [If he said,] T must pledge myself to offer a Whole-offering',
h e must offer it to t h e Temple. A n d if h e offered it i n the House of O n i a s he h a s not
fulfilled his obligation. [If he said,] ' I will offer it in the House of Onias', he should offer it
i n the T e m p l e , but if h e offered it i n the H o u s e o f Onias he h a s fulfilled his obligation. R .
Simeon says: Such is not accounted a Whole-offering. [If a m a n said,] T will be a
Nazirite', he m u s t offer the Hair-offering i n the T e m p l e ; and if he offered it in the House
of Onias he h a s not fulfilled his o b l i g a d o n . [If h e said,] T will offer the Hair-offering in
the House of O n i a s ' , h e should offer it in the T e m p l e ; b u t if h e offered it in the House of
Onias h e has fulfilled his obligation. R . Simeon says: Such a one is not accounted a
Nazirite. If priests h a v e ministered in the House of Onias they m a y not minister in the
T e m p l e in Jerusalem . . . T h u s they are like t h e m that have a blemish; they m a y share
a n d they may e a t [of the Holy Things] b u t they m a y n o t offer sacrifice' (Danby's transl.).
T h e n a m e O n i a s in t h e printed s t a n d a r d text is Vnn. T w o o f the best witnesses, cod. de
Rossi 138 and the C a m b r i d g e manuscript published b y Lowe in 1883, consistently have
instead VJini. T h e form rT'lJI occurs also in the e p i t a p h of t h e Bene Hzyr in Jerusalem,
C I J I I , no. 1394.
36. Philo, De providentia ii 107, from Euseb. Praep. ev. vii 14, 64, p . 398b (and in the
A r m e n i a n version in Aucher, Philonis Judaei sermones tres, p. 116). Philo says here that he
had been in Ascalon Kad' ov xpovov et? TO warpwov Upov ecrreAAoîjv, €v^6p.fv6s re Kai
Ovaoiv.
37. C. ^/>.i7 (30-2).
38. Ant. xiv 7, 2 ( i 10) : Oavfiaaj) Se prjSets el TOOOVTOS "qv irXovros ev roi riperepo) tepw,
iravTOiv TWV Kara TIJV olKovfjL€vr)v Tovhaiwv Kat ae/Soê'vcov TOV deov, e n Se Kat rwv arrd rrjs
'Aaias Kat TTJS Evpwmjs els avro avfj.(t>ep6vTwv eK rroXXwv rravv xpovwv. O n t h e question of
what contributions were payable b y Diaspora J e w s , see vol. I I , p. 269. F o r sebomenoi see
p p . 165—8 below.
39. Philo, De Spec. Leg. i 14 (76-8).
his t w e n t i e t h y e a r , s h o u l d m a k e a n a n n u a l c o n t r i b u t i o n . . . As t h e
n a t i o n is v e r y p o p u l o u s , t h e offerings of first-fruits a r e n a t u r a l l y
e x c e e d i n g l y a b u n d a n t . I n fact, p r a c t i c a l l y i n e v e r y c i t y t h e r e a r e
b a n k i n g p l a c e s for t h e h o l y m o n e y w h e r e p e o p l e r e g u l a r l y c o m e a n d
give t h e i r offerings. A n d a t s t a t e d t i m e s t h e r e a r e a p p o i n t e d to c a r r y t h e
s a c r e d t r i b u t e e n v o y s selected o n t h e i r m e r i t s , from e v e r y city t h o s e of
the h i g h e s t r e p u t e , u n d e r w h o s e c o n d u c t t h e h o p e s o f e a c h a n d all will
t r a v e l safely. F o r it is o n t h e s e first-fruits, as p r e s c r i b e d b y t h e L a w ,
t h a t the h o p e s of t h e p i o u s rest.' I t h a s a l r e a d y b e e n m e n t i o n e d t h a t t h e
t r a n s p o r t of t h i s m o n e y o u t o f R o m a n p r o v i n c e s f r e q u e n t l y m e t w i t h
o p p o s i t i o n in e a r l i e r t i m e s . T h u s F l a c c u s confiscated J e w i s h T e m p l e -
money in A p a m e a , Laodicea, A d r a m y t t i u m and Pergamum. By
c o n t r a s t , from the t i m e of C a e s a r o n w a r d s i t s e x p o r t w a s p e r m i t t e d
e v e r y w h e r e , from Rome**' as also f r o m A s i a M i n o r * ' a n d Cyrenaica,*^
a n d of c o u r s e from E g y p t , as is c l e a r f r o m t h e P h i l o q u o t a t i o n . T h e
m o n e y flowed in t h e g r e a t e s t q u a n t i t i e s from B a b y l o n a n d t h e l a n d s
b e y o n d the E u p h r a t e s . T h e c o l l e c t i o n a n d t r a n s p o r t w a s w e l l
o r g a n i z e d h e r e . T h e m a i n t r e a s u r i e s w h i c h r e c e i v e d the c o n t r i b u t i o n s
initially w e r e t o be f o u n d in t h e cities of Nisibis a n d N e h a r d e a . F r o m
here they were transferred at a stated time t o J e r u s a l e m , a n d m a n y
t h o u s a n d s u n d e r t o o k t h e d e l i v e r y in o r d e r to p r o t e c t t h e s a c r e d t r e a s u r e
f r o m robbers.*^
After t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e T e m p l e t h e c o n t r i b u d o n s n e c e s s a r i l y
u n d e r w e n t a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . T h e didrachma w a s c h a n g e d i n t o a R o m a n
t a x ; o t h e r c o n t r i b u t i o n s c o u l d ipso facto n o l o n g e r b e p a i d (cf. vol. I I ,
p p . 269 ff.). B u t e v e n n o w t h e J e w i s h p e o p l e still expressed its i n n e r
cohesion through v o l u n t a r y contributions. A n e w central authority, the
p a t r i a r c h a t e , e v e n t u a l l y c a m e into existence, t o w h i c h a t least p a r t of
t h e religious t r i b u t e d e m a n d e d b y the L a w w a s d e l i v e r e d a n n u a l l y .
T h e collections n o w took p l a c e t h r o u g h emissaries o f the p a t r i a r c h a t e ,
t h e so-called apostoli (see a b o v e , p p . 1 2 4 ff.).
T h e b o n d b e t w e e n the Diaspora and the m o t h e r l a n d was tied most
closely b y t h e r e g u l a r p i l g r i m a g e s o f J e w s from all p a r t s o f the w o r l d to
t h e festivals i n J e r u s a l e m . ' M u l t i t u d e s from c o u n t l e s s cities c o m e , s o m e
o v e r l a n d , o t h e r s o v e r s e a , f r o m east a n d west a n d n o r t h a n d s o u t h a t
e v e r y feast.'** J o s e p h u s r e c k o n s t h e n u m b e r o f J e w s w h o u n d e r t o o k to
40. Yh\\o,Leg. 23 (156-7)-

4 1 . Ant. xvi 6, 2 - 4 ; 6-7 ( 1 6 2 - 8 ; 1 7 1 - 3 ) ; Philo, Leg. 40 (313).
42. Ant. xvi 6, 5 (169-70).
43. Ant. xviii 9, i ( 3 1 0 - 1 3 ) ; cf. Philo, Leg. 31 ( 2 1 6 ) ; mShek. 3:4 (didrachma tax from
Babylon a n d Media).
44. Philo, De Spec. Leg. i 12 (69): fnvploi ydp dno fjcvpiaiv oaoiv noXtotv ol pkv 8id yfjs, oi 8c
Std daXdrrr^s, dvaroXrjs Kal Bvaews Kal dpKrov KOI pcecrrjpPpias, Kad' (Kdarqv koprrp/ eis TO
lepov Karaipovaiv. For t h e pilgrimages from Babylon cf besides the passage quoted. Ant.
xviii 9, I ( 3 1 0 - 1 3 ) , also y4n/. xvii 2, 2 (26);ffiJTom.6:4; mTaan. 1:3.
b e p r e s e n t i n J e r u s a l e m a t the festivals t o h a v e b e e n 2,700,000, a

n u m b e r w h i c h c e r t a i n l y i n c l u d e s the i n h a b i t a n t s of J e r u s a l e m . N o
r e l i a n c e c a n be p l a c e d on t h e figure itself, b u t it can b e t a k e n a s a n
i n d i c a t i o n o f the s u b s t a n t i a l scale o f pilgrimage.*^
T h e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e T e m p l e m u s t t h u s h a v e b e e n of p r o f o u n d
significance for t h e D i a s p o r a . Y e t e v e n t h e m o s t c o n c r e t e c o n s e q u e n c e ,
t h e p a y m e n t of t h e J e w i s h t a x , finds n o reflection in t h e local e v i d e n c e
s o far k n o w n , e x c e p t i n E g y p t ( p p . 1 2 2 - 3 a b o v e ) . H o w e v e r , as H e n g e l
h a s a r g u e d , t h e m a j o r series o f j e w i s h r e v o l t s in A . D . I 1 5 - 1 7 (vol. I , p p .
5 2 9 - 3 4 ) m u s t i m p l y t h e p r e s e n c e of p o w e r f u l messianic e x p e c t a t i o n s in
t h e D i a s p o r a , a t least in t h e f o r m e r l y P t o l e m a i c territories of E g y p t ,
C y r e n a i c a a n d C y p r u s . T h e b a c k g r o u n d to t h e s e r e v o l t s c a n be
d i s c e r n e d f r o m t h e Fifth Sibylline Oracle (see f u r t h e r p p . 643—5 b e l o w ) ,
w h i c h t h u s r e p r e s e n t s a f u r t h e r , a n d v e r y little k n o w n , e l e m e n t i n the
r e l i g i o u s life of t h e Diaspora.*^
45. B.J. vi 9, 3 (425). T h e passage in A c . 2:9—11 is n o t relevant here, since according t o

2:5 it does n o t relate to pilgrims b u t to J e w s from abroad w h o had setded in Jerusalem.
For a detailed discussion see Haenchen ad loc. O n pilgrimage to Jerusalem see above all J .
Jeremias, Jerusalem in the Time ofJesus (1969).
46. See M . Hengel, 'Messianische Hoffnung und politischer "Radikalismus" in d e r
"jiidisch-hellenistischen D i a s p o r a " . Z u r F r a g e der Voraussetzungen des judischen
Aufstandes unter T r a j a n 115-117 n.Chr.', D . Hellhoim (ed.). Apocalypticism in the
Mediterranean World and the Near East (1979), p p . 655-86.
V. G E N T I L E S A N D J U D A I S M :
' G O D - F E A R E R S ' A N D P R O S E L Y T E S
A q u e s t i o n o f c o n s i d e r a b l e i m p o r t a n c e i n a n y d e s c r i p t i o n of J u d a i s m
in t h e D i a s p o r a is t h a t of t h e g e n d l e s w h o a t t a c h e d t h e m s e l v e s to t h e
J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s , w h e t h e r a s full p r o s e l y t e s or ' G o d - f e a r e r s ' (see
b e l o w ) . N o full a n d satisfactory s t u d y o f p r o s e l y t i s m i n t h e
G r a e c o - R o m a n period has yet been written, a n d fundamental
u n c e r t a i n t i e s r e m a i n as t o b o t h the n u m e r i c a l scale a n d t h e c o n d i t i o n s
of a c c e p t a n c e of b o t h p r o s e l y t e s p r o p e r a n d ' G o d - f e a r e r s ' . N o t h i n g
m o r e c a n b e offered h e r e t h a n a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f v a r i o u s g e n e r a l f a c t o r s
a n d a c o l l e c t i o n of the s c a t t e r e d i t e m s of d i r e c t e v i d e n c e for t h e
a t t r a c t i o n or c o n v e r s i o n of gentiles to J u d a i s m .
A t first sight it seems s t r a n g e t h a t J e w i s h p r o p a g a n d a s h o u l d h a v e
a i m e d a t a n y serious success a m o n g p a g a n p o p u l a t i o n s , since t h e
a t t i t u d e of t h e G r a e c o - R o m a n w o r l d t o t h e J e w s w a s g e n e r a l l y
u n s y m p a t h e d c . It h a s a l r e a d y b e e n seen h o w t h e J e w s i n H e l l e n i s t i c
cities w e r e a l m o s t e v e r y w h e r e r e g a r d e d w i t h ill-will; h o w n o t o n l y t h e
m o b b u t t h e city a u t h o r i t i e s t h e m s e l v e s m a d e r e p e a t e d efforts to h i n d e r
t h e m in t h e free p r a c t i c e o f t h e i r religion (see a b o v e , p p . 1 1 6 ff., 1 2 6 ff.).
J u d g e m e n t s e x p r e s s e d i n G r e e k a n d R o m a n l i t e r a t u r e a r e also i n
g e n e r a l d e r o g a t o r y . ' For m o s t e d u c a t e d m e n o f the p e r i o d the J e w i s h
religion w a s a Barbara superstitiof P e o p l e d i d n o t h e s i t a t e t o r e p e a t w i t h
c r e d u l i t y t h e a b s u r d fables i n v e n t e d a b o v e all b y A l e x a n d r i a n literati.
M a n y a l l e g a t i o n s s p r a n g , it is t r u e , f r o m i g n o r a n c e a n d n o t f r o m
m a l i c e , as for e x a m p l e w h e n it w a s c o n c l u d e d f r o m t h e n a m e ludaei t h a t
t h e y c a m e from C r e t e a n d took their n a m e from M o u n t I d a . ^ S i m i l a r l y ,
1. O n this cf. e.g. H. Gratz, ' U r s p r u n g der zwei V e r l e u m d u n g e n gegen das J u d e n t h u m

vom Eselskultus u n d von der Lieblosigkeit gegen Andersglaubige', M G W J (1872), p p .
193—206; T h . Reinach, Textes d'auteurs grecs et romains relatifs au Judaisme (1895); F .
Stahehn, Der Antisemitismus des Altertums in seiner Entstehung und Entwicklung (1905); M .
R a d i n , The Jews among the Greeks and Romans (1915); I . H e i n e m a n n , RE suppl. V (1931),
cols. 3 - 4 3 ; M . Stern, G L A J J I - I I ; idem, ' T h e j e w s in Greek and L a d n L i t e r a t u r e ' , J P F C
II, p p . 1101-59; J . N. Sevenster, The Roots of Pagan Anti-Semitism in the Ancient World
(1975); H. Braunert, 'Jiidische Diaspora und Judenfeindschaft im Altertum', Politik, Recht
und Gesellschaft in den griechisch-rdmischen Antike (1980), pp. 2 9 - 4 8 ; L. Cracco R u g g i n i ,
'Pagani, Ebrei e C r i s d a n i : Odio sociologico e odio teologico nel mondo antico'. Sett, d i
Studi del Centro It. di Studi suU'Alto Medioevo 26 (1980), p p . 13-101.
2. Cicero,/iro Flacco 28j6y = G L A J J I , no. 68.
3. T a c i t u s , Hist, v 2 = G L A J J I I , no. 281.
V. Gentiles and Judaism 151
t h e f a m o u s g o l d e n v i n e in t h e T e m p l e * a n d c e r t a i n c u s t o m s c o n n e c t e d
w i t h t h e F e a s t o f T a b e r n a c l e s l e d to the e r r o n e o u s belief t h a t they
w o r s h i p p e d B a c c h u s , a n o p i n i o n fully d e b a t e d in P l u t a r c h , ^ w h i l e
T a c i t u s rejects it w i t h t h e w o r d s : ' L i b e r festos l a e t o s q u e r i t u s p o s u i t ,
l u d a e o r u m m o s a b s u r d u s s o r d i d u s q u e . ' ^ B u t m o s t of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
a t t r i b u t e d t o the J e w s w e r e m a l i c i o u s s l a n d e r s w h i c h o w e d t h e i r o r i g i n
for t h e m o s t p a r t t o t h e fruitful soil of A l e x a n d r i a .
It w a s , h o w e v e r , a b o v e all a r o u n d t h e e x o d u s o f the J e w s f r o m E g y p t
t h a t t h e r e w a s w o v e n i n t h e c o u r s e of t i m e a c o m p l e t e l y fictitious tale
for w h i c h M a n e t h o h a d a l r e a d y laid t h e f o u n d a t i o n , a n d w h i c h was
s u b s e q u e n t l y e l a b o r a t e d b y t h e A l e x a n d r i a n literati, Chaeremon,
Lysimachus and Apion, a n d r e p e a t e d by Tacitus a n d Justin with
v a r i o u s m o d i f i c a t i o n s a n d a d d i t i o n s . ^ T h e essence of it is t h a t a n u m b e r
o f lepers w e r e b a n i s h e d f r o m t h e c o u n t r y by a n E g y p t i a n k i n g —
sometimes called A m e n o p h i s , sometimes B o c c h o r i s — a n d sent i n t o the
q u a r r i e s or t h e d e s e r t . A m o n g t h e m w a s a p r i e s t of H e h o p o l i s n a m e d
M o s e s ( a c c o r d i n g to M a n e t h o his real n a m e was O s a r s i p h ) . U n d e r his
influence t h e lepers apostasized from t h e E g y p t i a n gods and a d o p t e d a
n e w r e l i g i o n w h i c h h e g a v e t h e m . T h e y t h e n left t h e c o u n t r y u n d e r his
l e a d e r s h i p a n d c a m e , after v a r i o u s e x p e r i e n c e s a n d c o m m i t t i n g m a n y
s h a m e f u l d e e d s , to t h e n e i g h b o u r h o o d o f J e r u s a l e m , w h i c h they
c o n q u e r e d a n d o c c u p i e d for a l o n g p e r i o d . F r o m t h e d e t a i l e d
c i r c u m s t a n c e s w h i c h a c c o m p a n i e d t h i s e x o d u s T a c i t u s w a s a b l e to
d e d u c e a l m o s t a l l the J e w i s h m a n n e r s a n d c u s t o m s , s o m e i m a g i n a r y ,
s o m e g e n u i n e . Before h i m t h e A l e x a n d r i a n g r a m m a r i a n A p i o n h a d
a l r e a d y m a i n t a i n e d t h a t t h e J e w s p a i d d i v i n e h o n o u r s t o the h e a d of a n
ass.^ T a c i t u s r e p e a t s t h i s a s o n e w h o believes it ( a l t h o u g h h e h i m s e l f
also m e n t i o n s t h e fact t h a t t h e i r c u l t w a s i m a g e l e s s ) , a n d t r a c e s it b a c k
t o the fact t h a t t h e J e w s in t h e d e s e r t h a d b e e n m a d e a w a r e o f plentiful
4. mMid. 3:8 ; Josephus, Ant. xv 11, 3 ( 3 9 5 ) ; B.J. v 5, 4 (210—11); Tacitus, Hist, v 5.

5. Plutarch, Sympos. iv 5 {Mor. 6 9 9 E - 7 1 C = G L A J J I, no. 258); see A. Biichler, 'La
fete des cabanes chez P l u t a r q u e et T a c i t e ' , R E J 3 7 (1898), pp. 181-202.
6. Tacitus, Hist, v 5 = G L A J J I I , no. 2 8 1 .
7. M a n e t h o in Josephus, C. Ap. i 26-7 (227-53) ~ G L A J J I , no. 21 ; Chaeremon, ibid, i
32 (288—92) = no. 178; Lysimachus, ibid, i 34 (304—11) = no. 158; Apion, ibid, ii 2
(8-27) = no. 1 6 4 - 5 ; Tacitus, Hist, v 3 = no. 2 8 1 ; Justin, xxxvi 2 = no. 137; cf. also
Diodorus, xxiv i = n o . 6 3 ; for further details o n the literary tradition see pp. 595-609
below.
8. Josephus, C. Ap. ii 7 (80) = n o . 170. Another form of t h e legend is t o be found in
Diodorus, xxiv i = n o . 63. See Stern ad loc. for discussions of the sources of this view.
According to this version of the legend Antiochus Epiphanes found i n the holy of holies a
stone statue of a m a n with a long beard, sitting on an ass w i t h a book in his h a n d s . H e
took this to be Moses, founder ofJ e r u s a l e m and Lawgiver of t h e Jews. S e e J . Gager, Moses
in Greco-Roman Paganism (1972), p p . 174 ff.
s p r i n g s of w a t e r by a h e r d of w i l d asses.^ T h e r e a s o n g i v e n for J e w i s h
a b s t e n t i o n from p o r k is t h a t t h e p i g is s p e c i a l l y l i a b l e to scabies, t h e
disease o n w h o s e a c c o u n t t h e J e w s h a d o n c e b e e n t r e a t e d so c r u e l l y .
T h e f r e q u e n t fasts t a k e p l a c e in m e m o r y o f the h u n g e r e n d u r e d d u r i n g
the m a r c h t h r o u g h t h e d e s e r t . T h e use of u n l e a v e n e d b r e a d is a t o k e n o f
the theft o f c o r n at t h e t i m e of t h e e x o d u s . F i n a l l y , t h e k e e p i n g h o l y o f
the s e v e n t h d a y o c c u r s b e c a u s e t h i s b r o u g h t t h e m t h e e n d of t h e i r m i s e r y ;
a n d b e c a u s e idleness suited t h e m so well, t h e y c o n s e c r a t e d also t h e
seventh year.'°
T h r e e p o i n t s in p a r t i c u l a r a t t r a c t e d t h e m o c k e r y of t h e e d u c a t e d
w o r l d : a b s t e n t i o n f r o m p o r k , strict o b s e r v a n c e of t h e S a b b a t h a n d
image-less w o r s h i p . W h e r e a s t h e r e is e a r n e s t d e b a t e in P l u t a r c h as t o
w h e t h e r a b s t e n t i o n from p o r k does n o t h a v e its o r i g i n i n the d i v i n e
h o n o u r a c c o r d e d to t h e p i g , " J u v e n a l p o k e s f u n at t h e l a n d in w h i c h
' c u s t o m a r y kindness b e s t o w s o n pigs a r i p e old a g e ' a n d w h e r e ' p o r k is
a c c o u n t e d as p r e c i o u s as h u m a n flesh'. I n S a b b a t h o b s e r v a n c e t h e
satirist sees n o t h i n g b u t i n d o l e n c e a n d laziness, a n d in J e w i s h d i v i n e
service o n l y w o r s h i p of t h e c l o u d s a n d t h e sky.'^ I t seems t h a t e v e n
philosophically-educated contemporaries could not appreciate a n
imageless form of w o r s h i p . I t was the l i t e r a r y c o n t r o v e r s i a l i s t s o f
A l e x a n d r i a w h o a c c u s e d t h e j e w s o f not w o r s h i p p i n g t h e e m p e r o r . ' ^
E v e n T a c i t u s a l l u d e s to this, t h o u g h w i t h o u t e x p r e s s i n g a n y o v e r t
c e n s u r e : ' * ' l u d a e i m e n t e sola u n u m q u e n u m e n i n t e l l e g u n t : p r o f a n o s
qui d e u m i m a g i n e s m o r t a l i b u s m a t e r i i s in species h o m i n u m e f f i n g a n t ;
s u m m u m illud et a e t e r n u m n e q u e i m i t a b i l e n e q u e i n t e r i t u r u m . I g i t u r
n u l l a s i m u l a c r a u r b i b u s suis, n e d u m t e m p l i s s < is > t u n t ; n o n r e g i b u s
h a e c a d u l a t i o n o n C a e s a r i b u s h o n o r . ' P l i n y also calls t h e j e w s a ' g e n s
c o n t u m e l i a n u m i n u m insignis'.'^
T h e i n d i g n a t i o n o f the G r a e c o - R o m a n "world was h o w e v e r a r o u s e d
m o s t l y b y the b a r r i e r s w h i c h t h e J e w e r e c t e d b e t w e e n himself a n d o t h e r
m e n . Precisely a t t h e t i m e w h e n t h r o u g h R o m a n w o r l d - r u l e a n d t h e
levelling effect of H e l l e n i s m t h e r e w a s a g e n e r a l t e n d e n c y for l o c a l
c u l t u r e s e i t h e r to b e s u b m e r g e d o r to b e a b s o r b e d in the o v e r a l l
9. T a c i t u s , Hist, v 3-4 ( = n o . 281). For the supposed worship of a n ass, cf also

Plutarch, Sympos. iv 5 (n. 5 above) ; Damocritus, ap. T h e Suda (ed. Adler), s.v.
AapoKpiros = no. 247; Tertullian, Apol. 16; Ad Nationes i 11; Min. Felix, Oct. 9; S.
Krauss, s.v. 'Ass W o r s h i p ' , J E I I (1902), p p . 222—4; J- Halevy, 'Le culte d ' u n e tete
d ' a n e ' , Rev. Sem. 11 (1903), p p . 154-64; S. R e i n a c h , Cultes, mythes et religions I (1905),
pp. 3 4 2 - 6 ; F . Stahelin, Der Antisemitismus des Altertums (1905), pp. 15 f, 54.
10. Tacitus, Hist, v 4 = no. 281.
11. Plutarch, Sympos. iv 5 (n. 5 above).
12. J u v e n a l , Sat. vi 160 = no. 2 9 8 ; xiv 96-106 = n o . 301. See Courtney ad locc.
13. Josephus, C. Ap. ii 6 (73-8).
14. Tacitus, Hist, v 5 = no. 281.
15. Pliny, jV.//. xiii 4/46 = no. 214.
G r a e c o - R o m a n c u l t u r e , it m u s t h a v e b e e n felt a s d o u b l y f r u s t r a t i n g
t h a t o n l y t h e J e w s w e r e u n w i l l i n g t o b e t h o u g h t of as t a k i n g p a r t i n the
process of a m a l g a m a t i o n . ' A p u d ipsos fides o b s t i n a t a , m i s e r i c o r d i a in
p r o m p t u , s e d a d v e r s u s o m n e s aUos hostile o d i u m ' , says T a c i t u s ; ' ^ a n d
J u v e n a l alleges t h a t J e w s will s h o w t h e w a y o n l y t o c o - r e h g i o n i s t s , a n d
will d i r e c t o n l y t h e c i r c u m c i z e d to a well.'^ W h e n it w a s s a i d in
A l e x a n d r i a t h a t t h e J e w s t o o k a n o a t h to b e well-disposed t o w a r d s no
g e n t i l e , ' ^ or e v e n t h a t t h e y a n n u a l l y offered a G r e e k in sacrifice,'^ these
a r e of c o u r s e r i d i c u l o u s s l a n d e r s . B u t a p a r t i c l e of t r u t h n e v e r t h e l e s s lies
i n T a c i t u s ' s t a t e m e n t t h a t J e w i s h p r o s e l y t e s l e a r n e d n o t h i n g so q u i c k l y
a s to d e s p i s e t h e g o d s , t o a b j u r e t h e i r f a t h e r l a n d , a n d to r e g a r d p a r e n t s ,
children a n d kindred as nothing.^°
T h e g e n e r a l a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s J u d a i s m e x p r e s s e d in G r a e c o - R o m a n
l i t e r a t u r e w a s n o t so m u c h h a t r e d a s a v e r s i o n . T h r o u g h t h e e n t i r e
c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n w h i c h T a c i t u s gives o f J u d a i s m r u n s a n u n d e r t o n e of
the profoundest disdain which p r o m i n e n t R o m a n s cherished towards
this despectissima pars servientium, a g a i n s t this taeterrima gens.^^ T h i s
a t t i t u d e f o u n d p e r h a p s its s h a r p e s t e x p r e s s i o n in t h e w o r d s r e p o r t e d of
M a r c u s Aurelius by A m m i a n u s Marcellinus: 'Ille enim cum
P a l a e s t i n a m t r a n s i r e t , A e g y p t u m p e t e n s , l u d a e o r u m f a e t e n t i u m et
t u m u l t u a n t i u m saepe taedio percitus dolenter dicitur exclamasse: O
Marcomanni, o Quadi, o Sarmatae, tandem alios vobis
i n < q u i > etiores inveni!'^*
It is fair t o a s k h o w , in v i e w o f t h e o p i n i o n s m a n i f e s t e d i n G r a e c o -
R o m a n h t e r a t u r e , i t w a s p o s s i b l e for J e w i s h p r o p a g a n d a to
h a v e a n y success at all. W h i l e n o c o n f i d e n t g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s c a n or
s h o u l d be offered, t h r e e r e l e v a n t p o i n t s m a y b e m a d e .
( i ) I n t h e J e w i s h h t e r a t u r e of t h e p e r i o d t h e r e is e v i d e n c e o f efforts to
r e p r e s e n t J u d a i s m in a f o r m a c c e p t a b l e e v e n to G r e e k s a n d R o m a n s .
W h a t e v e r w a s b o u n d a t first s i g h t to a p p e a r p e c u l i a r a n d u n p a l a t a b l e
w a s left in t h e b a c k g r o u n d as i n e s s e n t i a l , a n d t h e m a i n e m p h a s i s was
l a i d o n issues for w h i c h a s y m p a t h e t i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g c o u l d b e c o u n t e d
16. Tacitus, Hist, v 5 = n o . 281.

17. J u v e n a l , Sat. xiv 103-4 ~ iô. 301.
18. J o s e p h u s , C. Ap. ii 10 (121-4).
19. J o s e p h u s , C. Ap. ii 8 (89-96) = no. 171. Cf. also Damocritus, n. 9 above. See esp. E.
Bickermann, ' R i t u a l m o r d u n d Eselskult', M G W J 71 (1927), pp. 171-87; 255—64 =
Studies in Jewish and Christian History II (1980), p p . 225—55. Christians, too, were accused
of holding T h y e s t e a n feasts' (letters of the communities of L u g d u n u m a n d Vienna in
Eusebius, H.E. v i, 14; Athenagoras, Embassy 3 ; Justin, Apol. ii 12; Min. Felix, Oct. 9 ;
TertulUan, Apol. 8; AdMt. i 7; O r i g . C. Cels. vi 27).
20. T a c i t u s , Hist, v 5 = no. 281 : ' c o n t e m n e r e deos, exuere patriam, parentes liberos
fratres vilia habere.'
21. Tacitus, Hist, v 8 = G L A J J I I , no. 506.
22. A m m i a n M a r c , xxii 5 = G L A J J I I , no. 506.
154 §31- Judaism in the Diaspora
on f r o m m a n y a t a n y r a t e , a b o v e all in r e g a r d t o t h e c o n c e p t o f G o d .
J u d a i s m c o u l d b e p r e s e n t e d as t h e g e n u i n e l y e n l i g h t e n e d religion w h i c h
does n o t a c k n o w l e d g e a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f gods l i m i t e d to t h e i r o w n s p h e r e s
of p o w e r , b u t w o r s h i p s t h e o n e L o r d a n d C r e a t o r o f all t h i n g s , t h e
all-powerful a n d righteous G o d , w h o r e w a r d s each m a n strictly
a c c o r d i n g to his m o r a l c o n d u c t . A g a i n it does n o t , like s h o r t - s i g h t e d
p a g a n i s m , p r e s e n t t h e d i v i n e B e i n g i n the r e s t r i c t e d form o f a m a n o r
even of a n a n i m a l , b u t rejects all p i c t o r i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e
G o d h e a d , r e v e r i n g o n l y t h e invisible L o r d of h e a v e n a n d e a r t h w h o
r e i g n s o v e r all a n d is e x a l t e d a b o v e a l l t h e l i m i t a t i o n s of sense
e x p e r i e n c e . T h a t t h e m a i n e m p h a s i s m a y h a v e b e e n laid u p o n these
p o i n t s , a n d t h a t it w a s i n this f o r m t h a t J u d a i s m m a y h a v e b e e n
i n t r o d u c e d to their p a g a n fellow-citizens b y H e l l e n i s t i c J e w s , is
s u g g e s t e d , for e x a m p l e , b y t h e w r i t i n g s of P h i l o a n d the J e w i s h
Sibyllines.^^ It is t h e r e f o r e u n d e r s t a n d a b l e t h a t S t r a b o , for e x a m p l e ,
s p e a k s w i t h a c e r t a i n s y m p a t h y of M o s e s ; for t h e J e w i s h s o u r c e ,
w h e t h e r w r i t t e n o r o r a l , in w h i c h his a c c o u n t o r i g i n a t e s , h a d
r e p r e s e n t e d t h e J e w i s h L a w g i v e r a s a g e n u i n e Stoic p h i l o s o p h e r .
M o s e s , o n this view, t a u g h t t h a t t h e E g y p t i a n s w e r e m i s t a k e n i n
m a k i n g t h e D e i t y in t h e i m a g e of a n i m a l s ; likewise t h e L i b y a n s , a n d
also t h e G r e e k s , w h o p o r t r a y e d h i m i n h u m a n f o r m . F o r G o d is t h e O n e
w h o c o m p r e h e n d s us all, a n d t h e e a r t h a n d the sea, t h e O n e w h o m w e
call ' h e a v e n ' a n d ' u n i v e r s e ' a n d the ' n a t u r e of t h i n g s ' {rrfv TWV OVTCOV
<î;aiv). W h a t r e a s o n a b l e p e r s o n w o u l d d a r e to m a k e of h i m a n i m a g e
s i m i l a r to o n e o f the t h i n g s familiar t o us ? R a t h e r o n e s h o u l d r e n o u n c e
the m a k i n g of all i m a g e s a n d , h a v i n g d e d i c a t e d a w o r t h y t e m p l e t o
h i m , s h o u l d w o r s h i p h i m w i t h o u t a n y i m a g e at all.** V a r r o , t o o ,
a p p e a r s t o h a v e expressed a p p r o v a l o f t h e imageless J e w i s h w o r s h i p o f
God.^^ A d m i t t e d l y , S t r a b o , in spite of h i s f a v o u r a b l e d e s c r i p t i o n o f
23. See p p . 6i 7 ff., 871-80 below.

24. Strabo, xvi 2, 35 (760-1) = G L A J J I, n o . 115. It was evidently in a similar light
that e d u c a t e d Jews in t h e time of Alexander and of the Diadochi represented their
religion to foreigners. This can be seen from e.g. Hecataeus, t h e contemporary of Ptolemy
I, w h o says of Moses: ayaA/ia Se ded)v TO avvoXov ov KareoKevaae Sid TO p,rj vofiiêiv
dv6pcu-7T6ixop<f>ov eivai rov Oeov, dAAd rdi' rrepUxovra rrfv yijv ovpavov p,6vov ftvai deov Kat
r<x)v 5\o)v Kvpiov (Hecataeus, ap. Diodorus xl 3, 4 = G L A J J I , no. 11. At the time, w h e n
Greeks were becoming acquainted with J u d a i s m for the first time through individual
educated representatives of it, t h e J e w s ranked therefore as 'philosophers a m o n g t h e
Syrians'; thus Aristode according to the report of his pupil Clearchus, a/». J o s e p h u s , C. Ap.
i 22 (179) = GLAJJ I, no. 1 5 ; similarly Theophrastus, the pupil of Aristotle, ap.
Porphyry, De abstinentia ii 26 = G L A J J I, no. 4, a n d Megasthenes, a b o u t 300 B.C. ap.
Clement of Alexandria, Strom, i 15, 72 = GLAJJ I, n o . 14; F . Stahelin, Der Antisemitismus
des Altertums (1905), pp. 3 ff., emphasized rightly that i n these accounts no hostile note c a n
be detected.
25. Augustine, De civ. Dei iv 31 = G L A J J I, no. 72a, says of V a r r o : 'Dicit etiam
antiques Romanos plus annos c e n t u m et septuaginta deos sine simulacro coluisse. " Q u o d
M o s e s , d i d n o t c o n v e r t to J u d a i s m , for he t h o u g h t t h a t t h e J e w i s h
r e h g i o n l a t e r d e t e r i o r a t e d t h r o u g h t h e a c c e p t a n c e of s u p e r s t i t i o u s
e l e m e n t s . B u t w h e n J e w i s h a p o l o g i s t s l e a r n t h o w t o discover b e n e a t h
e v e n t h e s e ' s u p e r s t i t i o u s ' e l e m e n t s a d e e p e r sense a n d c o n t e n t , m i g h t
n o t m a n y h a v e felt a t t r a c t e d ?
(2) A f u r t h e r factor w h i c h m a y h a v e h e l p e d t o w i n a d h e r e n t s to
J u d a i s m lies i n t h e p r a c t i c a l d i r e c t i o n o f the J e w i s h religion t o w a r d s
t r a i n i n g i n t h e c o n d u c t o f o r d i n a r y life. O f c o u r s e , n o r e l i g i o n e n t i r e l y
lacks t h i s ; b u t i n J u d a i s m it is m u c h m o r e d e f i n i t e a n d m o r e
c o m p r e h e n s i v e t h a n in the a n c i e n t r e l i g i o n s . T h i s c o n t r a s t is, for
i n s t a n c e , p r e s e n t t h r o u g h o u t J o s e p h u s ' w o r k Contra Apionem.
(3) F i n a l l y , it m a y also be r e l e v a n t t o p o i n t to t h e w e l l - k n o w n fact
t h a t G r a e c o - R o m a n p a g a n i s m e x h i b i t e d n o t only m a n y e l e m e n t s of
s t a b i h t y a n d c o n s e r v a d s m , as i n t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f p a r t i c u l a r cults o n
t h e s a m e site o v e r m a n y c e n t u r i e s , b u t a l s o s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a significant
d e g r e e o f i n n o v a t i o n . T h o u g h it w o u l d be w r o n g to say t h a t t h e
t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t s of classical a n t i q u i t y n o l o n g e r p l a y e d a c e n t r a l p a r t in
t h e c o m m u n a l life of t h e a n c i e n t w o r l d , it is n o n e the less c l e a r t h a t
t h e r e w a s a w i d e s p r e a d r e a d i n e s s t o a d o p t n e w c u l t forms, i n c l u d i n g
o n e s w h i c h h a d t h e i r o r i g i n in v a r i o u s p a r t s of t h e N e a r E a s t ; p a r t i a l l y
as a c o n s e q u e n c e of b u s y c o m m e r c i a l life a n d e x p a n d i n g t r a d e
c o n d i t i o n s t h e s e c u l t s s e e m t o h a v e b e c o m e k n o w n in e v e r w i d e n i n g
c i r c l e s . T o t a k e o n l y a few e x a m p l e s , i n G r e e c e , e s p e c i a l l y in A t h e n s ,
si adhuc, inquit, mansisset, casrius dii observarentur." Cui sentendae suae testem adhibet
inter cetera e d a m gentem l u d a e a m ; nec d u b i t a t e u m locum ita concludere, ut dicat, qui
primi simulacra d e o r u m populis posuerunt, eos civitatibus suis et m e t u m dempsisse et
errorem addidisse.'
26. Strabo xvi 2, 37 (761) = G L A J J I, no. 115.
27. No a d e q u a t e study exists of t h e evolution o f ancient paganism as it affected the
beliefs and observances of the o r d i n a r y man. For older studies a n d collections o f material,
m a n y of t h e m e m b o d y i n g questionable presuppositions, see for e x a m p l e L. Friedlander,
Darstellungen aus der Sittengeschichte Roms I I I , ed. G. Wissowa (^1920), p p . 118-242; M.
Foucart, Des associations religieuses chez les Grecs (1873); M . C. A . G. Boissier, La religion
romaine d'Auguste aux Antonins I - I I (*i878); J . M a r q u a r d t , Romische Staatsverwaltung I I I
(1878), p p . 7 1 - 1 1 2 ; O . Seeck, Geschichte des Untergangs der antiken Welt I (^^1897) ; II
(1901-2); S. Dill, Roman society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius (1904), p p . 3 8 4 - 6 2 6 ; F.
Cumont, Les religions orientales dans le paganisme romain (1906 ; *i929), E . T . Oriental Religions
in Roman Paganism ( 1 9 1 1 ) ; ? . W e n d l a n d , Die hellenistisch-romische Kultur in ihren Beziehungen
zu Judentum und Christentum {Handbuch zum N.T. 1.2, 1907, p p . 5 4 - 1 0 3 ; ^ ^1912; *with a d d .
bibliography by H . Dorrie, 1972).
Among subsequent publications only the major standard works c a n be mentioned here : J.
Toutain, Les cultespaiens dans I'Empire romain I - I I I (1907-20) ; G. Wissowa, Religion und Kultur
der Romer (^1912); U . von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Der Glaube der Hellenen I-II
(1931-2); M . P. Nilsson, Geschichte der griechischen Religion I I (^^1961); K . Latte, Romische
Religionsgeschichte (i960) ; W. Burkert, Griechische Religion der archdischen und klassischen
Epoche (1977).
F o r works dealing with 'conversion', the a d o p t i o n of new forms of religious observance,
and the spread of 'oriental' cults note for example R. Reitzenstein, Hellenistische
already at the end of t h e fifth century B.C. the Phrygian cults of

S a b a z i u s ( D i o n y s u s ) a n d of t h e G r e a t M o t h e r h a d b e e n a d o p t e d . N o t
m u c h l a t e r , E g y p t i a n a n d o t h e r N e a r E a s t e r n c u l t s followed. I n 3 3 3
B . C . , t h e m e r c h a n t s from K i t i o n ( C y p r u s ) w e r e p e r m i t t e d b y a d e c r e e
of t h e p e o p l e of A t h e n s t o b u i l d a t e m p l e of A p h r o d i t e i n t h e P i r a e u s ,
i.e., to t h e S e m i t i c A s t a r t e ; a n d in t h a t c o n n e c t i o n r e f e r e n c e w a s m a d e
to t h e f a c t t h a t t h e E g y p t i a n s ( t h o s e r e s i d e n t i n A t h e n s ) a l r e a d y h a d a
t e m p l e o f Isis t h e r e . T h e l a t t e r m u s t t h e r e f o r e h a v e b e e n e r e c t e d a r o u n d
t h e m i d d l e of t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y . * ^ M o r e t h a n a h u n d r e d y e a r s l a t e r , in
2 1 5 - 2 1 4 B . C . , a n a s s o c i a t i o n o f S e r a p i s w o r s h i p p e r s (Sarapiastai) existed
a l s o in t h e P i r a e u s . ^ " T h e l a t t e r w e r e a p p a r e n t l y no l o n g e r merely
i m m i g r a n t s b u t , as the G r e e k n a m e s of the m e m b e r s suggest, n a t i v e
i n h a b i t a n t s w h o formed a cult association. I n general, E g y p t i a n cults
are widely attested in the Greek world from the third century
o n w a r d s . ^ ' T h e r e is also e v i d e n c e o f o t h e r o r i e n t a l c u l t s , e s p e c i a l l y in
t h e G r e e k i s l a n d s a n d in A s i a M i n o r . ^ *
Mysterienretigionen 1927; repr. 1936); A. D . Nock, Conversion: The old and the new in
religion from Alexander the Great to Augustine of Hippo (1933), a n d his Essays on Religion and the
Ancient World I - I I , ed. Z . Stewart (1972); C . Schneider, 'Die griechischen G r u n d l a g e n
der hellenistischen Religionsgeschichte', A R W 36 (1939), pp. 3 0 0 - 4 7 ; M. P . Nilsson,
'Problems of the history of Greek Religion i n the Hellenistic and R o m a n Age', H T h R 36
(1943), p p . 2 5 1 - 7 9 ; A.-J. Festugiere, Personal Religion among the Greeks (1954); E. R.
Dodds, Pagan and Christian in an Age of Anxiety (1965); J . Ferguson, The Religions of the
Roman Empire (1970); J . A. N o r t h , 'Conservatism a n d C h a n g e in R o m a n Religion', PBSR
44 (1976), pp. 1-12; J . H. W . G. Licbeschuetz, Continuity and Change in Roman Religion
(1979); R . MacMullen, Paganism in the Roman Empire (1981).
F o r the diffusion of oriental cults note the series Etudes priliminaires aux religions orientales
dans I'empire romain, 1961-. N o t e especially the survey volume (93), edited by M . J .
Vermaseren, Die orientalischen Religionen im Romerreich (1981).
28. See especially M. Foucart, Des associations religieuses chez les Grecs, chs. 9-11 ; Burkert,
op. cit., p. 278 (Sabazios); 276-7 (Great Mother).
29. See M . Foucart, op. cit., p p . 187-9. T h e inscription is IG II'^, no. 337 = SIG^, no.
280 = M . N. T o d , A Selection of Greek Historical Inscriptions I I (1948), no. 189: Kaddrrep Kat
01 AlyxntTioi TO 'laiSos Upov iSpwrai. Cf. above, p. I lo. I n the same year as this
decree w a s passed (333 B.C.) a n o t h e r Athenian inscription refers to a temple t o A m m o n ,
established in t h e Piraeus earlier in t h e century. I G II'^, n o . 338 = SIG^, no. 281. See H .
W . Parke, The Oracles of êus (1967), ch. 9.
30. I G II*, n o . 1292, republished b y S. D o w , ' T h e Egyptian Cults i n Athens', H T h R
30 (1937), pp. 183-232, on p p . 188-9, whence P. M . Fraser, ' T w o Studies on the C u l t of
Sarapis in the Hellenistic World', Opusc. Ath. 3 (i960), pp. 1-54, A p p . n o . 2.
31. F o r Sarapis see e.g. Fraser, op. cit., a n d 'Current Problems concerning the Early
History of the Cult of Sarapis', Opusc. Ath. 7 (1967), pp. 2 3 - 4 5 ; J . S t a m b a u g h , Sarapis
under the Early Ptolemies (1972) ; for Isis see F . D u n a n d , Le culte d'Isis dans le bassin oriental de
la Miditerranie I - I I I (1973); cf. Ph. Bruneau, Le sanctuaire et le culte des divinites egyptiennes d
£r^m>(i975).
32. Foucart, chs. 11 —13. F o r recent surveys a n d collections of evidence see e.g. Ph.
Bruneau, Recherches sur les cultes de Dilos d I'ipoque hellinistique et a I'ipoque impiriale (1970);
R. Salditt-Trappmann, Tempel der dgyptischen Cotter in Griechenland und an der Westkiiste
Kleinasiens (1970); cf P. Debord, Aspects sociaux et iconomiques de la vie religieuse dans
I n R o m e a n d I t a l y , it w a s e q u a l l y a b o v e all t h e E g y p t i a n c u l t s w h i c h
e a r l y f o u n d a firm f o o t h o l d . T h e y a p p e a r e d t h e r e f r o m t h e s e c o n d
century B . C . onwards, were repeatedly banned b y t h e senate a n d
s u p p r e s s e d b y force, b u t a l w a y s f o u n d n e w a d h e r e n t s . I n 43 B . C t h e
t r i u m v i r s t h e m s e l v e s b u i l t a t e m p l e of S e r a p i s a n d Isis for t h e official
cult.^* W o r s h i p of E g y p t i a n g o d s w a s t h e r e f o r e n o l o n g e r p r a c t i s e d
m e r e l y b y p r i v a t e societies, b u t also b y t h e res publica. U n d e r A u g u s t u s
t h e r e w e r e i n R o m e a l r e a d y s e v e r a l t e m p l e s for t h e E g y p t i a n sacra,
t h o u g h still o u t s i d e the pomerium?^ U n d e r T i b e r i u s a n a t t e m p t w a s
m a d e to s u p p r e s s t h e m e n t i r e l y b u t m a n y of t h e s u b s e q u e n t e m p e r o r s
o n l y f a v o u r e d t h e m the m o r e . I n t h e p r o v i n c e s t h e y w e r e w i d e s p r e a d
d u r i n g t h e w h o l e o f t h e i m p e r i a l p e r i o d . C u l t s o r i g i n a t i n g in A s i a
M i n o r , S y r i a a n d P e r s i a g a i n e d e n t r a n c e into R o m e , a n d w e r e diffused
t h r o u g h o u t t h e e m p i r e , a little l a t e r t h a n the E g y p t i a n c u l t s . T h e y a r e
m o s t fully a t t e s t e d in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y A . D . , w h i c h is h o w e v e r t h e
p e r i o d w h i c h p r o d u c e d t h e l a r g e s t n u m b e r of i n s c r i p t i o n s of a l l k i n d s .
T h e w o r s h i p of t h e S y r i a n s u n - g o d , a l r e a d y w i d e l y p r a c t i s e d , w a s
f u r t h e r p r o m o t e d i n R o m e b y v a r i o u s e m p e r o r s of t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y .
Still m o r e p o p u l a r t h r o u g h o u t the e n t i r e R o m a n e m p i r e w a s t h e c u l t of
t h e P e r s i a n M i t h r a s w i t h its s e c r e t m y s t e r i e s . O n t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s f r o m
a l m o s t a l l t h e p r o v i n c e s of t h e R o m a n r e a l m i n t h e i m p e r i a l p e r i o d n o
o r i e n t a l cult is m e t w i t h as f r e q u e n t l y as this.^^ R e l a t e d t o it is the c u l t
of t h e P h r y g i a n M a g n a M a t e r ( C y b e l e ) i n its l a t e r d e v e l o p e d f o r m . T h e
taurobolia, w h i c h c a m e to b e c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e l a t t e r , u n d e r w e n t in t h e
I'Anatolie grico-romaine (1982).

33. S e e J . M a r q u a r d t , Romische Staatsverwaltung I I I , p p . 76 ff., and for a full study M.
Malaise, Les conditions de penetration et de diffusion des cultes igyptiens en Italic (1972).
34. Dio xlvii 15, I.
35. Dio liii 2, 4.
36. Josephus, Ant. xviii 3, 4 (65-80) ; Tacitus, Ann. ii 8 5 ; Suetonius, Tib. 36.
37. For recent surveys see R. E. Witt, Isis in the Graeco-Roman World (1971); L . V i d m a n ,
'Isis und Sarapis' and G . Holbl, 'Andere Agyptische Gottheiten', in M . J. Vermaseren
(ed.). Die orientalischen Religionen im Romerreich (1981), chs. 5—6.
38. Cf for the Syrian cults G . Wissowa, Religionen und Kultus der Romer, pp. 299-307 ; F.
Cumont, Les religions orientales (^1929), ch. 5. See also G. H . Halsberghe, The Cult of Sol
Invictus (1972), a n d the essential study by H. Seyrig, ' L e culte du Soleil en Syrie a
I'epoque r o m a i n e ' , Syria 48 (1971), p p . 337-73- N o t e E. Schwertheim, 'Jupiter
Dolichenus', Y. Hajjier, 'Jupiter HeliopoHtanus', a n d H . J . W. Drijvers, 'Die Dea Syria
und andere syrische Gottheiten im I m p e r i u m R o m a n u m ' , in M . J. Vermaseren, op. cit.,
chs. 7-9.
39. On M i t h r a s see F . C u m o n t , Textes et monuments figures relatifs aux mysteres de Mithra II
(1896); I (1899) (a major work with a full collection of the m a t e r i a l ) ; G. Wissowa,
Religion und Kultus der Romer, p p . 307—12 ; C u m o n t , Religions orientales (^1929), c h . 6 ; M . J.
Vermaseren, Corpus Inscriptionum et Monumentorum Religionis Mithriacae I-II (1956—60);
idem, Mithras, the Secret God (1963); J . R. Hinnells (ed.), Mithraic Studies I-II (1975) ; U.
Bianchi (ed.), Mysteria Mithrae (1979); M. J . Vermaseren, Orientalische Religionen, ch. 4:
'Mithras i n der Romerzeit'.
158 §31. Judaism in the Diaspora
l a t e r i m p e r i a l p e r i o d a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n b y w h i c h t h e y b e c a m e also a
r i t u a l of p u r i f i c a t i o n , a n d o c c u r i n this f o r m also in t h e c u l t o f
Mithras.*'*
T h e a t t r a c t i v e n e s s of all these cults seems to h a v e r e s i d e d essentially
in t h r e e t y p i c a l traits w h i c h t h e y h a v e in c o m m o n ; i t s h o u l d h o w e v e r
be e m p h a s i z e d t h a t b o t h the f a c t u a l m a t e r i a l a n d the c o n c e p t u a l
f r a m e w o r k for a n y c o n f i d e n t analysis of t h e religious c h a n g e s s k e t c h e d
a b o v e is lacking.*' F i r s t t h e r e a p p e a r s i n all o f t h e m s o m e f o r m o f
m o n o t h e i s t i c e l e m e n t . W h e t h e r t h e d e i t y b e d e s c r i b e d as Isis or S e r a p i s
or M i t h r a s , or h o w e v e r else, these c u l t s o r d i n a r i l y i n v o l v e d — a t least i n
the p e r i o d w i t h w h i c h w e are c o n c e r n e d — t h e c o n c e p t i o n e i t h e r t h a t
the g o d w o r s h i p p e d w a s a single s u p r e m e d e i t y , o r t h a t different d i v i n e
n a m e s f u n c t i o n e d as d e s i g n a t i o n s of t h e s a m e d e i t y . A second e l e m e n t
is t h e e m p h a s i s on e x p i a t i o n o f sins a n d r i t u a l p u r i f i c a t i o n g e n e r a l l y
required of their a d h e r e n t s . C o n n e c t e d w i t h this there t h e n seems t o
h a v e b e e n a t h i r d e l e m e n t , the e x p e c t a t i o n of a h a p p y after-life w h i c h ,
as h a s often b e e n s u p p o s e d , w a s offered by m o s t o f these forms o f
w o r s h i p i n one s h a p e or a n o t h e r . As r e g a r d s t h e established cults of t h e
G r a e c o - R o m a n w o r l d , t h e s e claims c a n n o t be m a d e i n t h e s a m e w a y .
C e r t a i n l y t h e r e w a s a t e n d e n c y in p h i l o s o p h i c circles t o a d o p t a
m o n o t h e i s t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of p a g a n i s m ; b u t it d i d n o t g e n e r a l l y
p r o v i d e t h e e l e m e n t s of p e r s o n a l i n i t i a t i o n a n d purification, possibly
w i t h the e x p e c t a t i o n of a n after-fife, w h i c h seem to h a v e c h a r a c t e r i z e d
s o m e of t h e ' o r i e n t a l ' cults.*'^
I n spite of t h e m a n y p r o f o u n d u n c e r t a i n t i e s w h i c h a t t e n d a n y
a t t e m p t t o define t h e m e a n i n g of t h e ' o r i e n t a l ' cults for t h o s e w h o
p a r t i c i p a t e d in t h e m , it r e m a i n s possible t h a t a t t a c h m e n t to J u d a i s m
satisfied some of t h e s a m e n e e d s . T h u s e v e n t h i s taeterrima gens
40. See Roscher's Lex. der griech. und rom. Mythologie, s.v. 'Kybele' and ' M e t e r ' ; S. Dill,
Roman Society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius, pp. 547-59 {mater magna); Cumont, Religions
orientales (''^1929), c h . 3 ; M . J. Vermaseren, Cybele and Attis: The Myth and the Cult (1977) ;
G. Sanders, 'Kybele und Attis' i n M . J . Vermaseren (ed.), Orientalische Religion, ch. 10.
See also R. Duthoy, The Taurobolium: Its Evolution and Terminology (1969).
41. For these aspects, a n d possible explanations of the change of religious mentality
involved see, apart from the works mentioned in t h e preceding footnotes, e.g. R. L .
Gordon, 'Mithraism and R o m a n Society. Social Factors in the Explanation of Religious
Change in the R o m a n E m p i r e ' , Religion 2 (1972), p p . 9 2 - 1 2 1 ; U . Bianchi a n d M. J .
Vermaseren (eds.). La soteriologia deiculti orientali nell'impero romano (1982).
42. O n p a g a n belief in survival after death see e.g. L. Friedlander, Darstellungen aus der
Sittengeschichte Roms III (^1920), i>^. 298-327; G. R o h d e , Psyche. Seelencult und
Unsterblichkeitsglaube der Griechen I I (^'' 1925), especially pp. 379-96 on popular belief i n
Late Antiquity; F . Cumont, After Life in Roman Paganism (1922); Recherches sur le
symbolisme funiraire des Romains (1942); Lux Perpetua (1949). See also J. M . C. T o y n b e e ,
Death and Burial in the Roman World (1971). For a sceptical view of t h e state of o u r
knowledge as regards the expectation of an after-life see R. MacMullen, Paganism in the
Roman Empire (1981), pp. 5 3 ff.
nevertheless w o n c o n v e r t s to its religion. I t m a y e v e n be t h a t i t s success

w o u l d h a v e b e e n m u c h g r e a t e r b u t for the m o d e s t social s t a t u s of
t h e J e w s , the l a c k o f a f o r m of w o r s h i p i n v o l v i n g f o r m a l r i t u a l s , a n d t h e
o b l i g a t i o n s i m p o s e d by a d h e r e n c e t o the L a w .
A s d i s c u s s e d a b o v e , J e w i s h p r o p a g a n d a i n the H e l l e n i s t i c - R o m a n
p e r i o d is c l e a r l y reflected in c o n t e m p o r a r y l i t e r a r y s o u r c e s . H o w far t h i s
p r o p a g a n d a is to b e t a k e n as t h e p r o d u c t of a s e r i o u s p r a c t i c a l effort to
w i n c o n v e r t s is not i m m e d i a t e l y c l e a r . S t r i c t P h a r i s a i c J u d a i s m c a n n o t
h a v e a s p i r e d t o g a i n a d h e r e n t s b e y o n d t h e circle o f fellow-Jews, for if
t h e p r o m i s e w a s v a l i d o n l y for t h e c h i l d r e n o f A b r a h a m , w h a t c o u l d
pagans h o p e to obtain b y the adoption o f j e w i s h c u s t o m s ? H o w e v e r ,
this exclusiveness, w h i c h rests on t h e v i e w o f Y a h w e h as t h e G o d
p e c u l i a r to I s r a e l , was a l r e a d y f u n d a m e n t a l l y s u r m o u n t e d b y t h e
p r o p h e t i c i d e a of G o d . F o r t h e o n e G o d , t h e L o r d o f h e a v e n a n d e a r t h ,
c a n n o t b e G o d a n d F a t h e r of o n e n a t i o n a l o n e , so t h a t h e t a k e s o n l y
this one for himself. If G o d is o n e , h e is n o t o n l y G o d of t h e J e w s b u t
also of t h e gentiles. T h i s c o n c l u s i o n w a s n o t first d r a w n b y P a u l ( R o m .
3:28-9), b u t a p p e a r s clearly i n the g r e a t e s t a n d m o s t p r o f o u n d of t h e
O l d T e s t a m e n t p r o p h e t s , D e u t e r o - I s a i a h . T h e p e o p l e of I s r a e l is i n d e e d
chosen b y G o d to b e his s e r v a n t , t o w h o m he first g a v e h i s ' L a w ' a n d
' J u d g e m e n t ' ( m i D a n d WDIZ^D). B u t I s r a e l n o w h a s t h e task of
p r o c l a i m i n g t h i s to t h e n a t i o n s (Isa. 4 2 : 1 - 4 ; 4 9 : 1 - 6 ) . I t h a s to b e c o m e a
light to t h e g e n t i l e s ( I s a . 4 2 : 6 ; 49:6). T h e r e l i g i o n of I s r a e l h a s to
b e c o m e a w o r l d religion.*^ A n d t h e gentiles will t h e n also be a c c e p t e d
by G o d (Isa. 56:1—8). T h i s u n i v e r s a l i s m was a d m i t t e d l y n o t w h o l l y
c o n s i s t e n t in J u d a i s m . S i d e by side w i t h it w e n t the v i e w o f Y a h w e h as
the G o d p e c u l i a r to Israel, w h o h a d c h o s e n only t h i s p e o p l e for
r e d e m p t i o n . T h e c o n c u r r e n c e of b o t h v i e w p o i n t s g a v e r i s e t o a
tension i n w h i c h n o w o n e , n o w t h e o t h e r p r e v a i l e d . * * I n t h e o r y ,
especially in P a l e s t i n i a n J u d a i s m , p a r t i c u l a r i s t i c t h o u g h t u n d o u b t e d l y
43. T h a t the 'Servant of God' in Deutero-Isaiah is the Jewish people o r the ideal Israel
is recognized by m a n y modern exegetes. See for example B . Stade, Biblische Theologie des
A.T. I (1905), p. 133, a n d the works m e n t i o n e d there. For more recent surveys, see C. R.
North, The Suffering Servant in Deutero-Isaiah (^^1956); H . H. Rowley, The Servant of the Lord
(^1965). F o r other literature see O. Eissfeldt, The Old Testament—An Introduction (1965),
pp. 330-41.
44. K. Siegfried in particular d r e w attention to this antithesis, ' P r o p h e d s c h e
Missionsgedanken und jiidische Missionsbestrebungen', J P T h (1890), p p . 4 3 5 - 5 3 . O n the
universalistic trend ofjewish monotheism see especially also J . Wellhausen, Israelitische und
jiidische Geschichte, (^1901), pp. 2 2 4 - 6 ; A. Bertholet, Die Stellung der Israeliten und der Juden
zu den Fremden (1896) (esp. pp. 91-122, 191—5); M . Lohr, Der Missionsgedanke im Alten
Testaments (1896); Ed. Meyer, Die Entstehung des Judenthums (1896), pp. 119-21, 221 ff.; E.
Stave, Ueber den Einfluss des Parsismus auf das Judentum (1898), p p . 90 ff.; M. M e i n e r t z ,
Jesus und die Heidenmission (1908) (esp. pp. 17-49) ; G. Hoennicke, Das Judenchristentum
(1908), pp. 4 4 - 7 ; G. F. Moore, Judaism in the Jirst three centuries of the Christian Era I (1927),
pp. 2 1 9 - 3 4 ; F. H a h n , Mission in the New Testament (1965), especially ch. i .
p r e d o m i n a t e d . I n p r a c t i c e it w a s o t h e r w i s e . T h e n a t u r a l u r g e o f e v e r y
l i v i n g religion t o c o m m u n i c a t e t h e possession o f its o w n g o o d t o o t h e r s
s h o w e d itself h e r e t o b e s t r o n g e r t h a n d o g m a t i c p r e c o n c e p t i o n s . I f
gentiles b y t h e i r c o n v e r s i o n t o J u d a i s m d i d n o t b e c o m e full I s r a e l i t e
citizens, t h e y w o u l d n e v e r t h e l e s s be r e m o v e d f r o m t h e m u l t i t u d e of t h e
d a m n e d a n d a t least affiliated t o t h e p e o p l e of t h e p r o m i s e . T h u s e v e n
t h e P h a r i s e e s i n P a l e s t i n e c a n b e p o r t r a y e d as e a g e r to find c o n v e r t s :
' Y o u t r a v e r s e s e a a n d l a n d to m a k e a single p r o s e l y t e ' ( M t . 2 3 : 1 5 ) .
H o w e v e r , it m a y be t h a t i n t h e d i a s p o r a the t h e o r y w a s m o r e
b r o a d m i n d e d than a m o n g the Palestinian Pharisees. T h e expansive
t e n d e n c i e s of J u d a i s m * ^ w e r e p r o b a b l y s t r o n g e r h e r e t h a n a m o n g t h e
P a l e s t i n i a n s (see a b o v e , p p . 1 3 9 ff".). I t is n o t e w o r t h y t h a t P h i l o {Spec.
Leg. i 51—3) m a k e s a p a r t i c u l a r p o i n t of t h e w e l c o m e , a n d s u b s e q u e n t
e q u a l i t y o f r i g h t s , e x t e n d e d to full p r o s e l y t e s . A t a n y r a t e , as h a s b e e n
d e s c r i b e d a b o v e , a v a r i e d h t e r a t u r e c a m e i n t o b e i n g , the d i r e c t a i m of
w h i c h w a s to c o n v i n c e p a g a n s of t h e folly of i d o l a t r y , to w i n t h e m o v e r
to b e h e f i n t h e o n e t r u e G o d , a n d a t t h e s a m e t i m e t o c o n v e r t t h e m t o a
m o r e serious a n d m o r a l w a y of life b y p o i n t i n g t o w a r d s a f u t u r e r e w a r d
(see § 3 3 A , especially sections V I a n d V I I ) . T h i s h t e r a t u r e d i d not of
c o u r s e a l w a y s a i m a t w i n n i n g p a g a n s o v e r to a full a c c e p t a n c e of t h e
L a w a n d to j o i n i n g t h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y . Its p u r p o s e w a s often o n l y
c o n v e r s i o n to the f u n d a m e n t a l v i e w p o i n t s o f J u d a i s m (see f u r t h e r
b e l o w ) . I n o n e w a y o r a n o t h e r , I s r a e l felt itself to b e t h e t e a c h e r of t h e
p e o p l e s o f the w o r l d . I t is c l e a r from J u s t i n ' s Dialogue with Trypho t h a t
I s a . 49:6, redeiKOi ae els (f>a>s edvwv e t c . , w a s u n d e r s t o o d i n this sense.*^
T h e S i b y l says t h a t J e w s 'will be for all m o r t a l s l e a d e r s t o life' ( S i b .
3 : 1 9 5 : navTeaai ^poroiai jSiou KadoSrjyol eaovrai). Paul describes this
p r o u d self-awareness of J u d a i s m i n R o m . 2 : 1 9 - 2 0 : TTeiroidas aeavrov
oSiyyov eivai TV^XWV, <f)a>s T C O V ev oKorei, TTaiSevTTjv d<f>p6vojv, hibdoKoXov
vrjTTicjv, exovra TTJV ij,6p<f>u)aiv rrjs yvcoaews Kal rrjs dXrjdeias ev TCO v6p,(ii.
A n d h o w a c t i v e t h e y w e r e in a c t u a l p r a c t i c e is manifest if o n l y f r o m
H o r a c e ' s m o c k e r y o f t h e J e w i s h eagerness t o m a k e converts.*^
The success of t h e s e efforts was considerable.*^ T h e r e is clear
45. See A. von Harnack, Die Mission und Ausbreitung des Christentums I (*i924), p p .
1 4 - 2 3 ; E . T . The Expansion of Christianity in the First Three Centuries I (1904), pp. 11—18.
46. Justin, Dial. c. Tryph. 121-2.
47. Horace, Sat. i 4, 142-3 = G L A J J I, n o . 127: 'ac veluti te l u d a e i cogemus in b a n c
concedere t u r b a m ' .
48. O n proselytes cf. e.g. J . Bernays, Gesammelte Abhandlungen II (1885), pp. 7 1 - 8 0 ; W .
Bacher, Die Agada der Tannaiten I-II (1884-90); idem. Die Agada der paldstinensischen
Amorder I - I I I (1892-9), index s.v. 'Proselyten'; A. Bertholet, Die Stellung der Israeliten und
der Juden zu den Fremden (1896); Ed. Meyer, Die Entstehung des Judenthums (1896), p p .
227—34; W . Bousset, Die Religion des Judentums (^1906; ^1926); G . F. M o o r e , Judaism I
(1927), p p . 3 2 3 - 5 6 ; B. J . Bamberger, Proselytism in the Talmudic Period (1939) ; W. G.
Braude, Jewish Proselytising in the First Five Centuries of the Common Era (1940); M . Simon,
evidence that in the Hellenistic-Roman period a large number of

gentiles, who attached themselves more or less closely to Jewish
communities, took part in the Jewish divine service and observed
J e w i s h p r e c e p t s s o m e t i m e s m o r e , s o m e t i m e s less c o m p l e t e l y . M a n y of
t h e G r e e k s , b o a s t s J o s e p h u s , ' h a v e a g r e e d to a d o p t o u r l a w s ; s o m e of
whom have remained faithful, while others, lacking the necessary
endurance, have again seceded.'*^ 'The masses', h e says in another
passage, ' h a v e l o n g since s h o w n a k e e n d e s i r e to a d o p t our religious
o b s e r v a n c e s ; a n d t h e r e is n o t o n e c i t y , G r e e k o r b a r b a r i a n , n o r a s i n g l e
nation, t o w h i c h o u r custom of a b s t a i n i n g from w o r k o n the seventh
d a y h a s n o t s p r e a d , a n d w h e r e t h e fasts a n d t h e l i g h t i n g of l a m p s and
m a n y o f o u r p r o h i b i t i o n s in t h e m a t t e r o f f o o d a r e n o t o b s e r v e d . ' ^ " In
Verus Israel (1948, ^1964), p p . 313—53; L . H . F e l d m a n , '"Jewish Sympathisers" in

Classical L i t e r a t u r e and Inscriptions', T A P h A 81 (1950), p p . 2 0 0 - 8 ; K . G. K u h n a n d H .
Stegemann, 'Proselyten', R E Supp. I X (1962), cols. 1 2 4 8 - 8 3 ; A. Paul, 'Proselyte,
proselytisme', D B Supp. V I I I (1972), cols. 1353-6 (excellent bibliography).
49. C. Ap. ii 10 (123) : TToAAot trap' avrwv els TOIIS 'fifitTepovs vofj-ovs crvveâav elaeXdftv,
Kai Tives p-iv €ve/x€tvav, ttai 8' oi TTJV Kaprepiav ovx vnofifivavrfs TTOXIV aTriaTTfaav.
50. C. Ap. ii 3 9 (282) : Kal TrXrjdeai-v TJST] TTOXVS ^TJXOS yeyovev e»c p.aKpov rrjs -qptTepas
evaeêias, ov8' eariv ov TTOXIS 'EXX'qva}v ovB' rjriaovv ov&( fidpâpos, ouSe h> tdvos, evda /xij
TO TTJs e^SofidSos, Tfv dpyovfiev ij/ieij, TO edos StaTrcôiTTj/cev Kat al vriaretai Kat Xvxvo}v
dvaKavaeis Kat TTOXXO. rdtv els ^pdtaiv ^/xtv ov vevofiiafievtov TrapaTeT-qpijTai. Cf. T e r t u l l i a n , Ad
Nat. i 13, 3 - 4 : ' V o s certe esds, q u i etiam in l a t e r c u l u m septem d i e r u m solem recepistis, et
ex diebus ipsorum praelegistis, q u o d i e l a v a c r u m s u b t r a h a t i s a u t in v e s p e r a m differatis,
aut otium et p r a n d i u m curetis. Q u o d q u i d e m facids exorbitantes et ipsi a vestris ad
alienas religiones: l u d a e i enim festi s a b b a t a et c e n a p u r a et l u d a i c i ritus l u c e r n a r u m et
ieiunia c u m azymis et orationes litorales, q u a e u d q u e a h e n a sunt a diis vestris.' Tertullian
is admittedly speaking here only o f gentiles w h o observed isolated Jewish customs.
Josephus also m a y be alluding to t h e observance of Jewish customs outside t h e circle of
Jewish communities. F o r the ' s a b b a t h light', rStPn ^l, cf. mShab. 2:6-7 ; J E V I I , 6 0 0 if.,
s.v. ' L a m p ' . See Seneca, Epist. 95, 4 7 (ed. Reynolds) = G L A J J I, n o . 188: ' Q u o m o d o
sint dii colendi solet praecipi. Accendere a l i q u a m lucernas sabbatis p r o h i b e a m u s ' , etc.
T h e satirist Persius, Sat. v 179—84 = G L A J J I, n o . 190, gives a hostile representation of
t h i s : 'But when t h e d a y of H e r o d comes r o u n d , w h e n the lamps w r e a t h e d with violets and
ranged r o u n d t h e greasy window-sills have spat forth their thick clouds of smoke, w h e n
the floppy tunnies' tails are curled r o u n d t h e dishes of r e d w a r e , and the white j a r s are
swollen o u t with wine, you silently twitch y o u r lips, turning p a l e at t h e s a b b a t h o f the
circumcized.' (Loeb translation, a m e n d e d b y Stern.) A remarkable illustration o f the
spread of the Jewish S a b b a t h a t the beginning of the imperial period is afforded b y an
experience of Tiberius i n Rhodes. H e is reported n o t to have b e e n admitted b y a Greek
grammaticus of t h e n a m e of Diogenes, because t h e latter used only t o d e b a t e o n the
Sabbath (Suetonius, Tib. 32 = G L A J J I I , no. 3 0 5 : 'Diogenes g r a m m a t i c u s , disputare
sabbatis R h o d i solitus, venientem e u m , ut se extra o r d i n e m audiret, n o n admiserat a c per
servolum suum i n septimum diem d i s t u l e r a t ' ) . In t h e vicinity of Elaeusa in western Cilicia
appears a sect oi Sabbatistai w h o venerated TOV Oeov TOV 2â/3/3aTtomjv ( O G I S , no. 573).
Since sabbatizein is the usual w o r d for celebrating t h e S a b b a t h (Exod. 16:30; Lev. 23:32;
26:35; 2 C h r . 36:21; 2 Mac. 6:6), there seems to be Httle d o u b t t h a t the t e r m denotes
those w h o observe the S a b b a t h . Cf generally for the subject o f the spread of S a b b a t h
observance a m o n g non-Jews, e.g. M . F r i e d l a n d e r , Das Judenthum in der vorchristlichen
griechischen Welt (1897), p p . 3 9 - 4 6 ; R . G o l d e n b e r g , ' T h e Jewish S a b b a t h in the R o m a n
A.D. 66, s o J o s e p h u s r e p o r t s , e v e r y c i t y i n S y r i a n o t only c o n t a i n e d a

n u m b e r o f J e w s b u t a g r o u p of ' j u d a i s e r s ' {lovhatt,ovras), w h o could b e
s u s p e c t e d of siding w i t h t h e m , B.J. ii 18, 2 (463). I n A n t i o c h t h e J e w i s h
c o m m u n i t y w e r e a l w a y s a t t r a c t i n g t o t h e i r services a l a r g e c r o w d o f
G r e e k s , ' a n d h a d m a d e these, in a c e r t a i n w a y , p a r t o f t h e i r o w n
c o m m u n i t y ' , v i i 3, 3 ( 4 5 ) . C o m p a r a b l e e v i d e n c e , t h o u g h from a
different p o i n t o f v i e w , is g i v e n b y S e n e c a , ^ ' a n d Cassius Dio.^* I n o r d e r
to e x p l a i n t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n o f t r e a s u r e i n t h e T e m p l e a t J e r u s a l e m ,
J o s e p h u s refers n o t o n l y to t h e g e n e r o u s c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f J e w s
t h r o u g h o u t the world, b u t equally to those of ' G o d - f e a r e r s ' . T h e s e
general observations are supported by various individual items of
e v i d e n c e . I n A n t i o c h a n d S y r i a , a s J o s e p h u s says ( a b o v e ) , l a r g e
n u m b e r s o f gentiles a t t e n d e d J e w i s h services.^* I n Pisidian A n t i o c h P a u l
is r e p o r t e d t o h a v e a d d r e s s e d as follows t h o s e a s s e m b l e d i n t h e
s y n a g o g u e : avSpes 'lapaTjXehai Kat ol (f>oôvp,€voi rov Oeov (Ac. 1 3 : 1 6 ) ,
a n d avSpes dScAôi, viol yevovs A^padp. Kal oi iv vputv (f>oôvp.€voi rov
Oeov (Ac. 13:26). After t h e close o f t h e service t h e r e followed h i m
TToAAoi ratv *Iov8ai(x}v Kal TWV oejSo/nevajv TTpoarjXvTOJV ( A c . 1 3 : 4 3 ; cf. a l s o
13:50). I n T h e s s a l o n i c a P a u l c o n v e r t e d TCOV aeôpivojv 'EXXrfvuiv TTXTJOOS
TToXv ( A c . 17:4). I n A t h e n s P a u l p r e a c h e d i n t h e s y n a g o g u e T O I S
'lovSaiois Kal TOIS aeôp-evois ( A c . 1 7 : 1 7 ) . T h e s e p a s s a g e s s h o u l d , i n
spite of r e c e n t a r g u m e n t s to t h e c o n t r a r y , b e t a k e n as reflecting t h e
historical fact o f t h e existence o f s u b s t a n t i a l b o d i e s o f ' s y m p a t h i s e r s ' o r
' G o d - f e a r e r s ' a t t r a c t e d t o at least s o m e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s a t s o m e
p e r i o d s (see f u r t h e r p . 1 6 5 b e l o w ) . I n R o m e , t o o , J e w i s h p r o p a g a n d a
w a s n o t w i t h o u t success, a s is k n o w n f r o m t h e satires of H o r a c e a n d
J u v e n a l . H e r e a s e l s e w h e r e t h e r e is s o m e i n d i c a t i o n t h a t w o m e n p r o v e d
the m o s t r e s p o n s i v e . I n D a m a s c u s , J o s e p h u s c l a i m s , a l m o s t t h e w h o l e
of t h e female p a r t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n was d e v o t e d to J u d a i s m , ^ ^ a n d i t
World up t o the d m e of Constantine t h e Great', A N R W I I . 19.1 (1979), p p . 414-47.

51. Seneca, ap. Augustine, De civitate Dei vi 11 = G L A J J I, n o . 186: ' C u m interim
usque eo sceleratissimae gentis consuetudo convaluit, ut per omnes iam terras recepta sit,
victi victoribus leges d e d e r u n t . . . Illi tamen causas ritus sui n o v e r u n t ; maior p a r s populi
facit, quod cur faciat ignorat.'
52. Cassius Dio xxxvii 16, 5 - 1 7 , i = G L A J J I I , n o . 4 0 6 : 17 r e ydp xdipa 'lovhaia Kal
avrol lovhaioi 6vofx.d£,aTai. ^ Se i-niKX-qais avrr) (Kfivois fiev OVK OJS' odev -qpâTO yeviadai,
<l)€p€i Se Kat em TOVS aXXovs dvdptLwovs oaoi TO. voftipa avTotv, Kaiirep dXXoeOveis SvTes,
^•qXovai.
53. Ant. xiv 7, 2 (110): TWV Kara rffv oiKovfievy/v 'lovSaiwv Kat aeôpievwv TOV deov.
54. B.J. vii 3, 3 (45) : del T€ Trpoaayd/Lievoi rats OprjOKeiais rroXv nX-qOos 'EXXrjvwv KaKeivovs
rporro) rivl fioipav avrwv rrerroirivTO.
55. Hor. Sat. i 9, 68-72 = G L A J J I , no. 129 (where t h e observer ofjewish S a b b a t h s
describes himself as 'unus m u l t o r u m ' ) ; J u v e n a l , Sat. xiv 96-106 = G L A J J I I , n o . 301 (see
further p. 164 below). F o r female proselytes attested in t h e inscripdons from R o m e see
CIJ I^, nos. 222, 462, 523 (Beturia {sic) PauUna, who took t h e n a m e Sara).
56. B.J. ii 20, 2 (560).
w a s q u i t e often w o m e n of h i g h e r social s t a n d i n g who followed this

t r e n d . B u t individual examples of the conversion of high-ranking m e n
a r e also r e p o r t e d . A p a r t i c u l a r l y n o t a b l e c o n v e r s i o n t o J u d a i s m w a s
t h a t of t h e r o y a l h o u s e o f A d i a b e n e , t o w h i c h J o s e p h u s r e t u r n s a g a i n
a n d a g a i n w i t h o b v i o u s p r i d e , Ant. x x 2 - 4 (17—96); B.J. ii 19, 2 ( 5 2 0 ) ;
iv9> I I (567) ; v 2, 2 ( 5 5 ) ; 3 > 3 ( i i 9 ) ; 4 > 2 ( 1 4 7 ) ; 6, i ( 2 5 2 ) ; v i 6, 3 a n d
4 (355~6).^^ T h e k i n g d o m of A d i a b e n e , o n t h e f r o n t i e r o f t h e Roman
a n d P a r t h i a n e m p i r e s , a n d i n a p o s i t i o n of s o m e d e p e n d e n c e o n the
latter, was ruled in t h e t i m e of C l a u d i u s by a certain Izates who
converted to J u d a i s m a l o n g with his m o t h e r Helena and later also
i n v o l v e d his b r o t h e r M o n o b a z u s t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e r e s t o f his r e l a t i v e s . ^ "
As a result of their conversion this royal family formed various
c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h J e r u s a l e m . I z a t e s h a d five of his s o n s e d u c a t e d t h e r e . ^ '
Helena travelled there o n a pilgrimage and d u r i n g the famine under
C l a u d i u s d i s t r i b u t e d food a m o n g t h e p e o p l e . A c c o r d i n g t o rabbinic
t r a d i t i o n , H e l e n a w a s for f o u r t e e n y e a r s , a c c o r d i n g to o t h e r opinions
even twenty-one years, a Nazirite.^^ Both Helena and Monobazus
57. Ac. 13:50; 17:4; Josephus, Ant. xviii 3 , 5 (81-4). T h e l a t t e r passage relates h o w a
pair of Jewish swindlers had cheated a p r o m i n e n t R o m a n lady n a m e d Fulvia, who had
adopted t h e Jewish faith, of large sums of m o n e y u n d e r t h e pretext of sending them t o the
Temple a t Jerusalem. O n the Empress P o p p a e a see above, p . 78.
58. Ac. 8:26 fT. (the chamberlain o f the Q u e e n C a n d a c e ) , J o s e p h u s , Ant. xx 7, i a n d 3
(139, 145) (Azizus of Emesa a n d Polemon o f Cilicia, the two brothers-in-law of Agrippa
I I ) . Mention m a y be m a d e h e r e of t h e consul Flavius Clemens a n d his wife Domitilla. O n
this see Cassius D i o Ixvii 14, 1—2 = G L A J J I I , no. 435. See Stern, ibid., for the rejection of
the frequently argued view t h a t the pair h a d converted t o Christianity, in contradiction
to Dio's clear statement that the charge w a s 'atheism', e q u a t e d with 'Jewish customs'.
Later Christian sources however allege t h a t his niece Flavia D o m i t i l l a was exiled o n a
charge of Christianity. Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. iii 18, 4 - 5 ; Eusebius, Chron., ed. Schoene, I I ,
p p . 160, 163, ad ann. Abr. 2112 (where the c h r o n o g r a p h e r Bruttius or Bretdus is quoted as
authority, see Miiller, F H G I V , p. 352 ; J e r o m e , Chron., e d . H e l m , p. 152). A t the t i m e of
J e r o m e , 'cellulas in quibus ilia longum m a r t y r i u m d u x e r a t ' w e r e shown on t h e island of
P o n d a (Ep. 108, 7). Cf also I L C h r , n o . 2150 : ' [ . . . in coemeterio?] Domit[illae?]'.
59. For a full recent discussion see A. O p p e n h e i m e r , Babylonia Judaica, p p . 14-17. Cf
also J . Teixidor, ' T h e K i n g d o m of A d i a b e n e and H a t r a ' , Berytus 17 (1967), p p . i - i i .
60. Josephus, Ant. xx 2-4 (17-96). Izates is mentioned as king of Adiabene in the time
of Claudius also by Tacitus, Ann. xii 13, 14; Monobazus i n the t i m e of Nero, T a c i t u s , Ann
XV I , 14; Cassius Dio Ixii 2 0 ; 23; Ixiii i . For b o t h , especially Izates, cf also A. von
Gutschmid, Kl. Schr. I l l , pp. 4 5 , 73 ff., 80 ff., 88 ff., 90 ff., 186; s e e P I R ^ I 891 ; M 679.
61. Ant. XX 3, 4 (71).
62. Ant. XX 2, 5 (49-53).
63. mNaz. 3 . 6 : 'If a m a n vowed t o be a Nazirite for a longer spell a n d he fulfilled his
Nazirite-vow a n d afterward c a m e to t h e L a n d [of Israel], the School of S h a m m a i say : He
need continue a Nazirite [only for] thirty d a y s [more]. A n d t h e School of Hillel s a y : He
must again fulfil his v o w as from the beginning. I t once h a p p e n e d t h a t the son of Q u e e n
Helena went to w a r a n d she said, " I f my son returns in safety from t h e w a r I will be a
Nazirite for seven years", and her son returned from the war, a n d she was a Nazirite for
seven years. At t h e end of t h e seven years she c a m e up t o the L a n d [of Israel], a n d the
School of Hillel taught her t h a t she m u s t be a Nazirite for yet a n o t h e r seven y e a r s ; a n d at
( w h o s u c c e e d e d his b r o t h e r as r u l e r ) possessed p a l a c e s in J e r u s a l e m . ^ *
B o t h d o n a t e d v a l u a b l e gifts to t h e T e m p l e a t J e r u s a l e m . ^ ^ W h e n I z a t e s
a n d his m o t h e r h a d d i e d , M o n o b a z u s h a d t h e m b u r i e d i n a s p l e n d i d
tomb in J e r u s a l e m built by Helena herself^^ In the J e w i s h War,
relations of M o n o b a z u s fought on the side of the J e w s against the
Romans.^'
T h e possible f o r m s of t h e u n i o n of g e n t i l e s to J u d a i s m , a n d t h e e x t e n t
of t h e i r observation of t h e J e w i s h Law, were clearly very varied.
T e r t u l l i a n s p e a k s of g e n t i l e s w h o w o r s h i p p e d t h e i r p a g a n g o d s a s w e l l
as o b s e r v i n g i n d i v i d u a l J e w i s h precepts (see p . 1 6 1 a b o v e ) . O n the
o t h e r h a n d , those w h o u n d e r w e n t circumcision p r e s u m a b l y u n d e r t o o k
t h e r e b y t h e o b l i g a t i o n t o o b s e r v e t h e e n t i r e L a w t o its full e x t e n t (cf
G a l . 5:3 : fxaprvpofiai navTi dvSpcima) mpiTepiVopiivtp on 6<f>€iXiT'qs iariv
oXov TOV v6p,ov TToirjaai). Between these two extremes there were
p r e s u m a b l y v a r i o u s i n t e r m e d i a t e p o s i t i o n s . M u c h h g h t is shed o n t h i s
q u e s t i o n b y t h e f o u r t e e n t h s a t i r e of J u v e n a l , i n w h i c h h e p u r s u e s t h e
t h o u g h t o f t h e h a r m f u l effect o f t h e b a d e x a m p l e of p a r e n t s u p o n t h e i r
c h i l d r e n . T h e p o o r m o r a l s of t h e f o r m e r are inherited b y the latter,
the e n d of this seven years she contracted uncleanness. T h u s she continued a Nazirite for
twenty-one years. R. J u d a h s a i d : She needed to remain a Nazirite for fourteen years
only.'
64. B.J. V 6, I ( 2 5 2 - 3 ) ; vi 6, 3 (355). A relative o f Izates by t h e n a m e of G r a p t e also
had a palace in Jerusalem, B.J. i v 9, 11 (567).
65. mYom. 3:10: 'King M o n o b a z m a d e of gold all t h e handles for the vessels used on t h e
Day of Atonement. His m o t h e r Helena set a golden candlestick over t h e d o o r of t h e
Sanctuary. She also m a d e a golden tablet o n which was written the p a r a g r a p h of t h e
Suspected Adulteress.'
66. Ant. XX 4, 3 (95); B.J. v 2 , 2 ( 5 5 ) ; 3, 3 (119); 4, 2 (147). T h e m o n u m e n t consisted
of three pyramids. Ant. x x 4, 3 (95). Eusebius, who knew t h e m o n u m e n t as it originally
was, speaks oi stelai to be seen i n the suburbs {Hist. Eccl. ii 12, 3). It was so famous t h a t
Pausanias, Descr. Graeciae viii 16, 3, compares it with the m o n u m e n t of Mausolus. F r o m
the passages of B.J. it emerges t h a t the monument l a y to t h e north of the city, according
to Ant. XX 4 , 3 (95), three stades distant from t h e city. According t o J e r o m e , Ep. 108, 6, it
lay, if approached from t h e north, to the left (i.e. eastwards) of the r o a d : ' a d laevam
mausoleo Helenae dereUcto . . . ingressa est Hierosolymam'. From all this it seems very
probable t h a t it is identical with the ' T o m b s of t h e Kings', the most extensive ancient
tombs in t h e vicinity of Jerusalem. See L. H . Vincent a n d A. M . Steve, Jerusalem de
I'Ancien Testament I (1954), pp. 346-62. A strong a r g u m e n t for identifying the ' T o m b s of
the Kings' with t h e m o n u m e n t of Helena is afforded by a two-line inscription in t h e
sarcophagus found there by d e Saulcy, the first of which r e a d s : KUDVO ]^2I (Queen
Z a d d a n ) a n d the second iIDDVO m S (Queen Z a d d a ) . T h e language of both lines is
Aramaic, b u t in t h e first instance the script is one related t o Syriac (Estrangelo), and in
the second, H e b r e w square script. This may perhaps b e explained o n the assumption t h a t
the (in any case Jewish) Q u e e n ' Z a d d a n ' or ' Z a d d a ' belonged to a Syrian royal house,
which (so far as is known) can only be that of Adiabene. F o r the texts see D. Chwolson,
C I H (1882), cols. 72 ff. a n d facsimile n o . 8; C I S I I , A r a m a i c part i, no. 156. See further
J. Pirenne, 'Aux origines de l a graphic syriaque', Syria 40 (1963), p p . 106—37, w h o
suggests t h a t ' Q u e e n Z a d d a n - Z a d d a ' m a y belong to a later period (pp. 102-9).
67. 5 . J . i i 19,2 (520); vi 6, 4 (357).
usually in h e i g h t e n e d m e a s u r e . A s a n e x a m p l e h e m e n t i o n s in the
s p h e r e o f s u p e r s t i t i o n t h e l e a n i n g t o w a r d s J u d a i s m . If t h e f a t h e r is idle
o n e v e r y s e v e n t h d a y a n d r e g a r d s t h e flesh o f pigs as b e i n g a s p r e c i o u s
as t h a t o f h u m a n b e i n g s , the s o n n o t o n l y d o e s the s a m e b u t a l s o allows
himself to b e c i r c u m c i s e d , d e s p i s e s R o m a n l a w s , a n d studies a n d
s c r u p u l o u s l y o b s e r v e s t h e J e w i s h L a w h a n d e d d o w n by M o s e s ; n a m e l y
t h a t o n e s h o u l d s h o w t h e w a y o n l y t o fellow-believers a n d l e a d only the
c i r c u m c i s e d t o t h e well for w h i c h t h e y seek. T h i s suggests t h a t t h e r e
w e r e different s t a n d a r d s of o b s e r v a n c e o f the J e w i s h L a w . B o o k 4 of the
S i b y l h n e O r a c l e s , w h i c h w a s c o m p o s e d a b o u t A.D. 8 0 a n d is m o s t
p r o b a b l y o f j e w i s h o r i g i n , sets in t h e forefront of its p r e a c h i n g t o p a g a n s
o n l y w o r s h i p of t h e t r u e G o d a n d belief in a f u t u r e j u d g e m e n t , a n d
d e m a n d s of g e n t i l e c o n v e r t s , it s e e m s , n o t c i r c u m c i s i o n b u t o n l y a
p u r i f i c a t o r y b a t h . ^ ^ T h e s t o r y of t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f K i n g I z a t e s is also
v e r y i n f o r m a t i v e . H e w a s filled w i t h zeal for t h e J e w i s h L a w a n d
wished t o be c i r c u m c i s e d ; b u t it w a s a J e w n a m e d A n a n i a s w h o advised
h i m in t h e s t r o n g e s t t e r m s a g a i n s t it. T h e J e w f e a r e d t h a t h e w o u l d be
in d a n g e r if t h e s t o r y w e n t r o u n d t h a t h e h a d i n f l u e n c e d the k i n g
t o w a r d s c i r c u m c i s i o n . H e t h e r e f o r e p o i n t e d o u t t o t h e k i n g t h a t he
c o u l d w o r s h i p G o d ( T O deiov acjSetv) e v e n w i t h o u t c i r c u m c i s i o n ,
p r o v i d e d t h a t h e o b s e r v e d t h e J e w i s h l a w s i n g e n e r a l ; this w a s m o r e
i m p o r t a n t t h a n c i r c u m c i s i o n . G o d w o u l d p a r d o n h i m if h e o m i t t e d this
o u t of n e r v o u s n e s s before his s u b j e c t s . I z a t e s , it is t r u e , h a d himself
c i r c u m c i s e d all t h e s a m e ; a n d t h e views of t h e m e r c h a n t A n a n i a s d o
not represent Jewish orthodoxy.
N o n e the less t h e r e is a s i g n i f i c a n t v o l u m e o f e v i d e n c e to suggest t h a t
a b o d y of ' G o d - f e a r i n g ' p a g a n s w a s a t t a c h e d to m a n y J e w i s h
c o m m u n i t i e s in t h e d i a s p o r a , a n d t h e r e b y a d o p t e d t h e J e w i s h (i.e.
m o n o t h e i s t i c a n d imageless) f o r m of w o r s h i p . T h e y a t t e n d e d J e w i s h
s y n a g o g u e s , b u t a s r e g a r d s t h e o b s e r v a n c e of t h e L a w restricted
t h e m s e l v e s t o c e r t a i n a s p e c t s , a n d so w e r e n o t c o u n t e d a s b e l o n g i n g to
t h e m a i n b o d y o f e a c h J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y . O n t h i s v i e w , i t is
68. J u v e n a l , Sat. xiv 9 6 - 1 0 6 = G L A J J I I , no. 301 (with a very valuable c o m m e n t a r y ) :

' Q u i d a m sortiti metuentem s a b b a t a p a t r e m / Nil p r a e t e r nubes et coeli n u m e n adorant, /
N e c distare p u t a n t h u m a n a c a m e suillam, / Q u a p a t e r abstinuit, mox e t praeputia
p o n u n t : / R o m a n a s a u t e m soHti c o n t e m n e r e leges, / l u d a i c u m ediscunt et servant ac
metuunt ius, / T r a d i d i t a r c a n o q u o d c u m q u e volumine M o s e s : / N o n monstrare vias
eadem nisi sacra colenti, / Q u a e s i t u m ad fontem solos d e d u c e r e verpos. / Sed p a t e r in
causa, cui septima q u a e q u e fuit l u x / I g n a v a e t p a r t e m vitae n o n attigit uUam.' E.
Courtney, ad loc, wrongly assumes t h a t F e l d m a n ' s view t h a t metuentes is not t o be taken as
referring to gentile 'sympathisers' c a n be accepted w i t h o u t question (see further below).
69. Sib. 4:162 ff. O n the Jewish origin of this work see R . Charles, Apocrypha and
Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament II (1913), pp. 368-406 ; O. Eissfeldt, The Old Testament,
An Introduction (1965), p p . 615-17 ; p p . 641—3 below.
70. Josephus, Ant. xx 2, 5 (49-53).
G o d - f e a r i n g p a g a n s o f this kind w h o a r e r e f e r r e d to b y t h e expressions

<f)oôvfievoi TOV deov o r oeP6p,evoi TOV deov s o m e t i m e s used i n J o s e p h u s ,
a n d m o r e often in t h e A c t s of t h e A p o s t l e s . ^ ' T h e q u e s t i o n of w h e t h e r
these expressions, a n d t h e p a r a l l e l o n e deoaeêts f o u n d on i n s c r i p t i o n s
(see b e l o w ) , c a n in fact be t a k e n as t e c h n i c a l or s e m i - t e c h n i c a l t e r m s for
g e n t i l e ' G o d - f e a r e r s ' w h o w e r e not full p r o s e l y t e s , h a s l o n g b e e n t h e
s u b j e c t of d e b a t e , a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y since t h e p u b l i c a t i o n i n 1950 of a n
a r d c l e by L. H . F e l d m a n . ' ' ^ It h a s b e e n d e n i e d t h a t these t e r m s refer
specifically to s u c h a n i n t e r m e d i a t e g r o u p , a n d p o i n t e d o u t (correctly)
t h a t t h e y c a n b e a p p l i e d also to o b s e r v i n g J e w s . Since the p r o b l e m is o f
f u n d a m e n t a l i m p o r t a n c e for J e w i s h - p a g a n r e l a t i o n s t h e r e l e v a n t
e v i d e n c e m u s t b e set o u t . Firstly, t h a t w h i c h explicitly c o n t r a s t s J e w s
w i t h ' G o d - f e a r e r s ' a t t a c h e d in s o m e w a y t o a J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y is a s
follows. ( I ) T h e p a s s a g e s of Acts a n d J o s e p h u s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e ( p . 1 6 2 ) .
(2) A n i n s c r i p t i o n from P a n t i c a p e u m ( p . 3 7 a b o v e ) r e c o r d i n g a
m a n u m i s s i o n ' u n d e r t h e g u a r d i a n s h i p of t h e s y n a g o g u e of t h e J e w s a n d
the " G o d - f e a r e r s ' " {aweTTiTpoTTevovarjs TTJS avvayojyrjs TOJV 'lovSaicov Kal
deov aepcov). (3) T h e m a j o r n e w i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m A p h r o d i s i a s , of t h e
s e c o n d or t h i r d c e n t u r i e s A . D . ( p p . 2 5 - 6 a b o v e ) . I n this i n s c r i p t i o n , o n face
a. t h e r e a p p e a r s a list of s u b s c r i b e r s t o a J e w i s h i n s t i t u t i o n . A m o n g t h e
n a m e s t h r e e a r e d e s c r i b e d a s p r o s e l y t e s — • r T p o c r q \ ( V T O S ) , TTpoar}Xv(ros) or
iTpoaTJ[X(vTos)]—and t w o as ' G o d - f e a r e r s ' — d e o a e ^ ( i j s ) . M o r e i m p o r t
a n t , t h e r e follows o n face b., first w h a t s e e m s clearly to b e a list o f
m e m b e r s of the J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y , s o m e fifty-four persons, i n c l u d i n g a
l a r g e n u m b e r w i t h H e b r e w n a m e s a n d / o r p a t r o n y m i c s , as w e l l as s e v e r a l
c a l l e d ' E u s a b b a t h i o s ' . T h e r e is t h e n a b r e a k of one line, a n d a list o f
' G o d - f e a r e r s ' {Kal oaoi deooe^ts, sic). T h e first nine a r e d e s c r i b e d a s
' t o w n - c o u n c i l l o r ' — b o u l e u t e s — a n d t h e t o t a l of n a m e s is fifty. T h e r e a r e
n o H e b r e w n a m e s , b u t o n e p e r s o n is c a l l e d ' E u s a b b a t h i o s ' . I t w o u l d b e
difficult t o i m a g i n e c l e a r e r e v i d e n c e t h a t theosebeis c o u l d be c a t e g o r i z e d
as a f o r m a l g r o u p a t t a c h e d to a J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y , a n d d i s t i n g u i s h e d
b o t h from J e w s a n d f r o m full p r o s e l y t e s .
71. ôj3ouju.€voi TOV dfov i Ac. io:2, 22 ; 13:16, 26. Seôfjifvoi rov Seov: Josephus, Ant. xiv
7, 2 (i 10); A c . 13:43, 50; 16:14; 17:4; 17:17; 18:7. T h e formulae vary h e r e between the
fuller atpofievoi TOV deov (Josephus, Ant. xiv 7, 2 ( n o ) : Ac. 16:14; 18:7) and t h e plain
oejSdfAtvot (Ac. 13:50; 17:4; 17:17). O n c e the combination occurs aeôpevoi TrpoarfXvroi
(Ac. 13:43).
72. L. H. Feldman, '"Jewish Sympathisers" in Classical Literature and Inscriptions',
T A P h A 81 (1950), p p . 2 0 0 - 8 ; see especially also H. Bellen, ^Zwayvoyi] rdtv TovSaiatv Kal
Beoae^wv. D i e Aussage einer bosporanischen Freilassungsinschrift ( C I R B 71) z u m
Problem der "Gottesflirchtigen"', J A C 8-9 (1965-6), p p . 171-6; B. Lifshitz, 'De n o u v e a u
sur les "sympathisants"', J S J i (1970), pp. 7 7 - 8 4 ; F. Siegert, 'Gottesfiirchtige u n d
Sympathisanten', J S J 4 (1973), pp. 1 0 9 - 6 4 ; H. H o m m e l , 'Juden und Christen i m
kaiserzeitlichen Milet. Uberlegungen z u r Theaterinschrift', 1st. Mitt. 2 5 (1975), p p .
167-95; Stern, GLAJJ I I (1980), p p . 103-6; A. T . Kraabel, ' T h e Disappearance of
the "God-Fearers'", N u m e n 28 (1981), p p . 113—26.
I t d o e s n o t of c o u r s e follow t h a t the r e l e v a n t t e r m s w e r e a l w a y s so
u s e d . (4) T w o i n s c r i p t i o n s f r o m t h e m o s a i c floor o f t h e s y n a g o g u e a t
S a r d i s ( p . 21 a b o v e ) n a m e p e r s o n s , c a l l e d Avp(T]Xios) EvXoyios a n d
Avp(i^Xi,os) noXviTTTTOs, w h o h a d fulfilled v o w s , a n d w h o a r e e a c h
d e s c r i b e d as deoae^-qs. T h e first n a m e in p a r d c u l a r c o u l d well b e t h a t of
a J e w ; b u t in fact i n n e i t h e r c a s e is t h e r e a n y p r o o f e i t h e r w a y . T h e r e is
n o r e a s o n w h y a J e w , n a m e d i n d i v i d u a l l y , c o u l d n o t b e d e s c r i b e d as
' G o d - f e a r i n g ' ; but equally t h e t e r m could i n d i c a t e t h a t both persons
b e l o n g e d to a c a t e g o r y o f g e n t i l e ' G o d - f e a r e r s ' a t t a c h e d to t h e S a r d i s
s y n a g o g u e . (5) N o c o n c l u s i o n s c a n be d r a w n f r o m t h e f r a g m e n t a r y
i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m t h e c a t a c o m b of t h e v i g n a R a n d a n i n i i n R o m e ( p . 80
a b o v e ) : [...] YAEA UPOEH [...-. ..] EOHEBIl..] ( C I J I ' , n o . 202),
or from t h a t o n a m a r b l e s l a b o f u n k n o w n o r i g i n n o w i n R o m e
d e s c r i b i n g o n e A g r i p p a s f r o m P h a e n a a s theosebes {ibid., no. 500), or
from t h e e p i t a p h o f ' E p a r c h i a t h e o s e b e s ' from t h e V i a A p p i a , C I J I'^,
n o . 228. (6) A n i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m D e l i l e r n e a r P h i l a d e l p h i a in L y d i a (p.
22 a b o v e ) s h o w s a w a t e r b a s i n b e i n g d e d i c a t e d 'to t h e s a c r e d synagoge of
t h e Hebraioi' b y a m a n c a l l e d EvoTadios 6 deooe^r^g ( C I J I I , n o . 7 5 4 ) .
T h e r e is a g a i n n o c l e a r i n d i c a t i o n a s to w h e t h e r h e is J e w i s h or n o t ; b u t
in t h e l i g h t of n u m b e r s 2 a n d 3 a b o v e a n d the p o s s i b l e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n
himself a n d t h e Hebraioi h e r e , i t m u s t be s l i g h t l y m o r e p r o b a b l e t h a t he
is t o be s e e n a s a g e n t i l e ' G o d - f e a r e r ' . (7) T h e s a m e p r o b l e m s a r i s e o v e r
the inscription from Tralles (p. 24 above) in w h i c h a lady n a m e d
C a p i t o l i n a , d e s c r i b e d a s aî.6Xoy(os?) Kal d€oa€^(TJS), records her
c o n s t r u c t i o n o f p a r t s of a b u i l d i n g w h i c h m a y w e l l b e a s y n a g o g u e .
(8) T h e m o s t c o m p l e x issues a r e h o w e v e r p r e s e n t e d b y t h e w e l l k n o w n
i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m t h e t h e a t r e a t M i l e t u s . R o u g h l y c a r v e d on o n e of t h e
r o w s of seats, p r o b a b l y i n t h e l a t e r s e c o n d o r e a r l y t h i r d c e n t u r y , t h e
i n s c r i p d o n r e a d s TOUOZ EIOYAEQN TQN KAI 0EOZEBION. The
e x p e c t e d f o r m of t h e last w o r d w o u l d n a t u r a l l y be Oeoaepcov, b u t in t h e
l i g h t of t h e p a r a l l e l s p r e v i o u s l y g i v e n its m e a n i n g i s c l e a r . B u t a r e t h e
p e r s o n s t o w h o m seats a r e a l l o t t e d o n e g r o u p ( a n d if so, w h i c h ? ) or
t w o ? I n v i e w of t h e i n f o r m a l c h a r a c t e r of t h e i n s c r i p t i o n it is n o t
impossible t h a t t h e third a n d fourth words h a v e been reversed. T h e
m e a n i n g w o u l d t h e n b e q u i t e c l e a r : ' s e a t s of t h e J e w s a n d " G o d -
f e a r e r s ' " ( c o m p a r e the i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m P a n t i c a p a e u m a b o v e ) . B u t
clearly s u c h a c o r r e c t i o n is t o b e a v o i d e d if p o s s i b l e . A s it s t a n d s , t h e
i n s c r i p t i o n refers t o ' J e w s , t h o s e a l s o (called) " G o d - f e a r e r s ' " . I t h a s t h u s
often b e e n t a k e n t o be a n a l l u s i o n to t h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y itself, as
e s t a b l i s h e d i n M i l e t u s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d a specific r e f e r e n c e to t h e
p i e t y of a J e w i s h g r o u p s e e m s b o t h s u p e r f l u o u s in g e n e r a l a n d all t h e
73. Published b y A. Deissmann, Licht vom Osten (1906; ^1923), pp. 391 ff. (E.T., Light
from the Ancient East (1910), pp. 446 ff.; SEG I V , n o . 4 4 1 ; C I J I I , no. 748). See especially
H. H o m m e l , art. cit. (n. 72 above), with PI. 33.1.
168 §31. Judaism in the Diaspora
m o r e p u z z l i n g in t h i s p u r e l y p a g a n c o n t e x t . H . H o m m e l h a s s u g g e s t e d ,
a l t e r n a t i v e l y , t h a t t h e a l l u s i o n is specifically a n d o n l y to g e n t i l e
' G o d - f e a r e r s ' . O n t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h e y will h a v e b e e n k n o w n i n
M i l e t u s a s ' J e w s ' (7ot»8arot—for this u s a g e see C a s s i u s Dio, q u o t e d in n .
52 a b o v e ) , b u t in t h e c o n t e x t of the t h e a t r e s e a t i n g will h a v e b e e n g i v e n
also a m o r e p r e c i s e d e s i g n a t i o n . T h e i n s c r i p t i o n w o u l d , o n t h i s
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , h a v e the m e a n i n g ' p l a c e of t h e " J e w s " w h o a r e also
( m o r e precisely called) " G o d - f e a r e r s ' " . I f this i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is c o r r e c t ,
it m u s t follow t h a t i n M i l e t u s g e n t i l e ' G o d - f e a r e r s ' c o n t i n u e d t o a t t e n d
the t h e a t r e a n d w e r e a significant a n d p u b f i c l y - r e c o g n i z e d g r o u p . I t
m a y be r e l e v a n t to recall the n i n e t o w n - c o u n c i l l o r s listed first a m o n g
the theosebeis of A p h r o d i s i a s .
I t will b e e v i d e n t t h a t n o w h o l l y s e c u r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the t h e a t r e
i n s c r i p t i o n c a n be offered. N o n e t h e less, in spite o f the v a r i a t i o n s i n
t e r m i n o l o g y b e t w e e n A c t s a n d J o s e p h u s , u s i n g phoboumenoi or sebomenoi,
a n d G r e e k i n s c r i p t i o n s , w h i c h use theosebeis or theon sebeis, it is c l e a r l y
p r e m a t u r e to p r o c l a i m t h e ' d i s a p p e a r a n c e ' of t h e ' G o d - f e a r e r s ' (so A .
T . K r a a b e l ) . O n t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e e v i d e n c e of A c t s a n d J o s e p h u s a n d of
the i n s c r i p t i o n s of A p h r o d i s i a s a n d P a n t i c a p e u m s h o w s t h a t t h e s e
expressions in G r e e k c o u l d be u s e d t o refer to a c a t e g o r y of gentiles w h o
w e r e in s o m e d e f i n i t e w a y a t t a c h e d t o J e w i s h s y n a g o g u e s .
I f this is correct, i t m a y n o t be u n r e a s o n a b l e to c o n n e c t t h e use of
phoboumenoi or sebomenoi i n G r e e k l i t e r a r y s o u r c e s w i t h t h e t e r m metuens
f o u n d for i n s t a n c e i n J u v e n a l , as q u o t e d a b o v e ( ' s a b b a t a m e t u e n t e m
p a t r e m ' ) , a n d i n a s c a t t e r of L a t i n inscriptions.^* A n u m b e r of p o e m s i n
the ( p r o b a b l y ) t h i r d - c e n t u r y Instructiones o f C o m m o d i a n a r e a d d r e s s e d
to j u d a i s e r s , in o n e title (i, 25) called ' Q u i t i m e n t et n o n c r e d e n t ' . ' ^ T h e
b r i e f p h r a s e s o n the i n s c r i p t i o n s h o w e v e r d o n o t in m o s t cases a l l o w a n y
c e r t a i n t y as to w h e t h e r t h e persons n a m e d w e r e 'fearers' o f t h e J e w i s h
G o d , a n d n o n e o f t h e L a t i n e v i d e n c e reveals a n y collective o r
o r g a n i s a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p to a J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y .
74. For this association see J . Bernays, 'Die Gottesflirchtigen bei J u v e n a l ' , Ges.
Abhandlungen II (1885), p p . 7 1 - 8 0 ; see the inscription CIL V . i , no. 88 = CIJ I^, no. 642
( P o l a ) : 'Aur. Soteriae m a t r i pientissimae religioni(s) iudeicae metuenti.' Relevant also
are C I L V I , no. 31839 = CIJ l'^, no. 5: 'Aemilio Va[l]enti eq. R o m a n o m e t u [ e ] n t i ' ,
fifteen years old (found n e a r R o m e ) ; C I L V I , no. 29759 ~ C I J I*, n o . 285: 'Larciae
Q u a d r a d [ l l a e natione] R o m a n a e m e t u e [ n d ] ' ; ibid., 29760 = C I J l'^, no. 5 2 4 : 'Dis
M a n i b . Maianiae Homeridi d a e (deum?) m a e t u e n t i ' ; ibid., 29763 = C I J I^, no. 5 2 9 :
'[De?]um metuens' (the last three in R o m e ) ; C I L V I I I , no. 4321 a n d Addenda, p . 956, see
Y. L e Bohec, Antiquites Africaines 17 (1981), p. 191, no. 72: '[fideljis metu[ens]' (in
Numidia). The formulae in J u v e n a l , to which Bernays refers in the same context
('metuentem sabbata . . . l u d a i c u m metuunt ius'), are however quite different. A stronger
expression than metuens is iuste legem colens, which is said of a certain lul. Irene Arista on a
R o m a n inscription, CIL V I , no. 29758 = CIJ I^, no. 72.
75. Commodian, Inst, i 24—5; 37. See K. T h r a e d e , 'Beitrage zur D a t i e r u n g
Commodians', J A C 2 (1959), p p . 90-114.
B y c o n t r a s t , a n o r g a n i s a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e is r e v e a l e d b y the e v i d e n c e
for cult a s s o c i a t i o n s w o r s h i p p i n g t h e ' H i g h e s t G o d ' , such as t h a t
attested i n the imperial period a t T a n a i s . T h e parallelism in v o c a b u l a r y
is s t r i k i n g : n e w l y a d m i t t e d c o n v e r t s a r e c a l l e d elaiTOLTjTol dSeAôi
CTej8o/Li€voi deov viftiaTov (see C I R B , nos. 1278—87). H o w e v e r , as i n a
g r o w i n g n u m b e r of cases of t h e w o r s h i p of t h e ' H i g h e s t G o d ' a t t e s t e d
t h r o u g h o u t t h e G r e e k w o r l d , w e c a n n o t tell h e r e w h a t d e g r e e o f J e w i s h
influence, if a n y , is involved.''^
A t a n y r a t e the e v i d e n c e f r o m b o t h t h e G r e e k - s p e a k i n g a n d ( t o a
lesser e x t e n t ) t h e L a t i n - s p e a k i n g p a r t s o f the a n c i e n t w o r l d is, t h o u g h
s c a t t e r e d , sufficient to d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t t h e r e w e r e gentiles w h o
j u d a i s e d w i t h o u t b e c o m i n g c o n v e r t s , a n d t h a t in a t least s o m e p l a c e s
these 'God-fearers' formed a defined g r o u p . I t w a s p r e s u m a b l y from
a m o n g t h e s e t h a t t h e r e c a m e t h e ' G r e e k s w h o g o u p to w o r s h i p (in t h e
T e m p l e ) a t t h e t i m e of t h e festival ( P a s s o v e r ) ' , m e n t i o n e d i n J o h n ' s
Gospel (12:20).
I f it is a s k e d w h i c h i t e m s of t h e c e r e m o n i a l l a w w e r e p r o b a b l y
o b s e r v e d by t h e s e p a g a n s , s o m e i n d i c a t i o n is g i v e n b y the p a s s a g e s
a l r e a d y c i t e d from J o s e p h u s , J u v e n a l a n d T e r t u l l i a n (see n n . 50 a n d
6 8 ) . All t h r e e a g r e e t h a t i n t h e first p l a c e c a m e t h e S a b b a t h
c o m m a n d m e n t a n d the d i e t a r y l a w s . P r e c i s e l y t h e s e t w o i t e m s a r e
e m p h a s i z e d b y J u v e n a l in t h e c a s e o f t h e f a t h e r of a m a n w h o
s u b s e q u e n t l y b e c o m e s a full J e w b y c i r c u m c i s i o n ( ' m e t u e n t e m s a b b a t a
p a t r e m . . . c a r n e s u i l l a m , q u a p a t e r a b s t i n u i t ' ) . B e y o n d these, it will
h a v e b e e n a m a t t e r of p e r s o n a l c h o i c e as t o h o w m u c h of the L a w w a s
observed.
A s J u v e n a l i m p l i e s , a c l e a r d i s t i n c t i o n s h o u l d be m a d e b e t w e e n t h e s e
p e r s o n s {phoboumenoi, sebomenoi, theosebeis, o r metuentes) a n d full p r o s e l y t e s
w h o u n d e r w e n t circumcision. T h e idea, w h i c h h a s b e e n canvassed,
t h a t a f o r m o f p r o s e l y t i s m e x i s t e d in w h i c h c i r c u m c i s i o n w a s n o t
r e q u i r e d , s h o u l d a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y b e rejected.''^
I n t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t , it is t r u e , in t h e H e b r e w n o less t h a n in t h e
G r e e k Bible, •''11 o r Trpoa-qXvToi, a r e p e r s o n s o f a s t a t u s c o m p a r a b l e to
t h a t of m e t i c s i n A t h e n s , t h a t is, a l i e n s w h o live c o n t i n u o u s l y in t h e l a n d
of I s r a e l w i t h o u t h o w e v e r b e l o n g i n g to t h e c o m m u n i t y of I s r a e l . B u t
76. See especially E . Schiirer, ' D i e J u d e n i m bosporanischen Reiche und die

Genossenschaften der aeôfievoi Oeov vi/iiarov ebendaselbst', SAB (1897), p p . 200-25.
Related to them a r e the Hypsistarioi, Hypsistianoi and Theosebeis m e n t i o n e d by t h e Church
Fathers (SAB, p p . 221-4). For a n important discussion of Zcus/Theos Hypsistos see A. D.
Nock, C. Roberts and T . C. Skeat, ' T h e Guild of Zeus Hypsistos', H T R 29 (1936), p p .
39-88 = (with omissions) A. D . Nock, Essays on Religion and the Ancient World, ed. Z.
Stewart, I (1972), p p . 414-43.
77. For this argument N . J . McEleney, 'Conversion, Circumcision a n d the L a w ' , N T S
20 ( 1 9 7 3 - 4 ) , PP' 3 i 9 ~ 4 i 5 an<l t h e reply by J . NoUand, 'Uncircumcised Proselytes?', J S J 12
(1981), pp. 173-94-
I yo § 3 1 . Judaism in the Diaspora
l a t e r usage consistently employs b o t h expressions, w i t h o u t further

a d d i t i o n , to d e n o t e s u c h p a g a n s as b y c i r c u m c i s i o n a n d o b s e r v a t i o n of
t h e T o r a h h a v e e n t e r e d fully i n t o t h e r e l i g i o u s c o m m u n i t y of I s r a e l . ' ^
78. For the history of the concept cf A. Geiger, Urschrift und Uebersetzungen der Bibel
(1857), p p . 349 ff.; A. Bertholet, Die Stellung der Israeliten und der Juden zu den Fremden
(1896) ; J . Juster, Les Juifs dans I'empire romain I (1914), pp. 2 5 3 - 9 0 ; G. F . Moore, Judaism
I (1927), p p . 3 2 3 - 5 3 ; W . G. Braude, Jewish Proselytising in the First Five Centuries (1940) ; S.
Zeitlin, 'Proselytes and Proselytism d u r i n g the Second C o m m o n w e a l t h and the Early
T a n n a i d c Period', H. A. Wolfson Jubilee Volume (1965), p p . 8 7 1 - 8 1 ; B . J . Bamberger,
Proselytism in the Talmudic Period (^1968); K . - G . K u h n , 'NPOA^Xvro?', T D N T V I (1968),
pp. 7 2 7 - 4 4 ; J . Jeremias, Jerusalem in the Time of Jesus (1969), pp. 3 2 0 - 3 4 ; E. E. U r b a c h ,
The Sages I (1975), pp. 5 4 1 - 5 4 ; M . Stern, J P F C II (1976), pp. 6 2 2 - 4 ; J . Rosenbloom,
Conversion to Judaism from the Biblical Period to the Present (1978). In the Mishnah, "W occurs
in t h e sense suggested i n the following passages: mDem. 6:10; mShebi. 10:9; mHal. 3:6;
mBik. 1:4-5; ^Pes. 8:8; mShek. 1:3, 6 ; 7:6; mKet. 9:9; mKid. 4:1, 6, 7; mB.K. 4:7; 9:11;
mB.M. 4:10; mB.B. 3:3; 4:9; mEduy. 5:2; mHor. 1:4; 3:8; mHul. 10:4; mKer. 2 : 1 ; mNid.
7:3 ; mZab. 2:1, 3 ; mYad. 4:4. T h e feminine form is n V ) , mYeb. 6:5; 8:2 ; 11:2; mKet. i :2,
4; 3:1, 2 ; 4:3; mKid. 4:7; mB.K. 5:4; mEduy. 5:6; n T J also occurs on a n
ossuary-inscription from Jerusalem, C I J I I , no. 1390; c o m p a r e no. 1385: 'lovharos
Aayavloivos npocnjXvrov. At Q u m r a n , the term 1 1 appears in CD 14:4, where t h e
community is described as consisting of priests, Levites, Israelites and proselytes. T h e
latter are probably converted slaves who have entered Abraham's covenant {IVH
D m a K r ' ' 1 3 3 lOS? , CD 12:10-11). T h e meaning 'converted foreigner' is so well
established for 1 1 that a verb is even formed from i t : T ^ i n , i.e. ' t o be converted', mPeah
4:6; mShebi. 10:9; mHd. 3:6; mPes. 8:8; mYeb. 2:8; 11:2; mKet. 1:2, 4; 3:1, 2 ; 4:3; 9:9;
mOit. 2:6; mKid. 3:5; mHul. 10:4; mBekh. 8:1 ; mJVeg. 7:1; mâb. 2:3. The A r a m a i c form of
IS is KlVl which occurs twice also in the L X X {yeicopas Exod. 12:19; Isa. 14:1); Philo
read the word also in Exod. 2:22, where our Septuagint has wdpoiKos {De conf. ling. 8 2 ; see
edition by J . G. K a h n , 1963, ad loc.) ; it occurs further in Justin, Dial. c. Tryph. 122
{yrjopas) a n d lulius Africanus, Ep. ad Arist., in Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. i 7, 13 : TO YIVOS avdyeiv
em TOVS Ttarpiapxas 17 IRPOAQXVTOVS, TOVS re KaXovfievovs yeicopas TOVS eirifjiiKTOvs. C f also J .
F. Schleusner, Lexicon in LXX, s.v. ynwpas, a n d Otto on J u s t i n , op. Josephus frequently
mentions d TOV Ficopa Elfxcov or VLOS FIATPA, B.J. ii 19, 2 ( 5 2 1 ) ; ii 22, 2 ( 6 5 2 ) ; v 1,3 ( 1 1 ) ;
vii 5, 6 (154)—iv 9, 2 (503). T o signify simply 'resident foreigner' in the Old T e s t a m e n t
sense the M i s h n a h uses the Bibhcal expression aitnn "1J: mB.M. 5:6; 9:12; mMak. 2:3;
mNeg. 3:1. T h e same variation in meaning as "11 has also been the fate of t h e Greek
TTPOARFXVTOS. Cf for its use in the L X X , A. Geiger, Urschrift und Uebersetzungen der Bibel, p p .
3 5 3 - 4 ; W. C. Allen, ' O n the m e a n i n g of •N-POOÂUTOS in t h e Septuagint', Expos 4 (1894),
pp. 264-75 ; Bertholet, p . 260; T . J . Meek, ' T h e T r a n s l a t i o n of G^r in the Hexateuch . . . ' ,
J B L 49 (1930), p p . 172-80; K u h n , T D N T V I , p. 731. T h e word is originally equivalent
to TrdpoiKos, advena, b u t later a convert to Judaism—vofilfjcois TrpoaeXriXvBws TOIS
TovSa'iKots, Ant. xviii 3, 5 (82). T h e former meaning can still be observed in the L X X (see
K u h n ) ; very often however t h e occurrences seem to imply the latter meaning. Philo,
attributing the sense usual in his time to the O l d T e s t a m e n t word, explains, Spec. Leg. i 9
(51) : TOVTOvs 8e KAXTI IRPOARJXVTOVS dno TOV npoaeXjjXvOivai Kawfi Kal (ftiXodfw NOXITFIQ. C f
also the catena fragment on Exod. 22:20 in Philo, e d . Mangey I I , p . 677, or J . R . Harris,
Fragments of Philo (1886), pp. 4 9 ff.; i n general the m a t e r i a l from Philo in Bertholet, p p .
2 8 5 - 9 0 ; K u h n , T D N T V I , pp. 731-2. T h e S u d a , Lex. s.v. gives the following
e x p l a n a t i o n : ot e6vu>V TTPOAEXTIXVDORES Kal Kara v6p.ov TROORJAAVTCA noXireveaOai. In t h e
New T e s t a m e n t : Mt. 23:15; A c . 2:10; 6:5; 13:43 (in t h e last passage, owing to t h e
addition of ae)3d/i«voi, t h e n a t u r e of the allusions is confusing). Cf. K u h n , T D N T V I , p p .
742—3. Justin, Dial. c. Tryph. 1 2 2 ; Irenaeus, iii 12, i (Theodotion and Aquila dp<l>oTepoi
H o w g r e a t t h e i r n u m b e r w a s is i m p o s s i b l e to d e t e r m i n e . I t m a y at o n e
s t a g e h a v e b e e n v e r y c o n s i d e r a b l e ; t h e i m m e n s e e x p a n s i o n of J u d a i s m
is n o t easy to e x p l a i n s i m p l y b y n a t u r a l i n c r e a s e (cf a b o v e , p . 4 ) . I n t h e
R o m a n p e r i o d , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , f o r m a l c o n v e r s i o n s to J u d a i s m m a y
p e r h a p s h a v e b e e n less f r e q u e n t t h a n the looser a t t a c h m e n t in t h e f o r m
of ' G o d - f e a r e r s ' . F r o m t h e t i m e of H a d r i a n , R o m a n l e g i s l a t i o n
expressly f o r b a d e c o n v e r s i o n t o J u d a i s m b y a c c e p t a n c e o f c i r c u m c i s i o n
(see a b o v e , p . 123) ; it w o u l d h o w e v e r b e q u i t e w r o n g to c o n c l u d e f r o m
this t h a t c o n v e r s i o n , i n c l u d i n g c i r c u m c i s i o n , t h e r e b y c e a s e d .
Earlier scholars identified these t w o categories o f 'God-fearers' a n d
g e n u i n e proselytes w i t h t w o o t h e r c a t e g o r i e s a p p a r e n t l y r e l a t e d to
t h e m , e n c o u n t e r e d in r a b b i n i c l i t e r a t u r e . T h e ' G o d - f e a r e r s ' w e r e
e q u a t e d w i t h t h o s e c a l l e d in r a b b i n i c w r i d n g s ' p r o s e l y t e s of t h e g a t e '
("liytrn b u t t h e g e n u i n e p r o s e l y t e s w i t h ' p r o s e l y t e s of r i g h t e o u s n e s s '
( p 7 2 j n ''11) .79 I n r e a h t y t h e l a t t e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n a l o n e is c o r r e c t ; t h e
' G o d - f e a r e r s ' a n d t h e ll^tt^n ' ' 1 1 h a v e n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h one a n o t h e r .
T h e s e t e r m s a r e a l t o g e t h e r a l i e n t o t h e v o c a b u l a r y of t h e M i s h n a h ,
which disdriguishes only between 11 a n d 1 1 . T h e f o r m e r is a
p a g a n c o n v e r t e d to J u d a i s m , t h e l a t t e r is t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t ger, t h a t is,
a f o r e i g n e r l i v i n g i n t h e L a n d of I s r a e l (see n. 78). F o r t h e sake of
g r e a t e r c l a r i t y , pTH 11 ( a ' r i g h t e o u s m a n ' , i.e. a f o r e i g n e r o b s e r v i n g t h e
L a w ) w a s l a t e r also used for 1 1 , a n d 157tJ? 1 1 for yD^T) 1 1 , i.e. a f o r e i g n e r
living ' w i t h i n t h e g a t e s ' o r in t h e L a n d o f I s r a e l (following E x . 20: i o ;
D e u t . 5 : 1 4 ; 1 4 : 2 1 ; 2 4 : 1 4 ) . T h u s lytZ? 11 is s y n o n y m o u s w i t h t h e b i b l i cal
11. N e v e r t h e l e s s t h e e x p r e s s i o n is still a b s e n t f r o m T a l m u d i c
v o c a b u l a r y . T h e 312121 "'11 referred t o in t h e T a l m u d a r e , as in the O l d
T e s t a m e n t , n o n - J e w s l i v i n g in t h e L a n d of I s r a e l . T h i s is a l s o
c o n f i r m e d b y t h e d e m a n d s m a d e of t h e m , n a m e l y , t o o b s e r v e ' t h e s e v e n
c o m m a n d m e n t s of t h e s o n s of Noah'.®" T a l m u d i c sages c o l l e c t e d u n d e r
UovSaioi npoai)XVTOI); T e r t u l l i a n , Adv. Jud. i i, i ; Clement of Alexandria, Quis dives

salvetur 28, 2. Hilarius o n M a t h . 15:3 ( M i g n e , PL I X , col. 1004) ; in R o m a n epitaphs the
designation proseljytus or proselyta is attested five times (cf n. 55 above). I n place of
W P O O T J A V T O ? there also o c c u r : CTTÂUTOS: L X X J o b 20:26; Philo, Spec. Leg. iv 34 (176);
E W I J A U T R J S : Philo, Spec. Leg. i 9 (53); 57 (309); ii 23 (118); Virt. 20 (102); 34 (182);
(irrjXvs: Praem. ftpoen. 26 (152) ; Fr. ad Exod. 22:20, ap. Harris, Fragments, p . 50.
79. Cf S. D^yiing, Observationes sacrae II (i 737), p p . 4 6 2 - 9 . T h e phrase "ISITn ''IX is not
attested before t h e Middle Ages. Cf Str.-B. I I , p. 7 2 3 ; G. F . Moore, Judaism I (1930), pp.
340-1. Moore quotes N a h m a n i d e s ' c o m m e n t a r y on Ex. 20:10 as the earliest evidence for
gior sha'ar. C f K. G. K u h n , T D N T VI, p . 737 a n d n. 99.
80. bAZ 6 4 b : ' W h o is a ger toskab ? Any [gentile] who undertakes i n the presence of
three haverim x\ot to worship idols. Such is the teaching of R . M e i r ; but the Sages
declare: A n y t n a n who takes upon himself the seven precepts accepted by the sons of
Noah. Others tnaintain : . . . A proselyte who eats of animals not ritually slaughtered, i.e.
he w h o has un(jei-taken t o observe all the precepts mentioned in t h e T o r a h a p a r t from the
prohibidon of [eating] non-ritually slaughtered meat.' Cf T D N T VI, p p . 740-2 ; Str.-B.
II, p p . 722-3.
this title those c o m m a n d m e n t s w h i c h i n t h e i r v i e w a r e b i n d i n g o n

p r e - A b r a h a m i c a n d n o n - A b r a h a m i c h u m a n i t y (the 'sons of N o a h ' ) . ^ '
T h e d u t i e s of a Sttîn IX, i.e. a n o n - J e w p e r m a n e n t l y r e s i d e n t in t h e
L a n d of I s r a e l , t h u s c o n s i s t e d in t h e o b s e r v a n c e of a t l e a s t t h o s e
c o m m a n d m e n t s w h i c h a r e b i n d i n g o n t h e w h o l e of m a n k i n d . O f c o u r s e
this w a s a p u r e l y n o t i o n a l o b h g a t i o n , for G r e e k s a n d R o m a n s l i v i n g i n
P a l e s t i n e will s c a r c e l y h a v e s u b j e c t e d t h e m s e l v e s to t h i s J e w i s h l a w . T h e
so-called proselyte l a w s h a d t h e r e f o r e n o p r a c t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e ; t h e y
r e p r e s e n t e d o n l y a legal t h e o r y w h i c h n e v e r b e c a m e a r e a h t y . ^ ^ T h u s
sebomenoi, etc., a r e w h o l l y distinct f r o m t h e SBTin "'11, a n d b e l o n g i n a
q u i t e different historical c o n t e x t .
I n r e g a r d t o t h e i n s t r u c t i o n of proselytes before t h e i r r e c e p t i o n ,
n o t h i n g is k n o w n . T h e y will h a v e received s u b s t a n t i a l l y t h e s a m e
t r a i n i n g as t h o s e m e m b e r s o f t h e c o m m u n i t y w h o g r e w u p in it,
differing a c c o r d i n g to t i m e a n d p l a c e . T h e i n s t r u c t i o n w a s n a t u r a l l y
n o t confined t o religious a n d m o r a l f u n d a m e n t a l s , b u t e x t e n d e d q u i t e
s u b s t a n t i a l l y t o i n c l u d e t h e r i t u a l c o n t e n t of t h e T o r a h . A t t e m p t s t o
discover m o r e d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m e a r l y C h r i s t i a n l i t e r a t u r e
c o n c e r n i n g p r o s e l y t e i n s t r u c t i o n p r o v i d e a t best o n l y a p i c t u r e of
c e r t a i n a s p e c t s of it, t h a t is, o f its r e l i g i o u s a n d m o r a l c o n t e n t , b u t n o t
of t u i t i o n in t h e l a w s g o v e r n i n g J e w i s h life, w h i c h w a s c e r t a i n l y a
c a r d i n a l point.®^ E v e n t h e ' G o d - f e a r e r s ' w e r e p r e s u m a b l y b o u n d t o
8 1 . bSanh. 56b: ' T h e sons of N o a h were given seven commandments with regard to ( i )
p n ("judgements"); (2) UOTX TDna (i.e. b l a s p h e m y ) ; (3) m t m i 3 » (idolatry); (4)
nV-»» (i.e. incest a n d adultery); (5) D - m niDDtT (i.e. m u r d e r ) ; (6) ^Xi. (theft); (7)
Tin in l a X ("part of a living c r e a t u r e " , i.e. a n interdicdon o n eating flesh "with t h e blood
in i t " . Gen. 9:4).' C f also tAZ 8 ( 9 ) : 4 - 6 with slight v a r i a d o n s . See Str.-B. II, p . 722; I I I ,
pp. 3 7 - 8 ; Moore, Judaism I, p p . 274-5. See a l s o J E ('Laws, Noachian'), V I I , p p . 6 4 8 - 5 0 ;
E n c . J u d . 12, cols. 1189-91.
82. T h e theory, as bAZ 64b shows, is p u t forward casually, a n d n o t earnesdy a n d
systemadcally. A collection of t h e biblical utterances on WIH, would have given other
results (see in general Exod. 12:43-50; 20:10; 22:20; 23:9, 72; Lev. 17:8, 10, 13, 15;
18:26; 19:10, 3 3 - 4 ; 20:2; 24:16-22; N u m . 15:14-16; 19:10; D t . 5:14; 14:21; 24:14;
Ezek. 14:7. Cf A. Bertholet, Stellung der Israeliten, p p . 2 7 - 5 0 ; R. de V a u x , Ancient Israel
( i 9 6 i ) , p p . 74-6.
83. In various early Christian writings, especially in Barnabas 18-20, Didache 1—6,
parallel sections appear which under the title, ' T w o W a y s ' (8uo ohol—'duae viae'),
present a short catechism of ethics. T h e relationship of the parallel texts to o n e another
makes it very probable that they both go back to a common older source, which w a s
probably Jewish. T h e concept of t h e ' T w o Ways' is biblical (Jer. 21:8) a n d Jewish
(TAsher 1:3-5: Svo oSovs eScoKev 6 deos rots uiois TWV avdpwTrwv; mAb. 2:9: "ÎT
pTttT —n»"l Til). O n t h e basis of this observation A . von H a r n a c k , Die Apostellehre und die
judischen beiden Wege (^1896), following the e x a m p l e of C . Taylor, The Teaching of the
Twelve Apostles (1886), supposed t h a t the ' T w o Ways' was ' a catechism composed
especially for proselytes'. A full version of this doctrine of 'duae viae' h a s emerged from
the Dead Sea Scrolls ( i Q S 3:13-4:26). T h e r e it is presented a s a catechism for t h e
sectaries, i.e. the 'sons of light' ( i Q S 3:13) a n d addressed t o the b'''SVa, t h e instructor. C f
J.-P. Audet, 'Affinites litteraires et doctrinales d u " M a n u e l d e Discipline'", RB 5 9 (1952),
observe the m o s t basic o f the r i t u a l c o m m a n d m e n t s . F o r the proselytes

proper Paul's remark w a s applicable, n a m e l y that whoever accepted
c i r c u m c i s i o n w a s o b l i g e d to k e e p t h e w h o l e L a w ( G a l . 5 : 3 ) , e v e n if this
w a s administered w i t h a very v a r y i n g degree o f strictness.
For the acceptance of real proselytes into the Jewish community
d u r i n g t h e e x i s t e n c e of t h e T e m p l e t h r e e d e m a n d s w e r e to b e m a d e ,
a c c o r d i n g t o t h e r a b b i s : ( i ) n*?''Q, c i r c u m c i s i o n ; (2) nV''2t3, b a p t i s m ,
i.e. a p u r i f i c a t o r y immersion; (3) n''*'2Sin a n offering to t h e
Sanctuary.®'^ I n t h e case of women only the last two come into
consideration.®^ After the destruction of t h e T e m p l e , sacrifice also
c e a s e d . A l l t h r e e a r e r e g a r d e d as t r a d i t i o n a l a l r e a d y in t h e Mishnah;®^
indeed, they a r e s o m u c h t a k e n for g r a n t e d in r a b b i n i c J u d a i s m that
even in the absence o f definite proof they c a n be considered as
p r e v a i l i n g i n S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d . F o r in t h e s a m e w a y t h a t it w a s
o n l y p o s s i b l e to e n t e r i n t o t h e c o m m u n i t y o f I s r a e l t h r o u g h circum
cision, s o it a l s o w e n t w i t h o u t s a y i n g t h a t a p a g a n , w h o as s u c h w a s
p p . 2 1 9 - 3 8 ; 60 (1953), pp. 4 1 - 8 2 ; J . Licht, ' A n Analysis of the Treatise of the T w o

Spirits in D S D ' , Scrip. Hier. 4 (1958), p p . 8 8 - 1 0 0 ; H . W. H u p p e n b a u e r , Der Mensch
zwischen zwei Welten (1959); P . Wernberg-MoUer, ' A Reconsideration of the T w o Spirits
in the R u l e of t h e C o m m u n i t y ' , R Q , 3 (1962), p p . 4 3 3 - 4 1 ; J . H . Chariesworth, 'A
Critical Comparison of the Dualism i n i Q S I I I , i 3 - I V , 2 6 and t h e Dualism in the Fourth
Gospel', N T S t 15 (1969), p p . 389-418. R a b b i n i c sources contain n o direct indication
relating t o the proselytes' instruction in h a l a k h a h . Indirect evidence may b e gathered
from Q u m r a n ( i Q S 6 : 1 3 - 2 3 ; i Q S a 1:6-9; t 3 - i - i 6 ) , where the training of a new
member entailed not only teaching b u t also periodical tests. T h a t abridged versions o f the
T o r a h , intended as manuals o f initiation, existed i n proselytizing circles is probable. For
such accounts, see G. V e r m e s , 'A S u m m a r y of t h e L a w by Flavius Josephus', N T 24
(1982), p p . 289-303. T h e rabbinic a n e c d o t e concerning a gentile's request t h a t Shammai
and Hillel should teach him t h e whole T o r a h while he stood o n o n e foot {bShab. 31a)
suggests t h a t such summaries m a y h a v e been available.
84. Cf Sifre on Num. 15:14 (ed. H o r o v i t z (1908), p. 112). C f Moore, Judaism I, pp.
3 3 1 - 2 ; K u h n , T D N T V I , p p . 7 3 8 - 9 ; B . J . Bamberger, Proselytism in the Talmudic Period
(^1968), p p . 4 2 - 5 2 . See also mKer. 2:1 ; bKer. 9a; bYeb. 46a.
85. bKer. 9a, interpreting mKer. 2:1, r e a d s : 'As your forefathers entered t h e Covenant
only by circumcision, immersion a n d t h e sprinkling o f the blood, so shall they (the
proselytes) enter the C o v e n a n t only b y circumcision, immersion and t h e sprinkling o f the
blood.' bTeb. 46a furnishes a detailed discussion of the relationship between circumcision
a n d baptism. ' A man cannot become a proper proselyte unless h e has been circumcized
and has also performed ritual a b l u t i o n ; . . . If a proselyte was circumcized b u t h a d not
performed the prescribed ritual a b l u t i o n , R. Eliezer said, "Behold he is a proper
proselyte; for so we find that our forefathers were circumcized and h a d n o t performed
ritual ablution." If he performed t h e prescribed ablution but h a d not been circumcized,
R. J o s h u a said, "Behold he is a p r o p e r proselyte; for s o we find t h a t the mothers had
performed ritual ablution b u t had n o t b e e n circumcized." T h e Sages, however, said,
" W h e t h e r he h a d performed ritual a b l u t i o n but h a d not been circumcized o r whether he
h a d been circumcized b u t h a d not performed the prescribed ritual ablution, he is n o t a
proper proselyte, unless he h a s been circumcized a n d h a s also performed t h e prescribed
ritual ablution."'
86. Circumcision a n d baptismal b a t h : mPes. 8:8; mEduy. 5:2. Sacrifice : mKer. 2:1.
u n c l e a n b e c a u s e h e h a d n o t o b s e r v e d t h e r i t u a l l a w s of p u r i t y , h a d to
take a purificatory bath on his e n t r y i n t o t h e J e w i s h community.®^
Similarly, however, a pagan was also mS*? IDHD, 'in need of
a t o n e m e n t ' , a n d r e m a i n e d so ' u n t i l b l o o d w a s s p r i n k l e d for him'.®®
I n r e g a r d t o p r o s e l y t e b a p t i s m , it is u n m i s t a k a b l y p r e s u p p o s e d b y t h e
M i s h n a h to b e the e s t a b l i s h e d rule.®^ E q u a l l y , t h e o f t - q u o t e d s a y i n g of
E p i c t e t u s , as r e p o r t e d b y A r r i a n , c a n b e s t b e u n d e r s t o o d of p r o s e l y t e
b a p t i s m . ^ " A g a i n , t h e F o u r t h B o o k of t h e S i b y l l i n e O r a c l e s demands
t h a t r e p e n t a n t p a g a n s s h o u l d w a s h t h e i r w h o l e b o d i e s i n r i v e r s as a n
o u t w a r d sign o f t h e i r c o n v e r s i o n . ^ ' T h e t w o l a s t i t e m s , if t h e i r l i n k w i t h
p r o s e l y t e b a p t i s m is c o n f i r m e d , will a c q u i r e s p e c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e because
t h e y s p e a k o n l y of a b a t h a n d n o t o f c i r c u m c i s i o n . S o e v e n w h e r e full
acceptance into the Jewish community did not take place, at least
i m m e r s i o n in w a t e r w a s d e m a n d e d .
T h o s e who converted t o J u d a i s m h a v e at times also taken a H e b r e w
n a m e . A v e r y r e m a r k a b l e a n d a n c i e n t e x a m p l e of t h i s is o f f e r e d by t h e
J e w i s h - A r a m a i c d o c u m e n t s f r o m E l e p h a n t i n e o f t h e P e r s i a n p e r i o d (see
a b o v e , p p . 38—41). I n o n e of t h e s e d o c u m e n t s , f r o m t h e y e a r 4 2 0 B . C
( C o w l e y , n o . 2 0 , 1 . 3 ) , a n E g y p t i a n a p p e a r s w i t h t h e n a m e A s h o r son of
Zeho. F o u r years later, 4 1 6 B . C , t h e s a m e m a n is c a l l e d N a t h a n (the
87. Circumcision and proselyte baptism o n the eve of Passover were the subject of
controversy between the schools of Hillel a n d Shammai. C f mPes. 8:8; mEduy. 5:2. T h e
latter permitted participation i n the Passover to a proselyte circumcized and purified on
the previous d a y . T h e school of Hillel, however, d e m a n d e d seven days between
circumcision and baptism. Whether t h e purification by water mentioned in connection
with the ritual o f the entry i n t o the Covenant a t Q u m r a n ( i Q S 5 : 1 3 - 1 4 ) resembled
proselyte baptism remains a matter for debate. Cf. O. Betz, ' D i e Proselytentaufe d e r
Q u m r a n s e k t e u n d die Taufe i m Neuen Testament', R Q i (1958), p p . 213—34.
88. mKer. 2:1.
8 9 . Cf K u h n , T D N T V I , p p . 738-9. I t is unclear when proselyte baptism first
originated. All t h a t is known is that it is post-bibhcal and pre-Mishnaic. C u r r e n t opinion
dates its introduction to the first century A . D . , principally because of t h e silence of Philo
and Josephus. Cf. Bamberger, Proselytism, p. xxii; W . F. Flemington, 'Baptism', IDB I , p.
348. However, t h e argumentum e silentio from Philo a n d Josephus would b e valid only if it
could be shown that reference to proselyte baptism is absent from passages where it
should h a v e appeared.
9 0 . Epictetus ii 9, 20—1 = G L A J J I, no. 254: KOI orav rivd ena^KfioTepiôvTa tStofxev,
eididafiev Xeytiv. OVK fariv TovSaios, dXX' vrroKpiverai. orav S' avaXd^r) TO nddos TO TOV
j3ej3ajUjitevov Kal •^prjp.fvov, rdre icai fOTi T<j> OVTI Kal KaXfiTai 'lovSatos. Epictetus wishes to
demonstrate that a m a n is a t r u e philosopher only if he really behaves in accordance with
his basic principles. Let the s a m e apply to J e w s . If someone calls himself a J e w but does
not live as one, let him n o t be counted as a J e w . 'But if a m a n adopts the m a n n e r of life of
a m a n w h o has been baptized a n d has made his choice, t h e n he really is, and is called, a
J e w . ' T h e metaphorical interpretation of jSe/Sa/x/ieVou ('dedicated') is here however just as
i m p r o b a b l e as t h e view that Epictetus is confusing J e w s and Christians. See Stern,
G L A J J , ad loc.
9 1 . Sib. 4:165. J . J . ColHns notes t h a t the best parallel to this passage is provided by the
baptism of repentance preached by J o h n the Baptist. Cf O T P I, p . 388, n . e2.
i d e n t i t y is a p p a r e n t from t h a t of his wife a n d sons, s e e C o w l e y , n o . 2 5 , 1 .

3 ) . H e h a d o b v i o u s l y g o n e over to J u d a i s m in t h e m e a n w h i l e a n d
t a k e n t h e n a m e o f N a t h a n . A n o t h e r e x a m p l e is B e t u r i a P a u l i n a o n a
R o m a n e p i t a p h , w h o a s a p r o s e l y t e is c a l l e d S a r a h (see a b o v e p . 1 6 2 ) .
T h e n e w J e w i s h i n s c r i p t i o n from A p h r o d i s i a s in C a r i a (p. 26) n o w
attests proselutoi c a l l e d ' S a m o u e l ' , ' l o s e s ' a n d ' E i o s e p h s o n of E u s e b i o s ' ,
as well a s a theosebes called ' E u s a b b a t h i o s ' .
T h e d u t i e s a n d r i g h t s of p r o s e l y t e s w e r e e x a c t l y d e t e r m i n e d in m u c h
d e t a i l b y t h e rabbis.^'^ I n g e n e r a l , i t w a s t a k e n for g r a n t e d t h a t
a c c o r d i n g to strict P h a r i s a i c o p i n i o n , e c h o e d in G a l . 5 : 3 , t h e y h a d to
o b s e r v e the w h o l e T o r a h , p a r t i c u l a r l y in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h religious
dues.^^ T h e r a b b i s , h o w e v e r , v e r y carefully d r e w c e r t a i n b o u n d a r i e s
h e r e , e s p e c i a l l y in r e g a r d to t h e terminus a quo from w h i c h the o b l i g a t i o n
b e g a n . O n l y t h a t i n c o m e of a p r o s e l y t e w a s l i a b l e t o t a x w h i c h c a m e to
h i m in a t a x a b l e c o n d i t i o n after h i s conversion.^'^ B r o t h e r s b o r n before
t h e i r m o t h e r ' s c o n v e r s i o n w e r e n o t b o u n d by t h e l a w o f l e v i r a t e
m a r r i a g e . ^ ^ T h e r e g u l a t i o n o f D t . 2 2 : 1 3 - 2 1 d o e s n o t a p p l y to girls b o r n
before t h e i r m o t h e r ' s c o n v e r s i o n . T h e last s t i p u l a t i o n shows h o w a
l i m i t a t i o n of r i g h t s was b o u n d u p w i t h t h a t o f d u t i e s . I n s o m e s i t u a t i o n s
i n v o l v i n g m a r r i a g e l a w s , o n l y f e m a l e p r o s e l y t e s w h o at t h e i r c o n v e r s i o n
w e r e n o t yet t h r e e y e a r s a n d o n e d a y o l d h a d e q u a l s t a n d i n g w i t h b o r n
Jewesses.^^ F e m a l e proselytes c o u l d not m a r r y p r i e s t s ; a n d d a u g h t e r s of
p r o s e l y t e s c o u l d d o so o n l y if o n e of t h e p a r e n t s was a n I s r a e l i t e by
b i r t h , a r e g u l a t i o n v a l i d e v e n to t h e t e n t h g e n e r a t i o n . ^ ^ O n t h e o t h e r
h a n d , f e m a l e proselytes m i g h t m a r r y c a s t r a t e d or m u t i l a t e d m e n , w h i c h
is f o r b i d d e n t o b o r n J e w e s s e s in D t . 23:2.^^ T h e l e g a l s t i p u l a t i o n t h a t
a n y o n e w h o i n a d v e r t e n t l y s t r i k e s a w o m a n so t h a t she suffers a
m i s c a r r i a g e h a s t o p a y d a m a g e s , prima facie did n o t a p p l y to female
p r o s e l y t e s . " ' ' ' O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , the r e g u l a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g d r i n k i n g
t h e ' w a t e r o f b i t t e r n e s s ' ( N u m . 5:11 ff.) w a s v a l i d also for female
proselytes.
T h e v e r y c a r e w i t h w h i c h these d i s t i n c t i o n s a r e d r a w n s h o w s t h a t in
92. For the passages of the M i s h n a h see above, n. 78. C f also the tractate Gerim in M.
Higger, Seven Minor Tractates (1930), E.T. in A. Cohen (ed.), The Minor Tractates of the
Talmudll (1965), pp. 6 0 3 - 1 3 .
93. mBik. 1:4; mShek. i :3, 6 ; mPeah 4:6; mHal. 3:6; mHul. 10:4.
94. mPeah 4:6; mHal. y.6;mHul. 10:4.
95. mTeb. 11:2.
96. mKet. 4:3.
97. mKet. 1:2, 4 ; 3:1, 2.
98. mTeb. 6:5 ; mKid. 4:7; mBik. 1:5.
99. mTeb. 8:2.
100. mB.K. 5:4. T h e commentators limit this to the case of a widow whose h u s b a n d was
himself a proselyte. I n such a case damages a r e not t o be paid t o the heirs w h o , as
gendles, have n o right to inherit. Cf W. Windfuhr, Baba gamma (1913), p. 39.
101. mEduy. 5:6.
essentials proselytes w e r e r e g a r d e d b y t h e r a b b i s as o f e q u a l s t a t u s w i t h
b o r n Israelites in r e g a r d to d u t i e s a n d r i g h t s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , a p r o s e l y t e
m i g h t n e v e r call t h e a n c e s t o r s o f I s r a e l his f a t h e r s , a n d in t h e
t h e o c r a c y he is r a n k e d after a nathin.^°^ A l t h o u g h t h e h u m a n e J e w i s h
l a w e m p h a s i z e s , b y a p p e a l to E x . 22:20, t h a t a p e r s o n s h o u l d n e v e r in
a n u n f r i e n d l y w a y r e m i n d t h e son of a p r o s e l y t e of the f o r m e r w a y of
life of h i s f a t h e r s , y e t proselytes as a rule did n o t enjoy t h e t r u s t
a c c o r d e d to b o r n J e w s . T h e o p i n i o n of R a b b i J u d a h c o n c e r n i n g t h e
p r o s e l y t e s in R e k e m , t h a t t h e y w e r e l i a b l e to e r r i n o b s e r v a n c e of t h e
L a w , ' ° ^ is t h o u g h t by s o m e , i n t h e l i g h t of t h e T a l m u d i c c o m p l a i n t s
a g a i n s t proselytes, t o reflect a g e n e r a l d o u b t c o n c e r n i n g t h e i r r e l i a b i l i t y
in h a l a k h i c m a t t e r s . B u t this r e c o n s t r u c t i o n m u s t b e seen a g a i n s t t h e
l a r g e r n u m b e r of p o s i t i v e r a b b i n i c s t a t e m e n t s r e g a r d i n g c o n v e r t s to
Judaism.'"^
A c c o r d i n g t o t h e D e u t e r o n o m i c law, t w o n a t i o n s , t h e A m m o n i t e s
a n d t h e M o a b i t e s , w e r e n e v e r to b e a c c e p t e d into the c o m m u n i t y of
Israel, n o t even in the tenth generation (Dt. 2 3 : 4 ) . T h i s rule w a s
d e s t i n e d to b e t h e s t a r t i n g - p o i n t of a c o n t r o v e r s y in the t i m e of
G a m a h e l I I a s to w h e t h e r a n A m m o n i t e p r o s e l y t e w h o w i s h e d t o e n t e r
t h e c o m m u n i t y c o u l d b e a l l o w e d t o d o so. G a m a l i e l ' s decision w a s
n e g a t i v e , b u t R. J o s h u a ' s p o s i t i v e , on t h e g r o u n d t h a t the a n c i e n t
A m m o n i t e s n o l o n g e r existed. T h e o p i n i o n o f R . J o s h u a received t h e
assent of the sages.
102. mBik. 1:4: 'These may bring t h e First-fruits but they may not m a k e t h e Avowal;
the proselyte m a y bring them but h e may not m a k e the Avowal since he cannot say,
Which the Lord swore unto our Fathers for to give us. But if his mother was a n Israelite he m a y
bring them and make t h e Avowal. A n d when he prays in private he should say, " O G o d
of t h e fathers of Israel", and w h e n he is in t h e synagogue h e should say, " O G o d of your
fathers". B u t if his mother was a n Israehte he may say, " O God of our fathers".'
103. mHor. 3:8 : 'A priest precedes a levite, a levite an Israelite, a n Israelite a Mamzer, a
Mamzer a Nathin, a Nathin a proselyte, and a proselyte a freed slave.'
104. mB.M. 4:10.
105. mNid. 7:3 : 'All blood-stains t h a t come from R e k e m are clean. R . J u d a h declares
them unclean since they are proselytes there a n d liable to err.'
106. Favourable and unfavourable opinions are compared in I. Levi, 'Les rabbins de
I'epoque talmudique etaient-ils favorables o u hostiles au proselytisme?', REJ 51 (1906),
pp. 1-29; Bamberger, Proselytism, p p . 149-73; ^1*° E n c . J u d . 13, cols. 1185-6. Philo
strongly enjoins the duty of accepting proselytes as brothers, De virtutibus 20 (103): KIXEVTI.
(Moses) ST) TOIS d-TTo rov cBvovs dyairdv rovs in'^Xvras, (irj fiovov AIS <f>iXovs ical avyyevfts dXXd
Kal cos favTovs... According to G. F . Moore's balanced judgement, 'the tone of the
utterances about proselytes is friendly, though not unduly enthusiastic'. Cf Judaism I , p.
342-
107. mTad. 4:4.
§ 32. JEWISH LITERATURE COMPOSED IN H E B R E W OR
ARAMAIC
Preliminary Remarks
I t is g e n e r a l l y a g r e e d t h a t z e a l for the s t u d y , t e a c h i n g a n d p r a c t i c e of
t h e T o r a h a n d a n i n t e n s e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l h o p e w e r e the d i s t i n c t i v e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of J u d a i s m i n the i n t e r - T e s t a m e n t a l e r a . A t the s a m e
t i m e , i t s h o u l d n o t b e o v e r l o o k e d t h a t these interests expressed
t h e m s e l v e s i n v e r y v a r i e d w a y s , a n d t h a t s i d e b y side w i t h the
a s p i r a t i o n s b e l o n g i n g t o t h e s p h e r e o f s p i r i t u a l life w e n t o t h e r s not
i m m e d i a t e l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e m . A g l a n c e a t t h e J e w i s h l i t e r a t u r e of
t h e p e r i o d shows t o w h a t e x t e n t t h i s w a s t h e case. T h e s e w o r k s a r e so
d i v e r s e t h a t it is difficult t o u n i t e all the i n d i v i d u a l f e a t u r e s i n t o a
c o m p r e h e n s i v e p i c t u r e . T h i s h o l d s g o o d a l r e a d y of t h e c o r p u s w r i t t e n in
H e b r e w or A r a m a i c , b u t it is all t h e m o r e t r u e w h e n t h e l i t e r a t u r e of
H e l l e n i s t i c J u d a i s m is also t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t . T h e r e t h e n c o m e s into
v i e w a d o m a i n so e x t e n s i v e , a n d a p p a r e n t l y s o h e t e r o g e n e o u s in
c o m p o s i t i o n , t h a t it is prima facie a l m o s t i m p o s s i b l e t o r e c o g n i z e the
i n n e r c o h e r e n c e o f these w r i t i n g s .
I n t h i s m o t l e y v a r i e t y t w o m a i n g r o u p s u s e d to b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d , the
Palestinian a n d t h e (Diaspora-) Hellenistic, b u t t h e borderline between
t h e m w a s ill-defined a n d t h e d e s i g n a t i o n s o n l y a p p r o x i m a t e . By
P a l e s t i n i a n J e w i s h l i t e r a t u r e was u n d e r s t o o d t h a t w h i c h in the m a i n
r e p r e s e n t e d the s t a n d p o i n t of w h a t w a s b e h e v e d t o be P h a r i s a i c
J u d a i s m ; b y H e l l e n i s t i c J e w i s h l i t e r a t u r e , t h a t w h i c h , w h e t h e r in form
o r c o n t e n t , e x h i b i t e d in a n y n o t a b l e w a y the i n f l u e n c e o f G r e e k c u l t u r e .
S e n s i t i v e scholars of t h e n i n e t e e n t h a n d t h e first h a l f o f t h e t w e n t i e t h
c e n t u r i e s w e r e c o n s c i o u s of t h e p r o b l e m of c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . T h e r e w a s , to
b e g i n w i t h , often u n c e r t a i n t y c o n c e r n i n g t h e o r i g i n a l l a n g u a g e ,
especially w h e n a text w a s p r e s e r v e d o n l y in t r a n s l a t i o n , or w o r s e still,
i n t r a n s l a t i o n of a t r a n s l a t i o n . B u t m o r e i m p o r t a n t l y , i t w a s distinctly
possible t h a t a H e b r e w (let a l o n e a n A r a m a i c ) b o o k o r i g i n a t e d o u t s i d e
P a l e s t i n e , a n d c o n v e r s e l y t h a t a G r e e k w o r k w a s w r i t t e n i n the H o l y
L a n d . P h r a s e d differently, a ' P a l e s t i n i a n ' J u d a i s m m a y h a v e existed in
t h e D i a s p o r a in t h e s a m e w a y t h a t a ' H e l l e n i s t i c ' v a r i e t y e x i s t e d in
Palestine.
T h e discovery of H e b r e w , A r a m a i c a n d G r e e k m a n u s c r i p t s a n d
m a n u s c r i p t f r a g m e n t s , p e r t a i n i n g to i n t e r - T e s t a m e n t a l J e w i s h l i t e r a t
u r e a n d c o m p o s e d b e t w e e n t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y B . C . a n d t h e first c e n t u r y
A . D . , h a s p l a c e d t h e w h o l e issue i n a n e w p e r s p e c t i v e . Positively, the
178 §32. Jewish Literature in Hebrew or Aramaic
Q u m r a n f r a g m e n t s of k n o w n A p o c r y p h a a n d P s e u d e p i g r a p h a (e.g.
T o b i t , J u b i l e e s , E n o c h , etc.) h a v e s e t t l e d — d e f i n i t i v e l y o r p a r t i a l l y —
the i d e n t i t y of t h e o r i g i n a l l a n g u a g e of t h e s e c o m p o s i t i o n s . N e g a t i v e l y ,
the u n q u e s t i o n a b l y s e c t a r i a n (Essene) c h a r a c t e r o f the d e p o s i t h a s
d e s t r o y e d once a n d for all a n y facile g e n e r a l d e f i n i t i o n of ' P a l e s t i n i a n '
J e w i s h h t e r a r y w o r k as P h a r i s a i c . M o r e o v e r , t h e G r e e k f r a g m e n t s f o u n d
in t h e Q u m r a n caves a m o u n t t o d o c u m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e of t h e possible,
if n o t p r o b a b l e , r e d a c t i o n of G r e e k w o r k s o r Bible t r a n s l a t i o n s i n
P a l e s d n e . A c c o r d i n g l y , it h a s b e e n d e c i d e d t h a t a division solely on t h e
basis of l a n g u a g e s h o u l d a l t o g e t h e r r e p l a c e the old g e o g r a p h i c a l -
c u l t u r a l categories. W o r k s p r o d u c e d in H e b r e w a n d A r a m a i c (§32),
i n c l u d i n g the s e c t a r i a n d o c u m e n t s f r o m Q u m r a n t r e a t e d i n a s e p a r a t e
c h a p t e r ( § 3 2 . V I I I ) , will b e followed h e r e b y w r i t i n g s in G r e e k (§33A).
A f u r t h e r section (§33B) will c o n t a i n b o o k s w h o s e o r i g i n a l l a n g u a g e
c a n n o t b e d e t e r m i n e d w i t h c e r t a i n t y . ( F o r the p r i n c i p l e s o f e s t a b l i s h i n g
w h e t h e r a n e x t a n t G r e e k text is a t r a n s l a t i o n , see p p . 705-6.) F i n a l l y , a
b r i e f a p p e n d i x will d e a l w i t h a l i m i t e d n u m b e r of c o m p o s i t i o n s w h i c h
m a y be e i t h e r o f j e w i s h o r of Christian^ p r o v e n a n c e .
A l l t h e s u r v i v i n g H e b r e w a n d A r a m a i c J e w i s h w o r k s d a t i n g to t h e
i n t e r - T e s t a m e n t a l e p o c h a r e religious d o c u m e n t s . T h e i r chief i n s p i r a
t i o n is a p a s s i o n a t e c o n c e r n for t h e a n c e s t r a l faith a n d for t h e e x a c t
m e a n i n g of t h e Bible. M o s t of t h e m possess a p r a c t i c a l a i m a n d seek to
e x h o r t r e a d e r s to fidehty t o t h e c o m m a n d m e n t s , to p e r s e v e r a n c e a n d to
firm belief i n the c o m i n g fulfilment o f p r o m i s e s , p r o p h e c i e s a n d
blessings. I n g e n e r a l , t h e y reflect official t e a c h i n g , b u t s p o r a d i c a l l y ,
e v i d e n c e of a s t r o l o g i c a l a n d m a g i c a l w o r k s h a s survived a m o n g t h e m
( § 3 2 . V I I and V I I I E ) .
T o s t a r t w i t h h i s t o r i o g r a p h y , t h e g o l d e n a g e of the H a s m o n a e a n
d y n a s t y p r o d u c e d n a t i o n a l - r e l i g i o u s a n n a l s (i M a c c a b e e s , C h r o n i c l e of
H y r c a n u s ) testifying to a p a t r i o d c self-awareness. After t h e o v e r t h r o w
of t h e H a s m o n a e a n s by t h e R o m a n s , n o f u r t h e r t r a c e o f this kind of
h i s t o r i c a l w r i t i n g c a n b e f o u n d . J o s e p h u s , w h e n t r e a d n g this p e r i o d ,
relies exclusively o n n o n - J e w i s h s o u r c e s ; a n d Q u m r a n ' h i s t o r i o g r a p h y '
is p u r e l y s e c t a r i a n i n o u t l o o k a n d e x e g e t i c a l in form ( § 3 2 . V I I I B ) .
R e l i g i o u s p o e t r y of t h e era d r e w its i n s p i r a t i o n from t h e P s a l t e r a n d
w a s i n t e n d e d as a s u p p l e m e n t to it ( M a c c a b a e a n P s a l m s , A p o c r y p h a l
P s a l m s , P s a l m s of S o l o m o n ) . T h e i r c o m m o n p u r p o s e was s p i r i t u a l
edification a n d to i n c u l c a t e a t t a c h m e n t to t h e T o r a h . ( F o r Q u m r a n
s e c t a r i a n h y m n o l o g y , see § 3 2 . V I I I C . )
"Wisdom l i t e r a t u r e , t o o , a i m e d a t s t r e n g t h e n i n g t h e r e l i g i o u s spirit.
T h e p r o v e r b s of J e s u s b e n S i r a , d e s p i t e all t h e i r p r a c t i c a l b i a s , b e g i n
a n d e n d on a n i d e n t i c a l n o t e : t h e fear of G o d a n d t h e o b s e r v a n c e of t h e
c o m m a n d m e n t s . I n the p r e - s e c t a r i a n w i s d o m f r a g m e n t s r e t r i e v e d from
t h e Q u m r a n caves, as w e l l as i n t h e p r e c e p t s stressed by t h e scribes a n d
Preliminary Remarks 179
r a b b i s o f the M i s h n a h t r a c t a t e A b o t h , t h e s a m e v o i c e of e x h o r t a t i o n to
a w h o l e - h e a r t e d o b e d i e n c e to t h e T o r a h r e s o u n d s .
T h e d i d a c t i c or p a r a e n e d c a l n a r r a t i v e s ( J u d i t h , T o b i t , A h i q a r ) also
r e c o u n t in a free, q u a s i - f i c t i o n a l c o m p i l a t i o n stories o f h e r o i c f a i t h ,
e x e m p l a r y v i r t u e a n d p i e t y l e a d i n g to d i v i n e i n t e r v e n t i o n a n d
assistance. A l t h o u g h d i s p l a y i n g a n o t i c e a b l e d e g r e e of n a r r a t i v e skill
(e.g. T o b i t ) , these b o o k s a r e n o t p r i m a r i l y i n t e n d e d for e n t e r t a i n m e n t
b u t for t h e p r o c l a m a t i o n of a r e l i g i o u s m e s s a g e , viz. t h a t t h e fear of G o d
is t h e h i g h e s t w i s d o m .
A m u c h cherished literary genre was pseudepigraphic-apocalyptic
p r o p h e c y , w h e r e e x h o r t a t i o n is b a s e d o n special r e v e l a t i o n s w h i c h the
a u t h o r s c l a i m to h a v e r e c e i v e d c o n c e r n i n g t h e f u t u r e destinies of I s r a e l .
P s e u d e p i g r a p h y , i.e. t h e p l a c i n g o f the r e v e l a t i o n s i n t h e m o u t h s of the
g r e a t m e n of t h e p a s t , e n d o w e d t h e a d m o n i t i o n s a n d c o n s o l a t i o n s w i t h
special p r e s t i g e a n d g r e a t a u t h o r i t y . T h e s e p r o p h e t i c p s e u d e p i g r a p h a
( D a n i e l , E n o c h , A s s u m p t i o n of M o s e s , A p o c a l y p s e of E z r a , etc.) w e r e
m e a n t t o i m p a r t c o m f o r t in p r e s e n t sorrows a n d t o e n c o u r a g e sincere
c o n v e r s i o n a n d p e r s e v e r a n c e by e m p h a s i z i n g t h e c e r t a i n t y o f e t e r n a l
reward and punishment.
T h e w r i t i n g s d e s c r i b e d so far, a l t h o u g h of s c r i p t u r a l i n s p i r a t i o n ,
continue and develop traditional literary genres r a t h e r than expound
t h e Bible itself A c l e a r t e n d e n c y w a s n e v e r t h e l e s s m a n i f e s t a m o n g
J e w i s h w r i t e r s (following the p a t t e r n set b y t h e B o o k s of C h r o n i c l e s , see
v o l . I I , p p . 346-7), t o re-tell t h e stories of S c r i p t u r e a n d e v e n
r e f o r m u l a t e its l a w s , i n a m o d e r n i z e d form a n d in t h e spirit of the
a u t h o r ' s o w n age (Jubilees, t h e G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n , P s . - P h i l o ' s B o o k
of Biblical A n t i q u i t i e s , e t c . ) . T h e r e w e r e also a t t e m p t s a t r e - w r i t i n g not
a w h o l e b o o k or b o o k s , b u t a t n a r r a t i n g the lives o f i n d i v i d u a l biblical
figures (e.g. N o a h , A m r a m , I s a i a h , e t c . ) . T h e m a i n p u r p o s e of t h e s e
r e - e d i t e d versions was not so m u c h t h e e m b e l l i s h m e n t a n d f u r t h e r
e l a b o r a t i o n o f a f a m i h a r a c c o u n t a s r e i n f o r c e m e n t of its d o c t r i n a l a n d
m o r a l i m p a c t in p r e f i g u r e m e n t of l a t e r r a b b i n i c m i d r a s h .
T h e n o n - b i b l i c a l m a n u s c r i p t s (îscovered i n t h e Q u m r a n c a v e s h a v e
e n r i c h e d c o n s i d e r a b l y t h e S e m i t i c half of i n t e r - T e s t a m e n t a l l i t e r a t u r e .
T h o s e a m o n g t h e m t h a t furnish t h e H e b r e w or A r a m a i c o r i g i n a l s of
w o r k s p r e v i o u s l y e x t a n t in t r a n s l a t i o n ( A p o c r y p h a l P s a l m s , Ben S i r a ,
J u b i l e e s , E n o c h , etc.) a n d o t h e r m a n i f e s t l y p r e - s e c t a r i a n c o m p o s i t i o n s
a r e discussed at t h e a p p r o p r i a t e m o m e n t s i n t h e following c h a p t e r s .
§ 3 2 . V I I I is w h o l l y d e v o t e d to s e c t a r i a n r u l e s , Bible i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ,
h y m n s , liturgical c o m p o s i t i o n s a n d a few m i s c e l l a n e a , viz. t o w r i t i n g s
e x p r e s s i n g t h e s a m e religious a n d m o r a l p r e o c c u p a t i o n s as m a i n s t r e a m
J e w i s h l i t e r a t u r e b u t c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y t h e p a r t i c u l a r s t a n d of a
s e l f - c o n t a i n e d m i n o r i t y g r o u p . T h e Q u m r a n texts w h i c h , u n l i k e t h e rest
of inter-Testamental literature, h a v e been preserved i n their original
I8O §32. Jewish Literature in Hebrew or Aramaic
t o n g u e a n d in scrolls d a t i n g t o the i n t e r - T e s t a m e n t a l p e r i o d , offer i n

c o n s e q u e n c e a u n i q u e c o n t r i b u t i o n n o t o n l y to t h e s t u d y of E s s e n e i d e a s
a n d customs, b u t t o a fuller u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e n o n - s e c t a r i a n
Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha.
T h e s e i n t r o d u c t o r y r e m a r k s a p p l y also to t h e w o r k s h s t e d i n § 3 3 6 ,
w h i c h c o n t a i n s the s a m e l i t e r a r y classes ( p s e u d e p i g r a p h i c - a p o c a l y p t i c
p r o p h e c y a n d Bible exegesis) as c h a p t e r s 5 a n d 6 in t h e p r e s e n t s e c t i o n ,
the sole difference b e i n g u n c e r t a i n t y r e g a r d i n g their o r i g i n a l l a n g u a g e ,
H e b r e w / A r a m a i c or Greek.
I . HISTORIOGRAPHY
I. The First Book of Maccabees

T h e sources o f the First Book of M a c c a b e e s d e s e r v e p r i d e of p l a c e i n
a n y c o m p l e t e e n u m e r a t i o n of t h e historical w r i t i n g s o f the p e r i o d .
T h e First B o o k of M a c c a b e e s r e c o u n t s c o h e r e n t l y , g r a p h i c a l l y a n d i n
g r e a t d e t a i l , first t h e e v e n t s w h i c h led to t h e M a c c a b a e a n u p r i s i n g , t h e n
the c o u r s e of t h e r e v o l t itself, w i t h s p e c i a l reference to t h e d e e d s a n d
fortunes of J u d a s M a c c a b a e u s . N e x t follows the f u r t h e r h i s t o r y of
J e w i s h n a t i o n a l i s m u n d e r the l e a d e r s h i p o f J o n a t h a n b r o t h e r o f J u d a s ,
a n d the f o u n d i n g o f t h e H a s m o n a e a n H i g h - P r i e s t h o o d , s y m b o l i z i n g
J e w i s h i n d e p e n d e n c e . F i n a l l y , the b o o k r e p o r t s t h e h i s t o r y of S i m o n ,
b r o t h e r a n d successor of J o n a t h a n , w h o t h r o u g h t h e e s t a b h s h m e n t in
t h e H a s m o n a e a n family o f a h e r e d i t a r y r u l e r s h i p a n d H i g h - P r i e s t h o o d ,
a n d t h r o u g h the c o m p l e t e l i b e r a t i o n of t h e J e w s from Syrian
s o v e r e i g n t y , b r o u g h t J o n a t h a n ' s w o r k to a t r i u m p h a n t c o n c l u s i o n . T h e
n a r r a t i v e c o n t i n u e s to t h e d e a t h of S i m o n , t h u s e m b r a c i n g a s p a n of
forty y e a r s ( 1 7 5 - 1 3 5 / 4 B . C . ) .
T h e a u t h o r ' s s t a n d p o i n t is t h a t o f a J e w i s h believer, faithful to t h e
T o r a h . I t is nevertheless n o t e w o r t h y t h a t t h e M a c c a b a e a n successes a r e
scarcely ever a t t r i b u t e d t o a n y d i r e c t , m i r a c u l o u s i n t e r v e n t i o n on t h e
p a r t of G o d , b u t a p p e a r t h r o u g h o u t a s resulting from the m i l i t a r y
a b i l i t y a n d political sagacity o f the M a c c a b a e a n - H a s m o n a e a n p r i n c e s .
T h e s e a r e , a d m i t t e d l y , r e p r e s e n t e d as h a v i n g c o n s t a n t l y a c t e d w i t h
u n s h a k e a b l e t r u s t in G o d . N e v e r t h e l e s s t h e a u t h o r , living in t h e
H e l l e n i s t i c e r a , expresses himself very differently from t h e earlier
biblical historians. A w h o l e - h e a r t e d s u p p o r t e r of t h e M a c c a b e e s , h e
seeks to b r i n g i n t o p r o m i n e n c e their services in t h e c a u s e o f the f r e e d o m
a n d i n d e p e n d e n c e of t h e J e w i s h p e o p l e . ' T h e d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e
unsuccessful e x p e d i t i o n o f J o s e p h a n d A z a r i a s (5:55—62) closes w i t h t h e
I . As early as 1857, A . Geiger noted : 'The author of the First Book of the Maccabees is
the state historian of the M a c c a b a e a n dynasty.' [Urschrift und Obersetzungen der Bibel, p.
206.)
/. Historiography i8i
remark that they were routed because they h a d gone into battle against
t h e will of J u d a s ( 5 : 6 1 ; c f 5 : 1 8 - 1 9 ) . ' T h e y w e r e n o t , h o w e v e r , of t h a t
family t o w h o m it w a s g r a n t e d to b r i n g d e l i v e r a n c e t o I s r a e l . ' C o m p a r e
in a d d i t i o n 1 3 : 2 - 6 a n d 14:26. T h e d y n a s t i c i n t e r e s t is a l s o e x p r e s s e d in
t h e s p e e c h of t h e d y i n g M a t t a t h i a s , c h a p . 2, i n a s m u c h as S i m o n is h e r e
(v. 65) b r o u g h t to t h e f o r e g r o u n d , w h e r e a s t h i s w a s by n o m e a n s t h e
case at t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e s t o r y .
T h e d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n a v a i l a b l e to the a u t h o r of i M a c , w r i t i n g
s o m e t w o g e n e r a t i o n s after t h e e v e n t s c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e M a c c a b e e
b r o t h e r s , p r e s u p p o s e s t h e existence of w r i t t e n s o u r c e s . ^
T h e style is soberly n a r r a t i v e , after t h e m a n n e r of O l d T e s t a m e n t
h i s t o r i c a l w r i t i n g . T h e a u t h o r h a s a t his c o m m a n d s u c h a n a b u n d a n c e
of p a r t i c u l a r d a t a t h a t t h e r e c a n b e b y a n d l a r g e n o d o u b t as to his
b e i n g w e l l - i n f o r m e d , n o t o n l y in r e g a r d to J e w i s h m a t t e r s , b u t also
c o n c e r n i n g S e l e u c i d i n s t i t u d o n s ( G o l d s t e i n , p . 26). T h e freedom w i t h
w h i c h figures a r e t r e a t e d , a n d t h e s p e e c h e s p l a c e d i n t o p e r s o n s ' m o u t h s ,
c a n h a r d l y c o u n t a g a i n s t his b a s i c t r u s t w o r t h i n e s s . A n c i e n t h i s t o r i c a l
w r i t i n g was i n g e n e r a l n o t v e r y s c r u p u l o u s in s u c h m a t t e r s . It is of
especial v a l u e t h a t all t h e m o r e i m p o r t a n t e v e n t s a r e c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y
e s t a b l i s h e d i n a c c o r d a n c e m o s t l y w i t h the B a b y l o n i a n Seleucid e r a ,
b e g i n n i n g in t h e s p r i n g of 3 1 1 B . C . ( O n the q u e s t i o n o f a n o c c a s i o n a l
u s e of t h e M a c e d o n i a n S e l e u c i d c a l e n d a r , b e g i n n i n g in t h e a u t u m n of
3 1 2 B . C . , see v o l . I , p p . 1 7 - 1 9 . C f a l s o G o l d s t e i n , p p . 2 4 - 5 . )
T h e s t a r t l i n g d i v e r g e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e First a n d S e c o n d Books o f the
M a c c a b e e s raise a p a r t i c u l a r p r o b l e m . W h i l s t m o s t s c h o l a r s a t t r i b u t e
p r i o r i t y to F i r s t M a c c a b e e s , B . N i e s e {Kritik der beiden Makkabderbucher,
1900) a t t e m p t e d t o establish t h e o p p o s i t e c o n c l u s i o n . H i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
e n c o u n t e r e d u n i v e r s a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n (cf. Eissfeldt, p . 5 7 9 ) .
As r e g a r d s the d a t e of c o m p o s i t i o n , it is g e n e r a l l y a g r e e d t h a t the
a u t h o r m u s t h a v e w r i t t e n b e f o r e t h e R o m a n c o n q u e s t , i.e. b e f o r e 63
B . C . , for h e k n o w s the R o m a n s o n l y a s friends a n d p r o t e c t o r s o f the
J e w i s h p e o p l e a g a i n s t t h e S y r i a n k i n g s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , since h e is
c o n v e r s a n t w i t h a c h r o n i c l e of t h e h i s t o r y o f J o h n H y r c a n u s , he m u s t
h a v e w r i t t e n at t h e earliest t o w a r d s t h e e n d o f his r e i g n o r , m o r e likely,
s h o r t l y after its t e r m i n a t i o n (104 B . C ) . A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e first d e c a d e s of
t h e first c e n t u r y B . C a p p e a r t o be the m o s t p r o b a b l e p e r i o d of
c o m p o s i t i o n . (Cf G o l d s t e i n , p p . 6 2 - 4 , d a t i n g i M a c . to t h e r e i g n of
A l e x a n d e r J a n n a e u s , t h o u g h n o t l a t e r t h a n 90 B . C )
It is g e n e r a l l y h e l d t h a t i M a c . was o r i g i n a l l y w r i t t e n in H e b r e w or
A r a m a i c . T h i s is a r g u e d p r i m a r i l y from the l i n g u i s t i c c h a r a c t e r o f t h e
2. Cf. I M a c . 9:22, a cliche paUerned o n the books of the Kings. For a full discussion
see Abel, pp. xxvi-viii; Schunck ( 1 9 5 4 ) ; W . H. Brownlee, I D B I I I , p p . 2 0 4 - 5 ; Eissfeldt,
Introduction, p. 5 7 8 ; J . A. Goldstein, I Maccabees (1976), p p . 3 7 - 6 1 , 90-103.
Greek,^ a n d s u p p o r t e d b y O r i g e n a n d J e r o m e . T h e H e b r e w ( o r
A r a m a i c ) title, q u o t e d b y O r i g e n a s Hapfi-qd UaâvaieX, c o n t i n u e s t o
puzzle scholars. O n l y a Greek translation, which was probably k n o w n
to J o s e p h u s , h a s b e e n p r e s e r v e d . I n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e G r e e k Bible, i t
w a s i n h e r i t e d b y t h e C h r i s t i a n C h u r c h , w h i c h e n s u r e d its s u r v i v a l .
O r i g e n , as q u o t e d b y E u s e b i u s Hist. Eccl. v i 25, 2, r e m a r k s at t h e

close of his list o f t h e H e b r e w c a n o n : "E^w Be TOVTCOV earl rd
MaKKaâ'iKa, anep emyeypatrTai Uap^rjd ZaâvaieX. Hence he was
a c q u a i n t e d w i t h a H e b r e w version of w h a t m u s t h a v e b e e n t h e F i r s t
B o o k of M a c c a b e e s , a w o r k w h i c h d i d n o t , h o w e v e r , b e l o n g to t h e
H e b r e w c a n o n . J e r o m e , i n his Prologus Galeatus t o t h e Books of S a m u e l
( P L X X V I I I , cols. 593 ff.) w r i t e s : ' M a c h a b a e o r u m p r i m u m l i b r u m
H e b r a i c u m r e p e r i . S e c u n d u s G r a e c u s est, q u o d ex i p s a q u o q u e ^ p a a e t
p r o b a r i p o t e s t . ' O n t h e m e a n i n g of t h e title c i t e d b y O r i g e n , t h e m o s t
v a r i e d h y p o t h e s e s h a v e b e e n a d v a n c e d . B u t n e a r l y a l l of t h e m d e p e n d
on t h e r e a d i n g Eap^rjd UapâvaeeX, w h i c h h a s p r e v a i l e d since
S t e p h a n u s ( R o b e r t E s t i e n n e ) , w h e r e a s t h e m a n u s c r i p t s a t t e s t Zap^rjQ
HaPavaieX. A possible, t h o u g h n o t v e r y likely, c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n
lafiavaieX a n d Eapap,eX i n i M a c . 14:27 m a y b e n o t e d . T h e first w o r d ,
Zapfirjd, is usually t r a n s l i t e r a t e d as IT'S I S O ('Book of t h e H o u s e o f ) ,
Eap b e i n g c o r r e c t e d into Zâp on t h e basis of O r i g e n ' s E<j>apQeXXeip =
D''7nn I S O ('Book of P s a l m s ' ) . T h e s e c o n d h a l f of t h e title a p p e a r s i n
R o b e r t E s t i e n n e ' s 1 5 4 4 e d i t i o n of E u s e b i u s as EapâveeX, t h e e q u i v a l e n t
of ''33 ItJ?, ' P r i n c e of t h e S o n s of G o d ' . A n o t h e r r e c o n s t r u c t i o n p o i n t s
to ''3D1D, i.e. ' R e s i s t e r s of G o d ' , signifying e i t h e r 'rebels o n G o d ' s
behalf, or, with a n a n t i - H a s m o n a e a n bias, 'rebels against G o d ' (cf
G o l d s t e i n , p p . 2 0 - 2 1 ) . T h e least a r b i t r a r y , b u t sdll n o t w h o l l y
satisfactory, i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t a k e s HaâvaieX, t h e spelling a t t e s t e d in t h e
m a n u s c r i p t s , a s t h e t r a n s l i t e r a d o n of t h e H e b r e w n a m e (cf
TiaiZ^: N e h . 9 : 4 - 5 ; 10:5, 1 1 , 1 3 ; 1 2 : 3 , 14—in''33t2?: i C h r o n . 1 5 : 2 4 ) ,
r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e L X X as Zaâvei, EeâvL Eaâvia, Eeâvia. T h e
w h o l e t i t l e w o u l d t h e n r e a d : 'Book o f the H o u s e of S a b a n a i e l ' ( c f A b e l ,
p . v ) . A l r e a d y G. D a l m a n , Grammatik des jUd.-paldst. Aram. (^1905), p . 7,
c o n j e c t u r e d t h a t EaâvateX w a s a c o r r u p t i o n f r o m ''XlDtt^n ( H a s h m o n ,
H a s m o n a e a n ) . A b e l p o i n t s to t h e r e f e r e n c e Marradlas—Eaâvvmovs in
I E s d . 9:33 w h i c h h e calls ' c u r i o u s ' . H e n o t e s also t h a t S a a d i a refers t o a
3. Cf. P. Joiion, 'Quelques hebralsmes de syntaxe dans le premier livre des Maccabees',
Bibl. 3 (1922), p p . 2 0 4 - 6 ; H . W. Euleson, 'Integrity o f I Maccabees', Transact, of
Connecticut Acad. 27 (1925), p p . 249-384, esp. p. 254; Abel, p . xxiii; Eissfeldt, p. 5 7 8 ;
Goldstein, p . 14: ' O u r author wrote i n elegant biblical Hebrew, taking as his model the
historical books of the Bible.' O n the other h a n d , Goldstein notes that i M a c ' s
vocabulary is remarkably rich so that 'had he wished, the translator could have written in
normal Hellenistic Greek' [ibid.).
/. Historiography 183
a ' S c r o l l of t h e H o u s e of H a s h m o n ' , ''X3Z3tt?n IT'D flVlD, or kitab bene

HaSmona'i {ibid.).
N o f r a g m e n t — H e b r e w or G r e e k — o f i M a c . h a s b e e n f o u n d in t h e
Q u m r a n caves. O n the other h a n d , t h e p r o b a b l e a n t i - H a s m o n a e a n
t e n d e n c y of t h e D e a d S e a sect w o u l d m a k e t h e c o n t r a r y v e r y s u r p r i s i n g .
F o r the m e d i e v a l Megillath Antiochus, see v o l . I , p . 1 1 6 .
J o s e p h u s ' k n o w l e d g e of t h e F i r s t B o o k o f M a c c a b e e s is g e n e r a l l y
r e g a r d e d as u n q u e s t i o n a b l e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , w h e t h e r he w a s a c q u a i n t e d
w i t h t h e closing s e c d o n of t h e b o o k is n o t so c e r t a i n , b e a r i n g in m i n d
t h e a s t o n i s h i n g r a p i d i t y w i t h w h i c h h e passes o v e r the r e i g n o f S i m o n .
C f vol. I, p . 5 0 ; R. M a r c u s , Josephus ( L o e b ) V H , p . 3 3 4 , n . d\
Goldstein, p p . 55-6.
C h r i s t i a n u s e of i M a c . is a t t e s t e d f r o m a n e a r l y d a t e . See T e r t u l l i a n ,
Adv. ludaeos I V , 10 ( C C L I I , p . 1349) : ' N a m et t e m p o r i b u s
M a c c a b a e o r u m s a b b a t i s p u g n a n d o fortiter f e c e r u n t ' , e t c . (cf. i M a c .
2:41 ff.). H i p p o l y t u s , Comment, in Daniel IV, c a p . 3 (ed. B o n w e t s c h , p .
194) refers t o i M a c . 1:5—9, u s i n g t h e f o r m u l a ev TTJ Trpwrr) tcov
MaKKaâiKOJv dvayeypainai. O r i g e n (in a d d i t i o n t o the p a s s a g e a l r e a d y
m e n t i o n e d i n E u s e b i u s , Hist. Eccl. vi 25, 2) e x p l i c i t l y w r i t e s i n his
Comment, in epist. ad Rom., B o o k V I I I , c h a p , i ( P G 14, c o l . 1 1 5 8 ) : 'sicut
M a t h a t h i a s , d e q u o in p r i m o h b r o M a c h a b a e o r u m s c r i p t u m est, q u i a
" z e l a t u s est i n lege D e i " , e t c ' (i M a c . 2:24). N o t e the d e s i g n a t i o n , the
'First B o o k o f M a c c a b e e s ' , a s in t h e p a s s a g e s q u o t e d f r o m H i p p o l y t u s
a n d J e r o m e , a n d in E u s e b i u s , Demonstr. evang. viii 2 , 72, tj npwTT]
KaXovpi€vrj TCOV MaKKafiaicov /SijSAo?. C y p r i a n cites s e v e r a l different
p a s s a g e s in his Testimonia, a l w a y s w i t h the f o r m u l a ' i n M a c h a b a e i s '
( T w i i m . I l l , 4, 1 5 , 5 3 ) .
T h e G r e e k text of i M a c . h a s b e e n h a n d e d d o w n in t h e m a n u s c r i p t s
o f the G r e e k B i b l e . It is a b s e n t , h o w e v e r , f r o m t h e V a t i c a n u s (as w e l l as
from t h e c a n o n o f A t h a n a s i u s a n d t h e E t h i o p i c v e r s i o n w h i c h follows
A t h a n a s i u s ) . T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t m a n u s c r i p t witnesses a r e C o d e x
S i n a i t i c u s ( f o u r t h c e n t u r y ) , A l e x a n d r i n u s (fifth c e n t u r y ) a n d V e n e t u s
( e i g h t h c e n t u r y ) . C f A b e l , p p . liii-lv; G o l d s t e i n , p p . 1 7 5 - 7 .
T h e text of i M a c . is p r i n t e d , a l o n g w i t h t h e o t h e r A p o c r y p h a , in
m o s t e d i t i o n s of t h e S e p t u a g i n t .
Editions
Swete, H . B., The Old Testament in Greek according to the Septuagint I-III Cîgog).
Rahlfs, A., Septuaginta I-II (1935).
K a p p l e r , W,, Maccabaeorum liber I (1936, rev. 1967) [Septuaginta. Vetus T e s t a m e n t u m
Graecum auctoritate Societatis Litterarum Gottingensis e d i t u m ] (Tiiis is t h e most
important edition).
See further:
Wiirthwein, E., The Text of the Old Testament (1979), p p . 72-4.
Versions
a) Latin:
de Bruyne, D., Les anciennes traductions latines des Machabees, Anecdota Maredsolana I V
(1932).
b) Syriac:
Lagarde, P.A. de, Libri Veteris Testamenti Apocryphi syriace (1861).
Ceriani, A . M . , Translatio Syra Pescitto Veteris Testamenti (1876—83).
See furtiier:
Schmidt, G., ' U b e r die beiden syrischen Obersetzungen des 1. Makicabaerbuches', Z A W
17 (1897), pp. 1-47, 233-62.
M o d e r n transladons of the Apocrypha with commentary or notes

Kautzsch, E . (ed.). Die Apokryphen und Pseudepigraphen des Alten Testaments I - I I (1900).
Charles, R . H . (ed.). The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament I - I I (1912-13).
K a h a n a , A., Ha-Sffarim ha-hiônfm (^1956).
H a r t u m , E. S., Ha-Sffarlm ha-hiônhn (1958- ).
Commentaries to 1 Maccabees
Bevenot, H . , Die heilige Schrift des Alten Testaments (1931).
Schotz, D., Die heilige Schrift in deutscher Vbersetzung (1948).
Abel, F.-M., Les livres des Maccabees (1949). (A fundamental work.)
D a n c y , J . C, I Maccabees (1954).
Abel, F.-M., and Starcky, J., Z-a Bible de Jerusalem (^1961).
Tedesche, S. S., The Books of the Maccabees (1962).
Bartlett, J. R., The First and Second Books of the Maccabees (1973).
Goldstein, J . A., I Maccabees—The Anchor Bible (1976). (Up-to-date and excellent.)
Schunck, K.-D., / . Makkabderbuch (1980).
Literature
Niese, B., Kritik der beiden Makkabderbucher (1900).
Ettelson, H . W., The Integrity of I Maccabees (1925).
Kolbe, W., Beitrage zur syrischen undjudischen Geschichte (1926).
Momigliano, A. D . , Prime linee de storia della tradizione maccabaica (1930, 1968).
Bickerman(n), E., Der Gott der Makkabder (1937). E.T. The God of the Maccabees (1979).
Schunck, K.-D., Die Quellen des I. undII. Makkabderbuches (1954).
Sachs, A. J . , and Wiseman, D. J . , 'A Babylonian K i n g List of the Hellenistic Period', I r a q
16 (1954), p p . 202-12.
Schaumberger, J . , 'Die neue Seleukiden-Liste B M 35603 u n d die makkabaische
Chronologie', Bibl. 36 (1955), pp. 4 2 3 - 8 ) .
Levy, Isidore, 'Les deux livres des Maccabees et le Hvre hebraique des Hasmoneens',
Semitica5 (1955), p p . 15-36.
Ploger, O., 'Die makkabaischen Burgen', Z D P V 71 (1955), p p . 141-72.
Farmer, W . R., Maccabees, Zealots and Josephus (1956).
Ploger, O., 'Die Feldziige der Seleukiden gegen den M a k k a b a e r J u d a s ' , Z D P V 74 (1958),
PP- 155-88.
Tcherikover, V., The Hellenistic Civilization and thejews (1959).
Wibbing, S., 'Zur Topographie einzelner Schlachten des J u d a s M a k k a b a u s ' , Z D P V 78
(1962), pp. 159-70.
Ravenna, A., '1 Maccabei nella letteratura rabbinica', R B i b I t 10 (1962), p p . 384—91.
Krcissig, H . , 'Der Makkabaeraufstand. Zur Frage seiner sozialokonomischen Z u s a m m e n -
hange und Wirkungen', Studi classici 4 (1962), p p . 143-72.
/. Historiography 185
H a n h a r t , R., ' Z u r Zeitrechnung des I u n d II M a k k a b a e r b u c h e s ' , in A. Jepsen and

R. H a n h a r t , Untersuchungen zur israelitisch-judischen Chronologie (1964), pp. 49-96.
Hengel, M.., Judentum und Hellenismus (1969, 1973). E.T. Judaism andHellenism (1974).
Davies, P . , 'A N o t e on i Mace, iii.46', J T h S t 23 (1972), p p . 117-21.
Neuhaus, G. O . , Studien zu den poetischen Stiicken im i. Makkabderbuch (1974). Idem, 'Quellen
im I . Makkabaerbuch?', J S J (1974), p p . 162-75.
M u r p h y - O ' C o n n o r , J . , 'Demetrius I and the T e a c h e r of Righteousness (i M a c e , x
25-45)', R B 83 (1976), p p . 400-20.
Davies, P . , 'Hasidim in the M a c c a b e a n Period', J J S 28 (1977), p p . 127-40.
Millar, F . , ' T h e Background of t h e M a c c a b e a n R e v o l u t i o n : Reflections on M a r d n
Htn^tlh Judaism and Hellenism', 1]}^ 29 (1978), pp. 1-21.
Vermes, G., The Dead Sea Scrolls: Qumran in Perspective (1977, 1982), p p . 137—62.
Bickerman, E., Studies in Jewish and Christian History. Part II (1980), pp. 24-135.
Bar-Kochva, B., The Battles 0/ the Hasmonaeans: The Times of Judas Maccabaeus (1980)
[Hebr.].
Eisenman, R., Maccabees, Z^^dokites, Christians and Qumran (1983). (An idiosyncratic work.)
Martola, N., Capture and Liberation: A Study in the Composition of the First Book of Maccabees
(,984).
2 . The History of John Hyrcanus

T h e ' H i s t o r y of J o h n H y r c a n u s ' , a w o r k s i m i l a r i n all p r o b a b i l i t y t o i
M a c c a b e e s , is m e n t i o n e d in i M a c . 1 6 : 2 3 - 4 : ' T h e rest of t h e s t o r y of
J o h n , h i s w a r s a n d the d e e d s of v a l o u r h e p e r f o r m e d , t h e walls he b u i l t ,
a n d his exploits, a r e w r i t t e n i n t h e a n n a l s o f his h i g h p r i e s t h o o d f r o m
t h e t i m e w h e n he s u c c e e d e d h i s f a t h e r . ' A p a r t from this r e p o r t , n o t h i n g
is k n o w n of t h e w o r k . J o s e p h u s w a s n o t a c q u a i n t e d w i t h it. H i s m e a g r e
c o m m e n t s o n t h e r e i g n of J o h n H y r c a n u s a r e e i t h e r , w h e r e t h e y
c o n c e r n e x t e r n a l p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y , b o r r o w e d from G r e e k h i s t o r i a n s , or,
w h e r e t h e y r e l a t e to i n t e r n a l affairs, p u r e l y l e g e n d a r y in c h a r a c t e r .
T h e r e is not t h e slightest e v i d e n c e for t h e use of a c o n t e m p o r a r y J e w i s h
source.
I n v i e w o f the e a r l y d a t e a t w h i c h t h i s c h r o n i c l e of J o h n H y r c a n u s
v a n i s h e d , it is a l s o i n c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t it s h o u l d still h a v e e x i s t e d in
m a n u s c r i p t f o r m a s l a t e as t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , as w a s s u p p o s e d by
m a n y a c c o r d i n g t o the r e c o r d s of S i x t u s S e n e n s i s .
I n h i s Bibliotheca Sancta ( 1 5 6 6 ) , p . 6 1 f, S i x t u s Senensis refers t o a

F o u r t h Book of M a c c a b e e s w h i c h h e saw in t h e l i b r a r y of S a n t e s
P a g n i n u s in L y o n s , a n d q u o t e s its o p e n i n g p h r a s e : ' A n d after t h e d e a t h
o f S i m o n , his son J o h n b e c a m e H i g h - P r i e s t i n his p l a c e . ' A c c o r d i n g to
Sixtus Senensis, t h e b o o k gives t h e h i s t o r y of J o h n H y r c a n u s i n the
s a m e w a y as J o s e p h u s , b u t i n a d i f f e r e n t , H e b r a i z i n g , s t y l e : ' H i s t o r i a e
series et n a r r a t i o e a d e m fere est q u a e a p u d J o s e p h u m l i b r o
A n t i q u i t a t u m d e c i m o t e r t i o ; sed s t y l u s , h e b r a i c i s idiotismis a b u n d a n s ,
l o n g e d i s p a r . ' H e t h u s p r e s u m e s t h a t t h i s is a G r e e k t r a n s l a t i o n o f the
C h r o n i c l e o f H y r c a n u s m e n t i o n e d in i M a c . 16:24. A s the l i b r a r y in
q u e s t i o n w a s d e s t r o y e d by fire, t h e m a n u s c r i p t c a n no l o n g e r be
re-examined. H o w e v e r , from t h e s u m m a r y provided by Sixtus it would

s e e m t h a t the b o o k w a s i n fact a r e p r o d u c t i o n of J o s e p h u s t h r o u g h t h e
i n t e r m e d i a r y o f a H e b r e w text.
3 . Josephus - History of the Jewish War

T h e h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c a l i m p u l s e seems t o h a v e d i e d a w a y in J e w i s h circles
in p o s t - H a s m o n a e a n t i m e s . T h e r e is a t l e a s t n o m e n t i o n of a n y c o h e r e n t
h i s t o r i c a l chronicle h a v i n g b e e n u n d e r t a k e n . ' T h e e v e n t s of A . D . 6 6 - 7 0
p r o v i d e d the first r e n e w e d i n d u c e m e n t for d o i n g so. J o s e p h , son of
M a t t a t h i a s , o r F l a v i u s J o s e p h u s , w r o t e t h e h i s t o r y of t h i s w a r ,
o r i g i n a l l y in h i s m o t h e r t o n g u e , A r a m a i c , w h i c h he i n t e n d e d p r i m a r i l y
for t h e dvo) ^dpâpoi, t h a t is t o say, for t h e ' P a r t h i a n s a n d B a b y l o n i a n s
a n d the m o s t r e m o t e t r i b e s of A r a b i a w i t h o u r c o u n t r y m e n b e y o n d t h e
E u p h r a t e s a n d the i n h a b i t a n t s of A d i a b e n e ' , BJ. i 2 (6). All w e k n o w
of t h e A r a m a i c w o r k consists i n a n a l l u s i o n b y J o s e p h u s h i m s e l f in h i s
G r e e k revision of t h e h i s t o r y of the J e w i s h W a r , B.J. i i (3) : 'I p r o p o s e
to p r o v i d e t h e subjects o f the R o m a n E m p i r e w i t h a n a c c o u n t of t h e
facts by t r a n s l a t i n g i n t o G r e e k t h e n a r r a t i v e w h i c h I p r e v i o u s l y
c o m p o s e d in m y v e r n a c u l a r t o n g u e , a n d sent t o t h e b a r b a r i a n s in t h e
interior.'
T h e G r e e k e d i t i o n of t h i s w o r k , as i n g e n e r a l all t h e e x t a n t w r i t i n g s of
J o s e p h u s , will be d e a l t w i t h b e l o w , p p . 5 4 5 - 4 6 . S e e a l s o vol. I, p p .
43-63-'
1. Four types of historical d o c u m e n t s — t h e term being used in a broader s e n s e — a r e

attested in this period, ( i ) Genealogies, especially priestly registers, c f Josephus, Vita i ( 6 ) ;
C. Ap. i 7 (31). See vol. I I , pp. 240, 242, n. 16, and I. T a - S h m a , 'Genealogy', E n c . J u d . 7,
cols. 379-83. (2) Megillath Tdanith, listing days unsuitable for fasdng because they
c o m m e m o r a t e h a p p y events of the past. Cf vol. I, pp. 114-15. A n as yet unpublished
fragmentary liturgical calendar from Q u m r a n Cave I V contains also historical allusions.
Cf J . T. Milik, Ten Years of Discovery (1959), p. 73. (3) Q u m r a n biblical commentaries
represendng historical events a s fulfilments of prophecy. Cf below, p p . 420-51. (4)
C h a p t e r i ofmAboth, a list of t h e predecessors of Hillel and Shammai. C f E. Bickerman,
'La chaine de la tradition pharisienne', RB 59 (1952), p. 47. None of these composidons
can be categorized as historical literature proper. O n the problem of Jewish
historiography, see A. D . Momigliano, 'Remarks o n Eastern History Writing', Terzo
contributo alia storia degli studi classici e del mondo antico I (1966), p p . 237—8. Cf. also G.
Vermes, ' T h e Essenes a n d History', J J S 32 (1981), p p . 29-31 ( = Jesus and the World of
Judaism (1983), p p . 137-9).
2. A. Schalit suggests t h a t Josephus' account of the history of Babylonian J e w r y and t h e
episode of t h e brothers Asinacus and Asileus i n Ant. xviii 9, 1-9 (310-79) are based on a n
Aramaic source. Whilst t h e theory is perfectly plausible, t h e philological evidence found
in t h e difficult passage of xviii 9, 5 (343), namely avqp . . . KTMWV = HV''t3p K 1 3 J , 'dead
m a n ' , is unconvincing. C f 'Evidence of an A r a m a i c source in Josephus' "Antiquides of
the J e w s ' " , ASTI 4 (1965), pp. 163-88. Schalit's hypothesis has been adopted by L. H .
Feldman in Josephus (Loeb) ix (1965), p . 533.
II. R E L I G I O U S P O E T R Y
/. Maccabaean Psalms
T h e M a c c a b a e a n d a t i n g of a n u m b e r o f P s a l m s , m u c h i n v o g u e i n the
l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y — B . D u h m in h i s c o m m e n t a r y first p u b l i s h e d in
1899 p r o p o s e d a l a t e o r i g i n for t h e m a j o r i t y o f p o e m s in t h e P s a l t e r ' — i s
i n c r e a s i n g l y l o s i n g p o p u l a r i t y in c o n t e m p o r a r y s c h o l a r s h i p . T h e r e is
doubtless n o a priori a r g u m e n t against M a c c a b a e a n psalms. Poetic
a c t i v i t y c o n t i n u e d a m o n g J e w s d u r i n g t h e i n t e r - T e s t a m e n t a l age, as is
s h o w n by t h e a p o c r y p h a l P s a l m s , t h e P s a l m s o f S o l o m o n a n d the
Q u m r a n h y m n s (see b e l o w ) . N o r c a n t h e final c l o s u r e of t h e b i b l i c a l
c a n o n b e safely i n v o k e d , since t h e b o o k of D a n i e l , at least, e n t e r e d it
d u r i n g the M a c c a b a e a n - H a s m o n a e a n e r a (see b e l o w ) . O n t h e o t h e r
h a n d , most of t h e P s a l m allusions associated in t h e p a s t w i t h
M a c c a b a e a n e v e n t s m a y e q u a l l y b e a p p l i e d t o a n e a r l i e r period.^ Also,
I M a c . 7:17 itself c o n t a i n s a c i t a t i o n from Ps. 79:2—3 i n t r o d u c e d w i t h a
f o r m u l a i n d i c a t i n g H o l y S c r i p t u r e [Kara rov Xoyov ov eypaipev a v r o v ) .
T h i s w o u l d a p p e a r to i m p l y t h a t t h e P s a l t e r w a s a l r e a d y p a r t o f the
b i b l i c a l c a n o n . ^ I t has also b e e n p o i n t e d o u t t h a t f r o m t h e h n g u i s t i c
point of view the Psalms p r e d a t e Chronicles, a fourth-century B . C .
composition,'* a n d t h e r e is a g r o w i n g t e n d e n c y to r e c o g n i z e t h e P s a l t e r
as c o m p l e t e b y t h e end of t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y B . c . at t h e latest.^ All i n all,
w h i l e n o a b s o l u t e d e n i a l of t h e M a c c a b a e a n d a t i n g of s o m e P s a l m s c a n
b e a d v a n c e d w i t h t o t a l c e r t a i n t y , ^ the possibility of s u c h late
c o m p o s i t i o n s m u s t be r e s t r i c t e d to a h a n d f u l (Pss. 44, 74, 79 a n d 8 3 are
a m o n g those m o s t f r e q u e n t l y p r o p o s e d ) , ^ a n d e v e n t h a t p o s s i b i h t y
s h o u l d b e s e e n as r e m o t e . J . A. S o g g i n c o r r e c t l y e c h o e s t h e c o m m o n
1. B. D u h m , DiePsalmen (1899, ^1922), p p . xxi-iv.

2. Cf. S. Mowinckel, The Psalms in Israel's Worship I (1962), p. 118; I I , pp. 154-5.
3. Cf Mowinckel, op. cit. I I , p. 1 9 9 .
4. M. Tsevat, A Study of the Language of the Biblical Psalms (1955), pp. 70-2.
5. Cf J . Hempel, 'Psalms, Book oP, IDB I I I , p. 943.
6. For a balanced evaluation of the a r g u m e n t s , see P . R. A c k r o y d , 'Criteria for the
M a c c a b e a n D a t i n g of O l d T e s t a m e n t Literature', V T 3 (1953), p p . 113-32.
7. Eissfeldt [Introduction, p. 113) would n o t a d m i t more than 'one or two' M a c c a b a e a n
Psalms, a n d notes that many of the post-exilic features exhibited in these poems may have
resulted from a revision of older compositions [ibid., p. 448). M o w i n c k e l also points out
t h a t at t h e time of the institution of the H a n u k k a h festival by t h e Maccabees to celebrate
the rededicadon of the Sanctuary, ' n o new festal psalm was composed, but Ps. 3 0 — t h e
existing "canonical" psalm deemed to be most suitable—was used as a thanksgiving
psalm for the deliverance and the consecration of the T e m p l e ' [op. cit. II, p . 155). The
titular inscription, 'Song for the dedication of the T e m p l e ' (rcan DDlin T'tT) was
probably added to this Psalm in M a c c a b a e a n times. Cf i Mac. 4:36.
o p i n i o n p r e v a l e n t t o d a y w h e n h e d e c l a r e s the t h e o r y of a M a c c a b a e a n
d a t i n g of P s a l m s to b e ' o b s o l e t e ' . ^
2. Apocryphal Psalms
T h e discovery of a n i n c o m p l e t e P s a l m s scroll in Q u m r a n C a v e 1 1 , ' w i t h
extra-canonical poems interspersed a m o n g t h e traditional composi
tions, h a s b r o u g h t t o the f o r e g r o u n d t h e p r o b l e m of a p o c r y p h a l P s a l m s .
O n e of these, Ps. 1 5 1 , a c c o r d i n g to the s u p e r s c r i p t i o n D a v i d ' s ' o w n ' ,
' s u p e r n u m e r a r y ' h y m n , forms p a r t o f the S e p t u a g i n t Psalter.* T h e s a m e
text, t o g e t h e r w i t h four f u r t h e r pieces, h a s s u r v i v e d in S y r i a c in t w o
biblical m a n u s c r i p t s , a n d in e i g h t copies o f ' T h e B o o k of I n v e s t i g a t i o n '
{kUaba / durrasha) b y the t e n t h c e n t u r y N e s t o r i a n b i s h o p Elija of A n b a r .
F i r s t n o t e d in 1759 b y S. E. a n d J . S. A s s e m a n i in t h e i r d e s c r i p t i o n of
M s . V a t . sir. 1 8 3 i n the c a t a l o g u e o f the V a t i c a n L i b r a r y , t h e P s a l m s
w e r e e d i t e d from a C a m b r i d g e m a n u s c r i p t by W . W r i g h t i n 1 8 8 7 , a n d ,
on t h e basis of f u r t h e r m a n u s c r i p t s a n d a c c o m p a n i e d by a r e t r a n s l a t i o n
i n t o H e b r e w , b y M . N o t h in 1930. T h e latest critical e d i t i o n of t h e
S y r i a c t e x t a p p e a r e d in 1 9 7 2 in the L e i d e n P e s h i t t a project.^
iiQPs" cols. 28 s u p p l i e s the H e b r e w t e x t of P s . 1 5 1 ( = Syr. I ) ; cols.
18 a n d 24, t h a t of P s a l m s 1 5 4 a n d 155 (Syr. I V a n d V ) . Pss. 1 5 2 - 3
(Syr. n and I I I ) h a v e n o t been retrieved, either because they were
i n c l u d e d in t h e lost p a r t o f the scroll, or b e c a u s e they n e v e r figured in it.
By c o n t r a s t , t h e Q u m r a n m a n u s c r i p t (cols. 19, 22 a n d 26) yields t h r e e
f u r t h e r u n k n o w n H e b r e w p o e m s , as w e l l as (col. 27) a s u m m a r y
a c c o u n t of all the D a v i d Psalms (•'''?nn) a n d songs (T'2?). Also, a
f r a g m e n t a r y P s a l m s scroll from C a v e 4 c o n t a i n s r e m a i n s of 11 QjPs" col.
22, a n d t w o f u r t h e r a p o c r y p h a l poems.* S i n c e t h e D e a d S e a m a n u s c r i p t
p r o v i d e s t h e o r i g i n a l H e b r e w o f all t h e t e x t s a p a r t from t h e S y r i a c Pss.
I I a n d I I I , it will b e used as t h e m a i n s o u r c e for the p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e
A p o c r y p h a l P s a l m s , a n d t h e i n d i v i d u a l pieces will b e d e s i g n a t e d
a c c o r d i n g to t h e symbols a d o p t e d in D J D I V .
iiQPs" iji (= Syr. Ps. 7) is a p o e t i c m i d r a s h on i S a m . 1 6 : 1 - 1 3 , in
8. Introduction to the Old Testament (1980), p. 364.

1. For t h e editio princeps, see J . A. Sanders, D J D I V (1965).
2. Cf. H . B. Swete a n d R. R. Ottley, Introduction to the O.T. in Greek (1914), p p . 252-3.
Swete noted resemblances between this poem a n d various biblical passages, but felt
unable to decide whether the original was Greek or H e b r e w .
3. Bibliographical references are listed at t h e end of this chapter. The link between the
apocryphal Psalms and Syrian Christianity lies in the late eighth century manuscript
discovery i n the Jericho region mentioned by the Nestorian Patriarch T i m o t h y I, which
included 'more t h a n two hundred Psalms of David'. Cf J . Strugnell, H T h R 5 9 (1966),
pp. 257-8. See also pp. 205-6 below. ^
4. Cf J . Starcky, 'Psaumes apocryphes de la grotte 4 de Q u m r a n (4QPS V I I - X ) ' , R B
73(1966), P P 353-71-
//. Religious Poetry 18g
w h i c h t h e y o u n g s h e p h e r d , D a v i d , relates h o w h e w a s c h o s e n a n d
a n o i n t e d to b e t h e r u l e r of h i s p e o p l e . B o t h t h e G r e e k a n d t h e S y r i a c
e n d w i t h a m e n t i o n of his v i c t o r y o v e r G o l i a t h . T h e l a t t e r p o i n t is,
h o w e v e r , t h e s u b j e c t of a s e p a r a t e H e b r e w p o e m d e s i g n a t e d a s Ps. 1 5 1
B, of w h i c h o n l y t h e d t l e a n d t h e first verse h a v e s u r v i v e d i n col. 28,
Hnes 13 a n d 14. W h i l s t t h e S y r i a c a n d t h e G r e e k a r e v e r y close to o n e
a n o t h e r , t h e y r e p r e s e n t a n a b r i d g e m e n t a n d a r e w o r k i n g of t w o
H e b r e w P s a l m s . T h e s u p e r s c r i p t i o n s a r e a l s o s u i t a b l y re-edited.^ I n
verses 3 a n d 4, trees a n d flocks of s h e e p a r e s a i d to h a v e e n j o y e d D a v i d ' s
m u s i c , a possible a d o p t i o n a n d a d a p t a t i o n of t h e O r p h e u s m y t h . ^
iiQPs'^ 1^4 ( = Syr. Ps. IP) is a s a p i e n t i a l h y m n , the b e g i n n i n g a n d
e n d of w h i c h m a y b e r e c o n s t r u c t e d from the S y r i a c . P r a i s e of G o d a n d
m e d i t a t i o n o n his T o r a h a r e t h e essential acts of p i e t y e q u a l to
sacrificial w o r s h i p (verses 10—14). T h e v o c a b u l a r y is b i b l i cal , free of a n y
definite Q u m r a n t e r m i n o l o g y . ' '
iiQPs" 1 5 5 ( = Syr. Ps. Ill) is a m i x t u r e of a n i n d i v i d u a l l a m e n t a t i o n
a n d t h a n k s g i v i n g . T h e final lines h a v e b e e n p r e s e r v e d o n l y i n S y r i a c .
F r o m l i n e 9 o n w a r d s t h e p o e m is a n a l p h a b e t i c acrostic.^
Pss. IJ2 and i^j {Syr. Pss. IV and V), w h i c h lack a H e b r e w o r i g i n a l ,
a r e b o t h a s c r i b e d t o D a v i d , a n d d e p i c t h i m as the p r o t e c t o r o f his flock
a g a i n s t wild a n i m a l s . Ps. I V is a p o e t i c c o m p l a i n t a n d a p p e a l for d i v i n e
h e l p ; P s . V is a t h a n k s g i v i n g .
ijQPs" Plea for Deliverance { = iiQPs''). Fifteen verses s u r v i v e , b u t t h e
b e g i n n i n g is missing. T h i s is a n i n d i v i d u a l t h a n k s g i v i n g h y m n
c e l e b r a t i n g t h e p o e t ' s e s c a p e from d e a t h . T h e t e r m i n o l o g y is b i b l i cal
a n d recalls I s a . 3 8 : 1 8 - 1 9 ; J o b 7-21 ; Ps. 6:4-5, ^tc.^
iiQPs" Zion {= 4<l P/ VII, 14-VIII, 16), an irregular, but
5. The H e b r e w title is 'Hallelujah. O f D a v i d son of Jesse' for 1 5 1 A a n d ' T h e beginning

of David's power after God's prophet h a d anointed him' for 151 B. T h e L X X reads OIJTOJ
o ifiaXfJiOS tSioypaôs els AaveiS Kat €ô0ev TOV dpiOfjiov, ore enovo/xaxriaev TO) PoXidS. T h e
Syriac has either 'Of David. W h e n h e a l o n e fought with Goliath', or 'Thanksgiving of
David'.
6. See Sanders, DJD V , p. 6 1 - 3 , noting also the D o u r a E u r o p o s painting of a musician?
?and two lions identified either as O r p h e u s , o r more probably David. Cf. further Sanders,?
? The Dead Sea Psalms Scroll (1967), p p . 9 8 - 1 0 0 ; A. D u p o n t - S o m m e r , ' L e Psaume cH dans
i i Q _ P s ^ et le p r o b l e m e de son origine essenienne', Semitica 14 (1964), p p . 2 5 - 6 2 ; I.
Rabinowitz, ' T h e alleged Orphism of 11Q, Pss col. 28, 3-12', Z A W 76 (1964), pp.
193-200; M. Smith, 'Psalm 151, David, Jesus a n d O r p h e u s ' , Z A W 92 (1980), pp.
247-53-
7. None of the terms alluded to by S a n d e r s (DJD IV, p . 70) contradicts this j u d g e m e n t .
T h e expression 1W TT'Snn, described as ' t h e most arresting p h r a s e ' , does n o t seem to
appear anywhere in the Scrolls.
8. The superscription for Syr. Pss. I I and I I I speaks of a ' P r a y e r of H e z e k i a h ' .
9. Another copy of t h e Plea of Deliverance, also from i i Q , h a s been published b y J.
van der Ploeg, ' F r a g m e n t s d ' u n manuscrit des psaumes d e Q u m r a n ( i i Q P s )', RB 74
(1967), p p . 408-12.
I go §32. Jewish Literature in Hebrew or Aramaic
c o m p l e t e , a l p h a b e t i c a c r o s t i c , is a h y m n o f p r a i s e o f J e r u s a l e m ,
m o d e l l e d on I s a . 5 4 : 1 - 8 , 60:1—22 a n d 62:6-8. T h e l a n g u a g e is m o s t l y
biblical.
/ / Q P / Great, is a s a p i e n t i a l h y m n t o t h e C r e a t o r , e n d i n g w i t h
e x p r e s s i o n s b o r r o w e d f r o m J e r . 1 0 : 1 2 - 1 3 a n d P s . 135:7.
IX, I-IJ p r e s e r v e s relics of a n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l h y m n a l l u d i n g t o
t h e j u d g e m e n t of t h e w i c k e d a n d t h e r e w a r d of the p o o r a n d t h o s e w h o
fear G o d .
4QP/ X, 5—5 is a n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l glorification of J u d a h , v i c t o r i o u s
o v e r h e r enemies, c o u c h e d i n t e r m s h e a v i l y r e m i n i s c e n t of b i b l i c a l
poetry.
iiQPs'^ Dav Comp, a l t h o u g h w r i t t e n in p r o s e , m a y usefully b e a d d e d
to this list, as it consists of a c a t a l o g u e of D a v i d ' s inspired p o e t r y .
H a v i n g received from G o d a 'discerning and enlightened spirit' a n d
c o m p o s i n g ' t h r o u g h p r o p h e c y ' , he w a s t h e a u t h o r of 3,600 P s a l m s , 3 6 4
s o n g s for t h e d a i l y T a m i d offering, 5 2 songs for t h e S a b b a t h offering, 30
s o n g s for festival offerings a n d f o u r songs t o be p e r f o r m e d for t h e
stricken (D"'S713lBn p r o b a b l y d e m o n i a c s : in all, 4,050 verse
compositions.'^
F o r t h e d a t i n g o f t h e a p o c r y p h a l P s a l m s from C a v e 1 1 , a n d b y
a n a l o g y t h e t w o S y r i a c P s a l m s w i t h o u t H e b r e w o r i g i n a l , it is to b e
r e c a l l e d t h a t o n a r c h a e o l o g i c a l a n d p a l a e o g r a p h i c a l basis 4QP/ is
assigned to t h e m i d d l e o f t h e first c e n t u r y B . C , a n d iiQPs^ to t h e
b e g i n n i n g of t h e first c e n t u r y A . D . , " a n d t h a t , o n a c c o u n t of t h e
i n c l u s i o n of E c c l u s 51 o n cols. 21—22, t h e c o m p i l a t i o n itself c a n n o t
a n t e d a t e the early s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C . I t m a y t h e r e f o r e b e safely
a s s u m e d t h a t all t h e a p o c r y p h a l p o e m s b e l o n g t o t h e p r e - C h r i s t i a n e r a ,
a n d since the H e b r e w Vorlage o f the L X X Ps. 1 5 1 r e p r e s e n t s a n e a r l i e r
v e r s i o n t h a n t h e t e x t u s e d by the G r e e k ( a n d Syriac) t r a n s l a t o r ( s ) , a
s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C . terminus ad quern m a y be p o s t u l a t e d . A l a t e r d a t e
w o u l d suggest itself o n l y if t h e P s a l m s w e r e identified as Q u m r a n
10. This list is clearly a sectarian product presupposing the solar calendar of t h e
Q u m r a n community (52 weeks, 364 days). The 'stricken', i.e. persons possessed by
demons, a r e referred to i n rabbinic literature (yShab. 8 b ; yErub 26c; bShebu. 15b) in
connection with Ps. 91:1-9. I n this connection, mention should be m a d e of a badly
damaged scroll from Cave 11 [iiQPsAp") containing apocryphal Psalms and Ps. 91 in a
curious recension. T h e fragments attest the root SSD, refer t o demons (D''^ty, '^~\) and to
the ' N a m e of Y H W H ' , n o doubt as a means of exorcism. None of the fragments is large
enough for translation. C f J . v a n d e r Ploeg, 'Le p s a u m e xci dans u n e recension d e
Q u m r a n ' , R B 72 (1965), pp. 210-17 a n d plates V I I - I X ; ' U n petit rouleau de psaumes
apocryphes ( i i Q PsAp^)', Tradition und Glaube—Festgabe Jiir K. G. Kuhn (1971), p p .
128—39 plates I I - V I L For 'striking' demons a n d 'the stricken', see also 4Q510 i, 6 ;
4(^11 i i , 4 a n d 8 i n M . Baillet, D J D V I I , pp. 216,227-8.
11. Cf Starcky, art. cit. [in n. 4 ] , p. 3 5 5 ; Sanders, D J D I V , pp. 6—9.
IL Religious Poetry 191
c o m p o s i t i o n s / * b u t , a p a r t from the definitely s e c t a r i a n p r o s e c a t a l o g u e ,

n o t h i n g in t h e t e x t s w o u l d justify s u c h a n a t t r i b u d o n . B e s i d e s , t h e y a r e
not grouped in t h e scroll a s a unit, but are dispersed among the
c a n o n i c a l P s a l m s . O n t h e w h o l e , n o n e of t h e s e p o e m s is h k e l y t o be
l a t e r t h a n t h e first h a l f of t h e s e c o n d century B . C . , b u t several may
b e l o n g t o t h e l a t e P e r s i a n or e a r l y H e l l e n i s t i c e r a s . ' ^
Further apocryphal Psalms may have been preserved in inter-

Testamental writings a n d the New Testament. Among the former,
P s e u d o - P h i l o ' s B o o k of B i b l i c a l A n t i q u i t i e s (see b e l o w ) t r a n s m i t s s e v e r a l
p o e m s o f ' D a v i d ' , o n e of w h i c h ( L A B 59:1-7) h a s b e e n r e t r a n s l a t e d i n t o
Hebrew by J . Strugnell.'* A n o t h e r candidate for recognition as a
psalmic exorcism sung b y D a v i d t o S a u l is L A B 6 O : Q . ' ^ I n the New
Testament, Lk. 1:46-55 ( M a g n i f i c a t ) and 1:68-79 ( B e n e d i c t u s ) have
b e e n s e e n as r e - a d a p t e d h y m n s of p r a i s e . ' ^
Editions
Hebrew text
Sanders, J . A., The Psalms Scroll of Qumran Cave 11 [ D J D I V ] (1965).
Idem, The Dead Sea Psalms Scroll (1967).
Starcicy, J . , 'Psaumes apocryphes d e la grotte 4 d e Q u m r a n ( 4 Q Ps^ V l l - X ) ' , R B 73
(1966), pp. 353-71.
Ploeg, J . van d e r , 'Un petit rouleau d e psaumes apocryphes (i i Q P s A p ^ ) ' , Tradition und
Glaube—Festgabe K.-G. Kuhn (1971), p p . 128-39 and plates I I - V I I .
Translations
English
Sanders, op. cit.
French
D u p o n t - S o m m e r , A., Annuaire du College de France 64 (1964/5), pp. 3 1 7 - 2 0 ; 66
(1966/7), p p . 358-67.
Italian
Moraldi, L, I manoscritti di Qumrdn (1971), p p . 465-94.
Syriac Text
Wright, W . , 'Some Apocryphal Psalms in Syriac', Proceed. Soc. Bibl. A r c h . 9 (1887), pp.
257-66.
Noth, M . , 'Die fiinf syrisch uberlieferten a p o k r y p h e n Psalmen', Z A W 48 (1930), pp.
1-23.
Baars, W . , 'Apocryphal Psalms', Vetus Testamentum syriace [Leiden Peshitta] I V , 6 (1972).
12. Cf. M . Delcor, ' C i n q nouveaux psaumes esseniens?', R Q i (1958), pp. 85-102 ; Les
Hymnesde Qumrdn (1962), p p . 2 9 9 - 3 1 9 ; M . Philonenko, 'L'origine essenienne des cinq
psaumes syriaques de David', Semitica 9 (1959), pp. 35-48.
13. A. S. van d e r Woude, 'Die fiinf syrischen Psalmen', J S H R Z IV, i (1974), p. 35.
14. ' M o r e Psalms of " D a v i d " ' , C B Q 2 7 (1965), p p . 207-16.
15. O n this poem, see M. Philonenko, ' R e m a r q u e s sur u n h y m n e essenien d e caractere
gnostique', Semidca 11 (1961), p p . 4 3 - 5 4 . O n t h e exorcisdc traits, cf G . Wcrmts, Jesus the
Jew (1973), p p . 6 7 , 240.
16. P. Winter, 'Magnificat a n d B e n e d i c t u s — M a c c a b a e a n Psalms?', B J R L 37 (1954),
pp. 328-47.
Translation
English
Wright, art. cit.
German
W o u d e , A. S. van der, ' D i e fiinf syrischen Psalmen', J S H R Z IV, i (1974), pp. 39-46.
Bibliography
Delcor, M . , 'Cinq nouveau psaumes esseniens?', R Q i (1958), pp. 85-102.
Philonenko, M., 'L'origine essenienne des cinq psaumes syriaques de David', Semitica 9
(1959), pp. 35-48.
Delcor, M . , Les Hymnesde Qumrdn (1962), pp. 299-319.
Carmignac, J., ' L a forme poetique d u Psaume 151 de la grotte 11', R Q 4 (1963), p p .
371-8.
Brownlee, W . H . , ' T h e i i Q , C o u n t e r p a r t to Psalm 151, 1-5', R Q , 4 (1963), pp. 379-87.
Skehan, P . W., ' T h e Apocryphal Psalm 151', CBQ,25 (19^63), pp. 407-9.
Dupont-Sommer, A., ' L e psaume C L I dans le i i Q , P s et le probleme de s o n origine
essenienne', Semitica 14 (1964), p p . 25-62.
Strugnell, J . , ' N o t e s on t h e Text and Transmission o f the Apocryphal Psalms 151, 154 ( =
Syr. I I ) and 155 ( = Syr. I l l ) ' , H T h R 5 9 (1966), pp. 257-81.
Delcor, M . , ' L ' H y m n e a Sion d u rouleau des Psaumes de l a grotte 11 d e Q u m r a n ' , R Q 6
(1967), pp. 71-88.
M a g n e , J . , 'Recherches sur les Psaumes 151, 154, 155. Bibliographie chronologique', R Q
8 (1975), PP- 503-7-
Idem, 'Orphisme, pythagorisme, essenisme d a n s le texte hebreu d u Psaume 151', R Q 8
(1975), PP- 508-47-
Idem, 'Les textes grec et syriaque du Psaume 151', R Q 8 (1975), p p . 548-64.
Idem, 'Le verset des trois pierres d a n s la tradition d u Psaume 151', R Q 8 (1975), p p .
565-91-
C a r m i g n a c , J., 'Nouvelles precisions s u r le Psaume 151', R Q 8 (1975), pp- 593-7-
Skehan, P . W., 'Again t h e Syriac Apocryphal Psalms', C B Q 3 8 (1976), p p . 143-58.
M a g n e , J . , 'Le Psaume i 5 4 e t l e Psaume 155', R Q 9 (1977), pp. 95-111.
Auffret, P . , 'Structure litteraire et interpretadon d u Psaume 151 de la Grotte 11 de
Q u m r a n ' , R Q 9 (1977), p p . 163-88.
Idem, 'Structure d u Psaume 155', R Q 9 (1978), pp. 323-56.
Idem, 'Structure . . . du Psaume 154 . . . ' , R Q 9 (1978), pp. 513-45.
Skehan, P . W., ' Q u m r a n . Apocryphes. A.T.', DBS I X (1978), cols. 813-17, 821-2.
Smith, M . , 'Psalm 151, David, Jesus a n d Orpheus', Z A W 9 2 (1980), pp. 247-53.
Vermes, D S S (^1982), p p . 5 8 - 6 1 .
Wigtil, D . N., ' T h e Sequence of t h e Translations of Apocryphal Psalm 151', R Q n
(1983), pp. 401-7.
3. The Psalms of Solomon
A c o l l e c t i o n o f e i g h t e e n p s a l m s p r e s e r v e d in G r e e k ( a n d in a Syriac
t r a n s l a t i o n ) h a v e b e e n k n o w n u n d e r t h e t i t l e o f ' P s a l m s of S o l o m o n ' s i n c e
t h e p a t r i s t i c e r a . I n s o m e of t h e a n c i e n t r e c o r d s o f t h e b i b h c a l c a n o n t h e y
a r e listed, t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e A p o c r y p h a , s u c h a s M a c c a b e e s , W i s d o m of
S o l o m o n , Ecclesiasticus, J u d i t h , T o b i t , e t c . , u n d e r t h e h e a d i n g avriXe-
y6fj,€va (see b e l o w , p . 1 9 5 ) . T h e G r e e k t e x t w a s first p u b l i s h e d i n 1626 b y
J o h a n n e s Ludovicus de l a Cerda.
//. Religious Poetry 193
T h e a t t r i b u t i o n of t h e p o e m s to S o l o m o n is s e c o n d a r y , a n d n o
d o u b t d e r i v e s from t h e t e n d e n c y t o a c c r e d i t the l e g e n d a r y wise k i n g
w i t h a n u m b e r of a n o n y m o u s c o m p o s i t i o n s s u c h a s t h e b o o k of
W i s d o m , the Odes, and various astrological a n d medico-magical works
(cf. b e l o w , p p . 375—79). I n fact, S o l o m o n is n e v e r referred t o in t h e P s a l m s
themselves.
N o t o n l y is t h e i d e n t i t y o f t h e p o e t u n k n o w n , b u t it is n o t e v e n
c e r t a i n t h a t all e i g h t e e n c o m p o s i t i o n s w e r e w r i t t e n b y t h e s a m e p e r s o n .
N e v e r t h e l e s s , w h i l e the m a j o r i t y o f the P s a l m s c o n t a i n n o c h r o n o l o g i c a l
p o i n t e r s — t h e y p o r t r a y a conflict b e t w e e n s a i n t s a n d s i n n e r s — t h r e e of
t h e m (Pss. o f Sol. 2, 8 a n d 1 7 ) d i s p l a y allusions t h a t s e e m t o be easily
datable. T h e poems presuppose a n a u t o n o m o u s Jewish rule established
b y a family b y force of a r m s , w i t h o u t t h e w a r r a n t of a d i v i n e p r o m i s e
(17:6). I n s t e a d of p r a i s i n g G o d , its m e m b e r s seized D a v i d ' s t h r o n e a n d
t h e royal crown (17:7-8). D u r i n g their g o v e r n m e n t , all Israel lapsed
i n t o sin. T h e king b r o k e the l a w , t h e j u d g e d i s h o n o u r e d the t r u t h , a n d
t h e p e o p l e b e h a v e d sinfully ( 1 7 : 2 1 - 2 ) . B u t G o d o v e r t h r e w t h e s e
p r i n c e s , r a i s i n g u p a g a i n s t t h e m f r o m t h e e n d of t h e e a r t h a powerful
foreign c o n q u e r o r w h o w a g e d w a r on J e r u s a l e m a n d i t s s u r r o u n d i n g s
( 1 7 : 8 - 9 ) . T h e p r i n c e s o f the l a n d foolishly w e n t o u t to m e e t h i m w i t h
j o y a n d said to h i m : ' Y o u r c o m i n g is m u c h d e s i r e d ! E n t e r in p e a c e !
T h e y o p e n e d the g a t e s o f J e r u s a l e m to h i m , t h e y c r o w n e d its w a l l s . A s a
f a t h e r [ e n t e r s ] t h e h o u s e of h i s s o n s , so h e e n t e r e d J e r u s a l e m in p e a c e '
( 8 : 1 5 - 2 0 ) . A s s o o n , h o w e v e r , as h e h a d s e c u r e d a f o o t h o l d i n the city,
h e seized t h e c i t a d e l also, a n d d e s t r o y e d t h e w a l l s o f J e r u s a l e m w i t h the
b a t t e r i n g r a m ( 8 : 2 1 ; 2: i ) . T h e city was t r a m p l e d u n d e r f o o t b y G e n t i l e s
(2:20); foreign soldiers a s c e n d e d t o the a l t a r o f G o d itself (2:2). All the
l e a d i n g citizens a n d sages w e r e s l a i n : t h e b l o o d o f t h e i n h a b i t a n t s of
J e r u s a l e m w a s s h e d like w a t e r o f u n c l e a n n e s s (8:23). T h e G e n t i l e
c o n q u e r o r l e d t h e J e w s a w a y to c a p t i v i t y in t h e W e s t a n d h u m i l i a t e d
t h e i r p r i n c e s ( 1 7 : 1 3 - 1 4 ; 2:6; 8:24). I n t h e e n d h o w e v e r , t h e ' D r a g o n '
t h a t h a d c o n q u e r e d J e r u s a l e m w a s himself slain o n t h e m o u n t a i n s of
E g y p t , b y t h e sea s h o r e , a n d h i s b o d y w a s left u n b u r i e d ( 2 : 2 9 - 3 1 ) .
I t is m a i n t a i n e d a l m o s t u n a n i m o u s l y a m o n g c o n t e m p o r a r y e x p e r t s
t h a t Ps. 8 refers to t h e first c o n q u e s t of J e r u s a l e m b y t h e R o m a n s . ' T h e
s t a n c e a d o p t e d by the p o e t is c l e a r l y a n t i - H a s m o n a e a n . H e d i s a p p r o v e s
of the p r i n c e s w h o u s u r p e d t h e k i n g d o m o f I s r a e l a n d a r r o g a t e d to
t h e m s e l v e s t h e t h r o n e o f D a v i d . T h e H a s m o n a e a n s a s s u m e d the r o y a l
title from t h e t i m e of A r i s t o b u l u s I. T h e l a s t p r i n c e s of t h i s h o u s e ,
Alexander J a n n a e u s a n d Aristobulus I I , openly favoured the
S a d d u c e a n p a r t y , a n d w e r e t h e r e f o r e in t h e eyes o f t h e a u t h o r
( p r o b a b l y a P h a r i s e e ) sinful a n d l a w l e s s m e n . T h e ' f o r e i g n e r ' a n d the
I . Cf. F.-M. Abel, ' L e siege de Jerusalem p a r Pompee', R B 54 (1947), pp. 243-55.
194 §32- Jewish Literature in Hebrew or Aramaic
' p o w e r f u l c o n q u e r o r ' b r o u g h t b y G o d f r o m t h e e n d of t h e e a r t h w a s
P o m p e y . T h e p r i n c e s w h o w e n t o u t to m e e t h i m w e r e A r i s t o b u l u s I I
a n d H y r c a n u s I I . I t w a s H y r c a n u s ' p a r t y w h i c h o p e n e d the g a t e s to
P o m p e y , w h e r e a t , w i t h t h e h e l p of t h e b a t t e r i n g r a m (ev Kpiw, 2 : 1 ) , h e
d e m o l i s h e d t h e fortifications a n d t o o k t h e r e m a i n i n g p a r t of t h e city i n
w h i c h t h e p a r t y of A r i s t o b u l u s w e r e e n t r e n c h e d . A l l t h a t follows, t h e
profanation of the T e m p l e , the massacre of the inhabitants, t h e
e x e c u t i o n of t h e l e a d i n g citizens,* t h e d e p o r t a t i o n of c a p t i v e s to t h e
W e s t a n d the h u m i h a t i o n o f the princes (17:14), corresponds to
h i s t o r i c a l events. I n p a r t i c u l a r , the fact t h a t t h e captives w e r e t a k e n t o
t h e W e s t ( 1 7 : 1 4 ) testifies t h a t t h i s c a n a p p l y o n l y to P o m p e y a n d T i t u s .
B u t since t h e r e is n o m e n t i o n in t h e P s a l m s o f the d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e
T e m p l e , t h e r e f e r e n c e m u s t b e to t h e e v e n t s o f 63 B . C D o u b t s finally
d i s a p p e a r w h e n we r e a d t h a t t h e c o n q u e r o r w a s slain on t h e E g y p t i a n
c o a s t , b y the s e a [Irrt *fu/xarwv), a n d t h a t his b o d y l a y u n b u r i e d ( 2 : 3 1 ) ,
for this is precisely w h a t h a p p e n e d t o P o m p e y in 48 B . c P s a l m 2 w a s
therefore c e r t a i n l y c o m p o s e d s h o r t l y after this e v e n t , whilst Pss. 8 a n d
17 s h o u l d be p l a c e d b e t w e e n 6 3 a n d 48 B . C . It is r e a s o n a b l e to d a t e t h e
w h o l e c o l l e c t i o n to t h e s a m e p e r i o d , a l t h o u g h s o m e a u t h o r s a r g u e t h a t
t h e 'foreigner' w h o i n 17:9 is s a i d to h a v e risen a g a i n s t the H a s m o n a e a n
p r i n c e s w a s H e r o d the G r e a t . ^ I t is, h o w e v e r , m o r e r e a s o n a b l e t o
i n t e r p r e t it of t h e s a m e p e r s o n w h o , i n 1 7 : 1 4 , is r e p o r t e d to h a v e c a r r i e d
off t h e c a p t i v e s to t h e W e s t , i.e. P o m p e y .
T h e P s a l m s a r e i m b u e d w i t h the spirit o f t r a d i d o n a l p i e t y , a n d insist
on t h e fulfilment of the c o m m a n d m e n t s , t h e hiKaioavvr] npoarayixdrcov
(14:2). T h e y a t t e s t belief in t h e h e r e a f t e r a n d t h a t t h e f u t u r e f a t e o f a
m a n is d e t e r m i n e d b y his p r e s e n t w a y of life. I t lies w i t h i n his o w n free
c h o i c e to d o r i g h t o r w r o n g (cf. esp. 9:7). I f he d o e s t h e first, he will rise
to e v e r l a s t i n g life; if t h e l a t t e r , h e will g o d o w n t o e v e r l a s t i n g
destruction (3:16; 1 3 : 9 - 1 1 ; 1 4 ; 1 5 ) . T h e Psalmist hopes t h a t the
i l l e g i t i m a t e H a s m o n a e a n rule a l r e a d y b r o u g h t to a n e n d by P o m p e y
will soon be r e p l a c e d b y the reign of t h e D a v i d i c M e s s i a h ( 1 7 : 1 , 5,
2 3 - 5 1 ; 1 8 : 6 - 1 0 ; cf also 7:9; 1 1 ) .
T h e stress o n o b e d i e n c e to t h e l a w , the d o c t r i n e of free will a n d faith
in a n afterlife a r e s e e n by m a n y s c h o l a r s as p o i n t e r s to a P h a r i s a i c o r i g i n of
the Psalms.* H o w e v e r , d o u b t s h a v e b e e n v o i c e d in r e c e n t y e a r s
c o n c e r n i n g a n o v e r - c o n f i d e n t a t t r i b u t i o n o f these p o e m s to t h e
2. Ps. 8:23: dwtoAeaev dpxovTas AVRWV Kal NAVRA aoôv iv jSouAij. Cf. ANT. xiv 4 , 4 (73):
TOVS aiTiovs ROV IROXEFIOV RU) TTfXeKei SIEXPRJAARO. See also B.jf. i 7, 6 (165).
3. Cf Eissfeldt, Introduction, p . 612.
4. Cf e.g. J. Wellhausen, Die Pkarisder und die Sadducder (1874, *i924), p p . 112-20,
1 3 1 - 7 ; H. E. Ryle and M . R. J a m e s , The Psalms of the Pharisees (1891), pp. xliv-lii; J .
Viteau, Les Psaumes de Salomon (1911), pp. 46, 86, e t c . ; G. B. Gray, A P O T I I , p. 6 3 0 ;
J.-B. Frey, 'Apocryphes d e I'A.T.', DBS I, col. 2002.
II. Religious Poetry 195
Pharisees, because neither the doctrines hsted, nor intense Messianism

c a n be c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s exclusively b e l o n g i n g t o t h a t g r o u p . ^ T h e
a s s o c i a t i o n o f the P s a l m s w i t h t h e Q u m r a n - E s s e n e sect, s u m m a r i l y
p r o p o s e d by A . D u p o n t - S o m m e r {The Essene Writings, p p . 296, 3 3 7 ) ,
h a s m a d e n o i m p r e s s i o n on s c h o l a r l y o p i n i o n . I n fact, w h e r e a s t h e
a n t i - H a s m o n a e a n - S a d d u c e a n s t a n d is c o m m o n t o b o t h of t h e m , n o
t y p i c a l l y Q u m r a n t r a i t s a r e d e t e c t a b l e i n t h e P s a l m s . N e i t h e r is t h e r e ,
needless to s a y , a n y t r a c e (so far) o f the o r i g i n a l of these p o e m s a m o n g
t h e D e a d S e a Scrolls. All i n a l l , b e a r i n g in m i n d the d o c t r i n a l
p e c u l i a r i t i e s a n d t h e political b i a s , i t is r e a s o n a b l e t o c o n j e c t u r e t h a t t h e
Psalms o f S o l o m o n r e p r e s e n t P h a r i s e e i d e o l o g y . ^
N o C h r i s t i a n e d i t o r i a l w o r k c a n be d i s c o v e r e d i n t h e s e p o e m s . T h e
o p p o s i t e view a d v a n c e d b y J . E p h r o n m a y safely b e d i s c a r d e d . ^
T h e o r i g i n a l l a n g u a g e of t h e P s a l m s is g e n e r a l l y t h o u g h t to be
H e b r e w . A. H i l g e n f e l d ' s t h e o r y t h a t t h e y w e r e w r i t t e n in G r e e k h a s
n e v e r f o u n d favour.^ A d e t a i l e d a r g u m e n t in f a v o u r of a H e b r e w
o r i g i n a l is offered b y J . V i t e a u . ^ I n t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , it is r e a s o n a b l e to
recognize t h e Psalms as a Palestinian composition. Some verbal
s i m i l a r i t y exists b e t w e e n Ps. 1 1 a n d the G r e e k B a r u c h 4 : 3 6 - 5 : 9 , a n d if
t h e s e c o n d a r y n a t u r e of t h e e x t a n t G r e e k text o f t h e P s a l m s is a c c e p t e d ,
B a r u c h ' s d e p e n d e n c e on it is a likely h y p o t h e s i s . ' °
T h e S y r i a c v e r s i o n is m a d e from t h e G r e e k , a c c o r d i n g to its e d i t o r J .
R e n d e l l H a r r i s ; " K . - G . K u h n ' s h y p o t h e s i s t h a t it d e r i v e s d i r e c d y f r o m
t h e H e b r e w h a s b e e n refuted b y J . B e g r i c h . ' *
F o r t h e O d e s of S o l o m o n , s e e b e l o w , p p . 7 8 7 - 8 9 .
C o n c e r n i n g the p l a c e o f t h e P s a l m s of S o l o m o n i n the G r e e k c a n o n of
S c r i p t u r e s , s e e R y l e - J a m e s , op. cit., p p . x x i - v i i ; V i t e a u , op. cit., p p .
1 8 6 - 9 1 . T h e y a r e listed a m o n g t h e avriAeyo/xeva in P s . - A t h a n a s i u s ,
Synopsis scripturarum sacrarum, b e t w e e n M a c c a b e e s a n d S u s a n n a ( P G 28,
col. 4 3 2 ) a n d in t h e S t i c h o m e t r y of N i c e p h o r u s b e t w e e n S i r a c h a n d
E s t h e r ( P G 100, col. 1 0 5 7 ) . C f H . B . S w e t e a n d R . R . O t t l e y ,
5. Cf. Eissfeldt, Introduction, p p . 6 1 2 - 1 3 ; P . Winter, I D B I I I , p. 9 5 9 ; U. R a p p a p o r t ,

'Solomon, Psalms of, E n c . J u d . 15, col. 116; J . H. Chariesworth, P M R S , p. 195.
6. For a similar conclusion, see A . - M . Denis, I P G A T , p . 64; Nickelsburg, J L B B M , p.
223 ('circles closely related to t h e Pharisees').
7. 'The Psalms of Solomon, the H a s m o n e a n Decline a n d Christianity', Zion 30 (1965),
pp. 1-30 ( H e b r . ) .
8. Messias Judaeorum (1869), p p . xvi-xviii.
9. Op. cit. (in n. 4 above), p p . 105-25.
10. Cf Ryle-James, op. cit. (in n. 4 above), p p . Ixxii-vii. T h e opposite conclusion is
claimed, however, by W . Pesch, 'Die Abhangigkeit des 11. salomonischen Psalms vom
letzten Kapitel des Buches Baruch', Z A W 67 (1955), pp. 2 5 1 - 6 3 .
11. The Odes and Psalms of Solomon (1909, 1911), p p . 38-40.
12. K u h n , Die dlteste Textgestalt der Psalmen Salomos (1937); Begrich, 'Der Text der
Psalmen Salomos', Z N W 38 (1939), p p . 131—64.
Introduction to the Old Testament in Greek (1914), pp. 207-9. the

catalogue of w r i t i n g s c o n t a i n e d in Codex Vaticanus, t h e Psalms of
S o l o m o n a p p e a r a f t e r t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t a n d t h e w o r k s o f C l e m e n t of
R o m e . Cf. V i t e a u , op. cit., p . 1 8 6 .
F o r the Greek manuscripts of t h e P s a l m s , see R . R. Hann, The

Manuscript History of the Psalms of Solomon (1982). Cf also O . von
G e b h a r d t ' s e d i t i o n o f t h e text (see b e l o w ) ; V i t e a u , op. cit., p p . 150-9;
A P O T I I , 625—6; D e n i s , Introduction, p p . 6 0 - 2 .
Editions
Greek Text:
Cerda, Johannes Ludovicus de l a , Adversaria sacra, accessit Psalterium Salomonis (1626).
Ryle, H. E., and M . R. J a m e s , Psalms of the Pharisees commonly called The Psalms of Solomon
(1891).
Swete, H. B . , The Old Testament in Greek I I I (1894, * i 9 i 2 ) .
von G e b h a r d t , O . , Die Psalmen Salomos (1895).
Viteau, J., Les Psaumes de Salomon (1911).
Rahlfs, A., Septuaginta (1935).
Baars, W., ' A new Greek Version of the Psalms of Solomon', V T I I (1961), pp. 4 4 1 - 4 .
[A n e w critical text is being prepared by R. B . W r i g h t : cf. J . H. Chariesworth, P M R S ,
p. 196.]
Syriac Text:
Harris, J . R . , The Odes and Psalms of Solomon (1909, 1911).
Harris, R., a n d M i n g a n a , A., The Odes and Psalms of Solomon l-ll (1916-20).
Baars, W., 'Psalms of Solomon', Peshitta, Part 4 , fasc. 6 (1972) i-vi, 1-27.
Translations and Commentaries

Kittel, R., A P A T I I , pp. 127-48.
Viteau, op. cit. (1911).
G r a y , G. B., A P O T I I , p p . 625-52.
Riessler, P., Altjiidisches Schrifttum ausserhalb der Bibel (1928), p p . 881-902, 1323-4.
Bibliography
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Frankenberg, W., Die Datierung der Psalmen Salomos (1896).
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365-72.
Toy, C. H . , 'Psalms of Solomon', J E X (1905), 250-1.
K u h n , K.-G., Die dlteste Textgestalt der Psalmen Salomos (1937).
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Aberbach, M., ' T h e Historical Allusions of Chapters iv, xi a n d xiii o f the Psalms of
Solomon', J Q R 41 (1950-1), pp. 379-96.
Braun, H., 'Vom E r b a r m e n Gottes u b e r d e n Gerechten. Zur Theologie der Psalmen
Salomos', Z N W 43 ( i 9 5 0 - 1 ) , pp. 1-54.
Pesch, W., 'Die Abhangigkeit des 11. salomonischen Psalm v o m letzten Kapitel d e s
Buches Baruch', Z A W 67 (1955), p p . 251-63.
O'Dell, J., ' T h e Religious Background of t h e Psalms of Solomon', R Q 3 (1961-2), p p .
241-57-
Winter, P., 'Psalms of Solomon', IDB I I I , pp. 958-60.
II. Religious Poetry 197
Ephron, J . , 'The Psalms of Solomon, the H a s m o n e a n Decline a n d Chrisdanity', Zion 30

(1965). PP- 1-46 [ H e b r . ] .
J o n g e , H. de, De toekomsterwackting in de Psalmen vom Salomo (1965).
Eissfeldt, O . , Introduction (1965), pp. 6 1 0 - 1 3 , 773-4-
Holm-Nielsen, S., ' E r w a g u n g e n zu d e m Verhaltnis zwischen den H o d a y o t und den
Psalmen Salomos', Bibel und Qumran, ed. S. W a g n e r (1968), p p . 112-31.
Denis, A.-M., I P G A T , p p . 6 0 - 9 .
R a p p a p o r t , U., 'Solomon, Psalms of, E n c . J u d . 15, cols. 115-16.
Wright, R . B., ' T h e Psalms of Solomon, t h e Pharisees a n d the Essenes', igyz Proceedings
loses, ed. R . A . Kraft ( i 9 7 2 ) j p p . 136-54.
Chariesworth, J . H . , P M R (1976, 1981), p p . 195-7.
Schiiphaus, J., Die Psalmen Salomos. Ein Zûgnis Jerusalemer Theologie und Frommigkeit in der
Mitte des vorchristlichen Jahrhunderts (1977).
Holm-Nielsen, S., 'Religiose Poesie des S p a t j u d e n t u m s ' V I I . 'Die Psalmen Salomos',
A N R W II 19.1 (1979), p p . 172-82, 186.
Dimant, D . , 'A G u i d e T e r m in the Psalms of Solomon in t h e Light of t h e L X X ' , T e x t u s 9
(1981), pp. 28-51 [ H e b r . ] .
Nickelsburg, G. W . E., J L B B M , pp. 203-12, 229.
H a n n , R. R., The Manuscript History of the Psalms of Solomon (1982).
III. W I S D O M L I T E R A T U R E
/. Jesus Sirach or Jesus ben Sira
T h e practical t e n d e n c y of i n t e r - T e s t a m e n t a l J e w i s h literature written in

H e b r e w o r A r a m a i c manifests itself m o s t c l e a r l y in t h e fact t h a t e v e n its
speculative features are a r r a n g e d w i t h special reference to the a i m s a n d
t a s k s of t h e e v e r y d a y life. J u d a i s m , w h e n u n i n f l u e n c e d b y foreign c u l t u r e s ,
n e v e r p r o d u c e d m e t a p h y s i c s in t h e s t r i c t s e n s e . ' J e w i s h w i s d o m (nZDSH) is
e i t h e r of a p r a c t i c a l k i n d ( a d v i c e b a s e d on e x p e r i e n c e h a n d e d d o w n f r o m
f a t h e r t o son, a n d o n a p r a c t i c a l k n o w l e d g e o f the l a w s g o v e r n i n g t h e
w o r l d ) o r focuses o n r e l i g i o u s p r o b l e m s ( e . g . c r e a t i o n , d i v i n e p r e s e n c e o r
j u s t i c e ) . O n e o f t h e f o r m s i n w h i c h s u c h m e d i t a t i o n s a r e e x p o u n d e d is t h e
p r o v e r b ('ÎTD), w h i c h s u c c i n c t l y a n d p o w e r f u l l y c o n c e n t r a t e s a s i n g l e
t h o u g h t i n p o e t i c s t y l e , w i t h o u t e l a b o r a t i o n or d e m o n s t r a t i o n . B u t o t h e r
well-attested literary forms are t h e riddle, t h e fable, the w i s d o m h y m n , etc.
T h e m o s t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c o l l e c t i o n of t h i s k i n d i n c l u d e d i n t h e H e b r e w B i b l e
is t h e B o o k o f P r o v e r b s . ^ T h e W i s d o m of J e s u s S i r a c h is a similar
1. This statement refers of course to philosophical systems. For a type of subconscious

metaphysical thought, see Claude Tresmontant, Essaie sur la pensSe hebraique (1953); Etudes
de mitaphysique biblique (1955); T . Boman, Hebrew Thought compared with Greek (i960). O n
supposed Greek influences on l a t e Hebrew canonical Hterature, see M. Hengel, Judaism
and Hellenism, pp. 109-10. Hengel accepts that the spiritual crisis of early Hellenism m a y
have influenced t h e author of Koheleth {ibid., p. 127), but h e is of the opinion t h a t direct
Greek impact on H e b r e w literature cannot b e demonstrated prior to the second century
B.C. (p. 110).
2. O n Wisdom literature, see W. W. Baudissin, Die alttestamentliche Spruchdichtung
(1893); K. Siegfried, 'Wisdom', H D B IV, p p . 9 2 4 - 8 ; C. H . T o y , 'Wisdom L i t e r a t u r e ' ,
EB I V , pp. 5322-36; J. Meinhold, Die Weisheit Israels in Spruch, Sage und Dichtung (1908);
O. Eissfeldt, Der Maschal im Alten Testament (1913) ; H. Torczyner, ' T h e Riddle in t h e
Bible', H U C A I (1924), pp. 1 2 5 - 4 9 ; Baumgartner, Israelitische und altorientalische
Weisheit (1933); O . Rankin, Israel's Wisdom Literature (1936, ^1954) ; M. Noth a n d D. W .
T h o m a s , Wisdom in Israel and the Ancient Near East S V T I I I (1955); W . G. L a m b e r t ,
Babylonian Wisdom Literature ( i 9 6 0 ) ; N . H. Tur-Sinai, 'Hokhmah', Enc. Miq. I l l , p p .
127—33 > H . H. Schmidt, Wesen und Geschichte der Weisheit (1966); H . J. Hermisson, Studien
zur israelitischen Spruchweisheit (1968); C . Bauer-Kayatz, Einfuhrung in die alttestamentliche
Weisheit (1969); P . W. Skehan, Studies in Israelite Poetry and Wisdom (1971) ; R. B. Y . Scott,
'Wisdom, Wisdom Literature', E n c . J u d . 16, cols. 5 5 7 - 6 3 ; The Way of Wisdom in the Old
Testament (1971); U . Wilckens a n d G. Fohrer, 'Sophia', T D N T V I I , p p . 4 6 5 - 5 2 8 ; B. L.
Mack, Logos und Sophia. Untersuchungen zur Weisheitstheologie im hellenistischen Judentum
(1973); R. N. W h y b r a y , The Intellectual Tradition in the Old Testament (1974); J . N .
Crenshaw, 'Wisdom', Old Testament Form Criticism, ed. J . H . Hayes (1974); idem (ed.),
Studies in Ancient Israelite Wisdom (1975); 'Wisdom in the Old Testament', IDBS, p p .
9 5 2 - 6 ; Old Testament Wisdom: An Introduction (1981) ; J . G . Williams, Those Who Ponder
Proverbs: Aphoristic Thinking and Biblical Literature (1981); D . F. Morgan, Wisdom in the Old
Testament Traditions (1981); J. Blenkinsopp, Wisdom and Law in the Old Testament (1983).
///. Wisdom Literature 199
a n t h o l o g y . I n d e b t e d b o t h i n f o r m a n d in c o n t e n t to the s c r i p t u r a l
m o d e l , it i n t r o d u c e s n e v e r t h e l e s s a s u b s t a n t i a l a m o u n t of fresh a n d
original thoughts.
T h e a u t h o r ' s b a s i c c o n c e p t is t h a t of w i s d o m . H e w i s h e s to s h o w h o w
t h e wise m a n j u d g e s t h e t h i n g s o f this w o r l d , a n d h o w h e c o n d u c t s
himself in p r a c t i c a l hfe. His b o o k c o n t a i n s t h e r e f o r e a n i n e x h a u s t i b l e
n u m b e r of r u l e s for b e h a v i o u r i n j o y a n d s o r r o w , g o o d f o r t u n e a n d
a d v e r s i t y , w e a l t h a n d p o v e r t y , i n sickness a n d h e a l t h , trial a n d
t e m p t a t i o n ; i n t h e society of fellow c i t i z e n s ; i n i n t e r c o u r s e w i t h friend
a n d foe, h i g h a n d low, p o o r a n d rich, g o o d a n d evil, i n t e l l i g e n t a n d
foolish; in t r a d e a n d c o m m e r c e , b u s i n e s s a n d profession ; a b o v e all also
in o n e ' s o w n h o u s e a n d f a m i l y — h o w c h i l d r e n s h o u l d b e raised,
s e r v a n t s t r e a t e d , a n d h o w o n e s h o u l d b e h a v e t o w a r d s o n e ' s wife, a n d
w o m e n in g e n e r a l . All t h e s e v a r i e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e c o n s i d e r e d b y the
a u t h o r , a n d h e gives p e n e t r a t i n g a d v i c e in e a c h c a s e , m o s t l y o n the
g r o u n d s of serious e t h i c a l c o n v i c t i o n , w h i c h c h a n g e s o n l y o c c a s i o n a l l y
i n t o superficial w o r l d l y w i s d o m . B e n S i r a ' s c o u n s e l is t h e r i p e fruit of
e a r n e s t a n d d e e p reflection o n t h i n g s a n d a r i c h e x p e r i e n c e o f life. By
e n t e r i n g into so m u c h d e t a i l , i t affords a t the s a m e t i m e a lively p i c t u r e
of t h e c u s t o m s a n d usages, a n d of t h e c u l t u r e in g e n e r a l , of h i s p e r i o d
a n d of h i s n a t i o n . T o w h a t e x t e n t t h e t h o u g h t s e x p r e s s e d a n d the form
in w h i c h t h e y are e x p r e s s e d a r e t h e a u t h o r ' s o w n , a n d to w h a t e x t e n t he
m e r e l y assembles w h a t w a s a l r e a d y in c i r c u l a t i o n a m o n g the p e o p l e by
w o r d o f m o u t h , c a n n o t of c o u r s e n o w be d e t e r m i n e d . T o a c e r t a i n
d e g r e e b o t h will h a v e b e e n t h e c a s e . B u t h e is i n a n y case n o m e r e
c o m p i l e r ; his i n d i v i d u a l i t y c o m e s m u c h t o o c l e a r l y a n d d i s t i n c t l y t o the
fore for this t o be s o . D e s p i t e t h e g r e a t d i v e r s i t y of t h e m a x i m s , t h e y are
nevertheless t h e p r o d u c t of a unified a n d c o h e r e n t v i e w of t h e w o r l d
a n d of life.
T h e b a c k g r o u n d of this p r a c t i c a l w o r l d l y w i s d o m is a v i v i d a n d
h e a l t h y p i e t y . T r u e w i s d o m c o m e s from G o d . I n c r e a t i o n , G o d
a r r a n g e d all t h i n g s m a r v e l l o u s l y a n d c o n t i n u e s to r u l e t h e w o r l d w i t h
t h e s a m e w i s d o m (39:12—35). H e sees all t h i n g s a n d g o v e r n s a l l t h i n g s ,
r e w a r d i n g t h e g o o d , a n d p u n i s h i n g t h e w i c k e d . H a p p y is t h e p e r s o n
w h o t r u s t s i n h i m ; s u c h a o n e is steadfast i n s o r r o w ( 2 : 1 - 1 8 ) ,
c o u r a g e o u s a n d u n a f r a i d in e v e r y s i t u a t i o n ( 3 1 : 1 3 — 2 0 ; E . T . 3 4 : 1 3 - 1 7 ) .
T h e s u p r e m e w i s d o m is t h e r e f o r e t h e fear of G o d .
Ben S i r a is t h e first expressly t o identify d i v i n e w i s d o m w i t h the
T o r a h . G o d h a s e s t a b h s h e d w i s d o m in I s r a e l ( 2 4 : 8 - 2 2 ) , a n d w i t h the
L a w of M o s e s it h a s c o m e to e x p r e s s i o n (24:23—29).^ I s r a e l is t h e elect of
3 . For a n evaluation of Ben Sira's portrayal of Wisdom within t h e context of the

encounter between Jewish a n d Hellenistic thought, see Hengel, Judaism, p p . 157-62.
Whether the actual idendfication, T o r a h = Wisdom, can be traced t o Ben Sira
personally, or to the Wisdom school of scribes attached t o Simeon the Righteous, cannot
20O §32. Jewish Literature in Hebrew or Aramaic
G o d ( 4 5 ) ; s h e h a s received t h r o u g h M o s e s ' t h e L a w of Hfe a n d

k n o w l e d g e ' from G o d (45:5). T h e r e f o r e o n e m u s t h o l d fast to it, a n d d o
it, a n d n o t be a s h a m e d o f it ( 2 : 1 6 ; 1 5 : 1 ; 1 9 : 2 0 ; 2 1 : 1 1 ; 4 2 : 2 ) ; t h e r e f o r e
k n o w l e d g e of t h e L a w is v e r y i m p o r t a n t ( 3 5 : 2 4 - 3 6 : 6 — c h s . 32 a n d 3 3 ,
E . T . ) , a n d t h e position o f i n t e r p r e t e r s of t h e L a w r a n k s a m o n g t h e first
( 3 8 : 2 4 - 3 9 : 1 1 ) . Sacrifice is of n o u s e if a p e r s o n h a s a c t e d w r o n g l y
a g a i n s t h i s n e i g h b o u r (7:9; 3 1 : 2 1 - 3 1 — E . T . 3 4 : 1 8 - 2 6 ) . G o d is n o t to b e
b r i b e d w i t h offerings ( 3 2 : 1 4 - 2 6 — E . T . 3 5 : 1 2 - 2 0 ) ; t h e c o r r e c t gift is t o
be k i n d a n d t o a v o i d evil ( 3 2 : 1 - 5 — E . T . c h . 3 5 ) . N e v e r t h e l e s s t h e
a u t h o r e s t e e m s sacrificial w o r s h i p h i g h l y a n d r e c o m m e n d s g i v i n g
g e n e r o u s l y to G o d w h a t e v e r is d u e t o h i m . ' D o n o t a p p e a r before t h e
L o r d e m p t y - h a n d e d ; p e r f o r m these sacrifices b e c a u s e t h e y a r e
c o m m a n d e d . ' ' G i v e to t h e M o s t H i g h as h e h a s g i v e n , a n d as
g e n e r o u s l y as y o u r h a n d h a s f o u n d . F o r t h e L o r d is t h e o n e w h o r e p a y s ,
a n d h e will r e p a y y o u sevenfold' ( 3 2 : 6 - 1 3 — E . T . c h . 3 5 ) . T h e p r i e s t l y
service o f A a r o n is a n e s s e n t i a l c o m p o n e n t of t h e g l o r y o f t h e J e w i s h
p e o p l e ( 4 5 : 6 - 2 2 ) . After p r a i s i n g the r i g h t e o u s d e e d s o f Israel's a n c e s t o r s
(44—9), a n i n n o v a t i o n i n W i s d o m l i t e r a t u r e w h i c h previously l a c k e d
h i s t o r i c a l perspective,* B e n S i r a p r e s e n t s a n e n t h u s i a s t i c a n d c o l o u r f u l
p o r t r a i t o f t h e H i g h - P r i e s t S i m e o n , a faithful m i n i s t e r in t h e T e m p l e ,
o b e d i e n t to t h e p r e s c r i p t i o n s o f the L a w (ch. 5 0 ) . H e e x h o r t s t h e r e f o r e
also t h a t t h e p r e s c r i b e d oflTerings s h o u l d b e p a i d to the priests
( 7 : 2 9 - 3 1 ) , a n d e m p h a s i z e s t h a t the h o u s e o f P h i n e h a s is d i v i n e l y e l e c t e d
for t h e H i g h - P r i e s t h o o d (45:23 ff; 50:24, H e b r e w t e x t ; cf. N u m . 2 5 : 1 0
ff.). His s y m p a t h i e s are i n favour of t h e ' S o n s of Z a d o k ' ( 5 1 : 1 2 , 9,
Hebrew).
T h i s i n t e r e s t in t h e l e g i t i m a t e H i g h - P r i e s t h o o d reflects t h e h i s t o r i c a l
c i r c u m s t a n c e s u n d e r w h i c h t h e a u t h o r w r o t e . ^ It w a s t h e t i m e of t h e
i n v a s i o n of H e l l e n i s m . T h e w r i t e r b e l o n g e d to t h e o l d , faithful core, i n
controversy with Hellenistic liberalism, a n d complains bitterly t h a t
be decided, but it is worth noting that Simeon's saying reproduced in m A b . 1:2 envisages
the T o r a h as the first of the three pillars on which t h e world rests (Torah, worship a n d
deeds of loving-kindness). Cf Hengel, ibid., p . 161. F o r the W i s d o m - T o r a h cissociation in
rabbinic J u d a i s m , see ibid., p p . 169—75. F o r a study of the Jewish, Hellenistic a n d
Egyptian (Demotic) ingredients of Ben Sira's work, see J . T . Sanders, Ben Sira and Demotic
Wisdom (1983).
4. C f E . J a c o b , 'L'histoire d'lsrael v u e par Ben Sira', Melanges bibliques ridigis en I'honneur
d'Andri Robert (1957), p p . 2 8 8 - 9 4 ; T. Maertens, L'iloge des Pires (Ecclisiastique XLIV-L)
(1956); R. T . Siebeneck, ' M a y their Bones return to Life: Sirach's Praise of the Fathers',
CBQ, 21 (1959), p p . 4 1 1 - 2 8 ; J . L. D u h a i m , 'El elogio d e los Padres d e Ben Sira y el
Cantico de Moises (Sir 4 4 - 5 0 y D t 32)', Est. Bibl. 35 (1976), pp. 2 2 6 - 8 ; J . Marbock, ' D a s
Gebet um die R e t t u n g Zions. Sir 36:1-22 im Z u s a m m e n h a n g der Geschichtsschau Ben
Siras', Memoria Jerusalem. Freundesgabe Franz Sauer (1977), p p . 93-115.
5. C f Hengel, Judaism, pp. 138-53. C f also V. Tcherikover, Hellenistic Civilization and
the Jews (1959), p p . 1 4 3 - 5 ; T . A. Burkill, 'Ecclesiasticus', I D B II, p p . 1 5 - 1 6 ; T h .
M i d d e n d o r p , Die Stellung Ben Siras zwischen Judentum und Hellenismus (1973).
III. Wisdom Literature 201
' u n g o d l y m e n h a v e forsaken t h e l a w of t h e M o s t H i g h G o d ' (41:8). H e

p r a y s to G o d : 'Lift u p t h y h a n d a g a i n s t f o r e i g n n a t i o n s , a n d let t h e m
see t h y m i g h t ' ( 3 3 : 3 — E . T . c h . 36) ; ' D e s t r o y t h e a d v e r s a r y a n d w i p e
o u t the e n e m y ' {ib. 7) ; ' M a y t h o s e w h o h a r m t h y p e o p l e m e e t
destruction. C r u s h t h e heads of the rulers of the enemy, w h o say " T h e r e
is n o o n e b u t o u r s e l v e s ' " {ib. 9—10; c f 1 - 1 3 ) . I f it is p e r m i s s i b l e to t a k e
t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n of I s r a e l to b e t h e s u b j e c t of 5 1 : i - i 2 , s h e is d e n o u n c e d
before t h e k i n g by c a l u m n i a t o r s a n d liars, b u t r e s c u e d t h r o u g h t h e h e l p
of G o d . T h e H i g h - P r i e s t S i m o n is e x a l t e d ( c h a p t e r 50) for his c o r r e c t
d i s c h a r g e of t h e priestly service, b e c a u s e s i n c e t h e n it h a d n o l o n g e r
b e e n m i n i s t e r e d a c c o r d i n g to t h e p r e s c r i p t i o n s of t h e L a w . T h e w r i t e r
t h u s lived in a p e r i o d w h e n t h e p r i e s t l y a r i s t o c r a c y t u r n e d m o r e a n d
m o r e in t h e d i r e c t i o n of H e l l e n i s m . H e h o p e d for t h e t r i u m p h of t h a t
l e g i t i m a t e H i g h - P r i e s t h o o d w h i c h r e m a i n e d faithful t o t h e L a w .
T h e a u t h o r n a m e s h i m s e l f a t t h e close, 50:27 ( c h a p . 5 1 , w h i c h
follows, is a n a p p e n d i x ) , b u t t h e t e x t v a r i e s . M o s t G r e e k m a n u s c r i p t s ,
i n c l u d i n g the V a t i c a n u s , S i n a i t i c u s a n d A l e x a n d r i n u s , r e a d 'Irjaois vi6?
SeLpax 'EXeaCdp 6 T€poaoXvp.€iTr)s.^ T h e H e b r e w t e x t c o n f i r m s h o w e v e r
t h a t the n a m e is o r i g i n a l , for it r u n s , b o t h i n t h e i n s c r i p t i o n to t h e
w h o l e b o o k f o l l o w i n g c h a p . 5 1 , a n d i n S a a d y a : 1Ty'?X ] 3 S7W p ]\!37212!
A c c o r d i n g t o t h e u n a n i m o u s t e s t i m o n y of a n t i q u i t y , b e g i n n i n g w i t h
t h e P r o l o g u e t o t h e G r e e k v e r s i o n w h i c h refers to t h e a u t h o r as ' m y
g r a n d f a t h e r J e s u s ' (o Trdmro? piov Trjaovg), t h e n a m e of t h e w r i t e r w a s
n o t S i m e o n , b u t J e s u s . H e n c e ] 3 pVOtT in t h e H e b r e w t e x t
a p p e a r s t o be a gloss, or t o f o r m a n i n v e r s i o n o f J e s u s a n d S i m e o n as t h e
S y r i a c title w o u l d s u g g e s t (]1S70IP 1 3 VltZT). T h e d e s i g n a t i o n ' J e s u s s o n
of S i r a c h ' or ' S i r a ' , w h i c h has b e c o m e c o m m o n , n a m e s t h e a u t h o r a f t e r
his g r a n d f a t h e r , a n d n o t after his f a t h e r . T h e H e l l e n i z a t i o n of t h e
n a m e s a p p e a r s to h a v e followed t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of this c o n v e n t i o n . ^
I t is g e n e r a l l y t h o u g h t t h a t S i r a c h d e r i v e s f r o m N T O , c o a t of m a i l ,
a r m o u r , the a p p e n d e d x a p p a r e n t l y i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e n a m e is
indeclinable.^
T h e t h e o r y t h a t J e s u s b e n S i r a w a s a p r i e s t d e p e n d s o n t h e r e a d i n g of
6. The variant in the Sinaiticus (d Upeiis 6 iôAujueiTT/s) is no d o u b t a corruption. T h e

undecHned 'EXea^dp is corrected into 'EXta^dpov or 'EXea^dpos or is altogether omitted. Cf.
R. Smend, Die Weiskeit des Jesus Sirach (1906), pp. 4 9 2 - 3 .
7. See R . Smend, op. cit., pp. xiv-xv; I. Levi, L'Ecctisiastique (1898), p . 216; 'Sirach', EJ
XI, p . 3 8 8 ; W. O . C. Oesterley, Ecclesiasticus (1912), pp. xiv-xv; W . O . E. Oesterley a n d
G. H . Box, A P O T I (1912), p p . 270-1, 2 9 1 ; M . H. Segal, Sefer Ben Sira ha-Shalem (1953),
p. I In rabbinic texts he is simply referred to as S T ' O (tYad. 2:13 ; ySanh. 2 8 a ; Eccl. R.
12:11).
8. Cf 'AKtXSap.dx ( = N m ' ? j ? n , Xatpiov at/Ltaro?) in Act. 1:19, '/ojcnjx ( ~ ÔV) in Lk.
3:26, as has been pointed out b y G. D a l m a n , Grammatik des jUdisch-paldstinischen Aramdisch
(^1905). P- 202, n. 3.
t h e S i n a i t i c u s (see n. 6), w h i c h is p r o b a b l y a n i n n e r - G r e e k c o r r u p t i o n .
H i s e l e v a t i o n to t h e s t a t u s of H i g h - P r i e s t by Syncellus^ is the result of a
m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e C h r o n i c l e of E u s e b i u s , w h e r e J e s u s S i r a c h is
listed after t h e H i g h - P r i e s t S i m e o n , son of O n i a s H , b u t m e r e l y as t h e
a u t h o r of a b o o k , a n d n o t as a Pontiff.'°
T h e age i n w h i c h B e n S i r a lived c a n b e fixed w i t h r e a s o n a b l e
a c c u r a c y . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e P r o l o g u e a t t a c h e d to t h e w o r k , his
g r a n d s o n " w h o t r a n s l a t e d t h e b o o k i n t o G r e e k a r r i v e d i n E g y p t ev TU)
oySocp Kat rpiaKoarw Irei eVi T O U Evepyerov jSaaiAeco?.'^ S i n c e t h e first of
t h e t w o Ptolemies, s u r n a m e d E u e r g e t e s , r e i g n e d o n l y twenty-five y e a r s ,
t h e second, w h o s e full n a m e was P t o l e m y P h y s c o n V I I E u e r g e t e s I I ,
m u s t b e m e a n t . H e ruled conjointly w i t h his brother ( 1 7 0 - 1 6 4 B . C ) ,
t h e n (from 1 4 5 - 1 1 7 B . C ) a l o n e , b u t r e c k o n e d t h e y e a r s of his r e i g n
f r o m t h e earlier d a t e . A c c o r d i n g l y , the t h i r t y - e i g h t h y e a r in w h i c h t h e
g r a n d s o n of J e s u s b e n S i r a c a m e t o E g y p t is 132 B . C H i s g r a n d f a t h e r
m u s t t h e r e f o r e h a v e lived a n d w r i t t e n circa 190—170 B . C T h i s also
a c c o r d s w i t h the fact t h a t i n his b o o k h e d e d i c a t e s to t h e H i g h - P r i e s t
S i m o n son o f O n i a s I I a r e v e r e n d a l o b i t u a r y ( 5 0 : 1 - 2 6 ) . B y t h i s is t o b e
u n d e r s t o o d , t h a t is to s a y , n o t S i m o n I ( b e g i n n i n g of t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y
B . C . — s e e Ant. xii 2, 5 (43)), b u t S i m o n I I ( b e g i n n i n g of t h e s e c o n d
c e n t u r y — s e e Ant. xii 4, 10 (224)). J e s u s ben Sira e x p e r i e n c e d the d a y s
o f the l a t e r S i m o n a n d p r a i s e s his fidelity to t h e L a w c o m p a r e d to t h e
H e l l e n i z i n g c u r r e n t p r e v a i l i n g at t h e t i m e w h e n h e w r o t e . S i n c e t h e
w o r k p r e s u p p o s e s t h e d e a t h of S i m o n I I (still in office i n 198 B . C ) b u t
d o e s n o t a l l u d e t o t h e d e p o s i t i o n of O n i a s I I I in 1 7 4 B . C , i t is
r e a s o n a b l e t o c o n c l u d e t h a t J e s u s b e n S i r a flourished b e t w e e n c.
190-175 B - C - ' ^
T h e book w a s o r i g i n a l l y w r i t t e n in H e b r e w , as is explicitly s t a t e d in
t h e P r o l o g u e to t h e G r e e k t r a n s l a t i o n . J e r o m e was a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t h e
H e b r e w t e x t — s e e Praef. in vers. libr. Salom. ( P L X X V I I I , cols. 1307—8):
' F e r t u r et Travaperos l e s u filii S i r a c h l i b e r et alius ijjevSeTriypaôs, qui
Sapientia Salomonis inscribitur. Q u o r u m priorem H e b r a i c u m reperi,
n o n E c c l e s i a s t i c u m , ut a p u d L a t i n o s , s e d P a r a b o l a s p r a e n o t a t u m , cui
i u n c t i e r a n t Ecclesiastes et C a n t i c u m C a n t i c o r u m , u t s i m i l i t u d i n e m
S a l o m o n i s n o n s o l u m l i b r o r u m n u m e r o , sed e t i a m m a t e r i a r u m g e n e r e
9. Chron., ed. Dindorf, I, p. 525.

10. Eusebius, Chron. a d Ol. 137-8 (ed. Schoene I I , p. 122).
1 1 . Cf H . J . C a d b u r y , ' T h e Grandson of Ben Sira', H T h R 48 (1955), pp. 219-25.
12. T h e thirty-eighth year refers to king Euergetes' reign a n d not to his age. T h i s
interpretation is demonstrated by the close parallels of i M a c . 13:42; H a g . 1:1; 2:1;
Zech. 1:7; 7:1, and further corroborated, with additional evidence, in A. Deissmann,
Bible Studies (1901), p p . 339 ff. It is a p p r o p r i a t e also to recall the coin of Agrippa II, with
the inscription cTTi j3aa. Apyi. eT(ovs) KI, (cf vol. I, p . 481, n. 45).
13. Cf. Eissfeldt, Introduction, p. 597 ; Hengel, Judaism, p . 131 ; Nickelsburg, J L B B M , p.
64.
c o a e q u a r e t . ' T h e H e b r e w t e x t is a l s o q u o t e d i n t h e T a l m u d a n d o t h e r
R a b b i n i c writings (see b e l o w ) .
S u b s t a n t i a l r e m a i n s o f t h e H e b r e w B e n S i r a , r e g a r d e d as lost for
m a n y c e n t u r i e s , w e r e d i s c o v e r e d in 1896 i n t h e G e n i z a h a t t a c h e d to t h e
E z r a S y n a g o g u e in C a i r o . F u r t h e r G e n i z a h f r a g m e n t s w e r e p u b l i s h e d
in t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r s , a n d a d d i t i o n a l p a g e s c a m e to l i g h t m o r e r e c e n t l y
in t h e C a m b r i d g e G e n i z a h h o l d i n g s . ' ' ^ F r o m Q u m r a n C a v e 2 , m i n u t e
scraps of a m a n u s c r i p t h a v e b e e n i d e n t i f i e d as b e l o n g i n g t o t h e H e b r e w
B e n S i r a , c h a p t e r 6.'^ T h e P s a l m s Scroll f r o m C a v e 1 1 (cols, xxi, 11.
I I — 1 7 , xxii, 1. i) p r e s e r v e s t h e first h a l f of t h e a l p h a b e t i c a l acrostic
p o e m from S i r . 5 1 : 1 3 - 2 0 , 30.'^ F i n a l l y , t h e M a s a d a e x c a v a t i o n s h a v e
yielded a f r a g m e n t a r y scroll r e p r e s e n t i n g Sir. 39:27—44:17.'^ A s a r e s u l t
of these finds, a b o u t t w o - t h i r d s of t h e H e b r e w B e n S i r a is n o w r e s t o r e d .
P r i o r to t h e Q u m r a n a n d M a s a d a discoveries, s e v e r a l i m p o r t a n t
scholars a r g u e d t h a t far from reflecting t h e o r i g i n a l text of Ecclesiasti
cus, the Genizah fragments represent medieval retranslations into
H e b r e w from S y r i a c a n d P e r s i a n ( D . S. M a r g o h o u t h ) ; ' ^ f r o m S y r i a c
( G . Bickell, H . L. G i n s b e r g ) ; ' ^ f r o m t h e G r e e k ( E . J . G o o d s p e e d , M .
H a d a s , C. C. T o r r e y ) o r from t h e Greek a n d Syriac (H. D u e s b e r g
a n d P. A u v r a y ) . ^ ' T h e p r o t a g o n i s t s of a u t h e n t i c i t y i n c l u d e the
editors,^^ I s r a e l L e v i , ' ^ R . S m e n d , N. Peters,'^ G. H. Box a n d W . O.
14. See A. E. Cowley and A. Neubauer, The Original Hebrew of a Portion of Ecclesiasticus
(1897); S. Schechter a n d C. Taylor, The Wisdom of Ben Sira: Portions of the Book of
Ecclesiasticus from Hebrew Manuscripts in the Cairo Genizah Collection (1899) ; I. Levi,
T r a g m e n t s de d e u x nouveaux manuscrits h e b r e u x de I'Ecclesiasdque', R E J 40 (1900),
pp. 1-30; J . Marcus, The Newly Discovered Original Hebrew of Ben Sira (Ecclesiasticus xxxii,
i6-xxxiv, I) : The Fifth Manuscript and a Prosodic Version of Ben Sira (Ecclesiasticus xxii,
22-xxiii, g) (1931) = J Q R 21 (1930—i), p p . 223—40; J . Schirmann, 'Daf hadash mittokh
sefer Ben-Sira' ha-ivri', Tarbiz 27 ( 1 9 5 7 - 8 ) , pp. 4 4 0 - 4 3 ; 'Dappim noseflm mittokh sefer
Ben-Slra", ibid. 29 (1959-60), p p . 125-34.
15. M. Baillet, D J D I I I : Les 'Petites Grottes' de Qumrdn (1962), p p . 75-7.
16. J. A . Sanders, D J D I V : The Psalms Scroll of Qumran Cave 1 1 (1965), pp. 7 9 - 8 5 ; The
Dead Sea Psalms Scroll (1967), p p . 74-6 ; 112-17.
17. Yigael Yadin, The Ben Sira Scroll from Masada (1965).
18. The Origin of the' Original Hebrew' of Ecclesiasticus (1899).
19. G. Bickell, 'Der hebraische S i r a c h t e x t : eine Ruckiibersetzung', W Z K M 13 (1899),
p p . 2 5 1 - 6 ; H. L. Ginsberg, ' T h e Original H e b r e w of Ben Sira 12:10-14', J B L 74 (1955),
PP- 93 ff-
20. E . J . Goodspeed, The Story of the Apocrypha (1939), p . 25; M . H a d a s , The Apocrypha,
transl. by E . J . Goodspeed (1959), p . 222; C . C. Torrey, The Apocryphal Literature (1945),
p. 9 7 ; ' T h e Hebrew T e x t of Ben Sira', Alexander Marx Jubilee Volume (1950), p p . 585-602.
21. Le livre de I'Ecclisiastique [La Sainte Bible de Jerusalem7 (^1958), p. 20.
22. See e.g. C. Taylor, The Originality of the Hebrew Text of Ben Sira (1910).
23. L'Ecclesiastique I (1898), p . xviii; II (1901), p p . xx-xxi; The Hebrew Text of the Book
of Ecclesiasticus (1904), p p . x-xi.
24. Die Weisheit des Jesus Sirach (1906).
25. Das Buch Jesus Sirach oder Ecclesiasticus (1913).
E. Oesterley,^^ M . H . Segal,^^ ^ n d A l e x a n d e r A. d i Lella.'*^ I n t h e i r

view, the m a n y doublets and clumsy phrases a r e attributable either to a
p o p u l a r i z i n g r e v i s i o n of t h e classical style of B e n S i r a ( M . H . S e g a l ) ,
or t o t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f o c c a s i o n a l r e t r a n s l a t i o n from t h e G r e e k (J.
Ziegler),^° or t h e S y r i a c (A. A . di L e i l a ) . ^ ' I n t h e w o r d s of H . P . R i i g e r ,
t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y of the o l d e r form of t h e text c a n b e u n c o n d i t i o n a l l y
affirmed w h i l e the m o r e r e c e n t H e b r e w v e r s i o n results from a J e w i s h
revision r a t h e r t h a n a r e t r a n s l a t i o n . ^ ^
T h e Q u m r a n a n d M a s a d a f r a g m e n t s s e e m t o h a v e settled t h e d e b a t e .
W h i l e t h e t i n y r e m a i n s from C a v e 2 yield n o i n d e p e n d e n t a r g u m e n t ,
t h e Ben Sira e x t r a c t from the P s a l m s Scroll, a n d especially the M a s a d a
m a n u s c r i p t , d a t e d respectively o n p a l a e o g r a p h i c a l g r o u n d s to t h e
b e g i n n i n g of the first c e n t u r y A . D . a n d to t h e first h a l f of t h e first
c e n t u r y B . C . , ^ ^ are sufficiently close t o t h e G e n i z a h f r a g m e n t s t o r e n d e r
t h e t h e o r y of a m e d i e v a l r e t r a n s l a t i o n i n t o H e b r e w h i g h l y u n c o n v i n c
i n g . T h e precise r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e t w o sets of d o c u m e n t s still
a w a i t s a t h o r o u g h e x a m i n a t i o n . T h e a l p h a b e t i c a l c h a r a c t e r of Sir.
5 1 : 1 3 ff., gravely c o r r u p t in the G e n i z a h t e x t in the aleph t o lamed
section, a fact r e c o g n i z e d a l r e a d y b y the editors,^"* c a n n o w be e m e n d e d
w i t h t h e h e l p of i i Q P s ^ for the verses b e t w e e n aleph a n d kaph}^ A
careful c o m p a r i s o n of t h e l a r g e r M a s a d a d o c u m e n t w i t h the t e x t a n d
t h e m a r g i n a l notes of M a n u s c r i p t B of the G e n i z a h h a s e n a b l e d Y .
Y a d i n t o d r a w the following g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n s : ( a ) T h e M a s a d a t e x t
is b a s i c a l l y i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e G e n i z a h r h a n u s c r i p t s . (b) T h e text of
M a n u s c r i p t B . a n d its m a r g i n a l v a r i a n t s c o r r e s p o n d to t w o r e c e n s i o n s ,
a l r e a d y c o n t a i n i n g e r r o r s a n d e d i t o r i a l a l t e r a t i o n s , o f the o r i g i n a l w o r k ,
(c) T h e H e b r e w version used b y t h e G r e e k t r a n s l a t o r is closer t o t h a t of
t h e M a s a d a m a n u s c r i p t t h a n is a n y o t h e r r e c e n s i o n , (d) T h e l a t t e r ' s
26. R. H . Charles, A P O T I (1912), p p . 2 7 5 - 8 ; Oesterley, Ecclesiasticus (1912), p. xcv.

27. Sefer Ben Sira ha-Shalem (1953, 1958).
28. The Hebrew Text of Sirach : A Text-Critical and Historical Study (1966).
29. Op. cit., p p . 6 2 - 3 . Cf. ' T h e Evolution of the Hebrew T e x t of Ben Sira', J Q R 25
(1934-5). P- 118.
30. 'Zwei Beitrage zu Sirach', BZ 8 (1964), pp. 277-84.
31. 0/). cit.
32. H a n s Peter Riiger, Text und Textform im hebrdischen Sirach (1970), p. 115. Rviger
disagrees with both Ziegler a n d di Leila; cf op. cit., p p . i - i i.
33. di Leila, op, cit., p p . 148-9.
34. Cf Schechter and Taylor, op. cit. [in n. 14], p . Ixxxvii.
35. Cf J . A. Sanders, DJD I V , p. 79. ' T h e r e c a n be little doubt t h a t Grk presents an
interpretive recension o f the canticle. While Q m a y possibly n o t represent t h e original
text of the poem in all details, it is clearly superior to Syr-Cairo and L a d n . . . it is now
clear that the canticle is totally independent of Sirach. If Jesus, son of Sira, of Jerusalem,
h a d penned the candcle it would hardly be found in iiQPs", which claims Davidic
authorship.' [Ibid., p. 83.)
w o r d i n g (apart from mistakes a n d lacunae) is n e a r e s t , a n d possibly

i d e n t i c a l , to B e n S i r a ' s o r i g i n a l .
T h e c o m p l e t e t e x t of S i r a c h is p r e s e r v e d i n t w o t r a n s l a d o n s : i. t h e
G r e e k v e r s i o n , p r e p a r e d by t h e a u t h o r ' s g r a n d s o n , h a s p a s s e d into t h e
G r e e k B i b l e ; 2. t h e S y r i a c v e r s i o n , c o n t a i n e d in t h e P e s h i t t a , w h i c h in
t h e j u d g e m e n t of a l l m o d e r n s c h o l a r s d e r i v e s n o t f r o m t h e G r e e k , b u t
directly from t h e H e b r e w text.^^
Ecclesiasticus is d e s c r i b e d a s ' t h e w o r s t p i e c e o f t r a n s l a t i o n in t h e
S y r i a c B i b l e ' , w h o s e v a l u e for t e x t u a l c r i t i c i s m is m o r e o v e r l i m i t e d by
t h e t r a n s l a t o r ' s r e g u l a r r e c o u r s e to t h e G r e e k v e r s i o n too.^^ D e s p i t e all
these s t r i c t u r e s , it r e m a i n s , a l o n g w i t h t h e H e b r e w f r a g m e n t s a n d t h e
G r e e k t r a n s l a t i o n , a v a l u a b l e a u x i l i a r y m e a n s of a r r i v i n g at B e n S i r a ' s
own meaning.
T h e e x i s t e n c e of a H e b r e w t e x t i n the t i m e o f J e r o m e , t h e q u o t a t i o n s
in R a b b i n i c w r i t i n g s , a n d finally t h e H e b r e w f r a g m e n t s p r e s e r v e d from
t h e t e n t h a n d twelfth c e n t u r i e s , all p r o v e t h a t the b o o k w a s p o p u l a r in
R a b b i n i c circles.
T h e p r e s e n c e in t h e C a i r o G e n i z a h of m e d i e v a l copies of t h e H e b r e w
B e n S i r a a n d of t h e D a m a s c u s R u l e ( C D ) , l a t e r d i s c o v e r e d at Q u m r a n
(see b e l o w , p p . 389, 395), calls to m i n d t h e d i s c o v e r y , a t the e n d of t h e
e i g h t h c e n t u r y , of H e b r e w m a n u s c r i p t s in t h e J e r i c h o a r e a m e n t i o n e d
by the N e s t o r i a n P a t r i a r c h of S e l e u c i a , T i m o t h y I, in a S y r i a c l e t t e r to
Sergius, M e t r o p o l i t a n o f Elam."*" A c c o r d i n g t o t h e P a t r i a r c h , w r i t i n g
36. Cf. Yadin, op. cit. [in n. 17], p p . 7-11. The H e b r e w section of t h e volume contains
three tables. T h e first lists the cases where the M a s a d a scroll agrees with t h e marginal
glosses of Manuscript B (pp. 7-8). T h e second indicates agreements between it and the
text of M a n u s c r i p t B against t h e marginal variants (p. 9). T h e third gives examples where
Masada, M a n u s c r i p t B and B m a r g all differ (pp. 11-13).
37. Cf e.g. Smend, op. cit., p. cxxxvi; Oesterley, op. cit., p. c ; Segal, op. cit., p . 59;
Eissfeldt, Introduction, p . 599. I t has recently been conjectured by M. M . Winter ('The
Origins of Ben Sira in Syriac. Peshitta Institute C o m m u n i c a t i o n X I F , V T 27 (1977), pp.
237-53. 494-507) that the discrepancies of t h e Syriac version from the H e b r e w as well as
from the Greek a n d t h e Latin point to an Ebionite origin in the third or early fourth
century A.D. T h e basic translation w a s revised in the l a t e fourth century i n orthodox
Christian circles.
3 8 . Cf Smend, op. cit., pp. cxxxvii, cxxxix.
39. A complete enumeration of rabbinic quotations from Ben Sira, o r references t o his
writings, m a y be found in Smend, op. cit., p p . xlvi-lvi; Segal, op. cit., p p . 37-42. Cf also S.
Lieberman, 'Ben Sira a la lumiere d u Yerouchalmi', R E J 97 (1934), pp. 50-7. T h e
earliest citation a p p e a r s in m A b . 4:4a (R. Levitas a p p r o p r i a t i n g Sir. 7:17 i n a sUghdy
different form). C f G. Beer, Abot (1927), p p . 9 2 - 3 . For Ben Sira quotations by Saadya
G a o n (882-942) in his Sefer ha-Galuy, see Smend, op. cit., p p . 1-lvi; di Leila, op. cit., p . 95.
Twenty-five hemistichs cited (Sir. 3 : 2 1 - 2 ; 5:5-6; 6:6-8, 1 3 ; 11:28; 13:11) are identical to
all intents and purposes with Manuscript A of the G e n i z a h ; another (Sir. 13:11) is
reproduced freely (cf di Leila, ibid.).
40. Cf O . Braun, ' E i n Brief des KathoHkos Timotheos I uber biblische Studien des 9.
J a h r h u n d e r t s ' , Oriens Christianus i (1901), pp. 2 9 9 - 3 1 3 ; R. S. Bidawid, Les lettres du
2o6 §32. Jewish Literature in Hebrew or Aramaic
a p p a r e n t l y i n 796 o r 797 ( B i d a w i d , p . 7 1 ) , t r u s t w o r t h y J e w s ( r e c e i v i n g
i n s t r u c t i o n in C h r i s t i a n i t y ) r e p o r t e d t h a t ten y e a r s e a r l i e r , b o o k s of t h e
O l d T e s t a m e n t a n d other Hebrew documents, including more than two
h u n d r e d P s a l m s o f D a v i d , h a d b e e n f o u n d i n a c a v e in t h e v i c i n i t y of
J e r i c h o . T h e r e is a serious possibility t h a t t h e G e n i z a h m a n u s c r i p t s of
Ecclesiasticus, the A r a m a i c T e s t a m e n t o f L e v i a n d t h e D a m a s c u s R u l e
a r e u l t i m a t e l y t r a c e a b l e to scrolls r e m o v e d b e t w e e n 780 a n d 790 f r o m a
Q u m r a n cave.^'
O n r a b b i n i c a t t i t u d e s to t h e c a n o n i c a l s t a t u s of B e n S i r a , s e e vol. I I ,
p . 3 1 9 . For a full list o f r e l e v a n t e x c e r p t s , see S i d Z . L e i m a n , The
Canonization of Hebrew Scripture: The Talmudic and Midrashic Evidence
( 1 9 7 6 ) , p p . 92-7.*''
T h e early m e d i e v a l c o m p o s i t i o n k n o w n as t h e Alphabet of Ben Sira is
d e p e n d e n t in p a r t o n T a l m u d i c q u o t a t i o n s . I t owes its title t o two sets
of t w e n t y - t w o a l p h a b e t i c a l l y a r r a n g e d p r o v e r b s , t h e first in H e b r e w ,
t h e second i n A r a m a i c . Five out of t h e t w e n t y - t w o a r e k n o w n f r o m
r a b b i n i c sources a s sayings of B e n S i r a . T h e s e p r o v e r b s h a v e b e e n
i n s e r t e d in a v u l g a r a n d i r r e v e r e n t story o f B e n Sira, w h o is s a i d to h a v e
b e e n t h e son of t h e p r o p h e t J e r e m i a h ' s d a u g h t e r , w h o c o n c e i v e d h i m
' m i r a c u l o u s l y ' in a p u b l i c b a t h from floating s e m e n w h i c h b e l o n g e d to
h e r father. T h e w o r k h a s survived in f o u r r e c e n s i o n s s h o w i n g t r a c e s of
c e n s o r s h i p p r a c t i s e d b y copyists in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h irreligious or
s h o c k i n g passages.*^
O n t h e d t l e of t h e b o o k , see in p a r t i c u l a r t h e passage f r o m J e r o m e o n
p . 202 a b o v e . T h e H e b r e w t e x t h a s a d u a l s i g n a t u r e : ]3 pSyHtt? '^1^1
N")^D ]a rîpw a n d NT'O p nTS7'7N ]3 p pS7air n a s n (cf
S e g a l , op. cit., p . 3 5 8 ) . I n R a b b i n i c w r i t i n g s , t h e b o o k is d e s i g n a t e d as
Patriarche nestorien, Timothee I (1956).

4 1 . Cf. O. Eissfeldt, 'Der gegenwartige Stand d e r Erforschung der in Palasdna neu
gefundenen hebraischen Handschriften', T h L Z 74 (1949), cols. 5 9 5 - 6 0 0 ; R. d e V a u x , 'A
propos des manuscrits d e la M e r Morte', R B 57 (1950), p p . 4 1 7 - 2 9 ; P. Kahle, The Cairo
Geniza (^1959), p p . 16-17; di Leila, op. cit., p p . 81-105.
42. tYad. 2:13 ('the Books of Ben Sira do not defile the hands') indicates t h a t the work
is not canonical. ySanh. 28a, bSanh. l o o b and Eccl. R . 12:12 forbid its reading. By
contrast, the m a n y quotations in the T a l m u d and the introductory formulae suggest that
Ecclesiasticus was often used a n d interpreted as a biblical book. C f Leiman, op. cit., p . 97.
F o r the view that Ben Sira was read in the Jewish liturgy, see C. Roth, 'Ecclesiasticus in
the Synagogue Service', J B L 71 (1952), pp. 171-8.
43. For the text, see M . Steinschneider, Alphabetum Siracidis utrumque (1858), containing
the traditional version and additional material from a Leiden m a n u s c r i p t ; D . Z.
F r i e d m a n and D . S. Loewinger, Alpha Betha de-Ben Sira (1926), representing a different
recension from a Kaufmann codex from Budapest; A. M. H a b e r m a n , "Aleph-Betha de-Ben
Sira'-Nusdh sh'lishif, Tarbiz 27 (1957—8), p p . 190—202, editing a Jerusalem manuscript.
For a general outline, see J. D a n , 'Ben Sira, Alphabet of, Enc. J u d . 4, cols. 548-50. Cf
also L. Ginzberg, 'Ben Sira, Alphabet of, J E II, p p . 678—81, where the A r a m a i c proverbs
are translated into English. Peter the Venerable of Cluny quotes from t h e A l p h a b e t ; cf. I.
Levi, R E J 29 (1894), p p . 197-205.
N-IÔ p "1DD, ' 0 p i K-)D^D, ' 0 p T NIDÔ, ' 0 p n S O , a n d in G e n i z a h

f r a g m e n t s ' 0 ] 3 ''712?^ (cf. S e g a l , op. cit., p . 12 ; S. S c h e c h t e r , ' A F u r t h e r
F r a g m e n t of B e n S i r a ' , J Q R 1 2 ( 1 8 9 9 - 1 9 0 0 ) , p p . 460 ff.). I n t h e G r e e k
m a n u s c r i p t s , t h e title r u n s Eo(j>ia 'Irjaov vlov Etpax- I n t h e G r e e k
C h u r c h , t h e d e s i g n a t i o n ly Travaperos ao(f>la, first c u s t o m a r y for
q u o t a t i o n s f r o m P r o v e r b s ( C l e m e n t of R o m e , / Cor. 5 7 : 3 ; C l e m e n t of
A l e x a n d r i a , Strom, ii 22, 1 3 6 ; E u s e b . H E iv 2 2 , 8) w a s t r a n s f e r r e d to this
b o o k , t o o . I t is first f o u n d in E u s e b i u s , Chron., ed. S c h o e n e I I , p . 122
( w h e r e t h e a g r e e m e n t o f Syncellus a n d J e r o m e w i t h the A r m e n i a n t e x t
proves t h a t t h e e x p r e s s i o n is p e c u l i a r t o E u s e b i u s himself). Demonstr.
evang. viii 2, 7 1 : Eipwv, Kad' ov Lrjaovs 6 t o v Eipdx eyvcopiêro, o TT)V
KaXovp€V7]v navaperov Eo<f)iav avvTaias- T h i s d e s i g n a t i o n does n o t yet
a p p e a r i n t h e n u m e r o u s q u o t a t i o n s in C l e m e n t a n d O r i g e n . I n t h e
L a t i n c h u r c h , the title ' E c c l e s i a s t i c u s ' h a s b e e n c u r r e n t since t h e t i m e of
C y p r i a n {Testim. ii i ; iii i, 3 5 , 5 1 , 9 5 , 96, 109, n o , i n ) . C o m p a r e also
t h e L a t i n t r a n s l a t i o n o f O r i g e n ' s E i g h t e e n t h H o m i l y on N u m b e r s ,
c h a p . 3 (ed. L o m m a t z s c h X , p . 2 2 1 ) : ' i n h b r o q u i a p u d n o s q u i d e m
i n t e r S a l o m o n i s v o l u m i n a h a b e r i solet et E c c l e s i a s t i c u s d i c i , a p u d
G r a e c o s v e r o s a p i e n t i a l e s u filii S i r a c h a p p e l l a t u r ' .
T h e w o r k o f B e n Sira has e n j o y e d h i g h e s t e e m i n C h r i s t i a n i t y ; b o t h
G r e e k a n d L a t i n c h u r c h f a t h e r s f r e q u e n t l y q u o t e it as ' S c r i p t u r e ' .
A l r e a d y the E p i s t l e of J a m e s i n c l u d e s a n u m b e r o f s a y i n g s r e m i n i s c e n t
of J e s u s S i r a c h , a l t h o u g h t h e s e d o n o t a m o u n t t o a c t u a l citations.**
I n p a t r i s t i c l i t e r a t u r e , t h e Didache uses S i r a c h w i t h o u t specifically
q u o t i n g it.*^ B y c o n t r a s t , C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a often cites t h e b o o k ,
m o s t f r e q u e n t l y w i t h t h e f o r m u l a e r] ypaj>r] Xeyei, (fjyâiv, etc. ( t h i r t e e n
d m e s : Paedag. i 8, 6 2 ; 8, 6 8 ; ii 2, 3 4 ; 5, 4 6 ; 8, 69; 8, 76; 10, 98 ; 10, 99;
iii 3> 1 7 ; 3> 2 3 ; 4, 29; I I , 5 8 ; I I , 83) ; or w i t h t h e f o r m u l a e -q ao<f>la
Aeyei, <f>r]aiv, a n d t h e like ( t e n t i m e s : Paedag. i 8, 6 9 ; 8, 7 2 ; 9, 7 5 ; 1 3 ,
1 0 2 ; h I , 8; 2, 2 4 ; 7, 5 4 ; 7, 5 8 ; 7, 5 9 ; Stromat. v 3, 1 8 ) ; o r e v e n as
w o r d s o f the TratSaycoyos- {Paedag. ii 10, 9 9 . 1 0 1 . 1 0 9 ) . T h e b o o k is o n l y
twice d e s i g n a t e d a s the ao(f)ia Îrjaov {Stromat. i 4, 27 ; 10, 4 7 ) . S o l o m o n is
n a m e d as a u t h o r four t i m e s , b u t only in t h e Stromata, n e v e r in the
Paedagogus, t o w h i c h m o s t o f t h e q u o t a t i o n s b e l o n g {Strom, ii 5, 24,
b e g i n n i n g a n d e n d ; vi 1 6 , 1 4 6 ; vii 16, 105, e d . O . S t a h l i n , p . 46). O n
o n e o c c a s i o n , a m a x i m f r o m S i r a c h ' s ao<f>la is d e s c r i b e d as p r e -
S o p h o c l e a n {Paedag. ii 2, 2 4 ) . Cf. in g e n e r a l e s p e c i a l l y O . S t a h h n ,
44. Cf. J . B. M a y e r , The Epistle of St. James (^1910), p p . Ixxiii ff.; Oesterley and Box,
A P O T I, pp. 2 9 4 - 6 ; J . H . Ropes, James ( I C C , 1916), p . 19 prefers to speak o f ' a general
similarity of ideas rather than proper literary dependence'. Similarly, M . DibeHus, James
(1976), p . 27.
45. Cf J . - P . Audet, La Didache (1958), p p . 275-80 (at Did. 1:6); P. W . Skehan, 'Didache
I, 6 and Sirach 12, i', Bibl 44 (1963), pp. 533-6.
Clemens Alexandrinus und die Septuaginta (1901), pp. 4 6 - 5 8 ; also

S t a h l i n ' s e d i t i o n of C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a in t h e Berlin c o r p u s .
T h e s i t u a t i o n is s i m i l a r r e g a r d i n g t h e S i r a c h q u o t a t i o n s of O r i g e n ,
o n l y h e r e in m a n y i n s t a n c e s t h e i n t r o d u c t o r y f o r m u l a e c a n n o t be
e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h c e r t a i n t y b e c a u s e t h e m a j o r i t y of O r i g e n ' s w r i t i n g s a r e
p r e s e r v e d o n l y in L a t i n . O r i g e n seems to h a v e referred to t h e b o o k m o s t
f r e q u e n t l y as ypa^ri. I n t h e L a t i n t e x t , S o l o m o n is o c c a s i o n a l l y n a m e d
as a u t h o r {In Jûmer. homil. xviii, 3 = e d . B a e h r e n s , G C S 30, p . 1 7 0 ; In
losuam homil. X I , 2 = ibid., p . 3 6 3 ; In Samuel, homil. I , 13 = G C S 3 3 , p .
2 1 ) , b u t t h a t this c a n n o t be a t t r i b u t e d t o O r i g e n h i m s e l f is a t t e s t e d b y
Contra Cels. vi 7 ( e d . K o e t s c h a u , G C S 2, p . 7 7 ) : TrapaSeiôj/tAcv drro TWV
lepoyv ypappdrcov, OTI TTpOTpiirei Kal 6 deios Xoyos iirl SiaAe/CTtK-^v
oTTOv p,ev I!o\op,(x>VTOs XeyovTO . . . OTTOV Se TOV TO avyypapLfxa T'qv ao<f>iav
[ r e a d rrjs ao<f>Las\ rfpiiv KaraXiTTOVTOS Îr)aov vlov Zcipdx <f>daK0VTOs. I n t h e
w r i t i n g De aleatoribus c. 2, f o u n d a m o n g s t C y p r i a n ' s w o r k s b u t r e a l l y
p r e - C y p r i a n i c , S i r a c h is i n t r o d u c e d as ' e t alia s c r i p t u r a d i c i t ' . C y p r i a n
h i m s e l f cites t h e b o o k t h r o u g h o u t a s the w o r k of S o l o m o n (Testim. ii i ;
iii 6 . 1 2 . 3 5 . 5 1 . 5 3 . 9 5 . 9 6 . 9 7 . 1 0 9 . 1 1 3 ; Ad Fortunam c. 9 ; De opere et
eleemosynis c. 5 ; Epist. iii 2). O t h e r L a t i n w r i t e r s d o t h e s a m e . See
e s p e c i a l l y t h e p a s s a g e a l r e a d y referred to f r o m t h e L a t i n v e r s i o n of
O r i g e n , In Numer. homil. xviii, 3 ; cf. also J e r o m e ' s r e n d e r i n g of E u s e b i u s ,
Demonstr. evang. viii 2 , 7 1 : ' S i m o n , q u o r e g e n t e p o p u l u m l e s u s filius
S i r a c h scripsit l i b r u m , q u i G r a e c e navapeTos a p p e l l a t u r et p l e r i s q u e
S a l o m o n i s falso d i c i t u r ' {In Daniel. 9). T h u s m a n y w e s t e r n c a n o n
i n d e x e s n u m b e r w i t h o u t f u r t h e r a d o Jive S o l o m o n i c w r i t i n g s (see T h .
Z a h n , Geschichte des neutestamentl. Kanons I I , p p . 1 5 1 , 245, 2 5 1 , 2 7 2 , 1007
ff-.; E. N e s t l e , Z A W 27 ( 1 9 0 7 ) , p p . 2 9 4 - 7 ) .
F o r t h e f u r t h e r h i s t o r y o f t h e use of t h e b o o k , see Oesterley,
Ecclesiasticus ( 1 9 1 2 ) , p p . Ixxviii-lxxxvi.
A. Manuscripts and Editions

/. Hebrew
a) Q u m r a n material
Baillet, M . , Milik, J . T . , V a u x , R. de, DJD H I : Les 'Petites Grottes' de Qumrdn (1962), pp.
75-7-
Sanders, J . A., D J D IV : The Psalms Scroll of Qumran Cave 11 (i 965), pp. 79-85.
b) M a s a d a fragments
Yadin, Y., The Ben Sira Scrollfrom Masada (1965).
c) Genizah MSS A-E
Cowley, A . E., a n d Neubauer, A., The Original Hebrew of a Portion of Ecclesiasticus (1897).
Schechter, S., a n d Taylor, C , The Wisdom of Ben Sira: Portions of the Book of Ecclesiasticus
from Hebrew Manuscripts in the Cairo Genizah Collection (1899).
Margoliouth, G., 'The Original Hebrew of Ecclesiasticus X X X I , 12—31 a n d X X X V I ,
2 2 - X X X V I I , 26', J Q R 12 (1899-1900), pp. 1-33.
Adler, E. N . , 'Some missing Chapters of Ben Sira', J Q R 12 (1899-1900), pp. 466-80.
Schechter, S., 'A further Fragment of Ben Sira', J Q R 12 (1899-1900), p p . 456-65.
Levi, L, ' F r a g m e n t s d e deux n o u v e a u x manuscrits hebreux de FEcclesiastiquc', R E J 40

(1900), pp. 1-30.
Gaster, M . , 'A n e w Fragment ofBen Sira', J Q R 12 (1899-1900), pp. 688-702.
Marcus, J . , The Newly Discovered Original Hebrew of Ben Sira (Ecclesiasticus xxxii, i6-xxxiv,
I) : The Fifth Manuscript and a Prosodic Version of Ben Sira (Ecclesiasticus xxii, 22-xxiii, 9)
( 0 , 3 0 = J Q R 21 (1930-31), p p . 223-40.
Schirmann, J., N A S N K T ' O P *1D0 -[INA WTH T a r b i z 27 (1957-8), p p . 4 4 0 - 3 .
Schirmann, J., KL-D P "1DD LLFLO D'-DOIL•"DN, ibid. 29 ( 1 9 5 9 - 6 0 ) , pp. 125-34.
B. C o m p l e t e Editions
/. Hebrew
Facsimiles of the Fragments hitherto recovered of the Book of Ecclesiasticus in Hebrew (1901).
Levi, I., L'Ecclesiastique ou la Sagesse de Jisus, fits de Sira, Parts I a n d II (1898, 1901).
Peters, N . , Der jiingst wiederaufgefundene hebraische Text des Buches Ecclesiasticus untersucht,
herausgegeben, iibersetzt und mit kritischen Noten versehen (1902).
Strack, H . L., Die Spriiche Jesus, des Sohnes Sirachs, der jiingst gefundene hebraische Text mit
Anmerkungen und Worterbuch (1903).
Levi, I., The Hebrew Text of the Book of Ecclesiasticus (1904).
Peters, N . , Liber Jesu jilii Sirach sive Ecclesiasticus hebraice (1905).
Smend, R . , Die Weisheit des Jesus Sirach hebrdisch und deutsch (1906).
Segal, M. H., DBTRN KT'O P I S O (1953,''1958).
The Book of Ben Sira: Text, Concordance ard an Analysis of the Vocabulary (1973).
2. Greek
O n the editions of the Greek Bible, see pp. 4 8 9 - 9 0 . T h e most u p - t o - d a t e text is :
Ziegler, J . , Sapientia Jesu FiliiSirach [ G o t d n g e n S e p t u a g i n t a X I I , 2] (1965).
T w o Greek minuscules 248 = Vaticanus G r . 346 and 70 = M u n c h e n Gr. 493, formerly
551 contain additional verses especially in chaps. 1-26. Cf J . H . A. H a r t , Ecclesiasticus:
The Greek Text of Codex 248 (1909) ; J . Ziegler, Die MUnchener griechische Sirach-Handschrift
(1962).
J. Syriac (see above, p. 205).
4. Translations from the Greek text

a) Old L a d n
2
Sabatier, P., Bibliorum Sacrorum latinae versiones antiquae (1739-49, 1751) •
Lagarde, P. de, 'Die Weisheiten der Handschrift von A m i a t a ' , Mitteilungen I (1884), pp.
283-378.
Herkenne, H., De veteris Latinae Ecclesiastici capitibus I-XLHI {i8gg).
b) Vulgate
Biblia sacra juxta latinam vulgatam versionem ad codicum fidem XH: Liber Hiesu Sirach (1964).
J e r o m e d i d not revise the O l d L a t i n : ' P o r r o i n eo libro, q u i a plerisque Sapientia
Salomonis inscribitur et in Ecclesiastico q u e m esse lesu filii Sirach nullus ignorat, calamo
temperavi, t a n t u m m o d o c a n o n i c a s S c r i p t u r a s vobis e m e n d a r e d e s i d e r a n s ' {Praef. in edit,
librorum Salomonis iuxta LXX interpretes, e d . Vallarsi X , p . 436.
c) Syro-Hexaplaric version
Ceriani, A . M., Codex Syro-Hexaplaris Ambrosianus (1874).
d) Coptic (Sahidic)
Lagarde, P. de, Aegyptiaca (1883), p p . 107-206.
e) Ethiopic
Dillmann, A., Biblia Veteris Testamenti Aethiopica (1894), p p . 54-117.
21 o §32. Jewish Literature in Hebrew or Aramaic
Commentaries
Fritzsche, O . F., Die Weisheit Jesus Sirachs (1859).

Levi, L, L' Ecclisiastique ou la sagesse de Jesus fits de Sira I-II (1898, 1901).
Ryssel, V., 'Die Spriiche Jesus des Sohnes Sirachs', A P A T I , pp. 230-475.
K n a b e n b a u e r , J . , Commentarius in Ecclesiasticum cum appendice: textus Ecclesiastici hebreus
(1902).
Peters, N., Der jiingst wieder aufgefundene hebraische Text des Buches Ecclesiasticus (1902).
Smend, R., Die Weisheit des Jesus Sirach I-II (1906).
Peters, N., Das Buch Jesus Sirach (1913).
Box, G. H . , and W . O. E . Oesterley, 'Sirach', A P O T I, pp. 268-517.
Eberharter, A., Das Buch Jesus Sirach (1925).
Segal, M. H., Sefer Ben Sira ha-Shalem (1953, 1958).
Schilling, O . , Das Buch Jesus Sirach (1956).
H a m p , v . . Das Buch Sirach oder Ecclesiasticus (1959).
Duesberg, H., and Auvray, H. P., Le livre de I'Ecclisiastique ( 1958).
Vattioni, F . , Ecclesiastico (1968).
Snaith, J. G., Ecclesiasticus (1974).
Sauer, G., Jesus Sirach (Ben Sira) [ J S H R Z I I I , 5] (1978).
Bibliography
For an exhausdve bibliography undl 1963, see A. A. di Leila, The Hebrew Text of Sirach
(1966), pp. 154-68.
Bickell, G., 'Ein alphabetisches Lied Jesus Sirachs', Z K T h 6 (1882), pp. 319-33.
Nestle, E., 'Zum Prolog des Ecclesiasticus', Z A W 17 (1897), pp. 123-4.
Peters, N., Die sahidische-koptische Uebersetzung des Buches Ecclesiasticus (1898).
Bacher, W . , 'Die persischen R a n d n o t i z e n z u m hebraischen Sirach', Z A W 20 (1900), pp.
308-10.
Grimme, H., 'Metres et strophes dans les fragments du manuscrit parchemin du
Siracide', R B 9 (1900), p p . 400-13. 'Metres et strophes dans les fragments h e b r e u x du
manuscrit A de I'Ecclesiastique', R B 10 (1901), pp. 55—65, 260-7, 423-35.
Nestle, E., 'Sirach (Book of]', H D B I V , pp. 5 3 9 - 5 1 .
T o y , C. H . , 'Ecclesiasticus', EB II, p p . 1167-79. 'Sirach', E B IV, p p . 4645-51.
Levi, I., 'Sirach, T h e Wisdom of Jesus the Son of, J E 11 (1905), p p . 388—97.
Ginzberg, L., 'Randglossen z u m hebraischen Ben Sira', Orientalische Studien Th. Mldeke
gewidmet, ed. C. Bezold ( 1906), p p . 609-25.
Smend, R . , Griechisch-Syrisch-Hebrdischer Index zur Weisheit Jesus Sirach (1907)
Marmorstein, A., 'Jesus Sirach 51, 12 ff.', Z A W 29 (1909), pp. 287-93.
Wellhausen, J., 'Reis im Buch Sirach', Z D M G 6 4 (1910), p . 258.
Baumgartner, W . , 'Die literarischen G a t t u n g e n in der Weisheit des Jesus Sirach', Z A W
34 ( I 9 H ) > P P - 161-98.
Biichler, A., 'Ben Sira's Conception of Sin and Atonement', J Q R 13 (1922-3), pp.
3 0 3 - 3 5 , 4 6 1 - 5 0 2 ; 14 (1923-4), PP- 53-83-
Bruyne, D . de, 'Etudes sur le texte latin de I'Ecclesiastique', Rev. Benedicdne 40 (1928),
pp. 5-48.
Idem, 'Le prologue, le titre et la finale de I'Ecclesiastique', Z A W 47 (1929), pp. 257-63.
Lieberman, S., 'Ben Sira a la lumiere d u Yerouchalmi', R E J 97 (1934), p p . 5 0 - 7 .
Segal, M . H., ' T h e Evolution of the Hebrew Text of Ben Sira', J Q R 25 (1934-5), PP-
91-149-
Driver, G. R., 'Ecclesiasticus: A New Fragment of the Hebrew Text', E T 49 (1937—8),
pp. 37-8.
Torrey, C . C , ' T h e Hebrew of the Genizah Sirach', Alexander Marx Jubilee Volume (1950),
pp. 585-602.
Trinquet, J., 'Les liens "sadocites" d e I'Ecrit de Damas, des manuscrits de la Mer M o r t e
e t d e I'Ecclesiastique', V T i (1951), p p . 287-92.
Driver, G. R . , ' B e n Sira X X X I I I , 4', J J S 5 (1954), p. 177.
Segal, M . H., 'Ben Sira', Enz- Miqr. I I , pp. 162-9.
C a d b u r y , H . J . , ' T h e G r a n d s o n ofBen Sira', H T h R 48 (1955), p p . 219-25.
Mowinckel, S., 'Die Metrik bei Jesus Sirach', Stud. Theol. 9 (1955), p p . 137-65.
Winter, P . , 'Ben Sira a n d the Teachings of t h e T w o W a y s ' , V T 5 (1955), pp. 315-18.
Auvray, P., 'Notes sur le prologue d e I'Ecclesiastique', Melanges bibliques rediges en I'honneur
d'Andre Robert (1957), pp. 281-7.
Ziegler, J . , ' Z u m Wortschatz des griechischen Sirach', B Z A W 77 (1958), pp. 274-87.
Idem, ' H a t L u k i a n d e n griechischen Sirach recensiert?', Bibl. 40 (1959), pp. 210-29.
Idem, 'Die hexaplarische Bearbeitung des griechischen Sirach', B Z 4 ( i 9 6 0 ) , p p . 174—85.
Carmignac, J., ' L e r a p p o r t entre I'Ecclesiastique et Q u m r a n ' , R Q , 3 (1961), p p . 209—18.
L e h m a n n , M. R . , 'Ben Sira a n d the Q u m r a n Literature', R Q 3 (1961), pp. 103-16.
H a r t m a n , L. F., 'Sirach in Hebrew a n d Greek', C B Q 2 3 (1961), pp. 443-51.
Burkill, T . A., 'Ecclesiasdcus', IDB I I , pp. 13-21.
di Leila, A. A., ' Q u m r a n a n d the G e n i z a h Fragment of Sirach', C B Q 24 (1962), pp.
245-7-
Idem, 'Authenticity of the Genizah F r a g m e n t s of Sirach', Bibl. 4 4 (1963), pp. 171-200.
G o r m a n n , H., 'Jesus b e n Siras Dankgebct u n d die Hodajoth', T h Z 19 (1963), pp. 81—7.
Rivkin, E., 'Ben Sira and t h e non-Existence of the Synagogue', In the Time of Harvest,
Festschrift A. H. Silver (1963), p p . 321-54.
Pautrel, R., 'Ben Sira et le stoicisme', R S c R 51 (1963), p p . 535-49.
Segal, M . H., JKIQipn XTO p nSD, T a r b i z 33 (1963-4), pp. 243-6.
Ziegler, J . , 'Die Vokabel-Varianten der 0-Rezension im griechischen Sirach', Hebrew and
Semitic Studies presented to G. R. Driver (1963), p p . 172—90.
Snaith, J . G., ' T h e I m p o r t a n c e of Ecclesiasticus', E T 75 (1963—4), pp. 66-9.
di Leila, A. A., 'The recently identified Leaves of Sirach in H e b r e w ' , Biblica 55 (1964),
pp. 153-67.
Eissfeldt, O., Introduction, pp. 595-9, 772.
Baars, W . , ' O n a L a d n Fragment of Sirach', V T 15 (1965), pp. 280-1.
Milik, J . T., ' U n fragment mal place d a n s I'edition d u Siracide d e Masada', Bibl. 46
(1966), p p . 425-6.
di Leila, A. A., The Hebrew Text of Sirach (1966).
Haspecker, J., Gottesfurcht bei Jesus Sirach (1967).
Strugnell, J., 'Notes a n d Queries o n the Ben Sira Scroll', Eretz Israel I X (1969), pp.
101-19.
Riiger, H . P., Text und Textform im hebrdischen Sirach (1970).
M a r b 6 c k , J . , Weisheit im Wandel: Untersuchungen zur Weisheitstheologie bei Ben Sira (1971).
Sanders, J . A., 'The Sirach 51 Actostic', Hommages d Andre Dupont-Sommer (1971), pp.
429-38.
Skehan, P. W., 'The Acrostic Poem in Sirach 51:13-30', H T h R 64 (1971), p p . 387—400.
Rickenbacher, O . , Weisheitsperikopen bei Ben Sira (1973).
Dommershausen, W., ' Z u m Vergeltungsdenken des Ben Sira', Wort und Geschichte—
Festschrift K. Elliger (1973), pp. 37-43.
M i d d e n d o r p , T . , Die Stellung Jesu ben Siras zwischen Judentum und Hellenismus (1973).
Barthelemy, D . , and Rickenbacher, O . (eds.), Konkordanz zum hebrdischen Sirach mit
syrisch-hebrdischem Index (1973).
M c K e a t i n g , H . , 'Jesus ben Sira's Attitude to Women', E T 85 ( 1 9 7 3 - 4 ) , pp. 85-7.
Ben-Hayyim, Z . , ' F r o m the Ben Sira Entries', Leshonenu 37 (1973), p p . 215—17 (Hebr.).
Skehan, P. W., 'Sirach 30:12 and Related Texts', C B Q 3 6 (1974), pp. 535-42.
Wright, R. B., a n d H a n n , R. R . , 'A N e w F r a g m e n t of the Greek Text of Sirach', J B L 94

( i 9 7 5 ) , P P - 111-12.
Rivkin, E., 'Ben S i r a — T h e Bridge between the A a r o n i d and Pharisaic Revolutions',
Eretz Israel 12 (1975), p p . 95*-103"*.
Crenshaw, J . L., ' T h e P r o b l e m of Theodicy in S i r a c h : O n H u m a n B o n d a g e ' , J B L 94
(i975)>PP- 47-64-
P r a t o , G. L . , Ilproblema della teodicea in Ben Sira (1975).
S n a i t h , J . G., 'Ben Sira's supposed Love ofLiturgy', V T 25 (1975), pp. 167-74.
Couroyer, B., ' U n egyptianisme dans Ben Sira IV, 11', RB 82 (1975), pp. 206-17.
L o h r , M., Bildung aus dem Glauben: Beitrdge zum Verstdndnis der Lehrreden des Buches Jesus
Sirach (1975).
Weinfeld, M . , 'Traces of kedushat jioêr and pesukey de-îmra in the Q u m r a n literature a n d
Ben Sira', Tarbiz 45 (1975-6), p p . 15-26 (Hebr.).
Marbock, J . , 'Gesetz und Weisheit. Z u m Verstandnis des Gesetzes bei Jesus Ben Sira', BZ
20 (1976), p p . 1-21.
Skehan, P. W., 'Ecclesiasticus', IDBS, p p . 2 5 0 - 1 .
Winter, M . M., A Concordance to the Peshitta Version of Ben Sira (1976).
Idem, 'The Origins ofBen Sira i n Syriac', V T 27 (1977), p p . 237-53, 494-5^7-
Alonso Schokel, L., ' T h e Vision of M a n in Sirach 16, 24-17, 14', Israelite Wisdom
(Festschrift S. Terrien) (1978), p p . 235-45.
J a c o b , E., 'Wisdom and Religion in Sirach', ibid., p p . 247-60.
Sanders, J . T., 'A Hellenisdc E g y p d a n Parallel to Ben Sira', J B L 97 (1978), pp. 257-8.
Idem, 'Ben Sira's Ethics of Caution', H U C A 50 (1979), pp. 73-106.
L e b r a m , J . C. H., 'Jerusalem, Wohnsitz der Weisheit', Studies in Hellenistic Religion, ed. M .
J . V e r m a s e r e n (1979), p p . 103-28.
Noorda, S., 'Illness a n d Sin, Forgiving a n d Healing. T h e Connection of Medical
T r e a t m e n t in the Religious Beliefs in Ben Sira 38, 1-15', ibid., pp. 215-24.
Marbock, J . , 'Sir 38, 24—39, ' ' • schriftgelehrte Weise. Ein Beitrag zu Gestalt u n d
W e r k Ben Siras', Bibliotheca E T h L 51 (1979), pp. 293-316.
M u r a o k a , T . , 'Sira 51, 1 3 - 3 0 : A n Erotic H y m n to W i s d o m ? ' , JSJ 10 (1979), pp. 166-78.
Wolfgang, R., 'Between t h e F e a r of G o d and W i s d o m in t h e Book ofBen Sira', Bet M i k r a
81 (1980), p p . 150-62 (Hebr.).
S t a d e l m a n n , H., Ben Sira als Schriftgelehrter (1980).
H a r r i n g t o n , D. J . , 'The Wisdom of t h e Scribe according to Ben Sira', Ideal Figures in
Ancient Judaism [SCS 12] (1980), pp. 181-8.
R o t h , W., ' O n the Gnomic-Discursive Wisdom ofBen Sira', Semeia 17 (1980), p p . 59-79.
Marbock, J., ' H e n o c h — A d a m — d e r T h r o n w a g e n . Z u fruhjiidischen pseudepi-
graphischen Traditionen bei Ben Sira', BZ 25 (1981), pp. 103-11.
Nickelsburg, G. W . E., J L B B M , p p . 55-69.
Saracino, F . , 'La sapienza e la v i t a : Sir 4, 11—19', RBibIt 29 (1981), pp. 257-72.
C a q u o t , A., 'La Siracide a-t-il parle d ' u n e "espece" humaine?', R H P h R 62 (1982), p p .
225-30.
T r e n c h a r d , W. C , Ben Sira's View of Women: A Literary Analysis (1982).
di Leila, A. A., ' T h e Poetry ofBen Sira', Eretz Israel X V I (1982), p p . 26*-33*.
Nelis, J . T . , 'Sir 38, 15', i n N. C. Delsman et al. (eds.), Von Kanaan bis Kerala; Festschrift fur
J. P. M. van der Ploeg (1982), p p . 173-84.
Jongeling, B., ' U n passage difficile d a n s le Siracide d e M a s a d a (Col. I V , 22a = Sir 4 2 ,
l i e ) ' , ibid., p p . 303-10.
Kister, M., K Me Sefer Ben Sira', Lesonenu47 (1983), pp. 125-46.
Sanders, J . T . , Ben Sira and Demotic Wisdom (1983).
2 . Wisdom Literature from Qumran

A l t h o u g h t h e D e a d S e a Scrolls ( e . g . t h e E x h o r t a t i o n i n the D a m a s c u s
R u l e a n d the Thanksgiving H y m n s from i Q ) comprise a large q u a n t i t y
o f s a p i e n t i a l m a t e r i a l , o n l y t w o sufficiently well p r e s e r v e d ( a n d p u b
lished) d o c u m e n t s fall p r i m a r i l y i n t o t h e c a t e g o r y o f w i s d o m l i t e r a t u r e . '
(a) 4QJ84, u s i n g the f a m i l i a r m e t a p h o r of t h e ' h a r l o t ' or t h e ' s t r a n g e
w o m a n ' , d e p i c t s t h e d a n g e r s a n d a t t r a c t i o n s of false d o c t r i n e . T h e sed
u c t r e s s , w h o is u n n a m e d in t h e s u r v i v i n g t e x t , is v i v i d l y p o r t r a y e d in
h e r a c t i o n s ( ' p r o m p t t o oil h e r w o r d s ' ; 'a m u l t i t u d e o f sins is i n h e r
s k i r t s ' ; ' h e r c o u c h e s a r e b e d s of c o r r u p t i o n ' ; ' s h e lifts h e r eyelids n a u g h
tily to s t a r e a t a v i r t u o u s o n e a n d j o i n h i m ' ) a n d is d e s c r i b e d as IT'irX'l
Vis? ''DIT , ' t h e b e g i n n i n g of a l l t h e w a y s of i n i q u i t y ' .
T h i s w o m a n h a s b e e n i d e n t i f i e d as s y m b o l i z i n g R o m e , ^ o r a g r o u p
associated with I d u m a e a n s a n d M a c e d o n i a n s ( = Herodians and
H e l l e n - ized J e w s ) , ^ o r a c o m p a n y of unfaithful m e m b e r s w i t h i n the
C o m m u n i t y . A n o t h e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t a k e s t h e p o e m t o be a s t r a i g h t
f o r w a r d e x p r e s s i o n of E s s e n e m i s o g y n y . ^ A l t h o u g h n o n e of these
exegeses is d e m o n s t r a b l y i m p o s s i b l e , t h e text itself i n c l u d e s n o t h i n g ex
plicitly s e c t a r i a n a n d m a k e s p e r f e c t sense if u n d e r s t o o d s i m p l y as a fresh
e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e old b i b l i c a l s a p i e n t i a l t h e m e d e v e l o p e d in P r o v .
7 : 1 - 2 7 . ^ A p a r t f r o m t h e s c r i p t w h i c h is p r o b a b l y from t h e first c e n t u r y
B . C . , t h e p o e m c o n t a i n s n o t h i n g specifically d a t a b l e .
(b) 4QJ85 is a p o e m t h r e e c o l u m n s o f w h i c h h a v e s u r v i v e d , the t h i r d
i n a b a d l y m u t i l a t e d f o r m . P a l a e o g r a p h i c a l l y it is d a t e d to t h e e n d of
t h e H a s m o n a e a n epoch.^ T h e a u t h o r exhorts a g r o u p , addressed as 'my
p e o p l e ' , ' t h e S i m p l e ' , ' m y s o n s ' , to seek w i s d o m a n d l e a r n f r o m t h e
h i s t o r y of t h e p a t r i a r c h a l a n d M o s a i c a g e .
It h a s b e e n a r g u e d o n linguistic g r o u n d s t h a t t h e d o c u m e n t a n t e d a t e s
Q u m r a n , a theory requiring further examination.^
1. A m o n g fragments too small for translation b u t classified as sapiential, the following

should be n o t e d : 4Q^5~7, palaeographically assigned to t h e first century B.C. and
described as ' T e x t e prophetique o u sapientiel' o r ' O u v r a g e sapientiel (?)' (Baillet, D J D
V I I , p p . 4 - 5 ) ; 4QJG8, 'Fragments h y m n i q u e s ou sapientiels (?)', d a t e d to t h e turn of the
eras ( D J D V I I , pp. 73-4). O n the other h a n d , a l t h o u g h 4Q510-11 a r e entitled by Baillet
'Cantiques d u Sage' {ibid., p p . 215, 219), they a p p e a r r a t h e r to b e akin to psalms of
exorcism (cf above p . 190, n . 10).
2. J. M . Allegro, P E Q . ( i 9 6 4 ) , p p . 53-5.
3. A. M . Gazov-Ginzberg, R Q , 6 (1967), pp. 279-85 (afar-fetched theory).
4. J. C a r m i g n a c , R Q , 5 (1965), p p . 3 6 1 - 7 1 .
5. A. D u p o n t - S o m m e r , A n n u a i r e du College d e France 65 (1965/6), pp. 353-4.
6. Verbal connections between this d o c u m e n t a n d Prov. 7:5, 9 a n d 12 h a v e been noted
by Allegro, D J D V, p . 84. J . Strugnell h a s advanced t h e view that t h e figure in 4Q184 is
'Dame Folly' ( R Q , 7 (1970), p p . 2 6 6 - 7 ) .
7. Strugnell, R Q , 7 (1970), p. 269.
8. H. Lichtenberger, Qumrdn (ed. M. Delcor) (1978), p p . 161-2.
Editions
Allegro, J . M . , and Anderson, A. A , Qumrdn Cave 4 I (4QJ58-4QJ86) [ D J D V] (1968), p p .
82-7, plates X X V I I I - X X X .
Strugnell, J . , 'Notes en marge d u volume V des "Discoveries in the J u d a e a n Desert of
J o r d a n ' " , R Q , 7 (1970), p p . 263-73.
Translations
English
Allegro, op. cit.
Strugnell, op. cit.
Vermes, DSSE , p p . 255—9.
Italian
Moraldi, L., M Q , ( i 9 7 i ) , p p . 695-705.
Bibliography
Allegro, J . M . , ' T h e Wiles of the Wicked W o m a n ' , P E Q , ( i 9 6 4 ) , p p . 53-5.
Carmignac, J., 'Poeme allegorique sur l a secte rivale', R Q , 5 (1965), pp. 361-71.
Dupont-Sommer, A., 'ExpUcation des textes hebreux et arameens decouverts a Q u m r a n ' ,
A n n u a i r e du College de France 65 (1965/6), pp. 353-5.
Gazov-Ginzberg, A. M., 'Double Meaning in a Q u m r a n Work', R Q 6 (1967), p p .
279-85-
Lichtenberger, H., 'Eine weisheitliche M a h n r e d e in d e n Qumranfunden (4Q185)', in M .
Delcor (ed.), Qumrdn : SapiSte, sa theologie et son milieu (1978), p p . 137—62.
J. Pirqe Aboth
G n o m i c w i s d o m d i d n o t d i e o u t in t h e a g e w h i c h followed J e s u s S i r a c h .
J e s u s of N a z a r e t h for e x a m p l e often t a u g h t in t h e f o r m of p r o v e r b s . A
collection of s u c h s a y i n g s h a s also s u r v i v e d in H e b r e w , a n d o c c a s i o n a l l y
in A r a m a i c , t h e earliest e l e m e n t s o f w h i c h n o d o u b t b e l o n g t o t h i s
p e r i o d . T h i s is the Pirqe 'AbSth or S a y i n g s of t h e F a t h e r s , c a l l e d a l s o
s i m p l y 'Aboth. I n c l u d e d a m o n g t h e t r a c t a t e s o f t h e M i s h n a h , in t h e
F o u r t h Seder, i t s t a n d s o u t as a p e c u h a r u n i t . W h i l e t h e rest of t h e
M i s h n a h codifies t h e J e w i s h l a w , Aboth is a n a n t h o l o g y like the b o o k o f
J e s u s b e n Sira. T h e p r i n c i p a l difference is t h a t 'Aboth is n o t the w o r k of
a single i n d i v i d u a l , b u t a collection of s a y i n g s from s o m e sixty n a m e d
sages, m o s t of w h o m a r e a l r e a d y k n o w n a s p r o m i n e n t T o r a h s c h o l a r s
(cf. vol. I I , p p . 356—80). As a rule, two o r m o r e t y p i c a l m a x i m s a r e
p r e s e r v e d from e a c h t e a c h e r , t h o s e w h i c h h i s disciples t r a n s m i t t e d as h i s
f a v o u r i t e counsels. M a n y a r e m e r e l y p r a c t i c a l a d v i c e , b u t m o s t o f t h e m
a r e r e l a t e d in s o m e w a y to t h e s p h e r e of r e l i g i o u s a c t i o n a n d a r e
r e g u l a r l y associated w i t h the t e a c h i n g , l e a r n i n g a n d p r a c t i c e of t h e
T o r a h (cf. the e x a m p l e s listed in v o l . I I , p . 4 1 5 ) . T h e m a s t e r s w h o s e
p r o n o u n c e m e n t s a r e a s s e m b l e d in t h i s m a n n e r b e l o n g for t h e m o s t p a r t
to t h e p e r i o d o f t h e M i s h n a h : i.e., a p p r o x i m a t e l y A . D . 70 to 200. B u t
the m o s t o u t s t a n d i n g a u t h o r i t i e s o f e a r l i e r t i m e s , from S i m o n t h e
R i g h t e o u s t o Hillel, S h a m m a i a n d G a m a l i e l t h e E l d e r , are g i v e n p r i d e
of place.
'Aboth is d i v i d e d i n t o six c h a p t e r s , t h e first four of w h i c h r e p r e s e n t a n
e a r l i e r c o m p o s i t i o n w i t h 4:22 as a c o n c l u s i o n . C h a p t e r 5 c o n t a i n s a
g r o u p of n u m e r i c a l s a y i n g s ( 5 : 1 - 1 5 ) , a n d s e v e r a l f u r t h e r w o r d s of
w i s d o m n o n e of w h i c h is a t t r i b u t e d t o a specific sage or r a b b i . O n l y
5 : 2 0 - 3 are a s c r i b e d to n a m e d t e a c h e r s ; the l a s t t w o ( B e n B a g - B a g a n d
B e n H e - H e ) are p s e u d o n y m s . C h a p t e r 6, k n o w n also as Qinjan Torah
( A c q u i s i t i o n of t h e T o r a h ) is a l a t e a d d i t i o n t o 'Abdth p r o b a b l y for
l i t u r g i c a l p u r p o s e s (cf D a n b y , The Mishnah ( 1 9 3 3 ) , p . 4 5 8 , n. 1 2 ) .
To t h e detailed bibliography of 'Abdth printed in vol. I, p p . 8 1 - 2 , must now be added

the following:
Saldarini, A. J . , ' T h e End of the R a b b i n i c C h a i n of Tradition', J B L 93 (1974), pp.
97-106.
Idem, The Fathers according to Rabbi Nathan (1975).
Sharvit, S., ' T h e Custom of Reading A b o t on the S a b b a t h ' , Bar Ilan 13 (1976), pp.
169-87 (Hebr.).
Viviano, B. T . , Study as Worship: 'Aboth and the New Testament (1978).
IV. D I D A C T I C A N D P A R A E N E T I C A L S T O R I E S
/. The Book of Judith

A s p e c i a l kind of l i t e r a t u r e , d i d a c t i c or p a r a e n e t i c a l s t o r y - t e l l i n g , w a s
f r e q u e n t i n t h e p e r i o d u n d e r r e v i e w . O n a m o r e or less fictional basis,
tales w e r e told w h i c h the a u t h o r i n t e n d e d t o p r e s e n t a s r e a l history, y e t
not for t h e p u r p o s e of i n s t r u c t i o n i n h i s t o r y , b u t to offer e t h i c a l a n d
religious a d v i c e a n d e n c o u r a g e m e n t . R e a d e r s w e r e to l e a r n from
t h e m — s t o r i e s from J e w i s h history or f r o m t h e lives of i n d i v i d u a l s
r e - a r r a n g e d a n d a l t e r e d a s m u c h as was n e c e s s a r y — t h a t the fear o f
G o d is t h e highest w i s d o m , since i n t h e end h e a l w a y s delivers h i s
c h i l d r e n even t h o u g h t h e y m a y t e m p o r a r i l y e x p e r i e n c e n e e d a n d
danger.
T h e Book of J u d i t h is a n a r r a t i o n o f this k i n d . T h e story is briefly a s
follows. N e b u c h a d n e z z a r , king of A s s y r i a , ' s u m m o n e d t h e n a t i o n s o f
the N e a r East, a m o n g s t t h e m t h e i n h a b i t a n t s of P a l e s t i n e , t o j o i n h i m i n
his fight a g a i n s t A r p h a x a d , k i n g of M e d i a . S i n c e t h e y d i s r e g a r d e d h i s
c o m m a n d , N e b u c h a d n e z z a r , after h i s v i c t o r y o v e r A r p h a x a d , s e n t h i s
c o m m a n d e r - i n - c h i e f H o l o p h e r n e s w i t h p o w e r f u l forces a g a i n s t t h e s e
p e o p l e of t h e W e s t , t o p u n i s h t h e m for t h e i r d i s o b e d i e n c e . H o l o p h e r n e s
c a r r i e d o u t his o r d e r , d e v a s t a t e d t h e l a n d s a n d d e s t r o y e d t h e h o l y
places, so t h a t N e b u c h a d n e z z a r a l o n e w o u l d b e w o r s h i p p e d a s G o d
( c h a p s . 1—3). W h e n h e h a d a d v a n c e d as f a r as t h e p l a i n o f E s d r a e l o n ,
the J e w s , w h o h a d j u s t r e t u r n e d from t h e c a p t i v i t y a n d r e - e s t a b l i s h e d
T e m p l e w o r s h i p [sic!), p r e p a r e d to oflfer resistance. U n d e r t h e
c o m m a n d of t h e H i g h - P r i e s t J o a k i m , they b a r r e d t h e w a y t o
H o l o p h e r n e s a t the fortress o f B e t h u h a {BairvXava, L a t i n Bethulid)
( c h a p s . 4—6) facing t h e p l a i n o f E s d r a e l o n . ^ W h i l s t H o l o p h e r n e s w a s
1. Cf. J . Greenfield, 'Nebuchadnezzar's C a m p a i g n in t h e Book of J u d i t h ' , Yediot

(Bulletin of t h e Israel Exploration Society) 28 (1964), p p . 204-8 (Hebr.).
2. Bethulia is not mentioned a n y w h e r e outside J u d i t h . It may b e 'an i m a g i n a r y city'
endowed 'with a theophoric n a m e for the purposes of a historical r o m a n c e ' ( M .
Avi-Yonah, 'Bethulia', E n c . J u d . 4, col. 749). Scholars w h o maintain that Bethulia
actually existed have advanced two main theories. T h e first, placing t h e town in the
extreme south of Palestine, twelve miles south of R a p h i a , probably arose from confusion
with a real locality of similar n a m e . But this c a n hardly be described as being 'opposite
Esdraelon, facing D o t h a i m [i.e. D o t h a n ] ' (Jud. 4:6). H e n c e i n the second theory Bethulia
is situated further north, in Samaria. For the identification of Bethulia with Shechem, see
C. C. Torrey, J O A S 20 (1899), p p . 160-72; id.. The Apocryphal Literature (1945), p p . 91-3 ;
cf also G. Dalman, Sacred Sites and Ways (1935), p. 115, n. 2 ; F.-M. Abel, Geog. Pal. II, p .
283; C . Steuernagel, 'Bethulia', Z D P V 66 (1943), p p . 232-45. M o r e recently BethuHa
has b e e n located a t Q a b a d y a n e a r D o t h a n : J . P. Free, ' D o t h a n ' , RB 6 9 (1962), p p .
2 6 6 - 7 0 ; Eissfeldt, Introduction, p. 586 a n d n. 4. I n general, see F. Stummer, Geographic des
IV. Didactic and Paraenetical Stories 117
b e s i e g i n g B e t h u l i a , a n d in t h e t o w n distress w a s s t e a d i l y m o u n t i n g to a
c l i m a x , J u d i t h , a rich, b e a u t i f u l a n d p i o u s w i d o w , resolved t o save her
p e o p l e b y a n act of c o u r a g e ( c h a p s . 7—9). A c c o m p a n i e d by h e r m a i d ,
s h e w e n t g o r g e o u s l y c l o t h e d t o t h e e n e m y e n c a m p m e n t a n d , u n d e r the
p r e t e n c e t h a t she w a s w i l l i n g to s h o w t h e e n e m y t h e w a y to J e r u s a l e m ,
o b t a i n e d access t o H o l o p h e r n e s . C a p t i v a t e d b y h e r b e a u t y , H o l o
p h e r n e s t r u s t e d h e r . After s t a y i n g in t h e c a m p for t h r e e d a y s she was
s u m m o n e d t o a d r i n k i n g p a r t y , a t the e n d o f w h i c h s h e w a s left a l o n e
w i t h h i m i n his t e n t . H o l o p h e r n e s h o w e v e r w a s so d r u n k t h a t J u d i t h
w a s a b l e to c a r r y o u t h e r p l a n . S h e seized h i s s w o r d a n d s t r u c k off his
h e a d . T h e n u n m o l e s t e d , s h e w e n t a w a y , l e a v i n g h e r m a i d to b r i n g
H o l o p h e r n e s ' h e a d in a sack. T h u s she r e t u r n e d t o B e t h u l i a , w h e r e she
w a s r e c e i v e d w i t h j o y ( c h a p s . 1 0 - 1 3 ) . W h e n t h e e n e m y forces
d i s c o v e r e d w h a t h a d h a p p e n e d , t h e y fled i n all d i r e c t i o n s a n d w e r e
m a s s a c r e d w i t h e a s e b y t h e j e w s . B u t J u d i t h w a s e x t o l l e d as s a v i o u r by
all Israel (chaps. 1 4 - 1 6 ) .
T h e b o o k is a q u a s i - f i c t i o n a l n a r r a t i v e t h a t e x h o r t s r e a d e r s to resist
t h e e n e m i e s of t h e i r f a i t h a n d freedom.^ M o t i v a t e d by t r a d i t i o n a l p i e t y ,
t h e a u t h o r d e p i c t s J u d i t h as a 'religious w o m a n ' (dcoae^ris) who
' w o r s h i p s t h e G o d of h e a v e n n i g h t a n d d a y ' a n d is v e r y a t t e n t i v e t o t h e
o b s e r v a n c e o f food a n d p u r i t y l a w s . B u t the s t o r y refers to a t i m e w h e n
d a n g e r t h r e a t e n e d n o t o n l y t h e n a t i o n b u t a l s o its religion, since
H o l o p h e r n e s r e q u i r e d t h a t N e b u c h a d n e z z a r s h o u l d b e h o n o u r e d as
G o d . F o r t h i s r e a s o n it is i m p r o b a b l e t h a t t h e w o r k w a s o c c a s i o n e d b y
t h e e n t e r p r i s e s a g a i n s t t h e j e w s o f A r t a x e r x e s O c h u s ( 3 5 9 - 3 3 8 B . C . ) in
3 5 0 B . C . w i t h w h i c h a l r e a d y S u l p i c i u s S e v e r u s {c. 360—420) l i n k e d t h e
t a l e of J u d i t h , as h a v e i n m o d e r n times A. v o n G u t s c h m i d , T . N o l d e k e ,
W . R o b e r t s o n S m i t h , J . W e l l h a u s e n , a n d O . Eissfeldt."* S u c h a
Buches Judith (1947); E. W. Saunders, 'Bethulia', IDB I , p. 4 0 3 . H. Y . Priebatsch sees in

Bethulia a conflation of 'Bethel a n d A i ' : 'Das Buch J u d i t h und seine hellenistischen
Quellen', Z D P V 90 (1974), p p . 50-60.
3. A m o n g contemporary students of J u d i t h , A . - M . D u b a r l e suggests that a real episode
from the Persian age lies at t h e origin of t h e J u d i t h story, and that t h e event, whose date,
place a n d circumstances are unidendfiable, was progressively idealised by the tradition.
C f Judith: Formes et sens des diverses traditions I (1966), p p . 135-6. H . H a a g {Studien zum
Buch Judith, 1963) followed b y G. E . W. Nickelsburg (JLBBM, pp. 107, 151, n. 7), define
J u d i t h as a ' p a r a b l e ' composed b y means of a conflation of biblical characters: J u d i t h
reflects M i r i a m (Ex. 15:20-1), D e b o r a h and J a e l (Judg. 4—5), the w o m a n of T h e b e z
(Judg. 9:53-4) and the w o m a n from A b e l - b e t h - m a a c a h (2 Sam. 20:14-22). She is
modelled on Jewish heroes, a m o n g t h e m her ancestor the patriarch Simeon ( 9 : 2 - 3 ;
9:8-10), David beheading Goliath with t h e Philistine's own sword, etc. She may also be
portrayed as a female counterpart of J u d a s Maccabaeus (Nickelsburg, p. 152, n. 10).
4. In favour of the Artaxerxes I I I O c h u s theory, see Sulpicius Severus, Chron. I I , 14-16,
CSEL I ; A. v o n Gutschmidt, Kleine Schriften V, p . 2 8 6 ; T h . Noldeke, Die alttestamentliche
Literatur (1868), p. 7 8 ; W . Robertson Smith, The Old Testament in the Jewish Church
(^^1892), p. 4 3 9 ; O. Eissfeldt, Introduction, pp. 586-7. G f also A. Alt, Kleine Schriften zur
h y p o t h e s i s c o u l d b e t r u e o n l y in a v e r y g e n e r a l sense. I n d e e d it c a n
scarcely b e a c c i d e n t a l t h a t two generals, O r o p h e r n e s and B a g o a s , w h o
participated in the campaigns of A r t a x e r x e s Ochus against Egypt,
Phoenicia and J u d a e a , should also p l a y a r o l e in t h e b o o k of J u d i t h .
T h e s t o r y of O c h u s therefore furnished t h e w r i t e r w i t h his material,
n o m e n c l a t u r e , a n d a l s o t h e g e n e r a l h i s t o r i c a l f r a m e w o r k . ^ B u t s o far a s
we k n o w O c h u s n e v e r d e m a n d e d to b e w o r s h i p p e d a s G o d b y t h e J e w s ^
w h i l s t t h i s is p r e c i s e l y t h e c e n t r a l issue stressed in t h e B o o k of J u d i t h .
Furthermore, the n a m e Nebuchadnezzer proves t h a t the a u t h o r took
his c h i e f p e r s o n a g e s , n o t f r o m t h e h i s t o r y o f his o w n d a y s , b u t f r o m an
e a r l i e r a g e . H e w r o t e in a p e r i o d d u r i n g w h i c h t h e J e w i s h r e l i g i o n w a s
specifically t h r e a t e n e d , w h i c h b r i n g s to m i n d t h e B o o k o f D a n i e l and
t h e M a c c a b a e a n e r a . I t is to t h i s t i m e t h e r e f o r e t h a t t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f
Geschichte des Volkes Israel II (1953), p . 359 (late Persian period) ; J . M . Grintz, Sefer
Yehudith (1958) [c. 360 B . C ] ; A . - M . Dubarle, Judith : Formes et sens des diverses traditions I
(1966), pp. 126-36 [Persian epoch, p. 136, n. 23]. O n the basis of two ostraca d a d n g to
the Persian period and containing the name J u d i t h , M. Heltzer suggests that t h e book
also should be assigned t o the same e r a : cf. 'Eine neue Quelle zur Bestimmung d e r
Abfassungszeit des J u d i t h - b u c h e s ' , Z A W 92 (1980), p . 437. T h e first ostracon reads m n ^
•"IVT m a . C f R. Degen, 'Die aramaischen Ostraka in d e r P a p y r u s - S a m m l u n g d e r
Osterreichischen Nadonalbibliothek', Neue Ephemeris fiir semitische Epigraphik 3
(1978), p p . 43-7. T h e second, originally edited b y M. Lidzbarski in Ephemeris fiir
semitische Epigraphik 3 (1915), p . 299 as . . . 3 m "'H''?, is reinterpreted b y Heltzer as . . .
m a mn"''?. Be this as it m a y , t h e value of the a r g u m e n t is slight.
5. I n an account of t h e history and genealogy of the C a p p a d o c i a n kings, Diodorus
(xxxi 19, 2-3) reports t h a t Holophernes, brother of king (satrap) Ariarathes, w a s
despatched by him to fight with the Persians against the Egyptians, a n d was then sent
back invested with great h o n o u r by Artaxerxes I I I Ochus, king of the Persians. It is
uncertain which E g y p t i a n campaign of Ochus is intended, because Holophernes is n o t
otherwise n a m e d i n the history of the w a r s ; cf however M a r q u a r t , Philologus 54 (1895),
pp. 507-10. I n his account of the campaign of Ochus against Phoenicia a n d Egypt in 3 5 0
B.C., Diodorus also mentions (xvi 47, 4) amongst the commanders a certain Bagoas, w h o ,
according to xvii 5, 3, was a eunuch (cf also R E , s.v.). T h e n a m e Bagoas is c o m m o n ; t h e
story of the profanation o f the Jewish T e m p l e by a certain Bagoses or Bagoas occurred
under Artaxerxes I I {Ant. xi 7, i (297)), considerably earlier therefore; see above, p. 6.
O n o n e of his Egyptian campaigns, Ochus took Jewish prisoners and settled them i n
Hyrcania, o n the Caspian Sea (Eusebius, Chron., ed. Schoene I I , p. 112, ad ann. Abr. 1657 ;
Syncellus, e d . Dindorf, I, 4 8 6 ; Orosius I I I , 7; Solinus 35, 4—for t h e exact quotations, see
above, p. 6, note 12). Since therefore a Holophernes and a eunuch Bagoas p l a y a role
in t h e Book of J u d i t h (12:11, 13, 15; 13:1, 3 ; 14:14) in campaigns of t h e G r e a t K i n g
directed against the peoples of t h e West, and particularly against t h e Jews, it is p r o b a b l e
that t h e history of Ochus provided the author with a p a r t of his material. There was also
about the middle of the second century B.C. a C a p p a d o c i a n king called 'OXo<f>€pvris o r
X)po(f>€pvrjs (Diodorus xxxi, 32; J u s t i n xxxv, i ; Polybius iii 5, 2 ; xxxii, 2 0 ; xxxiii, 1 2 ;
Appian, Syr. 47). T h e n a m e itself is of Persian origin. T h e combination of the t w o names
(Holophernes and Bagoas) possesses great evidential v a l u e ; Bagoas alone would be less
decisive because this name was c o m m o n (PUny, Hist. Kat. xiii, 4 1 : ' I t a vocant spadones,
qui a p u d eos etiam regnavere'). Cf J . H. Hayes a n d J . M . Miller (eds.), Israelite and
Judaean Historj (1977), pp. 4 9 9 - 5 0 3 .
6. N o further anti-Jewish activities of Artaxerxes O c h u s a r e known.
t h e b o o k is in all p r o b a b i l i t y t o be d a t e d . ' ' As t h e a u t h o r ' s i n t e r e s t s e e m s

to focus a s s t r o n g l y o n p o l i t i c a l as o n religious f r e e d o m , it is p e r h a p s n o t
of t h e first s t a g e of t h e r e b e l U o n , b u t of a s o m e w h a t l a t e r d a t e t h a t o n e
s h o u l d t h i n k . I t is n o t a d v i s a b l e t o go d o w n t o t h e R o m a n p e r i o d , for
t h e political b a c k g r o u n d ( t h e H i g h - P r i e s t as s o v e r e i g n of t h e J e w i s h
s t a t e , t h e H e l l e n i s t i c t o w n s as i n d e p e n d e n t p o l i t i c a l e n t i t i e s u n d e r
o b l i g a t i o n to t h e i r o v e r l o r d o n l y for e m e r g e n c y m i l i t a r y c o n s c r i p t i o n )
c o r r e s p o n d s m o r e closely to t h e H e l l e n i s t i c t h a n t o t h e R o m a n e p o c h .
M o r e o v e r , s i n c e J a m n i a a n d A z o t u s a r e n o t y e t r e p r e s e n t e d a s p a r t of
t h e J e w i s h t e r r i t o r y ( J u d . 2:28), t h e r e i g n of A l e x a n d e r J a n n a e u s s h o u l d
be seen a s t h e terminus ante quem.
T h e i d e n t i t y of t h e a u t h o r is u n k n o w n , b u t s p e c u l a t i v e scholars h a v e
l o c a t e d h i m i n S y r i a ( A n t i o c h o r t h e p r o v i n c e o f A p a m e a ) . ^ I t is
c o m m o n l y held t h a t t h e Book o f J u d i t h derives from a H e b r e w
original.^
T h e r e is n o e a r l y a t t e s t a t i o n of a S e m i t i c t e x t of J u d i t h . N o t r a c e o f it
has been found at Q u m r a n , not even i n Greek. I n O r i g e n ' s time no
H e b r e w text w a s k n o w n , n o r w a s t h e b o o k i n use a m o n g P a l e s t i n i a n
J e w s . 'EPpaioi TO) Tuiîa ov xpoiVTai ovSe rrj *IouSrjd- ovSe ydp cxovaiv avrd
ev d7T0Kpv(f)0LS i^pa'ioTr a>s an' avrcbv p,ad6vT€S iyvwKapev {Ep. ad

Africanum 1 3 ) . T h e o r i g i n a l H e b r e w — i f it w a s t h e o r i g i n a l —
disappeared a t a n early d a t e . B y contrast, an A r a m a i c text w a s
a v a i l a b l e to J e r o m e ( O p p . e d . V a i l . X , 2 1 ) : ' A p u d H e b r a e o s l i b e r
l u d i t h i n t e r a p o c r y p h a {al. h a g i o g r a p h a ) l e g i t u r . . . C h a l d a e o s e r m o n e
c o n s c r i p t u s i n t e r h i s t o r i a s c o m p u t a t u r . ' H e asserts t h a t h e e m p l o y e d it
in p r o d u c i n g t h e V u l g a t e (see b e l o w ) . T h e v a r i o u s m e d i e v a l H e b r e w
m i d r a s h i c r e c e n s i o n s a r e g e n e r a l l y b e h e v e d n o t to reflect the o r i g i n a l .
Cf. Z u n z , p p . 1 3 1 - 2 ; A. J e l l i n e k , Beth ha-Midrasch I ( 1 8 5 3 ) , p p . 1 3 0 — i ;
II ( 1 8 5 4 ) , p p . 1 2 - 2 2 ; M . G a s t e r , ' A n U n k n o w n H e b r e w V e r s i o n of t h e
H i s t o r y of J u d i t h ' , P S B A 1 6 ( 1 8 9 3 - 4 ) , p p . 1 5 6 - 6 3 ; M . H i g g e r ,
Halakhoth we-Aggadoth I I ( 1 9 3 3 ) , p p . 1 0 5 - 1 3 ; B. M . L e v i n , S i n a i 3
(1940), p p . 6 8 - 7 2 ; D . S. L o w i n g e r , Tehudith-Shoshanah (1940). T h e
fullest e d i t i o n of t h e H e b r e w J u d i t h is A . - M . D u b a r l e , Judith : Formes et
sens des diverses traditions I ( E t u d e s ) , I I ( T e x t e s ) (1966). D u b a r l e p r i n t s
as T e x t B a t w e l f t h - c e n t u r y B o d l e i a n m a n u s c r i p t ( H e b . d . 1 1 , ff.
2 5 9 - 6 5 ) ; t e x t C is r e p r e s e n t e d i n p r i n t e d e d i t i o n s ( V e n i c e 1 6 5 1 ;
M a n t o v a 1 7 2 5 ) u n d e r t h e title fT'Tin'' TWSli; text D is a revision o f C
7. Cf. Eissfeldt, Introduction, p . 587; P . Winter, 'Judith', I D B I I , p . 1025.

8. Cf S. Zeithn in M . S. Enslin, The Book of Judith (1972), p. 3 2 ; B. Z . Luria, 'Jews of
Syria in t h e Days of Antiochus E p i p h a n e s a n d the Book of J u d i t h ' , Beth M i q r a 62 (1975),
pp. 328-41 (Hebr.).
9. Cf Eissfeldt, Introduction, p . 587, F. Z i m m e r m a n n , 'Aids for the Recovery of the
Hebrew Original of J u d i t h ' , J B L 57 (1938), p p . 67—74; Y . M. Grintz, Sefer Tehudith, pp.
56-63.
220 § 3 1 . Jewish Literature in Hebrew or Aramaic
a n d is p r i n t e d in J e l l i n e k I I , a n d t e x t E is attested i n a B o d l e i a n
m a n u s c r i p t ( H e b . d . 47) e d i t e d by H i g g e r a n d L e w i n ( = E ' ) a n d i n a
m a n u s c r i p t from t h e K a u f m a n n collection in B u d a p e s t , e d i t e d by
L o w i n g e r (E^). A l t h o u g h D u b a r l e ascribes p r i o r i t y to the H e b r e w ,
e s p e c i a l l y T e x t B, o v e r t h e V u l g a t e a n d t h e G r e e k {op. cit. I, p p . 4 8 - 7 4 )
a n d d i s c a r d s the t h e o r y of t h e H e b r e w b e i n g a t r a n s l a t i o n from t h e
A r a m a i c {ibid. p p . 7 5 - 6 ) , he h a s n o t b e e n a b l e c o n v i n c i n g l y t o refute
t h e t h e o r y t h a t t h e m e d i e v a l texts a r e r e t r a n s l a t i o n s into H e b r e w
p r o b a b l y from t h e V u l g a t e (cf Y . M . G r i n t z , Sefer Tehudith ( 1 9 5 7 ) ;
J u d i t h , Book of, E n c . J u d . 1 0 , col. 4 6 1 ) . ' °
R e g a r d i n g p a t r i s t i c references t o J u d i t h , t h e earliest a l l u s i o n c o m e s
f r o m C l e m e n t of R o m e {c. A . D . 96) w h o m e n t i o n s *Iov8l6 paKapia (i
C l e m . 55:4). T e r t u U i a n , De monogamia 173 ( P L 2, c o l . 9 5 2 ) : ' N e c
l o h a n n e s a l i q u i C h r i s t i s p a d o , n e c l u d i t h filia M e r a r i , n e c tot a l i a
e x e m p l a s a n c t o r u m . ' C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a , Stromata ii 7, 3 5 ; iv 19,
1 1 8 (in t h e l a t t e r p a s s a g e , J u d i t h is expressly n a m e d ) . O r i g e n ' s c i t a t i o n
of a f r a g m e n t f r o m Strom, v i is r e p r o d u c e d by J e r o m e in Adversus
Rufinum i : ' H o m o a u t e m cui i n c u m b i t necessitas m e n t i e n d i , d i l i g e n t e r
a t t e n d a t ut sic u t a t u r i n t e r d u m m e n d a c i o q u o m o d o c o n d i m e n t o a t q u e
m e d i c a m i n e ; u t servet m e n s u r a m eius, n e e x c e d a t t e r m i n o s q u i b u s u s a
est l u d i t h c o n t r a H o l o p h e r n e m e t vicit e u m p r u d e n t i s i m u l a t i o n e
v e r b o r u m . ' O t h e r q u o t a t i o n s m a y be f o u n d i n Comm. in loannem 2 : 1 6
( e d . P r e u s c h e n , G C S I V ) ; In lib. ludicum homilia 9:1 ( B a e h r e n s , C C S 30,
p . 5 1 8 ) ; In lib. leremiae homilia 19:7 ( G C S 6, p . 1 8 7 ) ; De oratione 29
( K o e t s c h a u , G C S 2 , p . 3 8 2 ) . F o r a d d i t i o n a l references, see D u b a r l e , op.
cit. I, p p . 1 1 0 - 2 5 .
T h e t e x t of J u d i t h is e x t a n t in G r e e k , L a t i n , S y r i a c a n d E t h i o p i c .
(1) T h e Greek t e x t a p p e a r s in four r e c e n s i o n s , i. T h e o r i g i n a l t e x t is
t h a t of t h e t e x t u s r e c e p t u s ( V a t i c a n u s , A l e x a n d r i n u s , a n d S i n a i t i c u s ,
e t c . ) . 2. A revised text underlies C o d e x 58. 3. A n o t h e r r e c e n s i o n is
c o n t a i n e d in C o d i c e s 1 9 a n d 108. 4. A f u r t h e r r e c e n s i o n c o m e s f r o m
C o d i c e s 106 a n d 1 0 7 . T h e oldest a t t e s t a t i o n is a n o s t r a c o n d a t i n g to t h e
s e c o n d half of t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y A.D. a n d r e p r e s e n t i n g f r a g m e n t s of
J u d . 1 5 : 1 - 7 (J. S c h w a r t z , ' U n f r a g m e n t g r e c d u livre de J u d i t h ' , R B 5 3
(1946), p p . 5 3 4 - 7 a n d p i . V I I ) . F o r a s u r v e y of t h e G r e e k texts, see
D u b a r l e , op. cit. I , p p . 1 1 - 1 5 . T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t w o r k r e l a t i n g t o
t e x t u a l criticism is R. H a n h a r t , Text und Textgeschichte des Buchs Judith
( 1 9 7 8 ) . For t h e e d i t i o n s , see u n d e r i M a c . T h e G r e e k t e x t is n o w
a v a i l a b l e in the G o t t i n g e n Septuaginta V I I I . 4 : R . H a n h a r t , ludith
(1979)-
(2) T h e Latin v e r s i o n s , a n d especially t h e Old Latin, e x h i b i t s u c h w i d e
10. T h e story of J u d i t h is well attested i n late midrashic literature and in connection

with the H a n u k k a h liturgy. Cf. Dubarle, op. cit. I, p p . 80-102.
t e x t u a l d i v e r g e n c e s one from a n o t h e r t h a t t h e y fully c o r r o b o r a t e t h e

s t r i c t u r e m a d e by J e r o m e in h i s d a y c o n c e r n i n g the ' m u l t o r u m c o d i c u m
varietas v i t i o s i s s i m a ' (see b e l o w ) . F o r t h e Vetus latina, see P. S a b a t i e r ,
Bibliorum sacrorum latinae versiones antiquae I ( 1 7 4 5 ) , p p . 746—90. C f
D u b a r l e , op. cit. I, p p . 1 5 - 1 9 . S. B e r g e r r e c o r d s e l e v e n m a n u s c r i p t s of
the O l d L a d n text for t h e B o o k of J u d i t h {Notices et extraits des manuscrits
de la Bibliotheque Nationale et autres Bibliotheques X X X I V , 2 ( 1 8 9 3 ) , PP-
142 f ) . O n m o s t o f these, see f u r t h e r his Histoire de la Vulgate ( 1 8 9 3 ) ,
passim. T h e V u l g a t e , a c c o r d i n g t o J e r o m e , is a s o m e w h a t h u r r i e d l y
m a d e , free revision o f t h e O l d L a t i n : ' A p u d H e b r a e o s l i b e r J u d i t h i n t e r
a p o c r y p h a (al. hagiographa) legitur . . . C h a l d a e o t a m e n sermone
conscriptus inter historias c o m p u t a t u r . Sed q u i a h u n c h b r u m S y n o d u s
N i c a e n a in n u m e r o s a n c t a r u m s c r i p t u r a r u m l e g i t u r c o m p u t a s s e ,
a c q u i e v i p o s t u l a t i o n i v e s t r a e , i m m o e x a c t i o n i , et s e p o s i t i s o c c u p a t i o n -
ibus, quibus v e h e m e n t e r arctabar, huic u n a m l u c u b r a t i u n c u l a m dedi,
m a g i s s e n s u m e sensu q u a m e x v e r b o v e r b u m t r a n s f e r e n s . M u l t o r u m
codicum v a r i e t a t e m vitiosissimam a m p u t a v i : sola ea, q u a e intelligentia
i n t e g r a i n v e r b i s C h a l d a e i s i n v e n i r e p o t u i , L a t i n i s e x p r e s s i ' (Preface, e d .
Vallarsi X , p p . 2 1 - 2 ) . F o r t h e text, see Biblia sacre iuxta latinam vulgatam
versionem V I I I : Libri Ezrae, Tobiae, ludith ( 1 9 5 0 ) . Cf. D u b a r l e , op. cit. I,
pp. 44-6.
(3) F o r the Syriac version, s e e a b o v e , u n d e r i M a c . C f f u r t h e r A .
Rahlfs, i n P. A . de L a g a r d e , Bibliotheca Syriaca ( 1 8 9 2 ) , p p . 32*^-32', c f
1 9 - 2 1 ; E . N e s t l e , Marginalien und Materialien ( 1 8 9 3 ) , p p . 4 3 ff
(4) T h e Ethiopic version is e d i t e d b y A. D i l l m a n n , Biblia Veteris
Testamenti Aethiopica V ( 1 8 9 4 ) .
Commentaries
Scholz, A., Commentar uber das Buch Judith (^1896).

Lohr, M., i n E. K a u t z s c h , A P A T I (1900), p p . 147-64.
Cowley, A. E., in R . H. Charles, A P O T (1913), pp. 242-67.
Miller, A., in F. F e l d m a n n a n d H. H e r k e n n e , Die Heilige Schrift des Alten Testaments
(1940).
Soubigou, L . , in L. Pirot a n d A. Clamer, La Sainte Bible (1949).
Stummer, F . , in Die Heilige Schrift in deutscher Uebersetzung (i 950).
Barucq, A., in Bible de Jerusalem (1952, 1959) •
Biickers, H., in Herder's Bibelkommentar (1953).
Simon, M., in A. K a h a n a , Ha-Sefartm Ha-hisdntm ( 1956).
Grintz, J. M . , Sefer Yehudith (1957).
Enslin, M. S., The Book of Judith (1972).
Zenger, E., Das Buch Judith ( J S H R Z I 6) (1981).
Studies
Gaster, M., ' J u d i t h ' , EB 11 (1901), cols. 2642-6.
Meyer, C , ' Z u r Entstehungsgeschichte des Buches J u d i t h ' , Bibl 3 (1922), p p . 193-203.
Brunner, G., Der Nabuchodonosor des Buches Judith (1940, 1959).
Stummer, F., Geographie des Buchs Judith (1947).

Dubarle, A.-M., 'Les textes divers du livre d e J u d i t h ' , V T 8 (1958), pp. 344-73.
Idem, 'La mention de J u d i t h dans l a litterature ancienne juive et chretienne', R B 66
(1959). PP- 514-49-
Winter, P . , J u d i t h , Book of, I D B II (1962), p p . 1023-6.
H a a g , H . , 'Die besondere A r t des Buches J u d i t h und seine theologische Bedeutung',
Trierer T h Z 71 (1962), p p . 288-301. Id., Studien zum Buch Judith (1963).
Skehan, P . W., ' W h y leave out J u d i t h ? ' , C B Q 2 4 (1962), p p . 147-54.
Idem, ' T h e H a n d ofjudith', C B Q 2 5 (1963), p p . 94-110.
Grintz, J . M., 'Judith', Enz. M i q . I l l (1965), cols. 510-17.
Zenger, E . , 'Der J u d i t h r o m a n als Traditionsmodell des J a h w e g l a u b e n s ' , Trierer T h Z 83
(1974), pp. 65-80.
Luria, B. Z., 'Jews of Syria in the Days of A n d o c h u s Epiphanes and t h e Book o f j u d i t h ' ,
Beth Miqra 62 (1975), p p . 328-41 (Hebr.).
Alonso-Schokel, L., ' N a r r a t i v e Structures in t h e Book of J u d i t h ' , The Center for
Hermeneutical Studies in Hellenisdc a n d M o d e r n Culture, Colloquy 11 (1975), pp.
1-20.
Craven, T . , 'Artistry a n d Faith in the Book o f j u d i t h ' , Semeia 8 (1977), p p . 75-101.
Nickelsburg, G. E. W., J L B B M , pp. 105-9, 151-2.
2 . The Book of Tobit

T h e B o o k of T o b i t is a w o r k similar i n t y p e to t h a t o f j u d i t h , e x c e p t t h a t its
m i l i e u is not the field o f political h i s t o r y b u t t h a t o f b i o g r a p h y , a n d it
a c c o r d i n g l y a d d r e s s e s i t s p a r a e n e s i s n o t to t h e n a t i o n a t l a r g e , b u t to
individuals.
T o b i t , the son o f T o b i e l of the t r i b e o f N a p h t a l i , w h o in t h e d a y s of
S h a l m a n e s e r king of Assyria w a s t a k e n c a p t i v e to N i n e v e h , r e l a t e s (in t h e
first person) h o w h e , t o g e t h e r w i t h h i s wife A n n a a n d his s o n T o b i a s , l i v e d
i n strict c o n f o r m i t y w i t h the r e q u i r e m e n t s of t h e c e r e m o n i a l a n d d i e t a r y
l a w s b o t h before a n d after c a p t i v i t y , a n d also u n d e r kings S e n n a c h e r i b a n d
E s a r h a d d o n . H e h a d b e e n p a r t i c u l a r l y zealous i n p e r f o r m i n g a c t s of
c h a r i t y ; he fed h u n g r y J e w s , c l o t h e d t h e n a k e d a n d b u r i e d t h e b o d i e s of
t h o s e o f his c o u n t r y m e n killed by S e n n a c h e r i b a n d left u n b u r i e d . O n c e ,
w h e n h e was s l e e p i n g in h i s c o u r t y a r d after p e r f o r m i n g one of t h e s e services
o f love, some s p a r r o w d r o p p i n g s fell in his eyes, as a result of w h i c h h e
b e c a m e blind (chapters i : 1-3:6). At the s a m e time, a y o u n g j e w i s h w o m a n
lived i n E k b a t a n a i n M e d i a , S a r a h d a u g h t e r o f R a g u e l , w h o h a d a l r e a d y
h a d seven h u s b a n d s , a l l of w h o m h a d b e e n killed b y the evil s p i r i t
A s m o d a e u s o n t h e n u p t i a l n i g h t before c o n s u m m a d n g the m a r r i a g e
( 3 : 7 - 1 7 ) . T h e a g e d T o b i t r e m e m b e r e d i n his distress t h a t he h a d o n c e
d e p o s i t e d t e n t a l e n t s of silver w i t h a fellow t r i b e s m a n , G a b a e l , i n R a g e s i n
M e d i a . Since he e x p e c t e d to d i e , he t h e r e f o r e s e n t his son T o b i a s t h e r e w i t h
i n s t r u c t i o n s t o h a v e t h e m o n e y , w h i c h h e w a s to i n h e r i t , h a n d e d o v e r .
T o b i a s set o u t , t a k i n g w i t h h i m a h i r e d g u i d e w h o w a s i n a c t u a l fact t h e
a n g e l R a p h a e l ( c h a p t e r s 4 - 5 ) . O n the w a y , T o b i a s b a t h e d i n the r i v e r
T i g r i s , a n d c a u g h t a fish. At t h e c o m m a n d of t h e a n g e l , he c u t o u t its h e a r t ,
liver a n d gall, a n d t o o k these w i t h h i m . T h e y r e a c h e d E k b a t a n a , a n d
lodged w i t h R a g u e l . R a g u e l recognized a kinsman i n Tobias, a n d gave

h i m his d a u g h t e r S a r a h as wife. As soon as t h e n e w l y w e d s e n t e r e d t h e
b r i d a l c h a m b e r T o b i a s , a c t i n g o n the a n g e l ' s i n s t r u c t i o n s , p r e p a r e d
s m o k e f r o m t h e h e a r t a n d l i v e r of t h e fish a n d d r o v e a w a y w i t h these
fumes t h e d e m o n A s m o d a e u s , w h o w i s h e d to kill h i m as he h a d killed
S a r a h ' s o t h e r h u s b a n d s . T h e f o u r t e e n d a y s of t h e w e d d i n g feast
therefore p a s s e d u n d i s t u r b e d a n d t h e a n g e l m e a n w h i l e w e n t t o R a g e s
to r e c e i v e t h e m o n e y f r o m G a b a e l ( c h a p t e r s 6 - 9 ) . T h e festivities over,
T o b i a s r e t u r n e d w i t h his wife S a r a h to his p a r e n t s a t N i n e v e h , w h e r e he
restored sight t o t h e eyes of his b l i n d f a t h e r T o b i t b y t r e a t i n g t h e m w i t h
t h e gall of t h e fish, a c c o r d i n g to the a n g e l ' s i n s t r u c t i o n s ( c h a p t e r s
10—12). F u l l o f g r a t i t u d e to G o d , T o b i t s a n g a s o n g of p r a i s e , a n d lived
for a l m o s t a n o t h e r h u n d r e d y e a r s . T o b i a s , t o o , l i v e d u n t i l h e was 1 2 7
y e a r s old ( c h a p t e r s 1 3 - 1 4 ) .
T h e t a l e is skilfully o r g a n i z e d , t h e d e t a i l c o p i o u s , a n d t h e v a r i o u s
t h r e a d s o f t h e story d e x t e r o u s l y i n t e r w o v e n . A s a l i t e r a r y p r o d u c t this
b o o k t h e r e f o r e r a n k s c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r t h a n J u d i t h . T h e religious
v i e w p o i n t is n o t u n l i k e i n b o t h w o r k s . H e r e , too, stress is l a i d on t h e
o b s e r v a n c e of c e r e m o n i a l , d i e t a r y a n d p u r i t y l a w s , b u t t h e p r a c t i c e of
acts of c h a r i t y is g i v e n e q u a l , if n o t g r e a t e r , p r o m i n e n c e . T h e w o r k ,
i n c i d e n t a l l y , p r o v i d e s i n s t r u c t i v e g l i m p s e s i n t o the s u p e r s t i t i o n s of t h e
period.
A s t h e e n t i r e s t o r y t a k e s p l a c e i n Assyria a n d M e d i a , t h e a u t h o r
seems t o h a v e w r i t t e n p r e d o m i n a n t l y for J e w s o f the D i a s p o r a . By
m e a n s o f the e x a m p l e s w h i c h h e h o l d s u p before t h e r e a d e r s ' eyes, he
wishes t o w o r k t o w a r d s h o l d i n g t h e m e m b e r s o f t h e n a t i o n s c a t t e r e d in
the p a g a n w o r l d t r u e to J u d a i s m , strictly a n d c o n s c i e n t i o u s l y faithful to
the L a w . W h e t h e r t h e b o o k o r i g i n a t e d in P a l e s t i n e o r in t h e D i s p e r s i o n
c o n t i n u e s to b e d e b a t e d . '
T h e d a t e o f c o m p o s i t i o n c a n o n l y b e fixed w i t h i n s o m e w h a t w i d e
limits. I t m a y b e t a k e n a s t o l e r a b l y c e r t a i n t h a t t h e b o o k w a s w r i t t e n
before H e r o d h a d b e g u n the r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the T e m p l e a r o u n d 20
B . C . R e f e r e n c e to t h i s o p e r a t i o n ( 1 3 : 1 6 - 1 7 ; 1 4 : 4 - 5 ) d o e s n o t i m p l y a
d a t e p o s t e r i o r to A . D . 70. T h e m o s t likely t h e o r y e n v i s a g e s t h e
r e d a c t i o n of T o b i t a t a t i m e w h e n t h e T e m p l e of Z e r u b b a b e l was still
s t a n d i n g . T h e a u t h o r i m a g i n e s h i m s e l f t o be i n t h e A s s y r i a n a g e , a n d
c a n therefore p r e d i c t , first t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e T e m p l e by t h e
B a b y l o n i a n s , a n d t h e n its r e b u i l d i n g after t h e r e t u r n f r o m exile. H e
foresees ( i ) t h e e r e c t i o n of a n u n p r e t e n t i o u s b u i l d i n g u n t i l a c e r t a i n
p e r i o d h a d e l a p s e d ; a n d (2) t h e s u b s e q u e n t c o n s t r u c t i o n of a s p l e n d i d
I . Cf. Eissfeldt, Introduction, p . 5 8 5 ; F. Z i m m e r m a n n , The Book of Tobit (1958), pp.

15-21. In addition to t h e Eastern diaspora and J u d a e a , E g y p t and Syria have been
proposed. According to J . T. MiHk, T o b i t is a Samaritan work re-edited in Jewish circles:
'La patrie d e T o b i e ' , R B 73 (1966), p p . 523-30.
s a n c t u a r y : ' A n d t h e y will r e b u i l d t h e h o u s e o f G o d , t h o u g h i t will n o t

b e like t h e f o r m e r one u n t i l t h e t i m e s o f the ages a r e c o m p l e t e d . After
t h i s t h e y will r e t u r n f r o m t h e p l a c e of t h e i r c a p d v i t y , a n d will r e b u i l d
J e r u s a l e m in s p l e n d o u r . A n d t h e h o u s e o f G o d will b e r e b u i l t t h e r e w i t h
a g l o r i o u s b u i l d i n g for a l l g e n e r a t i o n s for ever, just as t h e p r o p h e t s s a i d
o f it' (14:5). T h e T e m p l e w h i c h t h e a u t h o r k n e w is also s i m p l e r t h a n
t h e earlier S o l o m o n i c T e m p l e . H e w o u l d therefore scarcely h a v e
e x p r e s s e d himself i n t h e s e t e r m s h a d he a l r e a d y k n o w n t h e m a g n i f i c e n t
T e m p l e of H e r o d . T h a t T e m p l e forms t h e final terminus ad quem for t h e
c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e b o o k . S i n c e t h e r e is n o allusion t o t h e d e s e c r a t i o n of
t h e s a n c t u a r y u n d e r A n t i o c h u s E p i p h a n e s , it m a y r e a s o n a b l y b e
a s s u m e d t h a t T o b i t w a s w r i t t e n before t h e M a c c a b a e a n era, p r o b a b l y
i n the t h i r d c e n t u r y B . c . T h e a b s e n c e of a n y r e s u r r e c t i o n h o p e a p p e a r s
to corroborate such a dating.^
T h e S e m i t i c , H e b r e w or A r a m a i c linguistic origin of T o b i t h a s b e e n
g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d in m o d e r n times.^ I n fact, a l r e a d y in a n t i q u i t y
J e r o m e was a c q u a i n t e d w i t h a n A r a m a i c t e x t of this b o o k , in t h e s a m e
w a y t h a t h e k n e w also a n A r a m a i c J u d i t h (see a b o v e , p . 2 1 9 ) . H i s
p r e f a c e to h i s version of T o b i t r e a d s : 'Exigitis u t h b r u m C h a l d a e o
sermone conscriptum ad L a t i n a m stylum traham, librum utique
T o b i a e ' (ed. V a l l a r s i , X , p . i ) . A full A r a m a i c recension, c o n t a i n e d i n a
fifteenth c e n t u r y m a n u s c r i p t of v a r i o u s m i d r a s h i m , w a s p u b l i s h e d in
1 8 7 8 b y A. N e u b a u e r i n The Book of Tobit. A Chaldee Text from a Unique
Manuscript in the Bodleian Library. J e r o m e ' s version a n d t h e A r a m a i c t e x t
a g r e e i n p r e s e n t i n g the w h o l e story in a t h i r d p e r s o n n a r r a d v e , w h e r e a s
t h e G r e e k t e x t a n d the versions d e p e n d e n t o n it t r a n s m i t T o b i t 1:1—3:6
i n a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l style.* N e u b a u e r ' s A r a m a i c version c a n n o t ,
t h e r e f o r e , b e r e c o g n i z e d as t h e p r o t o t y p e of t h e G r e e k T o b i t . I n d e e d ,
t h e stylisdc simplification is m o r e p r o b a b l y a s e c o n d a r y f e a t u r e . ( F o r
t h e H e b r e w versions, w h i c h are l a t e , see b e l o w , p. 230.) T h e h i g h
q u a h t y of t h e G r e e k c o u l d b e , a n d was, used i n favour o f c o n s i d e r i n g it
a s original, a n d n o t a t r a n s l a t i o n . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e S e m i t i s m s of t h e
r e c e n s i o n p r e s e r v e d in Sinaiticus a n d t h e p r e s u m e d e a r l y d a t e of t h e
c o m p o s i t i o n h a v e b e e n seen as a r g u m e n t s strongly i n f a v o u r o f a
H e b r e w or A r a m a i c original.^ S i n c e the d i s c o v e r y i n Q u m r a n C a v e 4 of
2. Z i m m e r m a n n , op. cit., p p . 25, 27, argues for a post-A.D. 70 d a t e .

3. Eissfeldt, Introduction, p. 585. C f also M . M . S c h u m p p , Das Buch Tobias (1933), p .
xlvii.
4. T h e same switch from a first person memoir t o a third person description is found in
I Q a p G e n . (see below, p . 320).
5. A m o n g scholars favouring a Greek original w e find O . F. Fritzsche, Die Biicher Tobit
und Judith (1853), p. 8 ; T. Noldeke, 'Die Texte des Buches Tobit', Monatschr. B A W
(1879), p . 6 1 ; M . Lohr, ' T o b i t ' , Kautzsch A P A T I (1900), p. 136. Proposers of a Semitic
original (H = H e b r e w ; A = A r a m a i c ) : H . G r a t z , ' D a s Buch Tobias oder T o b i t ' ( H ) ,
M G W J 27 (1879); I- Levi, 'La langue originate de T o b i t ' ( H ) , R E J 44 (1902), p p .
f r a g m e n t s f r o m five T o b i t m a n u s c r i p t s , t h e issue a p p e a r s to b e s e t t l e d .
T h e y a r e still u n p u b l i s h e d , b u t t h e i r p r o s p e c t i v e e d i t o r , J . T . Milik,
r e p o r t s t h a t f o u r a r e in A r a m a i c a n d o n e in H e b r e w . I n his o p i n i o n ,
p r i o r i t y is to b e g i v e n t o t h e A r a m a i c , b u t b o t h S e m i t i c v e r s i o n s a t t e s t
t h e l o n g e r r e c e n s i o n (i.e. S i n a i t i c u s a n d V e t u s L a t i n a , see b e l o w , p p .
227-30).^
O n t h e s t o r y of A h i q a r , t o w h i c h a l l u s i o n is m a d e in 1 4 : 1 0 , see p p .
232-39 below.
2 8 8 - 9 1 ; J . T . Marshall (A), H D B I V (1902), p. 7 8 8 ; D. C . Simpson, ' T h e Book of T o b i t '

(H or A), Charles, A P O T I (1913) ( H or A ) pp. 1 8 0 - 2 ; P . J o i i o n , 'Quelques hebraismes
du Codex Sinaiticus d e Tobie' (H), Bibl 4 (1923), pp. 1 6 8 - 7 4 ; S c h u m p p , Das
Buck Tobias (H o r A) (1933) ; F . Z i m m e r m a n n , The Book of Tobit (A), p p . 38, 139-49.
6. J. T. Milik, ' L a patrie de T o b i e ' , R B 73 (1966), p. 523, n. 3 ; cf Ten Tears of Discovery
in the Witderness of Judaea (1959), p p . 3 1 - 2 ; p. 60. MiUk reports to h a v e identified the
following fragments (the four A r a m a i c manuscripts are designated as ai to a4, a n d the
Hebrew as A):
as a4
Tobit 1:17
i:ig-2:2
2:3
3-5
3:6-8 3:6
3-9-15 3:10-11
3-17
4-2-3
4:5-7 4-3-9
4:21-5:1 4-21-5-J
5-3 5:2
5:9
5:12-14
6:6-8 5:19-6:12
6:12-18
6:13, 15-18
6:18-7:6 6:18-7 : i o 7:11
7:13
8:17-19
8:21-9:4
10:7-9
11:10-14
12:18-^22 12:20-13:4
13:4-6
13:6-12
13:12-14:3 i3:'3~'4
14:2-6,8-11 13:18-14:2
14:7
14:10
References printed in italics a r e attested in m o r e t h a n one manuscript.

I n m a n y r e s p e c t s , t h e tale of t h e grateful d e a d , w h i c h a p p e a r s in
c o u n t l e s s v a r i a t i o n s a m o n g m a n y p e o p l e s , is a n a l o g o u s t o t h e Book of
T o b i t . A n A r m e n i a n s t o r y in p a r t i c u l a r is r e m i n i s c e n t of it. A w e a l t h y
m a n rides t h r o u g h a w o o d a n d sees p e o p l e a b u s i n g a corpse. T h e
r e a s o n , h e discovers, is t h a t t h e m a n d i e d o w i n g t h e m m o n e y . T h e
s t r a n g e r p a y s the d e b t a n d b u r i e s t h e d e a d . I n the m e a n w h i l e h e
b e c o m e s p o o r . I n his n a t i v e t o w n lives a rich m a n w i t h a n o n l y
d a u g h t e r w h o h a s a l r e a d y m a r r i e d five h u s b a n d s ; b u t e v e r y o n e of
t h e m h a d d i e d o n the b r i d a l n i g h t . T h e i m p o v e r i s h e d o n e , on t h e
a d v i c e o f a n u n k n o w n m a n s e r v a n t , n e v e r t h e l e s s d a r e s to m a r r y her. O n
t h e w e d d i n g n i g h t , a s n a k e c r a w l s o u t of t h e m o u t h of t h e b r i d e ,
i n t e n d i n g to b i t e t h e b r i d e g r o o m t o d e a t h . B u t t h e u n k n o w n
m a n s e r v a n t , w h o h a s k e p t g u a r d , kills it, saves t h e b r i d e g r o o m ' s life,
a n d m a k e s himself k n o w n as t h e d e a d p e r s o n w h o m he o n c e b u r i e d . I n
a R u s s i a n story, it is t h e survivor of t w o b r o t h e r s w h o looks after t h e
b u r i a l of t h e d e a d o n e . W h e n t h i s s u r v i v o r m a r r i e s a m e r c h a n t ' s
d a u g h t e r w h o h a d a l r e a d y lost t w o h u s b a n d s o n t h e b r i d a l n i g h t s , t h e
d e a d b r o t h e r keeps w a t c h i n t h e m a r r i a g e c h a m b e r a n d slays t h e
d r a g o n w h i c h o n c e a g a i n i n t e n d s t o kill t h e y o u n g h u s b a n d . ^ S i n c e in
t h e case of T o b i t , i t is h i s zeal for b u r y i n g t h e d e a d t h a t is p r a i s e d , a n d
since t h e y o u n g T o b i a s u n d e r g o e s e x p e r i e n c e s r e s e m b l i n g t h o s e of t h e
h e r o e s of these stories, t h e r e a r e s t r i k i n g s i m i l a r i t i e s — b u t also m a r k e d
diflferences. T h e e v i d e n c e , in fact, is n o t such t h a t a n y firm c o n c l u s i o n
c a n be r e a c h e d r e g a r d i n g a n y influence of t h e s e l e g e n d s on t h e T o b i t
s t o r y . I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e g r e a t a n t i q u i t y of t h o s e forms o f t h e story in
w h i c h t h e r e a r e r e a l c o n t a c t s w i t h T o b i t c a n n o t be e s t a b l i s h e d . ^
A n E g y p t i a n story, t h e T r a c t a t e of K h o n s or K h o n s u p r e s e r v e d on
t h e B e n t r e s h Stela d a t i n g to c. 500 B . C . , is also often c i t e d a s h a v i n g
p a r a l l e l features. A princess living i n t h e t o w n of B a k h t a n or B e c h t a n ^
w a s possessed by a d e m o n , a n d K h o n s ( u ) , ' t h e e x e c u t o r of p l a n s ' , w a s
7. Cf. K. Simrock, Der gute Gerhard und die dankbaren Todten (1856); A. F. von
H a x t a u s e n , Transkaukasia I (1856), p p . 3 3 3 - 4 ; R. Kohler, Germania 3 (1858), p p . 2 0 2 - 3 ;
E. Cosquin, 'Encore l'histoire d u sage Ahikar, vraies et fausses infiltrations d'Ahikar d a n s
la Bible', R B 8 (1899), p p . 5 1 3 - 1 5 ; G. H. Gerould, The Grateful Dead (1908); S. Liljeblad,
Die Tobias geschichte und andere Mdrchen mit toten Helfem (1927); L. Ruppert, 'Das Buch
T o b i a s — E i n Modellfall nachgestaltender E r z a h l u n g ' , in J . Schreiner (ed.), Wort, Lied und
Gottesspruch (1972), pp. 109-19.
8. Cf in general D . C. Simpson, A P O T I, p . 188; M . S c h u m p p , Das Buch Tobias
(1933), p p . L X X I V - V I ; A. Miller, Das Buch Tobias (1940), p. 10. According t o S c h u m p p
a n d Miller, the legends depend on Tobit, a n d not vice versa.
9. Bkhtn is probably a corrupted E g y p d a n rendering of Bactria (cf G. Lefebvre, Romans
et contes igyptiens de I'ipoque pharaonique (1949), p . 227) rather than of E k b a t a n a (H.
Schneider, see n . 11). T h e stela is from Karnak. It is now in the Louvre ( C 2 8 4 ) .
s e n t by t h e g o d of T h e b e s to e x o r c i z e a n d h e a l h e r . ' ° H o w e v e r , w h i l s t
t h e r e is n o p r o b l e m c o n c e r n i n g t h e age of t h e l e g e n d , t h e s i m i l a r i t y is
t o o faint to p e r m i t a n y firm s u g g e s t i o n of d i r e c t d e p e n d e n c e . "
A c c o r d i n g t o O r i g e n , the B o o k of T o b i t w a s n o t i n use a m o n g s t
P a l e s t i n i a n J e w s o f his t i m e , a n d n o H e b r e w t e x t of it w a s k n o w n
{Epistola ad Africanum, 1 3 , q u o t e d o n p . 2 1 9 a b o v e ; cf a l s o De oratione,
14 (ed. K o e t s c h a u , G C S 2, p . 3 3 1 ) : rfj 8e TOV Toj^rjT jStjSAoi avTiXeyovoLV
ol €K TrepLTOfjLijs cos JMT) hhiaOriKcp). T h a t it s o o n b e c a m e p o p u l a r ,
h o w e v e r , is p r o v e d by t h e e x t a n t A r a m a i c a n d H e b r e w t e x t s , o n e of
w h i c h w a s k n o w n a l r e a d y to J e r o m e .
T h e u s e of t h e b o o k i n the C h r i s t i a n C h u r c h is a t t e s t e d a l r e a d y in t h e
A p o s t o l i c F a t h e r s . C f 2 C l e m . 16:4 a n d T o b i t 1 2 : 8 - 9 ; E p . P o l y c a r p
10:2 a n d T o b i t 4 : 1 0 , 12:9. I r e n a e u s i 3 0 , 1 1 , w r i t e s t h a t t h e O p h i t e s
r e c k o n e d T o b i a s a m o n g t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t p r o p h e t s . C l e m e n t of
A l e x a n d r i a m e n t i o n s t h e s t o r y of T o b i a s a n d his f a t h e r T o b i t , Strom., i,
2 1 , 123 (ed. S t a h l i n , p . 7 7 ) , a n d cites t h e b o o k s e v e r a l t i m e s a s ypacfyrj,
Strom., ii, 23, 1 3 9 ; vi, 1 2 , 102 (ed. S t a h l i n , p p . 1 9 0 , 4 8 3 ) . H i p p o l y t u s
d r a w s t h e s t o r y of T o b i t i n t o his c o m m e n t a r y o n S u s a n n a as a p a r a l l e l
{In Dan. 1:28, ed. B o n w e t s c h , p . 4 0 ) . O r i g e n , Epistola ad Africanum, 13
( P G I I , col. 80), m a k e s a m p l e r e f e r e n c e to t h e s t o r y of T o b i t , a d d i n g
t h e g e n e r a l r e m a r k : xpîvrai rep TcujSi'a al eKKXrjaiai. H e a l s o often cites it
as ypa(f)TJ : Comment in epist. ad Rom. 8:12 ( P G 1 4 , c o l . 1 1 9 3 ) ; De oratione
1 1 : 1 , 14:4 a n d 3 1 : 5 (ed. K o e t s c h a u , p p . 3 2 1 , 3 3 1 , 3 9 8 - 9 ) ; Contra Celsum
5 : 1 9 a n d 29 ( e d . K o e t s c h a u , p p . 20, 3 1 ) . C y p r i a n m a k e s f r e q u e n t u s e of
t h e b o o k (Testimonia, iii, 1 , 6 , 62 ; Ad Fortunam 1 1 ; De opere et eleemosynis 5
a n d 20). F o r f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n , see S c h u m p p , op. cit., p p . I x i i - v i ; J .
G a m b e r o n i , Die Auslegung des Buches Tobias in der griechisch-lateinischen
Kirche der Antike und der Christenheit des Westens bis 1600 {1969).
O f t h e G r e e k t e x t , t h r e e r e c e n s i o n s exist. ( i ) T h e so-called c o m m o n
t e x t p r e s e r v e d in m o s t m a n u s c r i p t s , a m o n g s t o t h e r s t h e V a t i c a n u s ,
Alexandrinus and Venetus. O n t h e relationship of these t w o m a n u
scripts see A . S c h u l t e , ' I n w e l c h e m V e r h a l t n i s s t e h t d e r C o d e x
A l e x a n d r i n u s z u m C o d e x V a t i c a n u s im B u c h e T o b i a s ? ' , B Z (1908), p p .
2 6 2 - 6 . T h e S y r i a c version follows this r e c e n s i o n a s far a s 7:9. (2) T h e
t e x t of S i n a i t i c u s d i v e r g e s v e r y s h a r p l y f r o m t h e c o m m o n text. T h e O l d
L a t i n follows this, not a b s o l u t e l y , b u t in t h e m a i n . (3) T h e t e x t of
10. J. H . Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt I I I (1906), p p . 4 2 9 - 4 7 ; G . Roeder, Urkunden

zur Religion des alten Agypten (1923), pp. 1 6 9 - 7 3 ; J . A . Wilson, ' T h e Legend of the
Possessed Princess', J . B. Pritchard (ed.), A N E T (1950), pp. 29-31 ; M i r i a m Lichtheim,
Ancient Egyptian Literature. A Book of Readings I I I , The Late Period (1980), p p . 9 0 - 4 .
11. T h e theory of T o b i t being a reshaped version of the T r a c t a t e of K h o n s ( u ) was
advanced by H . Schneider, Kultur und Denken der Babylonier und Juden (1910), pp. 638-9.
However, there is no v a h d a r g u m e n t in favour of a western ( E g y p d a n ) origin of T o b i t ,
and, characteristically, neither Wilson n o r Lichtheim makes any reference to our
apochryphon.
codices 44, 106, 1 0 7 a n d , for c h a p t e r 2, P O x y r h y n c h u s 1076, w h i c h is

r e l a t e d t o t h a t of S i n a i t i c u s . T h i s a p p l i e s h o w e v e r o n l y to c h a p t e r s
6:9—13:8; before a n d a f t e r w a r d s , t h e m a n u s c r i p t s follow the c o m m o n
r e c e n s i o n . T h i s t e x t hes at t h e basis of t h e S y r i a c from c h a p t e r 7 : 1 0
o n w a r d s . In O . F . F r i t z s c h e , Libri Apocryphi Veteris Testamenti Graece
( 1 8 7 1 ) , t h r e e texts a r e p r i n t e d c o m p l e t e in p a r a l l e l c o l u m n s . H . B.
S w e t e {The Old Testament in Greek, I I , p p . 8 1 5 - 4 8 ) p r i n t s b o t h t h e
V a t i c a n u s a n d t h e S i n a i t i c u s , t h e o n e a b o v e the o t h e r . T h e text of
S i n a i t i c u s is s e p a r a t e l y e d i t e d by F . H . R e u s c h , Libellus Tobit e codice
Sinaitico editus et recensitus (1870). A . E. B r o o k e , N . M c L e a n , H . St. J .
T h a c k e r a y , The Old Testament in Greek, I I I , p a r t i (1940), g i v e ( p p .
85—122) the full G r e e k t e x t of V a t i c a n u s a n d S i n a i t i c u s , w i t h a c o p i o u s
critical a p p a r a t u s ; t h e y also p r i n t ( p p . 1 2 3 - 4 4 ) the O l d L a d n t e x t o f P.
S a b a t i e r ( 1 7 5 1 ) , w i t h a full critical a p p a r a t u s . T h e l a t e s t a n d b e s t
e d i t i o n is t h a t of t h e G o t t i n g e n S e p t u a g i n t by R . H a n h a r t , Tobit
(1983)-
W h e t h e r t h e c o m m o n text o r t h a t of S i n a i t i c u s is the o r i g i n a l is still
s u b j e c t t o c o n t r o v e r s y , b u t o p i n i o n h a s t e n d e d in m o r e r e c e n t t i m e s to
f a v o u r t h e l a t t e r . T h e g r e a t e r o r i g i n a h t y of t h e c o m m o n text w a s still
d e f e n d e d by s u c h s c h o l a r s as O . F . F r i t z s c h e , T h . N o l d e k e , M . L o h r ,
a n d J . M i i l l e r ; t h a t of S i n a i t i c u s , b y H . G r a t z , E . N e s t l e , J . R e n d e l l
Harris, D . C. Simpson, F . Z i m m e r m a n n , and A. W i k g r e n . But already
p r i o r to t h e Q u m r a n finds (see a b o v e ) , a c o g e n t case c o u l d be m a d e o u t
in f a v o u r of the p r i o r i t y o f t h e S i n a i t i c u s r e c e n s i o n , at least in
s u b s t a n c e , if n o t i n e v e r y d e t a i l . I n m a n y i n s t a n c e s t h e c o m m o n text n o
d o u b t exhibits the b e t t e r reading, h e n c e p r o b a b l y the m o r e primitive
f o r m . B u t b y a n d l a r g e t h e m o r e d e t a i l e d , p r o l i x text o f S i n a i t i c u s is
s u r e l y t h e o r i g i n a l . Its p r o l i x i t y is n o t a n e l a b o r a t i o n of a s i t u a t i o n b y
r e a l a n d m e a n i n g f u l f e a t u r e s , b u t s i m p l y t h e l o n g - w i n d e d style of t h e
o r i g i n a l a u t h o r , w h o s e text w a s p o l i s h e d a n d a b b r e v i a t e d b y l a t e r
r e d a c t o r s . T h e stylistic polish is in m a n y cases so o b v i o u s t h a t it w a s
c a n d i d l y a c k n o w l e d g e d e v e n b y J . M i i l l e r ( B Z A W X I I I (1908), p p .
35—53). T h e a b b r e v i a t i o n s s e e m in g e n e r a l t o afford e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e
c o m m o n text is t h e l a t e r one. A c o n f i r m a t i o n o f this o c c u r s r i g h t at t h e
b e g i n n i n g in the r e m a r k a b l e t e x t u a l d i v e r g e n c e s in r e s p e c t of t h e
t r i b u t e s p r e s c r i b e d b y t h e L a w w h i c h , T o b i t assumes, he h a s
c o n s c i e n t i o u s l y fulfilled ( 1 : 6 - 8 ) . A c c o r d i n g to t h e t e x t of S i n a i t i c u s , h e
h a s a m o n g s t o t h e r t h i n g s p r e s e n t e d to t h e priests a tithe of c a t t l e {rds
SeKdras rwv KTTJVCOV) ; i n the c o m m o n t e x t t h i s is d e l e t e d . T h e text of
S i n a i t i c u s c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e o l d e r u s a g e , w h i c h is f o u n d e d o n L e v .
2 7 : 3 2 - 3 a n d r e t a i n e d a l s o in t h e B o o k o f J u b i l e e s , 3 2 : 1 5 . A c c o r d i n g to
t h e l a t e r r u l i n g codified i n t h e M i s h n a h , t h e t i t h e o f b e a s t s c a m e t o be
t r e a t e d as ' s e c o n d t i t h e ' — t h a t is t o s a y , n o t g i v e n to t h e priests b u t
utilised b y t h e w o r s h i p p e r h i m s e l f at t h e sacrificial festival m e a l s in
J e r u s a l e m (see v o l . I I , p . 264). T h e c o m m o n t e x t of T o b i t h a s b e e n
c o r r e c t e d to a g r e e w i t h this l a t e r u s a g e . A n o t h e r difference is t h a t
a c c o r d i n g to t h e t e x t of t h e S i n a i t i c u s , T o b i t g a v e t h e s e c o n d t i t h e e v e r y
t h i r d y e a r to t h e p o o r , w h e r e a s in t h e c o m m o n text after m e n t i o n of the
second t i t h e i t is s a i d t h a t h e g a v e t h e t h i r d t i t h e t o t h e p o o r . H e r e , t o o ,
t h e text of t h e S i n a i t i c u s c o r r e s p o n d s t o the e a r l i e r , a n d t h e c o m m o n
t e x t to t h e l a t e r u s a g e ; a c c o r d i n g t o the f o r m e r , t h e p o o r t i t h e took the
p l a c e e v e r y t h i r d y e a r o f t h e s e c o n d t i t h e , a c c o r d i n g t o the l a t t e r , the
p o o r t i t h e w a s a d d e d e v e r y t h i r d y e a r t o the s e c o n d t i t h e . (See vol. I I ,
p . 264, n . 2 3 . ) T h e text of S i n a i t i c u s d e m o n s t r a t e s its p r i o r i t y also b y
t h e allusion i n T o b i t 1 4 : 1 0 t o t h e l e g e n d of A h i q a r . O n A h i q a r , see p p .
232-39-
T h e thesis set o u t in t h e p r e c e d i n g p a r a g r a p h a p p e a r s as p r o v e n to
all i n t e n t s a n d p u r p o s e s i n t h e l i g h t of t h e r e p o r t e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the
T o b i t f r a g m e n t s f r o m Q u m r a n C a v e 4. A c c o r d i n g t o J . T . M i h k , b o t h
t h e A r a m a i c a n d H e b r e w t e x t s reflect t h e l o n g e r r e c e n s i o n of the
Sinaiticus a n d Vetus L a t i n a type. T h e Sinaiticus text contains however
t w o l o n g o m i s s i o n s d u e t o homoeoteleuton. T h e r e t h e 4 Q e v i d e n c e is said
to be in h n e w i t h t h e O l d L a t i n t r a n s l a t i o n , a s is a l s o t h e case w i t h the
r e f e r e n c e to seven sons o f T o b i a h i n T o b i t 1 4 : 3 ( M i l i k , Ten Years, p p .
31-2).
O f t h e a n c i e n t v e r s i o n s the f o l l o w i n g a r e to b e m e n t i o n e d .
( i ) T h e L a t i n , a n d specifically ( a ) t h e O l d L a t i n version, t h e t e x t of
w h i c h , in t h e f o u r m a n u s c r i p t s c o l l a t e d b y S a b a t i e r , exhibits v e r y
c o n s i d e r a b l e v a r i a t i o n s b u t i n essence a g r e e s w i t h t h e S i n a i t i c u s (P.
S a b a t i e r , Bibliorum sacrorum Latinae versiones antiquae, v o l . I ) . S a b a t i e r ' s
four m a n u s c r i p t s represent t w o recensions, one c o n t a i n e d in C o d e x
R e g i u s 3564 from P a r i s a n d C o d e x S a n g e r m a n e n s i s 4 a n d 1 5 , t h e o t h e r
in V a t i c a n u s 7. Q u o t a t i o n s i n Speculum Augustini, e d i t e d by A . M a i in
J\fova Patrum Bibliotheca ( 1 8 5 2 ) a n d reissued b y F . W e i h r i c h in C S E L
X I I ( 1 8 8 7 ) , offer f r a g m e n t s o f a t h i r d r e c e n s i o n . S. B e r g e r lists i n all
twelve f u r t h e r m a n u s c r i p t s o f t h e O l d L a t i n text o f t h e Book of T o b i t
{Notices et extraits des manuscrits de la Bibliotheque Nationale et autres
Bibliotheques 2 4 ( 1 8 9 3 ) , p . 1 4 2 ) . F o r f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n , s e e B e r g e r ,
Histoire de la Vulgate {ISQ"^), passim, (b) T h e t r a n s l a t i o n of J e r o m e , the
Vulgate, c a m e i n t o b e i n g in t h e s a m e w a y as h i s r e v i s i o n of t h e B o o k of
J u d i t h . See his p r e f a c e to h i s v e r s i o n of T o b i t : ' E x i g i t i s , u t l i b r u m
Chaldaeo sermone conscriptum a d L a t i n u m stilum t r a h a m , librum
utique T o b i a e , q u e m H e b r a e i d e catalogo d i v i n a r u m Scripturarum
s e c a n t e s his q u a e a p o c r y p h a ( a l . h a g i o g r a p h a ) m e m o r a n t m a n c i -
p a r u n t . Feci satis d e s i d e r i o v e s t r o . . . E t q u i a v i c i n a est C h a l d a e o r u m
lingua sermorti H e b r a i c o , u t r i u s q u e linguae peritissimum l o q u a c e m
r e p e r i e n s , u n i u s d i e i l a b o r e m a r r i p u i , e t q u i d q u i d ille m i h i H e b r a i c i s
verbis e x p r e s s i t , h o c ego a c c i t o n o t a r i o s e r m o n i b u s L a d n i s e x p o s u i ' ( P L
29, col. 23). A c o m p a r i s o n of t h e V u l g a t e w i t h t h e O l d L a t i n

d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t J e r o m e u s e d t h e l a t t e r a s his basis a n d freely
r e w o r k e d it, p e r h a p s t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e A r a m a i c text. A fuller
e v a l u a t i o n m u s t a w a i t t h e p u b h c a t i o n o f the Q u m r a n f r a g m e n t s . F o r
t h e text of t h e V u l g a t e , see Biblia sacra iuxta latinam Vulgatam versionem
V I I I , Libri Ezrae, Tobiae, ludith (1950).
(2) T h e S y r i a c text is r e c o n s t r u c t e d from the f r a g m e n t s of t w o
different versions, o f w h i c h o n e , u p t o 7:9, followed t h e o r d i n a r y G r e e k
t e x t , the o t h e r , from 7:10 o n w a r d s , t h e t e x t of c o d i c e s 44, 106, 1 0 7 . T h e
first h a l f is t h e S y r i a c H e x a p l a r t r a n s l a t i o n , as A. R a h l f s d e m o n s t r a t e d
in P . d e L a g a r d e , Bibliotheca Syriaca ( 1 8 9 2 ) , p p . 3 2 b - 3 2 i . As far as is
k n o w n , t h e existing m a n u s c r i p t s , like the p r i n t e d e d i t i o n s , give o n l y t h e
c o m b i n e d text. T h e B o o k of T o b i t is n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h e g r e a t M i l a n
Peshitta manuscript.
(3) T h e A r a m a i c version e d i t e d b y A . N e u b a u e r a g r e e s essentially
w i t h t h e G r e e k r e c e n s i o n of t h e S i n a i t i c u s , b u t the text a s it s t a n d s is
p r o b a b l y only the a b b r e v i a t e d a n d revised form of a m o r e a n c i e n t
A r a m a i c a c c o u n t . O n i t s d a t i n g , a n d o t h e r m a t t e r s , see G. D a l m a n ,
Grammatik des jiid.-pal. Aramdisch (^1905), p p . 3 5 ff. C o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e
Q u m r a n A r a m a i c f r a g m e n t s is n o t y e t a v a i l a b l e .
(4) T h e E t h i o p i c t r a n s l a t i o n is e d i t e d b y A . D i l l m a n n , Biblia Veteris
Testamenti aethiopica V (1894).
(5) F i n a l l y , the m e d i e v a l H e b r e w versions a r e to b e m e n t i o n e d , t w o
of w h i c h h a v e b e e n f r e q u e n t l y p r i n t e d since the s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y ,
n a m e l y : (a) Fagius' Hebrew, i.e. a H e b r e w t r a n s l a t i o n b a s e d on t h e
c o m m o n G r e e k t e x t , first p u b l i s h e d in C o n s t a n t i n o p l e in 1 5 1 7 , t h e n b y
F a g i u s i n 1 5 4 2 ; a n d (b) MUnster's Hebrew, i.e. a free H e b r e w r e n d e r i n g
w h i c h , a c c o r d i n g t o N e u b a u e r , p . xii, was first p u b l i s h e d i n C o n
s t a n t i n o p l e in 1 5 1 6 , t h e n in 1542 by S e b a s t i a n M i i n s t e r . U n t i l t h e
p u b h c a t i o n of the A r a m a i c text, it w a s b e l i e v e d t h a t the O l d L a t i n w a s
b a s e d o n this H e b r e w v e r s i o n . S i n c e t h a t t i m e h o w e v e r , it m u s t b e
t a k e n as e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t Miinster's Hebrew is a d e r i v a t i v e , n o t of t h e
e x t a n t form o f the A r a m a i c t e x t , b u t of a n o l d e r r e c e n s i o n . T h e r e , as in
t h e G r e e k text, in t h e first t h r e e c h a p t e r s t h e first p e r s o n w a s e m p l o y e d ,
a u s a g e also r e t a i n e d in Miinster's Hebrew. A g o o d e d i t i o n of t h e l a t t e r ,
w i t h c o m p a r i s o n of t w o m a n u s c r i p t s a n d a n E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n , is to b e
f o u n d i n A. N e u b a u e r , The Book of Tobit ( 1 8 7 8 ) . B o t h H e b r e w texts,
w i t h L a t i n t r a n s l a t i o n s , a r e c o n t a i n e d also in W a l t o n ' s L o n d o n
P o l y g l o t , vol. I V .
(c) T h e London Hebrew c o m e s from M a n u s c r i p t A d d . 1 1 6 3 9 (ff. 7 3 6 - 5 3 )
of t h e British L i b r a r y , d a t i n g t o the t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y . It w a s p u b l i s h e d
b y M . G a s t e r , Two Unknown Hebrew Versions of Tobit ( 1 8 9 7 ) , p p . i-xi.
(d) Gaster's Hebrew derives from a m i d r a s h preserved in a fifteenth
c e n t u r y S p a n i s h m a n u s c r i p t . S e e G a s t e r , op. cit., p p . xi-xiv.
Commentaries
Fritzsche, O . F., Die Biicher Tobi und Judith erkldrt (1853).

Scholz, A., Commentar zum Buche Tobias (1889).
Lohr, M., in Kautzsch, A P A T (1900), pp. 135-47.
Simpson, D . C , i n Charles, A P O T I ( i 9 i 3 ) , p p . 174-241.
Schumpp, M., Das Buch Tobias (1933).
Miller, A., in Die Heilige Schrift des Alten Testaments, ed. Feldmann a n d H e r k e n n e (1940).
Clamer, A., in L. Pirot a n d A. Clamer, La Sainte Bible (1949).
Stummer, F., in Die Heilige Schrift in deutscher Uebersetzung (1950).
Biickers, H . , in Herders Bibelkommentar (1953).
Heller, B., in A. K a h a n a , d^lisnn OnDOn (''1956).
Pautrel, R . , in La Bible de Jerusalem ( 1957).
Z i m m e r m a n n , F . , The Book of Tobit (1958).
Estrade, M . M., a n d B. H . Girbau, in Monserrat Bible (i960).
Bibliography
Noldeke, T h . , ' D i e Texte des Buches T o b i t ' , Monatsschrift BAW 1879, p p . 45-69.
Gratz, H . , 'Das Buch Tobias oder T o b i t ' , M G W J 27 (1879), pp. 145-63, 385-408,
433-55, 509-20.
Harris, J. R., ' T h e Double T e x t of T o b i t ' , A J T h (1899), p p . 541-4.
Plath, M a r g a r e t e , ' Z u m Buch Tobit', T h S t K r 74 (1901), p p . 377—414.
Levi, I., ' L a langue originale d e T o b i e ' , R E J (1902), pp. 2 8 8 - 9 1 .
Marshall, J . T., ' T o b i t ' , HDB iv (1903), pp. 785-9.
Sieger, J., 'Das Buch Tobias', K a t h o l i k (1904), pp. 367-77.
Miiller, J . , 'Beitrage zur Erklarung des Buches T o b i t ' , B Z A W xiii (1908), pp. 1-53.
Simpson, C , ' T h e Chief Recensions o f the Book of Tobit', J T h S t 14 (1913), p p . 516-30.
Torrey, C. C , ' " N i n e v e h " in t h e Book of T o b i t ' , J B L 41 (1922), p p . 237-45.
J o u o n , P., 'Quelques hebraismes d u C o d e x Sinaidcus de T o b i e ' , Bibl 4 (1923), pp.
168-74.
Prado, J., 'La indole Hteraria del libro de T o b i t ' , Sefarad 7 (1947), pp. 373-94-
Idem, 'Historia, enserianzas y poesia e n el libro de T o b i t ' , ibid. 9 (1949), p p . 2 7 - 5 1 .
Glasson, T . F., ' T h e M a i n Source of T o b i t ' , Z A W 71 (1959), p p . 275-7.
Altheim, F., a n d R. Stiehl, 'Ahikar u n d T o b i t ' , in Die aramdische Sprache unter den
Achaimeniden II (i960), p p . 182-95.
Wikgren, A., 'Tobit, Book of, I D B I V (1962), pp. 6 5 8 - 6 2 .
Schazzochio, L., '"Ecclesiasdco", " T o b i a s " , " Sapienza di Salomone" alia luce dei testi di
Q u m r a n ' , R S t O r 37 (1962), pp. 199-209.
Flusser, D . , rfDW, Enz. Miq. I l l (1965), cols. 367-75.
Milik, J. T . , 'La patrie d e Tobie', R B 73 (1966), p p . 522-30.
Soden, W . von, 'Fischgalle als Heilsmittel fiir die Augen', AID 21 (1966), pp. 8 1 - 2 .
Vattioni, L. F., 'Studi e note sul Libro di T o b i a ' , Augustinianum 10 (1970), pp: 241-84.
Ruppert, L., 'Das Buch T o b i a s — E i n Modellfall nachgestaltender Erzahlung',
Forschungen zur Bibel I: Festschrift J. Ziegler (1972), p p . 109-19.
Dion, P. E., 'Deux notes epigraphiques sur T o b i e ' , Bibl 56 (1975), pp. 4 1 6 - 1 9 .
Idem, 'Raphael I'exorciste', ibid. 56 (1976), p p . 399-413.
Ruppert, L., ' Z u r F u n k d o n d e r Achikar-Notizen im Buch Tobias', BZ 20 (1976), pp.
232-7-
G a m b e r o n i , J., 'Das "Gesetz des M o s e " im Buch T o b i a s ' , in G. Braulik (ed.), Studien zum
Pentateuch—W. Kornfeld Festschrift (1977), pp. 227-42.
di Leila, A. A., 'The Deuteronomic Background of t h e Farewell Discourse in T o b .
14:3-11', CBQ,4i ( i 9 7 9 ) > P P - 3 8 0 - 9 .
Greenfield, J . C., ' A h i q a r in t h e Book of T o b i t ' , De la TSrah au Messie: Milanges Henri

Gazelles (1981), pp. 3 29-36.
Deselaers, P . , Das Buck Tobit: Studien zu seiner Entstehung, Komposition und Theologie (1982)
[a detailed, literary-critical study combined with an analysis of t h e history of t r a
ditions and doctrines].
J. The Story of Ahiqar

I n four p a s s a g e s of t h e B o o k of T o b i t (1:21 f; 2 : 1 0 ; 1 1 : 1 7 ; H - ^ o )
m e n t i o n is m a d e of a n e p h e w of T o b i t n a m e d A h i q a r . " T h i s m a n , a s
g r a n d vizier o f the A s s y r i a n k i n g S a r c h e d o n u s ( E s a r h a d d o n ) e n a b l e d
T o b i t to r e t u r n to N i n e v e h (1:21 f ) ; s u p p o r t e d h i m in his b l i n d n e s s
(2:1 o ) ; t o o k p a r t in t h e w e d d i n g - f e a s t of t h e y o u n g T o b i a s ( 1 1 : 1 8 ) ; a n d
w a s held u p b y the d y i n g T o b i t to h i s son T o b i a s as a n e x a m p l e of t h e
t r i u m p h of r i g h t e o u s n e s s ; for A h i q a r h a d b e e n ' t a k e n d o w n a l i v e u n d e r
t h e e a r t h ' {l,u)v Karr^vixdr} ets r-qv yrjv, t h u s C o d e x S i n a i t i c u s ) , by h i s
foster-son N a d a n , b u t h a d r e t u r n e d to t h e l i g h t , w h e r e a s N a d a n s a n k
i n t o e v e r l a s t i n g d a r k n e s s ( 1 4 : 1 0 ) . T h e foster-son N a d a n m e n t i o n e d h e r e
also a p p e a r s w i t h A h i q a r i n 11:17, w h e r e t h e y a r e b o t h c a l l e d c o u s i n s of
Tobit.'
T h e s t o r y o f A h i q a r , a t w h i c h T o b . 14:10 m e r e l y h i n t s , i t b e i n g
a s s u m e d t h a t its c o n t e n t s w e r e well k n o w n , is p r e s e r v e d i n n u m e r o u s
texts—e.g. A r a m a i c , Syriac, A r a b i c , A r m e n i a n , Neo-Syriac, Slavonic,
R u m a n i a n e t c . , a n d in s h o r t e r form also i n G r e e k (as p a r t of t h e Life of
A e s o p ) . T h e t e x t s differ c o n s i d e r a b l y f r o m e a c h o t h e r in d e t a i l s , b u t all
g i v e basically t h e s a m e a c c o u n t . T h e less d e v e l o p e d v e r s i o n is c o n t a i n e d
in t h e fifth c e n t u r y B . C . f r a g m e n t a r y A r a m a i c p a p y r u s scroll f r o m
E l e p h a n t i n e , first p u b l i s h e d b y E. S a c h a u in 1911 {Aramdische Papyrus
und Ostraka aus einer judischen Militdr-Kolonie zu Elephantine, p p . 1 4 7 - 8 2 ) .
D e s p i t e t h e m a n y g a p s , t h e s t o r y g i v e n in cols. 1-5 m a y b e
r e c o n s t r u c t e d a s follows.
A h i q a r , c o u n s e l l o r a n d s e a l - b e a r e r of kings S e n n a c h e r i b a n d
E s a r h a d d o n o f Assyria, h a d n o son. H e t h e r e f o r e a d o p t e d his n e p h e w
N a d a n , a n d e d u c a t e d h i m in t h e h o p e t h a t h e w o u l d succeed h i m , a n d
E s a r h a d d o n a p p r o v e d o f this p l a n . T h e r e u p o n A h i q a r r e t i r e d to h i s
h o u s e . H o w e v e r , t h e u n g r a t e f u l a n d w i c k e d n e p h e w falsely a c c u s e d
A h i q a r of p l o t t i n g a g a i n s t t h e k i n g , w h o in his r a g e d e s p a t c h e d a n
1. The name reads i n Codex Sinaidcus i;2i f. !(4)feijfapos; 2:10 'A\tia.)(a.pos', 11:17
'AxîKap; 14:10 'AxtUapos; in t h e O l d L a d n , 'Achicarus'. The majority of manuscripts,
along with Codex V a t i c a n u s and Alexandrinus, h a v e throughout predominantly
AxioLxapos. The correct form is A h i q a r , as the other forms o f the story indicate. See also p.
235 below.
2. The name appears in a variety of different forms in the manuscripts in 11:17
14:10 {NaâS, NaSaP, Naaâs, 'Apav), but all would a p p e a r to b e corrupdons of N a d a n
{NaSav), t h e form that t h e n a m e takes in the other A h i q a r texts.
officer, N a b u s u m i s k u n , w i t h t w o m e n to kill t h e h e r o . R e a h z i n g t h e
p u r p o s e o f t h e i r visit, A h i q a r r e m i n d e d N a b u s u m i s k u n t h a t i n s i m i l a r
c i r c u m s t a n c e s i n t h e p a s t he h a d s p a r e d h i s life a n d h a d h i d d e n
N a b u s u m i s k u n in h i s h o u s e u n t i l h e w a s a b l e to r e - i n t r o d u c e h i m t o
E s a r h a d d o n . T h e officer w a s m o v e d a n d d e c i d e d to s i m u l a t e A h i q a r ' s
e x e c u t i o n b y killing o n e of his o w n e u n u c h s . H e t h e n t o o k A h i q a r h o m e
w i t h him a n d l o o k e d after h i m w h i l s t t h e k i n g i m a g i n e d t h a t his f o r m e r
s e a l - b e a r e r a n d counsellor was d e a d .
T h e rest of t h e s t o r y is m i s s i n g f r o m t h e A r a m a i c s o u r c e . T h e m a i n
p o i n t s of t h e l o n g e r version ( e s p e c i a l l y a c c o r d i n g t o t h e A r a b i c a n d
Syriac) a r e as follows. A h i q a r , ^ the m i n i s t e r of S e n n a c h e r i b , is d e s p i t e
his sixty wives childless. T h e sacrifices w h i c h h e offers to t h e g o d s d o n o t
h e l p h i m e i t h e r . T o his p r a y e r to t h e M o s t H i g h G o d , C r e a t o r of
h e a v e n a n d e a r t h , h e receives t h e r e p l y t h a t t h i s is t h e p u n i s h m e n t for
his i d o l a t r y . ( O n t h e v a r i o u s religious b a c k g r o u n d s , s e e b e l o w . ) H e will
also himself r e m a i n childless a n d s h o u l d t a k e h i s n e p h e w N a d a n as a
son. A h i q a r d o e s so. W h e n N a d a n g r o w s u p , h e is a p p o i n t e d s u c c e s s o r
of A h i q a r by S e n n a c h e r i b a n d is i n s t r u c t e d b y his f o s t e r - f a t h e r . T h e
wise sayings b y m e a n s of w h i c h A h i q a r d o e s t h i s a r e r e c o r d e d . T h e i r
c o n t e n t is f r e q u e n t l y r e m i n i s c e n t of B e n S i r a . S i n c e N a d a n , in spite of
this t e a c h i n g , l e a d s a dissolute life a n d s q u a n d e r s A h i q a r ' s f o r t u n e , t h e
latter adopts N a d a n ' s younger brother N e b u z a r d a n instead. T o avenge
himself, N a d a n writes t w o forged letters, a l l e g e d l y f r o m A h i q a r to t h e
kings of P e r s i a a n d E g y p t , in w h i c h A h i q a r p r o m i s e s to h a n d over t o
t h e m the k i n g d o m o f S e n n a c h e r i b . T h e n h e w r i t e s a n o t h e r forged l e t t e r
from S e n n a c h e r i b t o A h i q a r in w h i c h t h e l a t t e r is c o m m a n d e d t o c o m e
w i t h an a r m y t o the p l a c e d e s i g n a t e d as a r e n d e z v o u s in t h e l e t t e r to t h e
k i n g of E g y p t . W h e n N a d a n r e a d s t o S e n n a c h e r i b t h e f o r g e d l e t t e r s to
the foreign kings allegedly d i s c o v e r e d b y himself, a n d when
Sennacherib actually meets Ahiqar at the rendezvous w i t h a n a r m e d
force, he b e c o m e s c o n v i n c e d of his g u i l t . B y m e a n s o f a c u n n n i n g r u s e ,
A h i q a r is t h e n h a n d e d over to t h e k i n g b y N a d a n , f e t t e r e d , a n d
c o n d e m n e d to d e a t h . H e h o w e v e r p e r s u a d e s t h e e x e c u t i o n e r , t o w h o m
he h a d f o r m e r l y r e n d e r e d a service, n o t to kill h i m , b u t to e x e c u t e in his
p l a c e a slave a l r e a d y u n d e r s e n t e n c e of d e a t h . A n u n d e r g r o u n d
h i d i n g - p l a c e is p r e p a r e d for A h i q a r , w h e r e h e r e m a i n s c o n c e a l e d .
N a d a n t h e n r u l e s cruelly i n t h e h o u s e of A h i q a r .
W h e n t h e k i n g of E g y p t h e a r s t h a t t h e wise A h i q a r is d e a d , h e w r i t e s
a l e t t e r t o S e n n a c h e r i b r e q u e s t i n g h i m t o d e s p a t c h a skilled m a n to
b u i l d h i m a castle b e t w e e n h e a v e n a n d e a r t h . S h o u l d S e n n a c h e r i b b e
a b l e to s e n d s u c h a m a n , t h e k i n g of E g y p t w o u l d p a y t r i b u t e t o h i m for
3. This is the form given in t h e Syriac t e x t ; the Arabic is H a i q a r , t h e Armenian a n d

Neo-Aramaic H i q a r , the Slavonic Akyrios.
t h r e e y e a r s , o t h e r w i s e S e n n a c h e r i b w o u l d h a v e to p a y t r i b u t e for t h e
s a m e period. This places Sennacherib i n considerable e m b a r r a s s m e n t
a n d h e l a m e n t s t h e d e a t h of A h i q a r , w h o a l o n e i n his w i s d o m m i g h t
h a v e b e e n a b l e to proffer a d v i c e . T h e n the e x e c u t i o n e r confesses t h a t
A h i q a r is n o t d e a d . S e n n a c h e r i b is o v e r j o y e d a n d c o m m a n d s t h a t
A h i q a r be s u m m o n e d . ( W h y the k i n g is i m m e d i a t e l y c o n v i n c e d o f his
i n n o c e n c e is n o t q u i t e c l e a r . ) W h e n A h i q a r h e a r s w h a t is g o i n g o n , h e
h a s t w o y o u n g eagles t r a i n e d to c a r r y t w o s m a l l b o y s i n t o the a i r w h i l e
t h e y t h e m s e l v e s a r e h e l d by c o r d s . W i t h these A h i q a r sets off for E g y p t .
W h e n h e is l e d before P h a r a o h , h e guesses f r o m t h e v a r i o u s g a r m e n t s in
w h i c h t h a t m o n a r c h a p p e a r s t h a t h e likes to r e s e m b l e Bel, t h e sun, t h e
m o o n , a n d t h e s p r i n g m o n t h of N i s a n . A h i q a r h o w e v e r likens his o w n
k i n g , S e n n a c h e r i b , to t h e G o d o f h e a v e n himself. W h e n h e is t h e n
o r d e r e d to b u i l d t h e c a s t l e b e t w e e n h e a v e n a n d e a r t h , h e lets the t w o
eagles rise i n t o t h e air w i t h the t w o b o y s , a n d t h e b o y s c a l l o u t for
p l a s t e r , lime, clay a n d s t o n e so t h a t t h e y c a n p r o c e e d w i t h t h e b u i l d i n g .
A s P h a r a o h is u n a b l e t o p r o v i d e this, h e s u r r e n d e r s h i s c l a i m . A f t e r
A h i q a r has given f u r t h e r proofs of his w o n d e r f u l w i s d o m , P h a r a o h lets
h i m g o , g i v i n g h i m t r i b u t e for S e n n a c h e r i b for t h r e e y e a r s . O n his
r e t u r n , A h i q a r t a k e s a f e a r s o m e r e v e n g e on N a d a n . H e also d e l i v e r s a
l o n g a n d severe l e c t u r e , c o m p a r i n g N a d a n ' s b e h a v i o u r to t h e foolish
c o n d u c t of v a r i o u s a n i m a l s . W h e n h e b e g s for forgiveness, A h i q a r
replies w i t h f u r t h e r wise p r o v e r b s . B u t N a d a n swells out like a w i n e s k i n ,
a n d b u r s t s a n d d i e s . F o r w h o e v e r digs a pit for o t h e r s , h i m s e l f falls i n t o
it ( P r o v . 26:27; E c c l u s . 27:26).
P r i o r to t h e d i s c o v e r y of t h e A r a m a i c s o u r c e of t h e A h i q a r story, t h e
o r i g i n of t h e w o r k — ^ J e w i s h , g e n t i l e ( B a b y l o n i a n , P e r s i a n , G r e e k ,
I n d i a n ) or C h r i s t i a n — w a s h o t l y d e b a t e d . * T h e l a t t e r thesis h a s
h o w e v e r b e c o m e u n t e n a b l e since the p u b l i c a t i o n of t h e E l e p h a n t i n e
papyri.
T h e historical m i l i e u of the story is t h e last c e n t u r y of t h e
n e o - A s s y r i a n e m p i r e , a n d r e c e n t c u n e i f o r m finds m e n t i o n a s a g e , b y t h e
4. Among the protagonists of a Jewish origin are M. Lidzbarski ('Zum weisen Achikar',
Z D M G 48 (1894), p p . 6 7 1 - 5 ) ; J . R. Harris {The Story of Ahikar (1898, ''1913),
I n t r o d u c t i o n ) ; L. Ginzberg ('Ahikar', J E I, pp. 2 8 7 - 9 0 ) ; P. Vetter ('Das Buch T o b i a s
u n d die Achikar-Sage', Theol. Quartalschr. 86 (1904), pp. 321-64, 5 1 2 - 3 9 ; 87 (1905),
p p . 321—70, 497-546) ; R. Smend {Alter und Herkunft des Achikar-Romans und sein Verhaltnis
zu Aesop, BZAW 13 (1908), pp. 55-125). A Babylonian derivation was proposed by,
a m o n g others, F . Nau {Histoire et sagesse d Ahikar I'Assyrien (1909), pp. 118-19). Vetter also
postulated a Babylonian A h i q a r as t h e basis of the Jewish work. B . Meissner
('Quellenuntersuchungen z u r Haikargeschichte', Z D M G 4 8 (1894), p p . 171-97)
considered the Greek Life of Aesop as t h e source of the Jewish legend. W. Bousset
('Beitrage zur Achikarlegende', Z N W 6 (1905), p p . 180-93) favoured a Persian origin.
Finally the authorship of the story was assigned to a Syrian Christian by G . Hoffmann
{Ausziige aus syrischen Actenpersischer Mdrtyrer (1880), p. 182) and B. Meissner, art. cit.
n a m e of A h u q a r , a t the c o u r t of E s a r h a d d o n . ^ B e a r i n g in m i n d t h e
setting a n d o c c a s i o n a l l i t e r a r y a n d p h i l o l o g i c a l features, a n A k k a d i a n
original a p p e a r s t o b e a d i s t i n c t possibility;^ b u t i t is e q u a l l y
c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t b o t h t h e story a n d t h e p r o v e r b s a r e g e n u i n e A r a m a i c
compositions.
T h a t t h e A r a m a i c A h i q a r is first a t t e s t e d in a J e w i s h m i l i t a r y c o l o n y
in U p p e r E g y p t in t h e l a t e fifth c e n t u r y B . C . d o e s n o t m a k e it ipso facto
a J e w i s h d o c u m e n t . I n fact, it c o n t a i n s n o m e n t i o n o f J u d a i s m ; on t h e
c o n t r a r y , it refers r e p e a t e d l y to t h e M e s o p o t a m i a n g o d of j u s t i c e ,
S h a m a s h (cf lines 9 2 , 9 3 , 108, 1 3 8 , 1 7 1 ) . It is r e a s o n a b l e therefore t o
d e d u c e t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l s t o r y w a s B a b y l o n i a n a n d polytheistic.^
A m o n g t h e m o r e r e c e n t r e c e n s i o n s , t h e A r m e n i a n d e s c r i b e s A h i q a r as
p r a y i n g t o t h e deities ' B e l s h i m a n d S h i m i l a n d S h a m i n ' (1:4). T h e
A r a b i c a n d n e o - S y r i a c a c c o u n t s r e p r e s e n t h i m as a c o n v e r t to
m o n o t h e i s m ( c f A r a b i c 1 : 3 - 6 ) . O n the o t h e r h a n d , t h e S y r i a c a n d
Slavonic A h i q a r w o r s h i p s the o n e t r u e G o d f r o m t h e s t a r t , reflecting a
p r i o r a d o p t i o n of t h e s t o r y b y J e w s . I n d e e d this j u d a i z a t i o n , w h i c h
patently antedates the Book of T o b i t (late third c e n t u r y B . C ) , w h e r e
the A h i q a r of t h e l e g e n d b e c o m e s t h e s o n of A n a e l , b r o t h e r o f T o b i t
( T o b . 1 : 2 1 ) , is t o b e p l a c e d to t h e f o u r t h t o t h i r d c e n t u r i e s B . C
S i n c e t h e E l e p h a n t i n e finds a n d t h e c o n s e q u e n t d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e
h i g h a n t i q u i t y of t h e A h i q a r s t o r y , i t is g e n e r a l l y a g r e e d t h a t t h e l a t t e r
was used by t h e w r i t e r of T o b i t , ^ a l t h o u g h , as has b e e n a l r e a d y
s u g g e s t e d , in a j u d a i z e d f o r m . T h e m o t i v e for i n t r o d u c i n g A h i q a r i n t o
the T o b i t a c c o u n t s e e m s t o b e to e n h a n c e T o b i t ' s p r e s t i g e t h r o u g h his
family h n k w i t h t h e f a m o u s c o u r t oflflcial a n d s a g e .
5. A list of post-diluvian sages {ummanu) found at Uruk a n d d a t i n g to the Seleucid era,

r e a d s : 'In the d m e of E s a r h a d d o n there w a s A b a - N I N N U - d a r i , w h o m the A r a m e a n s
(Ahlamu) call A h u q a r ' (J. v a n Dijk in H . J . Lenzen, XVIII vorldufiger Bericht iiber die
Ausgrabungen in Uruk-Warka (1962), p p . 45, 5 1 - 2 ; cf. idem, ' A u s g r a b u n g e n von W a r k a . Die
Tontafelfunde d e r K a m p a g n e 1959/60', A I D 20 (1963), p . 217). For the n a m e Ahuqar,
see C . Saporetti, Onomastica medio-assira I (1970), p . 79. N o t e also that t h e names Ahiaqar
and Nadinnu figure also i n a d o c u m e n t of 698 B.C. (cf A. T . Olmstead, 'Intertestamental
Studies', J A O S 56 (1936), p. 243).
6. One of the proverbs (8:17 in Syriac) is paralleled in A k k a d i a n ; cf. R. H . Pfeiffer in
A N E T , p. 426 [ V ( i ) ] . S e e J . C. Greenfield, ' T h e Background a n d Parallel to a P r o v e r b of
Ahikar', Hommages d A. Dupont-Sommer (1971), p p . 49-59. T h e Akkadian t e r m arru =
decoy bird has b e e n preserved in Syriac at 8:15 (S. P. Brock). T h e r e a p p e a r also t o be
Egyptian features in the development of the Aramaic A h i q a r s t o r y : cf. J . C. Greenfield,
'Studies in A r a m e a n Lexicography', J A O S 82 (1962), p p . 293, 2 9 7 - 9 ; S. P. Brock, 'A
Piece of Wisdom Literature in Syriac', J S S 13 (1968), pp. 214-15.
7. Cf A . Cowley, Aramaic Papyri oJ the Fifth Century B.C. (1923), p p . 2 0 6 - 7 ; H . L.
Ginsberg, A N E T , p. 427. Because of the acceptance of a gendle origin, introducdons to
Jewish literature include no chapter o n Ahiqar. Eissfeldt, for example, contains only two
allusions ( p p . 52, 584); see also Nicklesburg, J L B B M , pp. 23, 161.
8. Cf Harris, op. dt., p p . xxxvii-lx.
9. Cf Cowley, op. cit., p . 2 0 8 ; Altheim and Stiehl, op. cit. I I , p p . 193-5.
I n a d d i t i o n to t h e E l e p h a n t i n e p a p y r i , t h e A k k a d i a n allusions a n d
T o b i t , t h e figure of A h i q a r is r e p r e s e n t e d i n G r e e k l i t e r a t u r e also.
D e m o c r i t u s o f A b d e r a ( 4 6 0 - 3 6 1 B . C . ) is s a i d b y C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a
in Strom., i, 1 5 , 69, 4 - 6 ( G C S 5 2 , p p . 4 3 , 1 3 - 4 4 , 4 ) , a c c o r d i n g to
E u s e b i u s , Praep. ev., x, 4, 2 3 - 4 , to h a v e visited B a b y l o n i a , Persia a n d
E g y p t , a n d t o h a v e i n c o r p o r a t e d in his w r i t i n g s the stela of A k i k a r o s . A
few sentences a t t r i b u t e d to D e m o c r i t u s by S h a h r a s t a n i ( e l e v e n t h to
twelfth c e n t u r y ) m a y b e t r a c e d to t h e o r i e n t a l r e c e n s i o n s of t h e
p r o v e r b s of A h i q a r . ' °
T h e o p h r a s t u s ( d i e d 264 B . C ) is c r e d i t e d b y D i o g e n e s L a e r t i u s [Vitae,
V , 2, 50) w i t h a w o r k e n t i t l e d Akicharos, a n d S t r a b o [xvi, 2 , 39 ( p . 762)]
lists A c h a i k a r o s a m o n g the d i v i n e r s (/xavreis) from t h e B o s p o r u s , a
p r o b a b l e m i s r e a d i n g for B o r s i p p a . "
A G r e e k Life of Aesop, e x t a n t in s u n d r y versions (see b e l o w ) ,
r e p r o d u c e s i n its c e n t r a l p a r t w h a t is s i m p l y t h e A h i q a r s t o r y i n a
s h o r t e n e d f o r m ; o n l y t h e n a m e s a r e c h a n g e d . ' ^ A e s o p takes t h e p l a c e of
A h i q a r , N a d a n is h e r e called Atvos o r "Evvos, a n d t h e k i n g is n o t
S e n n a c h e r i b , b u t AvKovpyos or AvKrjpos. T h e o n l y real difference of
m e a n i n g is f o u n d a t t h e c l o s e : w h e r e a s N a d a n is s e v e r e l y p u n i s h e d by
A h i q a r , A i n o s o r E n n o s is m a g n a n i m o u s l y f o r g i v e n b y A e s o p .
O t h e r w i s e , t h e d e t a i l s a r e i d e n t i c a l . E x p e r t s are u n a n i m o u s in t h e i r
c o n t e n t i o n t h a t t h e o r i e n t a l e p i s o d e s in t h e Life of Aesop a r e d r a w n f r o m
t h e A h i q a r r o m a n c e (see S m e n d , op. cit., p p . 76, 9 6 - 1 0 0 ) . B u t S m e n d
b r o u g h t the fables of A e s o p w i t h i n the r a n g e of h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n a n d
s h o w e d t h a t m a n y a r e i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e p a r a b l e s from a n i m a l life
w h i c h a p p e a r at t h e e n d of the b o o k o f A h i q a r (in A h i q a r ' s severe
r e p r i m a n d to N a d a n ) , a n d t h a t h e r e too t h e r e are s t r o n g a r g u m e n t s for
t h e p r i o r i t y o f the b o o k of A h i q a r . A e s o p ' s d a t e of b i r t h is a d m i t t e d l y
u n k n o w n . B u t the s a m e fables are t o b e f o u n d also in B a b r i u s , a n d he
m a y p l a u s i b l y be d a t e d t o a b o u t A . D . 200.'^ T h e results o b t a i n e d f r o m
P s e u d o - D e m o c r i t u s are t h u s a p p r o x i m a t e l y c o n f i r m e d .
10. Cf. R. Smend, Alter und Herkunft des Achikar-Romans und sein Verhaltnis zu Aesop
(1908); Altheim and Stiehl, Das aramdische Sprache I , pp. 186-92 ; B. E. Perry, 'Demetrius
of Phalerum a n d the Aesopic Fables', Trans. Proceed. Am. Philol. Ass. 93 (1962), pp.
2 8 7 - 3 4 6 ; Denis, I P G A T , pp. 202-3. According t o Smend, the Semidc character of the
sayings preserved in Arabic indicates that Shahrastani cites a Pseudo-Democritus (op. cit.,
p p . 67-75), but Altheim and Stiehl, and Perry (loc. cit.), favour the real Democritus. For
a comparison of the sayings, see Harris in A P O T I I , pp. 716-17.
11. Cf J . R. Harris, op. cit., p p . xxxix-xlv; R E I I I , col. 735.
12. R. Smend, op. cit., pp. 76—102; B. E. Perry, Aesopica : A Series of Texts relating to Aesop
or ascribed to him (1952), pp. 6 6 - 7 3 ; A . M. Denis, op. cit., pp. 204-5. F o r the Greek text
a n d parallel English translation, see Charles, A P O T II, p p . 780-4.
13. O n Babrius, see O . Crusius, R E II, cols. 2655 fF.; B . E. Perry, Babrius and Phaedrus
(Loeb, 1965).
T h e r e is also s p o r a d i c a t t e s t a d o n of t h e A h i q a r s t o r y in E g y p t i a n
demotic documents.'*
T h e A h i q a r l e g e n d h a s s u r v i v e d i n a n u m b e r of l a n g u a g e s .
(1) Aramaic: T h e earliest f o r m o f the A h i q a r s t o r y is r e p r e s e n t e d b y
f r a g m e n t s of f o u r t e e n c o l u m n s of a scroll w r i t t e n in A r a m a i c a n d d a t i n g
to the l a t e fifth c e n t u r y B . C . T h e y w e r e f o u n d on t h e i s l a n d of
E l e p h a n t i n e ( m o d e r n A s s u a n ) in 1906—8 a n d first p u b l i s h e d by E.
S a c h a u , Aramdische Papyrus und Ostraka aus einer judischen Militdr-Kolonie
zu Elephantine ( 1 9 1 1 ) , p p . 1 4 7 - 8 2 . T h e m o s t c o n v e n i e n t e d i t i o n is t h a t of
A. C o w l e y , Aramaic Papyri of the Fifth Century B . C . ( 1 9 2 3 ) , p p . 2 0 4 - 4 8
( i n t r o d u c t i o n , text, t r a n s l a t i o n a n d n o t e s ) . F o r t r a n s l a t i o n s , see J . R .
H a r r i s i n A P O T H , p p . 7 7 7 - 9 ; F . C . C o n y b e a r e , J . R . H a r r i s a n d A.
S m i t h Lewis, The Story of Ahikar ( ' 1 9 1 3 ) , p p . 1 6 8 - 7 3 5 H . L . G i n s b e r g in
A N E T ( 1 9 5 0 , "^1955, ^1969), p p . 4 2 7 - 3 0 ; P . G r e l o t , ' L e s p r o v e r b e s
a r a m e e n s d ' A h i q a r ' , R B 68 ( 1 9 6 1 ) , p p . 1 7 8 - 9 4 ; Documents arameens
d'Egypte ( 1 9 7 2 ) , p p . 432—52; J . M . L i n d e n b e r g e r , The Aramaic Proverbs
of Ahiqar. Text with English Translation ( 1 9 8 3 ) .
(2) Syriac: A m o n g t h e l a t e r r e c e n s i o n s , the S y r i a c is o n e of t h e m o s t
i m p o r t a n t . It probably renders a n A r a m a i c text, a n d t h e translation
h a s b e e n assigned to t h e P a r t h i a n e r a (so A . T . O l m s t e a d , ' I n t e r
testamental Studies', J A O S 5 6 (1936), p . 2 4 3 ) ; b u t a possible Greek
original h a s a l s o b e e n p r o p o s e d (B. E. P e r r y , ' D e m e t r i u s of P h a l e r u m
a n d the A e s o p i c F a b l e s ' , Transactions Proc. Am. Philol. Ass. 93 ( 1 9 6 2 ) , p .
3 2 2 ) . T h e stylistic influence o f t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t P e s h i t t a h a s b e e n
n o t e d ( A . Yellin, ' N o t e s o n t h e S y r i a c V e r s i o n s of t h e S t o r y of A h i k a r ' ,
J Q j R 15 ( 1 9 2 4 / 5 ) , p p . 1 1 9 - 2 1 ) . T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t e d i t i o n s a r e J . R .
H a r r i s , The Story of Ahikar ( ^ 1 9 1 3 ) , p p . 9 9 - 1 2 7 ( t r a n s l . ) , 34 - 7 2 ( t e x t
= B M A d d . 7200, f. 114^"^; C a m b r i d g e A d d . 2020 ff. 66^-78*) a n d M .
H . G o s h e n - G o t t s t e i n , The Wisdom of Ahiqar ( 1 9 6 5 ) , r e p r i n t i n g H a r r i s ' s
t e x t a n d t h o s e p u b l i s h e d by F . N a u , ' D o c u m e n t s relatifs a A h i q a r ' ,
R e v . O r . C h r e t . 2 1 ( 1 9 1 8 / 1 9 ) , p p . 149—55, 2 7 3 - 3 0 7 . F o r a n E n g l i s h
t r a n s l a t i o n , s e e J . R . H a r r i s , The Story of Ahikar, p p . 9 9 - 1 2 7 ; A P O T I I ,
p p . 724—76; F r e n c h t r a n s l a t i o n in F . N a u , op. cit.; I t a l i a n t r a n s l a t i o n ,
F. P e n n a c h i e t t i , in P . S a c c h i ( e d . ) , Apocrifi dell'Antico Testamento ( 1 9 8 1 ) ,
pp. 65-95. A neo-Syriac version, m a d e from t h e Arabic, has b e e n
p u b l i s h e d b y M . L i d z b a r s k i , Die neuaramdischen Handschriften der
koniglichen Bibliothek zu Berlin ( 1 8 9 6 ) , I, p p . 3 - 7 7 (text) ; I I , p p . 3—41
(translation).
(3) Arabic: T h e A r a b i c A h i q a r h a s b e e n t r a n s l a t e d f r o m t h e S y r i a c .
T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t e d i t i o n s a r e b y M . L i d z b a r s k i , Die neuaramdischen
14. Cf. W. Spiegelberg, 'Achikar in einem demotischen T e x t e der romischen

Kaiserzeit', O L Z 33 (1930), col. 9 6 1 ; K . T. Zanzich, 'Demotische Fragmente zum
Achikar R o m a n ' , H. Franke et al. (eds.). Folia Rara (1976), pp. 180-5.
Handschriften I (i8g4) ; A. Smith Lewis, The Story of Ahiqar (1898, ' 1 9 1 3 ) ,

p p . 1 - 3 2 (for the s o u r c e s , see p p . x x i i i - i v ) , cf. A P O T I I , p p . 7 2 4 - 7 6 ; L.
L e r o y , ' L ' h i s t o i r e d ' H a i k a r le sage d ' a p r e s les m a n u s c r i t s a r a b e s 3 6 3 7 et
3 6 5 6 d e P a r i s ' , R e v . O r . C h r e t . 1 3 (1908), p p . 367—88. T h e s t o r y , i n a
l a r g e l y r e s h a p e d f o r m , is p a r t of t h e Thousand and One Nights (cf. S m e n d ,
op. cit., p p . 5 9 - 6 1 ; D e n i s , op. cit., p p . 2 0 6 - 7 ; Graf, Geschichte
christlicher arabischer Literatur I ( 1 9 4 4 ) , p p . 2 1 7 - 1 9 ) .
(4) Ethiopic: T r a n s l a t e d from t h e A r a b i c , a n u m b e r o f a x i o m s
a t t r i b u t e d to H a i k a r a r e c o n t a i n e d in The Book of the Wise Philosophers;
s e e C. H . C o r n i l l , Das Buch der weisen Philosophen ( 1 8 7 5 ) , p p . 19—21,
40—4. F o r o t h e r t r a n s l a t i o n s , see J . R . H a r r i s , op. cit., p p . 1 2 8 - 9 ( A P O T
I I , p . 7 7 7 ) ; F. N a u , Histoire et sagesse d'Ahikar I'Assyrien (1909, p p .
8 9 - 9 2 ; F. A l t h e i m a n d R . S t i e h l , ' M a s h a f a falasfa t a b i b a n ' , in M .
B l a c k a n d G . F o h r e r (eds.). In Memoriam Paul Kahle (1968), p p . 3 - 9 .
(5) Armenian: A n a b r i d g e d v e r s i o n from t h e A r a b i c d a t e s to t h e t e n t h
c e n t u r y . It h a s b e e n e d i t e d b y F . C. C o n y b e a r e , The Story of Ahikar
(1898, ^ 1 9 1 3 ) , p p . 2 4 - 5 5 ( t r a n s l a t i o n ) , p p . 1 2 5 - 6 2 ( t e x t ) . F o r o t h e r
t r a n s l a t i o n s , see P . V e t t e r , ' D a s B u c h T o b i a s u n d die A c h i k a r - S a g e ' ,
T h . Q j a a r t a l s c h r . 86 (1904), p p . 3 3 0 - 6 4 ; F . N a u , op. cit., p p . 9 2 - 8 ;
Conybeare, A P O T II, p p . 724-76.
(6) Slavonic: T r a n s l a t e d from t h e G r e e k , it is a v a i l a b l e i n V . V .
J a g i c ' s e d i t i o n : ' D e r weise A k y r i o s ' , B y z . Z . i ( 1 8 9 2 ) , p p . 107—26.
E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n by A . S m i t h L e w i s i n The Story of Ahikar, p p . 1—23.
F r e n c h t r a n s l a t i o n , F. N a u , op. cit., p p . 9 8 - 1 0 2 .
(7) Rumanian: A l s o r e n d e r e d f r o m t h e S l a v o n i c , this version has b e e n
p u b l i s h e d b y M . G a s t e r , Chrestomathie roumaine I I , p p . 1 3 4 - 6 ( ' H i s t o i r e
d ' A r g h i r et d e s o n n e v e u A n a d a m ' ) ; ' C o n t r i b u t i o n s to t h e H i s t o r y of
A h i k a r a n d N a d a n ' , J R O S 3 2 (1900), p p . 3 0 1 - 1 9 .
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Wissowa, G., 'Akikaros', RE I , c. 1168.
Streck, M . , 'Akikaros', R E suppl. I, cols. 43—4.
Ginzberg, L., 'Ahikar', J E I, p p . 287-90.
Vetter, P . , Das Buch Tobias und die Achikar-Sage', T h . Quartalschr. 86 (1904), pp.
321-64, 5 1 2 - 3 9 ; 8 7 (1905), 321-70, 497-546.
Smend, R., Alter und Herkunft des Achikar-Romans und sein Verhdltnis zu Aesop (1908).
Meyer, E . , Der Papyrusfundvon Elephantine (^1912), p p . 98—128.
Noldeke, Th., Untersuchungen zum Achikar-Roman (1913).
S t u m m e r , F., Der kritische Wert der altaramdischen Achikartexte aus Elephantine (1914).
Meissner, B., Das Mdrchen vom weisen Achikar (1917).
Pirot, L., 'Ahikar', DBS I (1928), cols. 197-207.
Altheim, F., a n d R. Stiehl, Die aramdische Sprache unter den Achaimeniden II (i960), pp.
182-95 ('Achikar und T o b i t ' ) .
Kraeling, E. G., 'Ahikar, Book of, I D B I (1962), p p . 6 8 - 9 .
Denis, I P G A T , p p . 201-14.
M c K a n e , W., Proverbs: A JVew Approach (1970) ['Ahikar', p p . 156-82].
G u t m a n , Y . , ' A h i k a r , Book of, E n c . J u d . i ( i 9 7 i ) , c o l s . 4 6 0 - 1 .

Greenfield, J . C., 'The Background a n d Parallel to a Proverb of Ahiqar', Hommages d
Andre Dupont-Sommer ( 1 9 7 1 ) , pp. 4 9 - 5 9 .
Niditch, S., and D o r a n , R., 'The Success Story of t h e Wise Courtier: A Formal
A p p r o a c h ' , J B L 96 ( 1 9 7 7 ) , pp. 1 7 9 - 9 3 .
Pennachietti, F., 'Storia e massime di Achicar', in P. Sacchi (ed.), Apocrifi deU'Antico
Testamento ( 1 9 8 1 ) , p p . 5 1 - 9 5 (full bibHography).
Chariesworth, J . H . , The Pseudepigrapha and Modern Research with a Supplement ( 1 9 8 1 ) , pp.
75-7, 273.
Greenfield, J . C , 'Ahiqar in t h e Book of T o b i t ' , De la TSrah au Messie: Melanges Henri
Gazelles ( i 9 8 1 ) , pp. 3 2 9 - 3 6 .
V. Prophetic-Apocalyptic P s e u d e p i g r a p h a
Bibliography
Hilgenfeld, A., Die jiidische Apokalyptik in ihrer geschichtlichen Entwicklung (1857).
Gunkel, H . , Schdpfung und Chaos in Urzeit und Endzeit (1895) •
Charles, R . H., 'Apocalypdc Literature', EB I (1899), cols. 213-50.
Torrey, C . C , 'Apocalypse', J E I (1901), p p . 669-75.
Bousset, W., Die jiidische Apokalyptik, ihre religionsgeschichtliche Herkunft und ihre Bedeutung fiir
das Neue Testament (1903).
Volz, P., Jiidische Eschatologie von Daniel bis Akiba (1903).
Bousset, W., Die Religion des Judentums im spdthellenistischen êitalter (1906, ^1926 rev. H.
Gressmann, '^1966).
L a g r a n g e , M. J . , Le messianisme chez les Juifs (1909).
Burkitt, F . C, Jewish and Christian Apocalypses (1914).
Volz, P., Die Eschatologie der judischen Gemeinde im neutestamentlichen êitalter (1934).
Rowley, H . H., The Relevance of Apocalyptic (1944).
Idem, Jewish Apocalyptic and the Dead Sea Scrolls (1957) •
Bloch, J., On the Apocalyptic in Judaism (1952).
Russell, D . S., The Method and Message of Jewish Apocalyptic (1964).
H r u b y , K . , 'L'influence des apocalypses sur I'eschatologie judeo-chrctienne'. Or. Syr. 11
(1966), pp. 291-320.
Betz, H. D., ' Z u m Problem des religionsgeschichtlichen Verstandnisses der Apokalyptik',
Z T K 63 (1966), p p . 391-409.
Osten-Sacken, P . von der. Die Apokalyptik im ihren Verhdltnis zu Prophetic und Weisheit
(i969)'
Schmidt, J . M., Die jiidische Apokalyptik: Die Geschichte ihrer Erforschung von den Anfangen bis
ZU den Textfunden von Qumran (1969, 1976).
Schreiner, J., Alttestamentlich-jiidische Apokalyptik: Eine Einfiihrung (1969).
Koch, K., Ratios vor der Apokalyptik (1970); E . T . The Rediscovery of Apocalyptic (1970).
Flusser, D . , 'Apocalypse', E n c . J u d . 3 (1971), cols. 179-81.
Hanson, P. D., 'Jewish Apocalyptic against its Near Eastern Environment', R B 78
(1971), pp. 31-58.
Schmithals, W., Die Apokalyptik: Einfiihrung und Deutung (1973).
Collins, J . J., 'Apocalyptic Eschatology as Transcendence of Death', C B Q 36 (1974), pp.
21-43.
Delcor, M . , 'Le milieu d'origine de I'apocalypdque juive', in W . C. v a n U n n i k (ed.). La
literature juive entre Tenach et Mischna (1974), p p . 101-17.
Saldarini, A. J., 'Apocalyptic and Rabbinic Literature', CBQ,37 (1975), pp. 348-58.
Barr, J., 'Jewish Apocalyptic i n Recent Scholarly Study', BJRL 58 (1975), p p . 9-35-
H a n s o n , P. D., The Dawn of Apocalyptic (1975).
Idem, 'Prolegomena to the Study o f j e w i s h Apocalyptic', in F . M. Cross et al. (eds.),
Magnalia Dei (1976), p p . 389-413.
Idem, 'Apocalypse, Genre', IDBS (1976), p p . 27-8 ; 'Apocalypticism', ibid., p p . 28-34.
Collins, J . J., 'Cosmos and S a l v a t i o n : Jewish Wisdom a n d Apocalypse in the Hellenistic
A g e ' , H R 17 (1977), pp. 121-42.
Idem, The Apocalyptic Vision of The Book of Daniel (1977).
Goppens, J., 'L'apocalyptique, son dossier, ses criteres, ses elements constitutifs, sa p o r t e e
neotestamentaire', E T h L 53 (1977), p p . 1-23.
V. Prophetic-Apocalyptic Pseudepigrapha 241
Saldarini, A. J., ' T h e Uses of A p o c a l y p d c i n the Mishna a n d T o s e p h t a ' , CBQ^39 (1977),

pp.396-409.
Gruenwald, I., Apocalyptic and Merkavah Mysticism (1978).
Idem, 'Jewish Apocalyptic Literature', A N R W II 19.i (1979), p p . 8 9 - 1 1 8 .
Chariesworth, J. H . , 'Apocalyptic' (bibliography), P M R S , pp. 4 6 - 5 2 , 253-9.
Koch, K., and J . M . Schmidt (eds.), Apokalyptik [Wege d e r Forschung, 365] (1982).
Rowland, C , The Open Heaven: A Study of Apocalyptic in Judaism and Early Christianity
(1982).
Hellhoim, D . {td.). Apocalypticism in the Mediterranean World and the JVear East {jg8'^).
Hanson, P . D. (ed.). Visionaries and their Apocalypses (1983).
Collins, J . J . , The Apocalyptic Imagination (1984).
T h e H t e r a r y p r o d u c t i o n s e x a m i n e d so far all c o r r e s p o n d m o r e o r less in

form to t h e p r o t o t y p e s i n t h e o l d e r H t e r a t u r e w h i c h b e c a m e c a n o n i c a l ,
r e m a i n i n g v e r y close t o it i n s p i r i t a n d c o n t e n t . A n e w t y p e of
c o m p o s i t i o n , a n d t h e b e s t - l o v e d a n d m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l i n this p e r i o d , is
the prophetic-apocalyptic p s e u d e p i g r a p h a . W h e r e a s the biblical
p r o p h e t s in their t e a c h i n g s a n d a d m o n i t i o n s a d d r e s s e d t h e m s e l v e s
d i r e c t l y to t h e p e o p l e , p r i m a r i l y b y m e a n s of t h e s p o k e n w o r d , a n d o n l y
s e c o n d a r i l y a n d occasionaUy t h r o u g h t h e w r i t t e n w o r d , n o w , t h o s e w h o
wished to i n f l u e n c e t h e i r c o n t e m p o r a r i e s d o n o t step f o r w a r d
t h e m s e l v e s , b u t s p e a k t o the n a t i o n on t h e b o r r o w e d a u t h o r i t y of g r e a t
n a m e s of t h e p a s t — E n o c h , M o s e s , B a r u c h , E z r a e t c . — i n the
expectation t h a t their influence will be that m u c h m o r e certain a n d
powerful.
T h e c h o i c e of p s e u d o n y m i t y a n d p s e u d e p i g r a p h y reflects t h e l i t e r a r y
fashion of t h e age b o t h a m o n g J e w s a n d in t h e H e l l e n i s t i c w o r l d . ' T h e
p h e n o m e n o n is p r o m i n e n t a l r e a d y in t h e Bible. N o t o n l y a r e w h o l e
sections t h a t w e r e c o m p o s e d i n exilic a n d p o s t - e x i l i c t i m e s a s s i g n e d to
I s a i a h , w h o flourished i n t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y B . C . , b u t t h e P s a l t e r in
g e n e r a l , a n d a l a r g e n u m b e r of P s a l m s in p a r t i c u l a r , c l a i m D a v i d i c
a u t h o r s h i p , a n d collections s u c h a s P r o v e r b s , t h e S o n g o f S o n g s a n d , in
c r y p t i c a l l y p s e u d o n y m o u s m a n n e r , Ecclesiastes, a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the
t r a d i t i o n a l w i s d o m w r i t e r p a r e x c e l l e n c e . K i n g S o l o m o n . B u t i n the
d o m a i n of a p o c a l y p t i c i s m , w h e r e t h e c e n t r a l t h e m e is often the
r e v e l a t i o n of the u l t i m a t e t r i u m p h of j u s t i c e o v e r t h e w i c k e d s e c u l a r
p o w e r s , p s e u d o n y m o u s c l a n d e s t i n i t y serves a p r a c t i c a l p o l i t i c a l a i m by
c o n c e a l i n g t h e i d e n t i t y of t h e w r i t e r from h o s t i l e J e w i s h o r g e n t i l e
authorities.'
1. Cf M . Smith, 'Pseudepigraphy in the Israelite Literary T r a d i t i o n ' , in K . von Fritz

(ed.), Entretiens sur I'antiquite classique i8 (1972), p p . 191—227; M . Hengel, ' A n o n y m i t a t ,
Pseudepigraphic und "Literarische Falschung" i n der judisch-hellenistischen Literatur',
ibid., pp. 2 3 1 - 3 2 9 ; J . J . CoUins, 'Pseudonymity, Historical Reviews a n d the Genre of the
Reveladon of J o h n ' , C B Q , 19 (1977), pp. 329-43 ; C. R o w l a n d , The Open Heaven: A Study
of Apocalyptic in Judaism and Early Christianity (1982), pp. 61-70.
2. Cf I . G r u e n w a l d , 'Jewish Apocalyptic Literature', A N R W I I Principat 1 9 . i , pp.
97"9-
T h e s t a n d p o i n t o f p s e u d o n y m i t y is u s u a l l y m a i n t a i n e d w i t h skill. T h e
w r i t i n g s are c o m p o s e d as t h o u g h t h e y w e r e r e a l l y a i m e d a t t h e
c o n t e m p o r a r i e s of t h e p e r s o n s c o n c e r n e d . B u t t h e m e s s a g e c o n v e y e d to
t h e s e fictitious c o n t e m p o r a r i e s is of m o r e i n t e r e s t to t h e c o n t e m p o r a r i e s
of t h e r e a l a u t h o r . F r o m t h e artificial v i e w p o i n t t h a t is a d o p t e d ,
g l i m p s e s are g i v e n i n t o t h e f u t u r e . T h e c o m i n g h i s t o r y of I s r a e l a n d t h e
w o r l d is p r e d i c t e d i n d e t a i l , b u t i n v a r i a b l y so t h a t t h e p r o p h e c y b r e a k s
off in t h e r e a l a u t h o r ' s lifetime a n d j u d g e m e n t as w e l l a s the d a w n of
r e d e m p t i o n is seen to a p p l y t o t h a t v e r y a g e , to w a r n s i n n e r s a n d to
c o m f o r t a n d e n c o u r a g e t h e p i o u s . T h e f a c t t h a t t h e alleged p r o p h e c i e s
h a v e a l r e a d y b e e n fulfilled in h i s t o r y serves t o a u t h e n t i c a t e t h e
p r o p h e t ; t h e r e will be a l l t h e m o r e c o n f i d e n c e in w h a t is p r e d i c t e d for
t h e f u t u r e of h i s r e a l c o n t e m p o r a r i e s .
T h e c o n t e n t s of t h e p r o p h e t i c p s e u d e p i g r a p h a a r e v e r y v a r i e d . A s in
t h e o l d e r p r o p h e t i c b o o k s , t w o e l e m e n t s u s u a l l y g o h a n d in h a n d , i.e.,
i n s t r u c t i o n a n d e x h o r t a t i o n . B u t o n t h e w h o l e , visions a n d t h e
r e v e l a t i o n of d i v i n e secrets p r e d o m i n a t e . A n d y e t all these w r i t i n g s
belong to t h e same category. I n accordance with their hortatory
p u r p o s e , the r e v e l a t i o n s a r e p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e h i s t o r y of t h e
J e w i s h p e o p l e a n d of m a n k i n d in g e n e r a l , b u t s e c o n d a r i l y a l s o w i t h
p r o b l e m s of r e l i g i o u s d o c t r i n e , such as t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n sin a n d
affliction on t h e o n e h a n d , a n d r i g h t e o u s n e s s a n d h a p p i n e s s o n t h e
o t h e r . I n f o r m a t i o n is a l s o g i v e n a b o u t t h e m y s t e r i e s o f n a t u r e , t h e
s u p e r n a t u r a l , h e a v e n l y o r i g i n a n d b a c k g r o u n d of n a t u r a l e a r t h l y
e v e n t s . O n a l l t h e s e m a t t e r s , w h e t h e r closely or d i s t a n t l y c o n n e c t e d
w i t h t h e religious life, t h e t e a c h i n g g i v e n c l a i m s to b e a u t h e n t i c .
T h e form in w h i c h these i n s t r u c t i o n s a r e e x p r e s s e d is t h a t of
a p o c a l y p t i c . ^ T h e y a p p e a r t h r o u g h o u t as s u p e r n a t u r a l revelations
3. T h e concept has been the subject of m u c h a r g u m e n t . In the strict sense it designates

all that pertains to t h e literary genre of apocalyptic. T a k e n more broadly, however,
apocalyptic can apply t o a m o d e of thought, a religious tendency, regularly expressed in
apocalypses, b u t capable also of being included i n other types of literature. Cf J a m e s
Barr, Jewish Apocalyptic in Recent Scholarly Study', B J R L 58 (1975), pp. 15-16. O n
the word itself, see M. Smith, ' O n t h e History oiAnOKAAYnTQ and AnOKAAYTir,
in D . Hellhoim (ed.), Apocalypticism (1983), p p . 9 - 2 0 . T h e r e is good reason for
distinguishing further 'apocalypdc' from 'messianic' because the former kind of
eschatology is conceivable with or without a christological figure. For a n analysis of the
notions of'apocalyptic', 'apocalypse' and 'eschatology', see C. R o w l a n d , The Open Heaven
(1982), esp. 23-72. Rowland differendates correctly between apocalypdc a n d eschato
logy, characterizing t h e former as revelation of heavenly mysteries, the latter as concern
for the future age. But i t is clearly undeniable that the flowering of apocalyptic occurred
during a n age of eschatological enthusiasm. T h e collective volume edited by D . Hellhoim,
Apocalypticism (1983), contains a n u m b e r of important essays o n apocalypticism in the
Bible (J. Carmignac, pp. 163-70), at Q u m r a n (M. Philonenko, pp. 2 1 1 - 1 8 ; H .
Stegemann, pp. 495-530), in Palestinian J u d a i s m (E. P . Sanders, p p . 447-59) a n d in
Hellenistic Judaism ( J . J . Collins, pp. 531-48).
i m p a r t e d by t h e m o u t h of t h o s e m e n of G o d i n w h o s e n a m e s t h e
w r i t i n g s a r e i s s u e d . A s p e c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f this l a t e r ' a p o c a l y p t i c ' ,
c o m p a r e d w i t h m u c h of t h e o l d e r g e n u i n e p r o p h e c y , is t h a t i t gives its
r e v e l a t i o n s m y s t e r i o u s l y a n d e n i g m a t i c a l l y . W h a t is to be c o m m u n i
c a t e d is w r a p p e d i n p a r a b l e s a n d s y m b o l s so t h a t t h e c o n t e n t c a n o n l y
be c o n j e c t u r e d . Y e t t h e e x t e n t o f the disguise v a r i e s . S o m e t i m e s it
consists m e r e l y in the a u t h o r n e g l e c t i n g t o m e n t i o n t h e n a m e s of
persons o t h e r w i s e c l e a r l y d e s c r i b e d . S o m e t i m e s t h e e n t i r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
is s y m b o l i c a l . P e r s o n s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d in the g u i s e o f a n i m a l s , e v e n t s in
h u m a n h i s t o r y in t h e guise o f n a t u r a l o c c u r r e n c e s . I f a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
is t h e n a d d e d , this is as a r u l e o n l y a l i g h t e r f o r m , n o t a s o l u t i o n , of t h e
puzzle.
T h e i m a g e s t h e m s e l v e s a r e n o t a l w a y s t h e free c r e a t i o n s of the
author. T h e y frequently inherit traditional concepts which a r e merely
r e m o d e l l e d a n d m a d e t o s e r v e t h e w r i t e r ' s p u r p o s e . O c c a s i o n a l l y , the
rudimentary remains of p a g a n mythology and other ancient near-
e a s t e r n influences c a n b e r e c o g n i z e d in them."^
M o s t of t h e s e w r i t i n g s w e r e o c c a s i o n e d by t i m e s of p a r t i c u l a r distress
a n d h a r d s h i p , or b y t h e low c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f the p e o p l e in g e n e r a l . It
was the contradiction b e t w e e n ideal a n d reality, between promises
w h i c h t h e J e w s b e l i e v e d they h a d r e c e i v e d f r o m G o d , a n d t h e i r p r e s e n t
s u b j u g a t i o n a n d p e r s e c u t i o n b y g e n t i l e p o w e r s , it w a s t h i s c o n t r a d i c t i o n
t h a t i n d u c e d t h e a u t h o r s to w r i t e . E v e n w h e n t h e r e w a s no i m m e d i a t e
h a r d s h i p o r o p p r e s s i o n , a pessimistic a s s e s s m e n t o f affairs still
c o n s t i t u t e d t h e m o t i v e for w r i t i n g . T h e existing s i t u a t i o n , t h e p r e s e n t
c o n d i t i o n of t h e c h o s e n p e o p l e , s t o o d i n g l a r i n g c o n t r a s t to t h e i r t r u e
d e s t i n y . A c o m p l e t e r e v o l u t i o n m u s t c o m e , a n d s o o n . S u c h is the
c o n v i c t i o n e x p r e s s e d i n all t h e s e w r i t i n g s . T h e y therefore o w e t h e i r
i n c e p t i o n o n the o n e h a n d t o a g l o o m y a p p r a i s a l of t h e p r e s e n t t i m e ,
a n d o n t h e o t h e r t o a v e r y e n e r g e t i c faith in t h e n a t i o n ' s g l o r i o u s f u t u r e .
A n d t h e i r p u r p o s e is t o a w a k e n a n d a n i m a t e this faith in o t h e r s . I t is
n o t a q u e s t i o n of d e s p a i r i n g , b u t o f h o l d i n g fast t o the belief t h a t G o d
will l e a d his p e o p l e , t h r o u g h all t h e m i s f o r t u n e s w h i c h h e s e n d s t o test
a n d purify t h e m , t o b r i g h t n e s s a n d g l o r y . T h i s f a i t h is t o c o m f o r t a n d
e n c o u r a g e t h e p e o p l e i n the suflTerings o f the p r e s e n t t i m e . B u t i n a s m u c h
a s this r e v e r s a l is p r o c l a i m e d as close a n d i m m i n e n t , it is m e a n t also to
serve a s a w a r n i n g to s i n n e r s to t u r n w h i l s t t h e r e is still t i m e . F o r the
j u d g e m e n t is i n e x o r a b l e ; t o o n e it b r i n g s r e d e m p t i o n , t o a n o t h e r
destruction.
4. Cf. H. Gunkel, Schopfung und Chaos in Urzeit und Endzeit (1895); P. D . Hanson,?
P'Jewish Apocalyptic against its N e a r Eastern E n v i r o n m e n t ' , R B 78 (1971), p p . 31—58; J.
j . Collins, 'Jewish Apocalyptic against its Hellenistic N e a r - E a s t e r n Environment',
B A S O R 220 (1975), p p . 2 7 - 3 6 ; P. D . H a n s o n , 'Apocalypticism', I D B S (1976), pp. 31-2 ;
W . G. L a m b e r t , The Background of Jewish Apocalyptic (1978).
T h e a c t u a l effect of t h e s e e n t h u s i a s t i c p r o c l a m a t i o n s w a s o b v i o u s l y
s t r o n g a n d e n d u r i n g . T h r o u g h t h e m , e s c h a t o l o g i c a l or m e s s i a n i c h o p e
received new life; t h r o u g h t h e m , t h e n a t i o n w a s fortified in t h e faith
t h a t it h a d b e e n called, n o t t o serve, b u t t o r u l e . F o r this very r e a s o n ,
a p o c a l y p t i c i s m p l a y e d a n essential p a r t i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of
P a l e s t i n i a n J e w i s h politics. F r o m t h e c e n s u s of Q u i r i n i u s w h e r e b y
J u d a e a w a s p l a c e d u n d e r d i r e c t R o m a n c o n t r o l , the r e v o l u t i o n a r y
t e n d e n c y a m o n g s t t h e p e o p l e g r e w t h r o u g h o u t the y e a r s u n t i l i t finally
led to t h e revolt of A . D . 66. T h i s process, a n i m a t e d b y r e l i g i o u s ,
political, social a n d e c o n o m i c m o t i v e s , w a s s t r e n g t h e n e d a n d a c c e l e r
a t e d by a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e .
T h e v i e w p o i n t i n all these w r i t i n g s is essentially t h e c o r r e c t J e w i s h
v i e w p o i n t . T h e y e x h o r t to a G o d - f e a r i n g c h a n g e of c o n d u c t in
a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e n o r m of t h e S c r i p t u r e s , a n d d e p l o r e t h e lawlessness
t h a t manifests itself h e r e a n d t h e r e . Y e t it is n o t t h e J u d a i s m of t h e
P h a r i s a i c T o r a h s c h o l a r s t h a t is e x p r e s s e d h e r e . T h e m a i n e m p h a s i s is
p l a c e d , n o t o n w h a t the p e o p l e h a v e to d o , b u t on w h a t is in s t o r e for
t h e m , i.e. on w h a t t h e y h a v e t o e x p e c t , a n d h o w the f u t u r e s h o u l d aflfect
their present disposition. In t h e realm of c o n d u c t as such, things a r e
t a k e n b y a n d l a r g e w i t h o u t a n y special w e i g h t b e i n g a t t a c h e d t o f o r m a l
c o r r e c t n e s s . I n the p r o c e s s , q u i t e a few p e c u l i a r i t i e s a r e t o be f o u n d , as
is t o be e x p e c t e d in s u c h p r o d u c t s of lofty r e l i g i o u s e n t h u s i a s m . T h e a c t u a l
circles from w h i c h t h e s e w r i t i n g s m a y h a v e e m a n a t e d n e v e r t h e l e s s
c a n n o t b e n a m e d w i t h a n y c o n f i d e n c e . T h e Q i a m r a n discoveries h a v e
c o n f i r m e d earlier s u s p i c i o n s c o n c e r n i n g a d e f i n i t e link b e t w e e n t h i s t y p e
of l i t e r a t u r e a n d Essenism.^ H o w e v e r , a l t h o u g h the caves h a v e y i e l d e d
a n u m b e r of f r a g m e n t s o f a p r o p h e t i c o - a p o c a l y p t i c n a t u r e (see b e l o w ,
p p . 306—7), s e v e r a l m a j o r c o m p o s i t i o n s b e l o n g i n g to this class a r e
a b s e n t from t h e D e a d S e a scrolls. T h e h t e r a t u r e u n d e r r e v i e w c a n n o t
be identified a s the m o n o p o l y of a single s c h o o l , b u t as t h e fruit of t h e
spirit of a n age.^
5. Cf. in particular A. Dupont-Sommer, The Essene Writings from Qumran (1961). O n the
relationship between the Essenes and t h e Q u m r a n c o m m u n i t y , see vol. I I , pp. 575-85.
6. It has been argued t h a t anonymous or pseudonymous prophecy reflects the
anti-prophetic tendency of so-called official J u d a i s m . But, whilst the exdnction of the
spirit of prophecy is commonly asserted in rabbinic circles in the post-destruction era (cf
tSot. 13:2; bSoi. 48b), belief in, and constant expectation of, prophetic, charismatic a n d
miraculous phenomena r e m a i n e d p a r t of popular religion. Cf G. Vermes, Jesus the Jew
(1973)) PP- 5 8 - 8 2 ; J. B. Segal, 'Popular Religion i n Ancient Israel', J J S 27 (1976), p p .
1-22. Leaders known as prophets found an easy following in t h e first century A.D. C f
Ant. XX 5, I (97) : T h e u d a s stated that he was a prophet—iTpo<f>iJTris yap eXeyev etvai; cf
Acts 5:36. Ant. XX 8, 6 ( 1 6 9 ) : T h e Egyptian declared that he was a prophet—Trpo^^rrj?
eivai Xeycov; cf B.J. ii 13, 5 ( 2 6 1 ) ; Acts 21:38. See especially Ant. xx 8, 6 (169); B.J. ii
13, 4 (259) ; vi 5, 2 (285). It is noteworthy t h a t w h e n Jesus son of Ananias persisted in
uttering prophetic cries in the Temple in A . D . 62, the Jewish dpxovTes and Josephus
himself suspected that h e was acting under a s u p e r n a t u r a l impulse {Saip-ovtatrepov TO
/ . 77?^ Book of Daniel

T h e oldest a n d m o s t o r i g i n a l o f t h e w r i t i n g s b e l o n g i n g to this
g r o u p — t h e p r o t o t y p e i n d e e d of t h e l a t e r o n e s — i s t h e c a n o n i c a l B o o k
of D a n i e l . T h e u n k n o w n a u t h o r of this a p o c a l y p s e c r e a t e d t h e forms in
w h i c h s u b s e q u e n t w r i t e r s e x p r e s s e d t h e m s e l v e s . T h e b o o k is t h e d i r e c t
p r o d u c t of t h e M a c c a b a e a n s t r u g g l e s , b o r n i n t h e v e r y m i d s t of t h e m .
E v e n as the s t o r m s of b a t t l e b r e a k a r o u n d h i m , t h e a u t h o r seeks to
e n c o u r a g e a n d console h i s fellow-believers w i t h t h e p r o m i s e o f s p e e d y
deliverance.
T h e b o o k falls i n t o t w o p a r t s . T h e first half ( c h a p t e r s 1-6) c o m p r i s e s
a s t r i n g of p a r a e n e t i c s t o r i e s ; the s e c o n d ( c h a p t e r s 7 - 1 2 ) , a series of
p r o p h e t i c visions. C h a p t e r i r e c o u n t s h o w t h e y o u n g D a n i e l w a s
e d u c a t e d t o g e t h e r w i t h t h r e e c o m p a n i o n s a t the c o u r t of N e b u c h a d
n e z z a r , k i n g o f B a b y l o n . I n o r d e r n o t to b e defiled b y n o n - J e w i s h food,
t h e four y o u t h s refuse t o eat t h e f a r e p r o v i d e d by t h e k i n g a n d n o u r i s h
t h e m s e l v e s i n s t e a d o n v e g e t a b l e s a n d w a t e r . I n s p i t e of this, t h e y l o o k
b e t t e r t h a n t h e o t h e r y o u n g m e n w h o p a r t a k e of t h e r o y a l food. T h e
p a r a e n e t i c a i m of this s t o r y is i m m e d i a t e l y c l e a r . I n c h a p t e r 2, K i n g
N e b u c h a d n e z z a r h a s a d r e a m , a n d d e m a n d s t h a t t h e wise m e n tell h i m
its c o n t e n t as well a s its i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . N o n e o f t h e n a t i v e sages is a b l e
to d o s o . O n l y D a n i e l c a n d o w h a t is a s k e d . H e is t h e r e f o r e r i c h l y
r e w a r d e d b y the king a n d a p p o i n t e d chief of a l l t h e wise m e n in
B a b y l o n . A c c o r d i n g to t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e d r e a m , t h e k i n g d o m of
N e b u c h a d n e z z a r will b e followed b y t h r e e o t h e r s , t h e l a s t of w h i c h , t h e
G r e e k k i n g d o m , will b e 'split' ( i n t o t h a t o f t h e P t o l e m i e s a n d t h e
Seleucids) a n d will b e c r u s h e d b y t h e h a n d o f G o d . C h a p t e r 3:
N e b u c h a d n e z z a r erects a g o l d e n i m a g e a n d d e m a n d s t h a t it be
w o r s h i p p e d . W h e n D a n i e l ' s t h r e e c o m p a n i o n s refuse t o c o m p l y , t h e y
a r e cast i n t o a fiery f u r n a c e , b u t r e m a i n t h e r e u n i n j u r e d , so t h a t
N e b u c h a d n e z z a r h i m s e l f p e r c e i v e s his folly a n d p r o m o t e s t h e t h r e e
y o u n g m e n t o h i g h h o n o u r s . C h a p t e r 4 : N e b u c h a d n e z z a r relates i n a n
edict h o w h e was a t t a c k e d b y m a d n e s s in p u n i s h m e n t for h i s godless
a r r o g a n c e , b u t t h a t as s o o n a s h e h o n o u r e d G o d h e was r e s t o r e d t o his
former g l o r y . C h a p t e r 5 : B e l s h a z z a r , k i n g o f B a b y l o n , son of
Nebuchadnezzar, prepares a sumptuous banquet a t which the Temple
Kivrfpa). Recognition, full or partial, of p r o p h e c y was therefore not restricted t o the

uneducated.
O n 'prophet' in Josephus, see J . Blenkinsopp, ' P r o p h e c y and Priesthood i n Josephus',
J J S 25 (1974), p p . 239-^2; D . E. A u n e , ' T h e Use o f / 7 P O < f / / 7 ' / / 2 ' i n J o s e p h u s ' , J B L loi
(•952), PP- 419—21. O n the notion of prophecy in the inter-Testamental era, see R.
Meyer, 'Prophetes', T D N T VT (1968), pp. 8 1 2 - 2 8 ; Vermes, Jesus the Jew, p p . 86-99. On
the holy spirit, sec H. Gunkel, Die Wirkungen des heiligen Geistes (1888); P. Schafer, Die
Vorstellung vom Heiligen Geist in der rabbinischen Literatur (1972).
vessels c a r r i e d a w a y b y h i s f a t h e r f r o m J e r u s a l e m a r e u s e d as d r i n k i n g
g o b l e t s . I n p u n i s h m e n t for this, he loses i n t h a t s a m e n i g h t his k i n g d o m
a n d his life. C h a p t e r 6 : D a r i u s t h e M e d e , t h e v i c t o r a n d successor of
B e l s h a z z a r , causes D a n i e l to b e t h r o w n i n t o t h e l i o n s ' d e n w h e n h e
p r a y s t o his G o d a g a i n s t the express p r o h i b i t i o n o f the k i n g , b u t h e
r e m a i n s q u i t e u n h a r m e d . D a r i u s in c o n s e q u e n c e perceives his folly, a n d
pubhshes a c o m m a n d that Daniel's God should be worshipped
throughout the whole realm.
I n t h e s e c o n d p a r t of t h e b o o k ( c h a p t e r s 7 - 1 2 ) all t h e visions a g r e e in
p r e d i c t i n g t h a t the last w o r l d k i n g d o m w i l l b e t h a t of t h e G r e e k s a n d
will c o m e to a final e n d in t h e godless r e i g n o f A n t i o c h u s E p i p h a n e s .
T h e history o f the P t o l e m a i c a n d S e l e u c i d d y n a s t i e s (for these are t h e
t w o t h a t are t o b e u n d e r s t o o d as t h e k i n g d o m of t h e n o r t h a n d t h e
k i n g d o m of t h e s o u t h ) , a n d of t h e i r i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s , is p r o p h e s i e d in
g r e a t d e t a i l , p a r t i c u l a r l y in t h e last vision ( c h a p t e r s 1 1 - 1 2 ) . T h e m o s t
s t r i k i n g f e a t u r e is t h a t t h e p r e d i c d o n b e c o m e s m o r e e x a c t a n d d e t a i l e d
t h e n e a r e r it a p p r o a c h e s t h e t i m e o f A n t i o c h u s E p i p h a n e s . T h e history
of this m o n a r c h is r e l a t e d w i t h the u t m o s t p r e c i s i o n w i t h o u t h i s n a m e
b e i n g so m u c h as m e n t i o n e d ( 1 1 : 2 1 ff'.). T h e a b r o g a t i o n o f J e w i s h
w o r s h i p is foretold, the p r o f a n a t i o n of t h e T e m p l e , the e r e c t i o n of a n
a l t a r for p a g a n sacrifice as well as t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e M a c c a b a e a n
u p r i s i n g ( 1 1 : 3 2 - 5 ) . H e r e , h o w e v e r , the p r o p h e c y s u d d e n l y b r e a k s off
a n d the a u t h o r a n t i c i p a t e s t h a t i m m e d i a t e l y after t h o s e b a t t l e s the e n d
will be u s h e r e d in a n d t h e k i n g d o m of G o d will d a w n . M o r e o v e r , i t is
n o t only in t h e e l e v e n t h c h a p t e r t h a t t h e p r o p h e c y c o m e s to a h a l t a t
this p o i n t ; t h e a u t h o r ' s h o r i z o n n e v e r e x t e n d s b e y o n d it, n o t e v e n in t h e
visions o f the four w o r l d k i n g d o m s o f B a b y l o n , the M e d e s , the P e r s i a n s
a n d the G r e e k s .
T h e u n i t y o f D a n i e l h a s b e e n m u c h d e b a t e d in m o d e r n s c h o l a r s h i p .
T h e w o r k as p r e s e r v e d i n the H e b r e w B i b l e i n d i c a t e s a twofold d u a l i t y .
T h e c o u r t tales ( c h a p t e r s 1-6) a r e n a r r a t e d in t h e t h i r d p e r s o n , w h e r e a s
D a n i e l ' s e s c h a t o l o g i c a l visions ( c h a p t e r s 7 - 1 2 ) a r e d e p i c t e d from a
B a b y l o n i a n v i e w p o i n t , a n d t o l d i n t h e first p e r s o n . L i n g u i s t i c a l l y ,
c h a p t e r s 1-2:4.3. a n d 8 - 1 2 h a v e s u r v i v e d in H e b r e w , w h i l e c h a p t e r s
2:413-7:28 a r e in A r a m a i c . S u c h a division is a t t e s t e d a l r e a d y in t h e
D a n i e l f r a g m e n t s f r o m Q u m r a n for D a n . 2:4 a n d 7 : 2 8 - 8 : 1 . ' W h i l s t t h e
a t t r i b u t i o n of all t w e l v e c h a p t e r s t o a single a u t h o r c o n t i n u e s to b e
m a i n t a i n e d , i t is t h e m a j o r i t y o p i n i o n t h a t t h e tales of t h e first h a l f of
the book, dating p r o b a b l y t o the third century B . C . , precede t h e
visions, a n d t h a t , i n c o n s e q u e n c e , t h e H e b r e w sections a r e m o r e r e c e n t
I . Cf. i Q D a n * in D J D I, p . 150, and 4 Q , D a n * and 4 Q , D a n ' ' according to RB 63

(1956),p. 58. See also J . J . Collins, The Apocalyptic Vision of the Book of Daniel (igyy), p. 7.
t h a n the Aramaic.^ In p a r t i c u l a r , D a n . i : i - 2 : 4 a , e n d i n g with the very

c o n v e n i e n t t r a n s i t i o n a l gloss, ' A n d the C h a l d e a n s said t o t h e k i n g in
Aramaic {IT'tt'lN)', is b e s t s e e n a s a n i n t r o d u c t i o n p r e f i x e d to t h e
A r a m a i c p o r t i o n s a t the s t a g e o f t h e final r e d a c t i o n .
I n v i e w of these facts, it is n o w a d m i t t e d b y all c r i t i c a l scholars t h a t
t h e a p o c a l y p t i c visions a n d , for t h o s e w h o c o n s i d e r t h e c o u r t tales as
p r e - e x i s t e n t , t h e r e d a c t i o n of t h e b o o k a s a w h o l e , d a t e t o t h e r e i g n of
A n t i o c h u s E p i p h a n e s , o r i n o r e precisely t o b e t w e e n 167 a n d 1 6 3 B . C ^ J if
n o t to 1 6 7 to 165 B . C . , since t h e r e - d e d i c a t i o n of t h e T e m p l e b y J u d a s
M a c c a b a e u s in 164 B . C . a p p e a r s t o b e b e y o n d t h e a u t h o r ' s field of
vision.^ S i n c e the c o u r t stories c o u l d "then b e r e a d a s c o n v e y i n g a
m e s s a g e for the g e n e r a t i o n of the H e l l e n i s t i c crisis, t h e w h o l e
c o m p o s i t i o n c o u l d serve as a t r a c t for t h e a u t h o r ' s g e n e r a t i o n .
T h e h i g h e s t e e m w h i c h t h e b o o k enjoyed a m o n g J e w s r i g h t from t h e
b e g i n n i n g is e v i d e n t f r o m t h e fact t h a t i t w a s a c c e p t e d i n t o t h e c a n o n .
E v e n t h e s o m e w h a t o l d e r b o o k of a p h o r i s m s b y J e s u s S i r a c h , w h i c h in
form a n d c o n t e n t is n e a r e r t o e a r l y H e b r e w l i t e r a t u r e t h a n D a n i e l , is
n o t p a r t of t h e biblical c a n o n . C l e a r l y , t h e r e a s o n i n b o t h cases is t h a t
t h e b o o k of J e s u s b e n S i r a w e n t o u t u n d e r its a u t h o r ' s t r u e n a m e , b u t
t h a t of D a n i e l u n d e r t h e n a m e of a n e a r l i e r a u t h o r i t y . T h e m o s t likely
r e a s o n w h y s u c h a late c o m p o s i t i o n s h o u l d h a v e b e e n g r a n t e d c a n o n i c a l
s t a t u s b y P a l e s t i n i a n J e w s is its usefulness in p r o v i d i n g a clear basis for
t h e d o c t r i n e o f r e s u r r e c t i o n ( D a n . 1 2 : 2 - 3 ) . T h e e l e v a t i o n of t h e w o r k to
t h e r a n k of S c r i p t u r e o c c u r r e d a t a s t a g e w h e n i t s r e d a c t i o n was still
fluctuating. T h e p r a y e r in 9 : 4 - 2 0 , t h o u g h p r o b a b l y a l a t e r a d d i t i o n
(Eissfeldt, Introduction, p . 5 2 9 ) , is p a r t of t h e H e b r e w text, b u t the
2. For the unity, see especially t h e numerous publications of H. H . Rowley i n the

bibliography below. F o r the duaUty, see e.g. J . A. M o n t g o m e r y , The Book of Daniel
(1927), p p . 9 2 - 9 ; J. J. Collins, op. cit., pp. 7 - 1 1 .
3. Cf Eissfeldt, Introduction, pp. 5 2 0 - 2 ; M o n t g o m e r y , op. cit., p. 96 (168-165 B.C.) ; O.
Ploger, Das Buch Daniel (1965), p. 2 9 ; N . Porteous, Daniel (1965), p . 70 (167-164 or
169-164 B . C . ) ; Nickelsburg, J L B B M , p. 90 (167-164 B.C.). According to L. F . H a r t m a n
a n d A. A . di Leila, The Book of Daniel (1978), the H e b r e w sections derive from an
Aramaic original, and the translator is responsible for the publication of t h e complete
work in a r o u n d 140 B.C. (p. 16). T h e weak point in this theory lies in the absence of any
attempt a t u p d a t i n g t h e story by alluding to the re-consecration of t h e sanctuary o r the
death of Andochus I V . T h e d a t i n g of Daniel to the age of Antiochus I V was first
proposed by t h e neo-Platonist writer Porphyry (died in c. A.D. 304) in Book X I I of his
Contra Christianas (cf A . von H a r n a c k , Porpkyrius 'Gegen die Christen' (1916), pp. 6 6 - 7 4 ) .
The aim of Porphyry was to prove t h a t t h e prophecies of Daniel were largely vaticinia ex
eventu. J e r o m e in the preface to his Daniel c o m m e n t a r y writes: ' C o n t r a prophetam
Danielem X I I librum scripsit Porphyrins, nolens e u m a b ipso cuius inscriptus est nomine
esse compositum, sed a q u o d a m q u i temporibus Antiochi qui appellatus est Epiphanes
fuerit in l u d a e a , et n o n tarn Danielem v e n t u r a dixisse, q u a m ilium n a r r a r e praeterita.
Denique quidquid usque ad A n t i o c h u m dixerit v e r a m historiam continere; siquid autem
ultra opinatus sit, q u i a futura nescierit, esse m e n t i t u m ' (PL 25, col. 491). See P . M.
(<asey, ' P o r p h y r y and the Origin of the Book of Daniel', J T h S t 27 (1976), p p . 15-33.
248 §32. J e w i s h L i t e r a t u r e i n H e b r e w o r A r a m a i c
v a r i o u s a d d i t i o n s ( P r a y e r of A z a r i a h , S o n g of t h e t h r e e y o u n g m e n in
t h e f u r n a c e , Bel a n d the D r a g o n , a n d S u s a n n a ) h a v e survived only in
t h e G r e e k A p o c r y p h a (cf. b e l o w , p p . 7 0 6 - 4 5 ) .
T h e first l i t e r a r y allusions to D a n i e l a r e c o n t a i n e d i n t h e oldest
S i b y l l i n e O r a c l e s (iii 3 9 6 - 4 0 0 ) , o n l y a few d e c a d e s later t h a n D a n i e l
(cf. b e l o w , p. 6 3 2 ) , a s well as in i M a c . 2:59-60 a n d B a r . i : 1 5 - 1 8 .
T h e earliest D a n i e l m a n u s c r i p t s c o m e from Q u m r a n C a v e s i , 4 a n d
6. F r a g m e n t s from i a n d 6Q^have b e e n published.'^ B u t C a v e 4 c o n t a i n s
t h r e e copies of the w o r k s a i d to be r e l a t i v e l y well p r e s e r v e d a n d y i e l d i n g
a c o n s i d e r a b l e p r o p o r t i o n of t h e book.^
I f F. M . Cross's p a l a e o g r a p h i c a l j u d g e m e n t is a c c e p t e d , o n e of t h e
Q u m r a n D a n i e l m a n u s c r i p t s b e l o n g s to t h e l a t e second c e n t u r y B . C ,
i.e. t o a n e p o c h t h a t is o n l y fifty y e a r s or s o m o r e r e c e n t t h a n t h e a c t u a l
c o m p o s i t i o n o f the b o o k . F o r further Q u m r a n m a t e r i a l classified as
P s e u d o - D a n i e l , i.e. b e l o n g i n g t o the D a n i e l l e cycle b u t a d d i t i o n a l to t h e
c a n o n i c a l a n d a p o c r y p h a l D a n i e l , see b e l o w , p p . 4 4 2 - 3 .
A s m a l l i n c i d e n t a l c o n t r i b u t i o n t o w a r d s the exegesis of D a n . 9:24—7
m a y be i n s e r t e d h e r e . T h e w r i t e r gives a n e x p l a n a t i o n o f the s e v e n t y
y e a r s of J e r e m i a h ( J e r . 2 5 : i i - i 2), i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e m as seventy w e e k s of
y e a r s (7 x 70). H e b r e a k s t h e m u p , t h a t is, i n t o 7 + 62 + i. H e c o u n t s
t h e first seven w e e k s of y e a r s (i.e. f o r t y - n i n e y e a r s ) , a s from the c o n t e x t
c a n be h a r d l y in d o u b t , from t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of J e r u s a l e m to t h e
a p p e a r a n c e of C y r u s , w h i c h is v e r y n e a r l y r i g h t ( 5 8 7 - 5 3 8 B . C ) . T h e
following sixty-two w e e k s of y e a r s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , he r e c k o n s from
t h e a p p e a r a n c e of C y r u s to h i s o w n d a y , a n d even m o r e precisely to
w h e n ' a n a n o i n t e d o n e shall b e cut off, b y w h i c h is p r o b a b l y m e a n t t h e
m u r d e r o f the h i g h p r i e s t O n i a s I I I i n 170 B . C H o w e v e r , w h e r e a s t h e r e
a r e only 368 y e a r s b e t w e e n 5 3 8 a n d 170 B . C , s i x t y - t w o w e e k s o f y e a r s
w o u l d a m o u n t to 4 3 4 y e a r s . T h e a u t h o r h a s t h e r e f o r e o v e r e s t i m a t e d t o
the extent of a b o u t seventy years. Conservative exegetes h a v e
c o n s i d e r e d this i m p o s s i b l e , a n d h a v e in c o n s e q u e n c e t r i e d by v a r i o u s
m e a n s t o by-pass t h e o n l y e x p l a n a t i o n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e c o n t e x t . B u t
t h a t s u c h an e r r o r c a n r e a l l y h a p p e n is p r o v e d m o s t strikingly by t h e
fact t h a t J o s e p h u s , for e x a m p l e , m a k e s a similar m i s t a k e , as a p p e a r s
f r o m t h e following t h r e e passages, ( i ) I n B.J. v i 4, 8 (270), he r e c k o n s
639 y e a r s a n d 45 d a y s f r o m t h e second y e a r of C y r u s to t h e d e s t r u c t i o n
of J e r u s a l e m u n d e r V e s p a s i a n ( A . D . 70). A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e s e c o n d y e a r
4. Cf. D . Barthelemy, D J D I , pp. 150-2 (Dan. 1:10-17; 2:2-6; 3:22-30); M . Baillet,

D J D I I I , p . 114 (Dan. 10:8-16; 11:33-8 a n d possibly 8:16-17, 20-1). See also J. C.
Trever, 'Completion of t h e Publication of some Fragments from Q u m r a n Cave I', R Q 5
(1963/4), p p . 323-44.
5. F. M . Cross, 'Le travail d'edition des fragments manuscrits de Q u m r a n ' , RB 63
(1956), p. 58. 4Q_Dan^ includes, a m o n g others, Dan. 2:19-35, almost intact.
6. Cross, The Ancient Library of Qumran, p. 33.
. V. Prophetic-Apocalyptic Pseudographa 249
of C y r u s w o u l d fall in 569 B . C . (2) I n Ant. xx 1 0 , 2 ( 2 3 4 ) , h e c o u n t s 4 1 4

y e a r s from t h e r e t u r n from exile (in the first y e a r of C y r u s , 5 3 8 B . c . ) to
A n t i o c h u s V E u p a t o r ( 1 6 4 - 1 6 2 B . C . ) . (3) I n Ant. xiii 1 1 , i ( 3 0 1 ) , he
reckons 481 y e a r s a n d t h r e e m o n t h s from the r e t u r n f r o m exile (in t h e
first y e a r of C y r u s ) until A r i s t o b u l u s I ( 1 0 4 - 1 0 3 B . C ) . T h e accession of
C y r u s w o u l d t h e r e f o r e o c c u r a c c o r d i n g t o ( i ) i n 5 7 0 B . C . ; a c c o r d i n g to
(2) in 5 7 8 B . C . ; a n d a c c o r d i n g to (3) i n 5 8 5 B . C . , w h e r e a s i n fact it
o c c u r r e d in 5 3 7 B . C . H e n c e J o s e p h u s c o u n t e d forty to fifty y e a r s too
m a n y . T h e J e w i s h Hellenist D e m e t r i u s tallies still m o r e closely w i t h
D a n i e l , r e c k o n i n g 5 7 3 y e a r s a n d n i n e m o n t h s b e t w e e n t h e exile of t h e
t e n tribes ( 7 2 2 / 1 B . C . ) a n d P t o l e m y I V ( 2 2 2 / 1 B . C ) , t h e r e f o r e s e v e n t y
y e a r s t o o m a n y , e x a c t l y like D a n i e l . (See t h e p a s s a g e i n C l e m e n t of
A l e x a n d r i a , Strom, i 2 1 , 1 4 1 ; for f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n on D e m e t r i u s , see
b e l o w , p p . 5 1 3 - 7 . ) It follows t h a t D a n i e l s h a r e d a w i d e l y - h e l d o p i n i o n
in e s t i m a t i n g m o r e or less s e v e n t y y e a r s too m a n y for t h i s p e r i o d . T h e
m e a n s w e r e t h e n l a c k i n g for a m o r e a c c u r a t e c h r o n o l o g y . ^ I n D a n i e l ' s
case, h o w e v e r , t h e m i s c a l c u l a t i o n occasions little s u r p r i s e b e c a u s e his
fixing o f s i x t y - t w o w e e k s of y e a r s for t h e p e r i o d i n q u e s t i o n m e r e l y
resulted from his i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ofJ e r e m i a h ' s p r o p h e c y .
Bibliography
F o r a n i n t r o d u c t i o n t o D a n i e l , s e e Eissfeldt, p p . 5 1 2 - 2 9 , 7 6 7 - 6 9 ; J .
A. S o g g i n , Introduction to the Old Testament (1980), p p . 406—13.
Selected Commentaries
Driver, S. R., Daniel (1900).
Marti, K., Das Buch Daniel (1901).
Baumgartner, W . , Das Buch Daniel (1926).
Montgomery, J . A., Daniel {ig2'j, 1949).
Charles, R . H., Commentary on the Book of Daniel (1929).
Rinaldi, G., Danie/e (1947, 1962).
Notscher, F., Das Buch Daniel (1948).
Bentzen, A., Daniel ( 1 9 5 2 ) .
Schneider, H., Das Buch Daniel (1^54).
Menasce, P.-J. d e , Daniel (1954, 1958).
Heaton, E . W., Daniel (1956).
Porteous, N., Z)am«/(1965, 1979).
Ploger, O . , Das Buch Daniel (1965).
Delcor, M . , Le livre de Daniel (1971).
7. Cf. N . Walter, ' F r a g m e n t e jiidisch-hellenistischer Exegeten', J S H R Z I I I / 2 (1975),

p. 292. F o r a survey of the exegeses of the seventy years, see M o n t g o m e r y , op. cit., pp.
3 9 0 - 4 0 1 ; Charles, op. cit., pp. 2 4 4 - 6 ; H a r t m a n a n d di Leila, op. cit., p p . 2 5 0 - 3 ; K o c h , op.
cit., pp. 149-54. The figure o f ' 3 9 0 years' from N e b u c h a d n e z z a r to t h e emergence of the
Q u m r a n Damascus c o m m u n i t y mentioned in C D 1:5 raises questions similar to t h a t of
D a n . 9. C f H. H . Rowley, The âdokite Fragments and the Dead Sea Scrolls (1952), pp. 6 2 - 4 ;
G. R. Driver, The Judaean Scrolls (1965), p p . 3 1 1 - 1 6 ; G. Vermes, DSS, p p . 158-9.
250 §32. J e w i s h L i t e r a t u r e i n H e b r e w o r A r a m a i c
H a m m e r , R . , The Book of Daniel (1976).

Lacoque, A., Le livre de Daniel (1976) . E . T . The Book of Daniel (1979).
H a r t m a n , L . F., a n d di Leila, A. A., The Book of Daniel (1978).
Monographs
Gall, A. von. Die Einheitlichkeit des Buches Daniel (1895).
Thilo, M., Chronologie des I)anielbuches (1926).
J u n k e r , H., Untersuchungen iiber literarische und exegetische Probleme des Buches Daniel (1932).
Rowley, H . H., Darius the Mede and the Four World Empires in the Book of Daniel (1935,
Ginsberg, L . H., Studies in Daniel (1948).

Collins, J. J . , The Apocalyptic Vision of the Book of Daniel (1977).
Koch, K., Das Buch Daniel (1980). [This volume contains full bibliographies.]
Survey Articles
Baumgartner, W., 'Ein Vierteljahrhundert Danielforschung', T h R 11 (1939), p p . 59-83,
125-44,201-28.
Lebram, J., 'Perspektiven der gegenwartigen Danielforschung', J S J 5 (1974), pp. 1-33.
Daniel and Q u m r a n
Bruce, F. F . , 'The Book of Daniel and the Q u m r a n C o m m u n i t y ' , in E. E. Ellis (ed.),
Neotestamentica et Semitica, M a t t h e w Black Festschrift (1969), p p . 221-35.
Mertens, A., Das Buch Daniel im Lichte der Texte vom Toten Meer (1971).
2 . The Ethiopic Book of Enoch
A m o n g s t t h e m e n of G o d o f the H e b r e w Bible, E n o c h , a l o n g w i t h
Elijah, o c c u p i e s a s i n g u l a r position i n a s m u c h as he is said t o h a v e b e e n
t r a n s l a t e d from e a r t h d i r e c t l y to h e a v e n . S u c h a m a n m u s t a p p e a r
especially fitted to i m p a r t to t h e w o r l d r e v e l a t i o n s o f d i v i n e m y s t e r i e s
since he w a s a c c o u n t e d w o r t h y of d i r e c t r e l a t i o n w i t h G o d . Q u i t e e a r l y
therefore, p r o b a b l y i n t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C , a n a p o c a l y p t i c w r i d n g ,
w h i c h w a s l a t e r e n l a r g e d a n d revised, a p p e a r e d u n d e r his n a m e . T h i s
B o o k of E n o c h was a l r e a d y k n o w n t o t h e a u t h o r of J u b i l e e s , a n d w a s
s u b s e q u e n t l y m u c h l o v e d a m o n g C h r i s t i a n s . It is cited in t h e E p i s t l e o f
J u d e ( 1 4 - 1 5 ) a n d w a s u n h e s i t a t i n g l y m a d e u s e of b y m a n y C h u r c h
F a t h e r s as a g e n u i n e w r i t i n g of E n o c h , w i t h a u t h e n t i c d i v i n e
r e v e l a t i o n s , a l t h o u g h , a p a r t from E t h i o p i a , i t w a s n e v e r oflficially
r e c o g n i z e d by t h e C h u r c h as c a n o n i c a l . I n t h e W e s t , w h e r e it c i r c u l a t e d
in L a t i n t r a n s l a t i o n , its a u t h o r i t y h a s b e e n seriously q u e s t i o n e d o n l y
since the e n d o f the f o u r t h c e n t u r y . I n t h e G r e e k , a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e
A l e x a n d r i a n C h u r c h , it r e t a i n e d its prestige s o m e w h a t l o n g e r . It is
a d m i t t e d l y unlikely t h a t t h e B y z a n t i n e c h r o n i c l e r , G e o r g e S y n c e l l u s {c.
A . D . 800), q u o t e d d i r e c t l y from it t h e two l o n g passages w h i c h h e gives
(Syncellus, Chronologia, e d . D i n d o r f I, 2 0 - 3 , 4 2 - 7 ; cf. M . Black,
Apocalypsis Enochi Graece (1970)). A s H . G e l z e r has i n d i c a t e d {Sextus
Julius Africanus und die byzantinische Chronographie I I . i ( 1 8 8 5 ) , p p . 2 6 2 - 4 ) ,
h e k n e w it t h r o u g h t h e A l e x a n d r i a n c h r o n i c l e r P a n o d o r u s {c. A . D .
4 0 0 ) . B u t t h e l a t t e r d r e w f r o m E n o c h itself. A l s o , t h e w r i t e r of t h e
eighth c e n t u r y A . D . papyrus m a n u s c r i p t containing a n extant large
G r e e k f r a g m e n t p r o b a b l y h a d t h e w h o l e b o o k l y i n g in f r o n t o f h i m (see
below). I n t h e Middle Ages, however, a n d a t a m o r e recent date, the
b o o k w a s p r e s u m e d lost, u n t i l i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h e i n f o r m a t i o n
c a m e t o light t h a t it h a d b e e n p r e s e r v e d in t h e A b y s s i n i a n C h u r c h in
Ethiopic translation. T h e traveller J a m e s Bruce b r o u g h t three m a n u
scripts t o E u r o p e i n 1773. B u t it w a s n o t u n t i l 1821 t h a t t h e w h o l e w o r k
w a s m a d e k n o w n t h r o u g h t h e E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n o f R . L a u r e n c e (The
Book of Enoch the Prophet). T h e E t h i o p i c t e x t {Libri Enoch versio aethiopica)
w a s p u b l i s h e d first b y t h e s a m e a u t h o r i n 1838, t h e n , o n t h e basis of five
m a n u s c r i p t s , by A . D i l l m a n n in 1851 {Liber Enoch aethiopica). T h e r e
w e r e h i g h h o p e s of s u b s t a n t i a l p r o g r e s s i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e b o o k w h e n
a small G r e e k f r a g m e n t , c o m p r i s i n g c h a p t e r 89:42—9, w a s p u b l i s h e d by
A. M a i . T h i s facsimile, t a k e n f r o m a c o p y of V a t i c a n u s ( c o d . G r . 1809),
is e q u i p p e d w i t h a b b r e v i a t e d n o t e s a n d was d e c i p h e r e d b y J .
Gildemeister.' But Mai's conjecture t h a t the codex contained m o r e
t h a n h a d b e e n issued p r o v e d g r o u n d l e s s . By c o n t r a s t , t h e d i s c o v e r y in
1 8 8 6 - 7 of ^ l a r g e G r e e k f r a g m e n t t a k e n f r o m a C h r i s t i a n t o m b at
A k h m i m , t h e a n c i e n t P a n o p o l i s of U p p e r E g y p t , b r o u g h t a n u n
e x p e c t e d e n r i c h m e n t o f m a t e r i a l . I n a d d i t i o n to a f r a g m e n t of t h e
G o s p e l of P e t e r a n d o n e of t h e A p o c a l y p s e o f P e t e r , t h e m a n u s c r i p t
c o n t a i n s the G r e e k text of t h e first t h i r t y - t w o c h a p t e r s o f t h e B o o k of
E n o c h , w i t h a d u p l i c a t e r e n d e r i n g o f 19:3-21:9.''
I n 1930, t h e U n i v e r s i t y of M i c h i g a n a n d A . C h e s t e r B e a t t i e a c q u i r e d
a f o u r t h c e n t u r y G r e e k c o d e x , six p a g e s o f w h i c h c o n t a i n E n o c h
9 7 : 6 - 1 0 4 a n d 106-7.^
T h e m o s t r e c e n t a n d s u r p r i s i n g n o v e l t y c o n c e r n i n g the B o o k of
E n o c h w a s t h e d i s c o v e r y in 1952 of A r a m a i c f r a g m e n t s b e l o n g i n g to
eleven l e a t h e r scrolls in Q u m r a n C a v e 4 . T h o u g h m o s t l y v e r y s c r a p p y ,
these m a n u s c r i p t s c o v e r all t h e sections o f the E t h i o p i c b o o k a p a r t f r o m
1. 'Ein F r a g m e n t des griechischen H e n o c h ' , Z D M G 9 (1855), p p . 6 2 1 - 4 . Cf. S. Lilla, //

testo tachigrafico del 'De divinis nominibus' (Vat. Gr. i8og) [Studi e Testi 263] (1970), pp.
I I —16.
2. U. Bouriant, 'Fragments grecs d u Livre d'Enoch', Memoirs pubHes par les membres
de la mission archeologique fran9aise a u C a i r e 9 (1892), p p . 91-147 ( t e x t : p p . 111-36);
A. Lods, 'L'Evangile et I'Apocalypse d e Pierre. Le text grec du Livre d ' E n o c h ' , ibid., pp.
217-35, a n d 34 plates. T h e m a n u s c r i p t was dated to the eighth c e n t u r y by Bouriant, but
to the sixth by F . G. Kenyon, The Palaeography of Greek Papyri (1899), p . 119; The Text oJ
the Greek Bible (1937, ('^1949), p. 135; or even t o the l a t e fifth century, cf. Campbell
Bonner, The Last Chapters of Enoch in Greek (1937), p . 3.
3. Campbell Bonner, The Last Chapters of Enoch in Greek [Studies and Documents V I I I ]
(•937)-
c h a p t e r s 3 7 - 7 1 • T h e y h a v e b e e n e d i t e d by J . T . M i h k . *
T o i m p a r t a c l e a r e r i d e a of t h e o r i g i n a n d c h a r a c t e r o f t h i s
r e m a r k a b l e b o o k , it is n e c e s s a r y to g i v e a b r i e f s u m m a r y of t h e c o n t e n t s
of t h e E t h i o p i c v e r s i o n , t h e fullest of t h e s u r v i v i n g r e c e n s i o n s .
T i t l e : E n o c h ' s blessing o f the elect a n d t h e r i g h t e o u s .
B o o k I ( c h a p t e r s 1 - 3 6 ) : The Book of Watchers. C h a p t e r s 1 - 5 :
I n t r o d u c t i o n . E n o c h r e p o r t s t h a t he h a s s e e n a vision w h i c h t h e a n g e l s
disclosed to h i m , a n d t h a t h e h a s h e a r d from t h e m w h a t is t o
h a p p e n — t h a t G o d will visit t h e w i c k e d i n j u d g e m e n t b u t t h a t p e a c e
a n d bliss will fall t o the l o t of t h e elect a n d t h e r i g h t e o u s . 6 - 1 1 : A n
a c c o u n t i n the t h i r d p e r s o n of t h e fall of t h e a n g e l s , b a s e d o n Genesis 6
but with elaborate embellishments. G o d ordains which punishments the
fallen a n g e l s a r e to e x p e r i e n c e , a n d h o w t h e e a r t h is to b e p u r g e d o f
t h e i r transgression a n d w i c k e d n e s s . T h e a n g e l s h a v e t o fulfil b o t h
c o m m a n d s . 12—16: E n o c h , w h o associates w i t h t h e angels i n h e a v e n , is
sent b y t h e m t o e a r t h to a n n o u n c e to t h e fallen a n g e l s the j u d g e m e n t o f
i m m i n e n t p u n i s h m e n t . ( H e r e , from 1 2 : 1 3 , E n o c h speaks o n c e a g a i n i n
the first p e r s o n . ) W h e n h e a c q u i t s h i m s e l f of his task, the fallen a n g e l s
p e r s u a d e h i m t o i n t e r c e d e on t h e i r b e h a l f before G o d . B u t in a n o t h e r
powerful vision, E n o c h ' s intercession is r e j e c t e d b y G o d , a n d he is
charged again with a n n o u n c i n g their downfall. 1 7 - 3 6 : E n o c h reports
(in t h e first p e r s o n ) h o w h e w a s c a r r i e d a w a y o v e r m o u n t a i n s , w a t e r s
a n d rivers, a n d e v e r y w h e r e l e a r n e d t o k n o w t h e secret d i v i n e o r i g i n o f
all t h e t h i n g s a n d e v e n t s i n n a t u r e . H e w a s e v e n s h o w n t h e e n d of t h e
e a r t h a n d the p l a c e t o w h i c h t h e w i c k e d a n g e l s will b e b a n i s h e d ; a n d
the d w e l l i n g - p l a c e o f d e p a r t e d spirits, b o t h r i g h t e o u s a n d u n r i g h t e o u s ;
a n d t h e T r e e o f Life, w h i c h will be b e s t o w e d on t h e elect r i g h t e o u s ; a n d
the p l a c e of p u n i s h m e n t of m e n w h o a r e d a m n e d ( G e h i n n o m , n e a r
J e r u s a l e m ) ; a n d P a r a d i s e , w i t h t h e T r e e of K n o w l e d g e , from w h i c h
A d a m a n d E v e ate.
B o o k I I ( c h a p t e r s 3 7 - 7 1 ) : The Book of Parables. T h e s e c o n d vision . . .
the vision of w i s d o m , w h i c h E n o c h t h e s o n of J a r e d . . . s a w ' , consists of
t h r e e p a r a b l e s . 38—44: First Parable. E n o c h sees in a vision t h e
h a b i t a t i o n s of t h e r i g h t e o u s , a n d the r e s t i n g p l a c e s of t h e saints. H e sees
also the m y r i a d s u p o n m y r i a d s of t h o s e w h o s t a n d before t h e M a j e s t y o f
the L o r d of Spirits, a n d t h e four a r c h a n g e l s M i c h a e l , R a p h a e l , G a b r i e l
a n d P h a n u e l . H e sees f u r t h e r t h e mysteries of h e a v e n : the s t o r e h o u s e s o f
the w i n d s a n d t h e s t o r e h o u s e s o f the s u n a n d t h e m o o n , a n d finally also
the l i g h t n i n g a n d t h e stars of h e a v e n , w h i c h a r e all called b y n a m e s a n d
p a y h e e d to t h e m . 4 5 - 5 7 : Second Parable. I n a vision m o d e l l e d o n D a n i e l
7, E n o c h is t o l d a b o u t t h e ' E l e c t ' , t h e ' S o n of M a n ' , i.e., t h e M e s s i a h ,
4. J . T. Milik with the collaboration of M. Black, The Books of Enoch. Aramaic Fragments
of Qumran Cave 4 (1976). T h e passages preserved in Aramaic are listed on p p . 364—5.
his n a t u r e a n d calling, a n d h o w h e is t o exercise j u d g e m e n t over t h e

w o r l d . 5 8 - 6 9 : Third Parable. T h i s is c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e blessedness of
t h e r i g h t e o u s a n d the e l e c t ; w i t h t h e m y s t e r i e s of l i g h t n i n g a n d
t h u n d e r ; w i t h t h e j u d g e m e n t w h i c h t h e E l e c t , t h e S o n of M a n , will
exercise. S e v e r a l s e c t i o n s a r e i n t e r p o l a t e d h e r e f r o m a Book of N o a h ,
w h i c h b r e a k t h e c o n t i n u i t y . 7 0 - 1 : T h e c o n c l u s i o n of the p a r a b l e s ;
E n o c h ' s ascension.
Book I I I ( c h a p t e r s 7 2 - 8 2 ) : The Astronomical Book. T h e b o o k of t h e
r e v o l u t i o n s o f t h e lights of h e a v e n ' . E n o c h offers h e r e a m e d l e y of
a s t r o n o m i c a l i n s t r u c t i o n s w h i c h h e h i m s e l f h a d r e c e i v e d from t h e a n g e l
Uriel.
Book I V ( c h a p t e r s 8 3 - 9 0 ) : The Book of Dream-Visions, (a) 8 3 - 4 :
E n o c h r e c o u n t s t o his son, M e t h u s e l a h , a t e r r i b l e vision of t h e
d e s t r u c t i o n w h i c h is to c o m e u p o n t h e sinful w o r l d ( t h r o u g h t h e flood)
a n d i m p l o r e s G o d n o t t o e x t e r m i n a t e t h e w h o l e o f m a n k i n d from t h e
e a r t h , ( b ) 85—90: T h e s e c o n d d r e a m - v i s i o n of c a t t l e , s h e e p , w i l d b e a s t s
a n d s h e p h e r d , by m e a n s of w h i c h i m a g e r y t h e e n t i r e h i s t o r y o f I s r a e l is
p r e d i c t e d u n t i l the d a w n of t h e M e s s i a n i c era. As t h i s h i s t o r i c a l vision is
t h e o n l y p a s s a g e offering a n y t h i n g a p p r o a c h i n g r e l i a b l e e v i d e n c e for
d e t e r m i n i n g t h e d a t e of its c o m p o s i t i o n , its c o n t e n t s w i l l be discussed
more thoroughly later.
Book V ( c h a p t e r s 9 1 - 1 0 5 ) : The Book of Admonitions. T h e G r e e k
version (100:6) refers to it as E n o c h ' s eTriaToA^. ( T h e r e h a s b e e n s o m e
d i s l o c a t i o n o f t h e E t h i o p i c text in c h a p t e r s 9 1 - 3 . ) 9 2 : E n o c h ' s
e x h o r t a t i o n t o his c h i l d r e n . 93 a n d 9 1 : 1 2 — 1 7 : T h e A p o c a l y p s e of
W e e k s . E n o c h gives a n e x p l a n a t i o n 'from t h e b o o k s ' c o n c e r n i n g t h e
w o r l d weeks. I n t h e first w e e k , E n o c h l i v e s ; in t h e s e c o n d , N o a h ; in t h e
t h i r d , A b r a h a m ; i n the f o u r t h , M o s e s ; i n the fifth, t h e T e m p l e is b u i l t ;
at the e n d o f t h e sixth, it is d e s t r o y e d ; in the s e v e n t h , a faithless
g e n e r a t i o n a r i s e s ; at t h e e n d o f this w e e k , t h e r i g h t e o u s receive
i n s t r u c t i o n c o n c e r n i n g the mysteries of h e a v e n ; i n t h e e i g h t h ,
r i g h t e o u s n e s s receives a s w o r d a n d sinners a r e d e l i v e r e d over into t h e
h a n d s o f the r i g h t e o u s , a n d a h o u s e is b u i l t for t h e g r e a t K i n g ; in t h e
n i n t h , j u d g e m e n t is r e v e a l e d ; in t h e t e n t h , i n t h e s e v e n t h p a r t o f it,
t h e r e c o m e s j u d g e m e n t for a l l e t e r n i t y . 9 4 - 1 0 5 : L a m e n t a t i o n s o v e r
sinners a n d t h e godless, p r o c l a m a t i o n of t h e i r c e r t a i n d o w n f a l l ,
e x h o r t a t i o n t o joyful h o p e for t h e r i g h t e o u s (this is all v e r y p r o l i x a n d
repedtive).
Appendix from the Book of Noah (106—7). a c c o u n t o f t h e b i r t h of
N o a h a n d of w h a t t h e n took p l a c e . H i s w o n d e r f u l a p p e a r a n c e gives
E n o c h a n o p p o r t u n i t y t o p r o p h e s y t h e flood. Second appendix (108). T h i s
is a n e x c e r p t from ' a n o t h e r b o o k w r i t t e n b y E n o c h ' , in w h i c h h e r e l a t e s
h o w he r e c e i v e d i n f o r m a t i o n from a n a n g e l c o n c e r n i n g t h e fire of h e l l ,
to w h i c h the spirits of s i n n e r s a n d b l a s p h e m e r s w i l l b e b r o u g h t , a ' i d
c o n c e r n i n g t h e blessings t o be a l l o t t e d to t h e h u m b l e a n d t h e r i g h t e o u s .
T h e s u r v i v i n g p a r t s of t h e e l e v e n A r a m a i c m a n u s c r i p t s f r o m Q u m r a n
C a v e 4, d e s p i t e t h e i r v e r y f r a g m e n t a r y state,^ afford a v a l i d i n s i g h t i n t o
t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e A r a m a i c E n o c h . T h e y c o v e r all t h e l a r g e u n i t s
r e p r e s e n t e d i n the E t h i o p i c v e r s i o n , i n c l u d i n g A p p e n d i x I, w i t h t h e
e x c e p t i o n of B o o k I I , t h e P a r a b l e s , a b o o k m i s s i n g f r o m t h e e x t a n t
G r e e k version as w e l l . By c o n t r a s t , v a r i o u s Q u m r a n C a v e s ( i , 2 , 4, a n d
6 ; for precise references, s e e M i l i k , p . 365) c o n t a i n six copies of a s e c t i o n
of t h e E n o c h i c c o r p u s a b s e n t f r o m t h e E t h i o p i c , w h i c h M i h k p r o p o s e s
to i d e n t i f y as t h e B o o k o f G i a n t s , a n d to d a t e t o t h e e n d o f t h e s e c o n d
c e n t u r y B . C . A l l t h e Q u m r a n f r a g m e n t s e x c e p t one a r e i n s i g n i f i c a n t i n
t h e m s e l v e s , b u t c a n be s e t a g a i n s t t h e relics of the M a n i c h a e a n w o r k .
T h e B o o k of G i a n t s ' , p u b l i s h e d b y W . B. H e n n i n g , ^ a n d t h e l a t e r
M i d r a s h of S h e m h a z a i a n d A z a e l (Milik, p p . 3 2 1 - 3 9 ) .
T h e B o o k of E n o c h is n o t a h o m o g e n e o u s c o m p o s i t i o n . I t s
c o n s t i t u e n t p a r t s a r e h k e l y to h a v e c o m e i n t o b e i n g s e p a r a t e l y before
b e i n g a s s e m b l e d i n t o a single w o r k . T h e A r a m a i c e v i d e n c e , t h o u g h t t o
be p r e - C h r i s t i a n i n d a t e (Milik, p . 7), i n d i c a t e s t h a t B o o k I I I in t h e
E t h i o p i c version, i.e. t h e B o o k of t h e H e a v e n l y L i g h t s , existed
i n d e p e n d e n d y in scrolls c o n t a i n i n g n o o t h e r s e c d o n of t h e c o r p u s . T h e
o l d e s t of t h e f o u r c o p i e s ( E n a s t r * ) is d a t e d to a b o u t 200 B . C . ; t h e o t h e r
t h r e e (Enastr*''*^'^) r o u g h l y to b e t w e e n 50 B . C . a n d t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e
C h r i s d a n era. T h e A r a m a i c original contains e l a b o r a t e calendric
c a l c u l a t i o n s ( s e e k i n g to s y n c h r o n i s e the l u n a r a n d solar y e a r s ) w h i c h
h a v e n o t b e e n p r e s e r v e d i n E t h i o p i c , a n d e v e n those sections w h i c h a r e
c o m m o n to t h e t w o r e v e a l a l o n g e r A r a m a i c recension. If t h e
p a l a e o g r a p h i c a l d a t i n g o f E n a s t r * c a n b e relied o n , t h e B o o k of t h e
H e a v e n l y L i g h t m a y b e t a k e n as o n e o f t h e earliest c o m p o n e n t s of
5. Milik, op. cit., pp. 365-6, gives a full list of the preserved passages, b u t his references
indicate t h e maximum extent of sections covered, n o t the actually surviving extracts. T h e
so-called 'Diplomatic T r a n s c r i p d o n ' of seven copies of Enoch (pp. 340-62) and the
material transcribed in t h e chapter on the Astronomical Book ( p p . 273-97) yield a m u c h
clearer picture.
6. These are 1Q23, 6Q8, 4QEn Giants'''^, a manuscript assigned to J . Starcky, and 4QEn
Giants", published by MiHk ( p p . 310-17, plates X X X - X X X I I ) . T h e earliest wfitness
{4QEn Giants ) is dated on palaeographical g r o u n d s to t h e first half of the first century
B.C. (Milik, p. 57 ; F. M . Cross, 'The Development of the Jewish Scripts', The Bible and the
Ancient Near East (1961), p. 149). Advancing the double conjecture t h a t the Damascus
R u l e , written in c. 110-100 B.C., includes a q u o t a d o n from the Book of Giants ( C D 2:18),
and that the silence of J u b . 4:17-24 suggests t h a t at t h e time of t h e composition of
Jubilees {c. 125 B.C. according to him) this particular work of Enoch did not exist yet,
Milik believes he is entitled to place t h e Book of Giants t o the last quarter of the second
century B.C. (pp. 57-8).
7. BSOAS I I (1943-6), p p . 52-74. Cf J . T. MiHk, 'Turfan et Q u m r a n . Livre des
G e a n t s j u i f et manicheen', Festgabe K. G. Kuhn (1971), pp. 117-27.
o
E n o c h , b e l o n g i n g p r o b a b l y to t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y B . C .
T h e B o o k o f W a t c h e r s ( c h a p t e r s 1 - 3 6 ) is t h e best r e p r e s e n t e d section
at Q u m r a n o f I E n o c h as i t is a t t e s t e d in five of t h e m a n u s c r i p t s
(Enoch^'^). T h e first t w o a r e said to c o m e f r o m t h e first h a l f to t h e
m i d d l e of t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C ( M i H k , p . 22). T h e s e oldest
d o c u m e n t s a t t e s t o n l y B o o k I , b u t Enoch*^ a n d E n o c h ^ c o n t a i n also
B o o k I V ( c h a p t e r s 8 3 - 9 0 ) , w h i l s t Enoch'^ ( d a t e d t o t h e first c e n t u r y
B . C . ) consists o f Books I , I V , V a n d A p p e n d i x I. M i l i k f u r t h e r suggests
t h a t f r a g m e n t s of 4QEn Giants'^, c o p i e d b y t h e s a m e h a n d as Enoch'^,
w e r e d e t a c h e d f r o m the l a t t e r scroll, w h i c h c o n s e q u e n t l y i n c l u d e d f o u r
E n o c h i c c o m p o s i t i o n s (Milik, p . 5 8 ) .
T h e B o o k o f D r e a m s ( c h a p t e r s 8 3 - 9 0 ) survives f r a g m e n t a r i l y in four
m a n u s c r i p t s , t h e oldest of w h i c h (Enoch*^) is t h o u g h t t o b e l o n g t o c.
1 5 0 - 1 2 5 B . C . (Milik, p . 4 1 ) . Its h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , d i s c e r n i b l e in
c h a p t e r s 8 5 - 9 0 in t h e full E t h i o p i c a c c o u n t o f a z o o m o r p h i c h i s t o r y of
m a n k i n d f r o m A d a m to t h e a u t h o r ' s o w n t i m e , r e v e a l s t h e h k e l y d a t e of
c o m p o s i t i o n o f B o o k I V . T h e final s t a g e o f the h i s t o r y of I s r a e l is
m a r k e d b y t h e b i r t h of w h i t e l a m b s w h i c h o p e n e d t h e i r eyes a n d s a w ,
b u t failed to c o n v i n c e t h e o t h e r d e a f a n d b h n d w h i t e s h e e p . T h e flock
w a s a t t a c k e d by r a v e n s w h i c h c a r r i e d a w a y one o f t h e l a m b s . T h e n
t h e y b e g a n t o g r o w h o r n s a n d one o f t h e m p r o d u c e d a g r e a t h o r n . T h e
r a v e n s t r i e d t o h u m b l e i t , b u t w e r e u n a b l e to d o so (90:6-12). It is t h e
c o m m o n l y h e l d v i e w t h a t t h i s a l l e g o r y r e l a t e s to t h e e m e r g e n c e of t h e
H a s i d i m , t h e r e m o v a l o f the h i g h p r i e s t O n i a s I I I , a n d the rise of t h e
M a c c a b e e s , l e d b y J u d a s . S i n c e h i s d e a t h in b a t t l e , w h i c h o c c u r r e d in
161 B . C . , is n o t a l l u d e d t o , it is logical t o c o n c l u d e t h a t this s e c t i o n of
E n o c h w a s c o m p l e t e d s o m e t i m e in t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f the i6os B . C ^
T h e B o o k of A d m o n i t i o n s o r E p i s t l e of E n o c h ( c h a p t e r s 9 1 - 1 0 5 ) is
f r a g m e n t a r i l y e x t a n t in Enoch*^ a n d E n o c h ^ [c. the final fifty y e a r s of t h e
p r e - C h r i s t i a n a g e ) . T h e A p o c a l y p s e of W e e k s c o n t a i n e d in it (93:1—10
followed by 9 1 : 1 2 - 1 7 a c c o r d i n g to t h e E t h i o p i c t e x t ) d e p i c t s t h e
s e v e n t h w e e k following t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of the first T e m p l e as a n
a p o s t a t e g e n e r a t i o n t h a t c u l m i n a t e s in t h e e m e r g e n c e of ' t h e c h o s e n
r i g h t e o u s f r o m t h e e t e r n a l p l a n t of r i g h t e o u s n e s s ' . T h e e i g h t h w e e k
m a r k s t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e M e s s i a n i c a g e , so t h e a u t h o r ' s h o r i z o n s t o p s
8. See Nickelsburg, J L B B M , p. 47.

9. Milik, pp. 4 3 - 4 , identifies in chapter 90:13-15 an allusion to the battle of Beth-Zur
(2 Mac. 11:6-12) a n d concludes somewhat rashly t h a t t h e Book of D r e a m s was
'composed d u r i n g 164 B.C., p r o b a b l y in t h e early months of the year, during the few
weeks which followed t h e battle of Bethsur'. (For the d a t i n g of t h e victory at Beth-Zur to
the a u t u m n of 165 B.C., see vol. I, p p . 160-2.) For the less likely identificadon of the
deliverer as J o h n Hyrcanus I or Alexander J a n n a e u s , see M . Stern, ' T h e Relations
between J u d e a and R o m e d u r i n g t h e R u l e of J o h n H y r c a n u s ' , Tarbiz 26 (1961), pp.
1-22, and C. C. T o r r e y , 'Alexander J a n n a e u s and the A r c h a n g e l Michael', V T 4 (1954),
p p . 208-11.
before t h e M a c c a b a e a n e r a . I n c o n s e q u e n c e , t h e terminus ad quem of t h e

c o m p o s i t i o n of this s e c t i o n m u s t be a r o u n d 170 B . c . ' °
I n brief, four of t h e five b o o k s p r e s e r v e d in t h e E t h i o p i c v e r s i o n c a n
safely be a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e first four d e c a d e s of t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C .
T h e Book of W a t c h e r s a n d the Book of t h e H e a v e n l y L i g h t s c o u l d e v e n
be t r a c e d to t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y B . c . T h e Q j a m r a n A r a m a i c e v i d e n c e
s h o w s t h a t w h e r e a s B o o k I I I ( c h a p t e r s 72—82) w a s n o t yet m e r g e d w i t h
the rest, a n d t h a t i n t h e oldest m a n u s c r i p t s B o o k I ( c h a p t e r s 1 - 3 6 )
s t a n d s o n its o w n , Enoch*^ c o m b i n e s a t l e a s t Books I , I V a n d V a n d
possibly t h e B o o k of G i a n t s , a n d E n o c h ^ a n d E n o c h ^ also c o n t a i n m o r e
t h a n o n e section of w h a t finally b e c a m e I E n o c h .
I t can r e a s o n a b l y b e c o n j e c t u r e d f r o m t h e d a t a so far a s s e m b l e d t h a t
a composite w o r k b e a r i n g a p s e u d e p i g r a p h i c a t t r i b u t i o n to E n o c h
existed a l r e a d y in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C , a n d m o r e precisely before
the c o m p i l a d o n of t h e B o o k o f J u b i l e e s . " J u b . 4 : 1 7 - 1 9 , in d e p i c t i n g
E n o c h ' s w r i d n g activities, discloses t h e c o n t e n t s of t h e B o o k of E n o c h
k n o w n t o the a u t h o r of J u b i l e e s . T h e s e c o m p r i s e Books I, I I I a n d I V ,
a n d possibly V as w e l l . ' ' '
L e a v i n g a s i d e t h e Book of G i a n t s a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d ( p . 254 a n d n .
6), a n d t h e B o o k o f N o a h to b e d e s c r i b e d b e l o w , t h e o n e r e m a i n i n g
m a j o r issue is t h e n a t u r e a n d s t a t u s o f B o o k I I , t h e P a r a b l e s . E v e n p r i o r
to t h e Q u m r a n discoveries it was t h e m o s t c o n t r o v e r s i a l of all t h e
E n o c h i c sections. A n u m b e r of n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y a u t h o r s v i e w e d it as
a C h r i s t i a n w o r k . ' ^ S c h i i r e r himself, in t h e final G e r m a n e d i t i o n ( p .
2 7 9 ) , expressed the o p i n i o n t h a t c h a p t e r s 3 7 - 7 1 c a m e f r o m a d i f f e r e n t
a u t h o r , a n d w e r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a p e c u l i a r d e s i g n a t i o n o f G o d as w e l l
as a distinct m e s s i a n i c , e s c h a t o l o g i c a l a n d a n g e l o l o g i c a l t e a c h i n g . H e
f u r t h e r s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h i s section w a s m o r e r e c e n t t h a t t h e rest of
E n o c h . T h e o n l y p a s s a g e s u s c e p t i b l e o f h i s t o r i c a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n is
c h a p t e r 5 6 : 5 - 7 , f o r e t e l h n g a n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l i n v a s i o n of t h e H o l y L a n d
by P a r t h i a n s a n d M e d e s . T h e i r h o r s e m e n w o u l d n o t e n t e r t h e city of
10. Cf. Eissfeldt, Introduction, p . 6 1 9 ; R. H . Charles, A P O T I I , p. 1 7 1 ; Nickelsburg,

J L B B M , p . 150.
11. The following dates have been assigned to Jubilees. 100 B.C. : Eissfeldt, Introduction,
p. 6 0 8 ; 109-105 B.C.: Charles, A P O T II, p . 6; 128-125 B.C.: Milik, op. cit., p. 5 8 ;
168-140 B . C . : J . C. V a n d e r K a m , Textual and Historical Studies in the Book of Jubilees
('977)i PP- 2 0 7 - 8 5 ; Nickelsburg, J L B B M , p p . 78—9. Bearing in mind that Jubilees is
cited in C D , for which t h e most likely time of composition is the e n d of t h e second century
B.C., the earlier of the proposed datings ofJubilees acquires greater probability.
12. Charles, A P O T I I , p. 18; Nickelsburg, J L B B M , p. 150.
13. For a Christian origin of the entire I Enoch, see J . C. K. Hofmann, ' U e b e r die
Entstehungszeit des Buches H e n o c h ' , Z D M G 6 (1852), pp. 8 7 - 9 1 ; H . Weisse, Die
Evangelienfrage (1856), p p . 2 1 4 - 2 4 ; F . Philippi, Das Buch Henoch {i8^S), passim. For a
Christian origin of the Parables, see A. Hilgenfeld, Die jiidische Apokalyptik in ihrer
geschichtlichen Entwickelung (1857), pp. 150-84. For a Christian origin of t h e 'Son of M a n '
passages, see J . D r u m m o n d , The Jewish Messiah (1877), pp. 60-73.
G o d ' s elect, b u t w o u l d fight a n d d e s t r o y o n e a n o t h e r . A c c o r d i n g to o n e

school o f t h o u g h t , r e p r e s e n t e d b y R . H . C h a r l e s a m o n g o t h e r s , t h e
allusion m u s t b e t o a p e r i o d p r i o r t o t h e R o m a n c o n q u e s t of P a l e s t i n e ,
i.e. p r o b a b l y to 1 0 0 - 6 4 B . C . ' ' ' ^ F o r a n o t h e r g r o u p o f s c h o l a r s — E .
S j o b e r g a m o n g t h e m — t h e a l l u s i o n c o n c e r n s t h e P a r t h i a n i n v a s i o n of
P a l e s t i n e in 4 0 B . C ' ^
A n e w s i t u a t i o n arose w i t h t h e d i s c o v e r y o f t h e A r a m a i c f r a g m e n t s
from Q u m r a n . T h e a b s e n c e o f a n y a t t e s t a t i o n of t h e P a r a b l e s i n C a v e 4
h a s led J . T . M i l i k to c o n c l u d e ( p p . 8 9 - 9 6 ) t h a t B o o k I I ( c h a p t e r s
3 7 - 7 1 ) o f t h e E t h i o p i c v e r s i o n was n o t p a r t of t h e A r a m a i c E n o c h ; t h a t
it d i d n o t exist a t all i n p r e - C h r i s t i a n t i m e s ; t h a t it was a G r e e k
Christian composition inspired b y the Gospels, a n d inserted b y a
C h r i s t i a n r e d a c t o r into I E n o c h t o r e p l a c e t h e r e t h e B o o k o f G i a n t s ;
t h a t E n o c h 5 6 : 5 - 7 hints at t h e m i d - t h i r d century A . D . attacks on Syria
a n d P a l e s t i n e by t h e P e r s i a n s a n d P a l m y r e n e s ; a n d t h a t a c c o r d i n g l y
t h e c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e B o o k o f P a r a b l e s s h o u l d b e d a t e d to ' a r o u n d t h e
y e a r A . D . 270 or s h o r t l y a f t e r w a r d s ' (p. 96). A s r e g a r d s t h e i n s e r t i o n of
t h i s w o r k i n t o the Book o f E n o c h , M i U k n o t e s t h a t n o p a t r i s t i c reference
to it is e x t a n t f r o m t h e first four c e n t u r i e s ( p p . 9 1 - 2 ) , a n d t h a t the
c o m p l e t e G r e e k f o r m o f t h e P e n t a t e u c h of E n o c h , f r o m w h i c h t h e
E t h i o p i c t r a n s l a t i o n derives, d o e s n o t a n t e d a t e t h e sixth or t h e s e v e n t h
century, about which time the stichometry circulating under the n a m e
of the P a t r i a r c h o f C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , N i c e p h o r u s , m a y h a v e b e e n first
c o m p i l e d (p. 7 7 ) .
S c h o l a r l y o p i n i o n h a s s o far s h o w n little i n c l i n a t i o n t o w a r d s
a c c e p t i n g M i l i k ' s thesis. I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e r e is q u a s i - u n i v e r s a l dis
agreement w i t h t h e dating of the Parables to t h e late third century
A . D . a n d t h e i r a t t r i b u t i o n to a C h r i s t i a n a u t h o r . T h e u s e of t h e ' S o n of
M a n ' a n d ' E l e c t ' i m a g e r y in t h e c o n t e x t of u n i v e r s a l j u d g e m e n t
c o m m o n to t h e P a r a b l e s a n d c e r t a i n G o s p e l p a s s a g e s c a n scarcely
r e v e a l a C h r i s t i a n h a n d b e h i n d t h i s section o f E n o c h in the a b s e n c e of
a n y t y p i c a l t r a i t r e l a t i n g to t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e
life a n d t e a c h i n g of J e s u s . I n this case, lack of r e f e r e n c e i n p a t r i s t i c
l i t e r a t u r e to t h e B o o k of P a r a b l e s h a s n o e v i d e n t i a l v a l u e p r o v i n g a l a t e ,
p o s t - A . D . 400 d a t e . T h e thesis of t h e P e n t a t e u c h f o r m o f E n o c h is also
p u r e l y c o n j e c t u r a l . T h e E t h i o p i c version h a p p e n s t o c o n t a i n five
s e c d o n s , b u t this fact d o e s n o t justify t h e c l a i m t h a t f r o m its i n c e p t i o n
t h e c o m p o s i t e w o r k w a s by d e f i n i t i o n fivefold, a n d to s p e c u l a t e o n the
s u b s t i t u t i o n , b y a G r e e k C h r i s t i a n r e d a c t o r , of t h e P a r a b l e s for the
original A r a m a i c Book of Giants.
T h e s e flimsy theories a p a r t , M i l i k ' s r e c o n s t r u c t i o n i n c l u d e s o n e p o i n t
14. A P O T I I , p . 222.
15. Der Menschensohn im dthiopischen Henochbuch (1946), p . 39.
r e q u i r i n g serious c o n s i d e r a t i o n . It c o n c e r n s , needless to s a y , t h e lack of

a t t e s t a t i o n of t h e P a r a b l e s at Q u m r a n . S o m e s c h o l a r s a r e p r e p a r e d t o
d e c l a r e this t o be p u r e l y a c c i d e n t a l a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y d e v o i d of
significance.'^ B u t if it is b o r n e in m i n d t h a t t h e Q u m r a n sect s h o w e d
c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e r e s t in t h e E n o c h l i t e r a t u r e , a s is a p p a r e n t f r o m t h e
q u a n t i t y of m a n u s c r i p t s d i s c o v e r e d in C a v e 4, t h e t o t a l a b s e n c e of
m a t e r i a l r e l a t i v e to t h e P a r a b l e s is n o t w i t h o u t significance.''' But t o
infer from the silence of Q u m r a n , a s M i l i k a n d s o m e of h i s critics d o ,
t h a t the h y p o t h e s i s t h a t t h e P a r a b l e s w e r e c o m p o s e d after t h e end of
the E s s e n e o c c u p a t i o n of Q u m r a n m e a n s t h a t we a r e d e a l i n g w i t h a
C h r i s t i a n c o m p o s i t i o n , is a logical fallacy, a p o i n t well m a d e b y M . A .
Knibb.'^
T h e second t o p i c r e q u i r i n g f u r t h e r e x a m i n a t i o n before the d a t e of
o r i g i n of the P a r a b l e s is d e t e r m i n e d c o n c e r n s c h a p t e r 56:5—7, t h e
allusion t o the P a r t h i a n a n d M e d e i n v a s i o n . E. S j o b e r g ' s t h e o r y t h a t t h e
e v e n t e n v i s a g e d is t h e P a r t h i a n a t t a c k o n P a l e s t i n e i n 40 B . C . h a s b e e n
r e - s t a t e d by G r e e n f i e l d a n d S t o n e (p. 60), a n d m o r e t e n t a t i v e l y b y
Nickelsburg (JLBBM, p. 221). T w o further hypotheses have been added
in r e c e n t y e a r s . A c c o r d i n g to t h e first, E n o c h 5 6 : 5 - 7 is s e e n as r e f e r r i n g
to t h e P a r t h i a n defeat o f T r a j a n i n A.D. 1 1 5 - 1 7 a n d to a s u b s e q u e n t
i m a g i n a r y a d v a n c e o n t h e H o l y L a n d . ' ^ I n t h e second r e c o n s t r u c t i o n ,
' P a r t h i a n ' s t a n d s as a s o b r i q u e t for ' R o m a n ' , a n d the e p i s o d e h i n t e d a t is
P e t r o n i u s ' mission to J e r u s a l e m t o install C a l i g u l a ' s effigy in t h e
J e r u s a l e m Temple.^*' N o n e of these i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s is c o n v i n c i n g , for t h e
p i c t u r e o u t l i n e d i n 56:5—7 ( i n v a s i o n of Palestine b y P a r t h i a n s a n d
M e d e s , h a l t e d by ' t h e city of m y c h o s e n o n e s ' a n d t u r n i n g i n t o
i n t e r n e c i n e strife) is v e r y d i s t a n t f r o m a n y of t h e so-called a p p l i c a t i o n s .
It is therefore p r e f e r a b l e to c o n s i d e r the p a s s a g e , w h i c h e n d s w i t h t h e
d e p i c t i o n of S h e o l s w a l l o w i n g u p t h e a t t a c k e r s , as essentially e s c h a t o
logical a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y unfit for h i s t o r i c a l s p e c u l a t i o n . ' "
16. Cf. e.g. Nickelsburg, J L B B M , p . 221 ; J. C. Greenfield a n d M . E. Stone, ' T h e

Enochic Pentateuch and the D a t e of t h e Similitudes', H T h R 70 (1977), p p . 5 5 - 6 ; D. W .
Suter, 'Weighed i n the Balance : The Similitudes of Enoch in Recent Discussion', Rel. St.
Rev. 7 (1981), p. 217.
17. The parallel of Esther proposed by Greenfield and Stone is an ill-chosen and facile
argument (p. 55). Not only is the Book of Esther known t o have existed d u r i n g say the
first century A.D., thanks to the Septuagint a n d Josephus, but its non-attestation a m o n g
the Dead Sea Scrolls could b e explained i n m a n y ways, some of which are listed by
Greenfield and Stone.
18. 'The Date of the Parables of E n o c h : A Cridcal Review', N T S t 25 (1980), p . 348.
19. J. C. Hindley, 'Towards the D a t e of t h e Similitudes of Enoch', N T S t 14 (1967/8),
PP- 557-65-
20. D. W . Suter, Tradition and Composition in the Parables of Enoch (1979), pp. 29-32 ; art.
cit. (in n. 55), p. 218.
2 1 . See K n i b b ' s pertinent remarks i n art. cit. (in n . 18), p . 355. It is worth n o d n g t h a t
from A.D. 70 onwards t h e only power capable of challenging R o m e was the Parthian
I n s u m , w h e r e a s t h e r e is g e n e r a l a g r e e m e n t a m o n g c o n t e m p o r a r y
s t u d e n t s of E n o c h in r e j e c t i n g M i l i k ' s l a t e d a t i n g a n d C h r i s t i a n
a t t r i b u t i o n of t h e P a r a b l e s , o p i n i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e i r t i m e of o r i g i n a n d
r e l a t i o n s h i p t o the ' S o n of M a n ' t e r m i n o l o g y in t h e G o s p e l s still v a r y
g r e a t l y . N e v e r t h e l e s s t h e r e s e e m s t o be a g r o w i n g t e n d e n c y t o w a r d s
p l a c i n g this s e c t i o n of E n o c h i n t h e first c e n t u r y A . D . T h e d a t e s r a n g e
from ' a r o u n d the t u r n o f t h e e r a ' ( N i c k e l s b u r g , p . 2 2 3 ) ; ' s o m e t i m e
d u r i n g t h e first c e n t u r y C . E . ' ( G r e e n f i e l d a n d S t o n e , p . 6 0 ) ; 'not . . .
m u c h before 70 C . E . ' ( S u t e r , p . 2 1 8 ) ; ' t h e e n d of t h e first c e n t u r y A . D . '
( K n i b b , p . 3 5 9 ) . H o w e v e r , o n a c c o u n t of t h e t h e m e s c o m m o n to t h e
P a r a b l e s , 2 B a r u c h a n d 4 E z r a , n o t e d by K n i b b ( p p . 3 5 8 - 9 ) , t h e
possible c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h the G o s p e l of M a t t h e w , ' ' ^ a n d t h e c o n c e p t of
a p r e - e x i s t e n t , c o n c e a l e d a n d r e v e a l e d M e s s i a h , a t t e s t e d i n t h e late first
a n d in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y sources,'^^ it is justifiable to s u g g e s t the last
q u a r t e r of t h e first C h r i s t i a n c e n t u r y as t h e m o s t likely p e r i o d for t h e
w r i t i n g o f t h e P a r a b l e s o f Enoch.'''^
Since the P a r a b l e s a r e e x t a n t o n l y in E t h i o p i c , t h e i r o r i g i n a l
l a n g u a g e r e m a i n s t o s o m e e x t e n t a t least p r o b l e m a t i c . T h e l i n g u i s t i c
b a c k g r o u n d o f E n o c h i n g e n e r a l (see b e l o w , p . 260), a n d t h e ' S o n of
M a n ' t e r m i n o l o g y i n p a r t i c u l a r , s t r o n g l y suggest a n A r a m a i c Vorlage.
T h i s v i e w w a s first a d v a n c e d b y N . Smith;''^ a n d m o r e r e c e n t l y ,
E d w a r d UUendorflf has a r g u e d in f a v o u r of t h e P a r a b l e s a n d m u c h
further E n o c h m a t e r i a l h a v i n g b e e n t r a n s l a t e d into E t h i o p i c b o t h f r o m
t h e G r e e k a n d from the A r a m a i c . ^ ^ M . A . K n i b b , w h i l s t p o s t u l a t i n g t h e
a v a i l a b i l i t y o f a G r e e k v e r s i o n to t h e E t h i o p i c t r a n s l a t o r , also
d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t the r e a d i n g o f c e r t a i n p a s s a g e s in the P a r a b l e s
d e p e n d s o n a S e m i t i c , a n d m o r e precisely A r a m a i c , original.''^
empire. T h e ensuing upheaval was i m a g i n e d , according to sayings attributed to second

century rabbis, a s a preparation for t h e days of the Messiah. ' T h e r e is not a single p a l m
tree in Babylon t o which a Persian horse (D'inD 010) will not be d e d , and not a single
coffin in t h e land of Israel from which a M e d i a n horse [bV] 010) will n o t be eating
h a y ' (R. Yose b e n Kisma in bSanh. gSab). ' W h e n you see a Persian horse tethered i n the
land of Israel, t h e n look for t h e footsteps of the Messiah' (R. Simeon b e n Yohai in L a m .
R. 1:13 {î);d. J. Neusner, A History of t/ie Jews in Babylonia I (1965), p . 79).
22. Cf J . Theisohn, Der auserwdhlte Richter. Untersuchungen zum traditionsgeschichtlichen Ort
der Menschensohngestalt der Bilderreden des dthiopischen Henoch (1975), pp. 149-82 ; Suter, op.
cit. (in n. 59), p p . 2 5 - 9 ; D. R . Catchpole, ' T h e Poor o n Earth and t h e Son of M a n in
H e a v e n : A Re-Appraisal of M a t t h e w X X V . 3 1 - 4 6 ' , BJRL 61 (1979), p p . 355-97.
23. G. Vermes, Jesus the Jew (1973, ^1983), p. 176. Cf also vol. I I , p p . 520-2.
24. G. Vermes, The Deed Sea Scrolls: Qumran in Perspective (1977, ^^1982), p. 2 2 3 ; K n i b b ,
art. cit., p p . 358-9.
25. ' T h e Original Language of the Parables of Enoch', i n R. E . H a r p e r et al. (eds.). Old
Testament and Semitic Studies in memory of W. R. Harper II (1908), p p . 329-49.
26. 'An Aramaic " V o r l a g e " of the Ethiopic Text of Enoch?', Atti del Convegno
Interrmzionale di Studi Etiopici ( i 9 6 0 ) , p p . 259—67; Ethiopia and the Bible (1968), p p . 6 1 - 2 .
27. M. A . K n i b b with the assistance of E d w a r d Ullendorff, The Ethiopic Book of Enoch. A
Mew Edition in the Light of the Aramaic Fragments II (1978), p p . 37-46.
26o §32. Jewish Literature in Hebrew or Aramaic
Noachic Portions. E x t r a c t s from a B o o k o f N o a h h a v e b e e n i n s e r t e d in

v a r i o u s p l a c e s of E n o c h . T h e w o r k is m e n t i o n e d i n J u b . 1 0 : 1 3 ^^'^
2 1 : 1 0 , a n d f r a g m e n t s of t h i s t y p e h a v e b e e n identified at Q u m r a n (see
p . 3 3 2 ) . C h a p t e r s 5 4 : 7 - 5 5 : 2 , 60:65—69:25 a n d 1 0 6 - 7 definitely b e l o n g
to s u c h a n earlier w o r k . C h a r l e s a d d s to this list c h a p t e r s 6 - 1 1 a n d 60
( A P O T I I , p . 168).''^ T h e a p p e n d i x a l r e a d y a t t e s t e d i n ^QEnocU in
A r a m a i c m a y b e s e e n as a f o r w a r d l o o k t o w a r d s the successor o f E n o c h
in t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f a n t e d i l u v i a n w i s d o m (Milik, p . 184).
I n r e g a r d t o the r e d a c t i o n o f E n o c h , j u d g e m e n t s h o u l d be r e s e r v e d
c o n c e r n i n g t h e s t a t u s of t h e Book of G i a n t s u n t i l t h e p u b l i c a t i o n of t h e
full evidence. M a n u s c r i p t c from C a v e 4 of Q u m r a n suggests t h a t b y
t h e first c e n t u r y B . C . at least t h r e e o f the five s e c t i o n s (Books I , I V a n d
V ) w e r e i n c l u d e d i n a single scroll. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y , p e r h a p s , t h e s e
a r e also t h e t h r e e b o o k s e x t a n t in G r e e k t r a n s l a t i o n . ' ' ^ T h e B o o k of t h e
H e a v e n l y L i g h t s , w i t h its c a l e n d r i c a n d a s t r o n o m i c a l lore, even t h o u g h
c o p i e d s e p a r a t e l y , seems to b e p r e s u p p o s e d i n the rest o f the E n o c h i c
c o r p u s . T h e i n c l u s i o n of t h e B o o k o f P a r a b l e s m u s t h a v e followed close
on its c o m p l e t i o n , for t h e r e is no e v i d e n c e o f any J e w i s h w o r k m o r e
r e c e n t t h a n t h e l a t e first to early s e c o n d c e n t u r y A . D . h a v i n g b e e n
r e c o g n i z e d as c o m m o n t r e a s u r e a n d i n h e r i t e d b y the C h r i s t i a n C h u r c h .
A p a r t from the P a r a b l e s , s u r v i v i n g o n l y in E t h i o p i c t r a n s l a t i o n , t h e
o r i g i n a l l a n g u a g e of t h e b u l k of t h e Book of E n o c h is n o l o n g e r
c o n t r o v e r s i a l . All t h e Q u m r a n f r a g m e n t s a r e i n A r a m a i c . I t is
i n t e r e s t i n g to r e c o r d t h a t a m o n g t h o s e n i n e t e e n t h a n d e a r l y t w e n t i e t h
c e n t u r y s c h o l a r s w h o h a v e m a d e t h e r i g h t c h o i c e , a r e , in a d d i t i o n to N .
S m i t h a l r e a d y c i t e d , I s r a e l Levi ( R E J 26 ( 1 8 9 3 ) , p . 149) ; J u l i u s
W e l l h a u s e n {Skizzen und Vorarbeiten V I (1899), p . 2 4 1 ) ; a n d E m i l
S c h i i r e r ( I I I , p . 2 8 3 ) . R . H . C h a r l e s [The Ethiopic Version of the Book of
Enoch (1906), p p . xxvii-xxxiii) c o r r e c t l y p r o p o s e d A r a m a i c as t h e
l a n g u a g e of c h a p t e r s 6 - 3 6 , b u t c o n s i d e r e d t h e rest o f the w o r k to h a v e
o r i g i n a t e d in H e b r e w .
F o r t h e l e g e n d o f E n o c h , see (beside G e n . 5:18—24) E c c l u s . 4 4 : 1 6 ;

4 9 : 1 4 ; H e b . 1 1 : 5 ; J u d e 1 4 ; I r e n a e u s v 5 , i ; T e r t u l l i a n , De Anima 5 0 ;
H i p p o l y t u s , De Christo et Antichristo 4 3 - 7 ; Gospel of Nicodemus (= Acts of
Pilate) 2 5 ; History of Joseph the Carpenter 3 0 - 2 . S e e further a r t . E n o c h , J E
V , p p . 1 7 8 - 9 ; E n c . J u d . 6, cols. 7 9 3 - 5 ; H . O d e b e r g , art. 'Evd)x, T D N T
I I , pp. 556-60.
28. Cf. Chariesworth, P M R S , pp. 166-7.

29. If MiUk is correct in identifying fr. 3 of O x y r h y n c h u s Papyrus 2069 (pubhshed by
A. S. H u n t , The Oxyrhynchus Papyri xvii (1927), p p . 6-8) as Enoch 77:7-78:1, 8, t h e n a
Greek recension of Book I I I (chapters 72—82) would also be documented. Cf Milik,
' F r a g m e n t s grecs du Livre d ' H e n o c h (P. O x y . xvii 2069)', Chronique d'Egypte 46 (1971),
p p . 321-43. K n i b b {Enoch I I , p. 21) rightly points o u t , however, t h a t owing to the
smallness of the fragment, its evidential significance is negligible.
O n t h e use of E n o c h i n J e w i s h H t e r a t u r e , see R. H . C h a r l e s , The Book

of Enoch (''1912), p p . I x x - l x x i x ; F. M a r t i n , Le livre d'Henoch (1906), p p .
cvi-cxii.
A r e m a r k b y a J e w i s h or S a m a r i t a n H e l l e n i s t i c w r i t e r (referred t o as
E u p o l e m u s ) t o t h e effect t h a t E n o c h w a s t h e i n v e n t o r of a s t r o l o g y
i n a s m u c h as h e l e a r n t it f r o m t h e a n g e l s , w h i c h w a s i n c l u d e d by
A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r in his l a s t w o r k . On the Jews, a n d survives in a n
e x c e r p t b y E u s e b i u s , p r o b a b l y rests u p o n a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h o u r b o o k .
( O n t h e i d e n t i t y o f E u p o l e m u s , see p . 5 1 9 below.) C f E u s e b i u s , Praep.
ev. ix 1 7 , 8 ( e d . K . M r a s ) : TOXJTOV evprjKcvai npcoTov rrfv darpoXoyiav. Cf.
ibid. 17, 9: TOV hk 'Evwx yeveaOai vlov MaOovaaXdv, ov Trdvra hi' dyyeXoiv
Oeov yvcovai, Kat 'qp.ds ovrois eTTiyvwvai. S e e M i l i k , op. cit., p p . 6—9.
I n t h e B o o k of J u b i l e e s , t h e B o o k of E n o c h is c o p i o u s l y used a n d
i n d e e d e x p l i c i t l y q u o t e d , 4:17—24 (cf. R. H . C h a r l e s , The Book of Jubilees
(1902), p p . 3 7 - 8 ; A P O T H , p p . 1 8 - 1 9 ) .
I n t h e Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs reference is expressly m a d e to
t h e E n o c h w r i t i n g s in n i n e p a s s a g e s . I n five i n s t a n c e s t h e r e f e r e n c e is
f o u n d i n a h G r e e k m a n u s c r i p t s : T. Simeon 5 : 4 ; T. Levi 1 0 : 5 ; T. Dan
5:6; T. Naphtali 4 : 1 ; T. Benjamin 9:1 ( n o t i n the A r m e n i a n ) . I n four
p a s s a g e s the r e f e r e n c e is f o u n d o n l y in o n e g r o u p o f m a n u s c r i p t s , )3 : T.
Levi 14:1 a n d 16:1 ; T. Juda 1 8 : 1 ; T. êbulun 3:4. I n t h e last case, t h e
o t h e r m a n u s c r i p t s h a v e Mojvaeojs i n s t e a d oiEvd^x — b u t t h e a n a c h r o n
istic allusion t o M o s e s is d u e p r o b a b l y to t h e i n a d v e r t e n c e o f a l a t e r
copyist i n s p i r e d b y the m e n t i o n of t h e ' M o s a i c ' r i t u a l p r e s c r i b e d in t h e
case of t h e refusal of L e v i r a t e m a r r i a g e (Dt. 25:7—9). T h e q u o t a t i o n s
c a n n o t b e f o u n d i n a n y of t h e e x t a n t v e r s i o n s of E n o c h , n e i t h e r in t h e -
E t h i o p i c text, n o r i n t h e S l a v o n i c B o o k o f E n o c h m e n t i o n e d b e l o w ( p p .
7 4 6 - 5 0 ) , a n d t h e y a p p e a r t o b e the f a b r i c a t i o n of t h e a u t h o r or
i n t e r p o l a t o r w h i c h he p e r p e t r a t e d b e c a u s e h e w i s h e d t o a p p e a l t o a
w r i t t e n a u t h o r i t y . E v e n so, i t c a n be c o n c l u d e d from t h e q u o t a t i o n s
t h a t by t h e t i m e o f the a u t h o r w r i t t e n m a t e r i a l c o n c e r n i n g E n o c h w a s
a l r e a d y i n e x i s t e n c e . T h e m e n t i o n of Ey-yp-qyopes ( w a t c h e r s , a n g e l s ) in
T. Reuben 5 : 6 - 7 a n d T. Naphtali 3:5 w o u l d a p p e a r to d e r i v e f r o m I
Enoch.
F o r r a b b i n i c w o r k s o n E n o c h , see 3 E n o c h , b e l o w p p . 2 6 9 - 7 7 .
E n o c h in t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t : eTr/ao^Tyreuaev Se KOI TOVTOIS ejSSo/xo?
drro 'ASdp, Êvoix Xeywv ( E p i s t l e of J u d e 1 4 ) , c i t i n g E n o c h i :9. J u d e 6 also
goes b a c k d o u b t l e s s to E n o c h 10. F o r a list of N e w T e s t a m e n t passages
which m a y h a v e been influenced b y Enoch, see Charles, A P O T II, pp.
180-1.
P a t r i s t i c t e s t i m o n i a : Q u o t a t i o n s from E n o c h a p p e a r i n the E p i s t l e of
B a r n a b a s : TO reXeiov oKavhaXov yjyyiKev rrepl ov yiypamai d)s 'Evd)x Aeyei
( 4 : 3 ) ; Aeyei ydp rj ypa<j)ri (16:5), followed by a n E n o c h c i t a t i o n . J u s t i n
M a r t y r , Apologia ii 5 (ed. O t t o ) , s p e a k s o f t h e fall of t h e a n g e l s .
e v i d e n t l y referring to E n o c h 7. I r e n a e u s , Adversus Haereses i v 16, 2

(ed. H a r v e y ) : 'Sed e t E n o c h s i n e c i r c u m c i s i o n e p l a c e n s D e o , c u m esset
h o m o , D e i l e g a t i o n e a d angelos f u n g e b a t u r et t r a n s l a t u s est et
c o n s e r v a t u r u s q u e n u n c testis iusti iudicii D e i . ' T e r t u l l i a n , De cultu
feminarum i 3 : ' S c i o s c r i p t u r a m E n o c h , q u a e h u n c o r d i n e m angelis
d e d i t , n o n recipi a q u i b u s d a m , q u i a n e c i n a r m a r i u m l u d a i c u m
admittitur. Opinor, non putaverunt illam ante cataclysmum editam
p o s t e u m c a s u m o r b i s o m n i u m r e r u m a b o l i t o r e m s a l v a m esse p o t u i s s e
T e r t u l l i a n goes o n to p o i n t o u t h o w this w a s p o s s i b l e , a n d
c o n t i n u e s : ' S e d c u m E n o c h e a d e m s c r i p t u r a e t i a m de d o m i n o
p r a e d i c a r i t , a n o b i s q u i d e m nihil o m n i n o r e i c i e n d u m est, q u o d
p e r t i n e a t ad n o s . E t l e g i m u s o m n e m s c r i p t u r a m aedificationi h a b i l e m
d i v i n i t u s i n s p i r a r i . A l u d a e i s p o t e s t i a m v i d e r i p r o p t e r e a r e i e c t a , sicut
et c e t e r a fere q u a e C h r i s t u m s o n a n t . . . E o a c c e d i t , q u o d E n o c h a p u d
l u d a m a p o s t o l u m t e s t i m o n i u m possidet.' T h e w h o l e of t h e b e g i n n i n g of
c h a p t e r 2 s h o u l d also be c o m p a r e d , t h e s u b j e c t of w h i c h is t a k e n f r o m
E n o c h . C f ibid, ii 1 0 : ( i i d e m a n g e l i ) ' d a m n a t i a D e o s u n t , u t E n o c h
refert.' De idolatria 4: ' A n t e c e s s e r a t E n o c h p r a e d i c e n s . . . ' Ibid. 1 5 :
' H a e c i g i t u r a b i n i t i o p r a e v i d e n s s p i t i t u s s a n c t u s [!] e t i a m ostia in
superstitionem ventura praececinit per antiquissimum propheten
E n o c h . ' C o n c e r n i n g t h e t e s t i m o n y o f T e r t u l l i a n , see also t h e d i s c u s s i o n
in T h . Z a h n , Geschichte des neutestamentlichen Kanons I, p p . 1 2 0 - 2 .
Clement of A l e x a n d r i a , Eclogae prophetarum 2, i (ed. Stahhn) :
" EvXoyT]iJi€vos €1 6 jSAeTTcuv d^vaaovs, Kad-qfievos irrl Xepov^lp" 6 Aavir^X
Xeyei 6p,oho^d)v TU) ÊVOJX TCO elpTjKOTi "n-ai etSov r d vXas rrdaas" Ibid. 5 3 ,
4 ( e d . S t a h l i n ) : •^817 Se Kal Êvd>x (f>rjaiv TOVS rrapa^dvTas dyyeXovs SiSaât
Toifs dvdpo)vovs doTpovopLiav Kal pavTiKrjv Kal r d ? dAAas Texyas- Celsus
e n d e a v o u r s t o s h o w , a c c o r d i n g t o O r i g e n , Contra Celsum v 5 2 ( e d .
K o e t s c h a u ) t h a t C h r i s t i a n s w o u l d c o n t r a d i c t themselves if t h e y s a i d
t h a t C h r i s t w a s t h e o n l y dyy^Xos sent i n t o t h e w o r l d b y G o d . A s
e v i d e n c e h e q u o t e s t h e f o l l o w i n g : eXdetv yap Kal dXXovs Xeyovai TroAAd/ct?
Kal opov ye eîy/covTa 17 e^Bopf^KOVTa- ovs Srj yeviadai KOKOVS KOI
KoXdt,€a9ai Seap-ois VTro^XrjOevTas ev yfj, odev Kal rds Oeppds Trrjyds etvai
rd €K€iva)v SaKpva. . . I n t h e c o m m e n t a r y o n this p a s s a g e , Origen
r e m a r k s (ibid, v 54—5) t h a t t h e story is t a k e n f r o m t h e B o o k of E n o c h ,
b u t Celsus h a d o b v i o u s l y n o t r e a d t h e b o o k himself b u t k n e w it only b y
h e a r s a y , for h e does n o t m e n t i o n t h e a u t h o r b y n a m e . Ibid, v 54 : ev r a t ?
iKKXrjaiais ov irdw ^ e p e r a i chs dda r d iTTiyeypapipeva TOV 'EVCOX j8tj8Aia.
O r i g e n , De principiis i 3, 3 (ed. K o e t s c h a u ) : ' S e d et in E n o c h l i b r o his
similia d e s c r i b u n t u r . ' iv, 3 5 : ' S e d et i n l i b r o s u o E n o c h i t a a i t :
"ambulavi usque a d imperfectum" [Enoch 2 1 : 1 ] . . . scriptum n a m q u e
est i n e o d e m libello d i c e n t e E n o c h : " U n i v e r s a s m a t e r i a s p e r s p e x i " . ' In
Mumeros homilia 28, 2 ( e d . B a e h r e n s ) : ' D e q u i b u s q u i d e m n o m i n i b u s
p l u r i m a in libellis, q u i a p p e l l a n t u r E n o c h , secreta c o n t i n e n t u r et
n e n t u r e a r c a n a : s e d q u i a libelli i s d n o n v i d e n t u r a p u d H e b r a e o s in
auctoritate haberi, interim n u n c ea, q u a e ibi nominantur, ad
e x e m p l u m v o c a r e d i f f e r a m u s . ' In lohannem 6 4 2 ( e d . P r e u s c h e n ) : dis ev
TU> 'Evd)x yiypavrai, €i TW ^lAov TrapaSexeadat d)g dyiov T O jSijSAtov.
A n a t o l i u s , in E u s e b i u s , Historia ecclesiastica vii 3 2 , 19 (ed. S c h w a r t z ) : rov

he rov TTpojTOV irap' 'E^paioig pL'^va rrepl larjpepLav eivac irapaaraTiKa. Kal
rd iv Tip 'Evdix p-adripLara. H i l a r i u s , Commentarius in Psalmum 1 3 2 , vi ( e d .
Z i n g e r l e ) cites E n o c h , w i t h o u t n a m i n g h i m , w i t h t h e f o r m u l a : ' f e r t u r
a u t e m id, d e q u o etiam nescio cuius liber extat, quod angeli
c o n c u p i s c e n t e s fihas h o m i n u m . . . ' P r i s c i l l i a n [c. 3 8 0 ) , Tractatus iii,
56—7 ( e d . S c h e p s s ) , justifies h i s use of t h e b o o k as a p r o p h e t i c w o r k b y
a p p e a l i n g t o t h e a u t h o r i t y of J u d e a n d P a u l : 'Qjais est h i e E n o c q u e m
in t e s t i m o n i u m p r o f e t i a e a p o s t o l u s l u d a s a d s u m p s i t ? . . . A u t fortassis
E n o c p r o f e t a esse n o n m e r u i t q u e m P a u l u s i n e p i s t u l a a d H e b r a e o s
facta a n t e t r a n s l a t i o n e m t e s t i m o n i u m h a b u i s s e t e s t a t u r . . . D e q u o si
n o n a m b i g i t u r et apostolis c r e d i t u r q u o d p r o f e t a e s t . . . ' A u g u s t i n e is
o b l i g e d to a c k n o w l e d g e : 'Scripsisse q u i d e m n o n n u l l a d i v i n e i l i u m
E n o c h s e p t i m u m a b A d a m , n e g a r e non possumus, c u m h o c i n epistula
c a n o n i c a l u d a s a p o s t o l u s d i c a t ' ; n e v e r t h e l e s s h e rejects 'ilia q u a e s u b
eius n o m i n e p r o f e r u n t u r et c o n t i n e n t istas d e g i g a n t i b u s f a b u l a s ' (De
civitate Dei x v 2 3 ; cf. xviii 38). J e r o m e , De viris illustribus 4 : ' l u d a s frater
lacobi p a r v a m , q u a e d e septem catholicis est, epistolam reliquit. E t
q u i a d e l i b r o E n o c h , q u i a p o c r y p h u s est, in e a a s s u m i t t e s t i m o n i u m , a
p l e r i s q u e r e i i c i t u r . . . ' Commentarius in Epistolam ad Titum i 1 2 : ' Q u i
a u t e m p u t a n t t o t u m l i b r u m d e b e r e s e q u i e u m , q u i libri p a r t e usus sit,
v i d e n t u r m i h i et a p o c r y p h u m E n o c h i , d e q u o a p o s t o l u s l u d a s in
epistola s u a t e s t i m o n i u m p o s u i t , i n t e r ecclesiae s c r i p t u r a s r e c i p e r e . '
J o h n C a s s i a n gives in h i s Collationes viii 2 0 - 1 , v i a t h e m o u t h o f a m o n k
called S e r e n u s , a n e x p o s i t i o n of G e n e s i s 6 w h i c h i s i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e
p r e s e n t a t i o n i n t h e Book of E n o c h ( H . J . L a w l o r , ' T h e Book o f E n o c h
in t h e E g y p t i a n C h u r c h ' , in Hermathena 3 0 (1904), p p . 1 7 8 - 8 3 ) . G e o r g e
S y n c e l l u s q u o t e s s e v e r a l l e n g t h y p a s s a g e s {Chronography, e d . D i n d o r f , i,
20—3 a n d 42—7) w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g f o r m u l a e of i n t r o d u c t i o n : CK TOV
TipOiTOV j3lj3AlOU T O U ÊvCOX (h ^S)] rOV TTpWTOV /3lj3AlOU *EvU)X TTCpi TCOV
iyprjyopcov (i, 20); €K TOV Trpwrov Xoyov 'Evdix (i, 4 2 j ; €K TOXJ TTpcoTov
jSijSAiou *Evd}x rrepl TOJV iyprjyopcov (i, 47^. H . G e l z e r , in h i s Sextus Julius
Africanus und die byzantinische Chronographie I, i ( 1 8 8 5 ) , p p . 2 6 2 - 4 , h a s
convincingly s h o w n t h a t Syncellus has taken the passages, n o t directly
from E n o c h , b u t from t h e A l e x a n d r i a n c h r o n i c l e r P a n o d o r u s {c. A.D.
400). Cf. D e n i s , I P G A T , p p . 1 7 - 1 8 ; M i l i k , op. cit., p p . 1 8 - 1 9 . I n t h e
S t i c h o m e t r y o f N i c e p h o r u s , a n d t h e Synopsis o f A t h a n a s i u s , t h e B o o k of
E n o c h s t a n d s a m o n g s t t h e A p o c r y p h a . O n t h e s e t w o w o r k s , see b e l o w ,
p . 297. T h i s is t r u e also of t h a t a n o n y m o u s i n v e n t o r y of t h e c a n o n ,
o n w h i c h see b e l o w , p p . 2 9 7 - 8 . Apostolic Constitutions vi 16 ( e d . F u n k ) : Kaliv
264 ^0^2. Jewish Literature in Hebrew or Aramaic
rols TTaXaiois 84 rive? avv4ypaipav /3i/3Ata d77-dK:pi»<â Mioaicos Kat

'Evujx Kat !(4Sd/Li 'Haa'i'ov re Kat Aa^tS Kai 'HXia Kat TCOV Tpicov IRATPIAPXCOV,
(f>6OPOTTOID Kat rrjs dXrjdeias ix^pd. I n s p i t e of its r e j e c t i o n b y t h e official

Church, the book has maintained its i n f l u e n c e in some circles, not
o n l y i n t o the M i d d l e A g e s b u t r i g h t to t h e p r e s e n t d a y ( t h u s in t h e
E t h i o p i a n C h u r c h ) . See t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e s u b s e c t i o n a n d t h e n o t e s
f o l l o w i n g on t h e e x t a n t t e x t s . F o r f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e P a t r i s t i c
t e s t i m o n i a , see H . J . L a w l o r , ' E a r l y C i t a t i o n s f r o m t h e B o o k of E n o c h ' ,
Journal of Philology 2 5 ( 1 8 9 7 ) , p p . 1 6 4 - 2 2 5 ; F . M a r t i n , Le livre d'Henoch
(1906), pp. cxxiii-cxxxvi; Charles, APOT II, pp. 181-4; Denis,
I P G A T , pp. 15-30.
Editions
(1) Aramaic fragments
Milik, J . T . , with the collaboration of M a t t h e w Black, The Books of Enoch: Aramaic
Fragments of Qumrdn Cave 4 (1976).
K n i b b , M . A., with the assistance of Edward Ullendorff, The Ethiopic Book of Enoch. A new
edition in the light of the Aramaic Dead Sea Fragments I-II (1978).
( 2 ) Greek text
(a) Fhe Akhmim Codex (Panopolitanus) : Enoch 1-32
Bouriant, U . , Fragments grecs du livre d'Hinoch. Memoires publics par les membres de la mission
archeologiquefranâise au Caire ix, i (1892), p p . 91 — 147.
Lods, A., Le livre d'Henoch. Fragments grecs decouverts d Akhmim (Haute-Egypte) (1892).
Charles, R . H., The Book of Enoch (1893, 1912).
Fleming, J . , and R a d e r m a c h e r , L., Das Buch Henoch (1901).
Swete, H. B., The Old Testament in Greek I I I ( * i 9 i 2 ) .
(b) The Chester Beatty-Michigan Papyrus: Enoch 97:6-107:3
Bonner, Campbell, The Last Chapters of Enoch in Greek (1937).
(c) Vaticanus Graecus i8og : Enoch 89:42-9
Mai, A., Nova Patrum Bibliotheca I I (1844).
Gildemeister, J . ' E i n Fragment des griechischen Henoch', Z D M G 9 (1855), pp. 621-4.
Gitlbauer, M., ' D i e Ueberreste griechischer T a c h y g r a p h i e im Codex V a d c a n u s graecus
1809', Denkschrift der kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften—Philosophisch-historische
Classe-2%{iQ-]^).
(d) Syncellus: Enoch 6:1-9:4; 8:4-10:14 ; 15:8-16:1
Dindorf, G . , Georgius Syncellus et Nicephorus Constantinopolitanus—Corpus Scriptorum Historiae
Byzantinae (1829).
Swete, H. B., The Old Testament in Greek (^1912) I I I , p p . 788-809, 897-9.
Flemming, J . , a n d R a d e m a c h e r , L., Das Buch Henoch, GCS 5 (1901),
Charles, R . H., The Book of Enoch (1893), p. 12.
(e) Oxyrhynchus Papyrus 2o6g: Enoch j-/:-j--j8:i, 8; 85:10-86:2; 87:1-3
Milik, J . T . , 'Fragments grecs d u livre d'Henoch ( P . O x y . xvii 2069)', Chronique d'Egypte
46 (1971), p p . 3 2 1 - 4 3 ; cf. A. S. H u n t , The Oxyrhynchus Papyri xvii (1927), p p .
6-8 (a possible identificadon).
T h e most comprehensive edition (Akhmim, Chester Beattie and Syncellus) is Apocalypsis
Henochi graece by M . Black (1970).
(3) Ethiopic version
Laurence, R., Libri Enoch Versio Aethiopica (1838).
Dillmann, A., Liber Enoch Aethiopice (1851).
Flemming, J . , Das Buch Henoch ( 1 9 0 2 ) .

Charles, R. H., The Ethiopic Version of the Book of Enoch ( 1 9 0 6 ) .
K n i b b , M. A., The Ethiopic Book of Enoch : A JVew Edition in the Light of the Aramaic Dead Sea
Fragments I - I I ( 1 9 7 8 ) . [ T h e most up-to-date edition, translation a n d c o m m e n t a r y
produced with the assistance of E d w a r d Ullendorff.] F o r a list of Ethiopic
manuscripts, see vol. II, p p . 2 3 - 7 .
(4) Latin version: Enoch 1 0 6 : 1 - 1 8 (abridged)
J a m e s , M. R., Apocrypha Anecdota [Texts and Studies ii.3] ( 1 8 9 3 ) , p p . 1 4 6 - 5 0 .
(5) Sjiriac version: Enoch 6 : 1 - 7

Brock, S. P . , 'A F r a g m e n t of Enoch in Syriac', J T h S t 19 ( 1 9 6 8 ) , p p . 626—31.
(6) Coptic version: Enoch 9 3 : 3 - 8
Donadoni, S., ' U n frammento della versione copte del " L i b r o di E n o c h ' " , Acta Orientalia
25 (i960), pp. 1 9 7 - 2 0 2 .
(7) Middle-Persian version : M a n i c h a e a n fragment of t h e Book of Enoch

Henning, W . , 'Ein manichiiisches H e n o c h b u c h ' , SAB, Philos.-hist. Kl. ( 1 9 3 4 ) , p p . 27—35.
Translations
(1) English
Laurence, R., The Book of Enoch the Prophet ( 1 8 2 1 ) .
Charles, R. H., The Book of Enoch ( 1 8 9 3 ; rev. 1 9 1 2 ) ; A P O T II, p p . 1 6 3 - 8 1 .
K n i b b , M . A., The Ethiopic Book of Enoch II ( 1 9 7 8 ) .
(2) German
Dillmann, A., Das Buch Henoch iibersetzt und erkldrt ( 1 8 5 3 ) .
Beer, G., in E. K a u t z s c h , A P A T II ( 1 9 0 0 ) , p p . 2 1 7 - 3 1 0 .
Flemming, J . , in J . Flemming a n d L. R a d e r m a c h e r , Das Buch Henoch ( 1 9 0 1 ) .
Riessler, P . , Altjiidisches Schrifttum ausserhalb der Bibel ( 1 9 2 8 ) , pp. 3 5 5 - 4 5 1 ; 1291—7.
(3) French
M a r t i n , F., Le livre de Henoch, traduit sur le texte ethiopien ( 1 9 0 6 ) .
(4) Italian
Fusella, L., Loprieno, A . , and Sacchi, P., 'Libro di E n o c ' , in P. Sacchi (ed.), Apocrifi
deU'Antico Testamento ( 1 9 8 1 ) , pp. 4 1 5 - 7 2 3 .
(5) Hebrew
Goldschmidt, Lazarus, Das Buch Henoch ( 1 8 9 2 ) .
K a h a n a , A . , and J . Feitlowitz, Ha-^farim ha-Hiionim (^1956).
Bibliography
A judiciously selected bibliography is contained in M . A. K n i b b , The Ethiopic Book of
Enoch II ( 1 9 7 8 ) , p p . 4 8 - 5 2 . F o r a fuller list, see J . H . Chariesworth, P M R S , p p . 9 8 - 1 0 3 ,
278-83.
Hilgenfeld, A., Die jiidische Apokalyptik ( 1 8 5 7 ) , pp. 9 1 - 1 8 4 .
Volkmar, G., 'Beitrage zur E r k l a r u n g des Buches H e n o c h nach d e m athiopischen T e x t ' ,
Z D M G 14 ( i 8 6 0 ) , p p . 8 7 - 1 3 4 , 2 9 6 .
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Gry, L., ' L a composition des paraboles d ' H e n o c h ' , LeMusiong (1908), pp. 2 7 - 7 1 .
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al. (eds.). Old Testament and Semitic Studies in Memory oJ W. R. Harper II (1908), p p .
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Gry, L., Les paraboles d'Henoch et leur messianisme (191 o ) .
K u h n , K. G., 'Beitrage z u r Erklarung des Buches H e n o c h ' , ZAW 39 (1921), p p . 240-75.
Messel, N., Der Menschensohn in der Bildreden des Henoch (1922).
Dix, G. H . , 'The Enochic Pentateuch', J T h S t 27 (1926), 29—42.
Schmidt, N., ' T h e Apocalypse of N o a h a n d the Parables of Enoch', Oriental Studies
dedicated to Paul Haupt (1926), pp. 111-23.
Lods, A., ' L a chute des anges', R H P h R 7 (1927), p p . 295-315.
Jeremias, J., ' E i n neuer Textfund: das Henochfragment der Chester-Beatty-Papyri',
Theol. Bl. 18 (1939), cols. 145-6.
Torrey, C. C., 'Notes on the Greek T e x t of Enoch', J A O S 62 (1942), pp. 52-60.
Z u n t z , G., 'Notes on the Greek Enoch', JBL 61 (1942), p p . 193-204.
Idem, 'Enoch and the Last J u d g e m e n t (ch. cii, 1-3)', J T h S t 45 (1944), p p . 161—70.
Sjoberg, E . , Der Menschensohn im dthiopischen Henochbuch (1946).
Black, M., 'The Eschatology of the Similitudes of Enoch', J T h S t 3 (1952), pp. i - i o .
Milik, J. T . , ' T h e Dead Sea Scrolls F r a g m e n t of t h e Book of Enoch', Bibl. 32 (1951), pp.
393-400.
Idem, 'Henoch a u pays des aromates (Ch. xxvii a xxxii). Fragments arameens d e la grotte
4 de Q u m r a n ' , RB 65 (1958), p p . 70-7.
Grelot, P. 'La geographie mythique d'Henoch et ses sources orientales', RB 65 (1958),
PP- 33-69-
Idem, 'La legende d'Henoch d a n s les apocryphes et dans la Bible', R S c R 46 (1958), pp.
5-26, 181-210.
Idem, 'L'eschatologie des Esseniens et le livre d ' H e n o c h ' , R Q i (1958/9), pp. 113-31.
Ullendorff", E., ' A n Aramaic " V o r l a g e " of the Ethiopic Text of Enoch', Atti del convegno
internazionale di Studi Etiopici (i960), pp. 259-68.
Kutsch, E . , 'Die Solstitien im K a l e n d a r des J u b i l a e n b u c h e s und im athiopischen Henoch
72', V T 12 (1962), p p . 205-7.
C a q u o t , A., and Geoltrain, P . , 'Notes sur le texte ethiopien des "Paraboles" d ' H e n o c h ' ,
Semitica 13 (1963), pp. 39-54.
Widengren, G., 'Iran a n d Israel in P a r t h i a n Times with Special Regard to t h e Ethiopic
Book of Enoch', Temenos 2 (1966), pp. 139-67.
Eissfeldt, O., The Old Testament. An Introduction (1966), pp. 617-22, 774.
Vermes, G., ' T h e Use oi bar nashjbar nasha in Jewish Aramaic', in M. Black, An Aramaic
Approach to the Gospels and Acts (^1967), pp. 210-28 [cf Postbiblical Jewish Studies
(1975). PP- 147-65].
Hindley, J . C , ' T o w a r d s a D a t e for the Similitudes of E n o c h : A n Historical A p p r o a c h ' ,
N T S t 14 (1967/8), pp. 551-65.
Gil, M., 'Enoch in the L a n d of the Living', T a r b i z 38 (1969), p p . 322-37 (Hebrew).
Denis, I P G A T , p p . 15-30.
Milik, J . T., 'Problemes de la litterature henochique a la lumiere des fragments arameens
de Q u m r a n ' , H T h R 64 (1971), p p . 333-78.
Idem, 'Tutfan et Q u m r a n . Livre des G e a n t s j u i f et manicheen', in G. Jeremias et al. (eds.),
Tradition und Glaube. Festgabe fur K. G. Kuhn (1971), p p . 117—27.
Muller, K., 'Beobachtungen zur Entwicklung der Menschensohnvorstellung in den
Bildreden des Henoch und i m Buche Daniel', i n E. C . Suttner et al. (eds.),
Wegzeichen. H. M. Biedermann Festgabe (1971), p p . 253-62.
Philonenko, M . , 'Une citation manicheenne du livre d ' H e n o c h ' , R H P h R 52 (1972), p p .
337-40-
V a n d e r K a m , J . , 'The Theosophy of Enoch I 3b-7,9', V T 23 (1973), pp- 129-50.
Black, M . , 'The M a r a n a t h a Invocation a n d J u d e 14, 15 (I Enoch 1:9)', B. Lindars et al.
(eds.), Christ and Spirit in the JVew Testament (C. F. D. Moule Festschrift) (1973), p p .
189-96.
Idem, 'Fragments of the A r a m a i c Enoch from Q u m r a n ' , i n W. C . van Unnik (ed.). La
litterature juive entre Tenach et Mishna (1974), pp. 15-28.
Liihrmann, D., 'Henoch u n d die Metanoia', Z N W 6 6 (1975), pp. 103-16.
Theisohn, J . , Der auserwdhlte Richter: Untersuchungen zum traditionsgeschichtlichen Ort der
Menschensohngestalt der Bildreden des dthiopischen Henoch (1975).
Caquot, A., 'Leviathan e t Behemoth d a n s la troisieme " P a r a b o l e " d ' H e n o c h ' , Semitica
25 (1975). PP- 111-22.
Grelot, P., ' H e n o c h et ses ecritures', R B 82 (1975), p p . 481-500.
Black, M., 'The " P a r a b l e s " of Enoch (i E n . 37-71) a n d the " S o n of M a n ' " , E T 88
(1976), pp. 1-8.
Idem, 'The New Creation in i Enoch', in R. W . A. M c K i n n e y , Creation, Christ and Culture
(1976), pp. 13-21.
Casey, M., 'The Use of the T e r m " S o n of M a n " in the Similitudes of Enoch', J S J 7
(1978), pp. 11-29.
Lindars, B., 'A Bull, a L a m b and a W o r d : i E n o c h X C , 38', N T S t 22 (1975/6), p p . 483-6.
Glasson, T . F., ' T h e Son of M a n I m a g e r y : Enoch 14 and Daniel 7', N T S t 23 (1976/7),
p p . 82—90.
Nickelsburg, G. W . E., 'Enoch, Book of, I D B S (1976), pp. 265-8.
Idem, 'Enoch 9 7 - 1 0 4 : A Study of the Greek and Ethiopic Texts', in M . E. Stone (ed.),
Armenian and Biblical Studies [Sion, suppl. i ] (1976), pp. 9 0 - 1 5 6 .
Dexinger, F., Henochs êhnwochenapokalypse und offene Probleme der Apokalyptikforschung
(1977)-
Fitzmyer, J . A., 'Implications of the New Enoch Literature from Q u m r a n ' , T h S t 38
(1977). PP-332-45-
Greenfield, J . C , and Stone, M . E., 'The Enochic P e n t a t e u c h and the D a t e of the
Simihtudes of Enoch', H T h R 70 (1977), p p . 51-65.
Hanson, P. D., 'Rebellion in Heaven, Azazel and Euhemeristic Heroes i n i Enoch 6 - 1 1 ' ,
J B L 96 (1977), pp. 195-233.
Nickelsburg, G. W . E., 'Apocalyptik and M y t h in i Enoch 6 - 1 1 ' , J B L 96 (1977), p p .
383-405.
Idem, 'The Apocalyptik Message of i E n o c h 92-105', C B Q 3 9 ('977); PP- 309-28.
Barr, J., 'Aramaic-Greek Notes on the Book o f Enoch', J S S 23 (1978), p p . 184-98.
Suter, D. W., 'Apocalyptic Patterns in the Similitudes of Enoch', in P . J. Achtemeier
(ed.), SBL igy8Seminar Papers I (1978), p p . 1-13.
V a n d e r K a m , J., 'Enoch Traditions in Jubilees and other Secondary Sources', ibid., p p .
229-51.
Kraft, R. A., 'Philo (Josephus, Sirach and Wisdom of Solomon) on Enoch', ibid., p p .
253-7.
Himmelfarb, M., 'A R e p o r t on Enoch in Rabbinic L i t e r a t u r e ' , ibid., pp. 259-69.
Hanson, P . D., ' A Response t o J o h n CoUins' "Methodological Issues i n the Study of I
Enoch'", ibid., pp. 307-9.
Nickelsburg, G. W . E . , 'Reflections on Reflections: A Response to J o h n Collins'
"Methodological I s s u e s . . . " ' , ibid., pp. 311-14.
Collins, J. J . , 'Methodological Issues i n the Study of I E n o c h : Reflections on t h e Articles
by P. D . Hanson a n d G. W . E. Nickelsburg', ibid., pp. 3 1 5 - 2 2 .
Dimant, D . , 'i Enoch 6—11: A Methodological Perspective'^'izW., p p . 323-39.
Black, M., ' T h e Apocalypse of Weeks i n the Light of 4 Q E n ', V T 28 (1978), p p . 464—9.
Klijn, A. F . J., ' F r o m Creation to N o a h i n the Second D r e a m Vision of the Ethiopic
Henoch', Miscellanea Neotestamentica (1978), pp. 147-59.
Milik, J. T . , 'Ecrits preesseniens de Q u m r a n : d'Henoch a A m r a m ' , in M. Delcor (ed.),
Qumrdn, sa piite, sa thiologie et son milieu (19 78), p p . 91 - 1 0 6 .
Stone, M . E., ' T h e Book of Enoch and J u d a i s m in the Third Century B.C.E.', C B Q _
40 (1978), p p . 479-92.
Nickelsburg, G. W . E., 'Riches, the Rich, a n d G o d ' s J u d g e m e n t in I Enoch 92-105 and
the Gospel a c c o r d i n g to L u k e ' , N T S t 25 (1978/9), p p . 324-44.
K n i b b , M . A., ' T h e D a t e of the Parables of E n o c h : A Critical Review', ibid., p p . 345-59.
Mearns, C . L., ' D a d n g t h e Simihtudes of Enoch', ibid., pp. 360-9.
Greenfield, J . C , and Stone, M . E., ' T h e Books of Enoch and t h e Traditions of Enoch',
N u m e n 26 (1979), p p . 89-103.
Suter, D. W., Tradition and Composition in the Parables oJEnoch (1979).
Idem, 'Fallen Angel, Fallen Priest: T h e Problem of Family Purity in 1 Enoch 6-16',
H U C A 50 (1979), p p . 115-35.
Newsom, Carol A., ' T h e Development of I Enoch 6 - 1 9 : Cosmology and J u d g e m e n t ' ,
CBQ^42 (1980), p p . 310-29.
Collins, J . J., ' T h e Heavenly R e p r e s e n t a t i v e : T h e "Son of M a n " in t h e Similitudes of
Enoch', in Ideal Figures in Ancient Judaism (1980), pp. 111-33.
Black, M . , 'The Composition, Character a n d D a t e of the Second Vision of Enoch',
T«Ar/-Pfor<-G/aai« ( K u r t Aland Festschrift) (1980), p p . 19-30.
Suter, D. W., 'Weighed in the B a l a n c e : T h e Similitudes o f Enoch in Recent Discussion',
ibid., p p . 217-21.
Nickelsburg, G. W . E., ' T h e Books of Enoch i n R e c e n t Research', ibid., p p . 210-17.
Idem, Jewish Literature between the Bible and the Mishnah (1981), p p . 4 6 - 5 5 , 6 5 - ^ , 9 0 - 9 ,
145-60, 214-23, 227-30.
Idem, 'Enoch, Levi a n d P e t e r : Recipients of R e v e l a d o n in U p p e r Galilee', J B L 100
(1981), pp. 575-600.
Neugebauer, O., 'The "Astronomical" Chapters of the Ethiopic Book of Enoch, with
Additional Notes o n the A r a m a i c Fragments b y M. Black', Roy. Danish Ac. of Sc. and
Lit. (1981).
Black, M., 'The T w e n t y Angel Dekadarchs a t I Enoch 6.7 and 69.2', J J S 33 (1982), p p
227-35.
Levine, B . A., ' F r o m t h e Aramaic Enoch F r a g m e n t s : T h e Semantics o f Cosmography'
ibid., p p . 311—26.
Nickelsburg, G. W . E., 'The Epistle of Enoch a n d the Q u m r a n Literature', ibid., p p
333-48.
Wacker, M . T., Weltordnung und Gericht: Studien zu I Henoch 22 (1982).
Isaac, E., 'New Light u p o n the Book of Enoch from newly-found Ethiopic Manuscripts'
J A O S 103 (1983), p p . 399-411.
S t e g e m a n n , H., 'Die B e d e u t u n g der Q u m r a n f u n d e fur die Erforschung der Apokalyptik
3.1.1. Die H e n o c h - L i t e r a t u r ' , in D . Hellhoim (ed.). Apocalypticism in the Mediterranean
World and the Near East (1983), p p . 502-8.
V a n d e r K a m , J. C , 'i Enoch 77, 3 a n d a Babylonian M a p of the World', R Q 11 (1983)
pp. 271-8.
Idem, 'Studies in the Apocalypse of Weeks (1 Enoch 9 3 : 1 - 1 0 ; 91:11-17)', C B Q 46 (1984)
pp. 511-23.
Diez Merino, L., 'Los "vigilantes" en la literatura intertestamentaria', in N. Fernandez
Marcos et al. (eds.), Simposio biblico espanol (1984), pp. 575-609.
Molenberg, C , ' A Study of t h e Roles of S h e m i h a z a and Asael in Enoch 6 - 1 1 ' , J J S 35
(1984), pp. 136-46.
V a n d e r K a m , J . C , Enoch and the Growth of an Apocalyptic Tradition (1984).
Black, M . [in consultation with V a n d e r K a m , J . C . ] , The Book of Enoch or First Enoch : A
New English Edition with Commentary and Textual Notes [with an A p p e n d i x on the
'Astronomical' Chapters (72-82) by Neugebauer, O.] (1985).
A P P E N D I X : 3 E N O C H
BY D R p. S. A L E X A N D E R ( U N I V E R S I T Y O F M A N C H E S T E R )
3 E n o c h or t h e H e b r e w Book o f E n o c h is p a r t of t h e so-called H e k h a l o t
l i t e r a t u r e — a collection o f e a r l y R a b b i n i c texts in H e b r e w a n d A r a m a i c
w h i c h a r e l a r g e l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e m y s t e r i e s of t h e h e a v e n l y w o r l d .
T h e w o r k , w h e t h e r in w h o l e o r in p a r t , goes u n d e r a n u m b e r of
different titles in t h e m a n u s c r i p t s , e.g. ' T h e B o o k of E n o c h b y R a b b i
I s h m a e l t h e H i g h P r i e s t ' (V'D *?NS7atr'' "lb -|ian IDD), ' T h e B o o k o f t h e
P a l a c e s ' (m^DTl ^SO), ' T h e C h a p t e r s o f t h e P a l a c e s ' (m*?D*'n 7 * 1 3 ) ,
' T h e C h a p t e r s of R a b b i I s h m a e l ' (7K57»tr ^2^1 ^ 1 5 ) , ' T h e M a t t e r of
t h e E l e v a t i o n of M e t a t r o n ' (p"lt3Da n''''*?S7 p ^ ) . I t w a s O d e b e r g w h o
d e s i g n a t e d i t '3 E n o c h ' , p r e s u m a b l y b e c a u s e h e s a w it, w i t h s o m e
justification, as d e v e l o p i n g t h e t r a d i t i o n s of i ( E t h i o p i c ) a n d 2
( S l a v o n i c ) E n o c h . 3 E n o c h in t h e f o r m discussed h e r e is a l m o s t
certainly a v e r y late work, b u t , along with the r e m a i n i n g H e k h a l o t
texts a n d l a t e a p o c a l y p s e s s u c h a s Sefer êrubbavel, it c a n p e r f o r m a
v a l u a b l e service for t h e s t u d e n t o f e a r l y a p o c a l y p t i c b y d e f i n i n g a
'horizon' within which he m a y work a n d indicating how Rabbinic
J u d a i s m adopted a n d transformed earlier ideas.
3 E n o c h is e x t a n t i n a n u m b e r of v e r s i o n s , t h e l o n g e s t of w h i c h is
f o u n d i n t w o m a n u s c r i p t s — V a t i c a n u s 228 a n d B o d l e i a n 1 6 5 6 . T h e
differences b e t w e e n the m a n u s c r i p t s r e l a t e p r i m a r i l y to t h e l e n g t h o f the
w o r k , n o t t o t h e c o n t e n t of its i n d i v i d u a l t r a d i t i o n - u n i t s ( p e r i c o p a e ) ,
n o r to t h e o r d e r i n w h i c h t h e y o c c u r . T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e
v a r i o u s forms of t h e t e x t is h i g h l y p r o b l e m a t i c ; it is far f r o m c l e a r
w h e t h e r t h e s h o r t e r forms r e p r e s e n t p r e v i o u s s t a g e s in t h e g r o w t h o f t h e
final l o n g v e r s i o n , o r a r e a b b r e v i a t i o n s o r a n t h o l o g i e s . O n t h e basis of
t h e e x t r e m e fluidity of t h e m a j o r H e k h a l o t m a n u s c r i p t s , Schafer h a s
a r g u e d t h a t i t is m i s l e a d i n g to t a l k of t h e H e k h a l o t t e x t s a s if t h e s e
c o n s t i t u t e d c l e a r l y defined, c a r e f u l l y r e d a c t e d w o r k s . H e m a i n t a i n s t h a t
H e k h a l o t R a b b a t i , H e k h a l o t Z u t a r t i , a n d m o s t o f t h e o t h e r so-called
H e k h a l o t t r e a t i s e s a r e e s s e n t i a l l y artificial c r e a t i o n s o f m o d e r n
s c h o l a r s h i p . T h i s view h a s i m p o r t a n t i m p l i c a t i o n s . I f the H e k h a l o t
treatises a r e r e d a c t i o n a l fiction, i t m a k e s little sense t o discuss t h e m
i n d i v i d u a l l y , to d a t e t h e m s e p a r a t e l y a n d a r a n g e t h e m i n c h r o n o l o g i c a l
o r d e r , to c o m p a r e a n d c o n t r a s t t h e i r r e d a c t i o n a l o r t h e o l o g i c a l
t e n d e n c i e s , o r to t r a c e t h e i r l i t e r a r y e v o l u t i o n t o w a r d s a p u t a t i v e final
form. T h e focus o f t h e a n a l y s i s will h a v e to b e m o v e d f r o m t h e treatise
to the i n d i v i d u a l p e r i c o p a e , a n d t o t h e b o d y of t r a d i t i o n s a s a w h o l e .
S c h a f e r has successfully d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h e r e d a c t i o n a l i d e n t i t y of
m a n y of the H e k h a l o t t r e a t i s e s is w e a k , b u t t h e r e a r e a r g u a b l y , as h e
himself a d m i t s , t w o e x c e p t i o n s to h i s g e n e r a l r u l e . T h e first is Massekhet
Hekhalot; the s e c o n d , 3 E n o c h . I n t h e p r e s e n t discussion, 3 E n o c h
m e a n s t h e form of the w o r k a t t e s t e d in V a t i c a n u s 228 a n d B o d l e i a n
1656. Possessing a s t r o n g r e d a c t i o n a l i d e n t i t y , the s t a n d a r d form- a n d
h t e r a r y - c r i t i c a l q u e s t i o n s can l e g i t i m a t e l y be a p p l i e d to i t . T h e n a t u r e
of t h e s h o r t e r forms of t h e text, a n d their r e l a t i o n s h i p to e a c h o t h e r a n d
to t h e l o n g form, c a n n o t b e i n v e s t i g a t e d h e r e .
T h e s t r u c t u r e of 3 E n o c h m a y b e a n a l y s e d a s follows.
(1) Superscription. A t t h e h e a d of 3 E n o c h s t a n d s G e n . 5:24, ' E n o c h
w a l k e d w i t h G o d , a n d h e w a s n o t , for G o d took h i m . ' T h i s t e x t is
p r o b a b l y m o r e t h a n a d e c o r a t i v e q u o t a t i o n to o p e n t h e w o r k . R a t h e r it
suggests t h a t t h e r e d a c t o r of 3 E n o c h w i s h e d t o p r e s e n t his m a t e r i a l a s a
s o r t of ' m i d r a s h ' o n G e n . 5:24, a s t h e full story b e h i n d t h e c r y p t i c
a l l u s i o n s of t h a t v e r s e . G e n . 5:24 serves t o v a l i d a t e 3 E n o c h by
p r o v i d i n g a p o i n t i n s a c r e d S c r i p t u r e i n t o w h i c h i t s t r a d i t i o n s c a n be
inserted.
(2) C h a p s . 1 - 2 ( S c h a f e r §§ 1 - 3 ) , ' The Ascension of Ishmael. 3 E n o c h
o p e n s w i t h a t y p i c a l ascension story, the e l e m e n t s of w h i c h c a n easily be
p a r a l l e l e d from o t h e r a p o c a l y p t i c a n d M e r k a v a h ascensions. T h e
p r o t a g o n i s t h e r e is not a q u a s i - m y t h i c a l figure from t h e biblical s a g a
( s u c h a s E n o c h , M o s e s , Elijah o r I s a i a h ) , b u t a c o n c r e t e h i s t o r i c a l
p e r s o n of m o r e r e c e n t t i m e s , viz., t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y A . D . P a l e s t i n i a n
s c h o l a r , R. I s h m a e l b . E l i s h a . H a v i n g a s c e n d e d t o h e a v e n , I s h m a e l
finds himself c o n f r o n t e d b y hostile a n g e l s w h o wish to d e n y h i m access
to G o d ' s p r e s e n c e . G o d rescues h i m b y s e n d i n g h i m t h e a r c h a n g e l
M e t a t r o n w h o escorts h i m i n t o t h e h e a v e n l y t h r o n e r o o m . T h e a n g e l s
finally a c c e p t h i m a n d , a t t h e c l i m a x o f his ecstasy, h e j o i n s t h e m in
c h a n t i n g the celestial Q e d u s h a h .
(3) C h a p s . 3 - 1 6 (Schafer §§ 4—20), The Elevation of Metatron. (a)
3 : 1 - 4 : 2 . I s h m a e l q u e s t i o n s his a n g e l i c m e n t o r M e t a t r o n a b o u t his
n a m e s , a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r a b o u t t h e n a m e ' Y o u t h ' ("1^3) w i t h w h i c h he
h a d b e e n a d d r e s s e d b y the M e r k a v a h a n g e l s (2:2). M e t a t r o n replies
t h a t h e is, i n fact, E n o c h t h e son of J a r e d : a s t h e y o u n g e s t o f all t h e
a n g e l - p r i n c e s he is k n o w n as t h e ' Y o u t h ' (cf 4:3, 10). T h e title 15?3 w a s
p r o b a b l y o r i g i n a l l y u s e d in H e k h a l o t circles in t h e sense of ' s e r v i t o r ' ,
a n d w a s g i v e n to M e t a t r o n in v i r t u e of h i s role as m i n i s t e r of t h e
h e a v e n l y t e m p l e . I n 3 E n o c h , the title h a s b e e n r e - i n t e r p r e t e d in o r d e r
I . T h e usual chapter and verse divisions of 3 Enoch (e.g. 3 Enoch 4:3), used in the
translations of Alexander, M . Angeles Navarro, a n d Hoffman, go back to Odesberg's
edition. Schafer in his Synopses however, divides the text into n u m b e r e d sections.
References to Schafer's Synapse are in the form: Schafer §§ 1-3. O n pp. x - x v i i of his
Synopses Schafer gives tables which correlate his reference system and that of the older
printed editions of the H e k h a l o t texts.
to forge a l i n k b e t w e e n M e t a t r o n a n d t r a n s l a t e d E n o c h . T h i s b o l d
m o v e w a s p e r h a p s influenced b y t h e T a l m u d i c tradition that Ps. 37:25,
T h a v e b e e n y o u n g (IW) a n d n o w I a m o l d ' , w a s u t t e r e d by t h e P r i n c e
of the W o r l d ( = ? M e t a t r o n ) ( b Y e v . i6b). (b) 4 : 3 - 7 : 1 . T h e
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of M e t a t r o n w i t h t r a n s l a t e d E n o c h c r e a t e d p r o b l e m s ,
b e c a u s e (in c o n t r a s t t o e a r l i e r a p o c a l y p t i c ) R a b b i n i c t r a d i t i o n is
m a r k e d l y r e t i c e n t a b o u t t h e figure of E n o c h . 3 E n o c h tries r a t h e r
d e s p e r a t e l y t o v a l i d a t e t h e a s c e n s i o n of E n o c h i n t e r m s o f e x t a n t
R a b b i n i c h a g g a d a h . F i r s t ( 4 : 3 - 1 0 ) , it e x p l o i t s a c l u s t e r of t r a d i t i o n s
a b o u t t h e F l o o d . G e n . R . 28:8 a n d b S a n h . io8a r a i s e t h e p r o b l e m for
t h e o d i c y of G o d ' s d e s t r u c t i o n of i n n o c e n t c r e a t u r e s i n t h e w a t e r s of t h e
F l o o d . A l l u d i n g t o this t r a d i t i o n , 3 E n o c h s u g g e s t s t h a t E n o c h w a s
t a k e n u p to h e a v e n to w i t n e s s t o f u t u r e g e n e r a t i o n s t h a t G o d h a d a c t e d
j u s t l y (4:5). b S a n h . 38b c o n t a i n s a t r a d i t i o n t h a t t h e a n g e l s o p p o s e d t h e
c r e a t i o n of m a n a n d felt t h e m s e l v e s v i n d i c a t e d w h e n t h e w i c k e d
g e n e r a t i o n o f t h e F l o o d a r r i v e d a n d G o d w a s forced v i r t u a l l y to w i p e
o u t m a n k i n d . 3 E n o c h a d a p t s t h i s t r a d i t i o n ( a g a i n s t all r e a s o n a b l e
c h r o n o l o g y ) i n t o a n g e l i c o p p o s i t i o n to E n o c h ' s a s c e n s i o n to h e a v e n a t
t h e t i m e of t h e F l o o d . S e c o n d ( 5 : 1 - 7 : 1 ) , 3 E n o c h tries to u s e c e r t a i n
R a b b i n i c t r a d i t i o n s a b o u t t h e c o m m e n c e m e n t of i d o l a t r y in t h e t i m e of
E n o s h ( G e n . R . 23:6f; b S a n h . i i 8 b ) to a r g u e t h a t t h e S h e k h i n a h m u s t
h a v e b e e n r e m o v e d f r o m e a r t h to h e a v e n a t t h a t t i m e , a n d t h a t E n o c h
w a s t a k e n u p w i t h it. (c) 8 : 1 - 1 5 : 2 . T h e n follows a d e s c r i p t i o n of
Enoch's physical a n d m e n t a l transformation into t h e angel M e t a t r o n ,
a n d his i n s t a l l a t i o n as ' t h e lesser Y H W H ' ( 1 2 : 5 ) . A p a r a l l e l i s m e m e r g e s
between the elevation of E n o c h a n d the ascension o f Ishmael recounted
in t h e p r e v i o u s section. T h i s is p r o b a b l y d e l i b e r a t e a n d is i n t e n d e d to
suggest t h a t E n o c h ' s e x p e r i e n c e is i n s o m e sense p a r a d i g m a t i c for e v e r y
a d e p t , (d) 1 6 : 1 - 5 . T h e a c c o u n t o f M e t a t r o n ' s e x a l t a t i o n is b r o u g h t to
a n a b r u p t e n d w i t h a s t o r y o f h o w h e w a s h u m b l e d b y the a r c h a n g e l
Anafiel. A n o t h e r v e r s i o n of t h i s s t o r y o c c u r s i n b H a g . 1 5 a , a n d it is well
n i g h c e r t a i n t h a t t h a t v e r s i o n h a s p r i o r i t y o v e r t h e o n e in 3 E n o c h .
O n c e a g a i n 3 E n o c h h a s d r a w n on e x t a n t T a l m u d i c h a g g a d a h to
v a l i d a t e its v i e w , e v e n t h o u g h in t h i s c a s e t h e m a t e r i a l w a s o r i g i n a l l y
hostile t o M e t a t r o n - s p e c u l a t i o n a n d l e a d s in t h e c o n t e x t o f 3 E n o c h t o a
s u d d e n r e v e r s a l of his f o r t u n e s .
(4) C h a p s . 1 7 - 4 0 ( S c h a f e r §§ 2 1 - 5 8 ) , The Familia Caelestis—its
Hierarchies and Activities. H a v i n g e s t a b l i s h e d M e t a t r o n ' s c r e d e n t i a l s a s a n
angelus interpres, 3 E n o c h p r o c e e d s to r e c o u n t t h e mysteries w h i c h h e
disclosed to R . I s h m a e l . First, M e t a t r o n tells I s h m a e l a b o u t t h e a n g e l i c
hierarchies. T h r e e originally i n d e p e n d e n t angelologies a r e woven
t o g e t h e r , t h e first c o n t a i n e d i n c h a p . 1 7 , t h e s e c o n d i n c h a p . 1 8 , a n d the
t h i r d i n c h a p s . 19—29. T h e n follow two m i s c e l l a n i e s of t r a d i t i o n s a b o u t
t h e c o m p o s i t i o n a n d a c t i v i t i e s o f the H e a v e n l y L a w C o u r t ( c h a p s .
30—34), a n d t h e r i t u a l s associated w i t h t h e r e c i t a t i o n o f the celestial

Q e d u s h a h (chaps. 3 5 - 4 0 ) .
(5) C h a p s . 4 1 - 4 8 A (Schafer §§ 5 9 - 7 0 ) , Miscellaneous Heavenly Wonders.
I n c h a p s . 17—40, M e t a t r o n tells I s h m a e l a b o u t t h e a n g e l s — h e offers
h i m a series o f d i s c o u r s e s ; in c h a p s . 4 1 - 4 8 A , h o w e v e r , he s h o w s h i m t h e
w o n d e r s of h e a v e n . T h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r m u l a of this section is : ' C o m e
a n d I will s h o w y o u . . . I w e n t w i t h h i m . , . a n d he s h o w e d m e . . . ' (e.g.
4 1 : 1 , 3). T h e first o f the m a r v e l s a r e c o s m o l o g i c a l in c h a r a c t e r . I s h m a e l
sees the c o s m i c letters ' b y w h i c h h e a v e n a n d e a r t h w e r e c r e a t e d ' ( 4 1 : 1 ) ,
e i t h e r t h e letters of t h e H e b r e w a l p h a b e t (cf Sefer Y e z i r a h ) , o r , m o r e
likely in view of w h a t follows, t h e l e t t e r s of t h e n a m e of G o d ( 4 1 ) .
I s h m a e l is also s h o w n t h e cosmic p o w e r of d i v i n e n a m e s to h o l d in
b a l a n c e o p p o s i n g a n d i n c o m p a t i b l e n a t u r a l forces (42). T h e n h e is
s h o w n v a r i o u s c a t e g o r i e s o f ' s o u l s ' — t h e souls o f the r i g h t e o u s ( 4 3 ) ; t h e
souls of the w i c k e d a n d the i n t e r m e d i a t e ( 4 4 : 1 - 6 ) ; t h e souls of t h e
p a t r i a r c h s ( 4 4 : 7 - 1 0 ) ; t h e souls o f all p a s t a n d f u t u r e g e n e r a t i o n s
e m b r o i d e r e d o n t h e h e a v e n l y C u r t a i n , t h e Par god ( 4 5 ) ; t h e souls of t h e
s t a r s ( 4 6 ) ; a n d t h e souls of t h e e r r i n g a n g e l s (47). T h e final w o n d e r is
e s c h a t o l o g i c a l in c h a r a c t e r : I s h m a e l sees t h e r i g h t h a n d o f G o d w a i t i n g
to r e d e e m I s r a e l (48A).
(6) C h a p s . 4 8 B G D ( S c h a f e r §§ 7 1 - 8 0 ) , Appendix: The Alphabet of
Akiba Traditions about Metatron. 3 E n o c h effectively e n d s a t 48A: 10, o n a
n o t e of h o p e , w i t h a q u o t a t i o n of Z e c h . 14:9, ' T h e L o r d will b e k i n g of
t h e w h o l e w o r l d . ' H o w e v e r , in o r d e r to m a k e t h e c o l l e c t i o n of M e t a t r o n
t r a d i t i o n s as full a s possible, t h e r e d a c t o r has a p p e n d e d t h e M e t a t r o n
m a t e r i a l f o u n d in c e r t a i n recensions of t h e A l p h a b e t of A k i b a . T h e c o r e
of this m a t e r i a l (48C) gives, i n the f o r m o f a n a c r o s t i c on t h e l e t t e r alef
a s h o r t a c c o u n t of t h e e l e v a t i o n of E n o c h , p a r a l l e l t o t h a t c o n t a i n e d in
3 E n o c h 3 - 1 5 . T h r e e blocks o f m a t e r i a l h a v e b e e n a d d e d to t h i s : ( a ) a
list of t h e s e v e n t y n a m e s o f G o d ( 4 8 B ) — r e l e v a n t h e r e b e c a u s e
M e t a t r o n ' s n a m e s a r e s u p p o s e d to c o r r e s p o n d to t h e n a m e s of G o d (cf
4:1 ; 4 8 D : 5 ) ; (h) a list of t h e s e v e n t y n a m e s of M e t a t r o n ( 4 8 0 : 5 ) ; (c) a
section o n M e t a t r o n as the P r i n c e of T o r a h {Sar Torah) (480:2—4,
6-10).
I n t e r n a l h t e r a r y analysis discloses few g r o u n d s for q u e s t i o n i n g t h e
i n t e g r i t y of this l o n g v e r s i o n of 3 E n o c h . T h e o n e m a j o r i n t r u s i o n
a p p e a r s to b e the t w o p a r a l l e l lists of t h e w i n d s a n d c h a r i o t s o f G o d in
chaps. 2 2 - 2 3 , which clearly interrupt the third angelology (chaps.
19—21, 2 4 - 2 9 ) . H o w e v e r , t h e i r insertion is easily e x p l a i n e d . C h a p . 2 1 is
c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e C h e r u b i m ; c h a p . 22 o p e n s , ' H o w m a n y w i n d s b l o w
f r o m u n d e r t h e w i n g s of t h e C h e r u b i m ? ' ; a n d t h e first of t h e c h a r i o t s in
c h a p . 2 3 is ' t h e c h a r i o t s of t h e C h e r u b i m ' . T h e final r e d a c t o r himself
m a y h a v e a d d e d t h i s m a t e r i a l in o r d e r t o fill o u t t h e t r a d i t i o n s on t h e
C h e r u b i m in c h a p . 2 1 . A t 4:1 t h e r e is s u s p i c i o n of a l a c u n a : I s h m a e l
q u e s t i o n s M e t a t r o n a b o u t his s e v e n t y n a m e s b u t receives a r e p l y a b o u t
o n l y one n a m e — ' Y o u t h ' . I t is t e m p t i n g t o s u p p o s e t h a t m a t e r i a l on t h e
seventy n a m e s of M e t a t r o n — p e r h a p s a list of n a m e s (cf. 4 8 D : i ,
5 ) — h a s b e e n o m i t t e d . H o w e v e r , o n c e a g a i n w e m a y be faced w i t h t h e
w o r k of t h e final r e d a c t o r : h e himself c o u l d h a v e o m i t t e d t h e s e v e n t y
n a m e s o f M e t a t r o n (if o m i s s i o n t h e r e w a s ) , s i m p l y b e c a u s e t h e y did n o t
c o n c e r n h i m a t this p o i n t . E v e n c h a p . 16 o n t h e h u m b U n g of M e t a t r o n ,
w h i c h e n t e r s s o a b r u p t l y a g a i n s t t h e t r e n d of t h e p r e c e d i n g n a r r a t i v e ,
c o u l d h a v e b e e n i n t r o d u c e d b y t h e final r e d a c t o r , if, as s u g g e s t e d
earlier, h e felt t h e n e g a t i v e i m p r e s s i o n c r e a t e d b y t h i s s t o r y w a s
o u t w e i g h e d b y its p o w e r to v a U d a t e his M e t a t r o n t r a d i t i o n s . Like all
t h e H e k h a l o t t e x t s , 3 E n o c h , as c o n t a i n e d in V a t i c a n u s 228 a n d
B o d l e i a n 1 6 5 6 , c l e a r l y consists o f a l a r g e n u m b e r of o r i g i n a l l y
independent pericopae which have equally clearly been thematically
g r o u p e d a n d c r a f t e d i n t o a firm r e d a c t i o n a l u n i t y .
T h o u g h 3 E n o c h p r e s e n t s itself a s a m i d r a s h on G e n . 5:24, i n b r o a d
o u t l i n e i t exhibits o n e of t h e s t a n d a r d p a t t e r n s o f a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e :
s o m e o n e a s c e n d s t o h e a v e n a n d receives, w i t h o r w i t h o u t t h e m e d i a t i o n
of a n a n g e l , a r e v e l a t i o n o f c e r t a i n m y s t e r i e s ( r e l a t i n g to c o s m o l o g y , t h e
e n d - t i m e , or t h e h e a v e n l y w o r l d ) w h i c h w o u l d o t h e r w i s e h a v e b e e n
u n k n o w n to m a n . I n respect b o t h o f its b r o a d s t r u c t u r e a n d its d e t a i l e d
motifs, 3 E n o c h c o n t a i n s m a n y p a r a l l e l s to w o r k s s u c h as i E n o c h , 2
E n o c h , T e s t a m e n t of L e v i 2 : 6 - 5 : 3 , A s c e n s i o n o f I s a i a h 6—11, a n d
Apocalypse of A b r a h a m 1 5 - 2 9 . Seen from this angle, 3 E n o c h m a y be
classified as a n e x a m p l e o f l a t e J e w i s h a p o c a l y p t i c . H o w e v e r , b y far its
s t r o n g e s t affinities are w i t h the H e k h a l o t texts, w i t h w h i c h i t is
a s s o c i a t e d in t h e m e d i a e v a l m a n u s c r i p t s , b e l o n g i n g t o a b r a n c h of
esoteric l o r e k n o w n to t h e R a b b i s a s Ma'aseh Merkavah, ' t h e A c c o u n t of
t h e C h a r i o t ' ( m H a g . 2 : 1 ) , w h i c h w a s c o n c e r n e d w i t h s p e c u l a t i n g on
Ezekiel's vision of G o d ' s t h r o n e - c h a r i o t ( E z e k . i a n d 10). Ma'aseh
Merkavah m a t e r i a l m a y b e f o u n d i n e a r l y a p o c a l y p t i c (e.g. i E n o c h
1 4 : 8 - 2 5 ) , a n d in t h e a n g e l i c l i t u r g i e s f r o m Q u m r a n ( 4 Q S h i r S h a b b ) .
H o w e v e r , c e r t a i n p e c u l i a r i t i e s of l a n g u a g e , style a n d m o t i f m a r k off t h e
H e k h a l o t t e x t s as a h i g h l y d i s t i n c t i v e b o d y of l i t e r a t u r e . T h e r e is still n o
a g r e e m e n t a m o n g s c h o l a r s as t o t h e historical d e v e l o p m e n t or s e t t i n g of
this l i t e r a t u r e . S c h o l e m a r g u e s t h a t it e m a n a t e d f r o m c o n v e n t i c l e s of
mystics w h o p r a c t i s e d t r a n c e - a s c e n t to h e a v e n . ( A s e a n c e o f s u c h a
c o n v e n t i c l e m a y b e i n d i r e c t l y d e s c r i b e d in Hekhalot Rabbati 1 3 - 1 8 , ed.
J e l l i n e k , Bet ha-Midrasch I I I , p p . 9 3 - 7 , S c h a f e r §§ 1 9 8 ff.). H e b e h e v e d
t h a t t h e s e c o n v e n t i c l e s flourished f r o m T a n n a i t i c t o G a o n i c times, a n d
t h a t t h e i r t e a c h i n g s , w h i c h w e r e in significant w a y s s i m i l a r to
G n o s t i c i s m , a r e h i n t e d a t in classic R a b b i n i c l i t e r a t u r e (especially in
m H a g . 2 : 1 , t H a g 2 : 1 - 7 , y H a g . 2, 7 7 a - d , a n d b H a g . i i b — i 6 a ) . U r b a c h
a n d H a l p e r i n , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , a r e i n c l i n e d to see the H e k h a l o t t e x t s
as a t t e s t i n g t o essentially a l i t e r a r y , r a t h e r t h a n a m y s t i c a l , m o v e m e n t ,
t h e H e k h a l o t treatises h a v i n g a r i s e n o u t of a t t e m p t s to e x p l a i n a n d to
clarify t h e c r y p t i c Ma'aseh Merkavah p a s s a g e s i n the T a l m u d . T h e t r u t h
p r o b a b l y hes s o m e w h e r e b e t w e e n these two positions. T h e r e c a n b e
h t t l e d o u b t t h a t h t e r a r y artifice a n d c o n v e n t i o n a r e to b e f o u n d in t h e
H e k h a l o t texts, a n d t h a t in s o m e i n s t a n c e s ' m i d r a s h i c ' a c t i v i t y —
a t t e m p t s to e x p l a i n e a r l i e r stages o f the t r a d i t i o n — h a s g e n e r a t e d n e w
m a t e r i a l . ( S c h o l e m himself p o i n t s t o e x a m p l e s . ) O n the o t h e r h a n d it
seems e q u a l l y u n d e n i a b l e t h a t at m a n y p o i n t s powerful, fresh v i s i o n a r y
e x p e r i e n c e lies b e h i n d t h e t r a d i t i o n s .
H e k h a l o t texts w e r e well k n o w n in t h e G a o n i c p e r i o d ; t h e y a r e
m e n d o n e d b y S a a d y a , S h e r i r a a n d H a i , s o m e t i m e s in t e r m s w h i c h
suggest t h a t t h e y a r e of c o n s i d e r a b l e a n t i q u i t y . T h e K a r a i t e s a t t a c k e d
t h e i r intense a n t h r o p o m o r p h i s m a n d u s e d it as a stick w i t h w h i c h to
b e a t t h e i r R a b b a n i t e o p p o n e n t s . J a c o b a l - Q i r q i s a n i a c t u a l l y seems to
h a v e k n o w n t h e s h o r t a c c o u n t of t h e e l e v a t i o n of E n o c h c o n t a i n e d i n 3
E n o c h 4 8 C a n d u l t i m a t e l y d e r i v i n g from a r e c e n s i o n of t h e A l p h a b e t of
A k i b a (see his Kitab al-Anwar 1.4.2), ed. N e m o y , v o l . I, p . 3 1 , 1 5 ) . T h e
e a r l y G a o n i c era, t h e n , w o u l d s e e m to b e a terminus ante quem for t h e
c o m p o s i t i o n o f m o s t , if n o t a l l , of the H e k h a l o t l i t e r a t u r e . I t is v e r y
h a r d , h o w e v e r , to b e m o r e precise t h a n t h i s . M i h k a r g u e d t h a t 3 E n o c h
c a n n o t h a v e b e e n c o m p o s e d e a r l i e r t h a n t h e n i n t h or t e n t h c e n t u r y
A . D . , a n d t h a t , in fact, t h e g r e a t e r p a r t w a s w r i t t e n in G e r m a n y in t h e
twelfth t o fifteenth c e n t u r i e s . T h i s is m u c h t o o l a t e , a n d the G e r m a n
p r o v e n a n c e is b a s e d on a m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of S c h o l e m ' s r e m a r k s a b o u t
t h e influence of t h e H e k h a l o t l i t e r a t u r e o n t h e Haside Ashkenaz.
O d e b e r g , by w a y o f c o n t r a s t , m a i n t a i n e d t h a t w h a t he b e l i e v e d t o be
t h e earliest s t r a t u m of 3 E n o c h ( 9 : 2 - 1 3 : 2 ) is not l a t e r t h a n the first
c e n t u r y A . D . , w h i l e the m a i n b o d y of t h e text ( 3 - 4 8 A ) w a s r e d a c t e d in
t h e l a t t e r p a r t of t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y A . D . T h i s is p r o b a b l y t o o e a r l y . T h e
p e r s i s t e n t re-use o f T a l m u d i c m a t e r i a l in 3 E n o c h p o i n t s t o a
p o s t - T a l m u d i c d a t e — p o s s i b l y the fifth o r s i x t h c e n t u r i e s (as s u g g e s t e d
b y S c h o l e m a n d A l e x a n d e r ) . As t o p r o v e n a n c e , t h e r e a r e o n l y t w o
serious p o s s i b i l i d e s — P a l e s t i n e a n d B a b y l o n i a . I n f a v o u r of t h e f o r m e r
is 3 E n o c h ' s use of P a l e s t i n i a n a p o c a l y p t i c t r a d i t i o n s ; i n f a v o u r of t h e
l a t t e r is the fact t h a t t h e c e n t r a l figure o f 3 E n o c h — M e t a t r o n — i s b e s t
a t t e s t e d in B a b y l o n i a n s o u r c e s . P e r h a p s t h e fact t h a t 3 E n o c h 1 6 m a k e s
u s e of t h e s t o r y of t h e h u m b l i n g of M e t a t r o n w h i c h is f o u n d e l s e w h e r e
o n l y in t h e B a b y l o n i a n T a l m u d ( b H a g . 15a) tips t h e b a l a n c e i n f a v o u r
of a final r e d a c t i o n of 3 E n o c h in B a b y l o n i a .
T h e R a b b i n i c t r a d i t i o n s r e l a t i n g t o E n o c h a r e s u m m a r i z e d by
G i n z b e r g , Legends oJ the Jews I ( 1 9 2 5 ) , p p . 1 2 5 - 4 0 , a n d V ( 1 9 2 5 ) , p p .
i 5 3 ~ 6 6 . N o t e w o r t h y is T a r g u m P s e u d o - J o n a t h a n t o G e n . 5:24 : ' E n o c h
served i n t r u t h before t h e L o r d , a n d b e h o l d h e w a s n o l o n g e r w i t h the

i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e e a r t h , b e c a u s e h e w a s c a r r i e d a w a y a n d a s c e n d e d to
h e a v e n by a w o r d f r o m before t h e L o r d , a n d h i s n a m e w a s called
M e t a t r o n , t h e g r e a t s c r i b e . ' T h e little t r a c t Hayye Hanokh, d e r i v e d from
Sefer ha- Tashar, c o n t a i n s a r a t h e r feeble life of E n o c h : see A. J e l l i n e k , Bet
ha-Midrasch I V (^1938), p p . 1 2 9 - 3 2 ; a n d the G e r m a n t r a n s l a t i o n b y A.
Wiinsche, Aus Israels Lehrhallenl ( 1 9 0 7 ) , p p . 1—6.
T h e best a v a i l a b l e t e x t of 3 E n o c h , V a t i c a n u s 228, is p r i n t e d i n P.
S c h a f e r , Synopse zur Hekhalot-Literatur ( 1 9 8 1 ) , §§ 1 - 8 0 . Schafer also
t r a n s c r i b e s M u n i c h 40 (§§ 882—938), a n d so r e n d e r s obsolete the
t r a n s c r i p t i o n of t h a t m a n u s c r i p t in J e l l i n e k , Bet ha-Midrasch V , p p .
1 7 0 - 9 0 . O d e b e r g , 2 Enoch ( 1 9 2 8 , r e p r i n t e d w i t h a p r o l e g o m e n o n b y J .
G r e e n f i e l d 1 9 7 3 ) , offers B o d l e i a n 1 6 5 6 ( w h i c h is n o t in Schafer's
Synopse), t o g e t h e r w i t h v a r i a n t s f r o m a n u m b e r o f o t h e r m a n u s c r i p t s
a n d p r i n t e d editions. U n f o r t u n a t e l y h e d i d n o t use V a d c a n u s 228.
O t h e r 3 E n o c h texts m a y b e f o u n d in S c h a f e r , Synopse, §§ 3 8 7 - 8 ,
8 5 5 - 7 1 ; Schafer, Geniza-Fragmente zur Hekhalot-Literatur (1984), p p .
1 3 5 - 9 : T . - S . K 2 1 . 9 5 . L = 3 E n o c h 1 : 1 - 2 ( S c h a f e r §§ 1 - 2 ) + 4 3 : 2 - 4 4 : 3
( S c h a f e r §§ 6 1 - 6 2 ) . F o r t h e m a n u s c r i p t s o f 3 E n o c h see P . Schafer,
'Handschriften zur Hekhalot-Literatur', Frankfurter Judaistische
B e i t r a g e 11 ( 1 9 8 3 ) , p p . 1 1 3 - 9 3 , e s p . p p . 1 7 8 - 8 ^ .
I n a d d i t i o n t o the H e b r e w text, O d e b e r g p r o v i d e s a n E n g l i s h
t r a n s l a t i o n , i n t r o d u c t i o n a n d c o m m e n t a r y . T h e s e r e m a i n v a l u a b l e . See
f u r t h e r P . S. A l e x a n d e r , '3 E n o c h ' , in J . H . C h a r i e s w o r t h ( e d . ) . The Old
Testament Pseudepigrapha I ( 1 9 8 3 ) , p p . 2 2 3 - 3 1 5 ( i n t r o d u c t i o n , t r a n s l a
tion, c o m m e n t a r y ) ; M . Angeles N a v a r r o , ' L i b r o H e b r e o d e H e n o c
(Sefer H e k a l o t ) ' , i n A. D i e z M a c h o ( e d . ) , Apocrifos del Antiguo Testamento
I V (1984), p p . 206-91 ( i n t r o d u c t i o n , t r a n s l a t i o n a n d c o m m e n t a r y ) ; H .
H o f m a n n , Das sogenannte hebraische Henochbuch (3 Henoch) (1984)
(translation, with variants from O d e b e r g ' s a p p a r a t u s criticus).
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D a n , J., Review of G r u e n w a l d , Apocalyptic and Merkabcih Mysticism, T a r b i z 51 (1981-2),
pp. 685-91 [Hebrew].
G r u e n w a l d , I., 'mVD-nn m i D D bt^ min'-n n"'''»m "nimp>"n ,D''DK'7an m-Tp", in
••iw n - a •'a-'a D'''?Bn'T' n n b i n a D'-piB (1981), p p . 4 5 9 - 8 1 .
Sed, N., La mystique cosmologique juive (1981).
C h e r n u s , I., 'Visions of God i n M e r k a b a h Mysticism', J S J 13 (1982), p p . 123—46.
C h e r n u s , I., Mysticism in Rabbinic Judaism (1982).
Elior, R . , Hekhalot ûtarti (1982). (A useful edition of the text with notes.)
Grozinger, K. E., Musik und Gesang in der Theologie der fruhen judischen Literatur (1982), pp.
281-331 ['Die mystischen T r a k t a t e ' ] .
R o w l a n d , C , The Open Heaven: A Study of Apocalyptic in Judaism and Early Christianity
(1982).
Schafer, P., 'Aufbau u n d redaktionelle I d e n t i t a t der H e k h a l o t Z u t r a t i ' , Festschrift Yadin
= J J S 33 (1982), pp. 569-82-
Schluter, M., 'Die E r z a h l u n g von Riickholung des R . N e h u n y a b e n H a q a n a a u s der
MerkavaSchdM i n ihrem redaktionellen R a h m e n ' , Frankfurter Judaistische Beitrage
10 (1982), p p . 65-109.
Alexander, P. S., Review of Schafer, Synopse, in J J S 34 (1983), p p . 102-6.
Cohen, M . S., The Shfur Qpmah: Liturgy and Theurgy in Pre-Kabbalistic Jewish Mysticism
(1983)-
D a n , J . , 'Anafiel, M e t a t r o n a n d the C r e a t o r ' , T a r b i z 52 (1983), pp. 447-57 [ H e b r e w ] .
Gruenwald, I . , 'Manichaeism a n d J u d a i s m in t h e Light of t h e Cologne M a n i C o d e x ' ,
Zeitschrift fiir Papyrologie u n d Epigraphik 5 0 (1983), p p . 29-45.
Schafer, P., ' T r a d i t i o n a n d Redaction in Hekhalot Literature', J S J 14 (1983), p p .
172-81.
Uchelen, N. A . van, Joodse Mystiek, Merkawa, Tempel en Troon (1983).
Alexander, P . S., ' C o m p a r i n g M e r k a v a h Mysdcism and Gnosticism: An Essay i n
M e t h o d ' , J J S 35 (1984), PP- 1-18.
Halperin, D. J . , Review of Schafer, Synopse,]h.O?) 104 (1984), p p . 543-51.
Schafer, P., ' N e w T e s t a m e n t and H e k h a l o t Literature : T h e J o u r n e y into Heaven i n Paul
a n d in M a r k a v a h Mysticism', J J S 35 (1984), pp. 19-35.
Schafer, P., ' M e r k a v a h Mysticism a n d R a b b i n i c J u d a i s m ' , J A O S 104 (1984), pp. 5 3 7 - 4 1 .
3. The Assumption or Testament oJMoses

I t h a s l o n g b e e n k n o w n from O r i g e n ' s De principiis iii 2, i ( e d .
K o e t s c h a u , G C S 1 7 , p . 244) t h a t t h e story of a d i s p u t e of t h e A r c h a n g e l
M i c h a e l w i t h S a t a n c o n c e r n i n g the b o d y o f M o s e s , t o u c h e d o n i n J u d e
9, w a s t a k e n from a n a p o c r y p h a l Adscentio Mosis. E x t r a c t s f r o m t h i s
AvdXrîljis Mwvaccos h a v e b e e n p r e s e r v e d in p a t r i s t i c w r i t i n g s a n d i n
1861 c o n s i d e r a b l e p o r t i o n s o f t h e w o r k w e r e p u b l i s h e d b y A . M .
C e r i a n i from a n O l d L a t i n v e r s i o n identified in a m a n u s c r i p t of t h e
A m b r o s i a n L i b r a r y (Monumenta sacra et profana I, fasc. i , p p . 5 5 - 6 2 ) .
T h e title of t h e d o c u m e n t h a s b e e n lost b u t its i d e n t i t y w i t h t h e a n c i e n t
AvaXrufjis Mcovaeojs b e c o m e s clear f r o m a q u o t a t i o n of G e l a s i u s
C y z i c e n u s , Church History ii 17, 1 7 ( e d . G . L o e s c h e k e a n d M .
H e i n e m a n n , G C S 2 8 , p . 74; A . M . D e n i s , F P G , p . 6 3 ) : MeXXcov 6
rrpo<l>r}TrjS Mcoarjs iîevai rov ^cov, ois yiyparTrai ev /3i)3Aaj AvaXiîpecos
Mioaeoos, rTpoaKaXeodp,evos 'Irjaovv vlov Navrj Kat SiaXeyopevos rrpos avrov
ecf)^- Kat TTpoededaaro pe 6 deos vpo KaraôXrjs Koapov etvai p.e rrjs
SiadiJKrjs avrov peair-qv. T h e s e s a m e w o r d s a r e found i n t h e L a t i n
version 1 : 1 4 : ' i t a q u e excogitavit et invenit m e , q u i a b initio orbis
t e r r a r u m p r a e p a r a t u s s u m , ut sim arbiter t e s t a m e n d ilhus.'
T h e c o n t e n t of t h e w r i t i n g is a s follows.
Introduction. 1 : 1 - 9 . A n a d d r e s s d e l i v e r e d b y M o s e s t o J o s h u a w h e n h e
n o m i n a t e s h i m as h i s s u c c e s s o r in office. 1 : 1 0 - 1 7 . M o s e s reveals t o
J o s h u a t h a t t h e a p p o i n t e d s p a n of h i s life h a s e l a p s e d , a n d t h a t h e is
a b o u t to d e p a r t to h i s f a t h e r s . A s a l e g a c y , h e h a n d s o v e r t o h i m c e r t a i n
b o o k s of p r o p h e c i e s , w h i c h J o s h u a is t o s t o r e i n j a r s in a p l a c e
a p p o i n t e d by G o d . Chapter 2. M o s e s c r y p t i c a l l y p r e d i c t s t o J o s h u a t h e
history of Israel, from h e r e n t r y into Palestine u n d l the destruction of
the k i n g d o m s o f I s r a e l a n d J u d a h . Chapter j . A k i n g ( N e b u c h a d n e z z a r )
will c o m e from t h e E a s t a n d will d e s t r o y t h e c i t y a n d T e m p l e b y fire
a n d d e p o r t t h e i n h a b i t a n t s . T h e c a p t i v e s will t h e n r e m e m b e r t h a t a l l
this h a d b e e n a l r e a d y f o r e t o l d b y M o s e s . T h e exile is to last for
s e v e n t y - s e v e n y e a r s . Chapter 4. I n a n s w e r t o t h e p r a y e r s of t h e i r l e a d e r ,
D a n i e l , G o d will h a v e m e r c y u p o n t h e m a g a i n a n d will r a i s e u p a k i n g
( C y r u s ) w h o will s e t t h e m free to r e t u r n to t h e i r o w n l a n d . A few
r e p r e s e n t a d v e r e m n a n t s o f t h e tribes will r e t u r n , a n d will r e s t o r e t h e
H o l y P l a c e , a n d will p e r s e v e r e i n t h e i r religious faith, b u t s a d l y a n d full
of sighs, b e c a u s e ' t h e y w i l l n o t b e a b l e t o sacrifice t o t h e G o d o f t h e i r
f a t h e r s ' (4:8).' Chapter ^. P u n i s h m e n t will also fall o n t h e i r k i n g s , t h e i r
I. T h e validity of the sacrificial worship in t h e Second T e m p l e seems t o be queried. A

similar point of view is manifest in M a l . 1:7 a n d i Enoch 89:73. C f Charles, The
Assumption of Moses (1897), p. 15. T h e reason for the a u t h o r ' s a t d t u d e m a y be t h a t gentile
d o m i n a d o n interfered with the purity o f the cult, post-exilic T e m p l e history being viewed
from stand of someone w h o has witnessed the activities of Hellenizing priests.
g e n t i l e r u l e r s ( o r , through t h e i r k i n g s , L a t i n : ' d e r e g e s ' ) , a n d the

J e w s themselves will be divided w i t h regard t o the t r u t h ('dividentur ad
v e r i t a t e m ' ) . ' ^ T h e a l t a r will b e defiled b y s u c h a s a r e n o t p r i e s t s b u t
slaves b o r n o f slaves. A n d t h e i r s c r i b e s ( ' m a g i s t r i et d i c t o r e s e o r u m ' )
will b e biassed a n d will p r e v e n t j u s t i c e . A n d t h e i r l a n d will be full of
u n r i g h t e o u s n e s s . Chapter 6. T h e n kings will arise a m o n g s t t h e m , a n d
priests of t h e M o s t H i g h G o d w i l l b e n a m e d w h o w i l l n e v e r t h e l e s s
c o m m i t sacrilege from t h e H o l y of H o l i e s . ( T h i s c l e a r l y refers t o the
H a s m o n a e a n s . ) T h e s e will b e f o l l o w e d b y a n i n s o l e n t k i n g , n o t of
p r i e s t l y l i n e a g e , a bold a n d g o d l e s s m a n . H e will j u d g e his p r e d e c e s s o r s
a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r deserts. H e w i l l e x t e r m i n a t e t h e i r l e a d i n g m e n w i t h
t h e s w o r d , a n d w i l l b u r y t h e i r b o d i e s i n u n k n o w n p l a c e s so t h a t n o o n e
k n o w s w h e r e t h e i r b o d i e s a r e . ^ H e will slay old a n d y o u n g alike, a n d
will n o t s p a r e t h e m . T h e n t h e r e w i l l b e g r e a t fear o f h i m a m o n g t h e m in
h i s l a n d ; a n d he will inflict j u d g e m e n t u p o n t h e m , as t h e E g y p t i a n s d i d
for f o u r - a n d - t h i r t y y e a r s . (All this o b v i o u s l y p o i n t s to H e r o d t h e
G r e a t . ) A n d h e w i l l p r o d u c e sons w h o will r e i g n as h i s successors, b u t
for briefer p e r i o d s . C o h o r t s w i l l c o m e i n t o t h e i r l a n d , a n d a m i g h t y k i n g
o f the west ( Q u i n t i l i u s V a r u s ) , w h o w i l l d e f e a t t h e m a n d t a k e t h e m
c a p t i v e , a n d will d e s t r o y a p a r t o f t h e i r T e m p l e b y fire; s o m e h e will
crucify a r o u n d t h e i r city.''^ Chapter 7. S u b s e q u e n t l y , the e n d o f t i m e s will
c o m e a b o u t . T h e i r c o u r s e will c e a s e w h e n four h o u r s h a v e c o m e . . .
( h e r e follow s e v e r a l lines in t h e m a n u s c r i p t w h i c h are s c a r c e l y legible.)
A n d p e r n i c i o u s a n d godless m e n will r e i g n o v e r t h e m , w h o will s a y t h a t
t h e y a r e j u s t . T h e y a r e deceitful m e n w h o l i v e o n l y to p l e a s e t h e m s e l v e s ,
d i s s e m b l e r s i n all t h a t t h e y d o a n d lovers a t e v e r y h o u r of t h e d a y of
feasts, g l u t t o n s [ L a t i n : ' d e u o r a t o r e s g u l a e ' ] . . . ( a n o t h e r l a c u n a ) . T h e y
d e v o u r the possessions of t h e p o o r a n d s a y t h a t t h e y d o this o u t of
compassion. T h e i r hands a n d minds practise impurity a n d their m o u t h s
s p e a k m o n s t r o u s t h i n g s ; a n d t h e y say, ' D o n o t t o u c h m e , lest you m a k e
m e u n c l e a n ' . Chapter 8. A s e c o n d v i s i t a t i o n will c o m e u p o n t h e m a n d
w r a t h such a s n e v e r w a s f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g u n t i l t h e t i m e w h e n h e will
raise u p for t h e m ( ' s u s c i t a u i t ' = ' s u s c i t a b i t ' ) a k i n g o f t h e kings (i.e.
A n t i o c h u s E p i p h a n e s ) , w h o will crucify t h o s e w h o confess c i r c u m c i s i o n ,
2. Schmidt a n d M e r x h a v e proposed t h e following retranslation i n t o G r e e k : Kat avrol

SiafiepiaO'qaavTai npos TTJV dAijêiav. Cf L u k e 11:17. F o r the use of nX58 i n the sense of
religion, see iQS i (passim). T h e allusion seems to refer t o the religious controversy
culminating in the Hellenistic crisis.
3. F o r secret executions b y H e r o d , see Ant. x v 10, 4 (366) : iroXXot 8e Kal <f>av€pojg Kal
ACATJÔTOIS els TO (f)povpiov dvay6fj,€voi., TTJV 'YpKavlav, eKei 8ie<f>9eipovTO.
4. W i t h reference t o the T e m p l e burning, cf Ant. xvii 10, 2 (261—2); B.J. ii 3, 3 (49) ;
for the crucifixions, cf. Ant. xvii 10, 10 (295); B.J. ii 5, 2 (75). I t m a y be deduced t h a t the
writer is deaHng with the w a r of V a r u s in 4 B.C.
28o §32. Jewish Literature in Hebrew or Aramaic
w h o will c a u s e t h e i r c h i l d r e n t o o b l i t e r a t e t h e m a r k s of c i r c u m c i s i o n ,
a n d will c o m p e l t h e m to c a r r y i m p u r e i d o l s p u b l i c l y a n d t o r e v i l e t h e
w o r d . ^ Chapter g. T h e n , w h e n t h a t k i n g p u b l i s h e s a n e d i c t , a m a n w i l l
a p p e a r of t h e t r i b e o f L e v i , Taxo b y n a m e , w i t h s e v e n sons. H e wiU s a y
to t h e m : ' B e h o l d , m y s o n s , a s e c o n d r u t h l e s s ( a n d ) u n c l e a n visitation
h a s c o m e u p o n t h e p e o p l e . F o r w h a t n a t i o n of g o d l e s s p e o p l e h a s e v e r
h a d t o suffer a s m u c h as w e h a v e ? N o w l i s t e n , m y s o n s , a n d l e t us d o
this. L e t u s fast for t h r e e d a y s , a n d o n t h e f o u r t h e n t e r a c a v e in t h e
c o u n t r y a n d r a t h e r d i e t h e r e t h a n t r a n s g r e s s t h e l a w of o u r L o r d , the
G o d of o u r f a t h e r s . ' ^ Chapter 10 is a n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l h y m n . A n d t h e n h i s
k i n g d o m will a p p e a r a m o n g all his c r e a t u r e s . T h e n t h e d e v i l w i l l m e e t
his e n d a n d g r i e f will d e p a r t w i t h h i m . T h e n t h e H e a v e n l y O n e w i l l r i s e
5. T h e phrase 'blasfemare u e r b u m ' is rendered by Charles (p. 32) as ' t o blaspheme . . .

the n a m e ' . I n fact ' u e r b u m ' suggests t h e T a r g u m i c - A r a m a i c NIDÔ regularly associated
with the T e t r a g r a m . Cf E . - M . Laperrousaz, Le Testament de Moise [Semitica 19] (1970),
p. 124; J . J . Collins, ' T h e Date a n d Provenance of t h e Testament of Moses', in G . W. E .
Nickelsburg, Studies on the Testament of Moses (1973), p. 2 0 ; S. R . Isenberg, ' O n t h e
Non-Relationship o f the T e s t a m e n t of Moses t o the T a r g u m i n ' , ibid., p. 8 2 . For the most
recent studies of Memra, see D. M u n o z Leon, Dios-Palabra: Memra en los Targumin del
Pentateuco (1974); R . H a y w a r d , Divine Name and Presence: The Memra (1981).
6. T h e confusing sequence o f the historical hints has been the subject o f m u c h
controversy. C h a p t e r 5 seems t o concern the rise of Hellenizing priests. T h e n without
mentioning the outrage caused b y Antiochus Epiphanes or the M a c c a b a e a n liberation,
the a u t h o r immediately passes to the H a s m o n a e a n priest-kings, depicted i n hostile
colours, and Herod and t h e Herodians with a specific allusion to V a r u s (chapter 6). T h i s
age is followed by the e n d ('ex q u o facto finientur t e m p o r a ' ) in c h a p t e r 7. C h a p t e r 8
speaks of a second visitation sketched with traits indistinguishable from the persecution
inflicted on t h e j e w s by Antiochus Epiphanes a n d c h a p t e r 9 relates the story of T a x o a n d
his sons, reminiscent of Assidaean m a r t y r d o m . Attempts a t disentangling these matters
will b e presented below.
Caves generally served as hide-outs during persecutions as well as places where t h e
T o r a h could be observed without hindrance. C f i M a c . 2 : 3 1 ; 2 M a c . 6:11; 10:6. See
Collins, art. cit., p . 25. O n Simeon b e n Yohai's concealment i n a cave d u r i n g t h e
Hadrianic persecution, see W. Bacher, Die Agada der Tannaiten I I , p . 73. T h e r e h a s been
unending speculation on t h e n a m e Taxo. Cf H . H. Rowley, The Relevance of Apocalyptic
(1963), pp. 149-56. Hypothetical corrections of presumed corruptions need only to b e
mentioned. T a x o = NDpn to b e read KlpH, the Zealot (Charles, p. 3 6 ) ; Taxo(c) =
ptODn, a cryptogram in which each letter is t o be replaced by the following o n e , giving
nts'^N ('God helps'), the name of a p r e - M a c c a b a e a n m a r t y r in 2 Mac. 6:18-31 (F. C .
Burkitt, H D B I I I , p . 449). Interpretation by means oi gematria (Taxo = H a s m o n a e a n )
may also be dismissed; cf. C. C . Torrey, ' T a x o in t h e Assumption of Moses', J B L 6 2
(1943), pp. 1-7; ' T a x o once m o r e ' , ibid. 64 (1945), p p . 395-7. T h e least fanciful theory
derives T a x o from the Greek TO^MV, orderer ( C . Clemen, A P A T I I , p. 3 2 6 ; P. Volz, Die
Eschatologie der judischen Gemeinde im neutestamentlichen êitalter (1934), p. 2 0 1 ; J . Licht,
'Taxo, or t h e Apocalyptic Doctrine of Vengeance', J J S 12 (1961), p . 95, n. i ) . T h e Greek
word is thought to reflect t h e Hebrew fplIlD ( S . Mowinckel, 'The H e b r e w Equivalent o f
Taxo in Ass. Mos. ix', S V T i (1953), p p . 7 8 - 8 7 ; M. Delcor, 'Le M e h o q e q du D o c u m e n t
de D a m a s e t T a x o dans f A s s o m p t i o n de Moise" ix', R B 62 (1955), p p . 60—6; O .
Eissfeldt, Introduction, p. 624). T a x o ( n ) may therefore simply m e a n 'leader'. O n t h e
various uses of p p i n o , see G . Vermes, Scripture and Tradition (^1973), p p . 49-55.
u p f r o m t h e t h r o n e of h i s k i n g d o m . A n d the e a r t h will t r e m b l e ; t h e s u n
will n o t give its l i g h t , t h e h o r n s o f t h e m o o n will b e b r o k e n , for G o d t h e
M o s t H i g h a p p e a r s a n d chastises t h e n a t i o n s . T h e n will you b e h a p p y ,
O I s r a e l , a n d G o d will raise y o u u p . A n d y o u , J o s h u a ( w i t h t h e s e w o r d s
M o s e s t u r n s t o h i m a g a i n ) , p r e s e r v e t h e s e w o r d s a n d this b o o k . B u t I a m
g o i n g t o m y f a t h e r ' s rest. Chapter 11 r e l a t e s h o w , after t h i s a d d r e s s ,
J o s h u a t u r n e d to M o s e s a n d l a m e n t e d his i m m i n e n t d e p a r t u r e a n d his
o w n w e a k n e s s a n d i n c o m p e t e n c e c o m p a r e d to t h e i m m e n s e task laid
u p o n h i m . W h e r e a t chapter 12 r e p o r t s t h a t M o s e s a d m o n i s h e d J o s h u a
n o t t o u n d e r e s t i m a t e his a b i l i t y , a n d n o t t o d o u b t t h e f u t u r e o f his
p e o p l e since it will, a c c o r d i n g t o G o d ' s d e c r e e , b e m u c h p u n i s h e d o n
a c c o u n t of i t s sins, b u t c a n n e v e r b e u t t e r l y d e s t r o y e d .
H e r e t h e m a n u s c r i p t b r e a k s off, b u t t h e f o r e g o i n g m a t e r i a l l e a d s t o
t h e e x p e c t a t i o n , w h i c h t h e f r a g m e n t s c o n f i r m , t h a t the s e q u e l w a s
c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e a s s u m p t i o n of M o s e s . H e n c e t h e title for t h e
c o m p o s i t i o n as a w h o l e : 'AvaXruftis Mojvacojs. T h e r e m u s t also h a v e b e e n
q u e s t i o n i n this c o n c l u d i n g p o r t i o n of t h e b o o k of t h e d i s p u t e
m e n t i o n e d i n J u d e 9 b e t w e e n t h e A r c h a n g e l M i c h a e l a n d S a t a n over
Moses' body.
T h e p r o b l e m o f d a t i n g t h e d o c u m e n t is b e s t p r e s e n t e d in t w o s t a g e s ,
t h e first c o n c e r n e d w i t h its final c o m p o s i t i o n a n d the s e c o n d w i t h t h e
t h e o r y of t w o successive r e d a c t i o n a l layers.^
(i) T w o theses p l a c i n g t h e final c o m p o s i t i o n t o t h e second c e n t u r y
A . D . a r e s u p p o r t e d o n l y b y t h e i r a u t h o r s , S. Z e i t l i n a n d K . H a a c k e r .
H o w e v e r , a l m o s t all s c h o l a r s a g r e e i n d a t i n g to t h e first c e n t u r y A . D .
t h e l a t e s t i d e n t i f i a b l e h i s t o r i c a l a l l u s i o n s . T h e s e a p p e a r in c h a p t e r 6,
w i t h references t o H e r o d a n d t h e t h i r t y - f o u r y e a r s of h i s r e i g n , t o
H e r o d i a n p r i n c e s s u c c e e d i n g t h e i r f a t h e r , a n d in p a r t i c u l a r t o a n
i n v a s i o n b y V a r u s i n 4 B . C . ^ Y e t , w h e r e a s t h e i d e n t i t y of t h e ' r e x
7. F o r the various views, see Charles, p p . xxi-viii; Laperrousaz, p p . 8 8 - 9 9 ; Collins, art.

cit., pp. 15-30.
8. Zeitlin dates the composition to a b o u t A.D. 140: ' T h e Assumption of Moses a n d the
Revolt of Bar K o k h b a ' , J Q R 38 (1947), p p . 1-45. For H a a c k e r , the writer of this work is
a Samaritan living i n the second c e n t u r y A.D. : 'Assumptio Mosis—eine samaritanische
Schrift?', T h Z 25 (1969), p p . 385—405. F o r a criticism of both, see Collins, art. cit., p . 16.
9. T h e redaction is dated shortly after 4 B.C. by O . Eissfeldt, Introduction, p. 6 2 4 ; and
especially J . J . Collins, art. cit., p p . 15-32 a n d 'Some R e m a i n i n g Traditio-Historical
Problems in t h e Testament of Moses', in Nickelsburg, op. cit., pp. 38-43. O t h e r scholars
link the production of the Assumption of Moses to the deposition of Archelaus in A.D. 6 :
F . C. Burkitt, Jewish and Christian Apocalypses (1914), p . 19, n. 3 ; J . - B . Frey, 'Apocryphes
d e I'Ancien T e s t a m e n t : Assomption de Moise', DBS I (1926), cols. 403-9. C. Lattey
('The Messianic Expectation in the Assumption of Moses', C B Q ( i 9 4 2 ) , p p . 9-21) and H .
H . Rowley {The Relevance of Apocalyptic (1963), p. 108) place t h e completion of the
d o c u m e n t to the years immediately preceding A.D. 30. R. H . Charles {The Assumption of
Moses (1897), pp. Iv-lviii) prefers the period between A.D. 7 and 30, and his view has
been a d o p t e d by E . - M . Laperrousaz {op. cit., p p . 9 8 - 9 ) . D. M . Rhoads, i n turn, sees i n
p e t u l a n s ' a n d ' o c c i d e n d s r e x p o t e n s ' as H e r o d t h e G r e a t a n d V a r u s is

a l m o s t c e r t a i n , t h e p r e s e n c e of these latest historical c h a r a c t e r s in t h e
m i d d l e of the d o c u m e n t raises f u r t h e r q u e s t i o n s . Firstly, n e x t t o t h e
m e n t i o n o f the H e l l e n i z i n g p r i e s t h o o d in c h a p t e r 5, a p p e a r s a s u m m a r y
reference to t h e H a s m o n a e a n p r i e s t - k i n g s ('reges i m p e r a n t e s et i n
s a c e r d o t e s s u m m i D e i v o c a b u n t u r ' ) , a n d to H e r o d in c h a p t e r 6.
A n t i o c h u s E p i p h a n e s a n d h i s d e s e c r a t i o n of t h e T e m p l e , t h e
M a c c a b a e a n u p r i s i n g , v i c t o r y a n d r e s t o r a t i o n , go u n m e n t i o n e d . Y e t
after the d e c l a r a t i o n t h a t t h e e n d h a s a r r i v e d i n 7 : 1 , t h e r e is f u r t h e r
criticism o f wicked J e w s , w h o a r e to b e p u n i s h e d b y ' t h e k i n g of kings o f
the e a r t h ' , the l a t t e r ' s a c t i o n s b e i n g d e p i c t e d in t e r m s r e m i n i s c e n t of t h e
p e r s e c u t i o n of A n t i o c h u s I V ( c h a p t e r 8). F i n a l l y , t h e T a x o episode i n
c h a p t e r 9 recalls the H a s i d i c m a r t y r s of t h e p r e - M a c c a b a e a n e p o c h ( i
M a c . 2 ; 2 M a c . 6 - 7 ) . O n e w a y of s e t t h n g t h i s d i s o r d e r is to a d o p t
Charles's theory and transfer chapters 8 a n d 9 b e t w e e n chapters 5 and
6 {op. cit., p p . li, 28—30). B u t this h y p o t h e t i c a l r e a r r a n g e m e n t of t h e
c h a p t e r s is not w i t h o u t its o w n difficulties, as h a s b e e n i n d i c a t e d by J .
Licht.'°
(2) T h e thesis of t w o successive r e d a c t i o n s was i n i t i a t e d b y L i c h t a n d
m o r e fully a r g u e d b y G . W . E. N i c k e l s b u r g . O n the basis of a
f o r m - c r i d c a l analysis o f t h e d o c u m e n t , followed b y a c o m p a r i s o n of t h e
contents of chapter 8 with Daniel 7 a n d 1 1 , Jubilees 23, a n d i E n o c h
8 9 - 9 0 , he concludes t h a t the a u t h o r h a s A n t i o c h u s ' p e r s e c u t i o n i n
m i n d . T h e T a x o figure is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e stories o f M a t t a t h i a s a n d
his s o n s a n d t h e m o t h e r a n d h e r seven sons, a n d i M a c . 1 2 , 2 M a c . 7
a n d t h e T a x o a c c o u n t a r e c o n n e c t e d w i t h w i t h the last c h a p t e r s o f
D e u t e r o n o m y . I n fact, N i c k e l s b u r g a c c o r d s p r i o r i t y t o the T a x o story,
o n w h i c h t h e r e l e v a n t p a s s a g e s from t h e Books of t h e M a c c a b e e s ' a r e in
s o m e sense d e p e n d e n t ' . If t h i s b e the case, c h a p t e r 6 w i t h t h e allusions
t o H e r o d a n d V a r u s is b e s t e x p l a i n e d a s a n i n t e r p o l a t i o n . " T h e
o r i g i n a l c o m p o s i t i o n is to b e d a t e d to t h e b e g i n n i n g o f the p e r s e c u t i o n
of A n t i o c h u s , p r i o r to t h e a p p e a r a n c e o n t h e s c e n e of t h e M a c c a b e e s . ' ^
T h e r e v i s i o n of t h e w o r k b y m e a n s of t h e i n s e r t i o n of c h a p t e r s 6 a n d 7
took p l a c e in t h e o p e n i n g y e a r s of t h e C h r i s t i a n e r a . ' ^ A s a result.
the Assumption of Moses a reflection of the revolutionary spirit in Palestine between 4

B.C. a n d A.D. 48 ('The A s s u m p d o n of Moses a n d Jewish History: 4 B.C. t o A.D. 48', in
Nickelsburg, op. cit., p p . 44-52).
10. ' T a x o ' , J J S 12 (1961), pp. 100-3.
11. ' A n Antiochan Date for the Testament of Moses', op. cit., pp. 33-7. T h e dependence
of Maccabees on the Taxo story is purely speculative. T h e priorides should be reversed as
Collins has shown [art. cit., p . 25).
12. C f J L B B M , p. 82.
13. Ibid., p p . 213-14.
chapters 8 and 9, originaUy relating to the age of A n t i o c h u s , are

transformed i n t o a n eschatological vision.'^
O n t h e w h o l e , t h e l a t t e r t h e o r y s e e m s t o be m o r e c o n s o n a n t w i t h t h e
a d m i t t e d l y c r y p t i c d a t a o f t h e t e x t . I n p a r t i c u l a r , it m a y b e p o i n t e d o u t
t h a t t h e o m i s s i o n o f a n y h i n t a t t h e d e f e a t of t h e H e l l e n i z e r s b y J u d a s
Maccabaeus makes b e t t e r s e n s e if a p r e - M a c c a b a e a n composition is
r e - s h a p e d in H e r o d i a n t i m e s b y a r e v i s e r h o s t i l e t o t h e H a s m o n a e a n s ,
t h a n is t h e h y p o t h e s i s of a s i n g l e r e d a c t i o n f r o m w h i c h b o t h A n t i o c h u s
E p i p h a n e s a n d t h e first M a c c a b e e s a r e a b s e n t .
T h e p r o v e n a n c e o f t h e A s s u m p t i o n of M o s e s is n o less c o n t r o v e r s i a l
t h a n its l i t e r a r y c o m p o s i t i o n . The work has b e e n assigned t o every
known Jewish sect: Sadducees,'^ Pharisees,'^ Zealots,'^ Essenes,'^ a n d
S a m a r i t a n s , ' ^ o r to a n u n d e f i n e d g r o u p . ^ ° T h a t it d i s p l a y s a n u m b e r of
affinities with the Qumran writings is undeniable, in particular a
priestly stand, a peculiar eschatological outlook,^' and a violent
14. Laperrousaz, p. 1 2 2 ; Nickelsburg, p. 213. T h e persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes

provides also the p a t t e r n for the portrayal of the final upheaval i n Mark 13. C f Eissfeldt,
Introduction, p . 6 2 4 ; CoUins, art. cit., pp. 21-2.
15. R. Leszynsky, Die Sadduzder ( i g t a ) , pp. 267-73.
16. R. H . Charles, op. cit., p p . li-liv. ' H e w a s a Pharisee . . . recalling i n all respects t h e
Chasid of t h e early M a c c a b a e a n times, and u p h o l d i n g the old traditions of quietude a n d
resignation' (p. liv). Cf also E. Schiirer in his final edidon, p . 3 0 0 ; J . Bonsirven, La Bible
apocryphe. En marge de I'Ancien Testament (1953), pp. 222-6. J . A. Goldstein, ' T h e
Testament of M o s e s : I t s Contents, its Origin a n d its Attestation i n Josephus', in
Nickelsburg, op. cit., p . 50, suggests t h a t the author 'could well have been a
proto-Pharisee'.
17. This theory was fairly p o p u l a r a m o n g nineteenth c e n t u r y scholars such as K .
Wicseler, ' D i e jiingst aufgefundene Aufnahme Moses nach U r s p r u n g u n d I n h a l t
aufgesucht', Jahrbiicher fiir deutsche Theologie (1868), pp. 6 2 2 - 4 8 ; F. Rosenthal, Vier
apokryphische Biicher (1885), p p . 1 3 - 3 8 ; E. Schiirer, in t h e second e d . ; W. J . Deane,
Pseudepigrapha (1891), p p . 9 5 - 1 3 0 ; C. A. Briggs, The Messiah of the Apostles (1895), p p .
5-7, 18. F o r a cridcism of a n old-fashioned Zealot theory a n d yet a simultaneous
association of the d o c u m e n t with a rebellious milieu in t h e first half of the first century
A.D., see D. M . R h o a d s , art. cit., p p . 5 3 - 8 .
18. M. Schmidt and A. M e r x , ' D i e Assumptio Mosis', i n A. M e r x , Archiv fiir
wissenschaftliche Erforschung des Alten Testaments I.n (1868), p p . 1 1 1 - 5 2 ; O . H o l t z m a n n ,
.Neutestamentliche êitgeschichte (^1906), pp. 3 0 1 - 3 ; P. Riessler, Altjiidisches Schrifttum
ausserhalb der Bibel (1928), p. 1301; A. D u p o n t - S o m m e r , The Essene Writings from Qumran
(1961), p. 2 9 6 ; M . Delcor, 'Contribution a I'etude d e la legislation des sectaires d e D a m a s
et d e Q u m r a n (suite)', R B 62 (1955), p. 5 4 ; E . - M . Laperrousaz, op. cit., p . 95 ( ' u n
Essenien quietiste').
19. Cf K . Haacker, 'Assumptio Mosis—eine samaritanische Schrift?', T h Z 25 (1969),
pp. 385-405-
20. Among the latest students of the book, neither CoUins nor Nickelsburg is prepared
firmly to assign t h e authorship t o any o f the traditional Jewish groups. Collins speaks o f a
sectarian g r o u p ' {art. cit., p. 32) ; Nickelsburg wonders whether t h e a u t h o r w a s a priest
J L B B M , p . 83).
21. Chapter 10:9—'et altabit te deus et faciet t e haerere coelo stellarum'—suggests
that final r e d e m p t i o n will entail a kind of exaltation t o heaven. T h i s imagery recalls i Q H
r e j e c t i o n of t h e M a c c a b a e a n - H a s m o n a e a n r u l e r s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e
a b s e n c e of a n y f r a g m e n t of t h i s a p o c a l y p s e a m o n g t h e D e a d S e a Scrolls
(so far a t least) m i l i t a t e s a g a i n s t its a t t r i b u t i o n to a n Essene m i l i e u . T h e
furthest one can go is to suggest t h a t it derives f r o m a w r i t e r
s y m p a t h e t i c t o Essene ideology.^^
T h e L a t i n t e x t , p r e s e r v e d in a s i x t h c e n t u r y A . D . p a H m p s e s t
m a n u s c r i p t , ^ ^ w a s p r o b a b l y t r a n s l a t e d from the G r e e k in t h e fifth
c e n t u r y . ^ * I t is g e n e r a l l y a s s u m e d t h a t t h e G r e e k v e r s i o n was r e n d e r e d
f r o m a S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e . ^ ^ T h e m o s t t h o r o u g h case for a H e b r e w
o r i g i n a l was m a d e o u t b y R . H . Charles.^^ A m o n g t h o s e v o t i n g in
f a v o u r o f A r a m a i c m a y b e m e n t i o n e d M . S c h m i d t a n d A . Merx,''^ a n d
C . C. Torrey.'*^ I n view of t h e p r e c a r i o u s n e s s of t h e a v a i l a b l e e v i d e n c e
(a p o o r L a t i n version, s u p p o s e d l y m a d e from t h e G r e e k , itself a l l e g e d l y
r e n d e r e d from a S e m i t i c o r i g i n a l ) , few r e c e n t w r i t e r s are r e a d y to
c o m m i t t h e m s e l v e s . T h e d i r e c t i m p a c t a p p a r e n t l y m a d e on t h e
a u t h o r (s) by t h e H e l l e n i s t i c crisis, t h e r u l e of t h e H e r o d s a n d t h e w a r of
V a r u s s u g g e s t s t h a t the b o o k w a s w r i t t e n in P a l e s t i n e .
T h e l e g e n d c o n c e r n i n g t h e d e a t h of M o s e s a p p e a r s i n v a r i o u s f o r m s
in J e w i s h h t e r a t u r e . I n a d d i t i o n to t h e w o r k u n d e r discussion, i t is g i v e n
i n p r e - R a b b i n i c w r i t i n g s in P h i l o , De Vita Mosis ii ( 2 8 8 - 9 2 ) ; J o s e p h u s ,
Ant. iv 7, 48—9 ( 3 2 3 - 3 1 ) , a n d P s e u d o - P h i l o , Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum
1 9 : 6 - 1 6 . N o Q u m r a n m a n u s c r i p t s t r i c t l y belongs t o this c a t e g o r y . T h e
closest p a r a l l e l is t h e d o c u m e n t d e s i g n a t e d ' W o r d s of M o s e s ' ( D J D I,
p p . 91—7), a farewell d i s c o u r s e a d d r e s s e d t o E l e a z a r a n d J o s h u a , of
w h i c h o n l y t h e b e g i n n i n g h a s survived i n a v e r y f r a g m e n t a r y f o r m . T h e
3:20-2, i Q M 17:7 (see Vermes, DSS, pp. 187-8) as well as i Thes. 4:17. It m a y also be
noted t h a t just a s in the Q u m r a n W a r Rule the victory of truth over falsehood is effected,
n o t with the help of a royal Messiah, but through t h e intervention of Michael, the angelic
protector of Israel (cf. also Daniel 10:13, 2 1 ; 12:1), so in the hymn of chapter 10 the
leader wreaking revenge over the enemies is 'nuntius . . . in summo constitutus'. I t is
worth remarking that the eschatological vision granted to Moses before his d e a t h ,
according to T a r g . Ps.-J. o n Deut. 34:1—3, culminates in t h e arrival of the saviour
Michael.
22. Cf. Collins, art. cit., pp. 3 0 - 2 .
23. Cf. Denis, I P G A T , pp. 1 3 4 - 5 ; Laperrousaz, op. cit., pp. 3—16.
24. For the principal arguments in favour of a Greek basis for the Latin version, see
Laperrousaz, op. cit., p . 16. N o n e of the surviving Greek fragments parallels the sections
preserved in Latin and cannot strictly be used as evidence. According t o Laperrousaz, the
t w o groups represent t w o different documents. Cf ibid., p . 17.
25. Cf D. H . Wallace, ' T h e Semitic Origin of the Assumpdon of Moses', T h Z 11
(1955). P P - 3 2 1 - 2 8 .
26. Op. cit., p p . xxxviii-xlv. See also S. Mowinckel, ' T h e Hebrew Equivalent of T a x o in
Assumption of Moses I X ' , S V T i (1953), p p . 89—90; M. Delcor, art. cit. (in n. 18 above),
p. 60. For a full list, see Laperrousaz, op. cit., pp. 17—18.
27. Op. cit. (in n. 18 above).
28. Art. cit. (in n. 6 above). For further names, see Laperrousaz, op. cit., p. 18.
29. See e.g. Laperrousaz, op. cit., p . 25; Nickelsburg, J L B B M , p . 83.
e d i t o r (J. T . M i l i k ) surmises t h a t ' t h e c o m p o s i t i o n e n d e d w i t h M o s e s '

d e a t h a n d possibly his a s c e n s i o n ' {ibid., p . 9 1 ) . I n R a b b i n i c l i t e r a t u r e
t h e following n e e d to b e l i s t e d : Sifre o n D e u t . 34 (357) ; P a l e s t i n i a n
T a r g s . t o D e u t . 3 4 ; Tanhuma ( e d . B u b e r ) V , p p . 56 f.; D e u t . R . 1 1 : 1 0 ;
Yalqut Shim'oni D e u t . 940; Bereshith Rabbati (ed. C h . A l b e c k , 1 9 4 0 ) ; a n d
M i d r a s h on t h e D e a t h o f M o s e s {Petirath Mosheh), p r e s e r v e d in t w o
recension.^° T h e r e are also S a m a r i t a n , ^ ' Ethiopic'^^ a n d A r m e n i a n
versions.
O n J e w i s h M o s e s - l e g e n d s i n g e n e r a l , see L. G i n z b e r g , The Legends of
the Jews I I , p p . 2 4 3 - 3 7 5 ( N o t e s V , p p . 3 9 1 - 4 3 9 ) i PP- 5 - 4 8 1 ( N o t e s
V I , pp. 1 - 1 6 8 ) .
T h e A s s u m p t i o n of M o s e s is not t o be confused w i t h t h e A p o c a l y p s e
of M o s e s o r T h e Life of A d a m a n d E v e (cf. b e l o w , p p . 757—60). A n o t h e r
s o m e w h a t o b s c u r e title is t h a t of t h e A p o c r y p h o n o f M o s e s from w h i c h
St. P a u l is said to h a v e t a k e n G a l . 6:16 {ovre ydp n€pirop.ri ri e a n v ovre
aKpo^varia d\Xd Kaivrj /criai?).^* B u t the b o r r o w i n g is m u c h m o r e likely

to h a v e b e e n t h e o t h e r w a y ( C h a r l e s , op. cit., p . x v i i ) . T h e r e w e r e a l s o
G n o s t i c b o o k s of M o s e s u s e d b y t h e Sethites, a c c o r d i n g t o E p i p h a n i u s ,
Haer. xxxix 5 (ed. K . H o l l ) . T h e P r a y e r of M o s e s p u b l i s h e d b y M . R .
J a m e s {Apocrypha Anecdota : T e x t s a n d S t u d i e s I I ( 1 8 9 3 ) , p p . 1 7 2 - 3 ) is in
fact an e x c e r p t f r o m P s e u d o - P h i l o ' s L A B 19 ( o n L A B , s e e b e l o w , p p .
325-31)-
T h e earliest q u o t a t i o n from t h e A s s u m p d o n of M o s e s a p p e a r s in t h e
Epistle o f J u d e 9, a c c o r d i n g to C l e m e n t o f A l e x a n d r i a , Fragmenta in Ep.
30. Ed. b y A. Jellinek, Bet ha-Midrasch I (1853), p p . 115-29; V I (1878), pp. 71-8. For
translations, see A . Wiinsche, Aus Israels Lehrhallen I (1907), pp. 1 3 4 - 7 6 ; M, A b r a h a m ,
Legendes juives apocryphes sur la vie de Moise (1925), p p . 9 3 - 1 1 3 ; cf. pp. 2 8 - 4 5 ; ^ - Bloch,
'Quelques aspects d e la figure d e Moise dans l a tradition r a b b i n i q u e ' , in H . Gazelles et ai,
Moise, I'homme de I'Alliance (1955), p p . 131—8. Cf. also M . Gaster, The Chronicles of
Jerahmeel (1899), PP- H4—9^ J- T h e o d o r , 'Midrash Petirat M o s h e h ' , J E V I I I , p p . 575—6.
The various recensions m a y be assigned to t h e seventh to eleventh centuries: see H . L.
Strack and G. Stemberger, Einleitung in Talmud und Midrasch (^1982), p. 301.
31. For a full account, see J. D . Purvis, ' S a m a r i t a n Traditions o n the Death of Moses',
in Nickelsburg, op. cit., p p . 93-117. T h e two most i m p o r t a n t sources are Memar Marqah:
The Teaching of Marqah, ed. by J . M a c d o n a l d , I-II (1963); and The Asatir, ed. by M .
Gaster (1927); Z. Ben-Hayyim, 'TOOK IDO', T a r b i z 14 (1943), p p . 104-25, 1 7 4 - 9 0 ; 15
(1944), pp. 71-87.
32. J. Faitlovitch, Mota Muse (La mort de Moise) (1906); E d w a r d Ullendorff, ' T h e
" D e a t h of Moses" in the Literature of the Falashas', B S O A S 24 (1961), p p . 419-43 (text
and translation).
33. M. E. Stone, ' T h r e e Armenian A c c o u n t s of the Death of Moses', in Nickelsburg, op.
cit., p p . 118-21. T h e m a i n d o c u m e n t , ' T h e History of Moses', was published by S.
Yousep'ianc', Ankanon Girk' Hin Ktakaranac (Uncanonical Writings of the Old T e s t a m e n t )
(1898), pp. 204-6.
34. Cf Euthalius (ed. L . A. Z a c c a g n i , Collectanea monumentorum veterum (1698), p. 5 6 1 ) ;
Photius, Ad Amphil. 151 ( P G l o i , col. 8 1 3 ) ; Syncellus, e/c rrjs Mcovaews dn-oKaXvipews (ed.
Dindorf I, p . 48).
ludae g (ed. O . S t a h l i n , p . 2 0 7 : ' h i e c o n f i r m a t a s s u m t i o n e m M o y s i ' ) .

F u r t h e r l e g e n d a r y t r a i t s r e l a t i n g to t h e d e a t h a n d a s c e n s i o n of M o s e s in
C l e m e n t m a y h a v e o r i g i n a t e d in t h i s w r i t i n g {Strom, i 23, 1 5 3 , i ; vi 1 5 ,
1 3 2 , 2 - 3 , ed. S t a h l i n ) . O r i g e n , De Principiis in 2, i (ed. K o e t s c h a u ) : ' E t
p r i m o q u i d e m in G e n e s i serpens E v a m s e d u x i s s e d e s c r i b i t u r , d e q u o in
A d s c e n s i o n e M o s i s , c u i u s libelh m e m i n i t i n epistola sua a p o s t o l u s
l u d a s , M i c h a e l a r c h a n g e l u s c u m d i a b o l o d i s p u t a n s de c o r p o r e M o s i s
a i t a d i a b o l o i n s p i r a t u m s e r p e n t e m c a u s a m exstitisse p r a e v a r i c a t i o n i s
A d a e e t E v a e . ' O r i g e n , Homilia II, i in Libro lesu Nave ( e d . W . A.
B a e h r e n s ) : ' D e n i q u e e t in libello q u o d a m , licet in c a n o n e n o n
h a b e a t u r , mysterii t a m e n h u i u s figura d e s c r i b i t u r . R e f e r t u r e n i m , q u i a
d u o Moses v i d e b a n t u r : u n u s vivus i n s p i r i t u , alius m o r t u u s in c o r p o r e . '
D i d y m u s of A l e x a n d r i a , In Epist. ludae enarratio ( P G 39, col. 1 8 1 5 ) , finds
e v i d e n c e in J u d e 9 for t h e v i e w t h a t t h e devil is n o t evil by n a t u r e or
' s u b s t a n t i a l i t e r ' , a n d asserts t h a t ' a d v e r s a r i i h u i u s c o n t e m p l a t i o n i s
p r a e s c r i b u n t p r a e s e n t i e p i s t o l a e et M o y s e o s a s s u m p t i o n i p r o p t e r e u m
l o c u m u b i significatur v e r b u m A r c h a n g e l i d e c o r p o r e M o y s e o s ad
d i a b o l u m f a c t u m . ' G e l a s i u s C y z i c e n u s , Church History h 1 7 , 17, a b o v e , p .
278. See also ii 2 1 , 7 (ed. L o e s c h e k e a n d M . H e i n e m a n n ) : Ev fii^Xcp he
VlvaA'î/teco? Mcoaecos MixariX 6 dpxd-yyeXos SiaXeyopevos TO* huaôXa)
Aeyei- OLTTO ydp TrvevpuaTos dyiov avTov irdvres €KTiadr)pi,€v Kal rrdXiv Aeyei-
drro npoacoTTOV TOV deov i^-qXde TO w€vp,a avTov Kal 6 Koapos eyevcTO. Ibid.
ii 20, a p h i l o s o p h e r a n s w e r i n g t h e b i s h o p s : rrepl he TTJS pr)deiar}s
AvaXrufiecjs Mcjaecog, nepl dpTicjs elprJKaTe, ovhe d/ci/Koa Trore ei prj vvv.
E v o d i u s , In Augustinum op. epist. 1 5 8 , 6 (PL 33, cols. 6 9 5 - 6 ) :
' Q u a n q u a m e t in a p o c r y p h i s et in secretis ipsius M o y s i , q u a e s c r i p t u r a
c a r e t a u c t o r i t a t e , t u n c c u m a s c e n d e r e t in m o n t e m ut m o r e r e t u r , vi
c o r p o r i s efficitur u t a h u d esset, q u o d t e r r a e m a n d a r e t u r , a l i u d q u o d
a n g e l o c o m i t a n d s o c i a r e t u r . Sed n o n satis u r g e t m e a p o c r y p h o r u m
p r a e f e r r e s e n t e n t i a m illis s u p e r i o r i b u s r e b u s definitis.' F o r f u r t h e r
p a s s a g e s , see A . - M . D e n i s , F P G , p p . 6 6 - 7 .
T h e a b s e n c e of c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n t h e L a t i n A s s u m p t i o n a n d
t h e G r e e k q u o t a t i o n s raises a n i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n of l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y :
d o the G r e e k f r a g m e n t s b e l o n g to t h e s a m e w o r k a s the L a t i n text, or
a r e t h e r e t w o s e p a r a t e d o c u m e n t s ? I n fact t h e a n c i e n t texts of
a p o c r y p h a l b o o k s , the S t i c h o m e t r y of N i c e p h o r u s , t h e S y n o p s i s of
P s e u d o - A t h a n a s i u s , t h e A r m e n i a n list of M e c h i t h a r , etc., r e c o r d a
'Testament' and a n ' A s s u m p t i o n o f M o s e s ' {AiaOrjKr^jÂvdXrjifiLs
Mojvaea>s). A t first sight, the e x t a n t L a t i n t e x t seems to c o r r e s p o n d to
t h e former, a n d t h e G r e e k q u o t a t i o n s , d e a h n g w i t h events s u b s e q u e n t
to the d e a t h of M o s e s , t o t h e l a t t e r . O n e possible e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e
d u a l i t y of titles is t h a t ' T e s t a m e n t ' a n d ' A s c e n s i o n ' d e s i g n a t e the t w o
h a l v e s o f a single w o r k ( S c h i i r e r ) . A n o t h e r s o l u t i o n assumes t h a t t w o
o r i g i n a l l y distinct b o o k s h a v e b e e n u n i t e d i n t o a c o m p o s i t e d o c u m e n t
( C h a r l e s , p . x i i i ) . N e v e r t h e l e s s , it m u s t also b e b o r n e i n m i n d that,
according to the Byzantine lists, 'Testament' and 'Assumption'
c o n t i n u e d to exist s e p a r a t e l y , t h e first c o n s i s t i n g of i , 100 a n d t h e s e c o n d
of 1,400 lines ( S t i c h o m e t r y of N i c e p h o r u s ) . I t w o u l d in c o n s e q u e n c e be
e q u a l l y r e a s o n a b l e to a c c e p t t h a t t h e T e s t a m e n t a n d t h e A s s u m p t i o n
have always remained autonomous entities.Not enough solid
e v i d e n c e exists to j u s d f y a n y firm c o n c l u s i o n e x c e p t t h a t , if t h e L a t i n
v e r s i o n is to b e i d e n t i f i e d w i t h e i t h e r t r a d i t i o n a l t i t l e , t h e r e is n o d o u b t
t h a t it c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e T e s t a m e n t of M o s e s .
Editions of t h e Latin Text

Ceriani, A . M., Monumenta sacra et profana I, i (1861), pp. 5 5 - 6 4 .
Hilgenfeld, A., Novum Testamentum extra canonem receptum I (1866), pp. 9 3 - 1 1 5 ; ( 1876),
pp. 107-35.
Idem, 'Die Psalmen Salomos u n d die Himmelfahrt des Moses griechisch hergestellt u n d
erklart', Z W T h 11 (1868), pp. 273-309, 356.
Volkmar, G., Mose Prophetic und Himmelfahrt (1867).
Schmidt, M . , a n d Merx, A., Die Assumptio Mosis. Archiv fiir wissenschaftliche Erforschung des
Alten Testaments I, 2 (1869), pp. 111-52.
Fritzsche, O . F., Libri apocryphi Veteris Testamenti graece (1871), p p . 700-30.
Charles, R . H., The Assumption of Moses (1893).
Clemen, C , Die Himmelfahrt des Mose (1904).
Laperrousaz, E.-M., Le Testament de Moise (geniralement appeli 'Assomption de Moise')
[Semitica 19] (1970).
Greek F r a g m e n t s
Denis, F P G , pp. 6 3 - 7 .
Translations
(a) English
Charles, R . H., op. cit.
Idem, A P O T II (1913), p p . 407-24.
(b) German
Volkmar, G., op. cit.
Clemen, C , A P A T I I , p p . 311-31.
Riessler, P . , Altjiidisches Schrifttum ausserhalb der Bibel (1928), p p . 485-95, 1301-3.
Branderburger, E . , Himmelfahrt Moses [ J S H R Z 5] (1976), p p . 5 9 - 8 4 .
(c) French
Laperrousaz, E.-M., op. cit.
Bibliography
Rosenthal, F., Vier apokryphische Biicher aus der êit und Schule Akibas (1885), pp. 13-38.
Holscher, G., ' U b e r die Entstehungszeit der "Himmelfahrt Moses'", Z N W 17 (1916), p p .
108-27, 149-58-
K u h n , K. G., ' Z u r Assumptio Mosis', Z A W 4 3 (1925), pp. 124-9.
Lattey, C , ' T h e Messianic Expectation in t h e Assumption of Moses', C B Q 4 (1942), p p .
9-21.
35. For a thorough criticism o f Charles's thesis, see Laperrousaz, op. cit., pp. 41-62.
Torrey, C. C , ' " T a x o " i n the Assumption of Moses', J B L 6 2 (1943), pp. 1-7.
Idem, ' " T a x o " once more', J B L 6 4 (1945), p p . 395-7.
Rowley, H . H., ' T h e Figure of " T a x o " in t h e Assumption of Moses', J B L 64 (1945), p p .
141-3.
Zeitlin, S., 'The Assumption of Moses and t h e Revolt of B a r Kokhba', J Q R 38 (1947/8),
pp. 1-45.
Mowinckel, S., ' T h e Hebrew Equivalent of T a x o i n Ass. Mos. I X ' , S V T i (1953), p p .
88-96.
Wallace, D . H., ' T h e Semitic Origin of the Assumption of Moses', T h Z 11 (1955), p p .
321-28.
Delcor, M . , 'Contribution a I'etude de la legislation des sectaires d e D a m a s et de
Q u m r a n . I V . Le M e h o q e q du D o c u m e n t de D a m a s et T a x o dans I'Assomption de
Moise IX', R B 62 (1955), p p . 60-6.
Licht, J., ' T a x o a n d the Apocalyptic Doctrine of Vengeance', J J S 12 (1961), p p . 95-103.
Rist, M., 'Moses, Assumption of, I D B I I I (1962), p p . 4 5 0 - 1 .
Rowley, H . H., The Relevance of Apocalyptic ( 1 9 6 3 ) , p p . 149-56.
Denis, I P G A T , p p . 128-41.
Schultz, J . P., 'Angelic Opposition t o the Ascension of Moses a n d the Revelation of the
Law', J Q R 61 (1971), p p . 282-307.
Nickelsburg, G. W . E., Resurrection, Immortality and Eternal Life in Intertestamental Judaism
(1972), pp. 18-31, 43-5, 97.
Idem (ed.). Studies on the Testament of Moses [SCS 4 ] (1973), with contributions from J . J .
CoUins, G. W . E. Nickelsburg, J . A. Goldstein, D. M . Rhoads, D. J , H a r r i n g t o n , A.
B. Kolenkow, R. W . Klein, S. R . Isenberg, D . L. Tiede, J . D . Purvis, M . E. Stone,
H. W . Attridge.
ColHns, A . Yarbro, 'Composition a n d Redaction of the T e s t a m e n t of Moses 10', H T h R
69 (1976)'PP- 179-86.
Nickelsburg, G. W . E., J L B B M , pp. 8 0 - 3 , 212-14.
Carlson, D . C , 'Vengeance a n d AngeUc M e d i a t i o n in Testament of Moses 9 a n d 10', J B L
I O I (1982), p p . 85-95.
4. The Apocalypse of Abraham
T h i s c o m p o s i t e w o r k , p r e s e r v e d o n l y in S l a v o n i c , consists of a l e g e n d a r y
narrative concerning Abraham's conversion from idolatry to mono
t h e i s m ( c h a p t e r s 1 - 8 ) , a n d o f a n a p o c a l y p s e c o n s t r u c t e d o n t h e s t o r y of
t h e p a t r i a r c h ' s sacrifice r e c o u n t e d i n G e n e s i s 15 ( c h a p t e r s 9 - 3 1 ) .
In the first section, Abraham realizes the futility of the idols
fabricated b y his f a t h e r T e r a h . O n e o f t h e m , M a r u m a t h (probably
from the H e b r e w mO^D, Micah 6 : 1 1 ) , a s t o n e i d o l , is b r o k e n then
m e n d e d ; a n o t h e r , B a r i s a t (from t h e A r a m a i c ND^N "13?, s o n of the
fire), m a d e o f w o o d , t u r n e d t o ashes. After a n a r g u m e n t with his father,
h e asks the C r e a t o r t o r e v e a l h i m s e l f G o d o r d e r s h i m t o d e p a r t , and
i m m e d i a t e l y T e r a h a n d his h o u s e a r e c o n s u m e d b y fire f r o m h e a v e n . '
I n t h e A p o c a l y p s e , A b r a h a m is i n s t r u c t e d by t h e a n g e l Y a o e l , who
I . For the story of A b r a h a m ' s conversion, see J u b . 12:12-14; LAB 6. Cf G. Vermes,

Scripture and Tradition (^^1973), pp. 76-90.
b e a r s G o d ' s n a m e (10:4).^ A f t e r t h e c o m p l e t i o n of t h e s a c r i f i c e —
despite A z a z e l ' s a t t e m p t t o spoil i t — A b r a h a m a s c e n d s to h e a v e n on t h e
w i n g s of a d o v e , a c c o m p a n i e d b y Y a o e l t r a v e l l i n g o n a t u r t l e - d o v e , a n d
sees the celestial c o u r t a n d t h e t h r o n e o f G o d , the merkavah, d e s c r i b e d
after Ezekiel i H e is s h o w n t h e v a r i o u s h e a v e n s a n d is g i v e n t h e d i v i n e
promise that his n u m e r o u s descendants would b e c o m e a chosen people.
T h e n follows a vision of e v e n t s f r o m t h e fall o f the g i a n t A d a m to t h e
d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e T e m p l e (27:2). T h e final a g e is d e p i c t e d as d i v i d e d
i n t o twelve p a r t s ( c f 4 E z r a 1 4 : 1 1 ; 2 B a r u c h 2 7 : 1 — 1 3 ) , a t t h e e n d of
w h i c h t h e p o s t e r i t y of A b r a h a m will e x e c u t e G o d ' s j u d g e m e n t o v e r t h e
gentiles. A b r a h a m s u d d e n l y finds h i m s e l f o n t h e e a r t h a g a i n a n d h e a r s a
final a n n o u n c e m e n t of t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e n a t i o n s b y t h e E l e c t O n e .
T h e c o n t e n t of t h e b o o k m a k e s it p r o b a b l e t h a t it is essentially J e w i s h .
A r g u i n g in f a v o u r o f this a r e t h e a c c u m u l a t e d d i v i n e n a m e s i n 1 7 : 1 1 ,
' E t e r n a l , M i g h t y , H o l y , S a b a o t h , M o s t G l o r i o u s , E l , El, E l , El, Y a o e l ' ; 4
the c o n t i n u o u s d e s i g n a t i o n of G o d as ' M i g h t y before all w o r l d s ' (9:2;
2 0 : 1 ) ; t h e g e n e r a l i n t e r e s t in I s r a e l a s s u c h : t h e y a r e the c h o s e n p e o p l e
( c h a p t e r 2 2 ) ; t h e r i g h t e o u s f r o m A b r a h a m ' s s e e d 'will b e s t r e n g t h e n e d
by sacrifices a n d gifts of r i g h t e o u s n e s s a n d t r u t h i n the e t e r n i t y of t h e
righteousness a n d will d e s t r o y t h o s e w h o h a v e d e s t r o y e d t h e m , a n d
insult t h o s e w h o h a v e i n s u l t e d t h e m ' ( 2 9 : 1 6 - 1 7 ) ; G o d will b u r n w i t h fire
those w h o h a v e i n s u l t e d h i s p e o p l e , a n d h a v e r u l e d o v e r t h e m i n this a g e
(31:2). T h e o n l y possible C h r i s t i a n a d d i t i o n o r a l t e r a t i o n is in 2 9 : 3 - 1 1 ,
w h e r e t h e ' m a n m o c k e d a n d b e a t e n ' by s o m e d e s c e n d a n t s of A b r a h a m
b u t w o r s h i p p e d by o t h e r s , w h o is t o l i b e r a t e I s r a e l from t h e n a t i o n s , is
p r o b a b l y m o d e l l e d on J e s u s . T h e old S l a v o n i c v e r s i o n is t h o u g h t to
derive from a Greek text, w h i c h w a s i n t u r n m a d e from a Semitic,
probably Hebrew, original (Philonenko, 2 3 ; Rubinstein).^
2. Yahoel (Jael/Joel) is mentioned also in t h e Slavonic version of the Life of A d a m a n d

Eve 32:1-2 and the Apocalypse of Moses 43:4 a s well as in Sefer ha-Razim (ed. M .
Margolioth, 1966), 2:38, 140. H e is n o d o u b t identical with the angel referred t o in Exod.
23:20-1, a n d is associated also with M e t a t r o n . See 3 Enoch 48 D: i ; 12:5 ; bSanh. 38b. Cf
G. Scholem, Kabbalah (1974), p . 3 7 8 ; P. S. Alexander, ' T h e Historical Setting of the
Hebrew Book of E n o c h ' , J J S 28 (1977), p. 1 6 1 ; '3 ( H e b r e w Apocalypse of) Enoch', O T P
1, p . 224.
3. O n t h e Merkabah, see G. Scholem, Jewish Gnosticism, Merkabah Mysticism and Talmudic
Tradition (^^1965) ; 'Merkabah Mysticism', Kabbalah (1974), pp. 3 7 3 - 6 ; D . J . Halperin,
The Merkabah in Rabbinic Literature ( 1 9 8 0 ) ; I. G r u e n w a l d , Apocalyptic and Merkavah
Mysticism (1980); P. S. Alexander, ' C o m p a r i n g M e r k a v a h Mysticism and Gnosdcism',
J J S 35 (1984), p p . 1-18; P. Schafer, 'New Testament a n d Hekhalot Literature: T h e
Journey i n t o H e a v e n in Paul a n d in M e r k a v a h Mysticism', J J S 35 (1984), pp. 19-35.
4. The fourfold repetition of El followed by Yaoel, this time God's name, seems to
designate t h e T e t r a g r a m . Cf Philonenko, p. 75.
5. G. H . Box a n d I. L a n d s m a n , The Apocalypse of Abraham (1918), p . xv (Hebrew or
Aramaic); A. Rubinstein, 'Hebraisms in the Slavonic "Apocalypse of A b r a h a m ' " , J J S 4
(•953)> PP- 108-15; 'Hebraisms in t h e "Apocalypse of A b r a h a m ' " , J J S 5 (1954), p p .
A p a r t from a p o s s i b l e e m p h a t i c a l l u s i o n t o t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e
T e m p l e as i m p l y i n g a r e l a t i v e l y r e c e n t e v e n t , w h i c h w o u l d s u g g e s t a
possible l a t e f i r s t - c e n t u r y d a t e for t h e o r i g i n a l c o m p o s i t i o n , ^ n o t h i n g in
t h e text justifies a r r i v i n g a t a f i r m c h r o n o l o g i c a l c o n c l u s i o n . T h a t it w a s
t a k e n o v e r b y C h r i s t i a n s also p o i n t s t o a r e l a t i v e l y e a r l y d a t e . I t is Hkely
to h a v e b e e n used in t h e C l e m e n t i n e R e c o g n i t i o n s ( I , 3 2 ) , a n d is
p e r h a p s i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e a p o c r y p h a l b o o k 'A^padfj. m e n t i o n e d in t h e
S t i c h o m e t r y o f N i c e p h o r u s a n d t h e S y n o p s i s of P s e u d o - A t h a n a s i u s
t o g e t h e r with E n o c h , t h e T e s t a m e n t s of t h e T w e l v e P a t r i a r c h s a n d t h e
Assumption of Moses.
N o solid e v i d e n c e p e r m i t s a n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of t h e g r o u p r e s p o n s i b l e
for this a p o c a l y p s e . A n E s s e n e o r i g i n h a s b e e n suggested,^ b u t it is a
h y p o t h e s i s so far u n c o n f i r m e d b y t h e Q u m r a n finds.
T h e P s e u d o - C l e m e n t i n e R e c o g n i t i o n s I , 32 r e p o r t s of A b r a h a m : ' E x
r a t i o n e et o r d i n e s t e l l a r u m a g n o s c e r e p o t u i t c o n d i t o r e m e i u s q u e
p r o v i d e n t i a i n t e l l e x i t c u n c t a m o d e r a r i . U n d e e t a n g e l u s a d s i s t e n s ei p e r
v i s i o n e m plenius e u m d e his q u a e s e n t i r e c o e p i t e d o c u i t . Sed et q u i d
g e n e r i eius a c p o s t e r i t a t i d e b e r e t u r o s t e n d i t et n o n t a m eis d a n d a h a e c
l o c a q u a m r e d d e n d a p r o m i s i t . ' T h i s goes b e y o n d Genesis 15 a n d s h o w s
l i n k s w i t h o u r b o o k . A c c o r d i n g to t h e S t i c h o m e t r y of N i c e p h o r u s , t h e
a p o c r y p h a l b o o k o f A b r a h a m c o n t a i n e d o n l y 300 lines, a n d w a s t o o
s h o r t t o be t h e A p o c a l y p s e . A n A p o c a l y p s e of A b r a h a m w a s in u s e
a m o n g s t the S e t h i t e G n o s t i c s ( E p i p h a n i u s , Haer. x x x i x 5, 4 ) . I t s e e m s to
h a v e b e e n v e r y h e r e t i c a l {irdar}? /ca/cias e^TrAecuv), a n d is s c a r c e l y t o b e
identified with ours.
O r i g e n ( H o m . 3 5 i n L u c a m , e d . R a n e r , p . 197, 14) w a s a l s o
acquainted with a n apocryphal book which dealt with A b r a h a m :
' L e g i m u s , si t a m e n cui p l a c e t h u i u s c e m o d i s c r i p t u r a m r e c i p e r e , i u s t i t i a e
et i n i q u i t a t i s a n g e l o s s u p e r A b r a h a m i s a l u t e et i n t e r i t u d i s c e p t a n t e s ,
d u m u t r a e q u e t u r m a e suo e u m v o l u n t c o e t u i v i n d i c a r e . ' T h e t i t l e
Inquisitio Abrahae, b o r n e by a n a p o c r y p h a l b o o k k n o w n t o N i c e t a s
132—5; J . Licht, 'Apocalypse o f A b r a h a m ' , E n c . J u d . I, col. 125; R. Rubinkiewicz, 'Les

semitismes dans I'Apocalypse d ' A b r a h a m ' , Folia Orientalia 21 (1980), pp. 1 4 1 - 8 ; B.
Philonenko-Sayar, and M . Philonenko, UApocalypse d'Abraham, Semitica 31 (1981), p . 23
( ' U n original hebreu, peut-etre teinte, ici ou la, d ' a r a m e e n ' ) ; Rubinkiewicz, 'Apocalypse
of A b r a h a m ' , O T P I, p p . 6 8 2 - 3 suggests t h a t t h e Slavonic version w a s m a d e directly
from the H e b r e w in the eleventh or twelfth century, probably in Bulgaria.
6. Cf Box, op. cit.; Denis, I P G A T , p. 3 7 ; Chariesworth, P M R S , p . 68; Nickelsburg,
J L B B M , p p . 288—9; Philonenko, op. cit., p. 3 4 ; R. Rubinkiewicz, 'La vision d e l'histoire
d a n s I'Apocalypse d ' A b r a h a m ' , A N R W II.19.1 (1979), p. 137, n. i ; 'Apocalypse of
A b r a h a m ' , O T P I, p. 683.
7. Cf Box, op. cit., pp. xxi, xxiii, xxx-xxxi; P. Riessler, Altjiid. Schrift., p. 1267.
According to Philonenko, the author belonged t o one o f the Essene communities that
survived t h e destrucdon of the Q u m r a n centre. Op. cit., p p . 3 4 - 5 . Rubinkiewicz suggests
t h a t the writer was a P a l e s d n i a n j e w very close to Essene circles. Art. cit., p. 137.
(fourth a n d fifth c e n t u r i e s A . D . ) , is a d m i r a b l y s u i t e d to t h e e v e n t s
r e c o u n t e d h e r e . I n a t r e a t i s e Be psalmodiae bono, t h e c o m p l e t e t e x t of
w h i c h w a s m a d e k n o w n by G . M o r i n , he s a y s : ' N e q u e e n i m illud
v o l u m e n t e m e r a r i e r e c i p i e n d u m est, c u i u s i n s c r i p t i o est I n q u i s i t i o
A b r a h a e , u b i c a n t a s s e i p s a a n i m a l i a et fontes et e l e m e n t a finguntur,
c u m n u l l i u s sit fidei liber ipse n u l l a a u c t o r i t a t e s u b n i x u s ' (see G . M o r i n ,
' D e u x passages inedits d u " d e p s a l m o d i a e b o n o " de Saint Niceta,
IV^-V^ siecle', R B 6 ( 1 8 9 7 ) , p p . 2 8 2 - 8 ; cf a l s o M o r i n ' s e d i t i o n of t h e
c o m p l e t e t e x t o{ De psalmodiae bono i n R e v u e b e n e d i c t i n e 14 ( 1 8 9 7 ) , PP-
3 8 5 - 9 7 ; see p . 392 for t h e p a s s a g e c o n c e r n i n g Inquisitio Abrahae). I n a
contest b e t w e e n g o o d a n d w i c k e d a n g e l s super Abrahami salute et interitu,
it will i n fact a m o u n t to a n Inquisitio Abrahae. N o t h i n g of t h e s o r t is t o be
f o u n d i n the S l a v o n i c A p o c a l y p s e o r in t h e T e s t a m e n t o f A b r a h a m to
b e c o n s i d e r e d b e l o w , p p . 7 6 1 - 7 ; a n d N i c e t a s ' t e s t i m o n y confirms t h e
i n d e p e n d e n c e of t h e Inquisitio, a n d t h e r e f o r e i t s difference from e i t h e r of
t h o s e w o r k s . I n v i e w of t h e r e l a t i v e l y a n c i e n t a t t e s t a t i o n o f the Inquisitio,
o n e m i g h t b e led to i d e n t i f y it w i t h t h e a p o c r y p h a l Â^padfi of the
S t i c h o m e t r y of N i c e p h o r u s . B u t this 'A^padp. s t a n d s a m o n g t h e
Apocalypses, and J e w i s h Apocalypses h a v e i n general m a d e a deeper
impression o n Christianity t h a n Jewish legends. M . R . J a m e s ( J T h S t 7
(1906), p . 5 6 2 ) p r o p o s e s to r e a d Dispositio Adae i n p l a c e of Inquisitio
Abrahae, b e c a u s e i n t h e G r e e k f r a g m e n t s of t h e T e s t a m e n t of A d a m
(edited b y h i m in Texts and Studies I I . 3 ( 1 8 9 3 ) , p p . 1 3 8 - 4 5 ) t h e r e is
m e n t i o n of a n i m a l s w o r s h i p p i n g G o d . B u t this c o i n c i d e n c e does n o t
justify t h e forced a l t e r a t i o n o f t h e title. T h e s u b j e c t m a y h a v e b e e n
a l l u d e d t o in v a r i o u s a p o c r y p h a l w r i t i n g s .
F o r t h e T e s t a m e n t of A b r a h a m , see b e l o w , p p . 7 6 1 - 7 .
Editions
Rubinkiewicz, R . , Uapocalypse d'Abraham (en slave). Edition critique du texte, traduction ed
commentaire [Diss. Pont. Bibl. Institute, 1977] I - I I (unpublished).
Philonenko-Sayar, B., a n d Philonenko, M . , L'apocalypse d'Abraham. Introduction, texte slave,
traduction et notes [Semitica 31, 1981].
Translations a n d Commentaries
English
Box, G. H . , and L a n d s m a n , I., The Apocalypse of Abraham (1918).
Rubinkiewicz, R . , 'Apocalypse of A b r a h a m ' , O T P I, pp. 6 8 1 - 7 0 5 .
French
Rubinkiewicz, R . , and B. and M . Philonenko, see under Editions.
German
Bonwetsch, N., Die Apokalypse Abrahams (1897).
Riessler, P . , Altjiid. Schrift. (1928), p p . 13-39.
Bibliography
Ginzberg, L., ' A b r a h a m , Apocalypse of, J E I, p p . 91-2.
Frey, J.-B., ' A b r a h a m , Apocalypse d " , DBS I, cols. 28-38.
Bamberger, B.J., ' A b r a h a m , Apocalypse of, I D B I, p . 21.

L i c h t , J . , ' A b r a h a m , Apocalypse of, E n c . J u d . I, cols. 125-7.
Denis, I P G A T , p p . 37-8.
T u r d e a n u , E., 'L'apocalypse d ' A b r a h a m en slave', J S J 3 (1972), p p . 153—80.
Rubinkiewicz, R., 'La vision d e l'histoire d a n s I'Apocalypse d ' A b r a h a m ' , A N R W II.19.1
(1979), pp. 137-51.
Chariesworth, J. H . , P M R S , p p . 68-9.
Nickelsburg, G. W . E., J L B B M , pp. 294-9, 306, 308.
5. The Chronicles of Jeremiah

A w r i t i n g probably ofjewish origin, and preserved in Greek, Ethiopic,
A r m e n i a n a n d S l a v o n i c , r e c o u n t s e v e n t s s u r r o u n d i n g t h e first fall of
J e r u s a l e m , t h e exile, a n d the r e t u r n from the c a p t i v i t y . T h e p r i n c i p a l
c h a r a c t e r s a r e J e r e m i a h , B a r u c h a n d t h e E t h i o p i a n slave A b i m e l e c h .
T h e story m a y be s u m m a r i z e d as follows.
G o d a n n o u n c e s t o J e r e m i a h t h a t J e r u s a l e m is to b e d e l i v e r e d i n t o t h e
h a n d s o f the C h a l d e a n s . J e r e m i a h m u s t t h e r e f o r e b u r y t h e s a c r e d
T e m p l e vessels a n d d e p a r t w i t h t h e p e o p l e to B a b y l o n , b u t l e a v e
B a r u c h i n J e r u s a l e m ( c h a p t e r s 1 - 4 ) . S h o r t l y before t h e c a t a s t r o p h e , a n
E t h i o p i a n slave, A b i m e l e c h , is s e n t by J e r e m i a h t o t h e v i n e y a r d of
A g r i p p a to fetch figs a n d falls a s l e e p t h e r e . After l y i n g u n c o n s c i o u s for
sixty-six y e a r s , he r e t u r n s to t h e city a n d is g r e a t l y a s t o n i s h e d t o see it
t o t a l l y a l t e r e d . A n old m a n i n f o r m s h i m a b o u t w h a t h a s h a p p e n e d
( c h a p t e r 5). A b i m e l e c h finds B a r u c h , w h o is d i r e c t e d b y G o d to w r i t e to
J e r e m i a h . His letter, w i t h the a t t a c h e d e v i d e n c e of the figs, still fresh
after sixty-six y e a r s , is c a r r i e d t o B a b y l o n by a n e a g l e ( c h a p t e r 6). O n
r e c e i v i n g the m e s s a g e a t t a c h e d t o the e a g l e ' s n e c k — i t s a r r i v a l in
B a b y l o n is m a r k e d b y t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n of a d e a d m a n — ^ J e r e m i a h l e a d s
t h e p e o p l e b a c k to J e r u s a l e m . H o w e v e r , t h o s e w h o are u n w i l l i n g to
l e a v e t h e i r B a b y l o n i a n wives a r e n o t a l l o w e d to e n t e r t h e h o l y c i t y .
T h e y r e t u r n t o B a b y l o n , b u t are n o t a d m i t t e d t h e r e e i t h e r , so t h e y
b u i l d t h e city of S a m a r i a ( c h a p t e r s 7—8). J e r e m i a h , w h i l e offering
sacrifice in J e r u s a l e m , collapses a n d a p p a r e n t l y d i e s ; b u t h e revives
after t h r e e d a y s a n d foretells s a l v a t i o n b y the son o f G o d . T h e r e u p o n
t h e p e o p l e d e c i d e t o s t o n e h i m to d e a t h . T h e e x e c u t i o n is, h o w e v e r ,
d e l a y e d m i r a c u l o u s l y u n t i l t h e p r o p h e t h a s passed o n all t h e m y s t e r i e s
to B a r u c h a n d A b i m e l e c h ( c h a p t e r 9).
D e s p i t e the C h r i s t i a n e n d i n g , it is r e a s o n a b l e to c o n s i d e r t h e m a i n
b o d y of t h e b o o k a s J e w i s h , i n p a r t i c u l a r b e c a u s e of its e m p h a s i s o n
s e p a r a d o n from gentiles {d<f>opil^€a0ai), a n d especially from g e n t i l e wives
( 6 : 1 3 - 1 4 ; 8:2).
T h e o r i g i n a l l a n g u a g e is h k e l y to b e H e b r e w o r A r a m a i c (K. K o h l e r ,
G. D . K i l p a t r i c k , J . L i c h t , G . D e l l i n g ) r a t h e r t h a n G r e e k (R. H .
C h a r l e s , J . - B . F r e y ) . T h e d a t i n g of t h e w o r k o n the basis of t a k i n g t h e
d e s t r u c t i o n o f J e r u s a l e m as a l l u d i n g to A . D . 7 0 , a n d a d d i n g t o this t h e
sixty-six y e a r s of A b i m e l e c h ' s s l e e p ( = A.D. 136), advanced by J . R.
H a r r i s , J . L i c h t a n d P. M . B o g a e r t , is b o t h s i m p l i s t i c a n d i m p r o b a b l e in
t h e l i g h t of t h e H a d r i a n i c e v e n t s . M o s t s c h o l a r s o p t for t h e period
between A . D . 70 a n d 1 3 0 ( K o h l e r , G . B e e r , K i l p a t r i c k , D e l h n g , A . - M .
D e n i s , M . E . S t o n e ) . S i n c e h o w e v e r t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e e v e n t s of
A.D. 70 with the story of the apocryphon is by no means
c o m p u l s o r y — t h e s i x t y - s i x y e a r s m a y p o i n t t o t h e e v e o f t h e e n d of t h e
s e v e n t y y e a r s of c a p t i v i t y ! — a l a t e s e c o n d T e m p l e d a t e c a n n o t b e r u l e d
o u t of c o u r t .
T h e t i t l e o f this vsôrk is FlapaXemoixeva 'lepefMiov rov •npo<l)riTov in m o s t

Greek manuscripts and is k e p t h e r e i n preference to the confusing
r e c e n t t r e n d c a l l i n g t h e b o o k 2 , 3 o r 4 B a r u c h . I t w a s first p r i n t e d i n t h e
Menaeum graecum i n V e n i c e i n 1609, a n d r e - e d i t e d by A . M . Ceriani,
Monumenta sacra et profana V , i ( 1 8 6 8 ) , p p . 1 1 - 1 8 .
Editions
( I ) Greek text
Harris, J . R., The Rest of the Words of Baruch. A Christian Apocalypse of the Year 136 A.D.
Kraft, R. A., a n d Purintum, A n n - E l i z a b e t h , Paraleipomena Jeremiou [Texts a n d Transla

tions I — P s e u d e p i g r a p h a Series i — S B L ] (1972).
( 2 ) Ethiopic text
Dillmann, A., ' R e l i q u a verborum B a r u c h i ' , Chrestomathia aethiopica (1866), pp. viii-x,
(3) Armenian text

Josepheanz, H. S., Armenian non-canonical Jewish texts (1896J, pp. 3 4 9 - 6 3 ; [E.T.] J .
Issaverdents, The Uncanonical Writings of the Old Testament ( 1907).
(4) Slavonic text
T u r d e a n u , E., Apocryphes slaves et roumains de I'Arwien Testament (1981), p p . 348-63.
Transladons
English
Kraft, R. A., a n d Purintum, A . E., op. cit.
German
Riessler, P . , Altjiidisches Schrifttum (1928), p p . 903-19, 1 3 2 3 .
Bibliography
Kohler, K . , T h e Pre-Talmudic H a g g a d a h . B. T h e Second Baruch or r a t h e r t h e Jeremiah
Apocalypse', J Q R 5 (1893), pp. 4 0 7 - 1 9 .
H u b e r , M . , Die Wanderlegende von den Siebenschldfern (1910), pp. 408-9.
Frey, J.-B., A p o c r y p h e s de I'Ancien Testament. N o . 16. Les Paralipomenes d e Jeremie',
DBS I (1928), cols. 454-5.
Kilpatrick, G. D . , 'Acts vii.52', J T h S t 46 (1945)^ p . 141.
Meyer, R . , ' P a r a l i p o m e n a j e r e m i a e ' , R G G V ( 1961), p p . 102-3.
Licht,J., Pinkhos Churgin Memorial Vol. (1963), pp. 66-72 ( H e b r . ) .
Delling, Jiidische Lehre und Frommigkeit in den Paralipomena Jeremiae [BZAW loo]
(1967)-
Bogaert, P., L'apocalypse syriaque de Baruch [SC 144] I (1969), pp. 177-221.
Denis, I P G A T , p p . 70-8.
Stone, M. E., 'Baruch, T h e Rest of the Words of, E n c . J u d . 4, cols. 276-7.
Wolff, C , Jeremiah in Friihjudentum und Urchristentum (1976).
Chariesworth, J. H . , P M R S , p p . 88-91.
Nickelsburg, G. W . E., J L B B M , p p . 313-18.
R i a u d , J., 'La figure de J e r e m i e dans les Paralipomena Jeremiae', in A. C a q u o t and M .
Delcor (eds.), Milanges bibliques et orientaux en I'honneur de M. Henri Gazelles (1981), p p .
373-85-
6. The Fourth Book of Ezra

O f all t h e J e w i s h a p o c a l y p s e s , n o n e c i r c u l a t e d so w i d e l y i n the a n c i e n t
a n d m e d i e v a l C h u r c h as t h e so-called F o u r t h B o o k o f E z r a . I t w a s u s e d
as a g e n u i n e p r o p h e t i c w o r k b y t h e G r e e k a n d L a t i n C h u r c h F a t h e r s .
Translations i n Syriac, Ethiopic, A r a b i c , A r m e n i a n a n d G e o r g i a n ,
t o g e t h e r w i t h a C o p t i c f r a g m e n t , a t t e s t its d i s s e m i n a t i o n in the E a s t . A n
O l d L a t i n version has b e e n p r e s e r v e d i n m a n y Bible m a n u s c r i p t s ,
w h i c h i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e b o o k was also e a g e r l y r e a d in t h e m e d i e v a l
C h u r c h , w h i c h is w h y i t w a s a d d e d as a n a p p e n d i x t o t h e official
R o m a n e d i t i o n of t h e V u l g a t e . All t h e e x t a n t v e r s i o n s s t e m , d i r e c t l y o r
i n d i r e c t l y , from a G r e e k t e x t w h i c h h a s n o t s u r v i v e d , a n d w h i c h in its
t u r n is a t r a n s l a t i o n from e i t h e r A r a m a i c o r ( m o r e p r o b a b l y ) H e b r e w .
T h e L a t i n V u l g a t e t e x t consists of sixteen c h a p t e r s . I t is h o w e v e r
g e n e r a l l y a d m i t t e d t h a t o f these, t h e first two a n d t h e l a s t t w o , w h i c h
a r e missing i n t h e o r i e n t a l t r a n s l a d o n s , a r e l a t e r a d d i t i o n s b y a
C h r i s t i a n h a n d . T h e o r i g i n a l b o o k t h e r e f o r e consists o n l y of c h a p t e r s
3-14-
T h e c o n t e n t of t h i s o r i g i n a l b o o k is d i v i d e d i n t o seven e p i s o d e s ( t h r e e
d i a l o g u e s a n d four visions) n a r r a t e d b y E z r a h i m s e l f
First dialogue (3:1—5:20). I n t h e t h i r t i e t h y e a r after the d e s t r u c d o n of
J e r u s a l e m , E z r a is in B a b y l o n , w h e r e h e p r a y s t o G o d , b e w a i l i n g
I s r a e l ' s m i s f o r t u n e and t h e p r o s p e r i t y of t h e h e a t h e n n a t i o n s ( 3 : 1 - 3 6 ) .
T h e a n g e l U r i e l is sent t o h i m a n d b e g i n s b y r e b u k i n g h i m for h i s
complaints ( 4 : 1 - 2 1 ) , t h e n proceeds to advise h i m t h a t wickedness h a s
its a p p o i n t e d t i m e ( 4 : 2 2 - 3 2 ) , j u s t as t h e d e a d h a v e t h e i r a p p o i n t e d t i m e
to r e m a i n in the u n d e r w o r l d ( 4 : 3 3 - 4 3 ) - T h e g r e a t e r p a r t of t h e
c a l a m i t y is h o w e v e r a l r e a d y past, a n d its e n d will be h e r a l d e d b y
definite signs ( 4 : 4 4 - 5 : 1 3 ) . E z r a is so e x h a u s t e d b y t h e r e v e l a t i o n t h a t h e
h a s to b e fortified b y t h e a n g e l . H e p r e p a r e s himself, b y m e a n s o f a
s e v e n - d a y fast, for a fresh r e v e l a t i o n (5:14—20).
Second dialogue ( 5 : 2 1 - 6 : 3 4 ) . E z r a r e n e w s his c o m p l a i n t s a n d is a g a i n
r e b u k e d b y t h e a n g e l ( 5 : 2 1 - 4 0 ) , w h o p o i n t s o u t t h a t in t h e h i s t o r y of
m a n k i n d one e v e n t m u s t follow a n o t h e r , a n d t h a t b e g i n n i n g a n d e n d
c a n n o t c o m e a t o n c e . E z r a s h o u l d b e a b l e t o p e r c e i v e t h a t t h e e n d is
a l r e a d y a p p r o a c h i n g . I t will b e b r o u g h t a b o u t b y G o d himself, t h e
C r e a t o r of t h e w o r l d ( 5 : 4 1 - 6 : 6 ) . T h e signs o f the e n d a r e e x p o u n d e d
m o r e fully t h a n in the p r e c e d i n g vision (6:7—29). U r i e l takes leave of
E z r a w i t h t h e p r o m i s e of n e w r e v e l a t i o n s (6:30—4).
Third dialogue (6:35—9:25). E z r a c o m p l a i n s a g a i n a n d is a g a i n
r e p r o a c h e d b y t h e a n g e l ( 6 : 3 5 - 7 : 2 5 ) . H e t h e n receives the following
r e v e l a t i o n . W h e n t h e signs e x p o u n d e d i n the p r e c e d i n g vision b e g i n to
o c c u r , t h e n t h o s e w h o h a v e b e e n d e l i v e r e d f r o m t h e c a l a m i t i e s will see
w o n d e r f u l t h i n g s , ' F o r m y s o n t h e M e s s i a h s h a l l b e r e v e a l e d w i t h those
w h o a r e w i t h h i m , a n d t h o s e w h o r e m a i n s h a l l rejoice four h u n d r e d
y e a r s . A n d after t h o s e y e a r s m y s o n the M e s s i a h s h a l l d i e , a n d all w h o
d r a w h u m a n b r e a t h . A n d t h e w o r l d s h a l l b e t u r n e d b a c k to p r i m e v a l
silence for s e v e n d a y s as it w a s at t h e first b e g i n n i n g s ; s o t h a t n o o n e
shall be left. T h e n the d e a d will r i s e ; a n d t h e M o s t H i g h will a p p e a r
u p o n t h e j u d g e m e n t seat a n d J u d g e m e n t will t a k e place' (7:26-35).
A n d t h e p l a c e of t o r m e n t will b e r e v e a l e d , a n d o v e r a g a i n s t it t h e p l a c e
of rest. A n d t h e l e n g t h of t h e j u d g e m e n t d a y will be a week of y e a r s
( 7 : 3 6 - 4 4 ) . O n l y a few wiU b e s a v e d . M o s t will b e h a n d e d over to
d e s t r u c t i o n ( 7 : 4 5 - 7 4 ) . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e godless d o n o t e n t e r d w e l l i n g s
after d e a t h , b u t w a n d e r a b o u t a n d suffer sevenfold t o r t u r e , p a r t of
w h i c h is t h a t a t u r n i n g is n o l o n g e r possible for t h e m a n d t h a t t h e y
foresee t h e i r f u t u r e d a m n a t i o n . B u t t h e r i g h t e o u s c o m e into rest a n d
e x p e r i e n c e sevenfold j o y , p a r t of w h i c h is t h a t t h e y foresee t h e i r bliss
( 7 : 7 5 - 1 0 1 ) . B u t o n the d a y o f j u d g e m e n t e a c h r e c e i v e s w h a t he has
e a r n e d , a n d n o n e c a n a l t e r t h e l o t of a n o t h e r by i n t e r c e s s i o n . ' E z r a ' s
o b j e c t i o n t h a t , a c c o r d i n g to t h e S c r i p t u r e s , t h e r i g h t e o u s f r e q u e n t l y
m a d e i n t e r c e s s i o n for t h e godless, is r e j e c t e d by t h e a n g e l w i t h the
s t a t e m e n t t h a t w h a t is v a l i d for t h i s w o r l d h a s n o v a l i d i t y for e t e r n i t y
( 7 : 1 0 6 - 1 5 ) . W h e n E z r a l a m e n t s t h a t all d e s t r u c t i o n h a s c o m e t h r o u g h
A d a m , t h e a n g e l r e m i n d s h i m of t h e godlessness of m e n , t h r o u g h w h i c h
they have incurred their o w n ruin (7:116-39). F u r t h e r explanations
follow o f w h y it is t h a t , o f t h e m a n y c r e a t e d , s o few a r e s a v e d ( 8 : 1 - 6 2 ) .
I n c o n c l u s i o n , t h e signs of t h e last t i m e s a r e o n c e m o r e e x p o u n d e d to
E z r a ( 8 : 6 3 - 9 : 1 3 ) , a n d t h e a n g e l a g a i n c a l m s h i m o v e r t h e fact t h a t so
m a n y a r e lost ( 9 : 1 4 - 2 5 ) .
First vision ( 9 : 2 6 - 1 0 - 5 9 ) . W h i l s t E z r a is a g a i n c o m p l a i n i n g , he sees
o n his r i g h t h a n d a w o m a n b i t t e r l y l a m e n t i n g . I n a n s w e r to his
q u e s t i o n s , she tells h i m t h a t after t h i r t y y e a r s o f infertility she h a d g i v e n
b i r t h to a son a n d h a d r e a r e d h i m w i t h g r e a t difficulty a n d h a d t a k e n a
wife for h i m , b u t o n e n t e r i n g the b r i d a l c h a m b e r h e h a d fallen d o w n
d e a d (9:26-10:4). E z r a c h i d e s h e r for m o u r n i n g o n l y h e r son, w h e r e a s
I . The Latin V u l g a t e text resumes a t this point.

s h e s h o u l d r a t h e r b e w a i l the d e s t r u c t i o n o f J e r u s a l e m a n d the r u i n o f so
m a n y ( 1 0 : 5 - 2 4 ) . T h e n h e r face s u d d e n l y s h i n e s ; s h e u t t e r s a c r y ; t h e
e a r t h t r e m b l e s ; a n d in t h e p l a c e of t h e w o m a n a p p e a r s a s t r o n g l y b u i l t
c i t y . E z r a is s o d i s m a y e d by t h i s vision t h a t h e calls to t h e a n g e l U r i e l ,
w h o i m m e d i a t e l y a r r i v e s a n d i n t e r p r e t s it a s follows. T h e w o m a n is
Z i o n . T h e t h i r t y y e a r s o f b a r r e n n e s s signify t h e t h r e e t h o u s a n d y e a r s
d u r i n g w h i c h n o sacrifice h a d b e e n offered o n Zion.^ T h e b i r t h of t h e
s o n r e p r e s e n t s t h e b u i l d i n g of t h e T e m p l e by S o l o m o n a n d t h e
i n i t i a t i o n of sacrifice o n Z i o n . T h e d e a t h o f t h e son refers to t h e
d e s t r u c t i o n of J e r u s a l e m . But t h e n e w l y - b u i l t c i t y w a s s h o w n t o E z r a in
t h e vision in o r d e r t o c o m f o r t h i m a n d t o p r e v e n t h i m from d e s p a i r i n g
(10:25-59).
Second vision ( 1 1 : 1 - 1 2 : 5 1 ) . I n a d r e a m E z r a sees rising u p from t h e
sea a n e a g l e w i t h t w e l v e w i n g s a n d t h r e e h e a d s . A n d o u t of t h e w i n g s
g r e w e i g h t s e c o n d a r y w i n g s w h i c h b e c a m e s m a l l a n d feeble w i n g l e t s .
T h e h e a d s , h o w e v e r , w e r e at rest, a n d t h e m i d d l e h e a d w a s l a r g e r t h a n
t h e o t h e r t w o . T h e n the e a g l e flew a n d r u l e d o v e r t h e l a n d . A n d a voice
c a m e from t h e m i d s t of i t s b o d y o r d e r i n g t h e w i n g s t o r u l e one after t h e
o t h e r . A n d t h e t w e l v e w i n g s r u l e d o n e after t h e o t h e r ( t h e s e c o n d for
m o r e t h a n t w i c e a s l o n g as a n y of t h e o t h e r s ( 1 1 : 1 7 ) ) , ^.nd t h e n
d i s a p p e a r e d ; likewise a l s o t w o of t h e w i n g l e t s , so t h a t in the e n d o n l y
t h e t h r e e h e a d s a n d six winglets r e m a i n e d . T w o of these w i n g l e t s
s e p a r a t e d from t h e rest a n d o c c u p i e d a p l a c e u n d e r t h e h e a d on t h e
r i g h t . T h e r e m a i n i n g f o u r wished t o r u l e b u t t h e first t w o d i s a p p e a r e d
i m m e d i a t e l y a n d t h e o t h e r t w o w e r e c o n s u m e d by t h e h e a d s . A n d t h e
middle head ruled over t h e whole earth a n d then disappeared. And the
o t h e r t w o h e a d s r u l e d likewise. But t h e h e a d t o the r i g h t d e v o u r e d t h a t
to t h e left ( 1 1 : 1 - 3 5 ) . T h e r e u p o n E z r a sees a lion, a n d h e a r s it a d d r e s s
t h e eagle in a h u m a n v o i c e as t h e f o u r t h o f t h e beasts to w h i c h G o d h a s
c o m m i t t e d d o m i n i o n o v e r t h e w o r l d . A n d t h e lion a n n o u n c e s to t h e
e a g l e its downfall ( 1 1 : 3 6 - 4 6 ) . W h e r e a t t h e r e m a i n i n g h e a d d i s
a p p e a r e d . A n d t h e t w o winglets w h i c h h a d j o i n e d t h e m s e l v e s t o it
b e g a n t o rule.^ But t h e i r c o m m a n d w a s w e a k a n d t h e w h o l e b o d y of t h e
e a g l e w a s c o n s u m e d by fire ( 1 2 : 1 - 3 ) . T h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e vision
w h i c h E z r a r e c e i v e s is this. T h e e a g l e is t h e last of D a n i e l ' s w o r l d
d o m i n i o n s , t h e f o u r t h k i n g d o m . T h e t w e l v e w i n g s a r e twelve kings w h o
a r e to r e i g n o v e r it, o n e after a n o t h e r . T h e s e c o n d will b e g i n to r u l e ,
a n d will e n d u r e l o n g e r t h a n t h e o t h e r s . T h e v o i c e w h i c h issues from t h e
m i d d l e of t h e eagle's b o d y m e a n s t h a t d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d of t h a t
k i n g d o m (if t h e S y r i a c a n d o t h e r o r i e n t a l t r a n s l a t i o n s a r e followed
r a t h e r t h a n ' p o s t t e m p u s r e g n i i l h u s ' in t h e L a t i n ) b a d d i s o r d e r s will
2. The oriental versions give the figure 3,000. T h e Latin manuscripts have I I I or 'tres',
whereby, if the reading is correct, world years of 1,000 years each must be intended.
3. The oriental translations here provide t h e correct text.
a r i s e a n d it will b e b r o u g h t i n t o g r e a t d i s t r e s s ; b u t it will n o t fall,

i n d e e d i t will r e g a i n i t s p o w e r . T h e e i g h t u n d e r - w i n g s , h o w e v e r ,
r e p r e s e n t e i g h t k i n g s w h o s e t i m e s w i l l b e brief. T w o of t h e m will p e r i s h
w h e n t h e intermediate time a p p r o a c h e s ( ' a p p r o p i n q u a n t e tempore
m e d i o ' , i.e., t h e i n t e r r e g n u m j u s t m e n t i o n e d ) . F o u r will b e reserved for
t h e time a p p r o a c h i n g t h e e n d , a n d t w o for t h e e n d - t i m e itself. But t h e
m e a n i n g of t h e t h r e e h e a d s is this. I n t h e e n d - t i m e , t h e M o s t H i g h will
raise u p t h r e e kings^ w h o will r u l e t h e e a r t h . T h e y will b r i n g
godlessness t o a c l i m a x a n d w i l l p r e c i p i t a t e t h e e n d . O n e ( t h e m i d d l e
h e a d ) will die i n his b e d , b u t i n t o r m e n t . O f t h e r e m a i n i n g t w o , o n e will
be slain b y t h e s w o r d of t h e o t h e r , w h o will h i m s e l f fall b y the s w o r d in
t h e e n d - t i m e . F i n a l l y , t h e t w o u n d e r - w i n g s w h i c h j o i n e d the h e a d o n
t h e r i g h t signify t h e last t w o k i n g s o f t h e e n d - t i m e , w h o s e r u l e will b e
w e a k a n d full of d i s o r d e r ( 1 2 : 4 - 3 0 ) . B u t t h e l i o n t h a t p r o c l a i m s to t h e
e a g l e its d o w n f a l l is the M e s s i a h w h o m t h e M o s t H i g h h a s reserved for
t h e e n d . H e wiU s e t t h e m ( t h e k i n g s ? ) , w h i l e still a l i v e , before his
j u d g e m e n t s e a t , c o n v i c t t h e m of t h e i r w i c k e d n e s s , a n d d e s t r o y t h e m .
B u t he will b r i n g d e l i g h t to t h e p e o p l e o f G o d (for four h u n d r e d y e a r s
as p r o p h e s i e d i n t h e t h i r d vision) u n t i l t h e d a y of j u d g e m e n t d r a w s n e a r
( 1 2 : 3 1 - 4 ) . A f t e r t h e s e r e v e l a t i o n s , E z r a is c h a r g e d w i t h w r i t i n g i n a
b o o k w h a t h e has seen a n d w i t h s t o r i n g it a w a y in a h i d d e n p l a c e
(12:35-51).
Third Vision ( 1 3 : 1 - 5 8 ) . O n c e a g a i n h e sees i n a d r e a m a m a n c l i m b
o u t of t h e sea. P e o p l e w i t h o u t n u m b e r g a t h e r e d t o g e t h e r t o a t t a c k h i m .
As t h e y a d v a n c e d o n h i m , h e e m i t t e d fiery b r e a t h a n d flames from his
m o u t h s o t h a t t h e y w e r e all b u r n e d u p . O t h e r s t h e n a p p r o a c h e d h i m ,
s o m e joyful, s o m e s a d , s o m e i n c h a i n s ( 1 3 : 1 - 1 3 ) . A t E z r a ' s r e q u e s t , t h e
vision is e x p l a i n e d t o h i m as follows. T h e m a n w h o c l i m b s o u t o f the sea
is h e t h r o u g h w h o m the M o s t H i g h will r e d e e m h i s c r e a t u r e s . H e will
d e s t r o y h i s e n e m i e s , not w i t h s p e a r o r w e a p o n of w a r , b u t by m e a n s of
t h e L a w , w h i c h is l i k e fire. T h e peaceful m u l t i t u d e w h o a p p r o a c h h i m
are the T e n Tribes r e t u r n i n g from captivity ( 1 3 : 1 4 - 5 8 ) .
Fourth vision ( 1 4 : 1 - 5 0 ) . E z r a , p o r t r a y e d as a n e w M o s e s , is c h a r g e d
by G o d t o i n s t r u c t t h e p e o p l e , t o set his h o u s e i n o r d e r , a n d to p u t a w a y
e a r t h l y c o n c e r n s , f o r he will b e t a k e n f r o m this w o r l d . F u r t h e r m o r e , h e
is t o t a k e for h i m s e l f five m e n w h o for a p e r i o d of f o r t y d a y s will w r i t e
d o w n w h a t t h e y a r e told to w r i t e . E z r a d i d t h i s . A n d t h e m e n w r o t e
n i n e t y - f o u r b o o k s ( a c c o r d i n g to t h e O r i e n t a l v e r s i o n s ) o f w h i c h
t w e n t y - f o u r ( t h e Bible) w e r e t o b e p u b l i s h e d , b u t t h e r e m a i n i n g s e v e n t y
w e r e to b e r e s e r v e d for t h e w i s e . A f t e r w a r d s , E z r a w a s c a r r i e d a w a y ,
a n d t a k e n to t h e p l a c e of t h o s e like h i m s e l f ( 1 4 : 1 - 5 0 ) .
I n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e d a t e of c o m p o s i t i o n of t h i s r e m a r k a b l e b o o k , t h e
4. So the oriental translations. The L a t i n h a s 'tria regna'.

vision o f the eagle is of p r i m e i m p o r t a n c e ; o t h e r p a s s a g e s w h i c h h a v e

b e e n a d d u c e d in t h i s c o n n e c t i o n a r e of t o o u n c e r t a i n a c h a r a c t e r to be
of m u c h use. C h a p t e r 6:9, for e x a m p l e , o b s e r v e s t h a t t h e p r e s e n t w o r l d
will e n d w i t h the r u l e o f E s a u , w h i l e t h e w o r l d to c o m e will b e g i n w i t h
t h e rule of J a c o b ('finis e n i m h u i u s s a e c u l i E s a u , et p r i n c i p i u m s e q u e n t i s
J a c o b ' ) . E s a u / E d o m m a y be a n a h u s i o n t o t h e R o m a n e m p i r e , ^ b u t i t is
m o r e likely t h a t E s a u a n d J a c o b m e r e l y s y m b o l i z e t h e p r e s e n t a n d t h e
f u t u r e w o r l d s . ^ Q u i t e u n c e r t a i n is t h e r e c k o n i n g of w o r l d p e r i o d s
e x p o u n d e d i n 1 4 : 1 1 - 1 2 ( ' D u o d e c i m e n i m p a r t i b u s d i v i s u m est
s a e c u l u m , et t r a n s i e r u n t eius d e c e m i a m et d i m i d i u m d e c i m a e p a r t i s ,
s u p e r a n t a u t e m eius d u a e post m e d i u m decimae partis'). Considering
t h e g r e a t v a r i a t i o n in r e a d i n g h e r e — t h e S y r i a c a n d A r m e n i a n versions
d o not i n c l u d e t h e p a s s a g e a t a U — t h e o n l y safe c o n c l u s i o n is t h a t for
t h e a u t h o r t h e e n d w a s relatively close. T h u s a p a r t from t h e g e n e r a l
c o n t e n t s of t h e b o o k , t h e chief c l u e t o t h e d a t e of c o m p o s i d o n is
f u r n i s h e d by t h e eagle-vision a l o n e . I n i t s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , the following
p o i n t s , all b a s e d o n a n i n t e r n a l s u r v e y o f its c o n t e n t s , a r e to b e k e p t in
m i n d : t h e twelve p r i n c i p a l w i n g s , the e i g h t s e c o n d a r y w i n g s a n d t h e
t h r e e h e a d s r e p r e s e n t t w e n t y - t h r e e r u l e r s w h o reign in succession in t h e
f o l l o w i n g o r d e r . F i r s t c o m e t h e twelve p r i n c i p a l w i n g s a n d t w o of t h e
s e c o n d a r y w i n g s . T h e n follows a p e r i o d of d i s o r d e r . After this, the four
o t h e r s e c o n d a r y w i n g s a p p e a r , a n d after t h e m the t h r e e h e a d s . D u r i n g
t h e r e i g n of t h e t h i r d h e a d t h e M e s s i a h is r e v e a l e d , a n d only after his
a d v e n t o c c u r t h e d o w n f a l l of t h e t h i r d h e a d a n d t h e s h o r t , w e a k reigns
of t h e t w o l a s t s e c o n d a r y w i n g s . B o t h t h e fall of t h e t h i r d h e a d a n d t h e
a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e t w o last s e c o n d a r y w i n g s lie, from the a u t h o r ' s
s t a n d p o i n t , i n the f u t u r e ; from w h i c h i t follows t h a t h e w r o t e d u r i n g
t h e r e i g n of t h e t h i r d h e a d , a n d t h a t t h e t w o l a s t s e c o n d a r y wings
b e l o n g n o t to h i s t o r y , b u t to h i s e s c h a t o l o g i c a l i m a g i n a t i o n .
T h e foUowing p o i n t s s h o u l d be p a r t i c u l a r l y n o t e d , ( i ) T h e second
p r i n c i p a l w i n g reigns m o r e t h a n twice as l o n g a s a n y of t h e o t h e r s
( 1 1 : 1 7 ) . (2) M a n y of t h e w i n g s , especially t h e s e c o n d a r y o n e s , rise
w i t h o u t really a t t a i n i n g to m o n a r c h y a n d a r e t h u s m e r e l y p r e t e n d e r s
a n d u s u r p e r s . (3) AU t h e r u l e r s b e l o n g t o o n e k i n g d o m a n d a r e — o r at
l e a s t desire t o b e — r u l e r s of t h a t w h o l e k i n g d o m . (4) T h e first h e a d dies
5. Cf. M . A. K n i b b , The Second Book of Esdras (1979), p . 147. In R a b b i n i c literature,

E d o m is quite a c o m m o n designation for R o m e — s e e J . Levy, Neuhebr. Worterbuch, vol. I,
p. 29. Cf. also J e r o m e , Comment, ad lesai. 21:11-12: ' Q u i d a m H e b r a e o r u m pro D u m a
R o m a m legunt, volentes prophetiam contra r e g n u m R o m a n u m dirigi, frivola persuasione
q u a semper in I d u m a e a e nomine R o m a n o s existimant demonstrari.' See further C. H.
H u n z i n g e r , 'Babylon als Deckname fiir R o m und d i e Datierung des i. Petrusbriefs', Gottes
Wort und Gottes Land [H.-W. H e r t z b e r g Festschrift] ed. H . Reventlow (1965), p p . 67-77.
M . D. H e r r , 'Edom', E n c . J u d . 6, cols. 379—80, argues, however, that the identification
E d o m = Rome does n o t antedate the Bar K o k h b a revolt.
6. Cf J . M. MytTs, I and II Esdras (1974), p . 197.
a n a t u r a l d e a t h ( 1 2 : 2 6 ) ; t h e s e c o n d is a s s a s s i n a t e d b y t h e t h i r d (i 1 : 3 5 ;
12:28).
A l t h o u g h a few n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y a u t h o r s a t t e m p t e d t o identify t h e
allusions of t h e eagle-vision as r e f e r r i n g t o the G r e e k r u l e f r o m
A l e x a n d e r t h e G r e a t to the P t o l e m i e s o r S e l e u c i d s , ^ o r to R o m a n
history from R o m u l u s t o J u l i u s C a e s a r , ^ a l m o s t a l l scholars w r i t i n g
d u r i n g t h e last c e n t u r y a n d a q u a r t e r h a v e u n d e r s t o o d the e a g l e as
d e s i g n a t i n g t h e R o m a n e m p i r e . T h e r e is g e n e r a l a g r e e m e n t o n
r e c o g n i z i n g in t h e s e c o n d w i n g , said to h a v e r u l e d d o u b l e t h e l e n g t h of
t i m e of a n y o f t h e o t h e r s , A u g u s t u s . T h i s w o u l d i m p l y t h a t J u l i u s
C a e s a r w a s r e c k o n e d as t h e first w i n g . ^ T h e r e is d i s a g r e e m e n t , h o w e v e r ,
on t h e succession of r u l e r s . A. v o n G u t s c h m i d a n d A . M . Le H i r t r a c e
the line from C a e s a r t o D i a d u m e n i a n u s , i.e. t o A . D . 2 1 8 . B o t h
nevertheless c o n s i d e r the e a g l e vision to b e a l a t e r C h r i s t i a n a d d i t i o n
a n d d a t e t h e b a s i c J e w i s h d o c u m e n t r e s p e c t i v e l y to 3 1 B . C . a n d the l a s t
q u a r t e r o f the first c e n t u r y . T h e m a j o r i t y o p i n i o n h o l d s t h a t t h e t h r e e
h e a d s a r e the F l a v i a n e m p e r o r s ( V e s p a s i a n , T i t u s a n d D o m i t i a n ) .
T h e s e , i n a s m u c h as t h e y h a d b r o u g h t a b o u t t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of
J e r u s a l e m , n a t u r a l l y r e p r e s e n t e d for t h e J e w s t h e q u i n t e s s e n c e of b r u t e
force a n d godlessness. V e s p a s i a n d i e d , as i t is r e p o r t e d , ' s u p e r l e c t u m et
t a m e n c u m t o r m e n t i s ' ( 1 2 : 2 6 ) ; cf S u e t o n i u s , Vesp. 2 4 ; Cassius D i o Ixvi
17. It is t r u e t h a t T i t u s w a s n o t m u r d e r e d b y D o m i t i a n , as is
p r e s u p p o s e d i n 1 1 : 3 5 ^^"^ 12:28, b u t this was w i d e l y b e l i e v e d to h a v e
b e e n the case a n d D o m i t i a n h i m s e l f g a v e sufficient o c c a s i o n for s u c h a
r e p o r t b y his b e h a v i o u r a t the d e a t h of his b r o t h e r ( S u e t o n i u s , Domitian.
2 ; C a s s i u s D i o Ixvi 2 6 ; S i b . 12:120—3). A u r e l i u s V i c t o r , Caesar 10 a n d
I I , says explicitly t h a t T i t u s was p o i s o n e d b y D o m i t i a n . W i t h t h i s
c o r r e s p o n d s t h e fact t h a t c e r t a i n o f t h e s e c o n d a r y w i n g s , i.e., t h e
u s u r p e r s , a r e a c t u a l l y d e s t r o y e d by t h e g r e a t h e a d w i t h t h e assistance of
the t w o o t h e r h e a d s . But t h e a c c o m m o d a t i o n o f t w e l v e p l u s e i g h t w i n g s
presents a l m o s t u n s u r m o u n t a b l e difficulties. T h e t w e l v e p r i n c i p a l w i n g s
m a y be e n u m e r a t e d t h u s : ( i ) C a e s a r ; (2) A u g u s t u s ; (3) T i b e r i u s ; (4)
G a i n s C a l i g u l a ; (5) C l a u d i u s ; (6) N e r o ; (7) G a l b a ; (8) O t h o ; (9)
V i t e l h u s ; a n d w i t h h i m t h e t h r e e u s u r p e r s , (10) V i n d e x ( 1 1 )
N y m p h i d i u s ( 1 2 ) P i s o . ' ' ' B u t w h a t is to b e m a d e of t h e e i g h t
s u b o r d i n a t e w i n g s ? T h e y c a n n o t b e a p p l i e d , as W . O . E . O e s t e r l e y
7. Cf. A. Hilgenfeld, Die jiidische Apokalyptik (1857), pp. 217-21.

8. R. Laurence, Primi Ezrae libri, qui apud Vulgatam appellatur quartus, versio Aethiopica
(1820).
9. It is well known that he was seen by J e w i s h authors as an e m p e r o r : cf Ant. xviii 2, 2
(32) and 6, 10 (224) naming Augustus as the second and Gains a s the fourth e m p e r o r of
R o m e ; see also Sib. v 10—15).
10. Cf K n i b b , op. cit., p p . 240-2 ; for a survey of t h e various interpretations, see Myers,
op. cit., pp. 299-302.
3O0 932- Jewish Literature in Hebrew or Aramaic
p r o p o s e d , t o H e r o d t h e G r e a t , A g r i p p a I, E l e a z a r , J o h n of G i s c h a l a ,
S i m o n B a r - G i o r a , J o h n the I d u m e a n , A g r i p p a H a n d B e r e n i c e . " T h e
s e c o n d a r y w i n g s a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d from t h e p r i n c i p a l w i n g s o n l y in t h a t
t h e i r reigns a r e s h o r t a n d w e a k ( 1 2 : 2 0 ) , o r t h a t t h e y n e v e r a c t u a l l y r u l e
a t all ( i 1:25—7). M o r e o v e r , like t h e p r i n c i p a l w i n g s , t h e y a r e , o r w i s h t o
b e , l o r d s of t h e e n t i r e k i n g d o m . T h e r e is therefore n o q u e s t i o n of t h e i r
b e i n g vassal p r i n c e s . T h e y a r e r a t h e r t o be t h o u g h t of a s g o v e r n o r s o r
g e n e r a l s ; b u t t h e i r precise i d e n t i t y c a n n o t be e s t a b l i s h e d .
If t h e t h r e e h e a d s a r e r e c o g n i z e d to b e t h e t h r e e F l a v i a n e m p e r o r s ,
t h e d a t e of c o m p o s i t i o n is easy to d e t e r m i n e . I t h a s a l r e a d y b e e n n o t e d
t h a t t h e a u t h o r w r o t e d u r i n g the rule o f t h e t h i r d h e a d , k n o w i n g t h e
m a n n e r of d e a t h o f t h e s e c o n d h e a d , b u t e x p e c t i n g the faU of t h e t h i r d
h e a d only after the a p p e a r a n c e of t h e M e s s i a h . T h e d a t e o f
c o m p o s i t i o n , therefore, is to b e p l a c e d t o w a r d s t h e e n d of D o m i t i a n ' s
r e i g n ( A . D . 8 1 - 9 6 ) . A p o s t - A . D . 70 d a t e is i n d i c a t e d n e g a t i v e l y b y t h e
a b s e n c e of I V E z r a f r o m t h e Q u m r a n l i b r a r y . T h e r e is n o n e e d t o
p o s t u l a t e w i t h G. H . B o x {The Ezra Apocalypse ( 1 9 1 2 ) , p p . xxxii-iii) t h a t
t h e o r i g i n a l c o m p o s i t i o n , w h i c h h e d a t e s to A . D . 9 5 , w a s r e - w o r k e d b y
a s e c o n d c e n t u r y r e d a c t o r (in a r o u n d A . D . 1 2 0 ) r e i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e
o r i g i n a l s e q u e n c e of r u l e r s t o m a k e it e n d w i t h T r a j a n , H a d r i a n a n d
Lusius Quietus.
T h e u n i t y of t h e c o m p o s i t i o n , r e j e c t e d b y s o m e n i n e t e e n t h a n d e a r l y
t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y s c h o l a r s , ' ^ is n o l o n g e r q u e s t i o n e d by t h e l a t e s t
s t u d e n t s of t h e a p o c a l y p s e . ' ^
T h e e x t a n t versions o f t h e b o o k are t h o u g h t t o d e p e n d o n a G r e e k
t e x t w h i c h , a p a r t from a f r a g m e n t c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o 1 5 : 5 7 - 9 , p r e s e r v e d
i n P O x y 1 0 1 0 a n d recently published b y R . Rubinkiewicz,'* has not
s u r v i v e d . T h e o r i g i n a l l a n g u a g e is, h o w e v e r , a s s u m e d t o be A r a m a i c , ' ^
o r m o r e p r o b a b l y H e b r e w a s J . W e l l h a u s e n was t h e first t o a r g u e i n
detail.'^
I V E z r a is one o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e s of l a t e first c e n t u r y A . D .
J e w i s h religious t h o u g h t as h a s b e e n i n d i c a t e d in v o l . I I , p p . 5 1 4 - 4 7 . ' ^
i i . / / £ i ( f r ( u (1933), p . 147.
12. R . Kabisch, Das vierte Buch Esra auf seine Quellen untersucht (1889); Box, The Ezra
Apocalypse (1912), pp. xxi-xxxiii; Oesterley, IIEsdras (1933), pp. xi-xviii.
13. Myers, op. cit., p p . 120-1 ; K n i b b , op. cit., p p . 109-10.
14. ' U n fragment grec du I V * livre d'Esdras', L e Museon 89 (1976), p p . 75-87.
15. Cf. L. G r y , Les diresprophetiques d'Esdras (IVEsdras) \ {i938), pp. xxiii-lxxvi.
16. ' Z u r apokalyptischen Literatur', Skizzen und Vorarbeiten V I (1899), p p . 234-40. Cf.
also Box, op. cit., pp. xiii-xix; F . Z i m m e r m a n n , ' U n d e r l y i n g Documents of I V Ezra', J Q R
51 ( i 9 6 o / i ) , p p . 107-34; Myers, 0/). aY., p p . i i 5 - i 7 -
17. F o r the theology of 4 Ezra, see further F . W. Schiefer, Die retigibsen und ethischen
Anschauungen des IV. Esrabuches (1901); G . H. Box, The Ezra Apocalypse (1912), p p .
xxxiv-lvii; idem in R . H. Charles, A P O T II (1913), pp. 5 5 4 - 9 ; J . Keulers, Die
eschatologische Lehre des vierten Esrabuches (1922); W . O. E . Oesterley, / / Esdras (1933), p p .
xix-xliv; J . M. Myers, landIIEsdras (1974), pp. 1 2 1 - 9 ; A . L. T h o m p s o n , Responsibitity for
T h e d e s i g n a t i o n of this w o r k a s t h e F o u r t h B o o k of E z r a is only
c u s t o m a r y i n the L a t i n C h u r c h . I t rests o n t h e fact t h a t the c a n o n i c a l
Books o f E z r a a n d N e h e m i a h a r e n u m b e r e d (i.e. i n t h e L a t i n Bible) I
a n d I I E s d r a s , a n d t h e E z r a of t h e G r e e k B i b l e , I I I E s d r a s ( J e r o m e ,
Praef. in version, libr. Ezrae: ' N e c q u e m q u a m m o v e a t , q u o d u n u s a n o b i s
e d i t u s l i b e r e s t ; n e c a p o c r y p h o r u m t e r t i i et q u a r t i somniis d e l e c t e t u r ' ) .
T h i s e n u m e r a t i o n is r e t a i n e d also i n t h e official R o m a n V u l g a t e , w h e r e
I I I a n d I V E z r a follow as a n a p p e n d i x after t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t . I n the
A m i e n s m a n u s c r i p t , f r o m w h i c h R . L. B e n s l y e d i t e d t h e L a t i n
fragment, t h e c a n o n i c a l Books o f E z r a a n d N e h e m i a h are reckoned
t o g e t h e r as I E z r a , t h e so-called T h i r d B o o k as I I E z r a , a n d F o u r t h
E z r a is m a d e to consist of t h r e e b o o k s , c h a p t e r s 1 - 2 c o u n t i n g a s I I I
E z r a , c h a p t e r s 3—14 as I V E z r a , a n d c h a p t e r s 15—16 as V E z r a (Bensly,
The Missing Fragment, p . 6). S i m i l a r , b u t e v e n m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d , is t h e
a r r a n g e m e n t in C o d e x S a n g e r m a n e n s i s a n d its d a u g h t e r m a n u s c r i p t s
(cf. Bensly, p p . 8 5 ff.). T h e n o m e n c l a t u r e is f u r t h e r confused w h e n
c h a p t e r s 1 - 2 a n d 1 5 - 1 6 , prefixed and a p p e n d e d to I V Ezra (chapters
3—14), a r e d e s i g n a t e d V a n d V I E z r a . I n t h e E n g l i s h t e r m i n o l o g y , I
E s d r a s c o r r e s p o n d s to I I I E s d r a s , a n d I I E s d r a s to I V E s d r a s o f the
V u l g a t e ; i.e. I V E z r a p l u s i t s C h r i s t i a n s u p p l e m e n t s , c h a p t e r s 1 - 2 a n d
15-16.
I n t h e G r e e k Bible, I E s d r a s is I I I E s d r a s of t h e V u l g a t e ; I I a n d I I I
Esdras designate the canonical E z r a a n d N e h e m i a h ; whereas I V Ezra
b e a r s t h e G r e e k title oi"Ea8pas 6 TTpo(f>7]Tr)s a n d "Eahpa dTTOKOLXvifiis (cf
C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a , Stromata iii 16, 100).
T h e earliest C h r i s t i a n a l l u s i o n to I V E z r a o c c u r s i n t h e L e t t e r of
B a r n a b a s : 'Op,oiu>s rraXiv rrepl TOV aravpov 6pit,€i iv dXXcp 7Tpo<f>'qT'Q Xeyovrr
Kal T T o r e ravra avvTeXeadrfaerai; Aeyei Kvpios' "Orav ^vXov KXldrj Kal
dvaorfj, Kal orav e/c ^vXov atp,a ard^r). Cf. 4 E z r a 4:33 : ' q u o m o d o et
q u a n d o h a e c ? ' ; 5 : 5 : 'si d e l i g n o s a n g u i s s t i l l a b i t ' . I t is hkewise h i g h l y
p r o b a b l e t h a t t h e l e g e n d t h a t t h e w h o l e of H o l y S c r i p t u r e , w h i c h
p e r i s h e d in the d e s t r u c t i o n of J e r u s a l e m b y N e b u c h a d n e z z a r , w a s
miraculously restored b y E z r a , stems from E z r a 1 4 : 1 9 - 2 6 , 3 7 - 4 8 . T h u s
I r e n a e u s I I I , 2 1 , 2 ; T e r t u l l i a n , De cultu femin. i 3 ; C l e m e n t of
A l e x a n d r i a , Strom, i 2 2 , 1 4 9 ; P r i s c i l h a n I I I , 68, e d . Schepss, p . 52.
T h e first specific q u o t a t i o n ( I V E z r a 5:35) is C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a ,
Strom, iii 16, 100 : "Zlio. riydp OVK eyevero -q pui^rpa rrjs pcr^rpos p>ov Td(f>os,
Lva prj iSo) TOV poÔov TOV Va/cco/S Kat rov KOTTOV rov yevovs ^lopaijX;" EaSpas
6 Trpo(f>riTris Acyei. O n t h e basis of t h e g e n e r a l l y b e l i e v e d n a r r a t i v e o f I V
E z r a c o n c e r n i n g the r e s t o r a t i o n of t h e S c r i p t u r e s t h r o u g h E z r a ,
Evil in the Theodicy of IV Ezra (1977); [R. J . Coggins a n d ] M . A. K n i b b , The [First and]
Second Book of Esdras (1979), pp. 105-8; E. Brandenburger. Die Verborgenheit Gottes im
Weltgeschehen: Das literarische und theologische Problem des 4. Esrabuches (1981). See also the
bibliography a t the e n d of t h e chapter.
P r i s c i a l l i a n a r g u e s for t h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f this b o o k as n o t c a n o n i c a l ,
b u t c e r t a i n l y a s a c r e d w o r k : ' R e c t e ilh l i b r o fidem d a m n s , q u i
H e s d r a a u c t o r e p r o l a t u s , etsi i n c a n o n e n o n p o n i t u r , ad e l o g i u m r e d d i t i
d i v i n i t e s t a m e n t i d i g n a r e r u m v e n e r a t i o n e r e t i n e t u r ' ( T r a c t , iii 68, ed.
Schepss, p. 52).
I V E z r a is r e p e a t e d l y used a n d cited as a p r o p h e t i c b o o k ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y b y A m b r o s e in De bono mortis x-xii, Ep. xxxiv. Cf. Bensly,
77?^ Missing Fragment, p p . 7 4 - 6 ; J a m e s , p p . x x x n ff. O n l y J e r o m e , w h o
in g e n e r a l a d o p t s a critical a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s t h e A p o c r y p h a , expresses
h i m s e l f u n f a v o u r a b l y . See t h e p a s s a g e c i t e d a b o v e ( p . 3 0 1 ) , a n d
especially Adv. Vigilantium 6 : ' T u v i g i l a n s d o r m i s et d o r m i e n s scribis et
p r o p o n i s m i h i h b r u m a p o c r y p h u m , q u i s u b n o m i n e E s d r a e a t e et
s i m i l i b u s tui l e g i t u r , u b i s c r i p t u m est, q u o d p o s t m o r t e m n u l l u s p r o aliis
a u d e a t d e p r e c a r i , q u e m ego l i b r u m n u m q u a m legi. Q u i d e n i m necesse
est in m a n u s s u m e r e , q u o d ecclesia n o n r e c i p i t . ' A l t h o u g h it r e m a i n e d
e x c l u d e d from t h e official c a n o n , t h e b o o k w a s w i d e l y d i s s e m i n a t e d ,
especially in t h e M i d d l e A g e s . It is, as has a l r e a d y b e e n m e n t i o n e d ,
p r i n t e d i n t h e official V u l g a t e as a n a p p e n d i x , a n d is i n c l u d e d in m a n y
t r a n s l a t i o n s o f t h e B i b l e , a m o n g t h e m the A u t h o r i z e d V e r s i o n , t h e
Revised Version, t h e Revised S t a n d a r d Version a n d the N e w English
Bible.
I t is i m p o r t a n t n o t t o confuse t h e F o u r t h Book of E z r a w i t h t h e
C h r i s d a n A p o c a l y p s e of E z r a , w h i c h C. T i s c h e n d o r f e d i t e d in
Apocalypses apocryphae (1866), p p . 2 4 - 3 3 . C f also D e n i s , I P G A T , p p .
91—6; N . B. M u l l e r , ' D i e g r i e c h i s c h e E s r a A p o k a l y p s e ' , J S H R Z 5
(1976), p p . 8 5 - 1 0 2 . R e l a t e d t o it a r e ( i ) a G r e e k a p o c a l y p s e of S e d r a c h
e d i t e d b y M . R . J a m e s i n Apocrypha Anecdota = Texts and Studies I I , 3
( 1 8 9 3 ) , p p . 1 2 7 - 3 7 ; cf D e n i s , I P G A T , p p . 9 7 - 9 ; J . H . C h a r i e s w o r t h ,
P M R S , p p . 1 7 8 - 8 2 ; S. A g o u r i d e s , ' A p o c a l y p s e of S e d r a c h ' , O T P I, p p .
6 0 5 - 1 3 ; a n d (2) a L a t i n Visio beati Esdrae e d i t e d by G. M e r c a t i in JVote
di letteratura biblica e cristiana antica ( 1 9 0 1 ) , p p . 7 0 - 3 . A n o t h e r s h o r t L a t i n
w o r k , Revelatio quae facta est Esdrae, w a s also issued b y M e r c a t i {ibid., p p .
77—9). C f D e n i s , I P G A T , p p . 9 3 - 4 . A n E z r a A p o c a l y p s e on t h e
d u r a t i o n of t h e r u l e of I s l a m was e d i t e d in S y r i a c , w i t h a G e r m a n
t r a n s l a t i o n , b y F. B a e t h g e n , ' B e s c h r e i b u n g d e r s y r i s c h e n H a n d s c h r i f t
" S a c h a u 1 3 1 " ' , Z A W 6 (1886), p p . 1 9 9 - 2 1 3 . T h e s a m e w o r k , in
a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e m a n u s c r i p t P a r i s syr. 3 2 6 , w a s p u b l i s h e d b y J . B.
C h a b o t , ' L ' a p o c a l y p s e d ' E s d r a s t o u c h a n t le r o y a u m e des A r a b e s ' ,
R S e m 2 (1894), p p . 2 4 2 - 5 0 , 3 3 3 - 4 6 . Cf. D e n i s , I P G A T , p . 94. I t is
p r o b a b l y I V E z r a t h a t is m e a n t by t h e "EaSpa d-rroKaXviliis m e n t i o n e d in
t h e A p o c r y p h a lists. Cf. D e n i s , I P G A T , p p . x i v - x v ; see also b e l o w ,
§V.8.
O n the later additions to T h e Fourth Book of Ezra (chapters 1-2 a n d
15—16), w h i c h are m i s s i n g in the o r i e n t a l versions b u t a p p e a r in t h e
L a t i n m a n u s c r i p t s as s e p a r a t e b o o k s of E z r a a n d b e c o m e m o r e closely
c o n n e c t e d t o c h a p t e r s 3—14 for t h e first t i m e i n t h e p r i n t e d t e x t , see A.
v o n G u t s c h m i d , Kleine Schriften I I , 2 1 1 - 4 0 ; B e n s l y , The Missing
Fragment, p p . 3 5 - 4 0 ; J a m e s , p p . x x x v i i i - l x x x ; a n d m o d e r n c o m m e n t
aries. F o r t h e G r e e k f r a g m e n t of c h a p t e r 1 5 : 5 7 - 9 f r o m a n O x y r h y n c h u s
p a p y r u s , cf A . S. H u n t , The Oxyrhynchus Papyri V I I ( 1 9 1 0 ) , n o . 1 0 1 0 ,
p p . 1 1 - 1 5 . F o r t h e inclusion o f I V E z r a 2:42—8 in t h e R o m a n C a t h o l i c
l i t u r g y , see D . d e B r u y n e , ' U n e l e c t u r e l i t u r g i q u e e m p r u n t e e au
q u a t r i e m e l i v r e d ' E s d r a s ' , R e v u e B e n e d i c t i n e (1908), p p . 3 5 8 - 6 0 . O n
t h e use of I V E z r a i n the l i t u r g y , cf. also R . B a s s e t , Les apocryphes
ethiopiennes. IX. Apocalypse d'Esdras ( 1 8 9 9 ) , p . 2 2 .
Versions
( i ) Old Latin. T h i s is t h e m o s t l i t e r a l a n d m o s t i m p o r t a n t o f t h e m all.
T h e oldest m a n u s c r i p t s d a t i n g from t h e s e v e n t h to the t h i r t e e n t h
c e n t u r y are listed a n d d e s c r i b e d b y B. V i o l e t , p p . x v - x x i v , a n d L. G r y .
T h e m o s t a n c i e n t witnesses a r e a s e v e n t h c e n t u r y p a l i m p s e s t c o d e x (no.
1 5 in t h e c a t h e d r a l h b r a r y o f L e o n ) , c o n t a i n i n g p a r t o f c h a p t e r 7, the
Codex Sangermanensis d a t i n g t o A . D . 822, a n d the Codex A m b i -
a n e n s i s also f r o m t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y . T h e r e a r e a f u r t h e r six m a n u s c r i p t s
p r o d u c e d b e t w e e n c. 900 a n d the t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y . ' ^ F u r t h e r
d o c u m e n t s c o n t a i n i n g t h e confession of E z r a (8:20-36) r a n g e from the
e i g h t h to t h e fifteenth c e n t u r y . T h e C o d e x S a n g e r m a n e n s i s was
p u b l i s h e d b y P. S a b a t i e r , Bibliorum sacrorum latinae versiones antiquae I I I
( I 743), p p . 1038, 1 0 6 9 - 8 4 . F o r m o r e r e c e n t e v i d e n c e , see D . d e B r u y n e ,
'Quelques nouveaux d o c u m e n t s p o u r l a critique textuelle de
18. Violet arranges the manuscripts i n two groups, the French and the Spanish,
designated as (f> and i^. X and Y are t w o unknown sources in the following scheme:
I I I
Sangermanensis ^mbianensis Complut. iWazarinaeus
Vulgate Bruxellensis |
N V L
Abulensis Legionensis
l ' a p o c a l y p s e d ' E s d r a s ' , R e v . B e n e d i c t i n e 31 (1920), p p . 4 3 - 7 . T h e

p r i n c i p a l editions of t h e L a d n text a r e : A. Hilgenfeld, Messias
Judaeorum (1869), p p . 1 1 4 - 8 2 ; R . L. Bensly a n d M . R . J a m e s , The
Fourth Book of Ezra ( 1 8 9 5 ) ; B . V i o l e t , Die Esra Apokalypse (IV. Esra)
(1910).
(2) T h e Syriac t r a n s l a t i o n , n e x t t o t h e L a t i n t h e best a n d t h e m o s t
r e l i a b l e , is p r e s e r v e d i n t h e M i l a n P e s h i t t a m a n u s c r i p t (Codex
A m b r o s i a n u s B.21 I n f ) , d a t i n g to t h e s i x t h to s e v e n t h c e n t u r i e s . It w a s
first p u b l i s h e d by A . M . C e r i a n i in Monumenta sacra et profana V , fasc. i
(1868), 4 5 - 1 0 8 . T h e b e s t e d i t i o n is b y R . J . B i d a w i d , 4 Ezra in The Old
Testament in Syriac according to the Peshitta Version—Sample edition : Song of
Songs—Tobit—4 Ezra ( 1 9 6 6 ) ; 4 Esdras, Peshitta, P a r t 4, fasc. 3 ( 1 9 7 3 ) ,
p p . i-iv, 1 - 5 0 ; S. P. B r o c k , ' N o t e s on s o m e T e x t s in t h e M i n g a n a
C o l l e c t i o n ' , J S S 14 (1969), p p . 2 1 0 - 1 1 .
(3) T h e Ethiopic v e r s i o n is s i m i l a r l y of v a l u e for t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of
t h e original text. I t h a d a l r e a d y b e e n e d i t e d by R . L a u r e n c e , w i t h
translations into L a t i n a n d English, but following o n e m a n u s c r i p t only,
in Primi Ezrae libri, qui apud Vulgatam appellatur quartus, versio Aethiopica,
nunc primo in medium prolata et Latine Angliceque reddita (1820). A.
D i l l m a n n w a s the first t o p r o v i d e a critical e d i t i o n , in his Biblia Veteris
Testamenti aethiopica V : Libri apocryphi (1894). Cf. D e n i s , I P G A T , p . 1 9 7 .
(4) T h e t w o Arabic t r a n s l a t i o n s a r e of m e r e l y s e c o n d a r y i m p o r t a n c e
o w i n g t o the liberties w h i c h t h e i r e x e c u t o r s p e r m i t t e d t h e m s e l v e s , (a)
O n e t r a n s l a t i o n , in a m a n u s c r i p t b e l o n g i n g t o the B o d l e i a n L i b r a r y in
O x f o r d , was first e d i t e d b y H . E w a l d in A b h a n d l u n g e n d e r G o t t i n g e r
Gesellschaft d e r W i s s e n s c h a f t 11 ( 1 8 6 2 / 3 ) , P P - i 3 3 ~ 2 3 0 . H . S t e i n e r
f u r n i s h e d a G e r m a n version in Z W T h 11 ( 1 8 6 8 ) , p p . 426—33. (b)
A n o t h e r A r a b i c t r a n s l a t i o n w a s e d i t e d b y J . G i l d e m e i s t e r , Esdrae liber
quartus arabice, e codice Vaticano 462 nunc primum edidit ( 1 8 7 7 ) . T h e r e a r e
f u r t h e r A r a b i c f r a g m e n t s : cf. Violet, p . xxxix, a n d L. G r y , Les dires
prophetiques de'Esdras ( 1 9 3 8 ) , p p . xv-xvi.
(5) T h e Armenian version is v e r y free. I t m a y be f o u n d in t h e
A r m e n i a n A p o c r y p h a p u b l i s h e d b y the M e k h i t a r i s t s in V e n i c e (1896).
See also J . I s s a v e r d e n s , The Uncanonical Writings of the Old Testament
( 1 9 0 1 ) . A critical e d i t i o n has b e e n issued b y M . E. S t o n e , The Armenian
Version of IV Ezra ( 1 9 7 9 ) . C f also idem, ' M a n u s c r i p t s a n d R e a d i n g s of
A r m e n i a n I V E z r a ' , Textus 6 ( 1 9 6 8 ) , p p . 4 8 - 6 1 ; Concordance and Texts of
the Armenian Version of IV Ezra ( 1 9 7 1 ) .
(6) A small p o r t i o n o f t h e Coptic Sahidic v e r s i o n w a s e d i t e d b y J .
L e i p o l d t a n d B. V i o l e t in Zeitschrift fiir agyptische Sprache und Alter
tumskunde 41 (1904), p p . 1 3 7 - 4 0 . It c o n t a i n s o n l y r e m a i n s o f c h a p t e r 1 3 ,
y e t it is of interest as f u r n i s h i n g p r o o f t h a t t h e b o o k c i r c u l a t e d in t h e
E g y p t i a n C h u r c h also.
(7) Georgian. T w o m a n u s c r i p t s , o n e i n J e r u s a l e m a n d the o t h e r o n
M t . A t h o s , g i v e a G e o r g i a n v e r s i o n . Cf. R . P . B l a k e , ' T h e G e o r g i a n
V e r s i o n of F o u r t h E s d r a s f r o m t h e J e r u s a l e m M a n u s c r i p t ' , H T h R 19
(1926), p p . 2 9 9 - 3 7 5 5 ' T h e G e o r g i a n V e r s i o n o f F o u r t h E s d r a s from t h e
A t h o s M a n u s c r i p t ' , H T h R 22 ( 1 9 2 9 ) , p p . 57—105. See also C.
K ' u r c ' i k i d z e , Georgian Version of Old Testament Apocrypha I - I I ( 1 9 7 0 - 7 3 )
(in R u s s i a n ) .
English
Box, G. H . , A P O T II (1913), p p . 542-624.
Idem, The Ezra Apocalypse (1912).
Idem, The Apocalypse of Ezra (II Esdras III-XIV), translatedfrom the Syriac text (1917).
W. O . E. Oesterley, IIEsdras {i^Zi).
Myers, J. M . , I and II Esdras (1974).
K n i b b , M . A. [ a n d R . J . Coggins], The [First and] Second Book of Esdras (1979).
Metzger, B . M., ' T h e Fourth Book of Ezra', O T P I, p p . 517-59.
German
Gunkel, H . , A P A T II (1900), p p . 331-401.
Violet, B., Die Apokalypsen des Esra und des Baruch in deutscher Gestalt (1924).
Riessler, P . , Altjudisches Schrifttum (1929), pp. 255-309, 1282-5.
Schreiner, J . , Das 4. Buch Esra [ J S H R Z V/4] (1981), pp. 289-412.
French
Gry, L., Les dires prophetiques d'Esdras I - I I (1938).
Bibliography
Hilgenfeld, A., Die jiidische Apokalyptik (1857), pp. 185-242.
Gutschmid, A. v o n , 'Die Apokalypse des Esra', Z W T h 3 (i860), p p . 1-81.
Volkmar, G., Das vierte Buch Esra (1863).
Kabisch, R . , Das vierte Buch Esra auf seine Quellen untersucht (1889).
Clemen, C , 'Die Zusammensetzung des Buches Henoch, d e r Apokalypse des Baruch und
des vierten Buches Esra', Theol. St. undKrit. 71 (1898), pp. 211-46.
Wellhausen, J., Skizzen und Vorarbeiten V I (1899), p p . 234-47.
Schiefer, F . W., Die religiosen und ethischen Anschauungen des IV. Esrabuches (1901).
Littmann, E., a n d K. Kohler, 'Esdras, Book of, II Esdras', J E V, p p . 220-2.
Bruyne, D . de, ' Q u e l q u e s documents p o u r l a critique textuelle d e l'apocalypse d'Esdras',
Rev. Benedictine 32 (1920), pp. 4 3 - 7 .
Keulers,J., Die eschatologische Lehre des vierten Esrabuches (1922).
Frey, J.-B., 'Le I V livre d'Esdras ou I'Apocalypse d ' E s d r a s ' , DBS I (1928), col. 412.
Montefiore, C. G., IV Ezra: A Study in the Development of Universalism (1929).
Kaminka, A., 'Beitrage z u r Erklarung der Esra-Apokalypse und z u r Rekonstrukdon ihres
hebraischen Urtextes', M G W J 76 (1932), pp. 121-38, 206-12, 494-511, 6 0 4 - 7 ; 77
(1933). PP- 339-55-
Gry, L., ' L a " M o r t d u Messie" en I V Esdras vii, 29', Mimorial Lagrange (1940), pp.
133-9-
Bloch, J., 'Was there a Greek Version of the Apocalypse o f Ezra?', J Q R 46 (1955/6), p p .
309-20.
Idem, ' T h e Ezra Apocalypse: W a s it written in H e b r e w , Greek or Aramaic?', J Q R 48
(1957/8), p p . 279-84.
Idem, 'Some Christological Interpolations in the Ezra-Apocalypse', H T h R 51 (1958), pp.
87-94.
Metzger, B. M . , 'The "Lost" Section of I I Esdras ( = IV Ezra)', J B L 76 (1957), p p .

153-6.
Z i m m e r m a n n , F . , ' U n d e r l y i n g Documents of IV E z r a ' , J Q R 51 (1960/1), pp. 107-34.
T u r n e r , N . , 'Esdras, Books of, IDB I I (1962), pp. 140-2.
Eissfeldt, O., Introduction (1965), pp. 624-7.
Stone, M . E., 'Paradise in I V Ezra iv:8, vii:36 and viii:52', J J S 17 (1966), pp. 85-8.
Idem, 'Some R e m a r k s on t h e Textual Cridcism of I V Ezra', H T h R 60 (1967), pp.
107-15.
Idem, ' T h e Concept of the Messiah in I V Ezra', Religions in Antiquity, ed. J . Neusner
(1968), pp. 295-312.
Harnisch, W., Verhdngnis und Verheissung der Geschichte: Untersuchungen zum êit- und
Geschichtsverstdndnis im 4. Buch Esra und in der syrischen Baruch Apokalypse (1969).
Denis, I P G A T , p p . 194-200.
Stone, M . E., 'Ezra, Apocalypse of, E n c . J u d . 6, cols. 1108-9.
Philonenko, M . , ' L ' a m e a I'etroit', Hommages d A. Dupont-Sommer, ed. A . C a q u o t a n d M .
Philonenko (1971), pp. 421-8.
H a y m a n , A. P., 'The Problem of Pseudonymity i n the Ezra Apocalypse', J S J 6 (1975),
pp. 47-56.
Gero, S., 'My Son the Messiah : A Note on 4 Ezra 7:28-9', Z N W 66 (1975), p p . 264-7.
Steck, O . H., 'Die Aufnahme von Genesis i in J u b i l a e n 2 und 4 Esra 6', JSJ 8 (1977), p p .
154-82.
T h o m p s o n , A. L., Responsibility for Evil in the Theodicy of IV Ezra (1977).
Chariesworth, J . H., P M R S , p p . 111-17.
Nickelsburg, G. W. E., J L B B M , pp. 287-94.
K n i b b , M . A., 'Apocalyptic a n d Wisdom in 4 Ezra', JSJ 13 (1982), pp. 56-74.
Brandenburger, E., Die Verborgenheit Gottes im Weltgeschehen: Das literarische und theologische
Problem des 4. Esrabuches (1981).
Stone, M . E., ' T h e Metamorphosis of E z r a : Jewish Apocalypse and Medieval Vision',
J T h S t 33 (1982), p p . 1-18.
7. Qumran Pseudepigraphic Prophecies

I n a d d i t i o n t o the E n o c h m a n u s c r i p t s d i s c u s s e d a b o v e ( p p . 2 5 1 - 2 , 2 5 4 ) ,
t h e Q u m r a n C a v e s h a v e yielded f r a g m e n t a r y r e m a i n s o f a ' p r o p h e t i c '
c h a r a c t e r . M o s t o f t h e m are t o o s m a l l for s t u d y .
^Qp5 [ U n e p r o p h e t i c a p o c r y p h e ( ? ) ' ] consists of o n l y a few w o r d s
' p r o p h e t i c o - p o e t i c ' in style ( D J D I , p p . 100—i). 2Q23 [ ' U n e p r o p h e t i c
a p o c r y p h e ' ] , said t o b e p a l a e o g r a p h i c a l l y H e r o d i a n , c o n t a i n s t h r e a t e n
i n g w o r d s ( D J D I I I , p p . 8 2 - 4 ) . L i k e w i s e j Q j , d a t e d to t h e first c e n t u r y
A . D . , m a y d e r i v e f r o m a p r o p h e c y of d o o m : ' T h e r e is n o p e a c e ; r a t h e r
stroke u p o n stroke, trou[ble u p o n t r o u b l e . . . misery] u p o n misery, b a d
n e w s u p o n [ b a d ] n e w s . . . ' ( D J D I I I , p p . 9 6 - 8 ) . 6Qjo, a p a p y r u s
a s s i g n e d to t h e first h a l f of t h e first c e n t u r y B . C , is a g a i n h a r d l y l a r g e
e n o u g h for d e s c r i p t i o n , let a l o n e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , as a p r o p h e t i c text. Y e t
it is c l a i m e d to possess a ' p a r e n t e e v i d e n t e a v e c E z e c h i e l ' ( D J D I I I , p p .
123-5). (first c e n t u r y A . D . ? ) is a tiny p r o p h e t i c f r a g m e n t
c o n t a i n i n g t h e p h r a s e : ' Y o u will say, I will g u a r d t h e vine t h a t h a s
b e e n p l a n t e d . . . ' T h e t h e m e is f a m i h a r from I s a . 5, J e r . 8, E z e k . 1 7 , 19,
e t c . 6Qj2 ( H e r o d i a n ? ) is a n e v e n s m a l l e r piece m e n t i o n i n g I s r a e l ,
j u b i l e e s a n d d i s p e r s i o n a m o n g t h e n a t i o n s . 6Q1J (first c e n t u r y A . D . ) is
a n o t h e r b a d l y p r e s e r v e d f r a g m e n t d e s i g n a t e d as ' P r o p h e t i e s a c e r d o t a l e
( ? ) ' since it m e n t i o n s ' t h e s o n s of P h i n e h a s ' , ' t h e s o n o f J o z e d e k ' , a n d
possibly, ' A n d it will c o m e to pass i n t h o s e d a y s ' . ( D J D I I I , p p . 123—7.)
T h e only d o c u m e n t of sufficient l e n g t h w h i c h c a n p r o p e r l y be
classified as p s e u d e p i g r a p h i c p r o p h e c y is iQ2^ or ' B o o k o f M y s t e r i e s ' . It
h a s t h e a p p e a r a n c e of a r e v e l a t i o n u t t e r e d b y a n a n o n y m o u s s p e a k e r
c o n c e r n i n g t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f w i c k e d n e s s a n d the t r i u m p h of r i g h t e o u s
ness. T h e p r e s e n c e of t e r m s s u c h as ' m y s t e r y ' (T"1), ' s i g n ' (mX) a n d
' o r a c l e ' (StPD) is i n d i c a t i v e o f the g e n r e o f t h e w o r k ( D J D I, p p . 1 0 2 - 7 ) .
C a v e 4 h a s p r o d u c e d f r a g m e n t s b e l o n g i n g to t w o ( o r four) m a n u s c r i p t s
o f this w o r k (cf J . T . M i l i k , R B 63 ( 1 9 5 6 ) , p . 6 1 ) . T h e y still a w a i t
pubhcation.
Editions
Barthelemy, D., and J . T . Milik, D J D I (1955).
Baillet, M . , J. T . Milik and R . de V a u x , D J D I I I (1962).
Translations (/Q27)
English
Vermes, DSSE , pp. 209-10 [The T r i u m p h of Righteousness].
French
Milik, D J D I, toe. cit.
D u p o n t - S o m m e r , A., Ecrits essiniens ( i 9 6 0 ) , pp. 342-4.
C a r m i g n a c , J., E. Cothenet a n d H. Lignee, T Q I I (1963), pp. 2 5 5 - 6 1 .
German
Maier, J . , T T M I (i960), p p . 171-2.
Italian
Moraldi, L., M Q ( i 9 7 i ) , pp. 631-7.
Bibliography
Rabinowitz, I., 'The Authorship, Audience and Date of the de V a u x Fragment of an
U n k n o w n W o r k ' , J B L 71 (1952), pp. 19-32.
Piper, O . A., ' T h e "Book of Mysteries" ( Q u m r a n I , 27)', J R 38 (1958), pp. 95-106.
VI. B I B L I C A L M I D R A S H
T h e a u t h o r s o f p s e u d e p i g r a p h i c - a p o c a l y p t i c p r o p h e c y s o u g h t t o invest
t h e i r w r i t i n g s w i t h g r e a t e r a u t h o r i t y by a s c r i b i n g t h e m to t h e l e g e n d a r y
p e r s o n a g e s of the p a s t . I n so d o i n g , t h e y r e s h a p e d a n d d e v e l o p e d t h e
biblical a c c o u n t s . T h i s t e n d e n c y w a s c e n t r a l t o i n t e r - T e s t a m e n t a l
Jewish thought. T h e regular reading o f Scripture and the constant
m e d i t a t i o n o n it w i t h a v i e w t o i n t e r p r e t i n g , e x p o u n d i n g a n d
s u p p l e m e n t i n g its stories a n d r e s o l v i n g its t e x t u a l , c o n t e x t u a l a n d
d o c t r i n a l difficulties, r e s u l t e d i n a p r e - r a b b i n i c h a g g a d a h w h i c h , o n c e
i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e s c r i p t u r a l n a r r a t i v e itself, p r o d u c e d a ' r e w r i t t e n '
B i b l e , a fuller, s m o o t h e r a n d d o c t r i n a l l y m o r e a d v a n c e d f o r m of t h e
s a c r e d n a r r a t i v e (cf. vol. I I , p p . 346—55).
E x a m p l e s o f t h e ' r e w r i t t e n ' Bible r e l a t i n g mostly t o Genesis a r e
f u r n i s h e d by t h e B o o k o f J u b i l e e s a n d t h e s u r v i v i n g s e c t i o n s of t h e
Q u m r a n Genesis A p o c r y p h o n . T h e p e r i o d o f the P e n t a t e u c h is d e a l t
w i t h also by t h e B o o k o f Biblical A n t i q u i t i e s e r r o n e o u s l y a t t r i b u t e d to
P h i l o , b u t this w o r k is m o r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e stories from J o s h u a to
D a v i d . I n d i v i d u a l figures such as N o a h , K o h a t h , A m r a m a n d S a m u e l
in c e r t a i n Q u m r a n f r a g m e n t s , a n d t h e t r i b a l ancestors in t h e
T e s t a m e n t s o f t h e T w e l v e P a t r i a r c h s , a r e g i v e n full t r e a t m e n t . T h e
p r o p h e t i c a g e , r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e M a r t y r d o m of I s a i a h w i t h i n t h e
C h r i s t i a n c o m p o s i t i o n o f the Ascension o f I s a i a h , a n d t h e Life of t h e
P r o p h e t s , exemplify t h e freer l e g e n d a r y t r e n d w i t h o n l y s p o r a d i c
c o n t a c t w i t h t h e s c r i p t u r a l text itself.'
/. The Book of Jubilees

U n d e r t h e title r d *Iu)^TjXaia o r -q ACTTTT) Feveais, a n a p o c r y p h a l b o o k
d e a l i n g w i t h p a t r i a r c h a l history is q u o t e d b y D i d y m u s A l e x a n d r i n u s ,
E p i p h a n i u s a n d J e r o m e . T h e H e b r e w w o r k referred t o in t h e D a m a s c u s
R u l e ( C D 16:3-4) ' T h e B o o k of t h e D i v i s i o n s of t h e T i m e s i n t o t h e i r
J u b i l e e s a n d W e e k s ' (DnTn57intt?ai Dn''*?3r*? DTiyn mp*?n» nSD) is
a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y i d e n t i c a l w i t h it. E x t e n s i v e q u o t a t i o n s f r o m t h e G r e e k
w r i t i n g a p p e a r also in t h e B y z a n t i n e c h r o n i c l e r s S y n c e l l u s , C e d r e n u s ,
Z o n a r a s a n d G l y c a s f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e n i n t h t o t h e twelfth
c e n t u r y . I t is h o w e v e r v e r y p r o b a b l e t h a t these w e r e n o t t a k e n d i r e c t l y
f r o m t h e Book of J u b i l e e s b u t from i n t e r m e d i a t e sources, in p a r t i c u l a r
I . Because of t h e akerations to which they were subjected b y Christian editors a n d

copyists, t h e Testaments of t h e Twelve Patriarchs a n d t h e Life of the Prophets will be
examined in §33B.
VI. Biblical Midrash 309
t h e C h r o n i c l e s of P a n o d o r u s {c. 400 A . D . ) a n d A n i a c u s ( a h t t l e l a t e r ) .
From then o n the book disappeared until the nineteenth century,
w h e n it was r e d i s c o v e r e d i n a n E t h i o p i c t r a n s l a t i o n . I t w a s first
p u b l i s h e d by A . D i l l m a n n in 1 8 5 9 . I n a d d i t i o n to t h e E t h i o p i c v e r s i o n ,
t h e r e is also a n old L a d n r e n d e r i n g , a l a r g e section of w h i c h w a s f o u n d
by A . M . C e r i a n i i n a m a n u s c r i p t i n t h e A m b r o s i a n L i b r a r y i n M i l a n ,
a n d was p u b l i s h e d b y h i m in h i s Monumenta sacra et profana, vol. I , fasc. i
( 1 8 6 1 ) . A n o t h e r e d i t i o n of t h e E t h i o p i c text w a s f u r n i s h e d b y R. H .
C h a r l e s ( 1 8 9 5 ) ; a n d yet a n o t h e r w a s a n n o u n c e d i n 1964 by W . B a a r s
a n d R . Z u u r m o n d . H e b r e w f r a g m e n t s o f the w o r k h a v e b e e n f o u n d a t
Q u m r a n C a v e s 1 , 2 , 3, 4 a n d 1 1 . '
I n its essentials. J u b i l e e s follows t h e c a n o n i c a l G e n e s i s , a n d for t h a t
r e a s o n is also c a l l e d ' ' L i t t l e G e n e s i s ' , n o t b e c a u s e i t is s h o r t e r (on t h e
c o n t r a r y , it is l o n g e r ) , b u t b e c a u s e i t d o e s n o t e n j o y t h e s a m e a u t h o r i t y
as t h e c a n o n i c a l b o o k . T h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p is s i m i l a r t o t h a t of a h a g g a d i c
c o m m e n t a r y t o S c r i p t u r e . J u b i l e e s i s a f r e e r e w o r k i n g of e a r l i e s t biMjcal
histoiy,Jjx>gLthe_creation to t h e i n s t i t u t i o n of tHeTFassover ( E x o d u s 1 2 ) .
T h e w h o l e w o r k is p r e s e n t e d ^ s a r e v e l a t i o n g i v e n t o M o s e s o n S i n a i by
a n ' a n g e l of t h e _ P r e s e i i c e ' . H e a d d r e s s e s M o s ^ T n T K e ~ ¥ e c o n d p e r s o n
s i n g u l a r (2:26 a n d 2 9 ; 4 : 2 6 ; 6 : 1 1 - 3 2 , e t c . , a n d also in c h a p t e r s 4 7 - 5 0 )
a n d u s u a l l y s p e a k s of h i m s e l f in t h e first p e r s o n p l u r a l , a s s o c i a t i n g
himself w i t h t h e o t h e r a n g e l s , ^ b u t also s o m e t i m e s in t h e first p e r s o n
s i n g u l a r . ^ T h i s fiction t h a t t h e w o r k is a n a d d r e s s t o M o s e s by t h e a n g e l
is c a r r i e d t h r o u g h t o t h e e n d . T h e a n g e l , for h i s p a r t , d r a w s his w i s d o m
1. The following fragments have so far been identified: Jub. 3:2^-7 (?) = iiQJub. 7 (J.
r. MiUk, ' A propos de i i Q J u b . ' , Bibl 54 (1973), p p . 7 7 - 8 ) ; Jub. 4:y-ii = iiQJub. 7 (A.
S. v a n der W o u d e , ' F r a g m e n t e des Buches J u b i l a e n aus Q u m r a n Hohle X F , Tradition und
Glaube-Festgabe fiir K. G. Kuhn (1971), pp. 140-6) ; Jub. 4:13-14 = iiQJub.M2 (Milik,
art. cit.); Jub. 4:i6-iy = iiQJub.M3 {ibid.) ; Jub. 4:17-24 = 4Q22y [ps.-Jub.] (Milik, The
Rooks of Enoch (1976), p . 12); Jub. 4:29-30 = uQfr.2 (van der W o u d e ) ; Jub. 5:1-12 =
iiQfr.3 (van der W o u d e ) ; Jub. 6:12 (?) = iiQJub.6 (Milik, Bibl); Jub. 12:15-17 =
iiQfr.4 (van der W o u d e ) ; Jub. i2:28~g (van der W o u d e ) ; Jub. 21:22-4 = 4Q221 [4QJub .
1] (Milik, 'Fragments d ' u n e source d u psautier et fragments des Jubilees', R B 73 (1966),
pp. 9 4 - 1 0 6 ) ; Jub. 23:6-7 = 3Q3fr.3 ( M . Baillet, D J D I I I (1962), p. 9 8 ; R. Deichgraber,
F r a g m e n t e einer Jubilaenhandschrift aus Hohle 3 von Q u m r a n ' , R Q 5 (1965), pp.
4 1 5 - 2 2 ; A . Rofe, 'Further M a n u s c r i p t Fragments of Jubilees in Q u m r a n Cave 3', Tarbiz
34 (1965), pp. 3 3 3 - 6 [Hebr.]) ; Jub. 23:7-8 = iQjg {2QJub''.) (Milik, D J D I, p . 8 3 ) ; Jub.
23:10 (?) = 3(l5fr.4 (Baillet, D J D I I I , p . 9 7 ) ; Jub. 23:12-13 = 3Q5fr.i (Baillet,
Deichgraber, R o f e ) ; Jub. 25:12 = 4QJub.i7 (Milik, D J D I I I , p . 226) ; Jub. 27:19-21 =
iQj7 (Milik, D J D I, p . 8 3 ) ; Jub. 36:12 (?) = iQiSfr.s {ibid.); Jub. 46:1-3 = 2Q20
\2QJub .] (Baillet, pp. 77-9). A n o t h e r Jubilees fragment from M a s a d a , without further
specification, is alluded to in Y . Yadin, Masada (1966), p. 179.
2. The 'we' form is quite frequent in chapters 2—19: cf. 2:3, 17, 18, 19, 21, 28, 3 0 ; 3:1,
9, 12, 15; 4:6, 18, 23; 5:6, 8, 10; 10:7, 10—13, 2 3 ; 14:20; 16:1-4, 7, i5-i9> 28; 18:14;
19:3. F r o m then on, its use is sporadic a n d coincides with a n anti-anthropomorphic
tendency which subsdtutes angels for God. C f J u b . 30:20; 41:24; 48:10, 11, 16, 19.
3. Cf J u b . 6:19, 22, 35, 38; 12:22, 2 6 ; 16:5; 18:9—11; 30:21; 48:4, 13 ; 50:13.
f r o m t h e ' h e a v e n l y t a b l e t s ' (1:29), to w h i c h h e c o n s t a n t l y refers ( 3 : 1 0 ,

3 1 ; 4:5, 3 2 ; 6:17, 29, 3 1 , 3 5 ; 1 5 : 2 5 ; 16:28 f; 1 8 : 1 9 ; 28:6; 30:9; 3 2 : 1 0 ,
1 5 ; 3 3 - ^ 0 ; 39-6; 49:8; 5 0 : 1 3 ) . By the c h o i c e of t h i s f o r m , t h e a u t h o r
seeks t o e n d o w t h e n e w t e a c h i n g p r o p o u n d e d b y h i m w i t h h e a v e n l y
a u t h o r i t y . H e p a y s special a t t e n t i o n to c h r o n o l o g y in his s h a p i n g o f t h e
b i b h c a l story. T h e b a s i s of his r e c k o n i n g is t h e j u b i l e e p e r i o d o f
forty-riihe y e a r s , i.e. s e v e n y e a r - w e e k s , o r seven times seven y e a r s , a n d
h e d e t e r m i n e s precisely, for t h e o c c u r r e n c e of each e v e n t , the m o n t h o f
t h e y e a r w i t h i n t h e y e a r - w e e k of t h e r e l e v a n t j u b i l e e cycle. H e n c e t h e
title ' J u b i l e e s ' , rd 'Icj^TjXaia. As c h r o n o l o g y in g e n e r a l is o f s p e c i a l
i n t e r e s t to h i m , t h e a u t h o r also lays p a r t i c u l a r e m p h a s i s on t h e
o b s e r v a n c e o f t h e a n n u a l festivals, a n d seeks to p r o v e t h a t t h e m a i n
feasts w e r e i n s t i t u t e d a l r e a d y in t h e v e r y earliest t i m e s : P e n t e c o s t o r t h e
F e a s t o f W e e k s ( J u b . 6 : 1 7 - 2 2 ; c f 1 5 : 1 ; 2 2 : 1 ; 4 4 : 4 ) ; t h e F e a s t of
T a b e r n a c l e s ( 1 6 : 2 1 - 3 1 ; 3 2 : 2 7 - 9 , k n o w n s i m p l y a s ' t h e F e a s t ' , in t h e
s e v e n t h m o n t h ) ; t h e D a y of A t o n e m e n t ( 3 4 : 1 8 - 1 9 ) ; a n d Passover (49).
T h i s e x p l a i n s w h y he finishes specifically w i t h t h e i n s t i t u t i o n of t h e
l a t t e r festival ( E x o d u s 1 2 ) . ^
W i s h i n g t o r e c o u n t e a r l i e s t h i s t o r y i n the spirit of his o w n age, t h e
a u t h o r b a n d i e s t h e b i b l i c a l t e x t v^êryffeely. M u c h of w h a t w a s o f n o
i n t e r e s t to h i m , o r a p p e a r e d s c a h d a l d i i s , is o m i t t e d or a l t e r e d ; o t h e r
p a s s a g e s a r e l e n g t h e n e d a n d e n r i c h e d b y t h e a d d i t i o n of n u m e r o u s
d e t a i l s . H e e x p l a i n s h o w G e n . 2 : 1 7 w a s literally fulfilled,^ a n d w i t h
w h o s e h e l p N o a h b r o u g h t t h e a n i m a l s i n t o the A r k ( 5 : 2 3 ) ; etc. H e
k n o w s t h e n a m e s o f t h e wives of a l l t h e p a t r i a r c h s , from A d a m to t h e
t w e l v e sons o f J a c o b ; t h e n u m b e r o f the sons o f A d a m ; t h e n a m e of t h e
p e a k o n A r a r a t o n w h i c h the A r k o f N o a h rested (5:28; 7 : 1 , 1 7 ; 1 0 : 1 5 ) ;
a n d m a n y o t h e r m a t t e r s of this sort.^ All these e m b e l l i s h m e n t s a n d
e n r i c h m e n t s faithfully reflect t h e spirit o f i n t e r - T e s t a m e n t a l J u d a i s m . I t
is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , i n p a r t i c u l a r , t h a t the p a t r i a r c h s a r e m a d e o u t to b e ,
4. T h e originality of Jubilees lies in the constant effort of the author to represent the
yearly festivals of J u d a i s m a s memorials of events t h a t occurred i n the age of the
patriarchs long before the time of Moses. T h u s , for example, the feast of Weeks
commemorates God's covenant with Noah (6:17) ; Sukkoth, t h e rejoicing of A b r a h a m
after the birth of Isaac (16:29). Passover coincides with the seven-day festival
foreordained in the heavenly tablets in regard to t h e sacrifice of Isaac (17:15 ; 18:3, 19).
T h e Day of Atonement was instituted as a reminder of J a c o b ' s distress on seeing the
blood-stained coat ofJoseph (34:12, 18).
5. T h e divine threat that A d a m would die on t h e day on which he ate the forbidden
food was fulfilled when he died aged 930 years, i.e. 70 years short of the i ,000 years which
are like o n e day in God's eyes. Cf J u b . 4:30. See also 2 Pet. 3:8; Ep. of Barnabas 15:4;
G e n . R. 19:22. J u s d n i n Diat. 81, 3 appears to cite this passage. Cf Charles, Jubilees, p.
41 ; Berger, Jubilaen, p. 347, n . a .
6. For further detail, see Charles, Jubilees. A theological discussion of the creation and
the history of the world and of Israel may be found in M . Testuz, Les idees religieuses du
Livre des JubiUes (i960), p p . 43—74.
VI. Biblical Midrash 3 1 1
e v e n m o r e t h a n in the b i b l i c a l s t o r y , p a r a g o n s of v i r t u e w h o a l r e a d y
observe the M o s a i c c u l t i c l a w s , offer sacrifice a n d first-fruits, and
c e l e b r a t e t h e a n n u a l festivals as well as t h e N e w M o o n s a n d t h e
S a b b a t h s . ' T t is also c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t h a t _the JieaYenly- w o r l d s t a n d s
e v e r y w h e r e i n the b a c k g r o u n d of e a r t h l y h i s t o r y . T h e a n g e l s , g o o d a n d
b a d , c o n t i n u a l l y i n t e r v e n e i n t h e gpurse o f h i s t o r y . T h e angels—in
h e a v e n w e r e the first t o o b s e r v e the L a w ( c f e . g . 6:18) for it w a s
i n s c r i b e d on h e a v e n l y t a b l e t s f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g a n d w a s o n l y
g r a d u a l l y c o m m u n i c a t e d to m e n . M o r e o v e r , n o t all the t e a c h i n g s w e r e
o p e n l y p r o c l a i m e d to I s r a e l . M a n y w e r e d e h v e r e d t o t h e p a t r i a r c h s in
secret b o o k s , w h i c h they b e q u e a t h e d to l a t e r g e n e r a t i o n s .
T h e terminus ante quem of t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f J u b i l e e s is i n d i c a t e d by
t h e d a t e of t h e Q u m r a n f r a g m e n t s a n d t h e r e f e r e n c e to t h e b o o k in t h e
D a m a s c u s R u l e ( C D 1 6 : 3 - 4 ) , b o t h p o i n t i n g t o a r o u n d 100 B . C . ^ T h e
terminus a quo is f u r n i s h e d by a q u o t a t i o n , in 4 : 1 7 - 2 4 , of t h e first section
of I E n o c h , w h i c h is t h o u g h t to d a t e t o t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e s e c o n d
c e n t u r y B . c . (see p . 256 a b o v e ) a n d the g e n e r a l h i s t o r i c a l b a c k g r o u n d
p o i n t i n g to t h e H e l l e n i s t i c crisis of t h e 170s B . c . T h u s J u b . 3 : 3 1
p r o h i b i t s J e w s t o ' u n c o v e r t h e m s e l v e s a s t h e gentiles u n c o v e r
t h e m s e l v e s ' ( c f i M a c . 1:13—14). J u b . 15:33—4 a l l u d e s t o a n e g l e c t of
c i r c u m c i s i o n a n d t h u s of t h e c o v e n a n t of G o d (cf i M a c . 1 : 1 5 , 6 3 ; 2:20,
2 7 ; 4:10). L a r g e - s c a l e a p o s t a s y is e n v i s a g e d i n J u b . 2 3 : 1 6 . J u b . 5 0 : 1 2 ,
by s i m p l y o u t l a w i n g w a r o n t h e S a b b a t h , e c h o e s a p r e - M a c c a b a e a n
p r a c t i c e of t h e H a s i d i m (i M a c . 2 : 3 1 - 8 ) . V a r i o u s c o m m a n d m e n t s
w h i c h a r e a d v a n c e d w i t h e m p h a s i s reflect t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s of t h e
second c e n t u r y B . C . T h u s the r e a d e r s of J u b i l e e s a r e enjoined n o t to e a t
w i t h gentiles (22:16), a n d n o t to c o n t r a c t a n y m a r r i a g e w i t h t h e m
( 2 5 : 1 ; 3 0 : 1 1 — 1 7 ) . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e e x p r e s s i o n of h a t r e d of t h e
Philistines ( 2 4 : 2 8 - 3 3 ) a n d t h e A m o r i t e s (34:2—9), a s well as t h e a c c o u n t
of t h e w a r s w i t h t h e A m o r i t e s (34:2-9) a n d E d o m i t e s ( 3 7 - 8 ) , m a y be
seen to m i r r o r the m o o d a n d t h e s t r u g g l e s of t h e M a c c a b a e a n p e r i o d .
T h e s u b j e c t i o n of the E d o m i t e s t o s e r v i t u d e b y the sons of J a c o b
( 3 8 : 1 0 - 1 4 ) p r o b a b l y echoes t h e d e f e a t of t h e I d u m a e a n s b y J u d a s
M a c c a b a e u s o r J o h n H y r c a n u s . A s in t h e T e s t a m e n t s of t h e T w e l v e
P a t r i a r c h s (see b e l o w , p . 768), the tribes of L e v i a n d J u d a h a r e b r o u g h t
i n t o t h e f o r e g r o u n d in J u b i l e e s i n s u c h a m a n n e r t h a t L e v i t a k e s
p r e c e d e n c e ; I s a a c blesses L e v i first ( 3 1 : 1 3 - 1 7 ) , t h e n J u d a h ( 3 1 : 1 8 - 2 0 ) .
N e v e r t h e l e s s , it is p o i n t e d o u t t h a t from J u d a h will c o m e a m i g h t y
Prince, i.e. t h e M e s s i a h ( 3 1 : 1 8 - 2 0 ) . B u t L e v i is still t h e r u l i n g t r i b e .
7. Cf. Testuz, op. cit., p p . 101-19. T h e observance of ritual commandments, recorded in

hooks by Enoch a n d N o a h , is imposed by A b r a h a m on Isaac (21:5-10).
8. For CD, see below, p p . 395-6. F o r the palaeographical argument, cf J . C.
V a n d e r K a m , Textual and Historical Studies in the Book of Jubilees (1977), p . 216; K. Berger,
Das Buch der Jubilaen (1981), p . 300.
' A n d t h e y [i.e. t h e c h i l d r e n of L e v i ] w i h b e princes a n d j u d g e s , a n d

chiefs o f all t h e seed of t h e sons ofJ a c o b ; they will s p e a k t h e w o r d o f t h e
L o r d i n r i g h t e o u s n e s s , a n d t h e y will j u d g e all his j u d g e m e n t s i n
righteousness' (31:15).
I t also follows from the p a s s a g e q u o t e d ( 3 1 : 1 5 ) t h a t t h e p r i e s t l y
circles a r e still t h e c u s t o d i a n s of d o c t r i n e . A c c o r d i n g to 4 5 : 1 6 , t h e y a r e
i n a d d i t i o n t h e g u a r d i a n s o f the s a c r e d b o o k s : ( J a c o b ) ' g a v e all his
b o o k s a n d t h e b o o k s of his fathers t o L e v i his s o n t h a t h e m i g h t p r e s e r v e
t h e m a n d r e n e w t h e m for his c h i l d r e n u n t i l t h i s d a y ' .
F i n a l l y it is also v e r y n o t e w o r t h y t h a t t h e h a l a k h a h a t t e s t e d i n
J u b i l e e s a n t e d a t e s n o t o n l y t h e M i s h n a h , b u t also J o s e p h u s a n d P h i l o ,
a n d definitely p o i n t s to t h e p r e - C h r i s t i a n era.
( i ) A c c o r d i n g t o J u b . 7:36, the fruit o f the f o u r t h y e a r after p l a n t i n g
is to b e b r o u g h t t o G o d ' s a l t a r , ' a n d w h a t is left, l e t the s e r v a n t s o f t h e
h o u s e o f the L o r d e a t before t h e a l t a r w h i c h r e c e i v e s ( i t ) ' . A l t h o u g h t h e
l a w of L e v . 19:24 c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d in this sense, i n the l a t e r h a l a k h a h
voiced b y P h i l o , De virtutibus 29 (150) a n d J o s e p h u s , Ant. iv 8, 19 ( 2 2 7 ) ,
t h e s e fruits a r e n o t to b e c o n s u m e d ' b y t h e s e r v a n t s of t h e h o u s e of G o d '
b u t by t h e offerers t h e m s e l v e s , before G o d , as second d t h e (see vol. I I ,
p . 264). (2) A c c o r d i n g to J u b . 1 5 : 1 , 1 6 : 3 , 4 4 : 4 - 5 , the h a r v e s t festival
( F i r s t - F r u i t s , i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e F e a s t o f W e e k s , 6 : 2 1 ; 2 2 : 1 ) is t o b e
c e l e b r a t e d ' i n t h e m i d d l e ' o f t h e t h i r d m o n t h . T h e r e is n o d i r e c t
r e g u l a t i o n o n this m a t t e r in t h e P e n t a t e u c h . T h e c a l c u l a t i o n d e p e n d s
o n the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e w o r d ' S a b b a t h ' i n L e v . 2 3 : 1 1 a n d 1 5 . T h e
S a d d u c e e s u n d e r s t o o d b y it t h e S a b b a t h p r o p e r ; t h e P h a r i s e e s , the first
festival d a y o f Passover w e e k , 15 N i s a n (see v o l . I I , p . 4 1 0 ) . T h e a u t h o r
of J u b i l e e s , b y c o n t r a s t , seems r a t h e r to h a v e i n t e r p r e t e d S a b b a t h as t h e
l a s t d a y of P a s s o v e r w e e k , 21 N i s a n . T h e P h a r i s e e p r a c t i c e is h o w e v e r
s u p p o r t e d a l r e a d y in t h e S e p t u a g i n t t r a n s l a t i o n of L e v . 2 3 : 1 1 (TT7
inavpiov rrjs rrpwrrfs), a n d clearly p r e v a i l e d in t h e t i m e of P h i l o , De spec,
leg. ii 2 9 ( 1 6 2 ) , a n d J o s e p h u s , Ant. iii 10, 5 (248). (3) J u b . 2 1 : 1 2 — 1 5
p r o n o u n c e s t h a t o n l y c e r t a i n k i n d s of w o o d a r e p e r m i t t e d for u s e o n t h e
a l t a r of b u r n t - o f f e r i n g , a m o n g s t t h e m t h e olive. A c c o r d i n g to m T a m i d
2:3, t h e olive tree a n d t h e v i n e a r e f o r b i d d e n . (4) J u b . 3 2 : 1 5 p r e s c r i b e s
t h a t t h e d t h e of c a t t l e shall b e l o n g to t h e p r i e s t s ; thus also T o b i t 1:6
a c c o r d i n g to t h e S i n a i t i c u s , a n d P h i l o , De virtutibus 18 (95). A c c o r d i n g
to the l a t e r h a l a k h a h , i t is t o be t r e a t e d like the s e c o n d t i t h e , a n d is
t h e r e f o r e to be c o n s u m e d b y t h e offerers 'before G o d ' (following
m Z e b a h i m 5 : 8 — s e e v o l . I I , p . 264). (5) A c c o r d i n g to J u b . 49:20, t h e
P a s s o v e r m u s t b e e a t e n in a c o u r t y a r d o f t h e S a n c t u a r y . L a t e r
h a l a k h a h p e r m i t s its c o n s u m p t i o n a n y w h e r e i n J e r u s a l e m ( m Z e b . 5 : 8 ;
m M a k . 3:3).
W h e r e a s a second c e n t u r y B . C d a t i n g is g e n e r a l l y a g r e e d t o d a y ,
s o m e s c h o l a r s see i n J u b i l e e s p a r t i c u l a r allusions t o e v e n t s d u r i n g t h e
r u l e of J o h n H y r c a n u s I ( C h a r l e s , op. cit., p p . I v h i - l x v i ; M i h k , Enoch, p .

5 8 ) , o r to t h e p e r i o d of J o n a t h a n a n d S i m o n , 145—140 B . C ( K . B e r g e r ,
op. cit., p . 300). I n t u r n , J . C . V a n d e r K a m is of t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e last
h i s t o r i c a l r e f e r e n c e in J u b i l e e s c o n c e r n s J u d a s M a c c a b a e u s ' v i c t o r y
o v e r N i c a n o r in 1 6 1 B . C . a n d h e a d o p t s t h e r e f o r e a h i g h - M a c c a b a e a n
d a t e , 1 6 1 - 1 4 0 B . C . , b u t m o r e p r o b a b l y 161—152 B . C {op. cit., p p . 254,
284). T h e a g e o f J u d a s ( 1 6 6 - 1 6 0 B . C . ) is c h o s e n also b y G . L.
D a v e n p o r t (The Eschatology of the Book of Jubilees ( 1 9 7 1 ) , p . 1 5 ) , w h e r e a s
L . F i n k e l s t e i n , p r i o r t o t h e Q u m r a n d i s c o v e r i e s , a r g u e d for a p r e -
M a c c a b a e a n d a t i n g : 1 7 5 - 1 6 7 B . C . ( T h e D a t e of t h e B o o k o f J u b i l e e s ' ,
H T h R 36 ( 1 9 4 3 ) , p p . 1 9 - 2 4 ) . T a k i n g all t h e s e p o i n t s i n t o a c c o u n t , a
d a t e f o l l o w i n g closely t h e d e a t h o f J u d a s M a c c a b a e u s a p p e a r s to b e the
m o s t likely.^
T h e m i l i e u f r o m w h i c h J u b i l e e s e m e r g e d w a s the o b j e c t of m u c h
a r g u m e n t before t h e D e a d S e a finds. I t was a s s i g n e d t o the S a m a r i t a n s
( B . B e e r ) , t o t h e circle of O n i a s of L e o n t o p o l i s (Z. F r a n k e l ) , t o the
E s s e n e s (A. J e l l i n e k , J . - M . L a g r a n g e ) , b u t m o s t l y to t h e P h a r i s e e s (A.
D i l l m a n n , H . R o n s c h , E . S c h i i r e r , R . H . C h a r l e s , e t c . ) . N e v e r t h e l e s s , it
w a s noted t h a t in t w o areas t h e a u t h o r p a r t e d c o m p a n y with the
P h a r i s e e s . H e a d o p t e d a s o l a r c a l e n d r i c s y s t e m (6:32—8) a g a i n s t t h a t
b a s e d o n t h e m o o n , w h i c h was c o m m o n c u r r e n c y , w i t h c o n s e q u e n t
c h a n g e s in t h e d a t e s of festivals (cf a b o v e , p . 3 1 2 ) , a n d e n v i s a g e d
t h e after-life in t h e f o r m of a s u r v i v a l of t h e spirit, w h i l e ' t h e i r b o n e s will
rest in the e a r t h ' ( 2 3 : 3 1 ) , r a t h e r t h a n a s a b o d i l y r e s u r r e c t i o n , t h e key
t e a c h i n g of t h e P h a r i s e e s . T h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of t h e a u t h o r as a n E s s e n e
w a s s u p p o r t e d b y the m a n y a l l u s i o n s t o a n g e l o l o g y a n d to secret b o o k s ,
a s well as h i s belief in a s p i r i t u a l after-life c o m m o n t o J u b . 2 3 : 3 1 a n d
t h e Essenes i n B.J. h 8, 11 ( 1 5 4 - 5 ) . o t h e r h a n d , the a b s e n c e of
stress o n p u r i f i c a t i o n s w a s u n d e r l i n e d .
S i n c e t h e p u b l i c a t i o n of t h e D e a d S e a Scrolls, h o w e v e r , t h e p r o b l e m
h a s a p p e a r e d in a n e w p e r s p e c t i v e . A s h a s b e e n n o t e d , t h e Q u m r a n
caves h a v e y i e l d e d f r a g m e n t s o f the o r i g i n a l H e b r e w t e x t , a n d t h e
D a m a s c u s R u l e , a Q u m r a n d o c u m e n t , expressly a d v o c a t e s t h e c a l e n d a r
o f J u b i l e e s ( C D 1 6 : 3 - 4 ) . M o r e o v e r , t h e s a m e s o l a r c a l e n d a r is i n t e g r a l
t o t h e d o c t r i n a l system of t h e S c r o l l s , ' " a s is also belief in p r i e s t l y
9. As for S. Zeitlin's theory placing Jubilees to the early p a r t of the Second

C o m m o n w e a l t h (the fifth o r the fourth century B . C ) , because of its discrepant h a l a k h a h
a n d calendar reckoning it requires no serious refutadon ( J Q R 30 (1939/40), p p . 8 - i 6 ; 36
(1945/6), pp. 187-9; 48 (1957/8), p p . 218-32).
10. O n the J u b i l e e s - Q u m r a n calendar, see vol. I, p p . 599-601. F o r Hterature on the
subject, see ibid., p. 592, n. 15; M . Testuz, Les idies religieuses du Livre des Jubilees ( i 9 6 0 ) ,
p p . 121—37; E . Kutsch, ' D e r K a l e n d e r des J u b i l a e n b u c h e s und das Alte u n d Neue
Testament', V T 11 (1961), pp. 39—47; ' D i e Solstitien im K a l e n d a r des J u b i l a e n b u c h e s
und in ath. Henoch 72', ibid. 12 (1962), p p . 2 0 5 - 7 ; B. Noack, ' T h e Day of Pentecost in
Jubilees and Q u m r a n ' , A S T I i (1962), p p . 7 3 - 9 5 ; J. M . B a u m g a r t e n , '4Q,Halakha* 5,
314 §32 • Jewish Literature in Hebrew or Aramaic
supremacy. Similarities between Jubilees, the Damascus Rule, the

C o m m u n i t y R u l e a n d t h e T h a n k s g i v i n g H y m n s h a v e a l s o b e e n listed
and examined," and there are particularly close direct-conrificlian
w i t h t h e G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n , I t is in c o n s e q u e n c e n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t
thiefe is a s t r o n g c o n t e m p a r a r y t e n d e n c y to d e c l a r e J u b i l e e s t o b e a
Q u m r a n w r i t i n g . ^ ^ O n t h e o t h e r h a i i d , u h T i k e l t H e T J e a d S e a docxrmeftts,
J u b i l e e s m a k e s n o m e n t i o n of t h e s c h i s m w i t h i n t h e J e w i s h p r i e s t h o o d
out of w h i c h the Qumran-Essene community sprang. If a l l these
c o n f l i c d n g d a t a a r e b o r n e in m i n d a n d i f it is a s s u m e d t h a t t h e w o r k
o r i g i n a t e d in t h e first h a l f of t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y , a r o u n d 160 B . C . , its
a t t r i b u t i o n to p r e - E s s e n e H a s i d i m w o u l d s e e m r e a s o n a b l e . ' ^
T h e E t h i o p i c a n d L a t i n v e r s i o n s b o t h s t e m from a G r e e k t e x t (cf
Charles, p . x x x ) , a l l u d e d to b y the C h u r c h F a t h e r s a n d t h e B y z a n t i n e
writers q u o t e d above. T h e Greek, in t u r n , goes b a c k to a Semitic
o r i g i n a l , w h i c h lay b e f o r e J e r o m e (see b e l o w ) , a n d i n effect fragments
d e t a c h e d from a d o z e n o r so Q u m r a n m a n u s c r i p t s p r o v e t h a t Hebrew
w a s the o r i g i n a l l a n g u a g e . It w o u l d b e u n w i s e to d r a w a n y conclusion
f r o m t h e fact that, u n h k e E n o c h , t h e b o o k m a k e s its a p p e a r a n c e in
C h r i s t i a n l i t e r a t u r e o n l y i n t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y , s u g g e s t i n g , for e x a m p l e ,
t h a t it w a s first t r a n s l a t e d i n t o G r e e k a t a r a t h e r late s t a g e .
the L a w of Hadash and t h e Pentecontad Calendar', J J S 27 (1976), pp. 3 6 - 4 6 ; L . Fusella,

'Giubilei', Apocrifi del'Antico Testamento [ed. P . Sacchi] (1981), p p . 2 0 2 - 6 ; K . Berger,
Jubilaen (1981), p p . 283-4.
11. M. Testuz, Les idies religieuses du Livre des Jubilees (i960), p p . 3 3 - 4 , 179—92; J . C.
V a n d e r K a m , Textual and Historical Studiesin the Book of Jubilees (1977), pp. 258-82.
12. Cf N . Avigad a n d Y. Yadin, A Genesis Apocryphon (1956), p . 38 (possibly a
development of t h e more concise Jubilees); G . Vermes, Scripture and Tradition in Judaism
(1961, ^^1973, 1983), p. 124 (Jubilees is a shortened, though doctrinally enriched, Essene
recension of iQGA); J . C . V a n d e r K a m , Textual and Historical Studies in the Book of Jubilees
(1977), p p . 277-80 ( J u b . and iQapGen represent a common a n d distinctive exegetical
(tradition).
13. J . T . Milik, Ten Tears of Discovery in the Wilderness of Judaea (1959), p . 32; M .
Testuz, op. cit., p . 3 3 ; A. Dupont-Sommer, The Essene Writings from Qumran (1961), p p .
298, 3 0 5 ; O . Eissfeldt, Introduction, p p . 6 0 7 - 8 ; J. A . Fitzmyer, The Genesis Apocryphon of
Qumran Cave / ('^1971), p . 10 (with reservation); J . C . V a n d e r K a m , op. cit., p. 2 7 9 ; P. W .
Skehan, ' Q u m r a n et decouvertes dans le desert de J u d a ' , DBS I X (1978), col. 825. I t
should be noted, however, t h a t the Genesis A p o c r y p h o n m a y not be a Q u m r a n
composition, but a pre-sectarian writing inherited b y the Community. C f n. 12 above,
and p . 323 below.
14. Similar views have been a d v a n c e d by Chariesworth, P M R S , p. 1 4 3 ; Nickelsburg,
J L B B M , p . 79 (Jubilees issued from an u n n a m e d sect related to those responsible for D a n .
10-12,1 Enoch 7 2 - 8 2 , 8 5 - 9 0 , a n d 93:1-1091:12-17) ; K. Berger, op. cit., p . 298 (the a u t h o r
belonged t o an anti-Hellenistic, priestly reform group, closely linked to both t h e
Assidaeans and to the Q u m r a n community). According to V a n d e r K a m {op. cit., p. 283),
he w a s a 'proto-Essene'. A n attempt t o identify the a u t h o r of Jubilees a s a Sadducee is
likely to fail, despite the leading role given t o the tribe of Levi in 31:11-17, because t h e
Sadducees, contrary to t h e views expressed i n Jubilees, believed neither i n angels nor in
immortality.
T h e f o l l o w i n g titles a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e b o o k : ( a ) J u b i l e e s = rd
'Ico^rjXata; (b) T h e L i t t l e G e n e s i s = ^ ACTTTT) Feveais; r] AerrToyeveais; rd
Ae-TTTci Feveaecos; rj MiKpoyiveais; (c) T h e A p o c a l y p s e o f M o s e s = -q
McoiJaeojs dnoKaXvipis; ( d ) T h e T e s t a m e n t of M o s e s = rj hiadrjKr} TOV
Mujiiaeiog; (e) T h e Book of A d a m ' s d a u g h t e r s = L i b e r d e fihabus A d a e ;
(f) T h e Life o f A d a m = j8io? ÂSdp,. C f C h a r l e s , op. cit. ( 1 9 0 2 ) , p p . xiv-
xix,
w h e r e a l l t h e p a t r i s t i c s o u r c e s are listed. See also H . R o n s c h , Das Buch
der Jubilaen ( 1 8 7 4 ) , p p . 4 6 1 - 8 2 .
T h e B o o k o f E n o c h is e v i d e n t l y v e r y m u c h used in J u b i l e e s . S e e in
particular J u b . 4:17-24, but there are throughout numerous
r e m i n i s c e n c e s of t h e s a m e s o u r c e . C f C h a r l e s , The Book of Enoch, p p .
3 4 - 5 ; Jubilees, p p . 3 6 - 7 .
P a r a l l e l s i n r a b b i n i c l i t e r a t u r e , i n p a r t i c u l a r in M i d r a s h Wa-j>issa'u,
m a y b e f o u n d in A . J e l l i n e k , Bet ha-Midrasch I I I ( 1 8 5 5 ) , p p . ix-xiv,
x x x - x x x i i i ; R . H . C h a r l e s , The Ethiopic Version of the Hebrew Book of
Jubilees ( 1 8 9 5 ) , p p . 1 8 0 - 2 . F o r t h e C h r o n i c l e of Y e r a h m e e l , see A.
N e u b a u e r , Medieval Jewish Chronicles I ( 1 8 8 7 ) , p p . xix-xxi, 163—78,
1 9 0 - 1 ; M . G a s t e r , The Chronicles of Jerahmeel (1899). S e e f u r t h e r M .
E p s t e i n , ' L e l i v r e d e s J u b i l e s , P h i l o n , et le M i d r a s c h T a d s c h e ' , R E J 21
(1890), p p . 8 0 - 9 7 ; 22 ( 1 8 9 1 ) , p p . 1 - 2 5 ; C h a r l e s , Jubilees, p p . Ixxv-vii,
34, a n d 3 7 - 8 . O n t h e Midrash Tadshe, see also W . B a c h e r , Die Agada der
Tannaiten I I , p . 499.
T h e q u o t a t i o n s in t h e C h u r c h F a t h e r s a n d B y z a n t i n e w r i t e r s a r e
collected by D e n i s , F P G , p p . 7 0 - 1 0 2 ; c f a l s o C h a r l e s , Jubilees, p p .
Ixxvii-lxxxiii. F o r a s y s t e m a t i c p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e s e t e x t s , see D e n i s ,
I P G A T , pp. 150-62.
T h e e a r l i e s t ecclesiastical w r i t e r w h o m a y h a v e u s e d the Book of
Jubilees is H i p p o l y t u s in Jtajnepia/Aos rr\s yrjs, t h e a p p o r t i o n m e n t of t h e
e a r t h a m o n g s t the d e s c e n d a n t s of N o a h . C f A . v o n G u t s c h m i d , Kleine
Schriften V (1894), p p . 5 8 7 - 9 7 1 . A. B a u e r , Die Chronik des Hippolytus, T U
29, I (1905), suggests, h o w e v e r , t h a t t h i s w o r k is i n d e p e n d e n t of J u b .
E p i p h a n i u s , Haer. x x x i x 6, 1 - 7 (ed. H o l l , p p . 7 6 - 7 ) : 'Qg Se ev rois

'lioPrjXaLOis evpioKerai, rfj Kal Teveaei KaXovpcevr), K a l rd ovopuara rcbv
yvvaiKCJV rov r e Kdiv Kal rov 2rjd rj j3i)3Ao? Trepiexei. . . Cf. J u b . 4:9—11.
K p i p h a n i u s , Z)^ mensuris etponderibus 22 ( P G 4 3 , cols. 2 7 6 B - 7 7 B ) q u o t e s
J u b . 2:2—21 o n the w o r k o f t h e c r e a t i o n . C f D e n i s , F P G , p p . 7 1 - 4 .
J e r o m e , Epistula y8 ad Fabiolam, mansio 18 ( P L 2 2 , col. 7 1 1 ) , on t h e
[jlace-name Rissah, N u m . 33:21 : 'hoc v e r b u m q u a n t u m m e m o r i a
suggerit n u s q u a m a l i b i i n s c r i p t u r i s S a n c t i s a p u d H e b r a e o s invenisse m e
novi a b s q u e l i b r o a p o c r y p h o q u i a G r a e c i s XeTn-q i d est p a r v a genesis
a p p e l l a t u r ; i b i in a e d i f i c a t i o n e t u r r i s p r o s t a d i o p o n i t u r , in q u o
( x e r c e n t u r p u g i l e s e t a t h l e t a e e t c u r s o r u m velocitas c o m p r o b a t u r . ' Ibid,
mansio 24, o n t h e p l a c e - n a m e T a r a h , N u m . 3 3 : 2 7 : ' H o c e o d e m
v o c a b u l o et i i s d e m Uteris s c r i p t u m i n v e n i o p a t r e m A b r a h a m , q u i in
s u p r a d i c t o a p o c r y p h o G e n e s e o s v o l u m i n e , a b a c t i s corvis, qui h o m i n u m
f r u m e n t a v a s t a b a n t , a b a c t o r i s vel d e p u l s o r i s s o r t i t u s est n o m e n . '
T h e Decretum Gelasii n a m e s a m o n g t h e A p o c r y p h a Liber de filiabus
Adae Leptogenesis (see E . v o n D o b s c h i i t z , T U 38 ( 1 9 1 0 ) , p . 52). Cf.
D e n i s , I P G A T , p . 160.
Syncellus, ed. D i n d o r f , I 5 : cos ev XeTrrfj (f>ep€Tai Peveoei, rjv K a t
McDiJaecos €ivai (f>aai rives OLTTOKaXvipiv. I 7: eK rijs XerTrrjg Peveaeajs- I 1 3 :
eK TCOV AeTTTcov FeveaecDS. I 49: ev TTJ Mcovaecos Xeyopevrj d-TTOKaXvi/jei. I 1 8 3 :
ri XeTTT-q Feveais (f)r}aiv. I 185: d)s ev XeTrrfj Ketrai Feveaei. I 192: cos (f>r}aLv 77
Xerrrrj Peveois- I 203: ev XeTrrfj Feveaei (fteperai.
C e d r e n u s , ed. B e k k e r , I 6 : Kat ATRO Trjs ACTTTTJ? Feveaews- I 9: (hs ev
XeTrrfj ^ e p e T a i Feveoei, rjv Kat Mwaeois etvai <j>aai rives drroKaXvipiv. I 16:
cos rj XeTTTTj Moivaiois Feveais <f>rjaiv. I 48: eis errt rfj Xevrfj Keirai Feveaei. I
5 3 : ev rfj XeTrrfj Feveoei Keirai. I 85: ev rfj Xerrrfj Feveaei Keirai. R o n s c h , p p .
302-12.
Z o n a r a s , e d . P i n d e r {Corpus scriptorum historiae Byzantinae I, p . 18) : ev
rfj Xerrrfj Feveoei.
G l y c a s , e d . B e k k e r ( p . 198) : •q Xeyopievrj Xerrrrj Feveais. p . 206: Se
AeTTTTj Feveais Xeyei. p . 392: 17 Se Xeyop-ivrj XeiTTTj Feveais, OVK 018' odev
avyypa<f>eiaa K a t orrois, <f>rjaiv.
F o r a d e t a i l e d s u r v e y of t h e B y z a n t i n e sources, see D e n i s , I P G A T ,
pp. 152-7.
Editions
1. Ethiopic Version
Dillmann, A., Mashafa Kufdli sive Liber Jubilaeorum qui idem a Graecis 'H AenTrj Feveais
inscribitur, aethiopice (1859).
Charles, R. H., The Ethiopic Version of the Hebrew Book of Jubilees (1895).
2. Hebrew Fragments
See p. 309, n. i.
3. Greek Fragments
Charles, R. H., The Book of Jubilees or the Little Genesis (1902), pp. Ixxvii-lxxxiii.
Denis, A.-M., Fragmenta Pseudepigraphorum quae supersunt graeca (1970).
4. Latin Fragments
Ceriani, A.M., Monumenta sacra ei profana I, i ( i 8 6 i ) , p p . 15-54.
Ronsch, H., Das Buch der Jubilaen, oder die Kleine Genesis, unter Beifiigung des revidierten Textes
der in der Ambrosiana aufgefundenen lateinischen Fragmente (1874).
Charies, R. H., op. cit.
Denis, A.-M., Concordance latine du Liber Jubilaeorum sive Parva Genesis (1973).
5. Syriac Fragments
Ceriani, A.-M., op. cit. I I , i (1863), p p . ix-x.
Charles, R. H., op. cit., p . 183.
R a h m a n i , 1. E., Chronicon civile et ecclesiasticum anonymi auctoris (1904).
Tisserant, E., 'Fragments syriaques du Livre des Jubilees', R B 30 (1921), pp. 55—86,
206—32. Cf. Recueil Card. Eugene Tisserant. Ab Oriente et Occidente I (1955), p p . 25-87.
Translations
English
Charles, R . H., The Book of Jubilees or the Little Genesis (1902).
Idem, A P O T I I , p p . 1-82.
German
Dillmann, A., ' D a s Buch der J u b i l a e n ' , J a h r b u c h der biblischen Wissenschaft 3 (1851),
pp. 72-96.
Ronsch, H.,op. cit.
L i t t m a n n , E., i n A P A T II, p p . 31-119.
Riessler, P., Altjiidisches Schrifttum ausserhalb der Bibel (1928), pp. 5 3 9 - 6 6 6 , 1304—11.
Berger, K . , Das Buch der Jubilaen [ J S H R Z I I / 3 ] (1981).
Italian
Fusella, L., ' L i b r o dei Giubilei', in P. Sacchi et al., Apocrifi deU'Antico Testamento (1981),
pp. 179-411-
Bibliography
Beer, B., Das Buch der Jubilaen und sein Verhdltniss lu den Midraschim (1856).
Idem, Moch ein Wort uber das Buch der Jubilaen (1857).
Bohn, F., 'Die B e d e u t u n g des Buches der J u b i l a e n ' , T h S t K r 73 (1980), pp. 167-84.
Finkelstein, L., ' T h e Book of Jubilees and the R a b b i n i c H a l a k a ' , H T h R 16 (1923), pp.
39-61-
Buchler, A., 'Studies i n the Book ofJ u b i l e e s ' , R E J 82 (1926), p p . 253-74.
Idem, 'Traces des idees et des coutumes hellenistiques d a n s le Livre des Jubilees', R E J 89
(1930), p p . 321-48.
Albeck, T h . , Das Buch der Jubilden und die Halacha (1930).
Klein, S., 'Palastinisches im J u b i l a e n b u c h ' , Z D P V 57 (1934), p p . 7-27.
Zeithn, S., ' T h e Book ofjubilees, its Character a n d Significance', J Q R 30 (1939/40), pp.
1-32.
Finkelstein, L., ' T h e D a t e of t h e Book ofjubilees', H T h R 36 (1943), p p . 19-24.
Zeitlin, S., ' T h e Book of Jubilees', J Q R 35 (1944/5), pp. 12-16.
Idem, 'Criteria for D a t i n g the Book of Jubilees', J Q R 36 (1945/6), pp. 187-9.
Rowley, H . H., 'Criteria for t h e D a t i n g ofJ u b i l e e s ' , J Q R 36 (1945/6), p p . 183-7.
Torrey, C . C , ' A Hebrew F r a g m e n t ofjubilees', J B L 71 (1952), pp. 39-41.
J a u b e r t , A., 'Le calendrier des Jubilees et d e la secte de Q u m r a n . Ses origines bibliques',
V T 3 (1953), pp. 250-64.
Idem, 'Le calendrier des Jubilees et les jours Hturgiques d e la semaine', V T 7 (1957), pp.
35-61.
Idem, La date de la Gene. Calendrier biblique et liturgie chretienne (1957) •
Morgenstern, J . , 'The Calendar of t h e Book ofjubilees, its Origin a n d its C h a r a c t e r ' , V T
5 (1955), PP- 34-76.
Noack, B., ' Q u m r a n a n d the Book of Jubilees', S E A 22/3 (1957/8), p p . 191-207.
Zeitlin, S., ' T h e Book ofjubilees and the P e n t a t e u c h ' , J Q R 48 (1957/8), pp. 218-35.
Baumgarten, J . M., ' T h e Beginning of t h e D a y in t h e Calendar o f Jubilees', J B L 77
(1958), p p . 355-60.
Zeitlin, S., ' T h e Beginning of the D a y in the C a l e n d a r of Jubilees', J B L 78 (1959), pp.
153-6.
Kutsch, E., ' D e r Kalender d e r J u b i l a e n b u c h e s u n d das Alte u n d N e u e T e s t a m e n t ' , V T
II (1961), p p . 31-41.
Testuz, M . , Les idees religieuses du Livre des Jubilies (1960).
Wiesenberg, E., ' T h e J u b i l e e ofjubilees', R Q 3 (1961/2), pp. 3—40.
Gazelles, H., ' S u r les origines d u calendrier des Jubilees', Bibl. 4 3 (1962), pp. 202-16.
Baars, W., and R . Z u u r m o n d , ' T h e Project of a N e w Edition of the Ethiopic Book of

Jubilees', J S S t 9 (1964), p p . 67-74.
Baillet, M . , 'Remarques sur le manuscrit du livre des Jubilees de l a grotte 3 de Q u m r a n ' ,
R Q . 5 (1965), P P - 4 2 3 - 3 3 -
Eissfeldt, O . , Introduction, p p . 606—8.
Denis, I P G A T , p p . 150-62.
Davenport, G. L., The Eschatology of the Book of Jubilees (1971).
Milik, J . T . , 'Recherches sur la version grecque du livre des Jubilees', R B 78 (1971), p p .
545-57-
Idem, 'A propos d e i i Q J u b . ' , Bibl. 54 (1973), pp. 7 7 - 8 .
Denis, A.-M., Concordance latine du Liber Jubilaeorum sive Parva Genesis (1973).
Skehan, P. W., Jubilees a n d the Q u m r a n Psalter', C B Q 3 7 (1975), pp. 343-7.
Steck, O. H . , 'Die Aufnahme v o n Genesis i i n J u b i l a e n 2 u n d 4 Esra 6', J S J 8 (1977), p p .
154-82.
V a n d e r K a m , J . C , Textual and Historical Studies in the Book of Jubilees (1977).
Idem, 'Enoch Traditions in Jubilees and other Second-Century Sources', in P. J .
Achtemeier (ed.), SBL igj8 Seminar Papers I (1978), p p . 229-51.
Hoenig, S. B., ' T h e Jubilees Calendar and t h e "Days of Assembly'", Essays on the Occasion
of the yoth Anniversary of the Dropsie University (1979), pp. 189-207.
C a q u o t , A . , 'Deux notes sur l a geographie des Jubilees', in G. N a h o n and C . T o u a t i ,
Hommages a Georges Vajda (1980), p p . 37-42.
Grelot, P., 'Le livre des Jubilees et le T e s t a m e n t de Levi', P . Casetti et al. (eds.). Melanges
Dominique Barthelemy (1981), pp. 110-33.
V a n d e r K a m , J . C , ' T h e Putative Author of the Book of Jubilees', J S S t 26 (1981), p p .
209-17.
Idem, 'A Twenty-Eight-Day M o n t h Tradition in the Book ofjubilees?', V T 32 (1982), p p .
504-6-
C a q u o t , A., 'Le livre des Jubilees, Melkisedeq et les dimes', in G. Vermes and J . Neusner
(eds.). Essays in Honour of Tigael Yadin [ = J J S 33 (1982)], pp. 257-64.
Alexander, P. S., 'Notes on t h e " I m a g o m u n d i " of the Book of Jubilees', ibid., p p .
197-213-
Rivkin, E., 'The Book o f j u b i l e e s — A n Anti-Pharisaic Pseudepigraph', Eretz Israel 16
(1982), p p 193-8.
B a u m g a r t e n , J . M . , 'Some Problems of the Jubilees Calendar in C u r r e n t Research', V T
32 (1982), p p . 485-9.
2. The Genesis Apocryphon from Qumran
The Genesis Apocryphon [iQapGen), earUer known as the Lantech

ScroH,' is represented by a manuscript from Cave i, of which
t w e n t y - t w o c o l u m n s h a v e s u r v i v e d . F i v e (cols. 2 , 1 9 - 2 2 ) a r e r e a s o n a b l y
w e l l p r e s e r v e d , b u t t h e r e s t a r e very f r a g m e n t a r y . T h e d n y r e m a i n s o f a
text, also from Cave i, which still b e a r s the title, ' A p o c a l y p s e of
L a m e c h ' {1Q20 = D J D I , p p . 8 6 - 7 ) , a r e t h o u g h t to b e l o n g to t h e s a m e
scroll, a l t h o u g h it is i m p o s s i b l e t o l o c a t e t h e m w i t h i n i QapGen.
T h e e x t a n t p a r t s of t h e m a n u s c r i p t r e c o u n t t h e b i b h c a l s t o r y from
I . W h e n first discovered the manuscript could not be opened, b u t a fragment detached

from it contained the n a m e L a m e c h . Cf J . C. Trever, 'Idendfication of the Aramaic
F o u r t h Scroll from 'Ain Feshkha', B A S O R 115 (1949), p. 9. I n the Sixty Books of
apocryphal wridngs, a work entitled ' L a m e c h ' figures in third place between 'Enoch' a n d
'Patriarchs' (Denis, I P G A T , p. xiv).
G e n . 5:28 t o 1 5 : 4 , i.e. f r o m L a m e c h to A b r a h a m . T h e scroll is

i n c o m p l e t e . T h e m i n u t e r e m a i n s o f col. i a r e u n l i k e l y t o c o r r e s p o n d to
t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e w o r k ; n e i t h e r does i t e n d o n c o l . 22.
T h e s t o r y b e g i n s on c o l . 2 w i t h L a m e c h e x p r e s s i n g d o u b t s ( i n t h e first
p e r s o n ) c o n c e r n i n g the l e g i t i m a c y of N o a h w h o m , h e s u s p e c t s , his wife
B a t h e n o s h ^ h a s c o n c e i v e d b y o n e of t h e fallen a n g e l s . D e s p i t e h e r
d e n i a l s , he i n v i t e s his f a t h e r , M e t h u s e l a h , to visit h i s f a t h e r , E n o c h , in
P a r a d i s e to d i s c o v e r t h e t r u t h . T h e b a d l y d a m a g e d cols. 3 - 5 suggest
t h a t E n o c h h a s g i v e n M e t h u s e l a h a r e a s s u r i n g a n s w e r to L a m e c h ' s
enquiry.
Cols. 6 - 1 1 furnish s c r a p s o f i n f o r m a t i o n o n the life of N o a h , a g a i n in
a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l style, e . g . : T , N o a h , . . . ' (6:6) ; T a t o n e d for the
w h o l e e a r t h ' ( 1 0 : 1 2 - 1 3 ) . T h e e p i s o d e o f N o a h ' s p l a n t i n g of t h e v i n e on
M o u n t L u b a r ^ a p p e a r s on c o l . 1 2 . T h e r e is n o t h i n g r e a d a b l e o n the
n e x t t h r e e c o l u m n s , b u t t h e y m u s t also h a v e d e a l t w i t h N o a h since cols.
1 6 a n d 17 p r e s e n t t h e d i v i s i o n of t h e e a r t h a m o n g his s o n s , m e n t i o n i n g
t h e R i v e r T i n a * a n d t h e M o u n t of t h e Bull.^
T h e A b r a h a m s t o r y s t a r t s o n c o l . 1 8 ; it is c o m p l e t e l y illegible b u t
m u s t h a v e r e c o r d e d t h e p a t r i a r c h ' s life i n U r a n d H a r a n . W i t h col. 19,
G e n . 1 2 : 8 is r e a c h e d , A b r a h a m ' s a r r i v a l in C a n a a n , a n d from this p o i n t
u n t i l c o l . 20:22, h e is t h e n a r r a t o r . H e r e p o r t s h o w h e a n d S a r a h
e n t e r e d E g y p t by c r o s s i n g t h e R i v e r K a r m o n ; ^ h o w he w a s w a r n e d in a
d r e a m o f t h e d a n g e r t h r e a t e n i n g h i m o n a c c o u n t o f his b e a u t i f u l w i f e ;
h o w S a r a h was a b d u c t e d a n d h o w h e r virtue nevertheless remained
intact i n the royal palace b e c a u s e , at A b r a h a m ' s p r a y e r , G o d sent an
evil s p i r i t to afflict (i.e. r e n d e r i m p o t e n t ) P h a r a o h a n d a l l the m e n o f his
h o u s e h o l d for t w o full y e a r s . L o t , A b r a h a m ' s n e p h e w , t h e n discloses to
t h e E g y p t i a n p r i n c e , H y r c a n u s , ^ t h a t S a r a h is A b r a h a m ' s wife. S h e is
d i s m i s s e d w i t h p r e s e n t s after t h e p a t r i a r c h h a s e x p e l l e d t h e t r o u b l e s o m e
d e m o n t h r o u g h p r a y e r a n d t h e l a y i n g o n of h a n d s . ^
2. T h e name a p p e a r s also i n J u b . 4:28 {Betenos). O n t h e problem of vocalization, cf J .

A. Fitzmyer, G A Q , p. 74.
3. Cf J u b . 5:28; 7:1, 17; lony, 4QPsDan (J. T . Milik, RB 6 3 (1956), p. 412). See also
perhaps 6"Q5 21, i ( D J D I I I , p . 119).
4. Cf J u b . 8:12, 16, 25, 28; 9:2,8.
5. H*nn (cf also 21:16), designating t h e Taurus-Amanus range known in Greek as
Tavpos opos. See Avigad and Yadin, G A , p p . 3 0 - 1 .
6. K a r m o n is one of the seven branches of the Nile (19:11-12). It is no d o u b t identical
with p ' ' m D or p''OTD mentioned i n m P a r . 8:10; bB.B. 74b, as one of the four frontier
rivers of t h e L a n d of Israel. C f Avigad and Yadin, p. 25 ; Fitzmyer, G A Q p p . 97-8.
7. T h e spelling is BTUpin, not the more c o m m o n and correct 013311(1. O n the various
speculations concerning the n a m e , see Fitzmyer, G A Q p p . 111 —12.
8. T h e laying on of hands is non-biblical. D. Flusser ('Healing through t h e Laying-on
of H a n d s in t h e Dead Sea Scrolls', l E J 7 (1957), pp. 107-8) beHeves t h a t this is the
earHest attestation of t h e rite in Jewish Hterature. Cf however the L X X on 2 Kings 5:11
(Vermes, Scripture and Tradition, p. 115, n. 2 ) . For further details, see A . Dupont-Sommer,
O n h i s r e t u r n f r o m E g y p t , A b r a h a m w o r s h i p s at B e t h e l a n d from t h e
t o p of R a m a t h - H a z o r is s h o w n b y G o d t h e l a n d p r o m i s e d to his
p o s t e r i t y . H e takes s y m b o l i c a l possession of his t e r r i t o r y b y w a l k i n g t h e
b o u n d a r i e s . T h i s l e a d s h i m from the M e d i t e r r a n e a n s h o r e to t h e
T a u r u s - A m a n u s r a n g e i n the N o r t h , a l o n g t h e E u p h r a t e s t o t h e P e r s i a n
Gulf, a n d , following t h e c o a s t s of t h e A r a b i a n p e n i n s u l a a n d of t h e R e d
S e a , to t h e G i h o n R i v e r in t h e S o u t h . ^ H e t h e n s e t d e s a t M a m r e ,
outside H e b r o n .
A t c o l . 2 1 : 2 3 t h e style of t h e n a r r a t i v e switches f r o m a u t o b i o g r a p h y
to s t o r y - t e l h n g in t h e t h i r d p e r s o n a n d c o n t i n u e s in this style to t h e e n d .
C o l s . 2 1 : 2 3 - 2 2 : 2 6 r e c o u n t t h e i n v a s i o n of C a n a a n b y t h e M e s o
p o t a m i a n k i n g s , t h e c a p t u r e o f Lot a n d h i s r e s c u e b y A b r a h a m , as w e l l
as the M e l k i z e d e k e p i s o d e . T h e m i d r a s h i c e l a b o r a t i o n is less
p r o n o u n c e d t h a n i n t h e e a r l i e r sections, b u t t h e r e is a t r e n d t o w a r d s
modernizing the geographical data.'°
C o l . 2 2 : 2 7 - 3 4 p a r a p h r a s e s slightly, t h o u g h w i t h c h r o n o l o g i c a l
s u p p l e m e n t s , " G e n . 1 5 : 1 - 4 . T h e s e lines r e p r e s e n t the b e g i n n i n g of
G o d ' s p r o m i s e of a n heir t o t h e p a t r i a r c h . T h e r e m a i n d e r of t h e scroll is
lost.
T h e l a n g u a g e of t h e d o c u m e n t is c h a r a c t e r i z e d as a t r a n s i t i o n a l s t a g e
b e t w e e n the A r a m a i c of D a n i e l a n d ' M i d d l e A r a m a i c ' e x e m p l i f i e d , inter
alia, by t h e P a l e s t i n i a n T a r g u m s . T h e d i a l e c t is essentially w e s t e r n ,
t h o u g h i t i n c l u d e s s o m e e a s t e r n A r a m a i c features as w e l l as several
H e b r a i s m s . T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p h i l o l o g i c a l s t u d y is b y E. Y .
K u t s c h e r , ' T h e L a n g u a g e of t h e G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n ' , S c r i p . H i e r . 4
( 1 9 5 8 ) , p p . I—35. J . A. F i t z m y e r h a s a p p e n d e d t h e o u t h n e of a Q u m r a n
'Exorcism et guerisons d a n s les ecrits d e Q p u m r a n ' , V T S 7 (i960), pp. 2 4 6 - 6 1 ; Fitzmyer,

G A Q , pp. 124-5 ' Delcor, ' Q u m r a n . Apocryphe d e la Genese', DBS I X , col. 938.
9. For Gihon = Nile, see J u b . 8:15; Josephus, Ant. i i , 3 (39). This identification is,
however, not without difficulties in the geographical scheme of 1 QapGen. Cf. Vermes,
Scripture and Tradition, p. 104, n. 2. See also Fitzmyer, G A Q , pp. 135-6.
10. 'Shinar' == Babylon as in T a r g u m s Onkelos a n d Neofiti. 'Ellasar' = Kaptok,
Cappadocia. (Neofid, S y m m a c h u s a n d Vulgate give Pontus.) ' K i n g of the G o y i m ' =
'nations which lie between t h e rivers'. Josephus, Ant. i 9 , i (171-2), identifies all the
invaders as Assyrians. G f Vermes, Scripture and Tradition, p. 118; Fitzmyer, G A Q p p .
141-4. ' T h e Valley of Shaveh, which is the Valley of the K i n g ' (Gen. 14:17) is described
as t h e Valley of Beth Karma {Beth ha-Kerem) situated at 'Salem which is Jerusalem'. Cf
L X X Josh. 15:59; Jer. 6:1; N e h . 3:14; Copper Scroll {3QJ5) 10:5 ( D J D I I I , pp. 268,
295); Fitzmyer, G A Q pp. 155-6. F o r an identificadon of Beth h a - K e r e m with the
modern R a m a t Rahel, south ofJerusalem, see J . Aharoni, 'Excavations a t R a m a t Rahel',
l E J 6 (1956), p p . 152-6; Excavations at Ramat Rahel: Seasons ig^g and ig6o (1962), p. 50.
Note, however, t h a t H a z e z o n - T a m a r (col. 21:30), said to be Engedi already in 2 Chron.
20:2, in all the T a r g u m s on G e n . 14:7 and according to J e r o m e , Hebr. Quaest. in Gen. in loc.
( C C L 72, p . 18), remains unidendfied. Cf Vermes, PBJS, p p . 17-18; Fitzmyer, G A Q , p.
148.
11. Cf Gen. 16:3; J u b . 13 and G A col. 19:9-10. See Fitzmyer, G A Q p . 161. In
Jubilees, t h e chronology is set o u t in detail; here it is imphcit.
A r a m a i c g r a m m a r t o G A Q , p p . 173—206. F o r f u r t h e r references, see t h e

bibHography.
T h e H t e r a r y g e n r e of i QapGen faHs b e t w e e n t h e r a b b i n i c j c a t e g o r i e s of
T a r g u m and T ^ d r a s h I t b e true to say, howeyer^ that neith
definition p r o p e r l y fits t h e Genesis A p o c r y p h o m T h i s w o r k belongs j u s t
as welt, i f h o t b e t t e r , to the g e n r e r e p r e s e n t e d by J u b i l e e s , J o s e p h u s '
AnTigmHes, Pseuda-^^ ^ntiqûifMwfnîbWdfiiMji.t. writings.in
w h i c h s c r i p t u r a l n a r r a t i v e a n d mi3fasETc" d e v e l o p m e n t ¥ ' a r e a m a l g a m
a t e d to f o r m a ' r e w r i t t e n B i b l e ' .
N e v e r t h e l e s s , e v e n t h e s e b r o a d c a t e g o r i e s a r e u n a b l e fully to
a c c o m m o d a t e iQapGen. I n d e e d , w e can r e c o g n i z e i n this c o m p o s i t i o n ,
n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e f r a g m e n t a r y c h a r a c t e r of m o s t o f t h e c o l u m n s , t w o
distinct l i t e r a r y u n i t s . O n e of t h e s e , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e t h i r d p e r s o n
n a r r a t i v e (cols. 2 1 : 2 3 - 2 2 : 3 4 ) , a c t u a l l y p r e f i g u r e s t h e P a l e s t i n i a n
T a r g u m s to t h e P e n t a t e u c h . T h e o t h e r (i.e. all the e a r h e r sections w i t h
stories t o l d i n the first p e r s o n ) m a y b e defined a s t h e ' m e m o i r s ' of
L a m e c h , N o a h a n d A b r a h a m . T h e y c o n s t i t u t e therefore a g e n r e
c o g n a t e to m i d r a s h ; b u t t h e y a r e also a k i n to t h a t special kind of
fictional ' a u t o b i o g r a p h y ' w h i c h forms t h e s u b s t a n c e of the p s e u d
e p i g r a p h i c t e s t a m e n t a r y l i t e r a t u r e (see b e l o w , p . 7 6 7 ) .
T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n 1 QapGen a n d the B o o k ofJuJbiIeeS:-z:::.and, a s
far as col.^TsT'concernedTÊeB^
acknowledged.'* T h e editors Avigad a n d Y a d i n conclude that 'the
scroll m a y h a v e served ais a s o u r c e for a n u m b ^ of stories t o l d m o r e
concisely' in E n o c h a n d J u b i l e e s ( p . 3 8 ) . T h e o p p o s i t e s e q u e n c e , viz.
t h a t t h e a u t h o r of /Qflj^'G^^w use^^ and Jubilees in combination
w i t h Genesis a n d s u p p l e m e n t s t h e m w i t h i m a g i n a t i v e a d d i t i o n s , is
p r o p o s e d by J . A. F i t z m y e r ( G A Q , p . 1 4 ) . B o t h p o s i t i o n s are perfectly
t e n a b l e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , in f a v o u r of t h e p r i o r i t y of o u r d o c u m e n t it c a n
be a r g u e d t h a t t h e p a r a l l e l s of P s a l m 151 (cf. a b o v e , p. 189), t h e
a s t r o n o m i c a l b o o k of E n o c h (cf. a b o v e , p . 254) a n d the Ararnaic^^^
T e s t a m e n t of Levi (cf b e l o w , p . 7 7 2 ) p o i n t t o w a r d s a n a b b r e v i a t i n g
t e n d e n c y T i i T n t e r - T e s t a m e n t a l l i t e r a t u r e (wTiicfi" of OTrarse' d o e n o t
p r o v e t h a t eafly"vefsibh^^ h a v e n e v e r b e e n e n l a r g e d ) . H o w e v e r , in
p r a c t i c e , it is easier to a c c o u n t for t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of well-defined
d o c t r i n a l p e c u l i a r i t i e s (e.g. J u b i l e e s ' specific c a l e n d r i c m a t t e r s ) i n t o an
u n b i a s e d s t o r y t h a n for t h e c r e a t i o n of a fresh a n d s i m p l e n a r r a t i v e s u c h
12. T h e T a r g u m theory h a s been emphasized from a n early stage onwards by M.

Black, The Scrolls and Christian Origins (1961), pp. 193-8. For M i d r a s h , see G . Vermes,
Scripture and Tradition, p . 124. A mixture of both classes is preferred by M. R. L e h m a n n ,
' IQ,Genesis A p o c r y p h o n in the Light of the T a r g u m i m a n d M i d r a s h i m ' , RQ_ i (1958/9),
pp. 249-^3.
j 113. Cf Vermes, Scripture and Tradition, p. 9 5 .
' 14. See Avigad and Yadin, p . 38. F o r a detailed list, cf Fitzmyer, G A Q , pp. 222-3.
322 §32. Jewish Literature in Hebrew or A ramaic
a s o u r d o c u m e n t a t t h e e n d o f a l e n g t h y series of excisions.'^
T h e d a t i n g o f t h e Scroll itself is l a r g e l y u n c o n t r o v e r s i a l . O n
a r c h a e o l o g i c a l g r o u n d s , it b e l o n g s t o t h e p r e - A . D . 70 e r a , a n d
p a l a e o g r a p h i c a l l y it is said t o be ' H e r o d i a n ' . M o s t scholars assign t h e
c o p y t o the late first c e n t u r y B . C or t h e first h a l f of t h e first c e n t u r y
A . D . ' ^
T h e d a t i n g of t h e c o m p o s i t i o n h a s b e e n a t t e m p t e d o n t h e basis o f (a)
l i n g u i s t i c e v i d e n c e , (b) t h e h i s t o r i c a l i d e n d f i c a t i o n of n a m e s o f p e r s o n s
a n d places, a n d (c) h t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m .
(a) As f a r as the l a n g u a g e is c o n c e r n e d , t h e a b o v e - m e n d o n e d
d e t a i l e d analysis b y E . Y . K u t s c h e r (p. 320) r e a c h e s the c o n c l u s i o n t h a t
iQapGen d a t e s t o ' t h e first c e n t u r y B . C . E . (—first c e n t u r y C . E . ) ' . * '
K u t s c h e r prefers to b e v a g u e ; o t h e r s a r e m o r e specific a n d o p t
d e f i n i t e l y for the first c e n t u r y B . C . ( F i t z m y e r , p . 1 6 ; D e l c o r , D B S I X ,
c o l . 943, e t c . ) . I n fact t h e o n l y c o n c l u s i o n t h a t c a n strictly b e d r a w n
f r o m K u t s c h e r ' s s t u d y is t h a t the A r a m a i c of i QapGen p o s t - d a t e s t h a t o f
D a n i e l . H o w e v e r , the A r a m a i c D a n i e l does n o t necessarily i n d i c a t e a
s e c o n d - c e n t u r y B . C . d a t e , b u t m a y well go b a c k t o t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y
B . c . ' ^ C o n s e q u e n t l y , o n p h i l o l o g i c a l g r o u n d s , t h e Scroll m a y b e
a s s i g n e d to t h e first or t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C .
(b) N o solid a r g u m e n t h a s b e e n a d v a n c e d for i d e n t i f y i n g h i s t o r i c a l l y
a n y of t h e p e r s o n s m e n t i o n e d in t h e t e x t . T h e r e is n o r e a s o n w h y t h e
E g y p t i a n Harqenosh or Hirqanos (col. 20:8) s h o u l d be c o n n e c t e d w i t h
H y r c a n u s t h e T o b i a d {c. 200 B . C . ) or H y r c a n u s I I (63-40 B . G . ) . ' ^ T h e
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of A r i o c h a n d T i d a l (col. 2 1 : 2 3 - 4 ) w i t h M i t h r i d a t e s V I
P o n t u s (121—63 B . C . ) a n d M i t h r i d a t e s I I , t h e A r s a c i d k i n g of U p p e r
M e s o p o t a m i a ( 1 2 6 - 8 6 B . C ) , is e q u a l l y s p e c u l a t i v e .
(c) T h e l i t e r a r y c r i t i c a l a r g u m e n t is b a s e d essentially o n t h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n iQapGen a n d J u b i l e e s (cf. a b o v e , p . 3 1 4 a n d J . C .
V a n d e r K a m , Textual and Historical Studies in the Book of Jubilees ( 1 9 7 7 ) ,
p p . 2 7 7 - 8 0 ) . If t h e A p o c r y p h o n is seen as d e p e n d e n t o n J u b i l e e s , it is
b o u n d t o b e l o n g , a t t h e earliest, t o the e n d o f the s e c o n d c e n t u r y , a n d
15. Vermes, Scripture and Tradition, pp. 96, n. 2, 124.

16. N. Avigad, ' T h e Palaeography of t h e Dead Sea Scrolls a n d Related D o c u m e n t s ' ,
Scrip. Hier. 4 (1958), p p . 5 6 - 8 7 , especially p p . 7 1 - 2 ; F. M . Cross, ' T h e Development of
t h e Jewish Scripts', in G. E. W r i g h t (ed.). The Bible and the Ancient Near East (1961), pp.
1 7 3 - 8 1 ; Fitzmyer, G A Q , p. 13.
17. Scrip. Hier. 4 (1958), p . 22.
18. Cf J . A. Montgomery, Daniel (1927), p . 20; Eissfeldt, Introduction, p. 519 ; Fitzmyer,
G A Q p . 18, n. 56.
19. G. Lambert, ' U n e "Genese a p o c r y p h e " trouvee a Q u m r a n ' , in La secte de Qumrdn et
les origines du christianisme (1959), p. 106; F . Altheim a n d R. Stiehl, 'Die D a t i e r u n g des
Genesis-Apokryphon v o m T o t e n Meer', Die aramdische Sprache unter den Achaimaniden
(i959)>PP- 214-22.
20. Altheim a n d Stiehl, ibid.
m o r e p r o b a b l y to t h e first c e n t u r y B . C . B y c o n t r a s t , ii iQapGen p r e c e d e s
J u b i l e e s , t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C . c o m m e n d s itself T h e
l i n g u i s t i c o b j e c t i o n r a i s e d a g a i n s t this possibility h a s a l r e a d y b e e n
s h o w n t o be o v e r s t a t e d . O n b a l a n c e , t h e e a r l i e r d a t i n g m a y be v e r y
sUghtly p r e f e r a b l e . ^ '
T o d e t e r m i n e the m i l i e u i n w h i c h i QapGen o r i g i n a t e d , t h e
connections b e t w e e n this w o r k a n d t h e sectarian compositions from
Q u m r a n m u s t b e i n v e s t i g a t e d . S o far, it s h o u l d be r e m a r k e d , n o
particular sectarian feature has been detected in t h e A p o c r y p h o n
n e c e s s i t a t i n g its a t t r i b u t i o n to a Q u m r a n a u t h o r . H . Iîgnee h a s
p r o p o s e d , in v e r y reseryed t e r m s , t h a t t h e . a p o c a f y p t i c traife of t h e
N o a h - E n o c h p a s s a g e s arnd t h e use„ofdreamS™a.ad-visiam,as. means of
r e v e r a H o n woH^^ p o i n t t o w a r d s t h e i d e o l o g y d o r n i n a n t JB„
c o r n m u n i t y o f t h e S^c^fdlls^^* B u t n o n e o f these s u g g e s t i o n s is i m p r e s s i v e
e n o u g h t o d e m a n d serious r e f u t a t i o n . I t is m o r e likely t h a t t h e Genesis
A p o c r y p h o n is a ' h a g g a d i c ' w r i t i n g i n h e r i t e d ' b y t h e Q u m r a n g r o u p
frbWpre-sectariari"^ I n c i d e n t a l l y , this c o n c l u s i o n a c c o r d s b e t t e r
w i t h a s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C o r i g i n t h a n w i t h a l a t e r d a d n g of t h e
d o c u m e n t (see p . 322).^*
Editions
Avigad, N . , a n d Yadin, Y., A Genesis Apocryphon: A Scroll from the Wilderness of Judaea
(1956).
Milik, J . T . , 'Apocalypse de L a m e c h ' , D J D I , pp. 8 6 - 7 .
Fitzmyer, J . A., The Genesis Apocryphon of Qumran Cave /.• A Commentary (1966, 1971)
[with detailed bibliography],
Jongeling, B., Labuschagne, C . J., a n d W o u d e , A . S. v a n der, Aramaic Texts from Qumran
(1976), p p . 75-119.
Lignee, H . , ' C o n c o r d a n c e de i Q G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n ' , R Q i {1959), p p . 163-86.
21. T o the a r g u m e n t s Hsted above it may b e a d d e d in s u p p o r t of a n early (i.e.

second-century B.C.) d a t e t h a t two of the geographical terms, 'Ellasar' a n d 'Hazezon-
T a m a r ' , had n o t yet been modernized a s 'Pontus' a n d 'Engedi' when iQapGen was
written (cf n. 10 above). J e w s are likely to have become aware of Pontus after it has been
conquered by P o m p e y in the first century B.C. ; cf. Josephus, Ant. xiv 3 , 4 (53). It is worth
noting t h a t earlier in Ant. ix 1, 4 (i 7), Josephus impHes that Tarshish in 2 Chron. 20:36
refers to 'Pontus and the trading stations of T h r a c e ' . Elsewhere, however, Tarshish is
identified as T a r s u s in Cilicia {Ant. i 6, i ( 1 2 7 ) ; ix 10, 2 (208)). Cf also Tg. Ps.-Jon. and
Neof on Gen. 10:4 a n d Tg. 2 C h r o n . 20:36.
22. Cf H . Lignee, ' L ' a p o c r y p h e d e la Genese', i n T Q I I (1963), p. 211.
23. Fitzmyer, G A Q , p . 12 ; Delcor, DBS I X (1978), col. 9 4 2 - 3 .
24. Although iQapGen is t h e only extant copy of this work, it would a priori be unsafe
to assume that our manuscript represents the original composition. I n fact, even if the
palaeographical dating to t h e late first century E.G. is correct (cf above, p. 322) internal
evidence would militate against acknowledging the scroll from Cave i as the author's
a u t o g r a p h copy (against R. d e V a u x , RB 7 4 (1967), p. l o i ) .
Translations
English
Avigad a n d Yadin, op. cit.
Fitzmyer, op. cit.
Jongeling et al., op. cit.
Vermes, DSSE^, pp. Q 15-24.
French
D u p o n t - S o m m e r , A., E E , pp. 291-306.
Lignee, H . , T Q I I , pp. 205-42.
German
Maier, J., T T M I I , pp. 157-65.
Italian
Moraldi, L., M Q , pp. 6 0 3 - 3 2 .
Bibliography
Trever, J . C , Tdendfication of the A r a m a i c F o u r t h Scroll from 'Ain Feshkha', B A S O R
115 (i949)»PP-8-io.
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288-92.
Idem, ' T h e Language of the Genesis A p o c r y p h o n : A Preliminary Study', Scrip. Hier. 4
(1958), pp. 1-35.
Avigad, N . , ' T h e Palaeography of the Dead Sea Scrolls a n d Related Documents', Scrip.
Hier. 4 (1958), pp. 56-87.
Sarfatd, G., 'Notes on t h e Genesis Apocryphon', T a r b i z 28 (1958/9), p p . 254-9.
Idem, 'Supplement to " N o t e s . . . " ' , ibid. 29 (1959/60), p. 192.
L e h m a n n , M. R., ' i Q Genesis Apocryphon in the Light of the T a r g u m i m and
Midrashim', R Q I (1959), pp. 249-63.
Grelot, P., 'Sur I'Apocryphe d e la Genese ( X X , 26)', R Q i (1959), pp. 273-6.
Muller, W . W., 'Die B e d e u t u n g des Wortes 'sprk im Genesis-Apokryphon X X I I , 31', R Q
2 (i960), p p . 445-7.
Osswald, E., 'Beobachtungen zur E r z a h l u n g von A b r a h a m s Aufenthalt in Agypten im
Genesis-Apokryphon', Z A W 72 (i960), p p . 7-25.
Vermes, G., Scripture and Tradition (1961, 1973), p p . 96-126.
Grelot, P., 'Parwaim des Ghroniques a I'Apocryphe de la Genese', V T 11 (1961), pp.
3c^8.
Rowley, H . H., 'Notes on the Aramaic of the Genesis Apocryphon", in Hebrew and Semitic
Studies presented to G. R. Driver (1963), pp. 116-29.
Grelot, P., 'Retour au P a r w a i m ' , V T 14 (1964), p p . 155-63.
Riiger, H . P., ' i Q G e n e s i s Apocryphon X I X , I9f im Lichte d e r T a r g u m i m ' , Z N W 55
(1964), pp. 129-31.
Kuiper, G . J., ' A Study of t h e Relationship between A Genesis A p o c r y p h o n and the
Pentateuchal T a r g u m i m in Gen. 14:1-12', In Memoriam Paul Kahle (1968), pp.
149-61.
Kutscher, E. Y., ' T h e Genesis Apocryphon of Q u m r a n Cave I', Orientalia 39 (1970), p p .
178-83.
Grelot, P., 'Un n o m e g y p t i e n dans I'Apocryphe de la Genese', R Q 7 (1971), p p . 557-66.
Bardtke, H . , 'Literaturbericht iiber Q u m r a n . V I . 2 . Das Genesis-Apokryphon i Q Gen
Ap.', T h R 37 (1972), pp. 193-204.
M u r a o k a , T., 'Notes on the Aramaic of the Genesis Apocryphon', R Q 8 (1972), pp. 7-51.
Dehandschutter, B., 'Le reve d a n s I'Apocryphe de l a Genese', in W . C. van U n n i k (ed.).
La litterature juive entre Tenach et Mischna (1974), p p . 48—55.
Garbini, G., 'L'Apocrifo della Genesi nella letteratura g i u d a i c a ' , Annali dell'Instituto
Orientale di Napoli 37 (1977), p p . 1-18.
Vermes, D S S , pp. 66-8.
Delcor, M., ' Q u m r a n ' , DBS I X , cols. 9 3 1 - 4 4 .
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Greenfield, J . C., ' T h e Genesis A p o c r y p h o n — O b s e r v a d o n s on some W o r d s and Phrases',
in G. B. Sarfatti et al. (eds.). Studies in Hebrew and Semitic Languages [E. Y. Kutscher
Memorial Volume] (1980), pp. xxxii-ix.
Nickelsburg, J L B B M , p p . 263-5.
Weinfeld, M . , ' S a r a h in the House of Abimelek (Gen. 20)', T a r b i z 52 (1983), p p . 639—42
(Hebrew).
J. Pseudo-Philo's Book of Biblical Antiquities

T h e L a t i n version o f a r e m a r k a b l e b i b l i c a l h i s t o r y , t h e Liber Antiquitatum
Biblicarum, w r o n g l y a s c r i b e d t o P h i l o of A l e x a n d r i a , w a s first e d i t e d ,
t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e L a t i n t r a n s l a t i o n s of P h i l o ' s Quaestiones et solutiones in
Genesim, De Essaeis ( = a f r a g m e n t o f De vita contemplativa), De nominibus
hebraicis a n d De mundo, b y J o h a n n e s S i c h a r d u s in B a s l e i n 1 5 2 7 . It w a s
r e p r i n t e d no less t h a n f o u r t i m e s before 1600,' b u t w a s s o o n f o r g o t t e n
a n d did n o t r e - e m e r g e u n t i l t h e e n d of t h e last c e n t u r y , w h e n L e o p o l d
C o h n , e d i t o r o f t h e G r e e k w o r k s o f P h i l o , d e v o t e d to it a n essay t h a t
t u r n e d o u t to b e a l a n d m a r k in P s e u d o - P h i l o studies.^ M . R . J a m e s ,
w h o in 1893 p u b l i s h e d f o u r f r a g m e n t s o f L A B w i t h o u t k n o w i n g t h e i r
i d e n t i t y , f u r t h e r p r o m o t e d r e s e a r c h by i s s u i n g a n a n n o t a t e d E n g l i s h
t r a n s l a t i o n w i t h a s u b s t a n t i a l i n t r o d u c t i o n in 1 9 1 7 . B u t i t is o n l y since
t h e end of t h e s e c o n d w o r l d w a r t h a t t h i s p s e u d e p i g r a p h has r e c e i v e d
t h e a t t e n t i o n i t deserves. T h e L a t i n text h a s b e e n r e - e d i t e d t w i c e : first
by G u i d o K i s c h in 1949, t h e n b y D a n i e l J . H a r r i n g t o n i n 1976.^ It h a s
also b e e n t r a n s l a t e d into G e r m a n * a n d F r e n c h , ^ a n d is r e g u l a r l y u s e d in
t h e s t u d y of i n t e r - T e s t a m e n t a l J u d a i s m .
T h e e d i t i o p r i n c e p s o f the L a t i n text r e s u l t e d f r o m t h e c o l l a t i o n of
two manuscripts, Fulda-Cassel (eleventh century) and Lorsch (now
lost, b u t p r o b a b l y also d a t i n g f r o m t h e e l e v e n t h c e n t u r y or e a r l i e r ) .
Today, a further twenty manuscripts are completely or partly
p r e s e r v e d , t h e oldest of t h e m b e i n g A d m o n t 3 5 9 , P h i l h p s 3 9 1 , M u n i c h
1. Cf M . R . J a m e s , The Biblical Antiquities of Philo (1917; r e p r . 1971), p. 8. The 1971

reprint is preceded by a clxix-page Prolegomenon by Louis H . F e l d m a n (cited as Feldman,
Proleg.).
2. 'An Apocryphal Work ascribed to Philo of A l e x a n d r i a ' , J Q R lo (1898), pp.
277-332.
3. G u i d o Kisch, Pseudo-Philo's Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum (1949); Daniel J.
H a r r i n g t o n , Pseudo-Philon, Les antiquites bibliques I [ S C 229] (1976).
4. Christian Dietzfelbinger, Pseudo-Philo: Antiquitates Biblicae [ J S H R Z II/2] (1975).
5. J. Cazeaux, Pseudo-Philon, Les antiquites bibliques I (1976). T h e second volume consists
of a Hterary introduction and a full commentary by C. Perrot and P . - M . Bogaert [SC
230].
L a t . 18^81 (all f r o m t h e e l e v e n t h c e n t u r y ) ; B u d a p e s t C o d . lat. m e d .

a e v . 2 3 ; Phillips 4 6 1 ; V i e n n a L a t . 4 4 6 ; M u n i c h L a t . 1 7 1 3 3 a n d 4 5 6 9
(from t h e twelfth c e n t u r y ) . D . J . H a r r i n g t o n , i n his ' I n t r o d u c t i o n
c r i t i q u e ' , h a s a t t e m p t e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e s t e m m a of t h e e x t a n t
witnesses, a n d in his r e c o n s t r u c t e d text t h e F u l d a - C a s s e l m a n u s c r i p t o f
t h e e d i t i o p r i n c e p s r e t a i n s p r i d e of p l a c e . ^
T h e L a t i n text seems, from m i s t r a n s l a t i o n s a n d t h e r e t e n t i o n o f
G r e e k w o r d s , to d e r i v e from t h e G r e e k . G r e e k is h o w e v e r unlikely t o b e
t h e original l a n g u a g e ; i n a n u m b e r of p a s s a g e s t h e L a t i n p o s t u l a t e s a n
u n d e r l y i n g H e b r e w i d i o m b o t h in t h e a u t h o r ' s o w n n a r r a t i o n a n d i n his
c i t a t i o n of S c r i p t u r e . ^ T h e m a n y h a g g a d i c d e v e l o p m e n t s e m b e l l i s h i n g
t h e a c c o u n t also p o i n t to a close r e l a t i o n to r a b b i n i c m i d r a s h .
N e v e r t h e l e s s , the l e n g t h y H e b r e w e x t r a c t s from L A B f o u n d in t h e
f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y O x f o r d m a n u s c r i p t of t h e Chronicles of Terahme'el
( H e b . d . 1 1 ) m u s t not b e r e g a r d e d as r e h c s of t h e S e m i d c o r i g i n a l o f
t h i s w o r k , b u t r a t h e r as a m e d i e v a l r e t r a n s l a t i o n i n t o H e b r e w from t h e
L a t i n , as L . C o h n a n d , m o r e r e c e n t l y , D . J . H a r r i n g t o n h a v e
demonstrated.^
P s e u d o - P h i l o retells b i b h c a l h i s t o r y f r o m A d a m to S a u l a n d D a v i d .
T h e first n i n e t e e n c h a p t e r s d e a l w i t h t h e P e n t a t e u c h ; c h a p t e r s 2 0 - 2 4
with J o s h u a ; chapters 25-48 with J u d g e s ; chapters 49-65 with i
S a m u e l . T h e g e n r e of t h e c o m p o s i t i o n is t h a t of t h e ' r e w r i t t e n B i b l e '
( V e r m e s ) or ' t e x t e c o n t i n u e ' ( P e r r o t ) , i.e. a n a r r a t i v e t h a t follows
Scripture b u t includes a substantial a m o u n t of supplements a n d
i n t e r p r e t a t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t s , its fullest e x a m p l e b e i n g t h e J e w i s h
A n t i q u i t i e s o f J o s e p h u s , a n d its p r o t o t y p e the b i b h c a l C h r o n i c l e s . ' °
6. On this manuscript, see I d a Frohlich, Bibliai legenddk a hellinisztikus zsidd tortenetirdsban

(i973)>PP- 14-57-
7. Cf. op. cit. [in n. 3] I, pp 1 5 - 5 7 ; especially p. 5 3 .
8. Cf Cohn, art. cit.; J a m e s , op. cit., pp. 2 8 - 9 ; Kisch, op. cit., p . 16; Dietzfelbinger, op.
cit., p. 9 2 ; Harrington, op. cit. I I , p p . 75-8. Feldman, Proleg., p p . xxvi-vii, considers the
case unproven a n d a Greek original conceivable although noting t h a t the use of the
Hebrew Bible a n d LAB's affinity with Targumic tradition favour a H e b r e w original. His
o w n argument from J o s e p h u s ' Antiquides, written in Greek, yet displaying similar
Semidc features, would be valid only if he could demonstrate the existence of a wide
Greek readership a m o n g Palestinian Jews, a n unhkely hypothesis (cf vol. I I , p p . 79-80).
9. Cohn, 'Pseudo-Philo und Jerachmeel', Festschrift zum 70. Geburtstage Jakob Guttmanns
(1915), p p . 173—85; Daniel J . Harrington, The Hebrew Fragments of Pseudo-Philo's Liber
Antiquitatum Biblicarum preserved in the Chronicles of Jerahmeel (1974), pp. 2—7.
10. See Vermes, Scripture and Tradition, p p . 95, 124—6; C. Perrot, Pseudo-Philo, Les
antiquites bibliques I I , p p . 22-8. Apropos of the Chronicles, it has been pointed out that
L A B ends exactly where, not counting the nine genealogical chapters, the story of i
Chronicles begins, at t h e d e a t h of Saul (Riessler, Altjudisches Schrifttum, p. 1315). T h e
Hterary bond between Chronicles and LAB h a s been nodced by C o h n {art. cit., p . 315). P.
Riessler, A . Spiro and R . Le D e a u t have conjectured that LAB was actuaUy written as a
supplementary introduction t o Chronicles (Riessler, Altjudische Schriften (1928), p. 1315;
Spiro, 'Samaritans, Tobiads and J u d a h i t e s in Pseudo-Philo', P A A J R 20 (1951), pp.
I n his r e w o r k i n g o f t h e b i b l i c a l n a r r a t i o n of t h e T o r a h , P s e u d o - P h i l o
often e m p l o y s c o m m o n h a g g a d i c t h e m e s ( A b r a h a m in t h e fiery
f u r n a c e : 6 : 1 - 1 8 ; t h e sacrifice o f I s a a c : 1 8 : 5 ; 3 2 : 2 - 4 ; 40:2 ; the l e g e n d s
associated w i t h t h e b i r t h of M o s e s : 9 : 1 - 1 5 ; t h e B a l a a m s t o r y :
1 8 : 1 - 1 4 ) . " H e is m o r e c r e a t i v e i n the p o s t - M o s a i c sections. N e v e r
theless, h e displays t h r o u g h o u t u n p a r a l l e l e d f e a t u r e s , a n d o c c a s i o n a l l y
so m a n i p u l a t e s t r a d i t i o n a l m a t e r i a l t h a t t h e r e s u l t is q u i t e u n c o m m o n ,
as for i n s t a n c e w h e n he p o r t r a y s B a l a a m a s a t r a g i c h e r o r a t h e r t h a n as
the p r o t o t y p e o f t h e sinner.''^
A g r e a t v a r i e t y of views h a v e b e e n expressed c o n c e r n i n g the m i l i e u to
w h i c h P s e u d o - P h i l o b e l o n g e d a n d t h e c o n s e q u e n t m o t i v a t i o n of his
w o r k . L A B is defined a s e s s e n t i a l l y a p o l e m i c a l , a n t i - S a m a r i t a n o r
a n t i - M i t h r a i c P a l e s t i n i a n - J e w i s h w r i t i n g on a c c o u n t o f its silence
r e g a r d i n g S a m a r i t a n sites a n d its c r i t i c i s m of f o r e i g n cults.'^ B u t s u c h
theses a r e scarcely t e n a b l e , firstly b e c a u s e L A B , a l t h o u g h it m a y
c o n t a i n a c e r t a i n a m o u n t of a n t i - S a m a r i t a n i s m c o m m o n t o i n t e r -
T e s t a m e n t a l J u d a i s m , is a d i d a c t i c a n d n o t p o l e m i c a l - a p o l o g e t i c
d o c u m e n t . As for t h e a n t i - M i t h r a i c t r a i t s , t h e y are so v a g u e a s n o t to
r e a c h e v e n t h e m i n i m u m level r e q u i r e d for a c o n j e c t u r e to b e
r e s p e c t a b l e . ' * N e i t h e r is t h e E s s e n e t h e o r y in its p r e - or p o s t - Q u m r a n
versions a n y m o r e c o n v i n c i n g . ' ^ I n c o n s e q u e n c e , t h e m o s t satisfactory
3 0 4 - 8 ; Le Deaut, La mit pascale (1963), p. 188). T h e theory that the work is incomplete
was first a d v a n c e d by Sixtus Senensis, Bibliotheca Sacra (1566), p. 314, and has been
echoed in more recent times by J a m e s , op. cit., pp. 6 0 - 5 ; Kisch, op. cit., p. 2 9 ;
Dietzfelbinger, op. cit., p p . 96-7 (arguing for the terminus ad quem of 587 B . C ) . M . Delcor
('Philon, Pseudo-', DBS V I I (1966), col. 1373), F e l d m a n {Proleg., p. Ixxvii) a n d Perrot
{op. cit. II, p p . 21-2) consider L A B to b e complete.
11. These passages are examined in V e r m e s , Scripture and Tradition, p p . 85-90, 199-202,
174—5; 'La figure d e Moise au t o u r n a n t des d e u x Testaments', Moise, I'homme de I'Alliance
(1955), pp. 86-92 ( = CahiersSioniens8 (1954), pp. 204-10).
12. See L . H. F e l d m a n , Proleg., pp. Ixx-vi; for the B a l a a m episode, see Vermes, Scripture
and Tradition, pp. 174-5.
13. Spiro, ' S a m a r i t a n s , Tobiads and J u d a h i t e s in Pseudo-Philo : Use a n d Abuse of the
Bible by Polemicists and Doctrinaires',/>aj.nffi; Dietzfelbinger, op. cit., p p . 97-8.
14. Cf F e l d m a n , Proleg., pp. xxxiv-viii.
15. Riessler, op. cit., p. 1315, sees in LAB's lack of emphasis on priestly matters and its
apparent interest in precious stones (26:10 ff.) Essene characteristics, a theory hardly
worth mentioning in t h e p o s t - Q u m r a n understanding of Essenism. M . Philonenko's
attempts a t connecting LAB with Q u m r a n m u s t also be declared a failure (cf
' R e m a r q u e s sur u n h y m n e essenien d e caractere gnostique', S e m i d c a 11 (1961), p p .
4 3 - 5 4 ; 'Essenisme et gnose chez le Pseudo-Philon', Studies in the Historj of Religions 12
(1967), pp 4 0 1 - 1 0 ) . Not only a r e the similarities in messianic terminology and mysticism
too general, but LAB's definite assertion of the doctrine of resurrection in 3:10 ('Cum
autem completi fuerint anni seculi, tunc quiescet lumen et extinguentur tenebre, et
vivificabo mortuos et erigam dormientes de terra') conflicts with the Essene doctrine of
purely spiritual survival (cf vol. I I , pp. 574, 582-3). C f also Feldman, Proleg., p p .
xxxviii-xliii. It goes without saying t h a t n o LAB fragment has turned up a m o n g the
Q u m r a n texts.
328 §32. Jewish Literature in Hebrew or A ramaic
t h e o r y places P s e u d o - P h i l o w i t h i n m a i n s t r e a m J e w i s h t h o u g h t , w i t h
non-sectarian Pharisaic colouring.'^
T h e d a t e of c o m p o s i t i o n o f L A B c a n n o t b e d e t e r m i n e d e x a c t l y o n t h e
basis of t h e e x t a n t i n t e r n a l e v i d e n c e . S i n c e C o h n ' s s t u d y , t h e o p i n i o n
h a s p r e v a i l e d t h a t t h e w o r k b e l o n g s t o t h e first c e n t u r y A . D . , w r i t t e n
p r o b a b l y after t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of J e r u s a l e m b y T i t u s . A l t h o u g h t h e r e is
n o d i r e c t a l l u s i o n to t h i s e v e n t , t h e a u t h o r places t h e c a p t u r e of t h e city
b y N e b u c h a d n e z z a r o n 17 T a m m u z , t h e d a y on w h i c h t h e t a b l e s of t h e
L a w were o n c e b r o k e n . ' ^ I n fact, N e b u c h a d n e z z a r ' s e n t r y i n t o
J e r u s a l e m took place o n 9 T a m m u z (Jer. 39:2; 52:6; 2 Kings 25:3), the
d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e T e m p l e o n 10 A b ( J e r . 5 2 : 1 2 ) , a d a t e for w h i c h 9 A b
w a s l a t e r s u b s t i t u t e d . F o r this r e a s o n 9 A b , a n d e q u a l l y 1 7 T a m m u z ,
w e r e r e g a r d e d a s u n p r o p i t i o u s d a y s for I s r a e l . ' ^ T h e cessation o f t h e
d a i l y offering o n this d a y d u r i n g t h e siege by T i t u s s e e m s to h a v e
initiated this tendency.
R e l y i n g o n this d a t u m , C o h n ( p . 3 2 5 ) s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e r e d a c t i o n of
t h e w o r k followed s h o r t l y after A . D . 70, w h e r e a s J a m e s {op. cit., p p .
3 2 - 3 ) o p t e d for ' t h e c l o s i n g y e a r s of t h e first C h r i s t i a n c e n t u r y ' . T h i s
a r g u m e n t , impressive t h o u g h it m a y a p p e a r , has b e e n called into
q u e s t i o n . ' ^ F o r o n t h e o n e h a n d , 17 T a m m u z as a fast d a y , m e n t i o n e d
a l r e a d y in Z e c h . 8:19, was b o u n d to a p p e a r as t h e m e m o r i a l of s o m e
m a j o r c a l a m i t y , s u c h a s the fall o f e i t h e r or b o t h T e m p l e s ; o n the o t h e r
h a n d , the s e v e n t e e n t h o f P a n e m u s ( = T a m m u z ) i n A . D . 70 w a s n o t t h e
d a t e o f t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of the s a n c t u a r y b u t o f t h e r a z i n g o f t h e
f o u n d a t i o n s of t h e fortress A n t o n i a , c o i n c i d i n g w i t h the a c c i d e n t a l
d i s c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e tamid sacrifice \^B.J. vi 2 , i (93-4)]-^° P . - M .
16. Cf. Perrot, op. cit. I I , p . 32. His three m a i n reasons a r e : (i) absence of sectarian
b i a s ; (2) literary connections with 4 Ezra and the Apocalypse of B a r u c h ; and (3) the
m a i n themes of LAB represent current, middle-of-the-way Jewish thinking.
17. Cf. Cohn, art. cit., p. 326. 'Demonstrabo tibi locum, in quo mihi servient annos
D C C X L , et post h a e c tradetur in manus inimicorum suorum, et demolientur e u m et
circumdabunt eum alienigenae. Et erit in ilia die secundum diem ilium, in quo contrivi
tabulas testamend q u a s disposui a d te in Oreb, et peccantibus illis evolavit ex eis q u o d
e r a t scriptum; dies a u t e m e r a t septima decima mensis q u a r d ' (19:7).
18. ' O n 17 T a m m u z the tables of the L a w were broken, a n d the daily offering {tamid)
suspended, a n d Jerusalem c a p t u r e d by N e b u c h a d n e z z a r . . . O n 9 A b , it was decreed
against our fathers t h a t they might not enter i n t o the Holy L a n d ; a n d the T e m p l e was
destroyed for the first dme (by N e b u c h a d n e z z a r ) , and for the second d m e (by T i t u s ) ;
a n d Bethar was conquered, a n d Jerusalem was p l o u g h e d up' ( m T a a n . 4:6). The greater
p a r t of the passage will also be found in J e r o m e ' s Commentary on Z e c h a r i a h 8:19 ( C C L
76A, p . 820). C f especially ' l e i u n i u m q u a r t i mensis . . . die s e p d m a et decima eiusdem
mensis, illud arbitrantur, q u a n d o descendens Moyses de monte Sina tabulas legis
abiecerit atque confregerit, et iuxta Hieremiam m u r i p r i m u m r u p d sunt ciuitatis.'
19. See Vermes, Scripture and Tradition, p . 6.
20. P.-M. Bogaert, op. cit. I I , pp. 68-70. For a criticism of his handling of the evidence,
see M. P . Wadsworth, 'A N e w Pseudo-Philo', J J S 29 (1978), p p . 189-91, w h o places the
composition of LAB to the e n d of the first century A.D. (p. 188).
B o g a e r t a r g u e s in f a v o u r of a p r e - A . D . 70 d a t i n g b y stressing t h a t t h e
' t e x t e c o n t i n u e ' ( o r r e w r i t t e n Bible) d i s a p p e a r e d w i t h t h e S e c o n d
T e m p l e . F u r t h e r m o r e , L A B ' s a t t i t u d e to sacrificial w o r s h i p implies t h e
e x i s t e n c e of a s a n c t u a r y , as d o e s a l s o t h e p h r a s e ' u s q u e i n h o d i e r n u m
d i e m ' i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e holocausts established b y J o s h u a at
G i l g a l . ^ ' A f u r t h e r a r g u m e n t for a n e a r l y (pre—70) d a t i n g for m u c h of
t h e m a t e r i a l is a d v a n c e d b y J . S t r u g n e l l , w h o p o i n t s o u t t h e p r e s e n c e in
P s e u d o - P h i l o ' s H e b r e w Bible text o f a l a r g e n u m b e r of S e p t u a g i n t a l ,
p r o t o - L u c i a n i c a n d P a l e s t i n i a n readings.*^ F i n a l l y , it m i g h t well b e
a s k e d w h e t h e r a P a l e s t i n i a n J e w i s h b o o k w r i t t e n d u r i n g t h e last
d e c a d e s of t h e first c e n t u r y A . D . w o u l d n o t r e v e a l s o m e m o r e o b v i o u s
t r a c e s o f the i m p a c t of t h e g r e a t n a t i o n a l c a t a s t r o p h e ? A l l in a l l , a first
c e n t u r y A . D . d a t e is opinio communis, b u t i t is i m p o s s i b l e t o s t a t e
c a t e g o r i c a l l y w h e t h e r P s e u d o - P h i l o c o m p l e t e d his b o o k before or after
t h e c a p t u r e of J e r u s a l e m b y t h e R o m a n s .
N o d i r e c t references t o P s e u d o - P h i l o are t o b e f o u n d in p a t r i s t i c
l i t e r a t u r e . T h e m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g a l l u s i o n is t h a t b y C l e m e n t of
A l e x a n d r i a , w h o k n o w s t h a t o n e o f t h e n a m e s of M o s e s w a s M e l c h i :
iax^v 8c K a i rplrov ovofta ev ovpavat p-erd T17V avdAryi/riv, ois <f>aaLV ol
pvarai, MeXxC [Strom, i 2 3 , 1 5 3 , ed. S t a h l i n a n d F r i i c h t e l , p . 9 5 ; D e n i s ,
F P G , p . 64). L A B 9:16 ( ' M a t e r a u t e m eius v o c a v i t e u m M e l c h i e l ' )
a p p e a r s to b e t h e o n l y k n o w n J e w i s h p a r a l l e l . See also G e o r g i u s
S y n c e l l u s , Chronographia ( e d . D i n d o r f , p p . 2 2 6 - 7 ) : McoiJaea re
peTOvop,dl,€i . . . rov MeXxlav VTTO TCOV yovewv rrplv KXr^devTO . . . MeXxloLS
ydp âaiXevs ippieveverai. G e o r g i u s C e d r e n u s ( P G 1 2 1 , 104C) : Xeyovai
8e u)S rov Mo>i)aeo)S yewrjdevros MeXxlav Trapd TOV warpos KXrjdrjvai, orrep
earl âatXevs. C f S . K r a u s s , ' T h e N a m e s of M o s e s ' , J Q R 10 ( 1 8 9 8 ) , p .
7 2 6 . O t h e r p o s s i b l e allusions i n O r i g e n , A p h r a h a t , E p h r a e m , A m b r o s e
a n d T h e o d o r e t m a y s i m p l y b e d u e to c o m m o n J e w i s h t r a d i t i o n s . C f
F e l d m a n , Proleg., p p . xi-xiii. O n the q u o t a t i o n s f r o m L A B in t h e
H e b r e w Chronicles of Jerahmeel, see b e l o w .
N o f r a g m e n t s of t h e o r i g i n a l H e b r e w o r of t h e G r e e k t r a n s l a t i o n h a v e
s u r v i v e d . T h e L a t i n v e r s i o n is d a t e d to t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y . I t c i r c u l a t e d
t o g e t h e r w i t h P h i l o ' s Quaestiones et solutiones in Genesim. O n the l a t t e r see
F r a n 9 o i s e P e t i t , L'ancienne version latine des Questions sur la Genese de Philon
d'Alexandrie ( 1 9 7 3 ) .
S u b s t a n t i a l sections o f L A B h a v e s u r v i v e d i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e
21. Ibid., pp. 71-2. F o r 'usque in h o d i e r n u m d i e m ' , see a h e a d y F e l d m a n , Proleg., p.

xxviii.
22. Strugnell, 'Philo (Pseudo) or Liber A n t i q u i t a t u m Biblicarum', E n c . J u d . 13, col.
408.
23. E v e n if t h e p o s t - 7 0 hypothesis is adopted, most of t h e exegetical traditions used by
the a u t h o r should be traced b a c k to the Second T e m p l e era. T h e d a t e of redaction of a
work re-employing pre-existing material indicates t h e terminus ante quem of the latter.
H e b r e w Chronicles of Jerahmeel, a fourteenth century manuscript of the

B o d l e i a n L i b r a r y in Oxford ( M s . H e b . d . i i ) . T h e s e Chronicles r e c o u n t
human and Jewish history from the creation to the age of the
M a c c a b e e s , a n d u t i h z e , in s o d o i n g , L A B 1—7 (22'^-25^), 9 (37^), a n d
e x t r a c t s f r o m 2 5 - 2 8 , 3 1 , 38, 3 9 - 4 0 , 44, 4 6 - 4 8 ( 5 8 - 6 1 ' ' ) . M . G a s t e r , The
Chronicles of Jerahmeel or The Hebrew Bible Historiale (1899; repr. with a
Prolegomenon by H. Schwarzbaum, 1 9 7 1 ) , offers a n E n g l i s h transla
t i o n o f the Chronicles, a n d a d v a n c e s t h e thesis t h a t J e r a h m e e l cites t h e
o r i g i n a l H e b r e w t e x t o f P s e u d o - P h i l o ( p p . x x x - x x x i x ) . L . C o h n [art. cit.
[ i n n. 9 a b o v e ] ) a n d D . J . H a r r i n g t o n i n his e d i t i o n a n d t r a n s l a t i o n o f
the Hebrew sections o f L A B (cf. op. cit. [ i n n. 9 above], pp. 2-5)
c o n v i n c i n g l y s h o w t h a t J e r a h m e e l used a r e t r o v e r s i o n o f t h e L a t i n text
into Hebrew.
For parallels b e t w e e n L A B , t h e P s e u d e p i g r a p h a , Q u m r a n , the N e w
T e s t a m e n t a n d r a b b i n i c l i t e r a t u r e , see F e l d m a n , Proleg., p p . l i - l x x v i .
Editions
Latin text
Sichardus, Johannes, Philonis ludaei Alexandrini Libri Antiquitatum, Quaestionum et Solutionum
in Genesim, De Essaeis, De Jôminibus Hebraicis, De Mundo (1527).
Kisch, G . , Pseudo-Philo's Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum (1949).
H a r r i n g t o n , D. J . , Pseudo-Philon, Antiquitates Biblicae [SC 229] (1976).
Hebrew version
H a r r i n g t o n , D . J., The Hebrew Fragments of Pseudo-Philo's Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum
(1974).
Translations
English
J a m e s , M . R., The Biblical Antiquities of Philo (1917). Reprinted with a Prolegomenon b y
L. H . Feldman (1971).
Bowker, J . , The Targums and Rabbinic Literature. A p p e n d i x I : ' T h e Biblical Antiquities o f
Philo: A Translation of the Passages related t o Genesis' (1969), p p . 301-14.
German
Riessler, P., Altjudisches Schrifttum ausserhalb der Bibel (1928), pp. 735-861, 1315—18.
Dietzfelbinger, C , Pseudo-Philo: Antiquitates Biblicae [ J S H R Z I I , 2] (1975).
French
C a z e a u x , J., with C. Perrot a n d P.-M. Bogaert, Pseudo-Philon, Les antiquites bibliques I [SC
229] (1976).
Modern Hebrew
H a r t o m , A. S., Ha-Sefarim Ha-his6nim 7 (1967).
Bibliography
C o h n , L . , 'An Apocryphal W o r k ascribed to Philo of Alexandria', J Q R 10 (1898), p p .
277-332.
Gaster, M . , The Chronicles of Jerahmeel or The Hebrew Bible Historiale (1899).
C o h n , L., 'Pseudo-Philo a n d J e r a h m e e l ' , Festschrift zum siebzigsten Geburtstage Jakob
Guttmanns (1915), p p . 173-85.
J a m e s , M. R . , 'Notes on Apocrypha (Pseudo-Philo a n d B a r u c h ) ' , J T h S t 16 (1915), p p .

403-5-
Kisch, G., 'Pseudo-Philo's Liber A n t i q u i t a t u m B i b l i c a r u m : Postlegomena to the N e w
Edition', H U C A 23/2 (i950/1), p p . 8 0 - 9 3 .
Spiro, A., ' S a m a r i t a n s , T o b i a d s and J u d a h i t e s in Pseudo-Philo: Use a n d Abuse of t h e
Bible b y Polemicists a n d Doctrinaires', P A A J R 2 0 (1951), pp. 279-355.
Idem, 'Pseudo-Philo's Saul and the R a b b i s ' Messiah ben E p h r a i m ' , ibid. 21 (1952), p p .
"9-37-
Idem, ' T h e Ascension of Phinehas', ibid. 22 (1953), p p . 91-114.
O. Eissfeldt, 'Zur Kompositionstechnik des pseudo-philonischen Liber Antiquitatum
Biblicarum', N T T (1955), p p . 5 3 - 7 .
Philonenko, M., ' R e m a r q u e s sur un h y m n e essenien de caractere gnostique', Semitica 11
(1961), p p . 4 3 - 5 4 .
Idem, 'Une p a r a p h r a s e du cantique d ' A n n e ' , R H P R 4 2 (1962), pp. 157-68.
Winter, P., 'Philo, Bibhcal, Antiquities of, I D B III (1962), p p . 795-6.
Delcor, M., 'Philon (Pseudo-)', D B S V I I (1966), cols. 1354-75.
Philonenko, M., 'Essenisme et gnose chez le Pseudo-Philon. Le symbohsme de l a lumiere
dans le Liber A n t i q u i t a t u m Biblicarum', Le origini dello gnosticismo, ed. U . Bianchi
[ N u m e n Suppl. X I I ] (1967), pp. 4 0 1 - 1 2 .
Harrington, D. J . , ' T h e Original L a n g u a g e of Pseudo-Philo's Liber Antiquitatum
Biblicarum', H T h R 6 3 (1970), pp. 5 0 3 - 1 4 .
Strugnell, J . , 'Philo (Pseudo-) o r Liber A n t i q u i t a t u m Biblicarum', E n c . J u d . 13 (1971),
cols. 408-9.
Delling, G., 'Die Weise v o n der Zeit zu reden im Liber A n t i q u i t a t u m Biblicarum', N T 13
( i 9 7 i ) , p p . 305-21.
Idem, 'Von Morija zum Sinai. Pseudo-Philo Liber A n d q u i t a t u m Biblicarum 32, i - i o ' ,
J S J 2 (1971), p p . 1-18.
Alexiou, M a r g a r e t , and Dronke, P., 'The L a m e n t of J e p h t a ' s D a u g h t e r : Themes,
Traditions, Originality', Studi Medievali 12 (1971), pp. 8 1 9 - 6 3 .
Harrington, D. J . , 'The Bibhcal T e x t of Pseudo-Philo's Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum',
CBQ.33 ( i 9 7 i ) , p p . 1-17.
Idem, 'The Text-critical Situation of Pseudo-Philo's Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum', R e v .
Benedictine 8 3 (1973), pp. 383-8.
Bogaert, P.-M., 'Les Antiquites Bibliques d u Pseudo-Philon', R T h L o u v 15 (1972), p p .
334-44-
Philonenko, M., 'Iphigenie et Sheila', Le syncretisme dans les religions grecque et romaine
(1973), pp. 165-77.
Feldman, L . H., 'Epilegomenon to Pseudo-Philo's Liber A n t i q u i t a t u m Biblicarum', J J S
25 (1974), PP- 305-12-
Harrington, D. J . , 'Biblical G e o g r a p h y in Pseudo-Philo's Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum',
B A S O R 220 (1975), p p . 6 7 - 7 1 .
Scheiber, A., 'Lacrimatoria and the Jewish Sources', l E J 25 (1975), pp. 152-3.
Perrot, C., and P . - M . Bogaert, Pseudo-Philon, Les antiquites bibliques I I : Introduction litteraire,
commentaire et index [ S C 230] (1976).
Wadsworth, M., ' A New Pseudo-Philo', J J S 29 (1978), pp. 186-91.
Zeron, A., ' T h e Swansong of E d o m ' , J J S 31 (1980), p p . 190—8.
Nickelsburg,, G. W . E., 'Good and Bad Leaders in Pseudo-Philo's Liber Antiquitatum
Biblicarum', Ideal Figures in Ancient Judaism : Profiles and Paradigms, ed. J . J. Collins a n d
G. W . E. Nickelsburg [SBLSCS 12] (1980), p p . 49-65.
Wm, J L B B M , pp. 265-8.
F o r a list of studies (up to 1975) making significant use of LAB, see Perrot and Bogaert,
op. cit. II (1976), p p . 251-6.
4. The Book of Noah

S e v e r a l g r o u p s o f s m a l l f r a g m e n t s f r o m Q u m r a n C a v e i {1Q19 a n d /^*",
D J D I, p p . 8 4 - 6 , 1 5 2 ) a t t e s t t h e p r e s e n c e o f a H e b r e w B o o k of N o a h in
the Q u m r a n library. T h e y d o not provide a c o n t i n u o u s text, b u t
f r a g m e n t s 3 a n d 1 3 - 1 4 r e v e a l t h a t t h e subject is t h e b i r t h o f N o a h a n d
the m i r a c u l o u s light p h e n o m e n a w h i c h m a r k e d it." T h e s a m e s t o r y
a p p e a r s i n i E n . 106, m i n u t e A r a m a i c r e m a i n s of w h i c h a r e e x t a n t
(Milik, Enoch, p . 2 0 7 ) , a n d in iQapGen, col. 2, e q u a l l y in A r a m a i c ( c f
a b o v e , p . 3 1 9 ) . T h e r e are also a few A r a m a i c f r a g m e n t s f r o m C a v e 6
{6Q8) w h i c h m a y b e l o n g t o a N o a h s t o r y , a l l u d i n g t o his m i r a c u l o u s
b i r t h (fr. i ) a n d m e n t i o n i n g h i s m a t e r n a l g r a n d f a t h e r , B a r a k i e l ( c f
J u b . 4:28). S i m i l a r l y 6Qjg, a n o t h e r A r a m a i c text w r i t t e n i n ' H e r o d i a n '
c a l h g r a p h y , of w h i c h only a single s m a l l f r a g m e n t is e x t a n t , d e a l s w i t h
t h e sons o f N o a h . M o r e o v e r , t w o c o l l e c t i o n s of N o a c h i c f r a g m e n t s in
A r a m a i c w e r e a n n o u n c e d b y J . S t a r c k y in 1955 (cf R B 6 3 ( 1 9 5 6 ) , p .
6 6 ) ; t h e y a r e h o w e v e r still u n p u b l i s h e d . ^
A Book of N o a h is referred t o in J u b . 1 0 : 1 3 a n d 2 1 : 1 0 . I n t h e first
i n s t a n c e , N o a h is s a i d t o h a v e r e c o r d e d secret a n g e l i c i n s t r u c t i o n s
r e l a t i n g t o h e a l i n g . I n the s e c o n d ( J u b . 2 0 : 3 - 1 1 ) , A b r a h a m t r a c e s t h e
rules c o n c e r n i n g c u l t i c w o r s h i p (the b a n o n i d o l a t r y a n d on e a t i n g
b l o o d , a n d r e g u l a t i o n s affecting sacrificial offerings) to b o o k s w r i t t e n b y
E n o c h a n d N o a h . S i m i l a r l y , the G r e e k s u p p l e m e n t to t h e T e s t a m e n t of
Levi 18:2 (from t h e A t h o s m a n u s c r i p t , cf. b e l o w , p . 776) m e n t i o n s
p r e c e p t s c o n c e r n i n g t h e u s e of b l o o d [-nepl TOV atyLaros) g i v e n i n t h e
B o o k of N o a h [ev rfj ypa(f)fj rfjs ^L^XOV rov Noje)? W h e t h e r these d e r i v e
from s p e c i a l m e d i c a l o r legal c o m p o s i t i o n s a t t r i b u t e d t o N o a h , o r f r o m
a p r o p e r life-story of t h e p a t r i a r c h , is i m p o s s i b l e to d e c i d e . T h e l a t t e r
a l t e r n a d v e is s u p p o r t e d b y the N o a c h i c e x c e r p t s i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o i
E n o c h , viz. c h a p t e r s 6 - 1 1 , 106—7 several u n i t s in t h e P a r a b l e s
(54:7—55:2; 60; 6 5 - 6 9 : 2 5 ) . * B u t w h a t e v e r t h e case, t h e i n f e r e n c e
a p p e a r s to be t h a t a n A r a m a i c ' m i d r a s h i c ' a c c o u n t , a n d its H e b r e w
1. G. Vermes, Scripture and Tradition, p p . 91-2.

2. According to J . A . Fitzmyer ('Tiie A r a m a i c "Elect of G o d " Text from Q u m r a n Cave
4', Essays on the Semitic Background of the N. T. (1971), p p . 127-60), 4QMessar (see below, p .
465) is not a messianic w o r k — a s h a s been argued by J . Starcky in ' U n texte messianique
a r a m e e n de la grotte 4 de Q u m r a n ' [Memorial du Cinquantenaire 1914-1964 de I'Ecole des
langues orientales anciennes de ITnstitut Catholique de Paris (1964), p p . 5 1 - 6 6 ) — b u t a n a r r a t i v e
of the birth of Noah (cf pp. 158-60). J. T . Mihk {Enoch, p . 56) is of t h e same opinion, a n d
adds t h a t there are three further copies of the same document.
3. R. H. Charles, The Greek Version of the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (1908), p .
252.
4. C f R. H. C h a d e s , The Book of Jubilees (1902), pp. Ixxi-ii; 'Book of Enoch', A P O T I I ,
p . 168; M. R. J a m e s , The Lost Apocrypha of the 0. T. (1920), p p . 11-12 ; Denis, I P G A T , p .
17; Milik, Enoch, pp. 5 5 - 7 ; Chariesworth, P M R S , pp. 166-7.
version d e a l i n g w i t h t h e life of N o a h , c i r c u l a t e d a m o n g J e w s in t h e
<iirly i n t e r - T e s t a m e n t a l e p o c h . T h u s a s s u m i n g t h a t t h e A r a m a i c E n o c h
a n d t h e Genesis A p o c r y p h o n e c h o this w o r k , a B o o k of N o a h , o r a
l a r g e r m i d r a s h , a c c o m m o d a t i n g a s e c t i o n on N o a h , is to b e d a t e d to t h e
b e g i n n i n g of t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C . at t h e latest, o r m o r e likely to t h e
third century B . C . ^
M e d i c a l a n d m a g i c a l b o o k s c o n t i n u e d to b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h N o a h by
J e w s e v e n in m e d i e v a l times.^
Editions
Milik, J. T . , D J D I, p p . 84-6, 152.
Baillet, M . , D J D I I I , p p . 116-19, 136.
Bibliography
See notes 3 and 4 above.
5 . The Testament of Kohath

A n A r a m a i c w o r k , s u r v i v i n g in a single c o p y in C a v e 4, i n t r o d u c e s
K o h a t h , the s o n o f Levi a n d f a t h e r of A m r a m , as t h e d i r e c t n a r r a t o r . J .
T . M i l i k has e d i t e d a s m a l l s e c t i o n from it (col. 2 : 9 - 1 2 ) in ' 4 Q Visions
de A m r a m e t u n e citation d ' O r i g e n e ' , R B 79 (1972), p p . 96-7. T h e
f r a g m e n t suggests t h a t 4QTQahat is a n o t h e r . e x e m p l a r of p a t r i a r c h a l
T e s t a m e n t s : K o h a t h e n t r u s t s to A m r a m all h i s b o o k s CîriS 7D) w h i c h
h e has r e c e i v e d f r o m L e v i .
T h i s e x t r a c t is closely p a r a l l e l e d b y J u b . 4 5 : 1 6 ( ' A n d h e [ J a c o b ] g a v e
all his b o o k s a n d t h e b o o k s o f his f a t h e r to L e v i h i s son t h a t h e m i g h t
p r e s e r v e t h e m a n d r e n e w t h e m for his c h i l d r e n u n t i l t h i s d a y ' ) . M i l i k
{art. cit.) sees in t h e Q j a m r a n f r a g m e n t t h e s o u r c e o f t h e J u b i l e e s
p a s s a g e . N o i n d e p e n d e n t o p i n i o n c a n b e e x p r e s s e d u n t i l t h e r e s t of
4QTQahat is p u b l i s h e d .
Editions
Milik, J . T . , art. cit. (with French translation).
Fitzmyer, M P A T no. 27, pp. 96-7, 205 (with English translation).
5. Whereas n o certainty is attainable in historical reconstructions of this sort, the

doubts expressed b y j . P. Lewis concerning the existence of a Book of N o a h derive largely
from his inability to evaluate the Q u m r a n evidence. Cf A Study of the Interpretation of J/oah
and the Ftood in Jewish and Christian Literature (1968), pp. 10-15.
6. For the Sefer Noah, see A. Jellinek, Bet ha-Midrasch I I I (1857), pp. xxx-xxxiii, 155-60.
O n e of t h e recensions is known as t h e Book of Asaph the Physician (KBIIH ' ) 0 N 1 D 0 ) : cf
L. Venetianer, Asaf Judaeus I - I I I (1915-17) ; Enc. J u d . 3 , cols. 673-6. See also Sefer Raziel
a n d Sefer ha-Razim [ibid., cols. 1594—5). F o r a recent edition, see M . Margolioth, 1 D D
•"•nn (1966); E.T.: M . A. M o r g a n , Sepher ha-Razim: The Book of Mysteries [Texts and
Translations 2 5 — P s e u d e p i g r a p h a Series 1 1 ] (1983).
6. The Testament of Amram

F r a g m e n t s d e t a c h e d from five m a n u s c r i p t s of a n A r a m a i c w r i d n g
e n t i t l e d ' V i s i o n s ' o r ' T e s t a m e n t of A m r a m ' h a v e b e e n f o u n d i n
Q u m r a n C a v e 4 (4QAmram"'^), a n d p a r t l y p u b l i s h e d by J . T . M i l i k ( R B
79 (1972), p p . 7 7 - 9 7 ) . T h e story is t o l d in t h e first p e r s o n . F r a g m e n t i
from m a n u s c r i p t ^ i n c l u d e s t h e c o m p l e t e title : ' C o p y of t h e b o o k o f t h e
W o r d s of visions of A m r a m , son o f K o h a t h , son o f L e v i . A l [ l t h a t ] h e
d e c l a r e d a n d c o m m a n d e d t o his sons o n t h e d a y o f his d e a t h . . . i n t h e
y e a r 1 5 2 of I s r a e l ' s exile in E g y p t . " A m r a m saw t w o spirits a r g u e o v e r
his destiny, t h e p r i n c e of d a r k n e s s , M e l k i r e s h a , ^ a n d t h e p r i n c e of l i g h t
( p r o b a b l y M e l k i z e d e k ) . F r a g m e n t " e x p o u n d s , it seems, t h e m e a n i n g o f
t h e vision.
T o g e t h e r w i t h t h e T e s t a m e n t o f Levi (see b e l o w , p p . 7 6 9 - 7 7 ) a n d t h e
T e s t a m e n t of K o h a t h (see a b o v e , p . 3 3 3 ) , 4QTAmram b e l o n g s t o t h e
t y p e o f t e s t a m e n t a r y l i t e r a t u r e w h i c h a p p e a r s to h a v e flourished i n t h e
second century B . c . ^
A c c o r d i n g to M i l i k , O r i g e n in his thirty-fifth H o m i l y o n t h e G o s p e l
o f L u k e ( L k . 1 2 : 5 8 - 9 ) a l l u d e s t o t h e T e s t a m e n t of A m r a m :
' L e g i m u s — s i cui t a m e n placet huiuscemodi scripturam r e c i p e r e —
i u s t i t i a e e t i n i q u i t a t i s angelos s u p e r A b r a h a e s a l u t e e t i n t e r i t u
disceptantes, d u m u t r a e q u e t u r m a e s u o e u m volunt coetu vindicare'
(ed. M . R a n e r , G C S 4 9 ( 1 9 5 5 ) , p p . 1 9 7 - 8 ) . T h e t h e o r y is b a s e d o n t w o
e m e n d a t i o n s : A m r a m is s u b s t i t u t e d for A b r a h a m a n d ' u t r a e q u e
turmae'^îs seen a s t h e final s t a g e o f a series o f c o r r u p t i o n s w h i c h s t a r t e d
f r o m a c o n j e c t u r a l G r e e k Svo eipeiv, t w o W a t c h e r s ("fTS?). N e i t h e r
c o r r e c t i o n is i m p o s s i b l e in itself, b u t t h e t w o , h n k e d t o g e t h e r , h a r d l y
c o n s t i t u t e j u s d f i c a d o n of t h e c l a i m t h a t t h e A r a m a i c T e s t a m e n t o f
A m r a m 'fut c e r t a i n e m e n t t r a d u i t e n g r e c et e t a i t utilise p a r les e c r i v a i n s
C h r e t i e n s d e s p r e m i e r s siecles' [art. cit., p . 86).
Editions
Milik, J . T., '4Q_Visions de A m r a m et u n e citation d'Origene', RB 97 (1972), pp. 77-97
(with a French translation).
Fitzmyer, M P A T nos. 24-6, p p . 94—7 (with an English translation).
Translations
English
Vermes, DSSE^, pp. 2 6 0 - 1 .
1. O n the chronology, see J . Heinemann, '210 years o f Egyptian Exile', J J S 22 (1971),

p p . 19-30; P. Grelot, ' Q u a t r e cent trente ans (Ex. 12, 40)', Homenaje a Juan Prado (1975),
PP- 559-70.
2. O n Melkizedek a n d Melkiresha, see below, p p . 449-50. G f J . T . Milik, 'Milkl-sedeq
a n d Milkj-reh' deLTis les anciens ecrits juifs et Chretiens', J J S 23 (1972), p p . 95—144.
3. For the dating, see the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, p p . 774-5 below.
Bibliography
Berger, K., ' ^ e r Streit des guten und des bosen Engels u m die Seele: Beobachtungen zu
4Q.Amr u n d J u d a s 9', J S J 4 (1973), p p . 1-18.
7 . A Samuel Apocryphon
Seven fragments of a H e b r e w composition c e n t r e d on Samuel h a v e
b e e n r e t r i e v e d from C a v e 4 a n d p u b l i s h e d u n d e r t h e s h g h t l y m i s l e a d i n g
title, ' T h e V i s i o n o f S a m u e l ' {4QJ60). F r a g m e n t i , a p a r a p h r a s e o f i
S a m . 3 : 1 4 - 1 7 , r e p r e s e n t s , in a t h i r d p e r s o n n a r r a t i v e , a c o n v e r s a t i o n
b e t w e e n S a m u e l a n d E l i . F r a g m e n t s 3—6 c o n t a i n a p r a y e r , n o d o u b t
s p o k e n b y S a m u e l , for t h e d e l i v e r a n c e o f I s r a e l , a n d f r a g m e n t 7, a few
w o r d s of a n a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l d i s c o u r s e .
P a l a e o g r a p h i c a l l y t h e s c r i p t is assigned t o t h e e a r l y o r m i d d l e
H a s m o n a e a n p e r i o d , i.e. t o t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C .
Editions
Allegro, J . M., D J D V, p p . 9-11 (with English translation).
Strugnell, J . , 'Notes en marge . . . ' , R Q , 7 (1970), p p . 179-83.
8. The Martyrdom oJ Isaiah

A n a p o c r y p h a l w o r k o n t h e m a r t y r d o m o f I s a i a h is several t i m e s
m e n t i o n e d b y O r i g e n . H e t e r m s it s i m p l y a n apocryphon, r e p o r t s f r o m it
o n l y t h a t I s a i a h w a s s a w n i n pieces, a n d c h a r a c t e r i z e s it clearly a s a
J e w i s h w r i t i n g . I n the Constitutiones apostolorum vi 1 6 , t h e r e is likewise
m e r e l y a g e n e r a l m e n t i o n of a n a p o c r y p h a l I s a i a h . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d ,
it is e n t e r e d m o r e p r e c i s e l y in t h e c a n o n i c a l list of S i x t y B o o k s a s 'Haatov
opaais ( c f a b o v e , p . 7 9 7 ) . E p i p h a n i u s k n o w s a n dvaâriKov ^Haatov,
w h i c h w a s i n use a m o n g s t t h e h e r e t i c a l A r c h o n t i c s a n d H i e r a k i t e s .
J e r o m e s p e a k s of a n Ascensio Isaiae. I t is v e r y p r o b a b l e t h a t n o t all t h e s e
q u o t a t i o n s refer to t h e s a m e w o r k ; O r i g e n a p p e a r s t o h a v e h a d in m i n d
a p u r e l y J e w i s h b o o k , w h e r e a s t h e o t h e r s w e r e t h i n k i n g of a C h r i s t i a n
r e w o r k i n g of this, o r of a C h r i s t i a n w o r k q u i t e i n d e p e n d e n t of it. I n
effect, a C h r i s t i a n a p o c r y p h o n c o n c e r n i n g I s a i a h h a s s u r v i v e d , t h e
oldest p a r t o f w h i c h consists in a J e w i s h a c c o u n t of the p r o p h e t ' s
martyrdom.
T h i s a p o c r y p h o n is p r e s e r v e d i n its e n t i r e t y o n l y i n an E t h i o p i c
version, first e d i t e d by R . L a u r e n c e u n d e r t h e title Ascensio Isaiae Vatis
( 1 8 1 9 ) . T h e s e c o n d h a l f is a v a i l a b l e a l s o in a n o l d L a t i n t r a n s l a t i o n ,
first issued in V e n i c e in 1 5 2 2 b y A . d e F a n t i s a n d r e - e d i t e d b y J . C . L.
Gieseler in 1 8 3 2 {Vetus translatio latina Visionis Isaiae). T h e m a t e r i a l w a s
b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r b y A . D i l l m a n n , Ascensio Isaiae aethiopice et latine
( 1 8 7 7 ) . B . P . Grenfell a n d A . S . H u n t p u b l i s h e d G r e e k p a p y r u s
f r a g m e n t s c o r r e s p o n d i n g to t h e E t h i o p i c text (The Amherst Papyri . . . I,
I: The Ascension oJIsaiah, 1900).' T h e fullest e x t a n t e d i t i o n is b y R . H.

C h a r l e s , The Ascension of Isaiah translated from the Ethiopic version, which,
together with the new Greek fragment, the Latin versions and the Latin translation
of the Slavonic, is here published in full (1900)
T h e s u b j e c t - m a t t e r of t h e w h o l e w o r k a s it a p p e a r s in t h e E t h i o p i c
t e x t is as f o l l o w s . F i r s t P a r t : T h e M a r t y r d o m (chapters 1—5). I s a i a h
prophesies to H e z e k i a h t h e future godlessness of h i s son Manasseh
( c h a p t e r i ) . A f t e r H e z e k i a h ' s d e a t h , M a n a s s e h i n fact g i v e s h i m s e l f o v e r
t o t h e service o f S a t a n , a n d as a r e s u l t , I s a i a h and his companions
w i t h d r a w into solitude (chapter 2). A certain 'Belchira',^ a S a m a r i t a n ,
d e n o u n c e s I s a i a h to M a n a s s e h for p r o p h e s y i n g a g a i n s t t h e k i n g a n d t h e
p e o p l e of I s r a e l (chapter 3 : 1 - 1 2 ) . B e l c h i r a ' s hostiUty t o w a r d s Isaiah
was incited by S a t a n (Behar), w h o w a s a n g r y w i t h the p r o p h e t b e c a u s e
he had predicted redemption through Christ. This affords an
opportunity to relate the whole history of J e s u s Christ and his
community, as foretold by Isaiah, from the Incarnation to the
Andchrist symbolized by Nero (4:2),* a n d to the Last Judgement
(chapter 3:13-4:22). Manasseh, influenced by Beliar, orders the
prophet to be cut in two with a wood-saw. Isaiah dies without
1. I n addition to these Greek fragments, there is also extant a Christian medieval Greek
legend noticeably d e p e n d e n t on the Ascension of Isaiah. Cf. O. von G e b h a r d t , ' D i e
Ascensio Isaiae als heilige L e g e n d e aus C o d . G r . 1534 der Nadonalbibliothek z u Paris',
Z W T h 21 (1878), p p . 330-53.
2. T h e Slavonic versions represent t h e Vision of Isaiah (Asc. chapters 6-11), n o t t h e
M a r t y r d o m . C f Denis, I P G A T , p p . 173-4 n. 16. See also W. Liidtke, 'Beitrage zu
slavischen Apokryphen. 3. Z u r Ascensio Isaiae', Z A W 31 (1911), p p . 222-6, 235, n . 3 ; E.
T u r d e a n u , 'Apocryphes bogomiles et apocryphes pseudo-bogomiles I I I . La Vision
d'Isaie', R H R 69 (1950), p p . 2 1 3 - 1 8 ; A . Vaillant, ' U n apocryphe pseudo-bogomile: L a
Vision d'Isaie', R e v u e des Etudes Slaves 4 2 (1963), pp. 109-21.
3. T h e form, and consequendy the etymology, of this n a m e remains u n c e r t a i n . T h e
Ethiopic manuscripts give Belcliira, Bdchtra, Belachtra, Meldchtra, MUchtrds, Ibchtra a n d
Abchtra. The Greek version displays BeXixeiap, BeXxfipd, Bixîpa {Bexfipds in t h e Greek
legend). T h e L a d n h a s Bechira. N o t e t h a t in 1:8 the name borne by S a t a n is Sammael
Malchtrd. T h e two most likely Hebrew originals are Y I I T I A {Bexeipd, Bexeipds, Bechira)
= 'Elect of Evil' (D. Flusser, ' T h e Apocryphal Book of Ascensio Isaiae a n d the D e a d S e a
Sect', l E J 3 (1953), p. 3 5 ) , and or S7T ''DN'?8 = 'Evil king' o r 'Evil angel'
(Charies, A P O T I I , p. 159). S T -sVn is parallel to the n a m e »ttn "DVO, attested at
Q u m r a n as t h e designadon of t h e chief d e m o n opposed to ""DVO. Cf. J . T . Milik,
Milkl-sedeq et Milkt-reHa' d a n s les anciens ecrits juifs et Chretiens', J J S 2 3 (1972), p p .
9 5 - 1 4 4 ; ' 4 Q Visions de A m r a m et une citation d'Origene', RB 79 (1972), p p . 77-97.
T h e r e seems t o be a tendency to assimilate the S a m a r i t a n Bechir-ra', enemy of Isaiah, with
the arch-devil Malkhi-ra'. T h e confusion is quasi-total in t h e Greek legend where t h e
persecutor of Isaiah is called MeXxlas (3:5, 7, 8) as well as Bex^tpas (3:10). Cf. A. C a q u o t ,
'Bref commentaire d u M a r t y r e d'Isaie', Semitica 23 (1973), p . 75.
4. T h e epithet 'matricide' (/nyr/oaAwas) refers t o Nero. T h e following verse (4:3) alludes
to the martyrdom of Peter (d paatXeiis OSTOS TTJV <^VT(e)iav rjv (fivrevaovaw ol SioSeKa
dnocfToXoi TOV ayo-TT-qroij Siii)^€( i) Kat (r )6iv BcoSfKa (its) Tats x^P'^^^ avroi)
(njapaSoidrjaeTai). C f Charles, op. cit., p. 25.
( o m p l a i n t w h i l e his lips c o n t i n u e to p r o p h e s y w i t h t h e h o l y spirit.

S e c o n d P a r t : T h e V i s i o n ( c h a p t e r s 6—11). I n t h e t w e n t i e t h y e a r of
H e z e k i a h , I s a i a h sees t h e following vision, w h i c h h e c o m m u n i c a t e s to
the king a n d also t o his ( t h e p r o p h e t ' s ) s o n J o s a b ( c h a p t e r 6). A n a n g e l
c o n d u c t s t h e p r o p h e t t h r o u g h t h e firmament a n d s h o w s h i m the six
lower h e a v e n s ( c h a p t e r s 7 - 8 ) . T h e y c o m e a t l a s t to t h e s e v e n t h h e a v e n ,
w h e r e I s a i a h sees a l l the r i g h t e o u s d e a d f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g , a n d finally
G o d himself ( c h a p t e r 9). After h e a r i n g h o w G o d t h e F a t h e r c h a r g e s his
son to d e s c e n d i n t o the w o r l d , I s a i a h r e t u r n s in t h e c o m p a n y of t h e
a n g e l to t h e f i r m a m e n t ( c h a p t e r 1 0 ) . H e r e h e sees the f u t u r e b i r t h of
Jesus C h r i s t , a n d t h e s t o r y o f his e a r t h l y life to t h e crucifixion a n d
r e s u r r e c t i o n , w h e r e u p o n t h e a n g e l r e t u r n s to t h e s e v e n t h h e a v e n , w h i l s t
I s a i a h rejoins his e a r t h l y b o d y ( c h a p t e r 1 1 ) .
T h i s b r i e f r e v i e w is e n o u g h to i n d i c a t e t h a t the w o r k is a c o m p o s i t e
o n e . T h e V i s i o n is q u i t e u n c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e M a r t y r d o m . I n d e e d , i t is
a t t a c h e d v e r y clumsily t o it, for it s h o u l d h a v e p r e c e d e d the p r o p h e t ' s
d e a t h . I n g e n e r a l , the c h r o n o l o g y of t h e e v e n t s is g i v e n i n a m o s t
h a p h a z a r d m a n n e r (cf C h a r l e s , p . x x x i x ) . S i n c e C h a r l e s ' s s t u d y i t is
a c c e p t e d t h a t the J e w i s h Martyrdom c o r r e s p o n d s t o i : i - 2 a , 6 b - i 3 a ;
2 : 1 - 8 , 2 : 1 0 - 3 : 1 2 ; 5 : i b - i 4 , a l t h o u g h m o r e r e c e n t l y A . C a q u o t {art. cit.,
p p . 92—3) h a s a r g u e d for a f u r t h e r r e s t r i c t i o n of t h e a u t h e n t i c J e w i s h
s u b s t r a t u m t o 1 : 6 - 1 1 ; 2 : 1 , 4 - 6 , 1 2 - 1 6 ; 3 : 6 - 1 2 ; 5 : i b - 6 , 8—10. A s for t h e
Testament of Hezekiah (3:1313-4:18) a n d t h e Vision of Isaiah ( 6 : 1 - 1 1 : 4 0 ) ,
t h e y b o t h h a d a n i n d e p e n d e n t e x i s t e n c e a n d a r e b o t h of C h r i s t i a n
origin. T h e t h r e e w e r e finally p u t t o g e t h e r b y a C h r i s t i a n c o m p i l e r
w h o s e h a n d is s h o w n b y a n u m b e r of e d i t o r i a l a d d i t i o n s (1:2b—6a, 1 3 a ;
2:9; 3 : 1 3 a ; 4 : 1 a ; 4 : i 9 - 5 : i a , 1 5 - 1 6 ; 1 1 : 4 1 - 3 ( c f C h a r l e s , p p . xl-xliii).^
M o r e o v e r t h e a c c o u n t o f t h e M a r t y r d o m itself is i n t e r r u p t e d by t h e
passage 3 : 1 3 - 5 : 1 , w h i c h is m a n i f e s t l y a l a t e r i n t e r p o l a t i o n .
T h e J e w i s h n e s s o f t h e Martyrdom of Isaiah c a n scarcely b e q u e s t i o n e d .
It is a t y p i c a l h a g g a d i c story i n s p i r e d b y 2 K i n g s 2 0 - 2 1 , a n d e c h o e d in
s o m e w a y , as will b e s h o w n b e l o w ( p . 3 3 8 ) , b y r a b b i n i c l i t e r a t u r e . T h e
terminus ante quem for its c o m p o s i t i o n is p r o v i d e d b y p a t r i s t i c q u o t a t i o n s
or allusions {Opus imperfectum in Matth., H o m i l . I [ C h a r l e s , op. cit., p p .
8 - 9 ] ; J e r o m e , Comm. in lesaiam 64:4 [ P L 24, c o l . 6 2 2 C ] ; O r i g e n , Ep. ad
Africanum 9 [ P G 1 1 , col. 6 5 B C ] ; In Matth. 1 3 : 5 7 [ e d . K l o s t e r m a n n , p .
24, 9 ] ; J u s t i n , Dial. c. Tryph. 120, 5) a n d b y a likely r e f e r e n c e to i t in
H e b r . 1 1 : 3 7 . H e n c e a first c e n t u r y A . D . d a t e m a y b e r e a s o n a b l y
inferred ( C h a r l e s , p . x l i v ) , p e r h a p s t h e last t h i r d of t h i s c e n t u r y (E.
H a m m e r s h a i m b , J S H R Z I I , i ( 1 9 7 3 ) , p - 19). O n t h e m o r e fragile basis
5. Charles disagrees with A . Dillmann in considering the greater p a r t of chapter i as

belonging to the Jewish composition and in holding 11:2—22 to b e an integral part of the
Vision. Against the originahty of the latter, it may be noted that it is absent from tije Old
Latin and Slavonic versions.
of l i t e r a r y t h e m a t i c p a r a l l e l s ( a t t e s t e d in 2 M a c c a b e e s ) , a n e a r l y first
c e n t u r y B . C . d a t e h a s b e e n a d v a n c e d (Eissfeldt, Introduction, p . 609),
a n d since t h e d i s c o v e r y of the D e a d Sea Scrolls, t h e h y p o t h e s i s of a
Q u m r a n o r i g i n of t h e M a r t y r d o m is also o n r e c o r d . ^ N e i t h e r of t h e
t w o m o r e specific theories is p r o p e r l y f o u n d e d . Eissfeldt's thesis is n o
m o r e t h a n a possible c o i n c i d e n c e . A s for t h e Q u m r a n t h e o r y , a p a r t
from the b y n o m e a n s exclusive motifs of d u a l i s m a n d d e s e r t
mysticism, t h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e M a r t y r d o m a n d the S c r o l l s
a r e forced a n d a r b i t r a r y . ^ T h e c o m p l e t e a b s e n c e of Q u m r a n f r a g m e n t s
belonging to t h e M a r t y r d o m of Isaiah further weakens this a l r e a d y
weak hypothesis.^
T h e s a w i n g o f I s a i a h i n t w o h a d a l r e a d y b e e n r e l a t e d by J u s t i n
M a r t y r , Dial. c. Tryph. 1 2 0 ; T e r t u l h a n , De patientia 1 4 ; Scorpiace 8 (see
vol. I I , p. 3 5 2 a n d n. 5 1 ) . T h e a u t h o r o f t h e Epistle to t h e H e b r e w s w a s
p r o b a b l y also f a m i h a r w i t h t h e s t o r y ( H e b . 1 1 : 3 7 ) . F o r r a b b i n i c l e g e n d s
c o n c e r n i n g the d e a t h of I s a i a h , see G. Beer i n K a u t z s c h , A P A T I I , p p .
1 2 2 - 3 ; L. G i n z b e r g , Legends I V , p . 2 7 9 ; V I , p p . 3 7 4 - 5 -
F r a g m e n t s of t h e r a b b i n i c a c c o u n t of I s a i a h ' s d e a t h s u r v i v e i n b o t h
T a l m u d s . b Y e b . 49b s i m p l y states t h a t M a n a s s e h slew t h e p r o p h e t
( s a y i n g a t t r i b u t e d to S i m e o n b . A z z a i : rT'ytt?'' PX ilH ntTlD). T h e fuller
n a r r a t i v e d e s c r i b e s I s a i a h fleeing from the k i n g a n d c o n c e a l i n g h i m s e l f
i n a h o l e i n a c e d a r t r e e . W h e n h e is d i s c o v e r e d t h e r e , M a n a s s e h o r d e r s
t h e t r e e to b e s a w n t h r o u g h , t h u s killing h i m [ibid.; y S a n h . 28c: 1103
F o r the life a n d d e a t h of I s a i a h , see f u r t h e r the Vita Prophetarum
6. Cf. D. Flusser, ' T h e Apocryphal Book oi Ascensio Isaiae a n d the D e a d Sea Sect', l E J 3
(1953), pp. 30-47. Flusser conjectures that Isaiah, Manasseh a n d Behir-ra' of t h e
M a r t y r d o m represent the T e a c h e r of Righteousness, t h e Wicked Priest a n d the T e a c h e r
of Lies in the Scrolls. He points to the dualistic outlook both in the Ascension and in t h e
Q u m r a n literature a n d to t h e withdrawal to the desert by Isaiah a n d his companions as
well as by the T e a c h e r of Righteousness and his followers. Both groups seek refuge in t h e
North : Isaiah's colleagues a r e sent to the region of T y r e and Sidon (5:13), the T e a c h e r ' s
adepts to the land of Damascus. (The latter term is taken literally by Flusser; for a
symbolical interpretation, see vol. II, p . 586). M . Philonenko, 'Le M a r t y r e d'Esaie et
l'histoire de la secte d e Q u m r a n ' {Pseudepigraphes de I'Ancien Testament et les manuscrits de la
mer Morte—Cahiers R H P h R 41 (1967), p p . i—10) argues in the same direction as does
also Nickelsburg, J L B B M , p p . 144—5.
7. Cf. V. Nikiprowetzky, 'Pseudepigraphes d e I'Ancien Testament et manuscrits de la
mer Morte. Reflexions sur une publication recente', REJ 128 (1969), p p . 5 - 1 3 ; A.
C a q u o t , art. cit., p. 9 3 .
8. F o r the reladve chronology of the three units of the Ascension, it should be noted
that t h e Testament of Hezekiah is given the terminus ante quem of A.D. I 00 a n d the Vision of
Isaiah belongs probably t o the second century A . D . Cf. Charles, p p . xliv-v. I n
consequence, the Martyrdom fits well into the first century A.D. The various sections were
b r o u g h t together to form t h e Christian Ascension of Isaiah probably i n the third or fourth
century (cf Eissfeldt, p. 610).
(below, p p . 7 8 3 - 6 ) . Cf. T . S c h e r m a n n , Propheten- und Apostellegenden

| T U I I I , i ] ( 1 9 0 7 ) ; Prophetarum vitae fabulosae, indices apostolorum
discipulorumque Domini ( 1 9 0 7 ) ; C. C . T o r r e y , The Lives of the Prophets
(1946).
O r i g e n , in Epist. ad Africanum 9 ( P G 1 1 , c o l . 6 5 B C ) , w i s h e s to p r o v e
t h a t t h e J e w i s h l e a d e r s d i s c a r d e d all t h e d o c u m e n t s i n w h i c h t h e y
a p p e a r i n a n u n f a v o u r a b l e l i g h t . N e v e r t h e l e s s s o m e of t h e m s u r v i v e in
a p o c r y p h a l w r i t i n g s (cSv riva acolerai iv d.7TOKpv<f>ois). H e t h e n
c o n t i n u e s : Kal TOVTOV TrapaSeiy/Lta Scoaopev TO. Trepl TOV 'Haatav
loTOpovpieva, Kal VTTO T-rjs rrpos 'E^paCovs eTnaToXrjs p,apTvpovp€va, iv ovBevl
TCOV <f>av€p(x)v jSijSAiojv y€ypap,pL€va ( t h e q u o t a t i o n H e b . 1 1 : 3 7 follows).
Ea(j)€S OTi a i TTapahoaeis Xeyovai TreTtpiaBai 'Haatav TOV Trpoc^ffr-qv Kal ev
TLVi a7TOKpv(f>cp TOVTO (f>epeTai- orrep rdxo. eTTirrjSes VTTO *Iov8aio)v
pepaSiovpyrjrai, Xeêis rivds rds p.f] Trpevovaas TrapepiPePXriKOTCuv rfj Ypa<f>^,
Lv' fj OXT) dTnaTrjdfj.
O r i g e n , In Matth. 1 3 : 5 7 (ed. K l o s t e r m a n n , C G S 40, p . 24, 9):

Kal ^Haatas Se TTenpladaL VTTO TOV Aaou laroprjTar e l he TLS OV Trpoalerai
T'qv laropiav Sia TO ev TW dTTOKpvô) 'Haata avrfjv <f>epeadai, TTiorevadroj
Tois iv rfj TTpos 'E^palovs ovroj yeypap.p,evois ( H e b . i i :37).
O r i g e n , In Matth. 2 3 : 3 7 (ed. K l o s t e r m a n n , C G S 38, p . 5 0 ) :
' P r o p t e r e a v i d e n d u m , n e forte o p o r t e a t e x libris s e c r e t i o r i b u s , q u o a p u d
l u d a e o s f e r u n t u r o s t e n d e r e v e r b u m C h r i s t i , e t n o n s o l u m C h r i s t i sed
e t i a m d i s c i p u l o r u m e i u s . . . F e r t u r e r g o in s c r i p t u r i s n o n manifestis,
s e r r a t u m esse E s a i a m , e t c '
O r i g e n , In lesaiam homil. I, 5 ( e d . B a e h r e n s , C G S 3 3 , p . 2 4 7 ) : ' A i u n t
( l u d a e i ) i d e o I s a i a m esse s e c t u m a p o p u l o , q u a s i l e g e m p r a e v a r i c a n t e m
et e x t r a s c r i p t u r a s a d n u n t i a n t e m . S c r i p t u r a e n i m d i c i t : " n e m o v i d e b i t
faciem m e a m et v i v e t " , iste v e r o a i t : " v i d i D o m i n u m S a b a o t h " .
M o y s e s , a i u n t , n o n v i d i t et t u v i d i s t i ? E t p r o p t e r h o c e u m s e c u e r u n t et
c o n d e m n a v e r u n t u t i m p i u m . ' See Martyrdom 3 : 8 - 1 0 . C f b Y e b . 49b.
Origen, Homilies on Jeremiah (ed. K l o s t e r m a n n , 1 9 0 1 , p . 1 9 2 ) :
TOIOOTOV TI TTeTTOiffKaaiv Kal ol rov 'Haaiav TTpiaavTes' d^s dSiKrjdevres ydp
(erreihriTTep a l TTpo<f>r)Teiai eTTeaTpe<f)ov avrovs Kal e/coAaôv avrovs, rjXeyxov,

irrerlpioiv) errpiaav avrov Kai KarehiKaaav avrov ^-qpov davariK-jv.
A m b r o s e , Expositio in Ps. 118, S e r m o x , 32 ( P L 1 5 , col. 1444B), k n o w s
t h e s t o r y of I s a i a h ' s steadfastness i n m a r t y r d o m as i t is t o l d i n c h a p t e r 5
o f the a p o c r y p h o n . C f also Expositio in Lucam, L i b . x, 2 5 ( P L 1 5 , col.
.891C).
T h e a u t h o r of t h e Opus imperfectum in Matthaeum, H o m . I ( u n d e r the
w o r k s o f C h r y s o s t o m ) r e l a t e s , in close a g r e e m e n t w i t h c h a p t e r i o f the
a p o c r y p h o n , t h a t I s a i a h foretold t o H e z e k i a h t h e godlessness of h i s son
M a n a s s e h , w h e r e u p o n H e z e k i a h w o u l d h a v e h a d his s o n p u t to d e a t h ,
b u t w a s p r e v e n t e d by I s a i a h . See P G 5 6 , col. 6 2 6 ; C h a r l e s , p p . 8-9.
E p i p h a n i u s , Haer. xl 2, 2 [ c o n c e r n i n g t h e A r c h o n t i c s ] (ed. K . "Holl,
G C S 3 1 , p . 82) : Xafi^dvovai Se Xaftds OLTTO rov dvaâriKov ^Haata, eirl Se

Kai dXXcov Tivwv dTTOKpv(f>u)v. Haer. Ixvii 3 , 4 [ c o n c e r n i n g t h e H i e r a k i t e s ]
(GCS 33, p . 1 3 5 ) : ôvXerai Se (scil. Hierakas) TTJV TeXeCav avTov
avoTaaiv voieiadai diro rov dvaâTiKov 'Haatov, SrjOev ai? iv TO) dvaâriKOi
Xeyofievii) iKCioe.
J e r o m e , Comm. in Isa. 64:4 ( P L 24, coL 6 2 2 C ) : ' A s c e n s i o e n i m I s a i a e
et apocalypsis Eliae h o c h a b e n t t e s t i m o n i u m ' — n a m e l y i C o r . 2:9. O n
t h e Apocalypse of Elijah, s e e p p . 799—83.
Jerome, Comm. on Lsa. 57:1-2 (PL 24, col. 568A): 'ludaei ...
a r b i t r a n t u r . . . I s a i a m d e s u a p r o p h e t a r e m o r t e q u o d s e r r a n d u s sit a
M a n a s s e serra lignea, q u a e a p u d eos certissima traditio est.'
On t h e p a t r i s t i c q u o t a d o n s , cf. a l s o E . T i s s e r a n t , Ascension d'Isaie
(1909), pp. 6 2 - 7 3 .
Editions
(1) Ethiopic version (probably fifth century)
L a u r e n c e , R., Ascensio Isaiae vatis (1819).
Dillmann, A., Ascensio Isaiae aethiopice et latine (1877).
Charles, R . H., The Ascension oJ Isaiah, translatedfrom the Ethiopic Version, which, together with
the new Greek fragment, the Latin versions and the Latin translation of the Slavonic, is here
published in full {1 goo).
(2) The Greek version (fifth-sixth century)
Grenfell, B. P., a n d H u n t , A. S., The Amherst Papyri I, i : The Ascension of Isaiah and other
Theological Fragments (1900) [2:4-4:4]. C f also Charles, above.
G e b h a r d t , O. von, ' D i e Ascensio Isaiae als heilige Legende aus C o d . G r . 1534 der
Nationalbibliothek zu Paris', Z W T h 21 (1878), pp. 330-53 [second half of the tenth
century].
Denis, A.-M., F P G , p p . 105-14 [Amherst P a p . a n d Legenda graeca],
(3) Latin version (fifth century?)
M a i , A., Scriptorum veterorum nova collectio I I I , 2 (1828), pp. 238-9.
Cf. also Charles, above.
(4) Coptic (Sahidic and Achmimic) versions (fourth century)
Lefort, L . Th., 'Coptica Lovaniensia', Le Museon 51 (1938), p p . 24-30 [Sahidic: 3:3-6,
9-12 ; 11:24-32, 3 5 - 4 0 — A c h m i m i c : 7:12-15 ; 8:16-17; 9:9-11; 10:9-11].
Lacau, P . , 'Fragments d e I'Ascension d'Isaie en copte', Melanges L. Th. Lefort, L e Museon
59 (1946), PP- 453-67 [1:1-5; 3:25-8; 5 : 7 - 8 ; 6:7-11; 7:28-32; 9:28-30; 10:27;
11:14-16].
Translations
English
Charles, R . H., op. cit.
Idem, A P O T I I , p p . 159-62.
Flemming, J., a n d Duensing, H. [Hill, D . ] , ' T h e Ascension of Isaiah', in E. W.
Hennecke, W . Schneemelcher a n d R. M c L . Wilson (eds.), New Testament Apocrypha
II (1965), p p . 642-3.
German
Beer, G., A P A T I I , pp. 119-27.
Riessler, P., Altjiidisches Schrifttum (1928), pp- 481-4, 1300—i.
Flemming, J . , a n d Duensing, H . , ' D i e Himmelfahrt desjesaja', E . W. H e n n e c k e a n d W.

Schneemelcher, Neutestamentliche Apokryphen II {^1964), pp. 4 5 4 - 6 8 .
H a m m e r s h a i m b , F,., Das Martyrium Jesajas \JSHKZ I I , i ] (1973), pp. 15—34.
French
Tisserant, E., L'Ascension d'Isaie. Traduction de la version ethiopienne avec les principals variantes
des versions grecque, latines et slave avec introduction et notes (1909).
Bibliography
Clemen, C , ' D i e Himmelfahrt des Jesaja, ein altestes Zeugnis fiir d a s romische
Martyrium d e s Petrus', Z W T h 3 9 (1896), pp. 388-415.
Robinson, A., ' T h e Ascension of Isaiah', H D B I I , p p . 499—501.
Littmann, E., 'Isaiah, Ascension of, E J V I , p p . 642—3.
Charles, R . H., a n d Box, G. H . , The Ascension of Isaiah (1919).
Burch, v . , ' T h e Literary Unity of the Ascension of Isaiah', J T h S t 20 (1919), p p . 17-23.
Idem, 'Material for the I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the Ascensio Isaiae', ibid. 21 (1920), p p . 249-65.
Schoeps, H . J., Die judischen Prophetenmorde (1943).
Flusser, D . , ' T h e Apocryphal Book of Ascensio Isaiae a n d t h e Dead Sea Sect', l E J 3
(1953). PP- 30-47-
Rist, M., 'Isaiah, Ascension of, IDB I I , pp. 744-6.
Philonenko, M . , 'Le m a r t y r e d'Esaie et l'histoire de la secte d e Q u m r a n ' , Cahiers de la
RHPhR41 (1967), p p . i - i o .
Denis, I P G A T , p p . 170-6.
Stone, M . E., 'Isaiah, M a r t y r d o m of, E n c . J u d . 9, cols. 7 1 - 2 .
Caquot, A . , 'Bref commentaire du M a r t y r e d'Isaie', Semitica 23 (1973), pp. 6 5 - 9 3 .
NorelH, E . , 'II m a r d r i o di Isaia come testimonium a n d g i u d a i c o ' , H e n o c h 2 (1980), pp.
37-57-
Chariesworth, J . H . , P M R S , p p . 125-30, 289-90.
Nickelsburg, G. W . E., J L B B M , pp. 142-5, 157, 159.
Pesce, M . (ed.), Isaia, il diletto e la chiesa—Visione ed esegesi profetica cristiano-primitiva
nell'Ascensione di Isaia (1983).
g. Apocryphal Fragments
C a v e s 2 a n d 6 h a v e y i e l d e d s m a l l r e m a i n s o f w o r k s w h i c h s e e m t o be
apocryphal narratives in Hebrew.
2Q21 a n d 2Q22 a r e t e n t a t i v e l y d e s c r i b e d as a M o s e s A p o c r y p h o n and
a David Apocryphon. Both are said to represent 'Herodian'
c a l l i g r a p h y . T h e f o r m e r m e n t i o n s t w o o f t h e s o n s of A a r o n a n d cites
w h a t m a y b e a p r a y e r o f M o s e s . T h e s e c o n d , w h i c h is r e l a t e d to a n as
yet unpublished manuscript from C a v e 4, m a y d e r i v e from David's
a c c o u n t of h i s fight w i t h G o l i a t h . 6Q^, palaeographically assigned to
the first half of the first century B.C., is j u d g e d to reflect the
S a m u e l - K i n g s cycle w i t h o d d identifiable n a m e s s u c h a s D a v i d , G a t h ,
t h e Philistines, the king of M o a b , e t c .
Editions
Baillet, M . , D J D I I I , p p . 79-82, 119-23.
VII. I N C A N T A T I O N S A N DB O O K S O F M A G I C
by D r P. S . A l e x a n d e r
(University of Manchester)
T o fail to c o n s i d e r m a g i c w o u l d be t o n e g l e c t a n a r e a o f i m m e n s e
i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e s t u d y of e a r l y J u d a i s m . I n c a n t a d o n s a n d b o o k s o f
m a g i c , b e i n g i n t e n d e d for p r a c d c a l use, a r e n o t l i t e r a t u r e in t h e p r o p e r
sense ( t h o u g h s o m e c o n t a i n passages o f l i t e r a r y , e v e n p o e d c , p o w e r ) ,
b u t b e l o n g essentially t o t h e r e a l m of folklore. Y e t t h e r e i n lies t h e i r
significance, for t h e y o p e n u p a r e a s of p o p u l a r religion w h i c h a r e o f t e n
i n a d e q u a t e l y r e p r e s e n t e d in t h e oflhcial l i t e r a r y texts, a n d w h i c h a r e i n
c o n s e q u e n c e f r e q u e n t l y i g n o r e d b y h i s t o r i a n s . As a n i n d i c a t o r o f t h e
s p i r i t u a l a t m o s p h e r e in w h i c h l a r g e sections o f the p o p u l a c e l i v e d — r i c h
a n d poor, educated a n d i g n o r a n t — t h e i r importance can h a r d l y be
overestimated.
M a g i c Jlourished a m o n g the J e w s despite strong a n d persistent
c o n d e m n a t i o n b)rdie frfigious authority.'^ H e a l i n g by t h i s j T i e ^ n s - A ^ ^
especiairy c o m m b h , sickness b e i n g w i d e l y d i a g n o s e d as c a u s e d ^ b y
m a l e v o f e n t i n v a d i n g spirits w h i c h c o u l d o n l y b e d r i v e n p u t b y t h e
a p p r o p r i a t e i n c a n t a t i o n s a n d spells. I n J e w i s h as i n n o n - J e w i s h c u l t u r e ,
t h e dividing-line b e t w e e n medicine a n d magic, doctor a n d m a g i c i a n ,
w a s e x t r e m e l y t h i n . J u b i l e e s 1 0 : 1 0 - 1 4 a c c e p t s t h a t d e m o n s Cjause
d i s e a s e . I t assierts t h a t t h e g o o d a n g e l s i n s t r u c t e d N o a h h o w to b i n d
t h e m a n d t h a t N o a h i n s c r i b e d t h e a n g e l s ' r e m e d i e s in a b o o k w h i c h h e
p a s s e d o n t o his f a v o u r i t e s o n , S h e m . J o s e p h u s t r a c e s h e a l i n g m a g i c
b a c k n o t to N o a h b u t t o S o l o m o n , a n d r e g a r d s it a s p a r t of t h e special
w i s d o m v o u c h s a f e d to h i m b y G o d . J o s e p h u s , Ant. viii 2, 5 ( 4 5 - 4 9 ) ,
c l a i m s t h a t s o m e o f S o l o m o n ' s i n c a n t a t i o n s w e r e still b e i n g successfully
used in hi? d a y . T h e b e s t - a t t e s t e d f o r m o f m a g i c a m o n g t h e j e w s i n t h e
penocT b e f o r e B a r K o k h b a is, h o w e v e r , u n q u e s t i o n a b l y e x o r c i s m . T h e
s t o r y j a f h o w T o b i a s , o n t h e a d v i c e of t h e a n g e l R a p h a e l , e x p e l l e d t h e
d e m o n w h o t h r e a t e n e d to r u i n his w e d d i n g n i g h t , m u s t s u r e l y reflect
a c t u a l , c o n t e m p o r a r y m a g i c a l p r a c d c e ( T o b i t 6:3-9, ^7~^^-> ^'•^~~3)-
T h e s a m e m a y be' s a i d o f the stories of h o w A b r a h a m , b y t h e l a y i n g on
of h a n d s , e x o r c i z e d t h e spirit t h a t afflicted P h a r a o h {iQapGen
2 0 : 1 6 - 3 1 ) , a n d o f h o w D a v i d e x o r c i z e d S a u l ' s evil s p i r i t ( P s . - P h i l o ,
LAB 6 0 : 1 - 3 ) . J o s e p h u s , Ant. v i u 2, 5 ( 4 6 - 4 8 ) , gives a s h a r p l y o b s e r v e d
a c c o u n t of a n e x o r c i s m , w h i c h h e h i m s e l f w i t n e s s e d , p e r f o r m e d b y a
J e w called E l e a z a r i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f V e s p a s i a n a n d his officers. E l e a z a r
1. See Exod. 22:17 ( H e b . i 8 ) ; Lev. 19:26, 3 1 ; 20:6, 27; Deut. 18:10-11. Cf. i En. 7 - 8 ;
2 M a c . 12:40; Sib. iii 2 1 8 - 3 0 ; Ps.-Philo, LAB 34; m S a n h . 6:6; 7:7, 11; 10:1.
VII. Incantations and Books of Magic 343
m a y h a v e b e l o n g e d to th£êcJtJ3fth£-£saeJG£s^^ elsewhere
(lescribes-arspeciafizing i n jthe a r t o f h ^ H n g and_a§.Jaeing^-e^
inedicinar pfope'ftiH O F T O ^
('videncTe c a n r e a d i l y b e f o u n d i n the^j!Je,w~-T.estanient». Jlesus,, his
clisciples, "andT" otTi^^ Jews p e r f o r m n u m e r o u s h e a l i n g exjorcisins.^
A c c o r d i n g t o A H s 19ff3—20^ ' c e r t a i n i t i n e r a n t J e w i s h e x o r c i s t s ' ( r i v e ?
TU)v TT€pTepxpfpEvuTP 'fouSôifev " " c ^ p / o a T c o aLTE^^pte^nFinnn;^^ 1
d i s a s t r o u s results, t o d r i v e o u t d e m o n s i n ^ h £ nam£.jQflêsu5JAd^
preaches*""(dpm'^w i5/Ia?^Tov O V IlavXos Kr^pvaan). Acts preserves
t h e n a r n e s o f t w o J e w i s h magiciaris,_S^ 8:9) a n d B a r - J e s u s ,
w h o w a s k n o w n i n G r e e k a s E l y r n a s M a ^ (Acts 1 3 : 6 - 1 2 ) , thougTi'
precisely w l i a f f o r m d r f h a g i c t h e y p r a c t i s e d is n o t m a d e clear. I n a
famous R a b b i n i c a n e c d o t e . Y o h a n a n I x - Z a k k a i u ^ o m p a r e s t h e r i t u a l of
t h e red heifer to e x o r c i s m ; h e gives a vivid d e s c r i p t i o n of a t y p i c a l
e x o r c i s m a n d seeins to t a E e - i i s . f f f i c a £ y . J b r . ^ . a » t e d - ^ ^ evidence
points i n t h e s a m e d i r e c t i o n ; J u s t i n M a r t y r {Trypho 85) a n d I r e n a e u s
{Adv. Haer. ii 6, 2), for e x a m p l e , b o t h testify t h a t J e w s p r a c t i s e d
exorcism.
I n r e g a r d t o t h e c o n t e n t o f e a r l y J e w i s h m a g i c , t h e r e exist basically
t w o h n e s of e v i d e n c e . First, t h e r e a r e t h e t e s t i m o n i e s to J e w i s h m a g i c a l
t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e e m b e d d e d i n h t e r a r y t e x t s — i n the Bible, in
i n t e r t e s t a m e n t a l l i t e r a t u r e (e.g. a p o c r y p h a , p s e u d e p i g r a p h a , J o s e p h u s ) ,
in the e a r l i e s t s t r a t a of T a l m u d a n d m i d r a s h , in t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t
a n d o t h e r e a r l y C h r i s t i a n d o c u m e n t s a n d in p a g a n a u t h o r s . T h i s
m a t e r i a l , s o m e of w h i c h h a s b e e n s u r v e y e d a b o v e , is crucially i m p o r t a n t
since b e c a u s e it c a n be d a t e d w i t h s o m e p r e c i s i o n i t p r o v i d e s a m e a n s of
testing t h e c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y d u b i o u s m a t e r i a l t o be c o n s i d e r e d p r e s e n t l y .
T h i s i n d i r e c t e v i d e n c e is, h o w e v e r , h a r d l y satisfactory o n its o w n as a
basis for t h e h i s t o r y of e a r l y J e w i s h m a g i c . I t is n o t r e a l l y sufficient in
q u a n t i t y or e x a c t e n o u g h in d e t a i l , a n d t h e r e is t h e a d d e d c o m p l i c a t i o n
t h a t it often o c c u r s in w o r k s w h o s e g e n e r a l o u t l o o k is hostile t o m a g i c .
T h e s e c o n d line of e v i d e n c e consists of a c t u a l J e w i s h m a g i c a l texts,
s p e c i m e n s o f j e w i s h m a g i c a l p r a x i s . T h e p r o b l e m h e r e is t h a t , a p a r t
from a few D e a d S e a scrolls f r a g m e n t s , few s u c h t e x t s c a n be c o n f i d e n t l y
d a t e d t o t h e p e r i o d c o n c e r n e d w i t h h e r e ( p r e - 1 3 5 A . D . ) . T h i s does n o t
necessarily m e a n t h a t t h e y d o n o t exist. A c o n s i d e r a b l e q u a n t i t y of
J e w i s h m a g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e o f u n c e r t a i n d a t e , a n d often of u n c e r t a i n
p r o v e n a n c e , is e x t a n t c o m p r i s i n g texts u n e a r t h e d b y a r c h a e o l o g i s t s a n d
2. Note B.J. vii 6, 3 (180-85) where Josephus describes a root to b e found near Baaras
which could be used in exorcism.
3. J e s u s : Mk. 1:25; 5^^; 9:25; M a t t . 8:28-34. T h e disciples: Acts 5:16; 16:18. O t h e r
J e w s : M k . 9:38; M a t t . 12:27.
4. Pesiqta d e R a v K a h a n a 4.7 (ed. M a n d e l b a u m I, p . 74); Pesiqta R a b b a t i 14.4 (ed.
F r i e d m a n n 65a) ; T a n h u m a Huqqat 26 (ed. Buber I V , 1 1 8 - 1 9 ) ; N u m . R . 19.8.
344 § 3 2 - Jewish Literature in Hebrew or Aramaic
t r e a s u r e - h u n t e r s (e.g. l e a d a m u l e t s a n d i n c a n t a t i o n b o w l s ) , as w e l l a s
m e d i a e v a l m a n u s c r i p t s l o d g e d in t h e H e b r a i c a c o l l e c d o n s of t h e w o r l d ' s
l i b r a r i e s . A m o n g all t h i s m a s s o f m a t e r i a l t h e r e c o u l d well be t e x t s
w h i c h in w h o l e o r in p a r t g o b a c k to o u r p e r i o d o r close to i t , or w h i c h
i f carefully u s e d c o u l d t h r o w light o n t h e d e t a i l s of e a r l y m a g i c a l t h e o r y
a n d praxis. T h e intense conservatism of magic, the theory being t h a t
f o r m u l a e a n d r i t u a l s r e t a i n t h e i r v i r t u e o n l y if r e p r o d u c e d w i t h o u t
d e v i a t i o n , is a w e l l - d o c u m e n t e d fact.^ T h e f a m o u s l a t e h a n d b o o k o f
p r a c t i c a l K a b b a l a h , Sefer Raziel (editio p r i n c e p s A m s t e r d a m 1 7 0 1 )
appears~^toôiita^^ of a n a s t o n i s h i n g l y e a r l y d a t e . ^ T h e first
ta^k t b e n iSTust B e t o identify ~as~prH;Tsery^^ earliest
s u r v i v i n g l a y e r s o f J e w i s h m a g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e , a n d to w o r k b a c k f r o m
these. T h e p r o b l e m s posed a r e very similar t o those encountered in t h e
study of early Jewish mysticism. But, unfortunately, early Jewish m a g i c
h a s n o t yet r e c e i v e d t h e s a m e a t t e n t i o n as e a r l y J e w i s h mysticism;'' t h e
field is still l a r g e l y u n s y s t e m a t i z e d a n d a l l t h a t c a n b e a t t e m p t e d h e r e is
a p r e l i m i n a r y c l e a r i n g o f the g r o u n d .
I n sifting t h r o u g h t h e m e d i a e v a l H e b r e w a n d A r a m a i c m a n u s c r i p t s
w i t h a view t o s e p a r a t i n g t h e e a r l y f r o m t h e late, J e w i s h w r i t e r s o f t h e
G a o n i c p e r i o d p r o v i d e s o m e initial h e l p . F r o m t i m e to t i m e t h e y
m e n t i o n ^ o r e v e n q u o t e from, m a g i c a f texts e x t a n t in t h e i r d a y .
P a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t are the t e s d m o n i e s of t h e Q a r a i t e s D a n i e l
a l - Q u m i s i , S a l m a n b . Y e r u h a m , Yefet b . A l i , a n d Y a q u b a l - Q i r q i s a n i .
A s t a n d a r d e l e m e n t o f t h e Q a r a i t e s ' a n t i - o r t h o d o x p o l e m i c is t h e
a s s e r t i o n t h a t t h e R a b b a n i t e s s u b s c r i b e d to all k i n d s o f fantastic a n d
irrational ideas, a n d list R a b b a n i t e w o r k s w h i c h c o n t a i n t h e s e
notions.* These records mention H e k h a l o t tracts which have now b e e n
recovig^fBdlforn m e d i a e v a l m a n u s c r i p t s , a n d a l s o refer to m a g i c a l texts.^
W o r k s b e a r i n g t h e s a m e n a i n e a r e also sdll e x t a n t a m o n g m e d i a e v a l
m a n u s c r i p t s , b u t c a r e m u s t b e exercised. I d e n t i t y o f title d o e s n o t m e a n
i d e n t i t y of c o h t e n t . H cases (e.g. Harba deMosheh^^}, it
is r e a s o n a b l y s u r e t h a t the w o r k referred t o in the G a o n i c period
5. See Origen's comments on this in Contra Celsum i 24-25. There is also astonishing
continuity in t h e way magicians were tried. For example, in sixteenth and seventeenth
century England, suspected witches were often 'swum' to establish their innocence or
guilt (see K. T h o m a s , Religion and the Decline of Magic [1978], p p . 146, 658). O r d e a l by
w a t e r in cases of sorcery is attested as early as the Code of H a m m u r a b i , sect. 2 : see J . B.
Pritchard, Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament (^1955), p. 166; further,
G. R. Driver a n d J. C . Miles, The Babylonian Laws I (1952), p p . 6 1 - 5 ; II (1955), pp.
13-15-
6. See E. R. Goodenough, Jewish Symbols in the Greco-Roman Period II (1953), pp.
Sii-13.
7. L. Blau, Das altjiidische Z<iuberwesen ( 1914), is still the only comprehensive survey.
8. J . M a n n , Textsand Studies in Jewish Historj and Literature II (1972), p p . 5 5 - 7 , 74-90.
9. See P . S. Alexander in Chariesworth, O T P I, p p . 228-9.
10. See below footnote 19.
( w h e t h e r b y K a r a i t e o r R a b b a n i t e a u t h o r s ) is essentially t h e s a m e as
t h e o n e in e x i s t e n c e , a n d t h e i m p l i c a t i o n m u s t b e t h a t s u c h a w o r k is
from t h i ; e a r l y O a o n i c o r A m d r a i c p e r i o d s a t the l a t e s t . W o r k s falling
i n t o " l h i s (Category (iff " ^ h o f ^ a r e Sefer haRazim, Harba
deMosheh, Havdalah deRabbi Aqiva, Sefer ha-Malbush, t h e t h e u r g i c p o r t i o n s
o f the H e k h a l o t t r a c t s (e.g. Sar ha-Panim, Hotam Gadol, Shiur Qpmah),
Shimmushei Torah, Shimmushei Tehillim, Shimmusha Rabba a n d Mafteah
Shelomoh.^^ I t is in these a n d s i m i l a r t e x t s t h a t o n e h a s t o look if o n e is to
r e c o v e r the e a r h e s t stages o f j e w i s h m a g i c .
O t h e r a r g u m e n t s besides G a o n i c a t t e s t a t i o n m a y b e used t o s u p p o r t
a n e a r l y d a t e . I f a t e x t c o n t a i n s ^J_Qt,o£~Greek,~ a n d exhibits m a n y
precise parallels^tioThe GjeeK i n a g i e a l p a p y r i , t h e n j h e c h a n c e s a r e h i g h
t h a t i t b e l o n g s t o the T a l m u d i c e r a . Sefer ha-Razim is a case in p o i n t .
T h e t e s t i i n o n y o T t h e ea^^ a n d n o n - J e w i s h l i t e r a t u r e r e f e r r e d to
aBove ~ d : ^ T i a s i t s p to p l a y . I f t h e r e i s ' a signified
b e t w e e n e a r l y e x t e r n a l l i t e r a r y t e s t i m o n y a n d t h e l a t e r m a g i c a l texts,
t h e n t h e r e w o u l d a p p e a r t o b e gr<Ûlids-for:T^ due
caution)~thc later m a t e r i a l i n t o t h e earlier period.
T h e p r o b l e m w i t h t h e H e b r e w a n d A r a m a i c t e x t s j u s t m e n t i o n e d is
f u n d a m e n t a l l y o n e of d a t e . T h e i r J e w i s h i d e n t i t y o r J e w i s h u s e is n o t in
q u e s t i o n . T h e r e exists, h o w e v e r , a n o t h e r b o d y of m a t e r i a l w h o s e
g e n e r a l l y e a r l y d a t e is n o t i n d i s p u t e b u t w h o s e J e w i s h n e s s is u n c e r t a i n .
G o o d e n o u g h has collected a n d w o r k e d over m u c h of it i n t h e s e c t i o n o n
c h a r m s a n d a m u l e t s i n Jewish Symbols, v o l . 1 1 . ' ^ T h e G r e e k p a p y r i
i l l u s t r a t e t h e p r o b l e m of t h e s e texts v e r y well. M a n y p u b l i s h e d by
P r e i s e n d a n z in Papyri Graecae Magicae ( = P G M ) c l e a r l y c o n t a i n J e w i s h
elements. Even Campbell Bonner, w h o unlike G o o d e n o u g h was not
g i v e n t o e x a g g e r a t i o n , c o n c e d e s t h a t t h e r e a r e few G r e e k m a g i c a l texts
from l a t e a n t i q u i t y w i t h o u t s o m e sort o f j e w i s h c o m p o n e n t . ' ^ B u t a r e
t h e y e x a m p l e s o f j e w i s h m a g i c a l h t e r a t u r e ? N o t necessarily. M a g i c is
notoriously syncretistic a n d non-Jewish m a g i c i a n s w e r e p r e p a r e d to
d r a w o n a n y r e i i g i d i j i t r a d i t i b i i w h i c h offered t h e m the c h a n c e of
boosting their m a g i c a l prowess. S o m e o f these w r i d n g s , t h o u g h
pfesefvêd-irr p a g a n sdurces^^ m u s t n e v e r t h e l e s s s u r e l y h a v e o r i g i n a t e d
with" J e w i s h m a g i c i a n s . Sefer ha-Razim a n d o t h e r i n d i s p u t a b l y J e w i s h
works" demonstrate t h a t such m a t e r i a l was used b y J e w s . B u t the
11. Some of these are discussed below. For t h e others see H . Gollancz, Sefer Mafteah
Shelomoh (1914); G. Scholem, 'KST KOItin '"nO", T a r b i z 16 (1945), p p . 196-209;
Scholem, Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism (^1954), p p . 68, 7 5 - 8 , 155, 365, 368, 3 8 5 ; M .
Margalioth, Sepher Ha-Razim (1966), pp. 29-46, 5 1 - 2 ; G. Scholem, On the Kabbalah and its
Symbolism (1969), p p . 136-7; Scholem, Kabbalah (1974), p . 20 a n d passim; Scholem,
'dTSin n o y n a nmn-'n rr-iKon mioa'? -npo — to-'ps? nVnan", Tarbiz 50 (1981),
pp. 243-81.
12. E . R. Goodenough, Jewish Symbols in the Greco-Roman Period II (1953), p p . 153—295.
13. G. Bonner, Magical Amulets (1950), p . 28.
p r o b l e m m u s t be f o r m u l a t j e d - w i t b G a r e . ^ I l J s not^^y^^ to draw a
h a r d r a n d fast line b e t w e e n J e w i s h „ . a M . p a ^ n ^ ^ ;
in fact, given' t h e f u n d a m e n t a l ^ j M ^ ^ ^ ^ of m a g i c , it m a y be
m i s g u i d e d m p r i n c i p l e to^ try,ta,do-so.~In m a n y cases it is h a r d t o l a b e l a
gTverfpraxis o r text as p a g a n o r C h r i s t i a n or J e w i s h . It is s i m p l y m a g i c ,
a c o n g l o m e r a t e of motifs of d i v e r s e o r i g i n . A s p e c t r u m of t e x t s c a n
h o w e v e r be d r a w n u p r a n g i n g from t h o s e w i t h n o , o r a l m o s t n o , J e w i s h
e l e m e n t s at o n e e x t r e m e , to t h o s e w i t h a h i g h o r t o t a l l y J e w i s h c o n t e n t
at t h e o t h e r . W h e n t h i s is d o n e , it w o u l d seem o b v i o u s t h a t t e x t s
t o w a r d s t h e l a t t e r e n d o f the s p e c t r u m a r e m o r e entitled t o be classified
as J e w i s h t h a n t h o s e t o w a r d s t h e o t h e r e n d . U s i n g s u c h a n a p p r o a c h it
is c e r t a i n l y possible, as G o o d e n o u g h has d e m o n s t r a t e d , t o e x t r a c t f r o m
P G M m a t e r i a l s w i t h g o o d c l a i m to b e r e g a r d e d as J e w i s h i n o r i g i n .
W h a t follows is a s u r v e y o f the earliest r e m a i n s of J e w i s h m a g i c a l
h t e r a t u r e . O n l y a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e selection of t e x t s c a n be c o v e r e d . T h e y
a r e not l i m i t e d to e x o r c i s m o r m a g i c in a n y n a r r o w sense of t h e t e r m
b u t t a k e in m o s t o f the o c c u l t sciences. T h e justification for t h i s b r o a d
p e r s p e c t i v e is twofold. F i r s t , t h e different forms of m a g i c w e r e clearly
l i n k e d i n the m i n d s of m a n y a n c i e n t w r i t e r s ; the a n c i e n t s t h e m s e l v e s
(for w h a t e v e r r e a s o n ) t e n d to g r o u p t h e m t o g e t h e r . F o r e x a m p l e , D e u t .
1 8 : 1 0 - 1 1 , I E n . 7-8, a n d S i b y l l i n e O r a c l e s in 2 1 8 - 3 0 offer
c o m p r e h e n s i v e hsts of t h e o c c u l t s c i e n c e s — a n d d a m n t h e m all w i t h o u t
e x c e p t i o n . S e c o n d , the o c c u l t sciences, t h e n as n o w , w e r e often
i n t e r t w i n e d . P h y s i o g n o m y , for e x a m p l e , m a y b e classified as a form of
d i v i n a t i o n b u t is often l i n k e d w i t h a s t r o l o g y ; exorcism is c o n n e c t e d
with demonology and healing b u t m a y involve h e r b a h s m a n d
a s t r o l o g y . C o n s e q u e n t l y , it is i n a d v i s a b l e , a n d i n d e e d i m p o s s i b l e , to
t r e a t the v a r i o u s forms of m a g i c in i s o l a t i o n .
Bibliography
The following will serve for preliminary orientation o n Jewish m a g i c :
Blau, L., 'Magic', J E V I I I (1904), pp. 255-7.
Blau, L., Das altjiidische Zûberwesen ( 1914).
Daiches, S., Babylonian Oil Magic in the Talmud and in the Later Jewish Literature (1913).
Billerbeck, P., ' Z u r altjiidischen Damonologie', Str.-B. IV (1928), p p . 501-35.
T r a c h t e n b e r g , J., Jewish Magic and Superstition (1939).
Lieberman, S., Greek in Jewish Palestine (1942), pp. 97—114.
Scholem, G. G., 'D*''?'''?!''KiatPK T'-lSJa Wîn C p ^ D " , T a r b i z 19 (1948), p p . 160-75.
Scholem, G. G., Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism (^1954), passim.
Simon, M., Verus Israel (^^1964), p p . 394—431 ['Superstition e t magie'].
Scholem, G. G., 'Some Sources o f Jewish-Arabic Demonology', J J S 16 (1965), p p . 1-13.
Neusner, J . , A History of the Jews in Babylonia II (1966), p p . 147-50; I I I (1968), p p .
1 1 0 - 2 6 ; IV (1969), p p . 3 3 0 - 6 2 ; V (1970), pp. 174-96, 217-43.
Dan, J . , etal., 'Magic', E n c . J u d . X I (1971), cols. 703-15.
Lieberman, S., 'Some Notes on Adjuradons in Israel', in Lieberman, Texts and Studies
(1974), pp. 21-8.
Scholem, G. G., Kabbalah (1974), passim.
Urbach, E. E., The Sages: Their Concepts and Beliefs I (1975), p p . 97-183 ['Magic a n d
Miracle' / ' T h e Power of t h e Divine N a m e ' / ' T h e Celestial R e t i n u e ' ] .
Maier, J., 'Geister ( D a m o n e n ) ' , R A C I X (1976), cols. 579-85, 626-39, 668-88.
(ioldin, J., 'The Magic of M a g i c a n d Superstition', in E . S. Fiorenza (ed.), Aspects of
Religious Propaganda in Judaism and Early Christianity (1976), p p . 115-47.
Hurwitz, H . , Lilith, die erste Eva (1980).
For some further bibliography see
(J. Delling and M . Maser, Bibliographie zur jiidisch-hellenistischen und intertestamentarischen
Literatur igoo-igyo, T U 106 ( 1975), pp. 177 f [ ' Z a u b e r t e x t e ' ] .
/. Sefer ha-Razim ( The Book of Mysteries = ShR)

T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t e a r l y J e w i s h b o o k of m a g i c is t h e t r e a t i s e k n o w n as
Sefer ha-Razim. As r e c o n s t r u c t e d b y M . M a r g a l i o t h from diverse
m e d i a e v a l f r a g m e n t s , it h a s a c l e a r , l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e . T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n
tells h o w the b o o k w a s r e v e a l e d b y t h e a n g e l R a z i e l to N o a h , lists t h e
benefits t o b e d e r i v e d f r o m s t u d y i n g i t , a n d e s t a b l i s h e s a c h a i n of
t r a d i t i o n (similar t o t h a t in m A b . i ) b y w h i c h it was p a s s e d d o w n
t h r o u g h t h e a g e s . T h e n follow s e v e n s e c t i o n s d e v o t e d i n a s c e n d i n g
o r d e r to t h e s e v e n h e a v e n s . T h e w h o l e is b r o u g h t to a fitting c l i m a x b y
a l o n g a n d s o l e m n d o x o l o g y t o ' t h e O n e w h o sits u p o n t h e T h r o n e of
G l o r y ' ( 7 . 7 - 4 0 ) . S h R c l e a r l y consists of two d i s t i n c t e l e m e n t s : ( i ) a
f r a m e w o r k c o m p r i s i n g t h e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f the s e v e n h e a v e n s , p l u s t h e
c o n c l u d i n g d o x o l o g y (this s t r a t u m o f m a t e r i a l c o n t a i n s m a n y p a r a l l e l s
to t h e H e k h a l o t h t e r a t u r e ) ; (2) a series o f i n c a n t a t i o n s w o v e n i n t o t h i s
f r a m e w o r k , d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s c u r i n g sickness, h a r m i n g e n e m i e s ,
foretelling t h e f u t u r e , i n f l u e n c i n g t h e a u t h o r i t i e s , i n t e r p r e t i n g d r e a m s ,
a n d so f o r t h . A t first s i g h t it is t e m p t i n g t o identify these t w o e l e m e n t s
w i t h l i t e r a r y s o u r c e s a n d to s u p p o s e t h a t S h R h a s b e e n f o r m e d b y
c o m b i n i n g a M e r k a b a h t r a c t w i t h a collection of m a g i c a l recipies. B u t
this h y p o t h e s i s d o e s n o t r e a l l y s t a n d u p t o close a n a l y s i s . S h R
i n c o r p o r a t e s d i v e r s e m a t e r i a l s , b u t w h a t is r e m a r k a b l e is not its
diversity b u t i t s u n i t y . T h e g e n e r a l style of t h e w o r k is u n i f o r m a n d
d i s t i n c t i v e , t h e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e v a r i o u s h e a v e n s are all similar in
s t r u c t u r e , a n d t h e i n c a n t a t i o n s e c t i o n s follow a c o m m o n p a t t e r n
t h r o u g h o u t . T h e i n t e r w e a v i n g of t h e t w o s t r a t a is s h o w n most p l a i n l y
by t h e fact t h a t the a n g e l s n a m e d i n t h e h i e r a r c h i e s o f t h e c o s m o l o g i c a l
framework are the same as those invoked i n the incantations.
T h e f o l l o w i n g p a s s a g e is t y p i c a l ( 2 . 5 7 - 7 2 ) :
A. ' U p o n t h e f o u r t h step s t a n d t h e s e : S G R Y ' L , M L K Y ' L , ' W N B Y B ,
PGRY'L, 'NNY'L, KLNMYY', 'WMY'L, M P N W R , KWZZYB',
'LPY'L, PRYBY'L, SX^MYH, K D W M Y ' L , 'SMD', H W D Y H ,
Y H Z Y ' L . A s for these, t h e i r s t a t i o n is o n t h e f o u r t h s t e p .
B. T h e y are g i r d e d w i t h s t o r m a n d the s o u n d of t h e i r steps is as t h e
s o u n d of b r o n z e . T h e y fly from the east a n d t u r n f r o m t h e w e s t
t o w a r d s the g a t e {rrvXatv). T h e y a r e swift as h g h t n i n g a n d fire is

r o u n d a b o u t t h e m . T h e y w i t h h o l d sleep from m e n a n d h a v e t h e
p o w e r t o d o g o o d o r ill.
C . If y o u wish t o d e p r i v e y o u r e n e m y o f sleep, t a k e t h e h e a d of a b l a c k
d o g t h a t h a s b e e n b h n d from b i r t h a n d t a k e a strip of l e a d f r o m a
w a t e r - p i p e (pilDIDIDD = iriraXov ifjvxpo<j>6pov^^) a n d w r i t e
u p o n it [ t h e n a m e s of] t h e s e a n g e l s , a n d s a y t h u s :
D . I hand over to you, angels of disquiet who stand upon the fourth step, the life,
soul and spirit of N son of JV so that you may fetter him with chains of iron
and bind him with bars of bronze. Do not grant sleep to his eyelids, nor
slumber, nor drowsiness. Let him weep and cry like a woman in travail and do
not permit anyone to release him [from this spell].
E . W r i t e t h u s a n d p u t [the lead s t r i p ] i n t h e m o u t h of t h e d o g ' s h e a d .
P u t w a x on its m o u t h a n d seal i t w i t h a r i n g w h i c h h a s a l i o n
[ e n g r a v e d ] u p o n i t . T h e n go a n d c o n c e a l it b e h i n d his h o u s e , o r i n
t h e p l a c e w h e r e h e goes o u t a n d in.
F . If y o u wish t o release h i m , b r i n g u p [ t h e d o g ' s h e a d ] from t h e p l a c e
w h e r e i t is c o n c e a l e d , r e m o v e its seal, w i t h d r a w t h e text a n d t h r o w
it i n t o a fire. A t o n c e h e wiU fall a s l e e p . D o t h i s w i t h h u m i l i t y a n d
y o u will b e successful.'
A - B b e l o n g to t h e c o s m o l o g i c a l f r a m e w o r k , C - E to t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f
m a g i c a l recipes. B u t n o t e h o w C refers b a c k t o A , thus l o c k i n g t h e t w o
e l e m e n t s t o g e t h e r . A n a m e s t h e a n g e l s , B describes t h e i r g e n e r a l
a p p e a r a n c e a n d p o w e r s , as well a s the p u r p o s e s for w h i c h t h e y m a y b e
i n v o k e d . C illustrates t h e baqqashah-formula. w h i c h is c o m m o n in S h R :
T f y o u wish to d o such a n d such . . . t a k e s u c h a n d s u c h ' ( . . . fltt^pS DK
n p . . . inf + . Cf. t h e idv 8e dcXrjs f o r m u l a of t h e G r e e k p a p y r i , e.g. P G M
I V 7 7 3 : €dv 8e dXXip diXrjs Seinvveiv, eê KrX. T h e p r a x i s ( C - E ) involves a
n u m b e r of s t e p s : t h e p r e p a r a t i o n a n d w r i t i n g of the a m u l e t ( C ) , t h e
i n v o c a t i o n of t h e a n g e l s a n d t h e n a m i n g of t h e v i c t i m ( D ) , t h e
d e p o s i t i n g o f t h e a m u l e t in a n a p p r o p r i a t e p l a c e ( E ) . F i n a l l y ( a t F) a
f o r m u l a is g i v e n for r e v e r s i n g the spell.
O n l y one d a t a b l e reference occurs in the text, viz. 1 . 2 7 - 8 : ' T h e s e a r e
t h e angels w h o a r e o b e d i e n t in e v e r y m a t t e r d u r i n g the first a n d s e c o n d
y e a r s o f t h e fifteen y e a r cycle of t h e r e c k o n i n g of t h e G r e e k k i n g s . ' T h i s
is a n allusion to t h e fifteen y e a r i n d i c t i o n - c y c l e w h i c h b e g a n in A . D .
3 1 2 . ' ^ S h R c a n n o t , t h e n , h a v e b e e n c o m p o s e d before A . D . 3 1 2 . O n t h e
14. Cf. A. Audollent, Defixiomm Tabellae (1904), no. 155, A.28, B.23.
15. T h e discussion in M . Margalioth, Sepher Ha-Razim (1966), p p . 24—5, requires
supplementation. T h e r e seems to be little d o u b t that the fifteen year indiction-cycle
began in 312. A five year indiction-cycle m a y h a v e been instituted i n Egypt as early as
A.D. 287. See O . Seeck, 'Die Entstehung dps Indictionen-cyclus', Deutsche Zeitschrift fiir
Geschichtswissenschaft 12 (1894-5), PP- 279 ff.; E . H. Kase, A Papyrus Roll in the Princeton
Collection (1933), p p . 25-31 ; L. Amundsen, Ostraca Osloensia (1933), p p . 6 4 - 8 ; U .
o t h e r h a n d , i t is u n h k e l y to h a v e b e e n w r i t t e n close to t h a t d a t e . T h e
i n d i c t i o n - c y c l e o r i g i n a l l y h a d to d o w i t h i m p e r i a l t a x a t i o n a n d w a s
u s e d o n l y in t a x m a t t e r s . A p p a r e n t l y it w a s n o t u n t i l t h e second h a l f of
t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y t h a t it b e g a n t o b e u s e d (as i n S h R 1 . 2 7 - 8 ) for
d a t i n g i n non-fiscal c o n t e x t s . ' ^ S o S h R c a n h a r d l y h a v e b e e n p u t
t o g e t h e r before t h e e n d of t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y . I t is i m p o s s i b l e t o be
m o r e precise b e c a u s e i n d i c t i o n - r e c k o n i n g r e m a i n e d in u s e t h r o u g h o u t
t h e B y z a n t i n e e r a ( a n d , i n d e e d , d o w n to the m i d d l e a g e s ) . T h e
p r o f u s i o n of G r e e k l o a n w o r d s , t h e m a n y e x a c t p a r a l l e l s to t h e G r e e k
m a g i c a l p a p y r i , t a k e n w i t h a terminus a quo o f c. A . D . 3 5 0 , p o i n t to t h e
o r i g i n o f the w o r k in t h e B y z a n t i n e e r a . T h e n a t u r e of its H e b r e w , as
well as its G r e e k affinities, s u g g e s t S h R was c o m p o s e d i n P a l e s t i n e or
(possibly) E g y p t .
S h R c o n t a i n s m a n y s u r p r i s e s w h i c h raise a c u t e l y t h e q u e s t i o n o f its
o r t h o d o x y . A t 4 . 6 1 - 3 it gives a G r e e k p r a y e r to H e l i o s , t r a n s h t e r a t e d
i n t o H e b r e w . At 1 . 1 2 6 A p h r o d i t e is i n v o k e d as t h e e v e n i n g s t a r ; at
1. 1 7 8 H e r m e s is i n v o k e d u n d e r his n a m e Kpio<l)6pos, ' t h e r a m - b e a r e r ' ;
a n d at 2 . 5 0 - 4 a n d 2.166—71 t h e m o o n is i n v o k e d , i .176—85 gives a spell
for n e c r o m a n c y , a f o r m of d i v i n a t i o n expressly c o n d e m n e d in t h e
T o r a h ( D e u t . 1 8 : 1 0 - 1 1 ; L e v . 1 9 : 3 1 ) . A t 3 3 5 - 4 3 t h e r e is a spell for
success a t t h e c h a r i o t r a c e s . T o p r e v e n t a r i v e r o r the sea f l o o d i n g a
t o w n , 2 . I I 4 — 1 7 p r e s c r i b e s m a k i n g a n i m a g e of a t y p e a p p a r e n t l y
f o r b i d d e n in m A Z 3 : 1 . M a r g a h o t h w a s c o n v i n c e d t h a t the a u t h o r of
S h R w a s h e r e t i c a l a n d t h a t t h e w o r k e m a n a t e d f r o m t h e circles of t h e
e a r l y minim,^^ b u t such a c o n c l u s i o n s h o u l d n o t be j u m p e d at too
quickly. Doubtless, some early R a b b i n i c authorities would h a v e
c o n d e m n e d t h e s u b j e c t - m a t t e r o f S h R as minut, b u t t h e r e is g o o d
e v i d e n c e to s u g g e s t t h a t s u c h m a t e r i a l c i r c u l a t e d a t t h e v e r y h e a r t of
R a b b i n i c society. T h e a u t h o r of S h R was c e r t a i n l y n o i g n o r a m u s .
A l t h o u g h his w o r k m a y reflect p o p u l a r belief a n d p r a c t i c e , h e w r i t e s
g o o d H e b r e w a n d w a s p a t e n t l y a m a n of s o m e l e a r n i n g .
Bibliography
T h e Hebrew text of ShR is printed in M . M a r g a l i o t h , Sepher Ha-Razim: A Newly
Discovered Book of Magic from the Talmudic Period (1966). Margalioth's introducdon and
notes are useful. Editorially, Margalioth exercised a very heavy h a n d and produced a
highly eclecdc, heavily corrected text. H i s variae lectiones at the back should n o t be
ignored. However, he d i d not invent S h R : there is every reason to believe t h a t a work of
the form he postulates did once exist. M . A. M o r g a n , Sepher Ha-Razim: The Book of
Mysteries (1983), gives a n English version of Margalioth's text. O n ShR see further:
M e r c h a v y a , Ch., Review of Margalioth, Sepher Ha-Razim, Kirjath Sepher 42 (1966—7),
PP- 297-303 [ H e b r e w ] .
Wilcken, Archiv fiir Papyrusforschung 11 (1955), p p . 313-14.

16. E . J . Bickerman, Chronology of the Ancient World (^1980), p. 78.
17. M a r g a h o t h , Sepher Ha-Razim (1966), p p . X V - X V l .
Kasher, M . M., Torah Shelemah X X I I (1967), pp. 188-92 [Hebrew].

D a n , J., Review of Margalioth, Sepher Ha-Razim, Tarbiz 37 (1967-8), p p . 208-14
[Hebrew].
Maier, J . , 'Das Buch d e r Geheimnisse', J u d a i c a 24 (1968), pp. 98-111.
Maier, J . , 'Poedsch-liturgische Stiicke aus dem "Buch der Geheimnisse'", J u d a i c a 24
(1968), pp. 172-81.
M e r c h a v y a , Ch., 'Sefer H a - R a z i m ' , E n c . J u d . X I I I (1971), cols. 1594-5.
Sed, N., 'Le Sefer h a - R a z i m et la methode de "combinaison des lettres"', R E J 130
(1971), p p . 295-304.
Niggemeyer, J. H . , Beschworungsformeln aus dem 'Buch der Geheimnisse' (1975).
Gruenwald, I., Apocalyptic and Merkavah Mysticism (1980), p p . 225-34 ['Sefer H a - R a z i m ' ] .
F o r fragments of mediaeval books of magical recipes from the Cairo Genizah s e e :
R . Gottheil and W. H . Worrell, Fragments from the Cairo Genizah in the Freer Collection
(1927), no. X V ( p p . 76-81), a n d no. X X I V (pp. 106-7) i J - M a n n , Texts and Studies
II (1972), p p . 90—4; P. Schafer, Geniza-Fragmente zur Hekhalot-Literatur (1984), n o . 20;
J. Naveh a n d S. Shaked, Amulets and Magic Bowls (1985), p p . 224-36.
2. Harba deMosheh (The Sword of Moses = HdM)

T h i s text, first p u b h s h e d by G a s t e r in 1896 from a m a n u s c r i p t i n his
o w n possession ( C o d . H e b r . G a s t e r 1 7 8 ) , is, h k e S h R , a m a g i c a l
c o m p e n d i u m . P a r t I ( i n H e b r e w ) p r o v i d e s a setting for t h e strictly
p r a c t i c a l sections w h i c h follow. I t o p e n s w i t h a n a n g e l i c h i e r a r c h y in
w h i c h a r e disclosed the n a m e s of t h e a n g e l s i n c h a r g e of t h e s w o r d , a n d
it e x p l a i n s h o w t h e s e a n g e l s r e v e a l e d t h e s w o r d to M o s e s . I n s t r u c t i o n s
t h e n follow c o n c e r n i n g the e l a b o r a t e p r e p a r a t i o n s to b e m a d e if t h e
a d e p t is to u s e t h e s w o r d effectively w i t h o u t d a n g e r to himself. P a r t I I
p r e s e n t s the s w o r d itself, w h i c h consists o f a l o n g list of m a g i c a l n a m e s .
T h e s e a r e for the m o s t p a r t nomina barbara of i n d e t e r m i n a t e l a n g u a g e .
A t the e n d , h o w e v e r , t h e text b r e a k s i n t o a n A r a m a i c i n v o c a t i o n of t h e
a n g e l s o f the s w o r d . T h e s w o r d is a p p a r e n t l y r e g a r d e d as a secret n a m e
of G o d (note the q u o t a t i o n from I s . 42:8 w i t h w h i c h it c o n c l u d e s : ' I a m
t h e L o r d , this is m y N a m e ' ) , b u t i t c o n t a i n s o b v i o u s a n g e l i c n a m e s as
w e l l . I t is n o t u n c o m m o n in e a r l y J e w i s h m y s t i c a l a n d m a g i c a l texts to
find t h e s a m e secret n a m e s a p p l i e d b o t h t o G o d a n d the a n g e l s . T h e use
of t h e t e r m ' s w o r d ' for a m a g i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n can b e p a r a U e l e d in t h e
G r e e k m a g i c a l p a p y r i ; c f Siôs Aaphdvov as t h e title of P G M I V 1 7 1 9
ff. T h e c h o i c e of t h e t e r m m a y also h a v e b e e n i n f l u e n c e d b y M o s e s ' final
blessing of I s r a e l i n D e u t . 33:29, ' H a p p y are y o u , O I s r a e l , w h o is like
u n t o y o u ? A p e o p l e s a v e d by t h e L o r d , t h e shield of y o u r h e l p , a n d t h a t
is t h e s w o r d o f y o u r excellency!'
P a r t I I I (in A r a m a i c ) gives i n s t r u c t i o n s as t o the specific p u r p o s e s for
w h i c h t h e s w o r d m a y b e e m p l o y e d . T h e s e a r e similar to t h e uses of t h e
spells i n S h R , It is n o t a b l e , h o w e v e r , t h a t a h i g h p r o p o r t i o n o f H d M ' s
i n c a n t a t i o n s a r e d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s h e a l i n g a n d t h a t often t h e y e m p l o y
materia medica. T h i s h n k s H d M w i t h t h e a n c i e n t p h a r m a c o l o g i c a l
t r a d i t i o n , as r e p r e s e n t e d , for e x a m p l e , b y Dioscorides, a n d entitles i t to
be r e g a r d e d a s a n e a r l y J e w i s h w o r k o f ' s c i e n c e ' .
T h e f o l l o w i n g a r e t y p i c a l : 3 . 8 : ' F o r c r o u p (KniDDX) recite over oil
of roses from Y Y ' H to ' W N T W a n d p u t it i n his m o u t h . ' 3 . 1 0 : ' F o r
p a i n s in t h e e y e s recite o v e r w a t e r for t h r e e d a y s i n t h e m o r n i n g f r o m
H W T M Y ' S t o M S W L S a n d w a s h t h e e y e w i t h it.' 3 . 3 3 : ' F o r piles t a k e
t o w , p u t salt on i t , d i p it i n o i l , r e c i t e o v e r it from T P S M T to
Y G L W N Y ' , a n d sit on i t . '
T h e s e r e c i p e s a r e in a form c o m m o n i n H d M : ' F o r X ( = a n illness)
do Y ( = a medical p r e p a r a t i o n + a p p r o p r i a t e incantation).' T h e
baqqashah-iôrmula is also f o u n d , o r r a t h e r its A r a m a i c e q u i v a l e n t : DK
. . . 2D . . . inf. + n''573 . E . g . : 3 . 6 8 : ' I f y o u wish t o kill a m a n , t a k e
m u d from t h e t w o b a n k s of a r i v e r , m a k e a n i m a g e a n d w r i t e h i s n a m e
on it. T a k e s e v e n t h o r n s from a w i t h e r e d p a l m t r e e a n d m a k e a b o w
from r e e d w i t h t h e s t r i n g of h o r s e - s i n e w (?).' P u t t h e i m a g e i n a h o l
l o w , a i m at i t w i t h t h e b o w , a n d s h o o t it, s a y i n g a t e v e r y s h o t f r o m
' Q T D S t o P R S W S Y , " M a y N son o f N b e d e s t r o y e d ! ' "
S o m e t i m e s t h e f o r m u l a is s h o r t e n e d b y t h e o m i s s i o n o f the i n i t i a l ' I f
y o u w i s h ' . E . g . : 3 . 5 4 : ' T o c a t c h fish Cplll) t a k e a w h i t e p o t s h e r d , p u t
leaves o f t h e olive t r e e i n it, a n d r e c i t e o v e r t h e m f r o m ' N T S h W R M Y
to ' T Q N G o n t h e b a n k o f the r i v e r . '
T h e q u e s t i o n of t h e d a t e a n d p r o v e n a n c e o f H d M is c o m p l i c a t e d b y
its c o m p o s i t e n a t u r e . T h e H e b r e w i n t r o d u c t i o n is p r e s u m a b l y a l a t e r
a d d i t i o n to t h e A r a m a i c sections. A terminus ad quem is p r o v i d e d by t h e
c l e a r r e f e r e n c e to H d M i n t h e f a m o u s r e s p o n s u m of H a i G a o n ( d . 1038)
to K a i r w a n : ' A s f o r t h e t e x t s y o u h a v e s e e n w h i c h s t a t e , " H e w h o
wants to do such a n d such, let h i m do such a n d such", we h a v e very
m a n y of t h e m , such as t h e b o o k c a l l e d Sefer ha- Tashar, or t h e o n e k n o w n
as Harba deMosheh w h i c h b e g i n s , " F o u r a n g e l s a r e a p p o i n t e d over t h e
s w o r d " , a n d i n w h i c h a r e e x a l t e d a n d w o n d e r f u l t h i n g s ; o r t h e r e is t h e
b o o k called Raza Rabba, a s w e l l as s e p a r a t e , i n d i v i d u a l f o r m u l a e w h i c h
a r e i n n u m e r a b l e . ' ' ^ T h e p r o v e n a n c e of H d M is v e r y u n c e r t a i n . T h e
A r a m a i c of p a r t s I I a n d I I I is B a b y l o n i a n , w h i c h p o i n t s t o B a b y l o n i a as
t h e p l a c e of o r i g i n . T h i s w o u l d also b e s u p p o r t e d b y t h e fact t h a t G r e e k
e l e m e n t s a r e n o t s o p r o m i n e n t in H d M as i n S h R ( t h o u g h n o t e t h e
reference to x"'P'^V^ UparLKos^" i n 3 . 1 0 6 ) . T h e H e b r e w of p a r t I,
18. T h e vocabulary of H d M is extremely difficult. 1 simply accept Gaster's guesses

here. T h e general sense is clear enough.
19. See Ta'am êqenim 56b; Lewin, 'Osar ha-Ge'onim IV, H a g i g a h 2 0 - 2 1 .
20. T h e UpariKog x^-pTris w a s a choice q u a h t y of p a p y r u s ; see Strabo xvii i, 15 a n d
Pliny, N.H. xiii 74. Further, N . Lewis, Papyrus in Classical Antiquity (1974), p p . 4 3 - 4 . It
was much favoured for the writing of spells: see P G M I I 6of, •ypaif>e d^vpvT] SITTAOUV els
h o w e v e r , a p p e a r s to b e of a P a l e s t i n i a n v a r i e t y . ^ '
Bibliography
F o r text, translation a n d introduction to H d M see M . Gaster, Studies and Texts (1925-8), I
p p . 288-337, H I p p . 69-103 (reprinted New York, 1971, with a new prolegomenon
b y T . Gaster). Unfortunately, C o d . H e b r . Gaster 178 is a rather poor manuscript,
a n d Gaster's transcription of it is somewhat careless. Sassoon 2 9 0 offers the same
version of H d M , but i n a better text. For this manuscript see M. B e n a y a h u , ]Cnt£? "1D0'
'DWTTI ÔV •'ai'? D*7ivn ^^0'', T e m i r i n i (1972), p p . 187-218, esp. p p . 197 a n d
202. O t h e r versions of H d M are known. These have the same general form a s t h e
Gaster version (i.e. a list of magical names plus recipes as to their use), b u t show little
overlap of specific content. Note t h e following: (a) Oxford 1531, fols. 6 i a - 6 3 b , DtTD
TWTil K 3 i n Schafer, Synopse §§ 598—622 supersedes Gaster's transcription o f this
text {Studies and Texts I I I , pp. 88-91). New York, J T S 8128, fols. 35a-36b, p
nWDT (Schafer, Synopse §§ 598-622) gives the same text with minor variations.
T h o u g h the superscription is in A r a m a i c , this version of H d M is largely H e b r e w .
T h e sword is identified as t h e n a m e of G o d revealed to Moses a t the bush (§§ 598,
606). T h e N e w York manuscript claims the sword was revealed to R. Ishmael b .
Elisha (§ 598). This ties t h e work into the M e r k a b a h tradition in which Ishmael
plays a prominent part, (b) New York, J T S 8128, fols. 38a-38b, N S i n NIH f l H
TWIil (Schafer, Synopse §§ 640-50). This is in A r a m a i c throughout. § 646 refers t o the
u s e oixdpTrfs lepaTiKos .
3 . Incantation Bowls and Amulets in Hebrew and Aramaic

S h R a n d H d M are magical handbooks of the kind a practising
m a g i c i a n w o u l d h a v e c o n s u l t e d r e g u l a r l y in t h e c o u r s e of his business.
T h e y tell h i m h o w to w r i t e a m u l e t s for all k i n d s o f s i t u a t i o n s a n d t h e y
p r o v i d e h i m w i t h ' b l a n k ' c h a r m s i n w h i c h ' N son o f N ' m a r k s t h e s p o t
w h e r e t h e client's n a m e was t o b e i n s e r t e d . B u t t h e r e also s u r v i v e f r o m
t h e T a l m u d i c e r a a c t u a l a m u l e t s a n d c h a r m s , in w h i c h t h e t h e o r y o f
t h e h a n d b o o k s h a s b e e n p u t i n t o p r a c t i c e , a n d t h e client's n a m e
filled in.
(a) I n c a n t a t i o n Bowls
T h e s e a r e o r d i n a r y , u n g l a z e d e a r t h e n w a r e b o w l s o n w h i c h spells
h a v e b e e n i n s c r i b e d in i n k . T h e spell is n o r m a l l y w r i t t e n o n t h e i n n e r
surface of t h e b o w l , b u t s o m e t i m e s , w h e n t h e text is v e r y l o n g , it spills
o v e r o n t o t h e b a c k . T h e b o w l s v a r y in s i z e ; t h e a v e r a g e a r e a r o u n d 16
c m m a x . in d i a m e t e r b y 5 c m m a x . i n d e p t h , b u t o n e of t h e l a r g e s t
( N a v e h - S h a k e d B o w l 1 3 , p . 204) m e a s u r e s 34 c m b y 15 c m . T h e y c o m e
f r o m a wide a r e a of I r a q a n d w e s t e r n I r a n , b u t t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t
single collection is u n d o u b t e d l y t h a t u n e a r t h e d a t N i p p u r b y t h e
U n i v e r s i t y o f P e n n s y l v a n i a E x p e d i t i o n i n 1 8 8 8 - 9 . T h e N i p p u r g r o u p is
xdpTTjv UpariKov; P G M IV 2 3 6 3 : ypd<f)f eis xdpTrjv lepariKov TO. ovofiaTa ravTa; PGM V
305, Xaôjv xdpTTjv itpariKov KTX. Further, M . M a r g a l i o t h , Sepher Ha-Razim (1966), pp.
1-2.
21. M. Margalioth, Sepher Ha-Razim (1966), p. 30.
significant n o t only b e c a u s e of its q u a n t i t y (40 b o w l s ) , b u t b e c a u s e t h e

bowls w e r e f o u n d in situ i n a w e l l stratified a r c h a e o l o g i c a l c o n t e x t w h i c h
gives v i t a l clues a s to t h e i r d a t e a n d u s e . O n t h e basis of t h e
stratification, t h e b o w l s c a n b e assigned t o c. A . D . 3 0 0 - 6 0 0 . S c r i p t a n d
l a n g u a g e p o i n t t o t h e s a m e p e r i o d . W i t h few e x c e p t i o n s , i t seems likely
t h a t m o s t of t h o s e t h a t s u r v i v e , n o t o n l y t h o s e f r o m N i p p u r o r o t h e r
k n o w n sites b u t also those of u n c e r t a i n p r o v e n a n c e , w e r e w r i t t e n before
A . D . 600.
T h e b o w l s a r e d o m e s t i c p h y l a c t e r i e s , d e s i g n e d to p r o t e c t t h e p e r s o n s
n a m e d i n t h e m f r o m v a r i o u s ills a n d d i s a s t e r s ; from d e m o n s t h a t c a u s e
sickness, d o m e s t i c d i s c o r d , d a m a g e t o c a t t l e o r p r o p e r t y , from g h o s t s
t h a t m i g h t h a u n t t h e h o u s e . T h e r e a r e l o v e - c h a r m s ( M o n t g o m e r y 13
a n d 2 8 ) , as w e l l as c h a r m s t o p r o t e c t u n b o r n c h i l d r e n a n d w o m e n in
c h i l d b i r t h ( M o n t g o m e r y 39). O n e long text ( N a v e h - S h a k e d Bowl 9)
c u r s i n g a n e n e m y consists l a r g e l y of a c a t e n a o f S c r i p t u r a l verses. Liliths
a n d t h e i r m a l e c o u n t e r p a r t s , Lilis, a r e often i d e n t i f i e d a s the s o u r c e of
t h e t r o u b l e a n d e x o r c i z e d . T h e b o w l s w e r e f o u n d m o s t l y inside t h e
houses, u s u a l l y m o r e t h a n o n e to a h o u s e . A c o m m o n p r a c t i c e a p p e a r s
to h a v e b e e n t o b u r y a b o w l a t e a c h c o r n e r of t h e h o u s e in o r d e r to
establish a p r o t e c t i v e c o r d o n r o u n d it. T h i s e x p l a i n s w h y several copies
of t h e s a m e b o w l w e r e m a d e o u t f o r t h e s a m e c l i e n t (cf. M o n t g o m e r y
21, 22, 23). B o w l s m a y a l s o h a v e b e e n p l a c e d at t h e t h r e s h o l d
( M o n t g o m e r y 6.4, 6 ; N a v e h - S h a k e d Bowl 5.1), a n d in t h e b e d
c h a m b e r ( M o n t g o m e r y 7.1 ; 8 . 5 ; 19.3). S o m e b o w l s w e r e i n t e n d e d for
use in t h e c e m e t e r y , p r e s u m a b l y to l a y t h e g h o s t s of t h e dead.^^
T h e bowls a r e in three languages : A r a m a i c , Syriac a n d M a n d a e a n .
T h e A r a m a i c is of t h e t y p e w e l l k n o w n from t h e B a b y l o n i a n T a l m u d .
S o m e b o w l s a r e p a t e n t l y of J e w i s h o r i g i n , b u t h e r e t o o s y n c r e t i s m
prevails a n d i t is h a r d t o d r a w a d i v i d i n g l i n e b e t w e e n J e w i s h a n d
n o n - J e w i s h m a g i c . T h e p r o b l e m is well i l l u s t r a t e d b y o n e M a n d a e a n
b o w l ( M c C u l l o u g h D ) w h i c h , t h o u g h e v i d e n t l y w r i t t e n for a
M a n d a e a n client, c o n t a i n s s t r i k i n g a n d specific references t o e l e m e n t s of
M e r k a b a h m y s d c i s m ( h n e s 5—6). I t is a p r o b l e m t o k n o w w h e t h e r this
text w a s written b y a Jewish m a g i c i a n w h o h a p p e n e d to k n o w
M a n d a e a n , o r by a M a n d a e a n w h o d r e w o n J e w i s h s o u r c e s .
2 2 . J. A . M o n t g o m e r y , Aramaic Incantation Texts from Nippur ( 1 9 1 3 ) , p p . 14, 4 3 . Some

bowls published b y Pognon were inscribed N'''ni3p r f S l , 'for the cemetery'; see further J.
Naveh a n d S. Shaked, Amulets and Magic Bowls ( 1 9 8 5 ) , p . 16. N o t e Naveh-Shaked Bowl
4.2, X"iap*T SnCN N S (X) N p n , ' T h i s is " " the spell of the t o m b ' .
2 3 . Note the j u d g e m e n t o f j . Naveh and S. Shaked, Amulets and Magic Bowls ( 1 9 8 5 ) , pp.
1 7 - 1 8 . In the Ught of t h e specifically Jewish elements, ' o n e must come to the conclusion
that the writers of these Jewish-Aramaic bowls were in all probability practitioners of
magic who belonged to the Jewish c o m m u n i t y . T h i s conclusion does n o t necessarily apply
to t h e clients, w h o ordered t h e bowls written for healing, protection o r other purposes.
T h e r e is, i n fact, a combination of two factors which makes it likely that not a few of these
354 §32- Jewish Literature in LLehrew or Aramaic
T h e i n c a n t a t i o n s t h e m s e l v e s a r e n o t in a n y s t a n d a r d h t e r a r y f o r m ,
t h o u g h c e r t a i n motifs a n d e l e m e n t s r e c u r . T h e text, w h i c h is a l w a y s
careful to n a m e t h e client o r clients o n w h o s e b e h a l f it w a s w r i t t e n ,
n o r m a l l y d e s c r i b e s t h e d e m o n or d e m o n s , a n d t h e i r activities, a g a i n s t
w h o m the i n c a n t a t i o n is d i r e c t e d . S o m e t i m e s t h e y a r e specifically
n a m e d a n d their g e n e a l o g y g i v e n . T h e y a r e a d j u r e d n o t to h a r m t h e
c l i e n t i n a v a r i e t y of w a y s . S o m e t i m e s t h e y a r e r e s t r a i n e d b y t h e u s e o f
nomina barbara; s o m e t i m e s m o r e powerful, beneficent s p i r i t u a l forces
( G o d , the g o o d a n g e l s ) a r e s u m m o n e d a g a i n s t t h e m ; s o m e t i m e s a
f a m o u s a n d p o t e n t spell is e m p l o y e d ( ' t h e c h a r m o f E n o c h ' ,
M o n t g o m e r y 4.2 ; ' t h e spell of t h e m o n s t e r L e v i a t h a n ' , M o n t g o m e r y
2 . 4 ; ' t h e b a n [ K D W i n S ] w h i c h fell on M t . H e r m o n ' , M o n t g o m e r y 2 . 6 ;
' t h e seal of S o l o m o n ' , M o n t g o m e r y 3 9 . 1 0 - 1 1 ) ; s o m e t i m e s a verse o f
S c r i p t u r e p r o v i d e s t h e w o r d of p o w e r (e.g. the Shema', M o n t g o m e r y
2 6 . 1 , N a v e h - S h a k e d B o w l 1 1 . 6 ; N u m . 10:35, N a v e h - S h a k e d Bowl 3 . 5 ;
Z e c h . 3:2, N a v e h - S h a k e d Bowl 11.5—6). O f special i n t e r e s t is t h e
m a g i c a l get o f J o s h u a b . P e r a h y a , w h i c h is u s e d o n several o c c a s i o n s t o
d i v o r c e the d e m o n from the client. E.g. N a v e h - S h a k e d B o w l 5 :
'I b i n d , tie a n d s u p p r e s s all d e m o n s a n d h a r m f u l spirits t h a t a r e i n
t h e w o r l d , w h e t h e r m a l e o r female, from t h e g r e a t e s t of t h e m t o t h e
least, from t h e y o u n g to t h e o l d , w h e t h e r I k n o w his n a m e o r d o n o t
k n o w his n a m e . I n case I d o n o t k n o w t h e n a m e , it h a s a l r e a d y b e e n
e x p l a i n e d to m e a t t h e seven d a y s o f c r e a t i o n . W h a t h a s n o t b e e n
disclosed to m e a t the t i m e of t h e seven d a y s of c r e a t i o n , w a s
disclosed to m e in t h e get t h a t c a m e h e r e from across the s e a , w h i c h
w a s w r i t t e n a n d s e n t to^* R a b b i J o s h u a b a r P e r a h y a . J u s t as t h e r e
w a s a Lilith w h o s t r a n g l e d p e o p l e , a n d R a b b i J o s h u a s e n t a b a n
a g a i n s t h e r , b u t she did n o t a c c e p t i t b e c a u s e h e d i d not k n o w h e r
n a m e ; a n d h e r n a m e w a s w r i t t e n i n the get, a n d a n a n n o u n c e m e n t
customers were indeed non-Jews. First, there is t h e fact that Jewish bowls constitute the
great majority of inscribed earthenware bowls from Mesopotamia and Iran, while J e w s
certainly did not form more t h a n a minority of the population; and secondly, there is the
fact that the names of most of t h e chents were not Jewish, and some of them are
theophoric names of Zoroastrian significance. T h e second fact would not be particularly
significant on its own, since there c a n be n o d o u b t that many Jews carried Persian and
other non-Jewish names. However, when it is combined with the first consideration, it
a d d s some weight to t h e supposition that magic m a y have been considered to some extent
a Jewish specialization, and that pagans and Zoroastrians often turned to Jewish
practitioners when they sought an effective remedy, protection o r curse.'
24. T h e situation envisaged appears to b e this: J o s h u a bar P e r a h y a issues a get t o the
Lilith w h o refuses to accept it because she is not specifically named i n it. Heaven then
intervenes by sending down a get, duly n a m i n g the Lilith, which J o s h u a uses. This
heavenly get falls into t h e legal category o f ' a bill of divorce from beyond the sea'. It is this
get which the writer of the bowl invokes against the demons. Perhaps lines 5-6, nriDT
HTIIB Vmrr •'a-lV ITTttn, should be translated, 'which they wrote and dispatched for
R. J o s h u a bar P e r a h y a ' .
was m a d e a g a i n s t h e r in h e a v e n by a get t h a t c a m e h e r e from across

the s e a ; s o y o u are b o u n d , tied a n d s u p p r e s s e d all o f you b e n e a t h
the feet o f the s a i d M a r n a q a s o n of Q a l a . I n t h e n a m e of G a b r i e l ,
the m i g h t y h e r o , w h o kills all h e r o e s w h o are v i c t o r i o u s i n b a t t l e ,
a n d i n t h e n a m e of Y a h o ' e l , w h o s h u t s the m o u t h s of all [ h e r o e s ] . I n
the n a m e o f Y a h , Y a h , Y a h , S a b a o t h . A m e n , A m e n , S e l a h . '
C f M o n t g o m e r y 8.7—10 a n d 1 7 . i - i i .
(b) A m u l e t s
Bowl-magic appears to h a v e b e e n a distinctively M e s o p o t a m i a n
p h e n o m e n o n . E v e n the b o w l s of u n c e r t a i n p r o v e n a n c e a p p e a r to h a v e
o r i g i n a t e d in t h e e a s t . I n the w e s t a different p r a c t i c e p r e v a i l e d in t h a t
i n c a n t a t i o n s i n A r a m a i c , or i n a m i x t u r e of H e b r e w a n d A r a m a i c , w e r e
incised w i t h a stylus o n t h i n m e t a l sheets (gold, silver, c o p p e r , l e a d ) ,
w h i c h w e r e t h e n rolled u p a n d i n s e r t e d i n t o a m e t a l c o n t a i n e r , r a t h e r
Uke a mezuzah-csise. T h i s c o u l d be w o r n o n t h e b o d y , h u n g in t h e h o u s e ,
or b u r i e d in a s u i t a b l e s p o t i n the g r o u n d . S o m e s e v e n t e e n s u c h m e t a l
a m u l e t s are k n o w n (far fewer in n u m b e r t h a n t h e bowls^^) d e r i v i n g
from S y r i a , P a l e s t i n e , E g y p t a n d T u r k e y . T o these m a y be a d d e d t h e
l o v e - c h a r m o n p o t s h e r d f r o m H o r v a t R i m m o n (13 km n o r t h of
B e e r - S h e b a ) ( N a v e h - S h a k e d A m u l e t 1 0 ) . T h e c h o i c e of p o t s h e r d in this
case w a s i n t e g r a l t o t h e p r a x i s of t h e c h a r m . T h e i n c a n t a t i o n , w r i t t e n
o n u n b a k e d c l a y , w a s ' a c t i v a t e d ' b y the c l a y b e i n g fired.
S e v e r a l of t h e a m u l e t s w e r e f o u n d b y a r c h a e o l o g i s t s i n well-stratified
remains. T h r e e from N i r i m in t h e north-west Negev (Naveh-Shaked
A m u l e t s u—13) c a n b e d a t e d t o the sixth c e n t u r y A . D . ; t w o f r o m
H o r v a t K a n a f in t h e G o l a n ( N a v e h - S h a k e d A m u l e t s 2 - 3 ) b e l o n g t o the
sixth o r e a r l y s e v e n t h c e n t u r i e s ; t h e H o r v a t R i m m o n s h e r d j u s t
m e n t i o n e d is f r o m t h e fifth to s i x t h c e n t u r i e s . I n o t h e r w o r d s , the
e v i d e n c e i n d i c a t e s t h a t these a m u l e t s a r e f r o m t h e s a m e p e r i o d as the
bowls."^ I t s e e m s t h a t t h e s a m e s o r t o f m a g i c w a s p r a c t i s e d by J e w s
t h r o u g h o u t t h e w h o l e of t h e m i d d l e e a s t , a n d t h a t t h e s u b s t a n c e on
w h i c h t h e a m u l e t or i n c a n t a t i o n was w r i t t e n w a s r a t h e r s e c o n d a r y .
J e w s in t h e T a l m u d i c p e r i o d d o u b t l e s s w r o t e a m u l e t s o n p a p y r u s , c l o t h ,
a n d o t h e r less d u r a b l e m a t e r i a l s , b u t a p a r t from a n A r a m a i c p a p y r u s
fragment from O x y r h y n c h u s these have not survived.
Bibliography
C. D. Isbell gathered all (or most) of the A r a m a i c bowls together in his Corpus of Aramaic
Incantation Bowts (1975). He gives full details of the original pubHcations, which should
always b e consulted. T h e following works h a v e a p p e a r e d since 1975 :
Isbell, G. D., ' T w o N e w Aramaic I n c a n t a t i o n Bowls', B A S O R 223 (1976), p p . 15-23.
25. O v e r seventy bowls in Jewish A r a m a i c have been p u b h s h e d to d a t e .

26. N o t e Naveh-Shaked Amulet 13.12-22 which uses Exod. 15:26 as a charm, contrary
to m S a n h . 10:1. Cf 3 E n . 4 8 D : i o .
Geller, M . J., ' T w o I n c a n t a t i o n Bowls Inscribed in Syriac a n d Aramaic', B S O A S 39

(1976), pp. 422-7.
Gordon, C. H., 'Two A r a m a i c Incantations', in G. A. Tuttle (ed.). Biblical and Near
Eastern Studies: Essays in Honour of W. S. LaSor (1978), pp. 231-44.
Geller, M . J., ' F o u r Aramaic Incantation Bowls', in J. R e n d s b u r g et al. (eds.), The Bible
World: Essays in Honour of Cyrus H. Gordon (1980), pp. 47-60.
Harviainen, T., 'An A r a m a i c Incantation Bowl from Borsippa. Another Specimen of
Eastern Aramaic " K o i n e " ' , Studia Orientalia, edited b y the Finnish Oriental Society,
51:14 (1981).
Naveh, J . , and Shaked, S., Amulets and Magic Bowls: Aramaic Incantations of Late Antiquity
(1985). Thirteen n e w bowls.
In general on the bowls see:
Montgomery, J . A., Aramaic Incantation Texts from Nippur (1913).
Epstein, J . N., 'Closes babylo-arameennes', REJ 73 (1921), p p . 2 7 - 5 8 ; 74 (1922), pp.
40-72.
Rossell, W . H., A Handbook of Aramaic Magical Texts (1953)-
Y a m a u c h i , E. M . , 'Aramaic Magic Bowls', J A O S 85 (1965), pp. 511-23.
Y a m a u c h i , E. M . , Mandaic Incantation Texts (1967).
McCullough, W . S., Jewish and Mandaean Incantation Bowls in the Royal Ontario Museum
(1967)-
Levine, B. A., ' T h e Language of the Magical Bowls', in J . Neusner, A History of the Jews in
BabyloniaW (1970), pp. 343-75.
H a m i l t o n , V. P., Syriac Incantation Bowls, P h D Brandeis University (University
Microfilms, Ann Arbor Michigan 1971).
K a u f m a n n , S. A., 'A U n i q u e M a g i c Bowl from Nippur', J N E S 32 (1973), pp. 170-4.
Schiffrnan, L. H . , 'A Forty-two Letter Divine N a m e i n the A r a m a i c Magic Bowls',
Bulletin of t h e Institute ofJewish Studies i (1973), p p . 97-102.
Greenfield, J. C , 'Notes on Some Aramaic and M a n d a i c Magic Bowls', The J o u r n a l of
the Ancient Near Eastern Society of Columbia University 5 ( = T h e Gaster
Festschrift) (1973), p p . 149-56.
Isbell, C. D., ' T h e Story of the Aramaic Magical I n c a n t a t i o n Bowls', B A 41 (1978), pp.
5-16.
All the Aramaic and H e b r e w amulets from Syria-Pales tine a n d adjacent regions have
been collected a n d thoroughly re-edited in J . N a v e h and S. Shaked, Amulets and Magic
Bowls (1985), p p . 40-122. T h e i r only omissions are the texts published by J . A.
M o n t g o m e r y in 'Some Early Amulets from Palestine', J A O S 31 (1911), p p . 272-81.
Naveh and Shaked give full references to the earUer publications. The A r a m a i c papyrus
amulet from Oxyrhynchus (Bodleian Ms. H e b . d. 83(P) S.C. 37016) was first edited by
A. E. Cowley i n 'Notes on H e b r e w Papyrus F r a g m e n t s from Oxyrhynchus', J E A 2
(1915), p. 209-13. See now M . J . Geller, ' A n Aramaic Incantation from Oxyrhynchus',
Z P E 58 (1985), p p . 9 6 - 8 . N a v e h and Shaked, Amulets and Magic Bowls, p p . 216-40, edit a
n u m b e r of mediaeval amulets from t h e Cairo Genizah. O n these later amulets, and on
Jewish amulets in general, consult the following:
Blau, L., ' A m u l e t ' , J E I (1901), p p . 546-50.
Gaster, M . , 'Charms and Amulets (Jewish)', H E R E I I I (1910), p p . 451-5.
Casanowicz, I. M . , 'Jewish Amulets in the United States National Museum', J A O S 36
(1917), pp. 154-67.
Gaster, M . , Studies and Textsl-IIl (1925-8; reprinted 1971), passim.
Budge, E. A. W., Amulets and Superstitions (1930), pp. 212-38 ['Hebrew A m u l e t s ' ] .
Trachtenberg, J., Jewish Magic and Superstition (1939), pp. 132-52 ['Amulets'].
Schrire, T . , Hebrew Amulets— Their Decipherment and Interpretation (1966).
K a p l a n , J . , 'Two S a m a r i t a n Amulets', lEJ 17 (1971), pp. 158-62.
Schrire, T . , 'Amulet', E n c . J u d . I I (1971), cols. 906-15.

N a v e h , J . , ' A N a b a t e a n Incantation T e x t ' , l E J 29 (1979), p p . 111-19.
Naveh, J., ' A Recently Discovered P a l e s d n i a n Jewish Aramaic A m u l e t ' , in M . Sokoloff
(ed.), Arameans and Aramaic Literary Tradition (1983), p p . 81-8.
See also the bibliography u n d e r the H a d r u m e t u m tablet in the next section.
4. Jewish Magical Texts Preserved in Greek

T h e following t w o texts will s e r v e t o i l l u s t r a t e the n a t u r e of t h e J e w i s h
magical material w h i c h has a p p a r e n t l y b e e n transmitted t h r o u g h
p a g a n G r e e k s o u r c e s . T h e first is f r o m a f a m o u s G r e e k b o o k of m a g i c a l
recipes s i m i l a r to S h R ; t h e s e c o n d is a n a c t u a l a m u l e t r e s e m b U n g t h e
A r a m a i c m e t a l amulets discussed earlier.
(a) T h e ' H e b r a i k o s L o g o s ' o f t h e G r e a t M a g i c a l P a p y r u s of P a r i s
( P G M I V 3009-3085)
T h e o p e n i n g w o r d s d e s c r i b e t h e t e x t as ' a n a p p r o v e d c h a r m of
P i b e c h e s for t h o s e possessed b y d e m o n s ' (Trpos 8aifiovia£,ofi€vovs
Ili^rixecos SoKiixov). T h e d e m o n is a d j u r e d by ' t h e G o d o f the H e b r e w s '
(3019), ' b y h i m w h o a p p e a r e d to O s r a e l [sic] in t h e p i l l a r of l i g h t a n d
in t h e c l o u d b y d a y ' ( 3 0 3 4 - 5 ) , a n d b y ' h i m w h o is i n J e r u s a l e m ' (3069).
M a n y a l l u s i o n s a r e m a d e to s a c r e d h i s t o r y (e.g. t h e t e n p l a g u e s , t h e
p a r t i n g of t h e R e d Sea a n d t h e R i v e r J o r d a n ) , a n d n u m e r o u s v e r b a l
echoes o f the S e p t u a g i n t . A t o n e p o i n t t h e d e m o n is a d j u r e d b y ' t h e seal
w h i c h S o l o m o n l a i d u p o n t h e t o n g u e of J e r e m i a h a n d h e s p o k e ' (3039
f; Kara, rrjs a«^payiSos, "^s edero 2oXofJiu>v irrl T'qv yXcoaaav TOV 'Irjpefilov, Kal
eXdX'qaev)—apparently a n a l l u s i o n to a n o t h e r w i s e u n k n o w n haggadah.
G o d is i n v o k e d : ' L e t y o u r a n g e l d e s c e n d , t h e i m p l a c a b l e o n e , a n d let
h i m d r a w i n t o c a p t i v i t y t h e d e m o n as h e flies r o u n d t h i s c r e a t u r e [i.e.
t h e d e m o n i a c ] w h o m G o d f o r m e d in h i s h o l y p a r a d i s e . ' T h e s i t u a t i o n
e n v i s a g e d is t h a t t h e d e m o n , h a v i n g b e e n e x p e l l e d f r o m t h e v i c t i m ' s
b o d y b y the u s e o f the p o t i o n a n d t h e a m u l e t {<f)vXaKTr}pt.ov) d e s c r i b e d
earlier, h a s t o be ' b o u n d ' b y a h e a v e n l y a g e n c y to p r e v e n t it f r o m
r e - e n t e r i n g . C f h o w , w h e n T o b i a s h a d s m o k e d t h e d e m o n o u t o f his
b r i d a l c h a m b e r , t h e a n g e l R a p h a e l p u r s u e d it t o U p p e r E g y p t a n d
b o u n d i t to s t o p i t from r e t u r n i n g ( T o b i t 8:2-3).^^' D e s p i t e t h e m a n y
expUcit J e w i s h references, t h e t e x t c a n h a r d l y h a v e b e e n w r i t t e n b y a
J e w (or for t h a t m a t t e r a C h r i s t i a n ) in t h e f o r m in w h i c h it is n o w . T h e
d e f o r m a t i o n o f ' I s r a e l ' i n t o ' O s r a e l ' , t h e r e f e r e n c e t o ' J e s u s ' as ' t h e G o d
of the H e b r e w s ' ( 3 0 1 9 ) , t h e E g y p t i a n n a m e P i b e c h e s , a n d the v e r y
d e s c r i p t i o n o f the t e x t a t the e n d as a 'Hebraikos logos' ( 3 0 8 5 : o ydp Xoyos
27. N o t e the interesting haggadic reference in 3061 : ov vfivovai rd irrepvywuara TOV

Xepov^lv. T h e idea here is that the c h e r u b i m sing t o God b y moving their wings. Gf 3 En.
24:15, ' T h e y [ t h e cherubim] spread their wings t o sing with t h e m t h e song to him who
dwells in clouds, and t o praise with them t h e glory of the King of kings.' See Alexander's
note ad loc. in Gharlesworth, O T P I, p . 279.
iariv 'E^pa'iKos), all tell a g a i n s t this. I t is p r o b a b l y a p a g a n c o p y

( p e r h a p s with some re-working) of originally J e w i s h magical material.
P G M I V is a l a r g e c o l l e c t i o n of m a g i c a l r e c i p e s f r o m d i v e r s e s o u r c e s .
T h e m a n u s c r i p t is likely to h a v e b e e n w r i t t e n a r o u n d A . D . 300, b u t t h e
c o n t e n t s are g e n e r a l l y a g r e e d to h a v e b e e n c o m p o s e d m u c h e a r l i e r .
Dieterich argued t h a t t h e work m u s t h a v e b e e n p u t together before the
t i m e of Diocletian.'^
(b) T h e H a d r u m e t u m T a b l e t
A t H a d r u m e t u m in n o r t h Africa, a t h i r d - c e n t u r y A . D , a m u l e t w a s
u n e a r t h e d c o n t a i n i n g a G r e e k l o v e - c h a r m . W r i t t e n on a sheet of l e a d ,
t h i s h a d b e e n r o l l e d u p a n d p l a c e d in a t o m b in t h e t o w n ' s n e c r o p o h s .
T h e t e x t o p e n s : Horcizo se daemonion pneumn to enthade cimenon to onomati to
agio^^ Ao)d A^\a\oi6, rov deov rov A^paav [ = A^paap] Kal rov lao) rov
rov laKov [ = laaKov], lao) Aa)[d AP]aa)d deov rov Iapap,a [ = /a/oa7/A], ' I
a d j u r e y o u , d e m o n i c s p i r i t w h o rests h e r e (i.e. in the t o m b ) , by t h e
s a c r e d n a m e A o t h , A b a o t h , t h e G o d of A b r a h a m , a n d t h e l a o of I s a a c ,
l a o A o t h A b a o t h t h e G o d o f I s r a e l ' . T h e c l i e n t for w h o m t h e a m u l e t
w a s w r i t t e n is n a m e d a s ' D o m i t i a n a w h o m C a n d i d a b o r e ' , a n d h e r
p u r p o s e was t o s e c u r e t h e u n d y i n g l o v e of ' U r b a n u s w h o m U r b a n a
b o r e ' . T h e t e x t of the a d j u r a t i o n c o n t a i n s m a n y v e r b a l e c h o e s f r o m
v a r i o u s p a r t s of t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t , a n d a r e i n a f o r m t h a t suggests t h a t
t h e w r i t e r w a s q u o t i n g f r o m m e m o r y . T h a t h e was s o m e o n e w h o k n e w
his Bible well a n d w a s n o t s i m p l y c o p y i n g a s a c r e d t e x t for m a g i c a l
p u r p o s e s p o i n t s to a J e w i s h o r i g i n for t h e a d j u r a t i o n . ^ " H o w e v e r , o n c e
a g a i n t h e t e x t in i t s e x t a n t f o r m m u s t h a v e b e e n c o p i e d a n d p e r h a p s
a d a p t e d by a p a g a n . N o J e w (or C h r i s t i a n ) is likely to h a v e m i s s p e l l e d ,
n o t o n c e b u t twice (see a l s o 38!), t h e n a m e s A b r a h a m , I s a a c a n d I s r a e l .
T h e r e is n o n e e d t o s u p p o s e t h a t D o m i t i a n a , o r e v e n the m a g i c i a n w h o
p r o b a b l y w r o t e t h e a m u l e t for h e r , w e r e J e w i s h . T h e a d j u r a t i o n m a y
h a v e b e e n t a k e n f r o m a s y n c r e t i s t i c b o o k of m a g i c a l recipes, l i k e P G M
IV, containing both Jewish' a n d 'non-Jewish' material.
Bibliography
T e x t of t h e 'Hebraikos L o g o s ' : K. Preisendanz, Papyri Graecae Magicae I (^1973), pp.
170—2. For discussion of P G M I V in general, and the 'Hebraikos Logos' in particular, see
the following:
Wessely, C , Griechische âuberpapyrus von Paris und London (1888). C f Patrologia Orientalis
IV (1908), p p . 187-90.
Blau, L., D(u altjudische âuberwesen ( 1914), p p . 112—17.
Dieterich, A., Eine Mithrasliturgie (^1923).
Deissmann, A., Light from the Ancient East (^^1927), p p . 254-64.
Festugiere, A.-J., La rMlation d'Hermis Trismigiste I (^1950), pp. 303-8.
28. A. Dieterich, Eine Mithrasliturgie (^1923), p. 44.

29. Sic! = 'OpKiôj ae Saifioviov Trvevfjca TO ivOdSe Keifievov TW ovofj-ari TUI dylco K T \ .
30. Cf t h e adjurations in Naveh-Shaked Geniza 4.6 ff. a n d Geniza 7.8 ff.
Smith, M o r t o n , 'Observations o n Hekhalot Rabbati', i n A. A l t m a n n (ed.). Biblical and Other

Studies (1963), pp. 142-60, esp. 158 ff.
Meyer, H. W . , The 'Mithras' Liturgy (1976).
E. R. G o o d e n o u g h , Jewish Symbols in the Greco-Roman Period I I (1953), p p . 190-205,

attempts to identify other Jewish texts in ' p a g a n sources'. His m o r e convincing examples
are as follows:
P G M IV I i 6 6 - I 2 2 5 a ; P G M V 9 7 - 1 7 3 : n o t e I09f, eyto eiV Movarjs 6 •npo<f>rJTTjs aov, ui
•napeôKas rd ^xvoT-qpia aov rd avvreXovfjieva TapafjX;
P G M V 460—88, eTTLKaXovfiai ae TOV KTioavra yrjv KTX.
P G M V I I 5 9 4 - 6 1 8 ; P G M V I I 1017-1022, Xatpe'HXit ... xaipf Pa^piriX ktA;
P G M X I I I 254—259 : n o t e 254f, eyt5 elp-i 6 int TCOV 8VO x^povêiv;
P G M X I I I 334-337) «y<** ^ ^''^^ ''''^^ x^P°"^^^^y
P G M X X I I a 1 7 - 2 7 ; P G M X X I I b 1-28, Hpoaevxv Va/ca./3;
P G M X X X V 1—42, 'EniKaXoCfxai ae, 6 Kadijp.evos int Trjs dpvaaov KTX.
P G M X X X V I 36-67; P G M X X X V I 187-204; P G M X X X V I 295-311.
Moses is mentioned frequently in t h e Greek magical papyri, b u t few of t h e texts are
identifiably Jewish. H e was clearly revered as a great master by magicians of all
persuasions. A cluster of references to h i m occurs in P G M X I I I . N o t e t h e following:
X I I I 3 - 4 : BipXos Upd fTTtKaXovp-evr] Moras rj 'OySorj MoiJaeojs irepi TOV ovopâros TOV dyiov.
X I I I 21 : o Aeyci (v Trj KXfiBi Moiiarjs•
X I I I 344: MoiJaecos Upd pi^Xos diT6Kpv<f>os kiTLKaXovp.ivr) oySor] rj dyia.
X I I I 971 : o)? Se Miuiia^s ev rfj 'ApxayyeXiKfj.
X I I I 1059 : MoiJaeoDs dTT6Kpv<f>os SeXrjviaKrj.
X I I I 1078 : MoiJae<os diroKpvôs rj Jc/ccittj.
N o t e also P G M V I I 6 2 0 - 6 2 7 , ÊK TOO AiaSrjp.oTos Movaecos; a n d P G M V i o 9 f quoted

above. For Moses amulets from Amisos (Pontus) a n d Acre (Sicily), see below. F u r t h e r , J .
G. Gager, Moses in Greco-Roman Paganism (1972), p p . 134-61 ['Moses a n d M a g i c ' ] .
Magical papyri published since P G M :

Bell, H., Nock, A., and T h o m p s o n , H . , Magical Texts from a Bilingual Papyrus (1931).
W o r t m a n n , D., ' N e u e magische T e x t e ' , Bonner J a h r b i i c h e r 168 (1968), p p . 56—111.
Parassoglu, G. M . , 'Artificial Scripts and Magical Papyri', Studia Papyrologica 13
(i974)>PP-57-60.
Daniel, R., 'Two Love G h a r m s ' , ZPE 19 (1975), p p . 249-64.
I n general on t h e Greek magical papyri see :
Griffith, F . L., a n d T h o m p s o n , H., The Demotic Magical Papyrus of London and Leiden
(1904).
Eitrem, S., Papyri Osloenses, Fasc. I (1925).
Nock, A. D . , 'Greek Magical P a p y r i ' , J E A 15 (1929), p p . 2 1 9 - 3 5 ; reprinted in Nock,
Essays on Religion and the Ancient World I (1972), p p . 176—94.
Festugiere, A.-J., L'idial religieux des Grecs et I'Evangile (1932), p p . 281—328 ['La valeur
religieuse des papyrus m a g i q u e s ' ] .
Eitrem, S., 'Aus "Papyrologie u n d ReHgionsgeschichte" : Die magischen Papyri', in W.
Otto a n d L. W e n g e r (eds.), Papyri und Altertumswissenschaft (1934), p p . 246-63.
Nilsson, M . , 'Die Religion der griechischen Z a u b e r p a p y r i ' , in Nilsson, Opuscula Selecta I I I
( i 9 6 0 ) , pp. 129-66.
Gundel, H . G., 'Vom Weltbild in den griechischen Z a u b e r p a p y r i : Probleme u n d
Ergebnisse', in D. H . Samuel (ed.), Proceedings of the Twelfth International Congress of
Papyrology = American S t u d i e s i n Papyrology 7 (1970), pp. 183-93.
Betz, H. D . , ' F r a g m e n t s from a Catabasis R i t u a l i n a Greek Magical Papyrus', H R 19
(1980), pp. 2 8 7 - 9 5 . Text of the H a d r u m e t u m t a b l e t : A. Audollent, Defixionum Tab
ellae (1904), p p . 373-7. F u r t h e r :
Deissmann, A., Bible Studies (1901), pp. 271-300 ['An Epigraphic Memorial to the
Septuagint'].
Wiinsch, R., Antiiie Fluchtafeln ( 1912^, pp- 21-6.
Blau, L., Das altjudische âuberwesen ( 1914), pp. 112-17.
T h e following Greek amulets are p r o b a b l y J e w i s h :
(1) Frey, CIJ 6 7 3 : R e g e n s b u r g (Germany).
(2) Frey, CIJ 6 7 4 : Badenweiler (Germany).
(3) Frey, CIJ 717: Achaea (Greece).
(4) Frey, CIJ 8 0 2 : Amisos (Pontus) ; see further R . Wiinsch, 'Deisidaimoniaka', Archiv
fiir Religionswissenschaft 12 (1909), p p . 2 4 - 3 2 ; J. G. Gager, Moses in Greco-Roman
Paganism (1972), p p . 157-9.
(5) A. Vogliano and K . Preisendanz, ' Laminetta M a g i c a Siciliana', A c m e : Annali della
Facolta di Filosofia e Lettere della Universita Statale di Milano i (1948), pp. 73-85.
A ^vXaKrfipiov Moiofois from Acre in Sicily. See further E. Peterson, Friihkirche,
Judentum und Gnosis (1959), pp. 346-54 ['Das A m u l e t t von Acre'].
(6) P. Perdrizet, 'Amulette grecque trouvee en Syrie', R E G 41 (1928), p p . 73-82.
For other defixionum tabellae s e e :
Wunsch, R., Sethianische Verfluchungstafeln aus Rom (1889).
Wunsch, K., Defixionum Tabellae Atticae (iSg^).
Pradel, F . , Griechische und sUditalienische Gebete, Beschworungen und Rezepte des Mittelalters
(1907)-
J o r d a n , D . R., ' A Curse T a b l e t from a Well in the Athenian Agora', Z P E 19 (1975), pp.
245-8.
For general discussion of the defixionum tabellae s e e :
Eitrem, S., and Herter, H., 'Bindezauber', R A C I I (1954), cols. 380-5.
Preisendanz, K., 'Fluchtafel (Defixion)', R A C V I I I (1972), cols. 1-29.
T h e problems of identifying the Jewish examples a m o n g the surviving small amulets
a n d magical gems (which often have only one or two words of inscription) seem almost
insurmountable. For discussion see Goodenough, Jewish Symbols I I , pp. 208-95.
Further:
Bonner, C , Studies in Magical Amulets chiefly Graeco-Egyptian (1950), esp. pp. 27-32, l o o - i ,
208-11,226.
Bonner, G., 'A Miscellany of E n g r a v e d Stones', Hesperia 23 (1954), pp. 138-57.
Delatte, A., and Derchain, P., Les intailles magiques grico-igyptiennes (1964), esp. pp. 2 6 1 - 4
['Salomon cavalier'] and p p . 311-13.
W o r t m a n n , D., 'Neue magische Texte', Bonner J a h r b i i c h e r 168 (1968), p p . 102-6.
W p r t m a n n , D., 'Neue magische Gcmmen', Bonner J a h r b u c h e r 175 (1975), p p . 63-82.
Parassoglu, G. M., ' A Christian Amulet against Snakebite', Studia Papyrologica 13
(1974), pp. 107-10.
A good general introduction to Greek amulets is F . Eckstein a n d J . H . Waszink,
'Amulett', RAC I (1950), cols. 397-411.
Goodenough, Jewish Symbols II, p p . 164-90 discusses the possibility ofjewish magical
texts surviving in Christian Syriac a n d Coptic sources. For these see:
Gollancz, H., The Book of Protection being a collection oj charms editedfrom Syriac MSS (1912).
See further above t h e bibliographies u n d e r ' I n c a n t a t i o n Bowls and Amulets in
H e b r e w a n d Aramaic'.
K r o p p , A. M., Ausgewdhltekoptische âubertexte l-lll (1930—i).
Stegemann, V., Die koptische âubertexte der Sammlung Papyrus Erzherzog Rainer in Wien
(1934).
Quecke, H., 'Ein Fragment eines koptischen Zaubertextes', Studia Papyrologica 8
(1969), pp. 97-100.
T h e following will serve to i n t r o d u c e the whole field of Greek m a g i c :

Dieterich, A., Abraxas: Studien zur Religionsgeschichte des spdteren Altertums (1891).
Hubert, H . , ' M a g i a ' , Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquites grecques et romaines H I / z
(1904), pp. 1494-1521.
Bousset, W., ' Z u r Damonologie d e r spateren Antike', Archiv fiir Religionswissenschaft
18
( i 9 i 5 ) , P P - 134-72-
Hopfner, T . , Griechisch-dgyptischer Offenbarungszauber I - I I (1921-4).
Hopfner, T . , 'Mageia', R E X I V . i (1928), cols. 301-93.
Barb, A., ' T h e Survival of M a g i c Arts', i n A. Momigliano (ed.). The Coriflict between
Paganism and Christianity in the Fourth Century (1963), p p . 100-25.
Brown, P., 'Sorcery, Demons a n d t h e Rise of Christianity from Late Antiquity to the
Middle Ages', in M . Douglas (ed.). Witchcraft, Confessions and Accusations (1970), pp.
17-46.
Hull, J. M . , Hellenistic Magic and the Synoptic Tradition (1974).
Colpe, C , etal, 'Geister ( D a m o n e n ) ' , R A C I X (1976), cols. 546 ff.
Smith, Morton, Jesus the Magician (1978).
Smith, J . Z., ' T o w a r d s I n t e r p r e t i n g Demonic Powers in Hellenistic a n d R o m a n
Antiquity', i n H. T e m p o r i n i a n d W. Haase (eds.), A N R W II.16.1 (1978), pp.
425-39-
Aune, D. E . , ' M a g i c in Early Christianity', ibid. IL23.2 (1980), p p . 1507—57.
Segal, A. F . , 'Hellenistic Magic : Some Questions o f Definition', i n R. v a n den Broek and
M . J . Vermaseren (eds.). Studies in Gnosticism and Hellenistic Religions presented to G.
Qa«/>«/(i98i),pp. 349-75-
5. Theurgy in the Hekhalot Texts

T h e so-called H e k h a l o t l i t e r a t u r e , p r o d u c e d b y t h e M e r k a b a h mystics
of/ t h e T a l m u d i c a n d e a r l y G a o n i c p e r i o d s , a b o u n d s i n m a g i c o f a
t h e u r g i c n a t u r e . T h e a d e p t s w e r e i n t e r e s t e d i n a c q u i r i n g secret
k n o w l e d g e a b o u t v a r i o u s s u b j e c t s — t h e h e a v e n l y w o r l d , the m y s t e r i e s
of n a t u r e , t h e esoteric m e a n i n g s o f T o r a h , t h e f u t u r e c o u r s e o f h u m a n
h i s t o r y — a n d they used t h e u r g i c t e c h n i q u e s t o o b t a i n t h i s k n o w l e d g e .
S o m e t i m e s , b y m e a n s of r i t u a l a n d i n c a n t a t i o n , t h e y a s c e n d e d to
h e a v e n , a t o t h e r s t h e y c o n j u r e d a p o w e r f u l a n g e l d o w n to e a r t h a n d
c o m p e l l e d h i m t o i m p a r t t h e d e s i r e d i n f o r m a t i o n . S o m e of t h e i r
i n c a n t a t i o n s t a k e t h e f o r m of h y m n s or p r a y e r s w h i c h t h e y b e l i e v e d to
b e p a r t of t h e a n g e l i c l i t u r g y . By r e c i t i n g t h e s e t h e a d e p t s p u t
t h e m s e l v e s i n t o a t r a n c e in w h i c h t h e y s u p p o s e d t h e i r souls w e r e
t r a n s p o r t e d , b y a k i n d of s y m p a t h e t i c m a g i c , i n t o h e a v e n . T h e y also
u s e d m a g i c a l n a m e s of g r e a t p o w e r b y w h i c h t h e a n g e l s c o u l d be
c o n t r o l l e d a n d forced t o d o t h e i r will. T h e H e k h a l o t t r a c t s a r e full of
nomina barbara a n d o t h e r u n i n t e l h g i b l e m a g i c a l f o r m u l a e (see e.g. 3 E n .
4 8 B : i , 4 8 D : i in t h e A l p h a b e t of A k i b a r e c e n s i o n , W e r t h e i m e r , Batei
Midrashot \\, p p . 3 5 0 - 5 ) . T h e mystics w e r e d e e p l y i n t e r e s t e d in t h e
' s c i e n c e ' of n a m e s . T h e n a m e s , as well a s t h e r i t u a l s t h e y p r a c t i s e d in
t h e i r c o n v e n t i c l e s , a r e v e r y s i m i l a r to t h o s e f o u n d on J e w i s h a m u l e t s
a n d i n c a n t a t i o n b o w l s , i n Sefer h a - R a z i m , a n d i n the G r e e k m a g i c a l
papyri. T h e following passages are t y p i c a l :
(a) T h e G r e a t S e a n c e in H e k h a l o t R a b b a t i (Schafer §§ 198 ff.)

R . I s h m a e l describes h o w N e h u n y a h b . H a - Q a n a h rose in a t r a n c e t o
h e a v e n . T h e text takes e v e r y o p p o r t u n i t y to stress the d a n g e r s of s u c h
a n a s c e n t : o n l y t h o s e free from c e r t a i n vices s h o u l d a t t e m p t it, a n d
t h e n o n l y in the r i g h t s e t t i n g , after d u e p r e p a r a t i o n , a n d in t h e r i g h t
c o m p a n y ( a m o n g the haverim, t h e m e m b e r s of t h e fellowship). T h e
a s c e n t is a c h i e v e d b y i n v o k i n g S u r y a h , P r i n c e of t h e D i v i n e P r e s e n c e ,
a n d c o n j u r i n g 1 1 2 t i m e s , n e i t h e r m o r e n o r less, c o u n t i n g on t h e
fingers, by a m a g i c a l nomen barbarum. O n g o i n g u p , t h e a d e p t passes
t h r o u g h seven c o n c e n t r i c p a l a c e s (m'?D''n) g u a r d e d by angels, whose
f e a r s o m e , w a r h k e a p p e a r a n c e is d e s c r i b e d i n d e t a i l . T h e o n l y w a y
p a s t t h e m is to s h o w t h e m 'seals' (mZSmn) c o n s i s t i n g of m a g i c a l
n a m e s w h i c h s o m e h o w ' n e u t r a l i z e ' t h e i r p o w e r . T h e n a m e s of t h e
g a t e k e e p e r s a n d t h e seals a p p r o p r i a t e t o e a c h a r e carefully listed. I f
t h e a d e p t d o e s e v e r y t h i n g r i g h t , h e is finally c o n d u c t e d before t h e
T h r o n e of G l o r y a n d s e a t e d w i t h t h e c h e r u b i m a n d t h e o t h e r a n g e l s .
Besides g i v i n g t h e p r a x i s o f the a s c e n t , t h e a c c o u n t of t h e G r e a t
S e a n c e c o n t a i n s a n e l a b o r a t e t e c h n i q u e by w h i c h t h e haverim c o u l d
bring the a d e p t back to earth. This involved putting h i m into a state
of very m a r g i n a l r i t u a l i m p u r i t y , e n o u g h to c a u s e t h e a n g e l s t o dismiss
h i m from t h e p u r e r e g i o n s o f h e a v e n , b u t n o t sufficient to p r o v o k e
t h e m into attacking a n d destroying him. Such a technique would
h a v e h a d g r e a t p r a c t i c a l i m p o r t a n c e if t h e a d e p t s t h e m s e l v e s w e r e
u n a b l e to b r e a k t h e i r t r a n c e s or s e e m e d to the b y s t a n d e r s to b e in
p s y c h o l o g i c a l distress.
(b) T h e C o n j u r a t i o n of t h e P r i n c e of t h e D i v i n e P r e s e n c e ("IIT
D'3' Dn ) (Schafer §§ 623—39; S c h a f e r , Geniza-Fragmente n o . i)
R . Eliezer i n s t r u c t s R . A q i v a o n h o w to c o n j u r e t h e âr ha-Panim to
e a r t h a n d m a k e h i m r e v e a l the m y s t e r i e s o f t h e u p p e r a n d l o w e r
w o r l d s . T h e a d e p t p r e p a r e s h i m s e l f for s e v e n d a y s , t h e n on t h e a c t u a l
d a y of t h e c o n j u r a t i o n , fasts a n d i m m e r s e s h i m s e l f in w a t e r u p to his
n e c k . Before r e c i t i n g t h e c o n j u r a t i o n h e m u s t p r o t e c t h i m s e l f w i t h a
f o r t y - t w o l e t t e r m a g i c a l n a m e . T h e i m m e n s e d a n g e r s of the r i t u a l a r e
a g a i n stressed. T h e P r i n c e o f the D i v i n e P r e s e n c e is i n v o k e d first b y
t h e fourteen n a m e s by w h i c h he r e v e a l e d himself t o t h e p r o p h e t s a n d
seers, t h e n b y his five n a m e s w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d t o the n a m e of G o d ,
a n d finally, a t the c l i m a x , by t h e o n e special n a m e t h a t is ' t h e g r e a t e s t
of his n a m e s ' . T h e p a s s a g e e n d s w i t h a n drroXvais — a f o r m u l a for
d i s m i s s i n g t h e a n g e l after h e h a s d o n e t h e a d e p t ' s will. T h i s is a
s t a n d a r d a n d essential e l e m e n t of m a g i c a l p r a x i s . It is vitally
i m p o r t a n t to e n s u r e t h a t t h e spirits c a l l e d u p r e t u r n t o t h e r e a l m s
f r o m w h i c h t h e y c a m e . As i n a n u m b e r of t h e spells i n S h R a n d in
P G M , t h e a d e p t is m e a n t to ' p e r s o n a l i z e ' t h e i n c a n t a t i o n by i n s e r t i n g
his o w n n a m e into it at t h e p o i n t m a r k e d ' N s o n of N ' .
(c) T h e G r e a t S e a l ( b n i D m H ) a n d t h e T e r r i b l e C r o w n (Kill "inD)

(Schafer §§ 3 1 8 - 2 1 , 6 5 1 - 4 )
R . I s h m a e l l e a r n s from N e h u n y a h b . H a - Q a n a h ' t h e G r e a t S e a l b y
which the heavens and the earth were sealed' a n d 'the Crown by
w h i c h t h e Princes of W i s d o m a r e c o n j u r e d ' . T h e S e a l a n d the Crown
a r e t w o e s p e c i a l l y p o t e n t m a g i c a l f o r m u l a e c o n s i s t i n g of nomina barbara
of t h e t y p e f a m i l i a r f r o m t h e i n c a n t a t i o n b o w l s a n d a m u l e t s . S o p o t e n t
are they t h a t t h e a d e p t m u s t p r o t e c t himself before r e c i t i n g t h e m . T h e
t w o l i t u r g i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n s g i v e n f o r t h i s p u r p o s e c o n s i s t of s t r a i g h t
f o r w a r d h y m n s of p r a i s e t o G o d w h i c h w o u l d n o t l o o k o u t of p l a c e i n
the Siddur.
Bibliography
Texts of these passages may b e found at t h e points indicated i n P. Schafer, Synopse zur
Hekhalot-Literatur (1981), a n d Schafer, Geniza-Fragmente zur Hekhalot-Literatur (1984).
O n M e r k a b a h mysdcism a n d Hekhalot literature see §32.V.2 A p p e n d i x on 3 Enoch,
where full bibliographies a r e given. O f t h e works there listed note t h e following:
(a) O n the Great Seance : Smith, in A l t m a n n , Biblical and Other Studies (1963), p p . 1 4 4 - 6 ;
Scholem, Jewish Gnosticism ( 1965), p p . 9 - 1 3 ; Schiffmann, AJS Review i (1976), p p .
2 6 8 - 8 2 ; Alexander, J J S 28 (1977), p p . 1 6 9 - 7 3 ; Gruenwald, Apocalyptic and Merkavah
Mysticism (1980), p p . 1 6 0 - 7 ; Schliiter, FJB 10 (1982), p p . 65-109. A d d S. L i e b e r m a n ,
'The Knowledge of H a l a k h a b y [sic] the A u t h o r (or Authors) of the Heikhaloth', in
Gruenwald, Apocalyptic and Merkavah Mysticism, pp. 2 4 1 - 4 ; P . S. Alexander, Textual Sources
for the Study of Judaism (1984), p p . 120-5 ['Heikhalot Rabbati 15:1-22:2. The Ascent to
God's Heavenly T h r o n e ' ] .
(b) O n the S a r h a - P a n i m : Schafer, F J B 6 (1978), p p . 107-45. '• M- Gaster, Studies and
Texts (1925-28), I p p . 3 3 2 - 6 ; I I I pp. 9 1 - 3 .
(c) Keter N o r a / H o t a m G a d o l : Schafer, FJB 5 (1977), pp. 94-9-
F o r other examples of theurgy in t h e Hekhalot texts see Schafer, Synopse §§ 418—21,
422-4, 498-517, 825-31 ; Schafer, Geniza-Fragmente nos. 4, 6, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 19. And in
general consult Scholem, Jewish Gnosticism ( 1965), pp. 75-83, and Cohen, The Shi'ur
Qpmah (1983).
M a n y parallels exist between Greek t h e u r g y (as found, e.g., in t h e C h a l d a e a n Oracles)
and the theurgy of the M e r k a b a h mystics. Cf. Porphyry's description of the seance at t h e
Iseum which Plotinus attended (Vita Plotini i o) with the account of the Great Seance in
Hekhalot R a b b a t i .
On Greek theurgy see:

Hopfner, T . , 'Theurgy', R E V I A . i (1936), cols. 258—70.
Eitrem, S., 'La theurgie chez les neo-platoniciens et les p a p y r u s magiques', Symbolae
Osloenses 22 (1942), pp. 49—79.
Dodds, E. R . , The Greeks and the Irrational (1966), pp. 283-311 [ ' T h e u r g y ' ] .
Lewy, H., Chaldaean Oracles and Theurgy, new e d . by M . T a r d i e u (1978).
T h e r e a r e interesting parallels between t h e G r e a t Seance a n d the so-called 'Mithras

Liturgy' ( P G M I V 475—830), o n which see the bibHography above under 4. 'Jewish
Magical Texts Preserved in Greek'. N o t e i n particular Smith, i n Altmann, Biblical and
Other Studies (1963), p p . 158-60. C o m p a r i s o n with Gnostic texts is also instructive, e.g.
Origen's account of the teachings of t h e O p h i a n s {Contra Celsum vi 24-38), on which see
Alexander, J J S 35 (1984), pp. 2 - 3 . F o r apocalypdc antecedents t o the Great Seance see
M. Dean-Otting, Heavenly Journeys: A Study of the Motif in Hellenistic Jewish Literature
(1984). Consult further A. F. Segal, 'Heavenly Ascent in J u d a i s m , Early Christianity and

their Environment', in H. T e m p o r i n i and W. H a a s e (eds.), A N R W II.23.2 (1980), p p .
1333-94-
6. T h e D e a d S e a Scrolls
(a) 4QCryptic [4QJ86)

4 Q C r y p d c tries to establish a w a y of d i s c o v e r i n g a m a n ' s i n n e r
s p i r i t u a l n a t u r a l f r o m t w o e x t e r n a l i n d i c a t o r s : ( i ) the s h a p e of c e r t a i n
p a r t s of his b o d y ; a n d (2) his d a t e of b i r t h a n d t h e a s t r o l o g i c a l
c o n d i t i o n s p r e v a i l i n g t h e n . S t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g t h e t e x t is n o t a h o r o s c o p e ,
o r series of h o r o s c o p e s , b u t a p i e c e of a s t r o l o g i c a l p h y s i o g n o m y b a s e d
o n the c o m m o n astrological doctrine t h a t a person's t e m p e r , physical
f e a t u r e s a n d luck a r e d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f the h e a v e n s a t
t h e t i m e of his b i r t h . Gf. the a s t r o l o g i c a l text r i d i c u l e d b y H i p p o l y t u s i n
Refutatio 4 . 1 5 - 2 7 . T h e m i x t u r e of p h y s i o g n o m y a n d a s t r o l o g y is
r e m i n i s c e n t of o n e of t h e C a i r o G e n i z a h p h y s i o g n o m i e s ( F r a g m e n t A ;
see section 7, b e l o w ) .
A p r o p o r t i o n o f e a c h m a n ' s spirit is assigned ( o n a scale of o n e t o
n i n e ) t o t h e ' H o u s e of L i g h t ' ( I W n ffS) a n d to t h e ' P i t of D a r k n e s s '
C^tt^nn 1 1 3 ) . T h e s e t w o expressions h a v e no o b v i o u s a s t r o l o g i c a l
r e f e r e n c e , b u t recall t h e ' F o u n t a i n of L i g h t ' ("IIN f T D ) a n d t h e ' S o u r c e
o f D a r k n e s s ' (']t2nn l l p O ) in the S e r m o n on t h e T w o Spirits { i Q S H I ) ,
t h e p u r p o s e of w h i c h , a c c o r d i n g to its p r e a m b l e , was to i n s t r u c t t h e
S o n s o f L i g h t r e g a r d i n g ' t h e n a t u r e of a l l t h e c h i l d r e n o f m e n
BTX •'23 VlD),^' a c c o r d i n g t o the k i n d o f spirit w h i c h t h e y possess, t h e
signs identifying t h e i r w o r k s d u r i n g t h e i r life-time, t h e i r v i s i t a t i o n for
c h a s t i s e m e n t , a n d t h e t i m e of t h e i r r e w a r d ' . T h e 'signs' (mmX)
a c t u a l l y m e n t i o n e d in the b o d y of t h e s e r m o n a r e v i r t u e s a n d v i c e s ,
s u c h a s h u m i U t y , c h a r i t y , g r e e d , d e c e i t . H o w e v e r , it is not i m p o s s i b l e
t h a t a t s o m e p o i n t in t h e history of t h e Q u m r a n sect s o m e o n e t r i e d t o
s e t o u t p h y s i o g n o m i c c r i t e r i a for d e c i d i n g w h o b e l o n g e d t o t h e t w o
spirits. T h e l e a d e r s h i p c o u l d h a v e used such c r i t e r i a to d e t e r m i n e w h o
w a s a l l o w e d to j o i n t h e sect, o r to assign r a n k w i t h i n it ( t h o u g h n o h i n t
o f this c a n b e f o u n d in t h e M a n u a l of D i s c i p l i n e ) .^^
It is h a r d to k n o w w h a t t o m a k e of t h e fact t h a t the t e x t is w r i t t e n i n
c o d e . O b v i o u s l y s o m e o n e d i d not w a n t it to b e r e a d i l y intelligible. T h i s
c o u l d b e c o n s o n a n t w i t h t h e t h e o r y t h a t p h y s i o g n o m y w a s a p p l i e d as a
31. T h e language echoes Gen. 5:1, OIK miVin nOO JIT, a verse given physiognomic
significance by the mediaeval Jewish physiognomists. See section 7 below, and G. G .
Scholem in Sefer Assaf (1953), pp. 477-9.
32. A p a r t from 4QMess a r (on which see below), n o hints of physiognomy a p p e a r
elsewhere in the Dead Sea scrolls. T h e descripdon of Sarah's beauty in i QapGen X I X - X X
is very general. Note, however, t h a t h e r slender fingers are praised. 4QCryptic I I I
regards short, fat fingers as a negative feature.
secret test w i t h i n t h e c o m m u n i t y ( h e n c e t h e silence a b o u t it in t h e

M a n u a l of D i s c i p l i n e ) . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d t h e s c r i b e of 4 Q C r y p t i c m a y
h a v e e m p l o y e d c i p h e r b e c a u s e h e w a s a w a r e t h a t its c o n t e n t s w e r e
s o m e h o w c o n t r a r y t o t h e t e a c h i n g s of t h e sect. I t is r e a l l y n o t p o s s i b l e to
decide b e t w e e n these alternatives.^^
(b) 4QMess a r
T h i s f r a g m e n t a r y A r a m a i c t e x t describes the w o n d e r f u l c a r e e r of
s o m e o n e referred t o as ' t h e e l e c t of G o d ' ( I 1 0 ) . A t h i s b i r t h h e will h a v e
c e r t a i n d i s t i n g u i s h i n g m a r k s o n his b o d y , t w o of w h i c h a r e of p a r t i c u l a r
i n t e r e s t : ( i ) "[TlSlVtS (I 2) = ' l e n t i l s ' . G a s t e r s u g g e s t e d t h e r e f e r e n c e is
to freckles, w h i c h are c a l l e d ' l e n t i l s ' i n G r e e k a n d L a t i n . ' L e n t i l s '
( A r a m . U n S l V t : ; H e b . ntZ^lS?) a r e m e n t i o n e d a n u m b e r o f d m e s in l a t e r
R a b j a i n i c p h y s i o g n o m i e s (see s e c t i o n 7 b e l o w ) . ( 2 ) "["OW (I 3) =
'moles'. = ' m o l e ' i n t h e T a l m u d , a n d t h e r e s e e m s to b e n o g o o d
r e a s o n for n o t g i v i n g t h e w o r d this sense h e r e t o o . T h e m e d i e v a l J e w i s h
p h y s i o g n o m i e s s o m e t i m e s r e g a r d m o l e s i n a p o s i t i v e hght.^^ 4QMess a r
h a s no a s t r o l o g i c a l c o n t e n t , a n d s o c a n h a r d l y be t h e h o r o s c o p e o f the
M e s s i a h (or o f a n y o n e else for t h a t m a t t e r ) . N o r , s t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g , is it
p h y s i o g n o m y , since it d o e s n o t r e l a t e p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e to m o r a l
c h a r a c t e r o r l u c k . T h e p h y s i c a l m a r k s m e n t i o n e d are p r o b a b l y
i n t e n d e d as ' s i g n s ' b y w h i c h t h e w o n d r o u s c h i l d w o u l d b e identified. C f
t h e d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e a n t i c h r i s t ' s p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e i n A p o c . E l i j a h
3 : 1 4 - 1 8 . H o w e v e r , the fact t h a t t h e s e p a r t i c u l a r f e a t u r e s are s i n g l e d o u t
as significant t h r o w s i n d i r e c t h g h t o n p h y s i o g n o m y a t Q u m r a n . C f
below, p . 465.
(c) 4QBrontologion
M i l i k describes this u n p u b l i s h e d t e x t as f o l l o w s : ' T w o f r a g m e n t a r y
c o l u m n s f r o m C a v e I V give t h e signs of t h e Z o d i a c d i s t r i b u t e d o v e r the
d a y s of t h e m o n t h . " O n t h e 13th a n d 14th (of the m o n t h of T e b e t ) " , w e
r e a d , " C a n c e r . . . " T h e n follow p r e d i c t i o n s t h a t c a n b e d r a w n from
t h u n d e r . " I f it t h u n d e r s in t h e s i g n o f the T w i n s , t e r r o r a n d distress
c a u s e d b y f o r e i g n e r s a n d b y . . .'"^^ H e c o r r e c t l y classifies t h e text as a
33. T h e r e a r e a n u m b e r o f Greek magical texts in code, b u t so far they have resisted

decipherment. See G. M. Parassoglu, 'Artificial Scripts a n d Magical Papyri', Studia
Papyrologica 13 (1974), pp. 57-60.
34. T . H . Gaster, The Dead Sea Scriptures (^1976), pp. 448, 475. T h e Greek is <f>aK6s (e.g.
Plutarch, Mor. 563A, 800E), t h e L a t i n 'lenticula' (e.g. Pliny, JV.H. xxvi 7).
35. E.g. Sefer Re'iyyat h a - Y a d a y i m (ed. Scholem, Sefer Assaf, p . 4 9 1 ) : m m s p i
f xTOj? »-itV n m i «n mnv\> m a n vr ; Zohar, ntro, i i 76a: inn f i n n ,paT r-« f-isioa
xmV V» K i a o a •'khs f rpa? p r i n ,'pnDiVt5T rnhJina p r s pVxi p*nn I'-idd. See
further Scholem, Sefer Assaf p - 491, footnote 41.
36. E.g. Sefer Re'iyyat h a - Y a d a y i m (ed. Scholem, Sefer Assaf, p. 4 8 9 ) : ']D3 "WH Vsi
n m n n a D i ncnvi nVnii a i o Vto iV n-'n- m a w ix nninw n r m x j IT' . Note also Cairo
Genizah F r a g m e n t A : B/i, 11-12 (ed. G r u e n w a l d p. 313). O n XaW i n the T a l m u d see J .
Preuss, Biblical and Talmudic Medicine (1978), pp. 200-1.
37. J . T . Milik, Ten Tears of Discovery in the Wilderness of Judaea (1959), p. 42.
brontologion, a t y p e o f c o m p o s i t i o n w e l l a t t e s t e d in B y z a n t i n e l i t e r a t u r e .
J e w s , like their n e i g h b o u r s , believed in prodigies, o m e n s a n d signs.
J o s e p h u s {B.J. vi 5 , 3 - 4 (288—315)) gives a l o n g list of p o r t e n t s w h i c h
foretold the destruction of t h e T e m p l e in A . D . 70, a n d r e f e r e n c e s to
omens are common in a p o c a l y p t i c scenarios of t h e end-time.The
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of p r o d i g i e s r e q u i r e d skiU: J o s e p h u s {B.J. v i 5, 3 ( 2 9 1 ) )
r e g a r d s i t as a task b e l o n g i n g to t h e p r o v i n c e of t h e s a c r e d s c r i b e s (o
TOIS y-kv dveLpois dyaOov iSoKCi, rois 8' UpoypapLparevai rrpos rov
dTToê^rjKOTrwv evdeojs iKpidr}). The Qumran t e x t , if M i l i k ' s r e p o r t is
a c c u r a t e , represents a n a t t e m p t to systematize a u g u r y , a n d to raise it to
a s c i e n t i f i c level b y l i n k i n g it w i t h t h e h i g h e s t of t h e o c c u l t ' s c i e n c e s ' ,
astrology.
Bibliography
For magic a t Q u m r a n , t h e exorcisms described in i QapGen 20:16-31 a n d in t h e Prayer of
N a b o n i d u s (^QPrJVab) a r e of considerable interest. See A. Dupont-Sommer, 'Exorcismes
et guerisons dans les ecrits de Q p u m r a n ' , S V T 7 ( i 9 6 0 ) , p p . 246-61.
O n Q u m r a n in general and o n 4QCryptic a n d 4QMess a r in p a r d c u l a r , see below, p p .
464—6.
F o r Jewish physiognomy see section 7, ' R a b b i n i c Physiognomy'; and for Jewish
astrology, section 8, 'Treatise of Shem'.
Milik compares 4QBrontologion with t h e brontologion attributed to Zoroaster in
Geoponica I 10 (cf. J . Bidez a n d F. C u m o n t , Les mages hellinisis I I [1938], pp. 182-3). ô""
o t h e r examples o f this genre see Catalogus Codicum Astrologorum Graecorum ( = C C A G ) I I I
(1901), ed. A. Martini a n d D. Bassi, p p . 5 0 - 2 ; C C A G I V (1903), ed. D . Bassi et ai, p p .
128-31 (edv ev TU> Kpiw ^povr-qar) arro TTJJ dvaroA^s KTX.) ; C C A G V I I (1908), e d . F. Boll,
pp. 163-7; C C A G V I I I . 3 (1912), e d . P. B o u d r e a u x , p p . 122-5; 168-9 [BpovToXoyiov
AaîS rov Trpotf>riTov); 169-71 ; 193-7 I C C A G IX.2 (1953), ed. S. Weinstock, p p . 1 2 0 - 3 ;
C C A G X (1924), ed. A- Delatte, pp. 58—9 {ravras rds •^fiepas €(f>av€pwaev 6 &(6s ÊaSpd TW
Upei KTX.) ; 60-2 ; 140-2 ; C C A G X I . i (1932), ed. C . O . Zuretti, p p . 1 4 5 - 6 ; 155-7. N o t e
also the medieval H e b r e w texts described by M . Steinschneider, Die hebrdischen
Obersetzungen des Mittelalters und die Juden als Dolmetscher (1893), pp. 905-6. F u r t h e r A.
Bouche-Leclercq, Histoire de la divination dans I'antiquite I (1879), p p . 198 ff.; K.
K r u m b a c h e r , Geschichte der byzantinischen Literatur (^^1897), p . 603; P . H a n d e l , 'Prodigium',
R E X X I I I . 2 (1959), cols. 2283, 2296; K. Berger, 'Hellenistisch-heidnische Prodigen u n d
die Vorzeichen i n der judischen und christHchen Apokalyptik', i n H . T e m p o r i n i and W .
H a a s e (eds.), A N R W II.23.2 (1980), p p . 1428-96; S . J . Scherrer, 'Signs and W o n d e r s in
the Imperial Cult', JBL 103 (1984), p p . 599-610.
7. R a b b i n i c P h y s i o g n o m y
P h y s i o g n o m y w a s s t u d i e d b y t h e m e d i e v a l Q a b b a l i s t s ; t h e Z o h a r , for
example, t r e a t s it a s o n e of t h e ' s e c r e t s of t h e T o r a h ' , and devotes
c o n s i d e r a b l e s p a c e t o e l u c i d a t i n g it.^^ R a b b i n i c i n t e r e s t i n t h e s u b j e c t ,
38. See e.g. 4 Ezra 4:51-5:13 ; 6:20-26; M k . 13:1-37; R e v . 6:12-14. N o t e also the late
H e b r e w text 'The Signs of the Messiah', JeUinek, Bet ha-Midrasch I I , pp. 58-63.
39. See Zohar, Yitro, I I 7oa-78a; I I 272a-275a {Raza deRazin); T i q q u n e i Z o h a r , n o . 70
(towards e n d ) .
h o w e v e r , b e g a n w e l l before t b e m i d d l e ages, p e r h a p s a s early as t h e

T a l m u d i c e r a . M a n u s c r i p t s exist c o n t a i n i n g p h y s i o g n o m i c treatises
w h i c h e m a n a t e d f r o m t h e circles of t h e M e r k a b a h m y s t i c s . T h e s e , like
the N e o p y t h a g o r e a n s a n d (possibly) t h e Q u m r a n c o v e n a n t e r s , m a y
have e m p l o y e d physiognomic criteria t o d e t e r m i n e w h o should b e
allowed t o j o i n t h e i r conventides."^^^ O r p h y s i o g n o m y m a y simply h a v e
b e e n p a r t of t h e e s o t e r i c lore s t u d i e d i n t h e c o n v e n t i c l e s . L i k e t h e i r
cosmological s p e c u l a t i o n s , t h e s t u d y of p h y s i o g n o m y m a y evince a n
interest o n t h e p a r t of t h e mystics i n 'scientific' subjects. G r u e n w a l d h a s
a r g u e d t h a t t h e r e a r e significant c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e l a t e r
R a b b i n i c p h y s i o g n o m i e s a n d t h e D e a d S e a texts ( 4 Q C r y p t i c a n d
4QMess ar) w h i c h point to direct continuity o f tradition.*' T h e
p a r a l l e l i s m is p e r h a p s n o t q u i t e s t r o n g e n o u g h to m a k e such a
c o n c l u s i o n i n e v i t a b l e . H o w e v e r , t h e D e a d S e a discoveries h a v e p r o v e d
beyond a n y d o u b t t h a t J e w s were involved i n speculation on
p h y s i o g n o m y a t a v e r y e a r l y d a t e . I n s o m e of t h e R a b b i n i c texts ( a s in
4 Q C r y p t i c ) t h e p h y s i o g n o m y is l i n k e d w i t h a s t r o l o g y ; i n o t h e r s ,
a s t r o l o g y is t o t a l l y a b s e n t a n d a p u r e l y i n t u i t i v e a p p r o a c h is a d o p t e d .
T h e following texts a r e n o t e w o r t h y :
(a) ' T h e P h y s i o g n o m y of R . I s h m a e l ' (*?KS;»tt?^ "1*? D*'2D niDH). T h i s
o p e n s : ' T h i s is t h e b o o k of t h e g e n e r a t i o n s o f m e n (DTX nTrVin), to
d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n the r i g h t e o u s a n d t h e w i c k e d . ' H o w e v e r , it is n o t
c o n c e r n e d so m u c h w i t h m e n ' s i n n e r m o r a l n a t u r e s as w i t h t h e i r l u c k ,
w i t h w h e t h e r t h e y will b e f o r t u n a t e o r u n f o r t u n a t e . T w o m e t h o d s a r e
u s e d to d i s c o v e r a m a n ' s f a t e : ( i ) m e t o p o s c o p y ( r e a d i n g t h e h n e s o n his
f o r e h e a d ) ; a n d (2) c h i r o m a n c y ( p a l m i s t r y ) . T h e p r e a m b l e classifies
p h y s i o g n o m y as e s o t e r i c d o c t r i n e w h i c h s h o u l d n o t b e disclosed to
unsuitable people.
(b) ' T h e B o o k o f the R e a d i n g of t h e H a n d s b y a n I n d i a n S a g e ' ("1D0
mn " ' O D H D i n X D • ' ' T T I J T ' ' ' K T ) is l a r g e l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h p a l m i s t r y ,
b u t it also c o n s i d e r s t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of o t h e r p a r t s of t h e b o d y
( i n c l u d i n g t h e testicles). T h e p h y s i c a l i n d i c a t o r s a r e t a k e n t o r e v e a l
luck, r a t h e r t h a n i n n e r c h a r a c t e r .
(c) ' T h e S e c r e t of P h y s i o g n o m y ' (D''2S n D n 110) is very brief a n d
d e a l s m a i n l y w i t h t h e t h e o r y of p h y s i o g n o m y . I t d o e s , h o w e v e r , t o u c h
o n the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n c e r t a i n specific p h y s i c a l f e a t u r e s (such as
t h e s h a p e of t h e eyes) a n d a m a n ' s c h a r a c t e r a n d p h y s i c a l qualities.
(d) G e n i z a h F r a g m e n t A ( T . - S . K 2 1 . 8 8 ) c o n t a i n s g e n e r a l
p h y s i o g n o m y , c h i r o m a n c y a n d m e t o p o s c o p y , i n w h i c h physical
attributes a r e related b o t h t o m o r a l c h a r a c t e r a n d destiny. C o m b i n e d
40. Lewin, 'Osar ha-Ge'onim IV, H a g i g a h , Responsa section p. 1 2 ; P. S. Alexander,

' T h e Historical Setting of the H e b r e w Book of Enoch', J J S 28 (1977), pp- 168—9.
41. I. G r u e n w a l d , ' F u r t h e r Jewish Physiognomic and C h i r o m a n t i c Fragments', T a r b i z
40 {1970-1), p p . 304-6 [Hebrew]. S e e above footnotes 35 and 36.
w i t h t h i s is a s t r o l o g i c a l m a t e r i a l i n w h i c h t h e d a y on w h i c h a m a n is
b o r n , a n d t h e a s t r o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s p r e v a l e n t t h e n , a r e r e l a t e d t o his
p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d his f a t e . F r o m t h e w a y t h e physiognomy
a n d the astrology a l t e r n a t e , w i t h o u t a n y direct connection, G r u e n w a l d
a r g u e s t h a t t h e t e x t h a s d r a w n on t w o q u i t e d i s t i n c t s o u r c e s .
(e) G e n i z a h F r a g m e n t B ( T . - S . N S 2 5 2 . 2 ) d e d u c e s a m a n ' s l u c k a n d
f a t e f r o m t h e s h a p e of d i f f e r e n t p a r t s of h i s b o d y , i n c l u d i n g his testicles.
I t o v e r l a p s p a r t i a l l y w i t h Sefer R e ' i y y a t h a - Y a d a y i m , a b o v e ( b ) .
(f) G e n i z a h F r a g m e n t C ( T . - S . K 2 1 . 9 5 L ) . T h i s c o n t a i n s 3 E n . 1 : 1 - 2
( S c h a f e r §§ 1 - 2 ) + 3 E n . 4 3 : 2 - 4 4 : 3 ( S c h a f e r §§ 6 1 - 2 ) + a f r a g m e n t of
a s t r o l o g i c a l p h y s i o g n o m y in w h i c h t h e t i m e of a m a n ' s b i r t h a n d the
astrological influences dominant then are linked with his physical
a p p e a r a n c e a n d his fate. T h e fragment o p e n s with the w o r d s 3 1 0 ] 0 ' ' 0 ,
' a g o o d o m e n ' , a n d a t 2 b / 3 i t q u o t e s G e n . 5 : 1 , T h i s is t h e b o o k of t h e
g e n e r a t i o n s o f m e n e t c . ' , p e r h a p s t o i n d i c a t e the b e g i n n i n g of a n e w
s e c t i o n . C f t e x t (a) a b o v e .
Bibliography
T e x t s : (a) 'Physiognomy of R . Ishmael': see G. G . Scholem, "pt510"»y "'1101 D''1D m D H ' ,
in M . D . Cassuto, J . K l a u s n e r and J . G u t t m a n n (eds.), Sefer Assaf (1953), p p . 4 8 0 - 7 ;
G e r m a n translation Scholem, 'Ein F r a g m e n t zur Physiognomik u n d Chiromantik a u s der
T r a d i d o n der spatantiken judischen Esoterik', in Liber Amicorum : Studies in Honour of C. J.
Bleelier (1969), p p . 182-6. (b) 'Book of the R e a d i n g of the H a n d s by a n I n d i a n S a g e ' : see
Scholem, Sefer Assaf p p . 488-92. (c) ' T h e Secret of Physiognomy': see Scholem, Sefer
Assaf, p p . 492-5. (d) Genizah F r a g m e n t A : see I . Gruenwald, 'Further Jewish
Physiognomic a n d Chiromantic Fragments', T a r b i z 40 (1970-1), pp. 306-17. (e)
Genizah Fragment B : see Gruenwald, T a r b i z 4 0 (1970-1), p p . 317-19. (f) Genizah
F r a g m e n t C : see P. Schafer, Geniza-Fragmente zur Hekliatot-Literatur (1984), n o . 12 (pp.
135-9)-
Scholem, Sefer Assaf, pp. 4 5 - 9 5 , Festschrift Sleeker, pp. 175-93, and G r u e n w a l d , T a r b i z
40 (1970-1), p p . 301-19, give good general accounts (in Hebrew) of early R a b b i n i c
physiognomy.
See further:
Scholem, G. G., ' C h i r o m a n c y ' , E n c . J u d . V (1971), cols. 477-9.
G r u e n w a l d , I., Apocalyptic and Merkavah Mysticism (1980), p p . 218-24 ['Physiognomy
Chiromancy and M e t o p o s c o p y ' ] .
Note also the chapter on physiognomy e^lSIDn m S H ) in t h e Hebrew version of the
Secretum Secretorum published b y M. Gaster, Studies and Texts (1925-28) I I , p p . 7 9 9 - 8 0 3 ;
I I I , pp. 268-72. Further o n the Secretum Secretorum: M . Manzalaoui, ' T h e pseudo-
Aristotelian Kitab Sin al-Asrdr', Oriens 23-24 (1974), pp. 147-257.
T h e standard collection of Greek a n d Latin physiognomic texts is R . Forster, Scriptores
Physiognomici Graeci et Latini I-II (1893). Note also the text a n d translation of
Pseudo-Aristotle, Physiognomica, in W . S. Hett, Aristotle: Minor Works, L o e b Classical
Library (1936). Catalogus Codicum Astrologorum Graecorum V I I (1908), ed. F . Boll, pp.
236-44, prints t h e text of a treatise of chiromancy from t h e Byzantine e r a .
O n ancient physiognomy in general s e e :
Forster, R . , Die Physiognomik der Griechen (1884).
Forster, R . , Z)« Polemonis Physiognomicis dissertatio (1886),
I-Ulster, R . , Quaestionesphysiognomicae (1890).

(Jundel, W . , 'Individualschicksal, M e n s c h t y p e n u n d Berufe in der antiken Astrologie',
Jaiirbuch d e r Charakterologie 4 (1927), pp. 135-93.
Schmidt, J . , ' P h y s i o g n o m i k ' , R E X X . I ( i 9 4 i ) , c o l s . 1064—74.
Kvans, E. C , Physiognomies in the Ancient World, Transactions of the American
Philosophical Society 59/5 (1969).
8. T r e a t i s e of S h e m ( = TrShem)
T h i s S y r i a c a s t r o l o g i c a l t r a c t , p r e s e r v e d in a u n i q u e fifteenth c e n t u r y
manuscript i n the J o h n Rylands University Library, Manchester,
contains prognostications r e g a r d i n g crops, political events, personal
h e a l t h , a n d c l i m a t e , d e d u c e d from the c o n s t e l l a t i o n in w h i c h the y e a r
begins (lit. 'is b o r n ' ) . M i n g a n a , its first e d i t o r , s u g g e s t e d ( v e r y
t e n t a t i v e l y ) t h a t it w a s c o m p o s e d b y a J e w in P a l e s t i n e , o r in E g y p t , in
t h e a f t e r m a t h of t h e d i s a s t r o u s first a n d s e c o n d J e w i s h w a r s a g a i n s t
R o m e . C h a r i e s w o r t h , h o w e v e r , a r g u e s v e r y e m p h a t i c a l l y t h a t it
o r i g i n a t e d in A l e x a n d r i a in t h e l a t e t w e n t i e s B . C , s h o r t l y after t h e
battle of Actium, that the a u t h o r was a J e w , a n d t h a t the original
l a n g u a g e w a s J e w i s h A r a m a i c . A n E g y p t i a n p r o v e n a n c e for t h e
d o c u m e n t is a r e a s o n a b l e a s s u m p t i o n in view of its c o n s t a n t p r e d i c t i o n s
a b o u t t h e Nile-flood, a n d its f r e q u e n t r e f e r e n c e s t o E g y p t a n d
Alexandria.*^ T h e d a t e , h o w e v e r , is m u c h m o r e problematic.
G h a r l e s w o r t h ' s c a s e is v e r y f a r f r o m p r o v e d . H i s a r g u m e n t d e p e n d s on
identifying a n u m b e r o f precise h i s t o r i c a l a l l u s i o n s i n the text. F o r
e x a m p l e , 3:6, ' T h e R o m a n s [ a n d t h e P a r t h i a n ] s will m a k e severe w a r s
o n e a c h o t h e r ' , is t a k e n by h i m as p o i n t i n g to a d a t e s h o r t l y after
Antonyms v i c t o r y o v e r t h e A r m e n i a n s , M e d e s a n d P a r t h i a n s , a n d t h e
c e l e b r a t i o n o f his t r i u m p h i n A l e x a n d r i a ( n o t i n R o m e as t r a d i t i o n
d e m a n d e d ) i n t h e faU of 3 4 B . C . B u t t h e r e is a l a c u n a in t h e t e x t :
C h a r i e s w o r t h s u p p h e s Parthwaye o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t ' t h e R o m a n s
fought . . . t h e P a r t h i a n s ' . Rhomaye, h o w e v e r , c a n j u s t a s easily refer to
t h e B y z a n t i n e s as t h e R o m a n s , a n d Parsaye, ' P e r s i a n s ' , is as satisfactory
as s u p p l e m e n t as Parthwaye. C h a r i e s w o r t h t a k e s 1 2 : 4 , ' E g y p t (will r u l e )
o v e r P a l e s t i n e ' , a s a n allusion t o A n t o n y ' s g r a n t o f P a l e s t i n e to
C l e o p a t r a i n 34 B . C , b u t o n c e a g a i n t h e t e x t is p r o b l e m a t i c . T h o u g h
t h e r e is n o l a c u n a , a v e r b h a s e v i d e n t l y g o n e a s t r a y . T h e r e s e e m t o be
n o g o o d g r o u n d s for a s s u m i n g , as C h a r i e s w o r t h d o e s , 7 : 1 9 , t h a t ' T h e r e
will b e in G a l i l e e a severe e a r t h q u a k e ' , refers p r e c i s e l y to the
e a r t h q u a k e w h i c h J o s e p h u s s a y s s t r u c k P a l e s t i n e i n 31 B . C . {B.J. i 1 9 , 3
( 3 7 0 ) ; Ant. X V 5, 2 ( 1 2 1 ) ) . T h e fact is t h a t n o n e of t h e a l l e g e d historical
42. T h e Coptic and Arabic almanacs published by A b d al-Masih (Les Cahiers Copies,
1956 no. 10, p p . 5-9), both written (one assumes) in Egypt, show a similar interest i n the
Nile-flood.
a l l u s i o n s is a n y w h e r e n e a r c l e a r e n o u g h to m a k e t h e d a t i n g c e r t a i n . I t
s h o u l d b e r e m e m b e r e d t h a t T r S h e m is n o t a n a p o c a l y p s e , i n w h i c h
c r y p t i c references a r e m a d e t o c o n t e m p o r a r y e v e n t s , w h i c h w e m i g h t
still h a v e a c h a n c e of d e c o d i n g . I t is a n a l m a n a c , a n d it is t h e v e r y
n a t u r e o f s u c h l i t e r a t u r e to b e e x t r e m e l y v a g u e . * ^
T h e r e is n o t m u c h r e l i g i o u s c o n t e n t i n T r S h e m , a n d l i t t l e b e y o n d its
t i t l e to s u g g e s t t h a t it m i g h t be o f j e w i s h o r i g i n . T h e e x p r e s s i o n ' t h e
l i v i n g G o d ' o c c u r s t w i c e (8:4 a n d 1 2 : 9 ) , b u t t h i s c o u l d h a v e b e e n u s e d
b y e i t h e r a J e w o r a C h r i s t i a n (cf. D e u t . 5 : 2 6 ; i S a m . 1 7 : 2 6 ; M a t t .
2 6 : 6 3 ; R o m . 9:26). C h a r i e s w o r t h t r a n s l a t e s i :8, ' F r o m P a s s o v e r {Pesha)
[ u n t i l t h e N e w Y e a r ] p r o d u c e will h a v e a b l i g h t . ' * * B u t Pesha c a n b e
' E a s t e r ' as w e l l a s ' P a s s o v e r ' , so a C h r i s t i a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e
passage c a n n o t b e ruled out. T h e r e a r e no clear examples of J e w i s h
a l m a n a c s of p r e c i s e l y t h e t y p e of T r S h e m , b u t t h a t J e w s i n d u l g e d in t h e
k i n d o f s p e c u l a t i o n t h a t it c o n t a i n s is s h o w n b y the p h y s i o g n o m i c
F r a g m e n t A from t h e C a i r o G e n i z a h discussed a b o v e (section 7).
T r S h e m 2:1 s t a t e s : ' I f t h e y e a r b e g i n s in T a u r u s , e v e r y o n e w h o s e n a m e
c o n t a n s a B e t h , o r Y u d h , or K a p h will b e c o m e ill.' C f w i t h t h i s C a i r o
G e n i z a h F r a g m e n t A : A / 2 , 9 - 1 2 ( e d . G r u e n w a l d p . 3 1 0 ) : ' H e w h o is
b o r n o n the t h i r d d a y o f t h e w e e k i n the c o n s t e l l a t i o n S c o r p i o o r L e o . . .
43. S. Brock, J J S 35 (1984), p. 204, c o m m e n t s : 'Attention should be paid to the

mention of rice a t 5:3, by impHcation a staple c r o p : this is hardly appropriate for a
d o c u m e n t allegedly written in Egypt in the late first century B.C.E., for rice seems only to
h a v e been imported into R o m a n a n d Byzantine Egypt, and n o t cultivated.' It is not,
however, absolutely clear that the text refers to the growing of rice (Syriac ruza = Hebrew
n W , Jewish Aramaic X m S / K m S / S m S , Greek opvCa). It simply states t h a t 'wheat
a n d rice a n d dried peas will b e expensive'. I t is also a moot point whether or n o t rice was
grown in Egypt. T h e loci classici on t h e subject in Pliny probably d o imply that Indian rice
was imported, b u t they also seem to suggest that Pliny recognizes a local variety of rice in
E g y p t ; see N.H. xviii 9 3 : 'adiciuntur his genera bromos et tragos, externa omnia, ab
oriente invectae oryzae similia. tiphe et ipsa eiusdem est generis, ex q u a fit in nostro orbe
o r y z e ' ; xviii 81 : 'arinca Galliarum propria copiosa et ItaUae est; Aegypto autem ac
Syriae Ciliciaeque et Asiae a c Graeciae peculiares zea, < olyra > , < oryza > < sive >
tiphe' (Rackham's text i n the Loeb Classical Library edition). Strabo xv i, 18 says that
rice was grown in Babylonia and lower Syria {(f>veadai 8e Kal [sc. TTJV opvâv] ev TJJ
BaKrpiavrj Kal Ba^vXcovia. Kal SovaiSi, Kal rj Karco Se Uvpia (f)wi), a statement corroborated
by R a b b i n i c sources: see e.g. m S h e b . 2:10, ' O n e m a y flood a rice-field in the Sabbatical
Year. R. Simeon says: But o n e may not c u t [the rice-plants]' (,n"'»''3tra m x a JÔâa
fnOSa •fx VaK ,-inW ' l ) . See further Stadler, 'Reis', R E l A . i (1914), cols.
517—19; A . C. J o h n s o n , in Tenney Frank (ed.). An Economic Survey of Ancient Rome II
(1936), p . 2; F . M. Heichelheim, in Frank, Economic Survey IV (1938), p. 129;
Encyclopaedia Talmudit I (1951), pp. 176-8 {sub TTIS); V . H e h n , Cultivated Plants and
Domesticated Animals in their Migration from Asia to Europe (new ed. 1976), p p . 379-83.
44. Chariesworth notes ad loc. : 'A lacuna of 50 m m , room for approximately 14 letters',
and he proposes restoring ['admt Iwt ryi !S]nt\ This implies -nt' is visible after the g a p ,
which would certainly suggest t h a t snt' was t h e final word. These letters, however, are not
visible. W h a t can be seen is probably to be read as -f, which suggests t h e restoration 'dm'
Ipntyqwst', '(from Easter) to Pentecost'. This makes rather better agricultural sense.
will at t h e a g e of n i n e t e e n m a r r y a w o m a n w h o s e n a m e b e g i n s w i t h H e ,
Yod.'
Bibliography
S. Brock, J J S 35 (1984), p. 203, rightly assigns T r S h e m to the genre of astrological
almanac known as a 'Dodekaeteris C h a l d a i c a ' , m a n y examples of which survive in Greek,
Latin, Syriac, Coptic and Arabic. Note in p a r t i c u l a r Catalogus Codicum Astrologorum
draecorum ( = C C A G ) V I (1903), ed. G. Kroll, p. 45, C o d . 4 ( = Vindobon. gr. 262), fols.
158-62; and C C A G X I . i (1932), e d . C. O . Z u r e t d , p p . 159—64. Both these texts cast
their predictions, hke T r S h e m , in t h e f o r m : idv yewaTai ev Kpiw 6 xpo^°s KTX. O n the
.second, Zuretti comments: ' H a e c est "Dodekaeteris C h a l d a i c a " recentior, fortasse ex
Arabico vel Persico exemplare versa.' For other related materials see : (a) G r e e k : C C A G
II (1900), ed. F . Boll et ai, p p . 144-52 (Boll demonstrates, pp. 139-44, that t h e first of the
two dodekaeterides printed here w a s written in Syria i n the t i m e of Augustus); C C A G
V . I (1904), ed. F. C u m o n t a n d F. Boll, p p . 172—9, 2 4 1 - 2 ; : C C A G I X . 2 (1953), ed. S.
Weinstock, pp. 1 7 0 - 5 ; Geoponica I 12 (ed. Beckh, T e u b n e r [1895], p. 21 ; cf J. Bidez
a n d F. C u m o n t , Les mages helUnisis I I [1938], p p . 183-7). (t>) L a d n : Revelatio Esdrae de
qualitatibus anni; see D . A. Fiensy, 'Revelation of Ezra', in Chariesworth, O T P I , pp.
601-64. (c) S y r i a c : R y l a n d s Syriac 44, fols. 7 4 b - 8 i b (immediately before the text of
TrShem!) ; M i n g a n a 266, fols. 4 - i 8 b ( M i n g a n a , Catalogue I [1933], cols. 524-5) ; BL
Add. 14,173, fol. 164b (Wright, Catalogue I [1870], p. 152 = C C C C X X X V I I / 6 ) ; E. A.
W . Budge, Syrian Anatomy, Pathology and Therapeutics, or 'The Book of Medicines' II (1913),
p p . 5 2 2 - 3 ('If the y e a r is born i n the sign of the R a m etc.'). Further G. Furlani,
'Astrologisches aus syrischen Handschriften', Z D M G 75 (1921), pp. 1 2 2 - 8 ; A.
Baumstark, Geschichte der syrischen Literatur (1922), p . 352. (d) C o p t i c : Y . A b d al-Masih, 'A
Fragmentary F a r m e r ' s Almanac', Les Cahiers Coptes, 1956 no. 10, p p . 5-9. Abd
al-Masih hsts other Coptic examples, (e) A r a b i c : ' T h e Vision of Daniel', ed. Abd
al-Masih, op. cit. Further, G. Graf, Geschichte der christlichen arabischen Literatur I (1944), p.
216.
The locus classicus o n the dodekaeteris C h a l d a i c a is Censorinus, de Die Nat. xviii 6-7:
'proxima est h a n c m a g n i t u d i n e m quae vocatur StoSe/caeTepi? ex annis vertentibus
duodecim. huic anno Chaldaico n o m e n est, q u e m genethhaci non a d solis lunae cursus,
sed ad observationes alias h a b e n t a d c o m m o d a t u m , quod i n eo dicunt tempestates
frugumque proventus ac steriHtates, i t e m morbos salubritatesque circumire.' Cf
M a n i h u s , Astron. 3.510-59. F u r t h e r A. Bouche-Leclercq, L'astrologie grecque (1899), pp.
4 8 9 - 9 1 ; F. Boll, Sphaera (1903), p p . 328 ff.; Boll, 'Dodekaeteris', R E V.i (1903), cols.
1254-5; J . Bidez and F . Cxxmoni, Les mages hellenisis \ (1938), p p . 1 2 2 - 3 ; W. Gundel and
H . Gundel, Astrologoumena: Die astrologische Literatur in der Antike und ihre Geschichte,
Sudhoffs Archiv, Beiheft 6 (1966), p . 49.
The text of T r S h e m is edited by A. M i n g a n a in 'Some Early J u d a e o - C h r i s d a n
Documents in t h e J o h n Rylands Library', B J R L 4 (1917-18), p p . 59-118. M i n g a n a gives
also an English version a n d a brief introduction. F o r i n t r o d u c d o n , translation and
c o m m e n t a r y see J. H . Chariesworth, 'Treatise of Shem', in Chariesworth, O T P I, pp.
473-80.
Further:
Chariesworth, J . H., P M R (1976), p p . 182-4 ['Treatise of S h e m ' ] .
Chariesworth, J . H., ' R y l a n d s MS 4 4 and a N e w Addition to the P s e u d e p i g r a p h a : The
Treatise of Shem Discussed and Translated', B J R L 60 (1977-78), pp. 376-403.
In general on Jewish astrology see:
Steinschneider, M., Die hebrdischen Obersetzungen des Mittelalters und die Juden als Dolmetscher
{i8gi),passim, esp. pp. 3 - 4 , 525-7, 5 9 9 - 6 0 4 , 666, 846-7, 856-9.
Rosin, D . , ' D i e Religionsphilosophie A b r a h a m ibn Esra's', M G W J 42 (1898), pp.
247-52, 305-15, 345-62, 394-407.
Blau, L., a n d Kohler, K., 'Astrology', J E II (1902), p p . 241-5.

Gaster, M . , ' T h e Wisdom of t h e C h a l d e a n s : An O l d H e b r e w Astrological Text', in
Gaster, Studies and Texts (1925-28) I, pp. 338-55, I I I , p p . 104-8.
M a r x , A., 'The Correspondence between the R a b b i s of S o u t h e r n France a n d
Maimonides about Astrology', H U C A 3 (1926), p p . 311-58.
Levy, R., Astrological Works of Abraham ibn Ezra (1928).
Altmann, A . , 'Astrology', E n c . J u d . I l l (1971), cols. 788-95.
Kennedy, E . S., a n d Pingree, D . , The Astrological History of Mdoshdo'alldoh (1971).
Chariesworth, J . H . , 'Jewish Astrology in t h e T a l m u d , Pseudepigrapha, the Dead Sea
Scrolls, and Early Palesdnian Synagogues', H T h R 70 (1977), p p . 183-200.
F o r introduction to ancient astrology see:
Bouche-Leclercq, A., Uastrologie grecque (1899).
Boll, F., Sphaera (1903).
C u m o n t , F . , Astrology and Religion among the Greeks and Romans (1912).
Boll, F., Bezold, C , a n d Gundel, W., Sternglaube und Sterndeutung: Die Geschichte und das
Wesen der Astrologie ('1918; ^1977).
Gundel, W . , Dekane und Dekanstembilder (1936).
Gundel, W . , 'Astrologie', R A C I (1950), cols. 8 1 7 - 3 1 .
Festugiere, A.-J., Le revelation d'Hermes Trismegiste I (^1950) ['L'astrologie et les sciences
occultes'].
C r a m e r , F . H., Astrology in Roman Law and Politics (1954).
Neugebauer, O., a n d V a n Hoesen, H. B., Greek Horoscopes (1959).
Gundel, W . , and G u n d e l , H . G . , Astrologoumena: Die astrologische Literatur in der Antike und
ihre Geschichte, Sudhoffs Archiv, Beiheft 6 (1966).
Gundel, H . G., Weltbild und Astrologie in den griechischen Zauberpapyri (1968).
Neugebauer, O., a n d Parker, R . A., Egyptian Astronomical Texts I - I I I (1960-69).
Gundel, H . , and Boker, R . , 'Zodiakos', R E X A (1972), cols. 462-709.
Goold, G. P., Manilius Astronomica, Loeb Classical Library (1977), pp. xvi-cxxii. A good,
brief introduction.
9. T e s t a m e n t of S o l o m o n ( = TSol)
T h e t e x t u a l h i s t o r y of t h e G r e e k T e s t a m e n t of S o l o m o n , l i k e t h a t of so
m u c h p o p u l a r m a g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e , is v e r y c o m p l e x . T h e s i x t e e n o r so
m a n u s c r i p t s so far i d e n t i f i e d c o n t a i n a t l e a s t f o u r different r e c e n s i o n s of
t h e text. T h e m a j o r i t y of m a n u s c r i p t s classify t h e w o r k as a ' t e s t a m e n t '
{Siad'qKrj), a n d in t e s t a m e n t - s t y l e it is n a r r a t e d b y S o l o m o n in t h e first
p e r s o n . S o l o m o n tells h o w , u s i n g a m a g i c a l r i n g (Sa/criÂiStov) g i v e n t o
him by the a r c h a n g e l Michael, he called up various demons and
c o m p e U e d t h e m to assist h i m i n b u i l d i n g t h e T e m p l e . T S o l h a s two
basic c o m p o n e n t s : (i) a haggadic framework w h i c h r e c o u n t s , in t h e
m a n n e r o f a f o l k t a l e , h o w S o l o m o n f o r c e d t h e d e m o n s to h e l p h i m ; a n d
(2) a detailed d e m o n o l o g y giving precise descriptions of the various
d e m o n s a n d t h e i r p o w e r s . M c C o w n held t h a t t h e h a g g a d i c f r a m e w o r k
o n c e existed a s a n independent work, prior to t h e insertion of t h e
detailed demonology. He believed his manuscript D (Dionysius
M o n a s t e r y , M t . A t h o s n o . 1 3 2 ) c o n t a i n s a r e w o r k i n g of t h a t original
h a g g a d i c n a r r a t i v e . H o w e v e r , i t is e q u a l l y p o s s i b l e t h a t m a n u s c r i p t D
w a s c r e a t e d b y e x t r a c t i n g t h e h a g g a d a h from a full v e r s i o n of T S o l a n d
a d d i n g embellishments.'*^ W h a t e v e r t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the
h a g g a d a h a n d the d e m o n o l o g y , T S o l in its full forms m u s t be t r e a t e d as
a s e r i o u s w o r k on m a g i c ; it is a m i s t a k e t o r e a d it s i m p l y as a f o l k t a l e or
h t e r a t u r e of e n t e r t a i n m e n t . I t s seriousness is i n d i c a t e d b y the c a r e w i t h
w h i c h t h e p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e of e a c h d e m o n is d e s c r i b e d , i t s p o w e r s
defined, a n d the a n g e l w h o ' i n h i b i t s ' i t i d e n t i f i e d . T h e r e is a s t r o n g
a s t r o l o g i c a l e l e m e n t in T S o l : b o t h d e m o n s a n d m e n ' r e s i d e ' i n a s t a r , a
sign of t h e Z o d i a c , or a p h a s e of t h e m o o n , a n d , as M c C o w n n o t e s ,
' m o r t a l s s e e m to b e p a r t i c u l a r l y l i a b l e t o i n j u r y f r o m d e m o n s w h o are
avvaarpoi w i t h t h e m , t h a t i s , b e l o n g t o t h e s a m e star.'*^ C h a p . 18
c o n t a i n s a n i m p o r t a n t list of t h e t h i r t y - s i x d e c a n s w h o c a u s e sickness to
v a r i o u s p a r t s of t h e b o d y . T h e s u r r o u n d i n g h a g g a d i c m a t e r i a l , s o m e of
w h i c h c a n b e p a r a l l e l e d in R a b b i n i c s o u r c e s , * ' h a s b e e n used s i m p l y as
a m e a n s of s y s t e m a d z i n g , a n d c o n t e x t u a l i z i n g , d e m o n o l o g i c a l l o r e of
g r e a t p r a c t i c a l use to m a g i c i a n s . I t serves precisely t h e s a m e p u r p o s e as
t h e s e v e n - h e a v e n s c h e m a in S h R (see s e c t i o n i a b o v e ) . T S o l in its full
forms w a s i n t e n d e d as a sort o f e n c y c l o p a e d i a of d e m o n o l o g y .
T S o l ' s c o m p l e x t e x t u a l h i s t o r y n a t u r a l l y m a k e s it difficult to d a t e .
T h e r e f e r e n c e to 26:5 i n t h e D i a l o g u e of T i m o t h y a n d A q u i l a s h o w s
t h a t it w a s c u r r e n t in s o m e f o r m a r o u n d A . D . 400.*^^ P a r t of t h e section
o n the decani ( 1 8 : 3 4 - 4 0 ) is e x t a n t i n a sixth c e n t u r y p a p y r u s f r a g m e n t
( P a p . g r . V i n d o b o n . 3 3 0 ) , b u t h t t l e c a n be d e d u c e d f r o m this as t o the
d a t e of t h e w o r k a s a w h o l e b e c a u s e the list of t h e d e c a n s is t h e one p a r t
s u r e t o h a v e c i r c u l a t e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y , before its i n c o r p o r a t i o n i n t o
TSol.*^ M c C o w n a r g u e d t h a t t h e b a s i c h a g g a d i c n a r r a t i v e ( w h i c h he
b e l i e v e d o n c e f o r m e d a s e p a r a t e l i t t l e J e w i s h t r a c t ) m a y be a s e a r l y as
t h e first c e n t u r y A . D . H o w e v e r , t h e a r c h e t y p e of all t h e full versions
( i n c o r p o r a t i n g t h e d e m o n o l o g y ) c a n n o t h a v e b e e n p u t t o g e t h e r before
t h e e a r l y t h i r d c e n t u r y A . D . H e p o i n t s to c l e a r linguistic a n d
45. As a parallel to the second possibihty M. R . J a m e s ( J T S t 24 [1923] p . 468) cites

' t h e treatment meted o u t to t h e Ascension of Isaiah by the a u t h o r of the "Greek Legend of
Isaiah", w h o has cut a b o u t a n d rearranged the old text, with large omissions, and p u t in
matter from the Epiphanian Lives, p r o d u c i n g a result very m u c h like D . '
46. Testament of Solomon (1922), p. 46.
47. See L. Ginzberg, Legends of the Jews V I (1928), p . 292 n o t e 54. Note i n particular
bOit. 68a-68b.
48. The Dialogue of Timothy and Aquila, ed. F. C. Conybeare (1898), p . 70: 6 Xpiariavos
fiTre. . . yvaiOi Se VouSaie, on TrpoaeKuvrjaev [sc. £o\ofiuiv], Kal aKpiSa €a<f>a^fv rots yXvTTTOis.
6 'lovSaios ehrev; OVK ea<f>aêv dAAd edXaaev iv rfj x^'P' OLKOVOICOS. ravra 8e ov Trepieêi rj
jSijSAo? TCOV âaiXecuv, dXX' iv rfj SiaOrjKrj avrov yiypanrai,. 6 Xpiariavos elnev; ev rovrai ydp
€ar7]v niaroTToicov, on OVK iv x^'P' laropioypd<f)ov eâvepdodi] rovro, dXX' iK TOV arofjiaros
avroi TOO SoXofxaivros eyvcoadrj rovrov. Cf. TSol 26:5 : ovhiv ivopioa rwv aKpiSwv ro atp,a
Kai iXaôv avrds VTTO rds X^^pds piov Kal iOvaa els ro ovofia 'Pait>dv Kal MoXox rots eiSwXois.
49. W . Gundel dates the archetype of the list of the decans in T S o l 18 to the first
century B . c . {Dekane und Dekanstembilder [^^1969], p . 45).
t e x t - c r i t i c a l e v i d e n c e t h a t T S o l w e n t on b e i n g r e - w o r k e d d o w n to t h e
m i d d l e ages (possibly to as l a t e as t h e twelfth o r t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s ) .
A l l u s i o n s t o j e s u s ( 1 5 : 1 0 ff.; cf. 1 1 : 6 ; 22:20), a n d to the V i r g i n ( 2 2 : 1 0 ;
cf 1 5 : 1 0 ) s h o w t h a t at s o m e p o i n t in its h i s t o r y it passed t h r o u g h
C h r i s t i a n h a n d s . I t s o b v i o u s J e w i s h c o n t e n t led C o n y b e a r e to t h e
c o n c l u s i o n t h a t it w a s o r i g i n a l l y a J e w i s h w o r k w h i c h h a d b e e n ( o n l y
slightly) re-edited b y a C h r i s t i a n . I t is h a r d t o tell w h e t h e r or n o t this
w a s so, o r w h e t h e r a C h r i s t i a n c o m p o s e d t h e w h o l e b u t u s e d s o m e
J e w i s h m a t e r i a l s . M u c h o f the J e w i s h c o l o u r i n g of T S o l is d e r i v e d from
c a n o n i c a l , or s e m i - c a n o n i c a l , sources. F o r e x a m p l e , t h e section of
A s m o d e u s in c h a p . 5 is l a r g e l y d e p e n d e n t on t h e b o o k of T o b i t , w h i c h
c i r c u l a t e d a m o n g J e w s a n d C h r i s t i a n s alike. T h e s e references to
A s m o d e u s m a y be classified a s J e w i s h ' , b u t t h e y n o m o r e p o i n t t o a
J e w i s h o r i g i n for t h e w o r k t h a n d o t h e references to K i n g S o l o m o n . I n a
c a s e s u c h as T S o l t h e r e is n o t h i n g t o be g a i n e d by t r y i n g t o d e m a r c a t e
s h a r p l y b e t w e e n J e w i s h ' a n d ' C h r i s t i a n ' e l e m e n t s , a t least as far as t h e
m a g i c is c o n c e r n e d . T h e eclecticism of e a r l y m a g i c has a l r e a d y b e e n
w e l l i l l u s t r a t e d . T S o l , e v e n if n o t a J e w i s h w o r k in t h e forms in w h i c h it
n o w lies before us, or e v e n if n o t b a s e d on a J e w i s h w o r k , clearly
c o n t a i n s m u c h J e w i s h m a t e r i a l , a n d c a n s u r e l y be used t o t h r o w l i g h t
on e a r l y J e w i s h d e m o n o l o g y .
T S o l is in fluent Koine G r e e k , a n d t h a t a p p e a r s to h a v e b e e n its
o r i g i n a l l a n g u a g e . E v i d e n c e for t r a n s l a t i o n from H e b r e w o r A r a m a i c is
inconclusive.^" Its p r o v e n a n c e is v e r y u n c e r t a i n . Its closest h t e r a r y a n d
m a g i c a l affinities a r e w i t h E g y p t i a n texts ( n o t e , a g a i n , c h a p . 1 8 on t h e
d e c a n s ) , so E g y p t is m o s t p r o b a b l y its p l a c e of o r i g i n .
Bibliography
T h e standard edition of t h e Greek text of TSol is C. C. McCown, The Testament of Solomon
(1922). Manuscripts n o t used by M c C o w n have been published by A. Delatte,
'Testament of Solomon', Anecdota Atheniensia I = Bibliotheque de la faculte de philosophie
et lettres d e I'Universite de Liege 36 (1927), pp. 211-27 (Paris BN 2011); a n d by K.
Preisendanz, 'Ein Wiener Papyrusfragment z u m T e s t a m e n t u m Salomonis', E o s :
Commentarii Societatis Philologae Polonorum 48/3 (1956) = Festschrft Taubenschlag I I I ,
pp. 161-7 (Pap. gr. Vindobonensis 330). A n Arabic version of TSol is extant in a
seventeenth century Vatican manuscript (Vat. ar. 448, fols. 39-54), on which see G. Graf,
Geschichte der christlichen arabischen Literatur I (1944), p . 210. According to J. H .
50. M. Gaster, Studies and Texts (1925-28), I p. 294, suggests t h a t TSol 13:6 (ms P), TW
dyyeAw rov deoij ru> KaXov/xevw a.<f>apo)<f>, o ipfievtmrai pa<f>a-qX, points to a mistranslation of
Hebrew, b u t his a r g u m e n t is far from clear. However, his comparison (see p. 309) of the
double angelic n a m e here with the double names in the M e r k a b a h texts is to the point.
Note in particular the following passage from the Conjuration of the l§ar h a - P a n i m
(Schafer § 628, Oxford 1531): D-'N'-aa'? UT\\> HVU ' l " - ! ~\b X m p ''IN
"•n I T ] DDSs •'irD pa-'DN ip-nsa ... ••"irDi DBHT'S -[DI . . . •••nm
mn n i r n o i n s a 'nra p n n n w i i o a . . . nin. T h e Unguisdc correspondence between
BHT'D/imStt and o ipfieveverai is striking.
Chariesworth, P M R S , pp. 197, 201, the sixteenth century K a r s h u n i manuscript, Paris

BN, fonds syriaque 194, fols. 153a-156b, contains ' a recension of portions of the
Testament of Solomon'. However, Graf, Geschichte I p. 209, appears to describe precisely
the same text a s follows: ' M a h n r e d e Salomons an seinem Sohn R o b o a m zu einem
rechtschafTenen Leben, in d e r Hss. " T e s t a m e n t " (Gebot, wasiya) genannt.' H e lists
several other manuscripts of t h e same work.
Translations
Conybeare, F. C , ' T h e Testament of Solomon', JQjR 11 (1899), pp. 15-45. T h i s is based
on Paris B N , anciens fonds grecs no. 38 (Colbert 4895) = McCown siglum P , as
printed in F . F. Fleck, Wissenschaftliche Reise durch das sUdliche Deutschland, Italien,
Sicilienund FrankreichW.'^ (1837), pp. i i i - 4 o ; c f PG C X X H (1889),cols. 1315-58.
Duling, D . C , ' T e s t a m e n t of Solomon', O T P I (1983), p p . 960-87.
Whittaker, M., ' T h e T e s t a m e n t of S o l o m o n ' , in H . D. F. Sparks (ed.). The Apocryphal Old
Testament (1984), p p . 737—51 [only summarizes chaps. 7 - 1 8 ] .
The introductions in M c C o w n (pp. i - 1 3 6 ) , Conybeare (pp. 1-15), D u h n g (pp.
935-59), and W h i t t a k e r (pp. 733-7) provide general discussion of the problems of TSol.
Duling ofTers the most extensive c o m m e n t a r y . See further:
Toy, C. H . , 'Solomon, T e s t a m e n t of, J E X I (1905), pp. 448-9.
Frey, J . - B . , 'Apocryphes de I'Ancien T e s t a m e n t : Le T e s t a m e n t de Salomon', D B S I
(1928) ed. L . Pirot, cols. 455-6.
Preisendanz, K., 'Salomo ( T e s t a m e n t ) ' , R E Suppl. V I I I (1956), cols. 684-90.
Naldini, M . , ' U n frammento esorcistico e il Testamento di Salomone', in Studia Florentina
Alexandra Ronconi sexagenario oblata (1970), pp. 281-7.
Chariesworth, J . H., P M R S , p p . 197—9 ['Testament of S o l o m o n ] .
Celsus, quoted in Origen, Contra Celsum viii 58, explains the idea of the decans, listed in
TSol 18, as follows: ' T h e y [sc. the Egyptians] say that the h u m a n body has been p u t in
charge of thirty-six daemons, or ethereal gods of some sort (Sat'/xove? deoi Tives aWepioi),
who apportion it between t h e m , t h a t being the n u m b e r of p a r t s into which it has been
divided (though some claim that there are many more). Each d a e m o n is in charge of a
different part. A n d they know the names of the daemons in their o w n tongue, such as
C h n o u m e n , C h n a c h o u m e n , K n a t , Sikat, Biou, Erou, Erebiou, R h a m a n o o r , and
Rheianoor, and all the other names which they use in their language. By invoking these
they heal the infirmities of t h e various p a r t s of the body.' C f Manilius, Astronomica iv
294-407, with G . P. Goold's note in the Loeb Classical Library edition (1977), pp.
Ixxxv-lxxxvii. O n the decans see further:
Bouche-Leclercq, A., L'astrologie grecque (1899), p p . 215-35.
Scott, W . , Hermetica I (1924) pp. 4 1 0 - 2 0 [Stobaei Hermetica, Excerptum V I ] ; I I I pp.
363-73-
Festugiere, A.-J., La revelation d'Hermes Trismegiste I (^^1950), p p . 139-43 ['Plantes
decaniques'].
(Jundel, W . , Dekane und Dekanstembilder (^1969), esp. pp. 49-62 o n TSol.
(iundel, H . G., Weltbild und Astrologie in den griechischen Zauberpapyri (1968), pp. 17-24
['Die D e k a n e ' ] .
Neugebauer, O . , and Parker, R. A., Egyptian Astronomical Texts I (i960) ['The Early
Decans'], a n d I I I (1969) ['Decans, Planets, Constellations and Zodiacs'].
A p p e n d i x : S o l o m o n and M a g i c
I n Jewîsh, C h r i s t i a n a n d M u s l i m m a g i c a n d folklore S o l o m o n is
r e g a r d e d as one of t h e g r e a t m a g i c i a n s , a n d n u m e r o u s t r e a t i s e s on
tiiagic a r e a t t r i b u t e d t o h i m . T h e r o o t s of t h i s t r a d i t i o n lie i n i K i n g s
376 ^-^2. Jewish Literature in Hebrew or Aramaic
4 : 2 9 - 3 4 ( H e b r e w 5 : 9 - 1 4 ) , w h e r e S o l o m o n ' s w i s d o m is s a i d t o s u r p a s s
' t h e w i s d o m o f all t h e p e o p l e o f t h e east, a n d a l l t h e w i s d o m o f E g y p t ' .
N o t e h o w this p a s s a g e is i n t e r p r e t e d i n S a p . S o l . 7 : 1 5 - 2 2 .
U n q u e s t i o n a b l y , t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t e a r l y r e f e r e n c e to S o l o m o n a n d
m a g i c is J o s e p h u s , Ant. viii 2, 5 ( 4 5 - 4 9 ) . T h e r e , J o s e p h u s asserts t h a t
S o l o m o n ' c o m p o s e d i n c a n t a t i o n s {IrrtpBas) b y w h i c h illnesses a r e
r e l i e v e d , a n d left b e h i n d forms of e x o r c i s m {rpoirovs iôpKcoaecov) with
w h i c h those possessed b y d e m o n s d r i v e t h e m o u t n e v e r to r e t u r n ' .
C o m p a r e w i t h this O r i g e n o n M a t t . 26:63 ( P G X H I 1 7 5 7 C ) : ' Q u a e r e t
a l i q u i s , si c o n v e n i t vel d a e m o n e s a d i u r a r e ; e t q u i respicit a d m u l t o s ,
q u i talia facere a u s i s u n t , d i c e t n o n sine r a t i o n e h e r e h o c . Q u i a u t e m
a d s p i c i t l e s u m i m p e r a n t e m d a e m o n i b u s , sed e t i a m p o t e s t a t e m d a n t e m
d i s c i p u l i s suis s u p e r o m n i a d a e m o n i a , et u t i n f i r m i t a t e s s a n a r e n t , d i c e t
q u o n i a m n o n est s e c u n d u m p o t e s t a t e m d a t a m a S a l v a t o r e , a d i u r a r e
d a e m o n i a ; l u d a i c u m est e n i m . H o c etsi a l i q u a n d o a nostris tale a l i q u i d
fiat, simile fit ei, q u o d a S a l o m o n e s c r i p t i s a d i u r a t i o n i b u s solent
d a e m o n e s a d i u r a r i . S e d ipsi, q u i u t u n t u r a d i u r a t i o n i b u s illis, a l i q u o t i e s
n e c idoneis c o n s t i t u t i s libris u t u n t u r ; q u i b u s d a m a u t e m e t d e H e b r a e o
acceptis a d i u r a n t d a e m o n i a . '
J o s e p h u s , i n the passage just cited, describes h o w he s a w t h e J e w i s h
exorcist E l e a z a r d r a w o u t a d e m o n b y u s i n g a ' r i n g w h i c h h a d b e n e a t h
its seal o n e o f t h e r o o t s p r e s c r i b e d b y S o l o m o n ' {rov SaKrvXiov exovra
VTTO rfi a<f>pa'yi8i pil,av e^ (Lv vveSeiê 2!aXop,uiv). T h i s is t h e e a r l i e s t k n o w n
r e f e r e n c e to t h e m a g i c a l ring o f S o l o m o n w h i c h b e c a m e so f a m o u s i n
l a t e r m a g i c a n d folktale. A s J o s e p h u s ' l a n g u a g e s h o w s , S o l o m o n ' s r i n g
is n o t t o b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d from S o l o m o n ' s seal, w h i c h is a l s o f r e q u e n t l y
referred t o in m a g i c : t h e ring is a s i g n e t r i n g , b e a r i n g a s e a l - s t o n e . C f
T S o l 1:6, haKrvXihiov exov o<f>payi8a yXv(f>rjs Xidov ripLiov. According to
b G i t . 68b, S o l o m o n ' s r i n g w a s e n g r a v e d w i t h t h e T e t r a g r a m (NDpTS?
Dtr iT'Vs? p j ? m . . . ). H o w e v e r , i n A r a b i c t r a d i d o n , t h e h e x a g r a m ,
n o w a d a y s p o p u l a r l y k n o w n as t h e ' M a g e n D a v i d ' , is c a l l e d ' S o l o m o n ' s
S e a l ' (see G. G . S c h o l e m , The Messianic Idea in Judaism and Other Essays
[ 1 9 7 1 ] , p p . 2 5 7 - 8 1 ; S c h o l e m , Kabbalah [ 1 9 7 4 ] , p p . 3 6 2 - 8 ) .
T h e n a m e o f Solomon appears frequently in magical papyri a n d o n
a m u l e t s . Like M o s e s ( s e e section 4 a b o v e ) , h e w a s r e s p e c t e d b y
m a g i c i a n s of a l l religious p e r s u a s i o n s . P G M I V 8 5 0 - 9 2 9 c o n t a i n s a t e x t
e n t i t l e d ZlaXopiCJvos Kardrrrojais, Kal e-nl TTaiSwv Kal reXeicjv rroiovaa.
P G M I V 3039f refers to ' t h e seal w h i c h S o l o m o n p l a c e d o n t h e t o n g u e
of J e r e m i a h ' (section 4 ( a ) a b o v e ) . P G M P i 7 , i o ( a C h r i s t i a n t e x t ) :
ÊK$opKiap.6(^sy ZaXop.a>vos rrpos rrdv dKadaprov rrv(evp.)a', C.
Wessely, Jêue griechische Zauberpapyri, D e n k s c h r i f t e n d e r k a i s e r l . A k a d .
d. W i s s . , philos.-hist. C I . , W i e n , X L I I . 2 (1894), p . 66, line 2 9 ; R .
H e i m , ' I n c a n t a m e n t m a g i c a g r a e c a l a t i n a ' , J a h r b i i c h e r fiir classische
P h i l o l o g i e , S u p p l . 1 9 ( 1 9 8 3 ) , p p . 4 6 3 - 5 7 6 : N o . 56 = 1 6 9 , ' r e c e d e a b
illo G a i o S e i o , S o l o m o n te s e q u i t u r ' ; 6 1 , I!(f)payk EoXopuoivos, EoXop,oiv

ae 8iu)K€i; 6 2 , a<j>payk UoXop,wvos; 236, ' t e r i n c a n t o in s i g n o S o l o m o n i s
e t s i g n o d o m n a A r t e m i x ' ; 2 3 7 , EoXopuDve. A c o m m o n t y p e of a m u l e t
shows recto, u n d e r t h e l e g e n d HoXopcwv, a h o r s e m a n s p e a r i n g a
r e c u m b e n t f e m a l e figure, a n d verso, t h e i n s c r i p t i o n E<j>payk deov. This
t y p e of a m u l e t w a s , p r e s u m a b l y , i n v e n t e d b y J e w s : t h e female figure
probably originally represented a Lilith; however, w h e n the amulet
b e c a m e p o p u l a r a m o n g n o n - J e w s , i t s i c o n o g r a p h y was d o u b t l e s s
s u b j e c t to r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . S e e G . S c h l u m b e r g e r , ' A m u l e t t e s b y z a n -
tines a n c i e n s ' , R E G 5 ( 1 8 9 2 ) , p p . 7 3 - 9 3 ; P . P e r d r i z e t , 'E^PAUS
EOAOMQNOr, R E G 16 ( 1 9 0 3 ) , p p . 4 2 - 6 1 ; E. P e t e r s o n , EIE &EOE
( 1 9 2 6 ) , p p . 9 6 - 1 0 9 ; C . B o n n e r , Studies in Magical Amulets ( 1 9 5 0 ) , p p .
2 0 8 - 2 1 ; E. R . G o o d e n o u g h , Jewish Symbols in the Greco-Roman Period I I
( 1 9 5 3 ) , p p . 2 2 7 - 3 5 ; A- D e l a t t e a n d P . D e r c h a i n , Les intailles magiques
greco-egyptiennes ( 1 9 6 4 ) , p p . 261—4; B . B a g a t t i , ' A l t e r e m e d a g l i e di
S a l o m o n e c a v a l i e r e e l o r o o r i g i n e ' , R i v i s t a d i A r c h e o l o g i a C h r i s t i a n a 47
( 1 9 7 1 ) , p p . 331—42. A n i n t e r e s t i n g e x a m p l e p u b l i s h e d by A. S o r l i n
D o r i g n y , ' P h y l a c t e r e A l e x a n d r i n ' , R E G 4 ( 1 8 9 1 ) , p p . 2 8 7 - 9 6 , b e a r s the
e x t e n d e d i n s c r i p t i o n : "AyyeXos 'Apaa<f>, (f>evye p.epn,ar]p.€vi, EoXopcov ae
8io)K€t. C f t h e a m u l e t f r o m t h e r e g i o n of S m y r n a p u b l i s h e d b y T .
H o m o l l e , B u l l e t i n d e C o r r e s p o n d e n c e H e l l e n i q u e 17 ( 1 8 9 3 ) , p . 6 3 8 :
<Pevye /iiai/itcvi, *Apaa<f> 6 dyyeXos ae 8I6KI '{KL} K€ EoXopov diro rov
(f>opovvT(os).
T h e Bordeaux Pilgrim ( A . D . 333-4) contains the following
description: 'Interius vero civitati s u n t piscinae gemellares, q u i n q u e
porticos h a b e n t e s , q u a e a p p e l l a n t u r Betsaida. Ibi aegri m u l t o r u m
a n n o r u m s a n a b a n t u r . A q u a a u t e m h a b e n t h a e piscinae i n m o d u m
c o c c i n i t u r b a t a m . Est i b i et c r e p t a , u b i S o l o m o n d a e m o n e s t o r q u e b a t '
(ed. P . G e y e r , C S E L X X V I I I [ 1 8 9 8 ] , p . 2 1 ) .
S o l o m o n is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h d e m o n s t h r e e t i m e s i n t h e N a g H a m m a d i
t e x t s : O n t h e O r i g i n o f t h e W o r l d N H 11,5:107; A p o c a l y p s e of A d a m
N H V,5:78—9; T e s t i m o n y o f T r u t h N H 1X53:70. F o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of
these p a s s a g e s see S. G i v e r s e n , ' S o l o m o n u n d d i e D a m o n e n ' , i n M .
K r a u s e ( e d . ) , Essays on the Jâg Hammadi Texts in Honour of Alexander
Bohlig ( i 9 7 3 ) > P P - 1 6 - 2 1 .
N i c e t a s C h o n i a t e s , de Manuele Comneno iv 7 ( P G C X X X I X 4 8 9 A ) ,
tells h o w a n official a t t h e c o u r t o f M a n u e l C o m n e n u s , A a r o n b y n a m e ,
was c a u g h t red-handed with a book of Solomonic magic which could
b e u s e d t o call u p t h e d e m o n s : edXio Se Kal j8i)8Aov EoXop.d)vreiov
dveXlrroiv rJTis dvaTrTvaaop.evr] re Kal Biepxapcevr) Kara Xeyeojvas avXXeyei
Kal rrapiarrjai rd 8aip,6via avxvaKis dvanvvdavopLeva, e(f>' orco
TTpooKeKXrjvrar Kal t o emrarT6p,evov emaTTev8ovra Treparovv, Kal
rrpodvpLCDs 8pu)VTo ro KeXevopievov. T h e reference m a y b e to o n e o f t h e
v e r s i o n s of t h e H y g r o m a n t e i a of S o l o m o n — a w o r k s o m e d m e s d t l e d , o r
subtitled, T O KXuhlov rijs naarjs rexvrjs rrjs vypOfMavreias, o r •q KXCIS roi

ZoXopiUiVTos. Cf. KXels Moiiarjs, P G M X I I I 2 1 , 36. See J . Heeg,
Catalogus Codicum Astrologorum Graecorum V I I I . 2 ( 1 9 1 1 ) , p p . 1 3 9 - 4 3 . T h e
L a t i n Clavicula Salomonis, w h i l e n o t d i r e c t l y t r a n s l a t e d from a n y k n o w n
f o r m of t h e H y g r o m a n t e i a , clearly b e l o n g s to t h e s a m e t r a d i t i o n . T h e
C l a v i c u l a w a s o n e o f t h e m o s t p o p u l a r b o o k s of m a g i c i n t h e m i d d l e
a g e s , a n d was t r a n s l a t e d i n t o a n u m b e r o f E u r o p e a n l a n g u a g e s . See S.
L. M . M a t h e r s , The Key of Solomon (1889). T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of t h e
H e b r e w Mafteah Shelomoh (ed. H . G o l l a n c z , 1 9 1 4 ) to t h e C l a v i c u l a a n d
t h e H y g r o m a n t e i a is a m a t t e r o f d i s p u t e . S e e S c h o l e m , Kabbalah ( 1 9 7 4 ) ,
p p . 186, 3 2 4 ; c o n t r a s t E n c . J u d . X I ( i 9 7 1 ) , col. 706.
T h e Z o h a r ' s references to v a r i o u s b o o k s o f S o l o m o n ( G i n z b e r g ,
Legends V I , p . 302 n o t e 9 3 ) s h o u l d b e t r e a t e d w i t h s o m e r e s e r v e , e v e n
w h e n q u o t a t i o n s a r e g i v e n . I t seems t h e Z o h a r is n o t a b o v e ' q u o t i n g '
f r o m n o n - e x i s t e n t w o r k s p u r e l y for effect.
D e c r e t u m Gelasianum V.8 (ed. E . von Dobschiitz, T U X X X V I I I / 4
[1912], p p . 5 7 - 8 ) : 'Scriptura quae appellatur Salomonis Interdictio
[v.i. C o n t r a d i c t i o ] a p o c r y p h a . P h y l a c t e r i a o m n i a q u a e n o n a n g e l o r u m ,
u t illi c o n f i n g u n t , s e d d a e m o n u m m a g i s n o m i n i b u s c o n s c r i p t a s u n t
a p o c r y p h a . ' T h e m e n t i o n of t h e I n t e r d i c t i o i n t h e c o n t e x t of a m u l e t s
m a y i n d i c a t e i t w a s a m a g i c a l w o r k . M . R . J a m e s , The Lost Apocrypha of
the Old Testament (1920), p . 5 2 , identifies i t w i t h The Dialogue of Salomon
and Saturn.
m P e s . 4:9, ' S i x t h i n g s d i d k i n g H e z e k i a h : w i t h t h r e e t h e y c o n s e n t e d
a n d w i t h t h r e e they d i d n o t c o n s e n t . . . H e hid a w a y t h e B o o k o f C u r e s
(mXIDI IDD) a n d t h e y c o n s e n t e d . ' C f b P e s . 5 6 a ; b B e r . l o b .
M a i m o n i d e s , i n his c o m m e n t a r y to m P e s . 4:9, r e c o r d s a t r a d i t i o n t h a t
this Book of C u r e s h a d b e e n c o m p o s e d b y S o l o m o n . T h e Y e r u s h a l m i
v e r s i o n o f this m i s h n a h refers, n o t t o a B o o k of C u r e s , b u t t o a ' T a b l e t
of C u r e s ' — m X I D I VtT (ySanh. i8d; yNed. 40a; yPes. 36c
b o t t o m l i n e ) . T h i s is p r o b a b l y t h e o r i g i n a l t e x t of t h e m i s h n a h : t h e
a l l u s i o n i n t h e u n e x p e c t e d w o r d K'?3t? is t o t h e t r a d i t i o n , f o u n d e.g. i n
S y n c e l l u s (see b e l o w ) , t h a t S o l o m o n ' s c u r e s w e r e i n s c r i b e d o n a p l a q u e
affixed t o t h e T e m p l e g a t e . T h e t r a d i t i o n t h a t H e z e k i a h t r i e d t o
s u p p r e s s S o l o m o n ' s m a g i c is f o u n d i n G e o r g e S y n c e l l u s , Chronographia,
ed. D i n d o r f , C S H B X X (1829), PP- 3 7 ^ - 7 : '^v 5e K a l ZoXoixo>vros
Ypa<f>ri n s iyKeKoXapLpevrj rfj TTvXfj rov vaov rravros voarfparos OLKOS
rrepiexovaa, ^ rrpoo€X<*>v 6 Xaos Kal ras deparrelas vop.i^6p.€vos ^xeiv

Kar€<l>p6v€i rod deov' 816 Kal ravrr^v 'EêKias eêKoXaif/ev iva rrdaxovres rep
deo) rrpoaexojoiv. T h e v e r s i o n o f this t r a d i t i o n g i v e n in t h e S u d a s u b
'EteKias ( S u i d a e Lexicon, e d . A d l e r I I p . 208) r e p l a c e s ypa(f>ri b y jSijSAo?
Ipidrajv. C f M i c h a e l G l y c a s , Annales I I ( P G C L V I I I 349B) ; a n d
J o s e p h u s , Hypomnesticum, c . 74 ( P G C V I 8 9 C ) : e l a l Se Kal erepoi irXctaroi
Xoyoi, ovs dTT€Kpv^€V 6 evae^rjs âaiXevs *El,€Kias... rovs 8k 8aip,6va)v
€K<f>€VKTlKOVS Kal TTadcbv laTplKOVS Kal KXeVTcbv (f>a)paTlKOVS ol TCOV

'lovSaliov dyvprai nap' cavTOis (ftvXdaaovaiv CTrt/ieAeaTaTa. Note the
present tense, suggesting direct, personal observation. A. von
G u t s c h m i d , Kleine Schriften V ( 1 8 8 9 ) , p . 6 1 8 , d a t e s J o s e p h u s to t h e t e n t h
c e n t u r y ; F . D i e k a m p , Hippolytus von Theben {i8g8), pp. 145-51, would
p l a c e h i m a t t h e l a t e s t a r o u n d t h e t u r n of t h e e i g h t h o r n i n t h c e n t u r i e s ,
but perhaps considerably earlier. On the Greek tradidon about
H e z e k i a h ' s a t t e m p t t o s u p p r e s s S o l o m o n i c m a g i c see f u r t h e r McCown,
Testament of Solomon, p p . 9 6 - 1 0 0 ; G i n z b e r g , Legends V I , p . 369 n o t e 90.
I n general o n Solomon a n d m a g i c see:
Fabricius, J . A., Codex Pseudepigraphus Veteris Testamenti I (1722), p p . 1013—70. Still
valuable despite its great age.
Montgomery, M. W . , 'Solomon, in Arabic L i t e r a t u r e ' , J E X I (1905), p p . 444 ff.
Seligsohn, M . , 'Solomon, in R a b b i n i c a l L i t e r a t u r e and Legend', J E X I (1905), p p .
438-44.
Seligsohn, M . , 'Solomon, Apocryphal W o r k s ' , J E X I (1905), pp. 446-8.
Salzberger, G., Die Salomonsage in der semitischen Literatur (1907).
Ginzberg, L., Legends of the Jews I V (1913), p p . 149—54 ['Solomon Master of the
D e m o n s ' ] ; 165-9 ['Asmodeus'].
J a m e s , M. R . , Lost Apocrypha of the Old Testament (1920), p p . 51-3.
McCown, C . C., ' T h e C h r i s d a n T r a d i t i o n a s to t h e Magical Wisdom of Solomon', J P O S
2 (1922), p p . 1-24.
McCown, C . C , Testament of Solomon (1922), p p . 90—104.
Delatte, A., Anecdota Atheniensia I = Bibliotheque d e la faculte d e philosophie e t lettres de
I'Universite d e Liege 36 (1927). A collection of magical texts attributed to Solomon.
Preisendanz, K., ' S a l o m o ' , R E Suppl. V I I I (1956), cols. 660-704.
Denis, A.-M., I P G A T (1970), p p . 6 7 - 9 .
Rothkoff, A . , 'Solomon, i n the A g g a d a h ' , E n c . J u d . X V (1971), cols. 106-8.
Hirschberg, H. Z . , 'Solomon, i n Islam', E n c . J u d . X V (1971), col. 108.
Lofgren, O . , ' D e r Spiegel d e s S a l o m o : Ein athiopischer Z a u b e r t e x t ' , i n Ex Orbe
Religionum: Studia G. Widengren I (1972), p p . 20&-23.
Bagatti, B., 'I Giudeo-Cristiani e I'Anello di Salomone', R S R 60 (1972), p p . 151-60.
Pritchard, J . B. {cd.), Solomon andSheba (1974).
Duling, D . C , 'Solomon, Exorcism a n d the S o n of D a v i d ' , H T R 6 8 (1975), pp. 235-52.
Chariesworth, J . H . , P M R S , p p . 199-202.
VIII. T H E WRITINGS O F T H E Q U M R A N C O M M U N I T Y
T h a n k s to t h e m a n u s c r i p t d i s c o v e r i e s a t Q u m r a n between 1947 and

1 9 5 6 , t h e t o t a l of e x t a n t i n t e r - T e s t a m e n t a l J e w i s h l i t e r a t u r e h a s g r o w n
beyond all e x p e c t a t i o n . ' Dead S e a Scrolls evidence relating to the
Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha, and Qumran material of a non-
s e c t a r i a n c h a r a c t e r , h a v e b e e n d e a l t w i t h in e a r l i e r c h a p t e r s . T h e t i t l e s
e x a m i n e d h e r e a r e those w h i c h m a y b e assigned, either with complete
a s s u r a n c e o r w i t h a h i g h d e g r e e o f p r o b a b i h t y , to t h e Q u m r a n (Essene)
m o v e m e n t . ^ T h e y will b e a r r a n g e d in five c a t e g o r i e s : A. R u l e s ; B. B i b l e
interpretation; C. Hymns; D. Liturgical texts; E. MisceUaneous
c o m p o s i t i o n s . F r a g m e n t s t o o s m a l l for m e a n i n g f u l t r e a t m e n t will be
i g n o r e d . As is h a r d l y necessary to recall, a large p r o p o r t i o n of the
fragments, found in Cave 4 more than thirty years ago, is sdll
unpublished. The present chapter will consequently be in need of
u p d a t i n g for y e a r s to c o m e .
1. A select bibliography relating t o the D e a d Sea Scrolls, up-to-date until 1 9 7 2 , is given

in vol. I , pp. 1 1 8 - 2 2 . For m o r e recent works, see J . A. Fitzmyer, The Dead Sea Scrolls :
Major Publications and Tools for Study ( 1 9 7 5 , * i 9 7 7 ) . T h e following editions of Q u m r a n
texts h a v e been published i n the m e a n w h i l e : J . T . Milik, The Books of Enoch: Aramaic
Fragments of Qumran Cave 4 ( 1 9 7 6 ) ; R. d e V a u x and J . T. Milik, Qumrdn Grotte 4 II
(4QJ28-4QJ57) [DJD V I ] ( 1 9 7 7 ) ; Y. Yadin, M'gillat ha-Miqdash [ T h e T e m p l e Scroll]
I - I I I ( 1 9 7 7 ) (in Hebrew) [The Temple Scroll I-III ( 1 9 8 3 ) ] ; M. Baillet, Qumrdn Grotte 4 III
(40^82-40^20) [DJD V I I ] ( 1 9 8 2 ) . For recent general introductions or surveys, see G .
Vermes, The Dead Sea Scrolls: Qumran in Perspective ( 1 9 7 7 , with revisions 1 9 8 1 , 1 9 8 2 ) ;
E . - M . Laperrousaz et al., ' Q u m r a n et decouvertes au desert d e J u d a ' , DBS I X ( 1 9 7 8 ) ,
cols. 7 3 7 - 1 0 1 4 ; H. Bietenhard, ' D i e Handschriftenfunde v o m T o t e n M e e r (Hirbet
Q u m r a n ) und die Essenerfrage. Die F u n d e in d e r Wiiste J u d a ' , in H. T e m p o r i n i a n d W .
H a a s e (eds.), Aufstieg und Niedergang der romischen Welt X I X , i ( 1 9 7 9 ) , pp. 7 0 4 - 7 8 ; D .
D i m a n t , ' Q u m r a n Sectarian Literature', in M . E. Stone (ed.), Jewish Writings of the Second
Temple Period [Compendia Rerum ludaicarum ad Novum Testamentum I I . 2 ] ( 1 9 8 4 ) , p p .
4 8 3 - 5 5 0 . Cf also M. Delcor (ed.), Qumrdn. Sapiiti, sa thiologie et son milieu ( 1 9 7 8 ) .
A m o n g the Q u m r a n finds belonging to t h e section, 'Sources' (vol. I , §3), t h e following
a r e to b e added to subsection I I I , ' T h e T a r g u m s ' : T g . Lev. 1 6 : 1 2 - 1 5 , 1 8 - 2 1 ; T g . J o b
3 : 5 - 9 ; 4 : 1 6 - 5 : 4 {4Qj5&-7',]- T . Milik, D J D V I , p p . 86—90). T h e references indicate the
m a x i m u m extent of t h e biblical pericopae covered by t h e T a r g u m fragment. I n fact, t h e
surviving text is minute. Nevertheless, the Leviticus T a r g u m (which represents a
non-midrashic, translation type) is not without interest insofar as it includes expressions
Hnking 4QJ36, not with Onkelos, b u t with Neofiti (cf Vermes, J J S 2 9 ( 1 9 7 8 ) , p. 1 9 4 ) .
T h e J o b fragments a r e n o t represented in iiQTgJob which begins at 1 7 : 1 4 . F o r
supplementary bibliography o n the latter, see M. SokolofT, The Targum to Job from Qumran
Cave XI ( 1 9 7 4 ) ; T. M u r a o k a , ' T h e Aramaic of t h e O l d T a r g u m of J o b from Q u m r a n
C a v e X I ' , JJS 2 5 ( 1 9 7 4 ) , p p . 4 2 5 - 4 3 ; 'Notes on the O l d T a r g u m of J o b from Q u m r a n
C a v e X I ' , R Q , 9 ( 1 9 7 7 ) , pp. 1 1 7 - 2 5 ; J . A. Fitzmyer, ' T h e First-Century T a r g u m o f J o b
from Q u m r a n Cave X I ' , A Wandering Aramean ( 1 9 7 9 ) , p p . 1 6 1 - 8 2 .
2. T h e problem of i d e n d t y of the Dead S e a C o m m u n i t y is discussed in vol. I I , § 3 0 , p p .
5 5 5 - 9 0 . especially pp. 5 7 5 - 8 5 .
VIII. The Writings of the Qumran Community 381
A. T h e Rules:
/ . 77?^ Community Rule or Manual of Discipline
F i v e d o c u m e n t s s o m e w h a t d i f f e r e n t i n n a t u r e fall u n d e r t h e h e a d i n g of
R u l e s . T h e y all consist, e i t h e r w h o l l y o r s u b s t a n t i a l l y , of p r e c e p t s
g o v e r n i n g t h e life o f all t h e m e m b e r s of t h e C o m m u n i t y , or o f c e r t a i n
g r o u p s w i t h i n it. S o m e c o n t a i n l e g i s l a t i o n r e l a t i n g t o t h e i r o w n t i m e ;
o t h e r s s e e m t o h a v e in v i e w t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l e r a . Besides legal a n d
administrative matters, the R u l e s a c c o m m o d a t e also liturgical,
paraenetical a n d poetic sections.
T h e C o m m u n i t y R u l e {iQS) is a t t e s t e d b y a scroll f r o m C a v e i a n d
b y f r a g m e n t s from C a v e s 4 a n d 5. T h e title, Serekh ha-Tahad, figures in
t h e m a n u s c r i p t itself {iQS 1 : 1 , 1 6 ; cf. 5 : 1 ) . ^ iQS c o m p r i s e s e l e v e n
r e a s o n a b l y w e l l p r e s e r v e d c o l u m n s , t h e last o f w h i c h , w i t h t h e b o t t o m
t h i r d left b l a n k , c o n t a i n s t h e e n d o f t h e d o c u m e n t . C o l . i is n e v e r t h e l e s s
n o t t h e b e g i n n i n g , n o r c o l . 1 1 t h e e n d o f t h e p r i m i t i v e scroll, for s e a m s
of t h r e a d a t b o t h e x t r e m i t i e s i n d i c a t e t h a t o r i g i n a l l y o t h e r strips of skin
w e r e a t t a c h e d to t h e m a n u s c r i p t . I t is i n effect r e a s o n a b l y c e r t a i n t h a t
t h e C o m m u n i t y R u l e A n n e x e o r M e s s i a n i c R u l e [iQSa) and the
Blessings {iQSb) followed col. 1 1 o f iQS^ F r a g m e n t s d e t a c h e d from t e n
copies o f the R u l e a w a i t p u b l i c a t i o n a m o n g t h e t e x t s f r o m C a v e 4,^ a n d
a f u r t h e r Serekh m a n u s c r i p t m a y b e i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e h e l p of t i n y
f r a g m e n t s f r o m C a v e 5 (sQji), c o r r e s p o n d i n g p e r h a p s t o iQS 2:4—7.
3. The remains of the title formerly attached to the b e g i n n i n g of t h e Scroll have been
pubhshed by D. Barthelemy, D J D I, p . 107 a n d plate 28. C f also Milik, RB 6 7 (i960), p.
412, quoting the phrase * ] 1 0 1 D D from 4Q^.
4. Cf D J D I , p p . 107-8.
5. Cf J . T . Milik, 'Le travaille d'edition d e s manuscrits d e Q u m r a n ' , R B 63 (1956), pp.
6 0 - 1 ; 67 (i960), pp. 411-16. A c c o r d i n g to R B 63, two of the m a n u s c r i p t s are attested by
a single small fragment each a n d a n o t h e r t w o manuscripts are written o n papyrus. T h e r e
are variants and somewhat differing recensions, especially in col. 5 w h e r e the abbreviated
text of two manuscripts begins with D''3ninan m i m V^'DlPa'? VHID. In R B 67,
Milik releases a n u m b e r of variant readings from t h e 4 Q manuscripts n u m b e r e d from a to
j , a n d appends t h e following Ust oiiQS passages idendfied i n the 4 Q f r a g m e n t s :
1:1-5 (S") 4 4 - 1 0 (S^) 6:1(^13 (Sh 8 : ^ 1 7 (S'^l 10:3-8 ( s h

1:1-3 (S-^) 4:'3-i5(S') 6:16-18 (S'') 8:19-21 ( S \ 10:9-11 (S^
1:15-19 (Sh 4:24-25(8') 6:22-25 (S8) 8:24-9:10(8'*) 10:4-12 (S'*)
1:21-3 (S") 5:1-20 (S'') 6:27-7:3(58) 9:15(8") 10:12-18 (S^*)
2:4-5(8'') 5:1-21(5"*) 7:8-15(8^) 9:12-20(8") 10:13-18 (S**)
2:4-11(8^) 5:21-6:7(8^) 7:icî4(8,8) 9:'5-10:3 (S^*) 10:15-20(85
2:6-11 (S'') 5:22-24.(58) 7:i3(?)(S^) 9:2(^24(8^) io:2(h-2,4 (5*)
2:26-3:10(5'^) 6:1-3 (5') 7:16-18(58) 9:18-22(8^) 11:7(8'*) ^
3:4-5(8*') 6:3-5(58) 7:2(^8:10(5^) 9:23-24(5') 11:14-22(5^^
3:7-12(8^) 6:9-12(5'*) 8:11-15(5^) 10:1-5 (5^) 11:22(8'*^
6. Cf Milik, D J D I I I , pp. 1 8 0 - 1 ; see alsojQjj, ibid., p p . 181-3.
P a l a e o g r a p h i c a l l y / QS is d a t e d to t h e H a s m o n a e a n p e r i o d , p o s s i b l y to
t h e e a r l y first c e n t u r y B . C . ^ N O i n f o r m a t i o n is a v a i l a b l e c o n c e r n i n g t h e
s c r i p t o f the C a v e 4 m a n u s c r i p t s ; ^Qji is v a g u e l y d e s c r i b e d b y J . T .
M i l i k a s ' e c r i t u r e t a r d i v e ' ( D J D I I I , p . 180), w h i c h n o d o u b t m e a n s
mid-first c e n t u r y A . D .
T h e m a n u s c r i p t of iQS h a s b e e n r e v i s e d by a s e c o n d h a n d , or
p e r h a p s by s e v e r a l l a t e r scribes. S o m e of t h e c o r r e c t i o n s e l i m i n a t e
s i m p l e c o p y i s t ' s m i s t a k e s ; o t h e r s , e s p e c i a l l y o n cols. 7 a n d 8, i n t r o d u c e
v a r i a n t r e a d i n g s . T h e i r significance c a n n o t b e assessed u n t i l t h e p r o p e r
p u b l i c a t i o n o f the m a t e r i a l from C a v e 4.
T h e text o f t h e C o m m u n i t y R u l e m a y easily b e d i v i d e d into six
sections.
T h e o p e n i n g u n i t ( 1 : 1 - 1 8 ) d e l i n e a t e s the aims of t h e c o m m u n i t y
iyahad) w h o s e m e m b e r s a r e j o i n e d t o g e t h e r t h r o u g h their e n t r y into t h e
C o v e n a n t . T h e second section (1:18—3:12) sketches t h e y e a r l y C o v e n a n t
r i t u a l , r e p r o d u c i n g a f o r m u l a of g e n e r a l confession b y t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s
as well a s priestly blessings a n d levitical c u r s e s p r o n o u n c e d o n the sons
of light a n d t h e sons o f d a r k n e s s r e s p e c t i v e l y . I n s i n c e r e c o n v e r t s a r e
c o n d e m n e d b y b o t h priests a n d Levites.
S e c t i o n 3 ( 3 : 1 3 - 4 : 2 6 ) c o n c e r n s t h e d o c t r i n e of t h e two spirits of t r u t h
a n d falsehood, w h o s e c o n t i n u i n g s t r u g g l e w i t h one a n o t h e r g o v e r n s t h e
life of e a c h i n d i v i d u a l a n d the h i s t o r y of a l l m a n k i n d . ^
S e c t i o n 4, t h e m a i n b o d y iQS ( 5 : 1 - 9 : 1 1 ) , p r o c l a i m s t h e r u l e s
r e l a t i n g to t h e c o m m o n life, a n d d e s c r i b e s t h e stages of i n i t i a t i o n a n d
t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f the C o m m u n i t y . It i n c l u d e s , m o r e o v e r , a d e t a i l e d
p e n a l c o d e b e l i e v e d to r e m a i n in force u n t i l t h e c o m i n g of ' a P r o p h e t
a n d t h e M e s s i a h s o f A a r o n a n d I s r a e l ' {iQS 9 : 1 1 ) .
S e c t i o n 5 ( 9 : 1 2 - 1 0 : 8 ) lists d i r e c t i v e s t o be followed b y the maskil or
M a s t e r , of t h e sect 'in h i s c o m m e r c e w i t h all t h e living', a n d e x p o u n d s
t h e C o m m u n i t y ' s p a r t i c u l a r t e a c h i n g on t h e p r o p e r times of w o r s h i p .
T h e final section ( 1 0 : 9 - 1 1 : 2 2 ) , a t h a n k s g i v i n g h y m n i n t e n d e d for t h e
M a s t e r , s h a r e s t h e s a m e i n s p i r a t i o n a n d voices t h e s a m e i d e a s as t h e
p o e m s o f the Hodayoth Scroll (see b e l o w , p p . 4 5 2 - 6 ) .
N o a g r e e d o p i n i o n h a s b e e n r e a c h e d o n t h e original s t r u c t u r e a n d
c o m p o s i t i o n o f iQS. If o n t h e o n e h a n d t h e w o r k in its final f o r m
a p p e a r s to b e carefully a r r a n g e d in f o u r sections b e t w e e n a clearly
defined i n t r o d u c t o r y p a r a g r a p h a n d a p o e t i c finale, on t h e o t h e r h a n d
a p a i n s t a k i n g analysis reveals signs of a l a c k o f original u n i t y . T h e first
t h e o r y , e l a b o r a t e d in d e t a i l by P . G u i l b e r t , d e p i c t s the R u l e as
c o n s i s t e n t in p l a n , l a n g u a g e a n d style.^ T h e s e c o n d , i.e. t h a t iQS is a
7. Cf. F . M. Cross, The Ancient Library of Qumran, p . 89 (first quarter of the first century
B . C . ) ; N. Avigad, Scrip. Hier. I V , p. 71 ; M. Delcor, ' Q u m r a n ' , DBS I X , cols. 851-2.
8. O n t h e doctrine of the ' D u a e viae', see above p . 172, n . 83 [Proselytism].
9. 'Le p l a n de l a "Regie de l a C o m m u n a u t e ' " , R Q , i (1959), p p . 323-44.
composite d o c u m e n t , has been c o m b i n e d with a n a t t e m p t to distinguish

in t h e four l a y e r s of t h e R u l e successive stages o f a h i s t o r i c a l
d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e sect. T h e p r i n c i p a l p r o t a g o n i s t of t h i s thesis is J .
M u r p h y - O ' C o n n o r , followed b y J . P o u i l l y . T h e y d i v i d e iQS i n t o t h e
following s e g m e n t s : i . T h e earliest u n i t ( 8 : i - i 6 a ; 9 : 3 - 1 0 : 8 3 )
r e p r e s e n t i n g a p r e - Q u m r a n s t r a t u m , a k i n d o f p r i e s t l y m a n i f e s t o (9:7),
seeking t o e s t a b l i s h a c o m m u n i t y . 2. T h e section 8:i6b—9:2, w i t h its
p r i m i t i v e p e n a l c o d e , a l r e a d y testifies t o a n a u t o n o m o u s g r o u p . 3 . A
n e w s t a g e , 5 : 1 - 7 : 2 5 , in w h i c h l a y m e m b e r s of t h e c o m m u n i t y b e g i n to
s h a r e t h e a u t h o r i t y originally e n j o y e d o n l y b y ' t h e sons o f A a r o n ' , i.e.
the priests. 4. T h e c e n t r a l b o d y of t h e R u l e ( s e c t i o n s 1 - 3 ) , e n l a r g e d b y
the a d d i t i o n of a preface (cols. 1 - 4 ) a n d the c o n c l u d i n g h y m n
(10:9-11:22).
W h i l s t t h e p r e c i s e l i t e r a r y a n d h i s t o r i c a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e R u l e is
b o u n d t o b e s p e c u l a t i v e , a careful s c r u t i n y of / QS itself p o i n t s t o the u s e
of i n d e p e n d e n t sources b y the c o m p i l e r o f the d o c u m e n t . I n p a r t i c u l a r ,
t h e u n i t y o{ iQS 9:3—11, t h e s e c t i o n g e n e r a l l y r e c o g n i z e d as
reflecting t h e m o s t p r i m i t i v e c o n c e p t o f t h e C o m m u n i t y , is p a t e n t l y
d i s t u r b e d by t h e s k e l e t a l p e n a l c o d e of 8:16—9:2, w h i c h itself follows
n a t u r a U y after the m o r e d e t a i l e d c o d e o f 6 : 2 4 - 7 : 2 5 . I t s h o u l d also b e
noticed t h a t t h e r i t u a l o f e n t r y i n t o the C o v e n a n t r e v e a l s itself to b e a
s h o r t e n e d v e r s i o n o f a p r o p e r l i t u r g y . See especially iQS i: 1 8 - 2 4 w h i c h ,
instead o f r e c o r d i n g t h e w o r d s to b e r e c i t e d by t h e priests a n d t h e
Levites, s i m p l y p r o v i d e s the r e l e v a n t r u b r i c s . I n s h o r t , w h i l e it c a n
safely b e a r g u e d t h a t t h e C o m m u n i t y R u l e i n c o r p o r a t e s p r e - e x i s t i n g
literary m a t e r i a l s , a s m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d f r o m a d o c u m e n t of t h i s s o r t , it
w o u l d b e h a z a r d o u s , a n d in t h e a b s e n c e of t h e e v i d e n c e from C a v e 4
also u n s o u n d , t o a d v a n c e m o r e d e v e l o p e d h i s t o r i c o - l i t e r a r y c o n j e c t u r e s .
T h e m a i n i m p o r t a n c e of iQS lies in t h e field of t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d
p r a c t i c e s of t h e Q u m r a n c o m m u n i t y , i t s e s c h a t o l o g i c a l e x p e c t a t i o n s
a n d c o m p l e x m e s s i a n i c beliefs. Its t e s t i m o n y is m o r e o v e r v i t a l for t h e
identification o f t h e D e a d S e a sectaries a s Essenes. F o r a discussion of
these m a t t e r s , see v o l . I I , p p . 5 5 0 - 4 , 5 7 5 - 8 5 a n d t h e l i t e r a t u r e q u o t e d
there.
T h e C o m m u n i t y R u l e is d e v o i d o f a n y i n t e r n a l c h r o n o l o g i c a l
p o i n t e r s . Its d a t i n g d e p e n d s o n a r c h a e o l o g y a n d p a l a e o g r a p h y a n d o n
t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f its r e l a t i o n s h i p to o t h e r Q u m r a n d o c u m e n t s . I n
r e g a r d t o t h e w r i t i n g u s e d b y t h e s c r i b e of iQS, e v e n if t h e r a t h e r
precise t a b l e of p a l a e o g r a p h i c a l s e q u e n c e s p r o p o s e d by Q u m r a n
experts is t a k e n w i t h a p i n c h o f s a l t , t h e r e c a n be l i t d e d o u b t t h a t t h e
m a n u s c r i p t b e l o n g s to t h e i n i t i a l stages of t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e
10. Cf. J . M u r p h y - O ' C o n n o r , 'La genese Htteraire de la Regie d e la C o m m u n a u t e ' , R B

76 (1969), p p . 5 2 8 - 4 9 ; J . Pouilly, La rigle de la Communaute de Qumrdn. Son evolution litteraire
(1976).
Q u m r a n H e b r e w script. C o n s e q u e n t l y , its a t t r i b u t i o n to t h e first half of

the first c e n t u r y B . c . seems to b e u n o b j e c t i o n a b l e . A n e a r l y d a t i n g is
f u r t h e r s u p p o r t e d b y the n a t u r e of t h e d o c u m e n t , f u n d a m e n t a l as it is
to t h e life a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n o f the C o m m u n i t y , its i m p o r t a n c e b e i n g
w i t n e s s e d by t h e p r e s e n c e of a d o z e n m a n u s c r i p t s in t h e v a r i o u s C a v e s .
M o r e o v e r , it s h o u l d also b e n o t e d t h a t iQS 3:4—5 is cited i n 5QJ3 ( D J D
H I , p . 1 8 3 ) , " a n d t h a t it is also used in t h e D a m a s c u s R u l e . ' ^
T h e facts t h a t t h e R u l e , as h a s b e e n s h o w n , is a c o m p o s i t e w o r k w i t h
a p r e h i s t o r y , ' ^ a n d t h a t it reflects a fully d e v e l o p e d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l
s t r u c t u r e , m i l i t a t e a g a i n s t too e a r l y a s e t t i n g in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C .
H e n c e a r e a s o n a b l e d a t i n g a p p e a r s t o be a r o u n d 100 B . C ' *
T h e C o m m u n i t y R u l e b e l o n g s to a t y p e of l i t e r a t u r e for w h i c h it is
i n a p p r o p r i a t e t o s p e a k of a single a u t h o r . I t s a t t r i b u t i o n t o the T e a c h e r
of R i g h t e o u s n e s s in toto, o r as far as t h e section 8: i ff. is c o n c e r n e d , m u s t
be d e c l a r e d p u r e l y s p e c u l a t i v e . ' ^
Editions
Burrows, M . , Trever, J . C , a n d Brownlee, W . H . , The Dead Sea Scrolls of St. Mark's
Monastery, vol. II, Fasc. 2 (1951).
Lohse, E., T Q H D , pp. 1-43.
T r a n s l a d o n s with Introducdons
English
Dupont-Sommer, A., Essene Writings, p p . 68-103.
Vermes, DSSE'^, p p . 71-94.
French
Dupont-Sommer, EE, p p . 83-127.
Guilbert, P., T Q I , pp. 9-80.
German
Maier, J., T T M I, pp. 21—45.
Italian
Moraldi, L, M Q , p p . 113-72.
11. Another 4Q_ Hebrew document, inspired by i Q S a n d CD, is mentioned by J. T .

Milik in D J D I I I , p . 188.
12. Cf. P . Wernberg-Moller, 'Some Passages in t h e "Zadokite" Fragments a n d their
Parallels in the M a n u a l of Discipline', JSS i (1956), p p . 110-28; Vermes, DSS, p p .
195-6.
13. The correction 'one year', substituted for 'six m o n t h s ' in iQS 7:8, suggests that t h e
penal regulations were subject to change whilst t h e manuscript was i n use, unless of
course the corrector considered t h e original text to be erroneous.
14. Cf Milik, R B 67 (i960), p . 411.
15. Cf J . T. Milik,, T«« Tears of Discovery in the Wilderness of Judaea (1959), p . 37; A.
Dupont-Sommer, Essene Writings, pp. 7 1 - 2 : ' T h e Rule may, basically, very easily derive
from the Teacher of Righteousness himself G. W. E. Nickelsburg, J L B B M , p. 132 : 'Very
possibly [the nucleus of t h e work, 8:1—16 and 9:3-10:8] is the product of the T e a c h e r of
Righteousness himself
Commentaries
Brownlee, W . H., The Dead Sea Manual of Discipline [ B A S O R Suppl. Stud. 10-12] (1951).
Wernberg-MoUer, P., The Manual of Discipline (1957).
Siedl, S. H . , ' Q u m r a n , eine M o n c h g e m e i n d e im Alten Bund', Studie iiber Serek ha-Tahad
(1963)-
Licht, j . , D ' ' 3 i D n nb^n (1965).
Leaney, A. R . C , The Rule of Qumran and its Meaning (1966).
Bibliography
Burrows, M . , ' T h e Discipline M a n u a l of t h e J u d a e a n Covenanters', O u d t e s t . Stud. 8
(1950), pp. 156-92.
Audet, J . - P . , 'Affinites litteraires et doctrinales d u " M a n u e l d e DiscipHne'", RB 59
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Talmon, S., 'The Sectarian Y a h a d : A Biblical N o u n ' , V T 3 (1953), pp. 133-40.
Yadin, Y., ' A Note on D S D IV,20', J B L 74 (1955), p p . 4 0 - 3 .
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Idem, 'Some Passages in the " Z a d o k i t e " Fragments and their Parallels i n the M a n u a l of
Discipline', J S S i (1956), p p . 110-28.
Otzen, B., 'Some T e x t u a l Problems in i Q S ' , S t T h 11 (1957), pp. 89-98.
Driver, G. R., ' T h r e e Difficult W o r d s in Disciphne ( I I I , 3 - 4 ; V I I , 5-6, 11)', J S S 2
(1957), pp. 247-50.
Licht, J., 'Analysis of the T w o Spirits', Scrip. Hier. 4 (1958), pp. 8 8 - 1 0 1 .
Carmignac, J., 'Conjecture sur la premiere ligne de la Regie de l a C o m m u n a u t e ' , R Q , 2
(1959), pp. 8 5 - 7 .
Guilbert, P . , 'Le p l a n de la Regie de la C o m m u n a u t e ' , R Q , 2 (1959), pp. 323-44.
Sutcliffe, E . F., ' T h e First Fifteen M e m b e r s of t h e Q u m r a n C o m m u n i t y : A Note on
VIILi ff-.',JSS4(i959),pp. 134-8.
Weise, M., Kultzeiten und kultischer Bundesschluss in der' Ordensregel' vom Toten Meer (1961).
Wernberg-MoUer, P., ' A Reconsideration of t h e T w o Spirits in the R u l e of the
C o m m u n i t y ' , R Q , 4 (i961), pp. 4 1 3 - 4 1 .
Stendahl, K., ' H a t e , Non-Retaliation, and L o v e : i Q S X , 17-20 and Rom. 12:19—21',
H T h R 55 (1962), p p . 343-55-
Priest, J . F . , ' M e b a q q e r , Paqid a n d t h e Messiah', J B L 81 (1962), p p . 5 5 - 6 1 .
Hunzinger, C.-H., 'Beobachtungen zur Entwicklung der Disziplinarordnung der
Gemeinde v o n Q u m r a n ' , i n H. Bardtke (ed.), Qumran-Probleme (1963), pp. 231-48.
Baer, Y., 'Serek ha-Tahad', Zion 29 (1964), p p . 1-60 ( H e b r . ) .
M u r p h y - O ' C o n n o r , J., ' L a genese litteraire d e la Regie d e Q u m r a n ' , R B 76 (1969), pp.
528-49.
Wernberg-MoUer, P., ' T h e N a t u r e of the Y a h a d a c c o r d i n g to t h e M a n u a l of Discipline
and Related Documents', A L U O S 6 (1969), p p . 5 6 - 8 1 .
Osten-Sacken, P. von d e r , Gott und Belial (1969).
Bardtke, H . , 'Literaturbericht iiber Q u m r a n V I I . D i e SektenroUe i Q S ' , T h R 38 (1974),
PP- 257-91-
Pouilly,J., La regie de la Communaute de Qumrdn (1976).
Duhaime, J . - L . , 'L'instruction sur les d e u x esprits et les interpolations dualistes a Q u m r a n
( i Q S I I I , i 3 - I V , 2 6 ) ' , RB 8 4 (1977), p p . 5 6 6 - 9 4 .
Delcor, M . , ' Q u m r a n . Regie d e la C o m m u n a u t e ' , D B S I X (1978), cols. 851-7.
Wernberg-MoUer, P., 'Priests a n d Laity in t h e Tahad of t h e Manual of Discipline', in Sefer
M. Wallenstein (1979), pp. 72'''-83'*.
Puech, E., 'Remarques sur I'ecriture d e iQS V I I - V I I F , R Q i o (1979), p p . 35-43-

Allison, D . C , ' T h e Authorship of i Q S I l I , i 3 - I V , i 4 ' , R Q , i o (1980), pp. 257-68.
Nickelsburg, G. W . E., J L B B M , pp. 132-7.
Thorion, Y . , ' T h e Use of Preposition in i Q S e r e k ' , R Q 10 (1981), pp. 405-33.
Kruse, C. G., ' C o m m u n i t y Functionaries in the Rule of the Community and the
Damascus D o c u m e n t ' , R Q 10 (i981), p p . 543-51.
Dohmen, C , ' Z u r G r u n d u n g der Gemeinde von Q u m r a n ( i Q S V I I I - I X ) ' , R Q 11
(1982), pp. 81-96.
2. The Rule of the Congregation or Messianic Rule

T w o c o l u m n s of a d o c u m e n t [iQSa) h a v e b e e n r e c o n s t r u c t e d from
f r a g m e n t s o r i g i n a l l y p a r t of t h e scroll c o n t a i n i n g t h e C o m m u n i t y R u l e
(cf. a b o v e , p . 3 8 1 ) . C o p i e d b y the s a m e s c r i b e a n d d a t i n g to t h e s a m e
p e r i o d a s iQS, the title. R u l e o f the C o n g r e g a t i o n , is b o r r o w e d from t h e
opening line: mS7 *?1D*7 "["lO ( T h i s is t h e R u l e for aU t h e
c o n g r e g a t i o n of I s r a e l ' — iQSa 1 : 1 ) . T h e alternative designation
c o r r e s p o n d s t o the s u b j e c t - m a t t e r , w h i c h c o n c e r n s t h e 'last d a y s ' a n d
i n t r o d u c e s t w o e s c h a t o l o g i c a l figures, ' t h e Priest' a n d ' t h e M e s s i a h of
I s r a e l ' (/Q,^fl2:i2, 1 4 , 19—20).
T h e w o r k lays d o w n r e g u l a t i o n s for t h e eschatological i n t e g r a t i o n of
t h e ' c o n g r e g a t i o n of I s r a e l ' — m e n , w o m e n a n d c h i l d r e n — i n t o t h e
C o m m u n i t y l e d by ' t h e sons o f Z a d o k , t h e priests, a n d t h e m e n of t h e i r
C o v e n a n t ' . T h e i r a s s o c i a t i o n is to b e g i n w i t h a g e n e r a l assembly a t
w h i c h ' t h e p r e c e p t s of t h e C o v e n a n t ' a n d ' t h e s t a t u t e s ' a r e p r o c l a i m e d
and expounded (1:1-5).
C h i l d r e n i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e g r o u p a r e t o receive e d u c a t i o n a n d
t r a i n i n g until the a g e of t w e n t y y e a r s ' w h e n t h e y o u n g m e n a r e to b e
i n d i v i d u a l l y e n r o l l e d , a l l o w e d t o m a r r y a n d to p a r t i c i p a t e in
c o m m u n i t y business (1:6—11).
B y t h e age of t h i r t y , t h e lay m e m b e r m a y b e allotted v a r i o u s offices
u n d e r t h e s u p r e m e d i r e c t i o n of t h e priests. D u t i e s a n d tasks are to
d e p e n d o n a g e a n d i n t e l l i g e n c e . L i a i s o n b e t w e e n t h e lay units a n d t h e
priests is to be p r o v i d e d b y the L e v i t e s w h o a r e to be also r e s p o n s i b l e for
e n s u r i n g t h a t a t h r e e - d a y p u r i f i c a t i o n takes p l a c e before i m p o r t a n t
e v e n t s s u c h as trials, c o u n c i l m e e t i n g s or d e p a r t u r e t o w a r (1:12—27).
The Rule lists as qualified to attend council meetings
c o n d u c t e d by t h e p r i e s t s , the sages o f t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n , t h e l a y l e a d e r s
a n d the Levites. E x c l u d e d are t h e i m p u r e , t h o s e w i t h b o d i l y defects a n d
t h e senile. T h e s e a r e also p r o n o u n c e d u n f i t t o p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e w a r
I . The statute is based on Ex. 30:14; 38:26. The enrolment, without specifying the age,
is referred to in CD 15:6; cf 10:1. See S. B. Hoenig, ' O n the Age o f M a t u r e
Responsibility in i Q S a ' , J Q R 4 8 (1957-58), p p . 3 7 1 - 5 ; ' T h e Age o f T w e n t y in Rabbinic
Tradition and i Q S a ' , J Q R 49 (1958-59), p p . 2 0 9 - 1 4 ; J . M. Baumgarten, ' i Q S a i , i i :
Age of Testimony or Responsibihty', J Q R 4 9 (1958-59), p p . 157-60; P. Borgen, 'At the
Age ofTwenty in i Q S a ' , RQ3 (1961), pp. 267-77.
destined t o v a n q u i s h the n a t i o n s ( 1 : 2 7 - 2 : 1 1 ) .
T h e final s e c t i o n of t h e d o c u m e n t d e a l s w i t h t h e c o u n c i l m e e t i n g
s u m m o n e d b y the p r i e s t l y M e s s i a h ^ a n d a t t e n d e d b y t h e M e s s i a h of
I s r a e l , a n d w i t h t h e s u b s e q u e n t r i t u a l of t h e m e s s i a n i c b a n q u e t
r e p r e s e n t e d as the m o d e l for all c o m m u n a l m e a l s w i t h a m i n i m u m
q u o r u m o f t e n m e n (2:11—22).
iQSa possesses a n u m b e r o f d i s t i n c t i v e t r a i t s h n k i n g i t b o t h to t h e
C o m m u n i t y R u l e w i t h r e f e r e n c e to t h e S o n s o f Z a d o k a n d t h e m e n of
t h e i r C o v e n a n t {iQS 5:2, 9 ) ; t h e divisions of T h o u s a n d s , H u n d r e d s , e t c .
{iQS 2 : 2 1 ) ; a n d e s p e c i a l l y t h e c o m m o n m e a l {iQS 6 : 4 - 5 ) , to t h e
D a m a s c u s R u l e , w i t h w h i c h it h a s in c o m m o n n o t o n l y t h e social
setting o f m a r r i e d m e m b e r s a n d t h e i r c h i l d r e n , b u t m o r e p a r t i c u l a r l y
t h e m e n t i o n o f the ' B o o k of M e d i t a t i o n ' {iQSa 1 : 7 — C D 10:6; 13:2).^
T h e allusion t o the a r m y a n d t h e fight a g a i n s t t h e G e n t i l e s c o n n e c t s this
work w i t h the W a r R u l e .
T h e d a t i n g of t h i s w r i t i n g c a n n o t b e e s t a b l i s h e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y of t h e
C o m m u n i t y R u l e since, qua m a n u s c r i p t , it h a s the s a m e o r i g i n , its t w o
c o l u m n s h a v i n g b e e n c o p i e d i m m e d i a t e l y after c o l . 1 1 of iQS (see
a b o v e , p . 3 8 1 ) . H e n c e , i f the o r i g i n a l s c r o h is p l a c e d in t h e first h a l f of
t h e first c e n t u r y B . C . ( p . 3 8 4 ) , circa 50 B . C . m u s t b e t h e terminus ante
quem for t h e c o m p o s i t i o n of this a n n e x e t o t h e R u l e .
A s for the r e l a t i v e s e q u e n c e , D . B a r t h e l e m y p l a c e s iQSa before iQS,
c o n s i d e r i n g t h e f o r m e r as a p p l y i n g t o t h e H a s i d i m p r i o r to t h e
M a c c a b a e a n u p r i s i n g ( D J D I , p . 108). T h i s t h e o r y is b a s e d on t h e
2. The sentence relating to 'the Priest-Messiah' is very obscure partly due to the bad
state of preservation of iQSa 2:11-12. For the various readings and interpretations see
D J D I, p p . 117—18; R. Cordis, ' T h e "Begotten" Messiah in the Q u m r a n Scrolls', V T 7
(1957), p p . 191—4; A. S. van der W o u d e , Die messianischen Vorstellungen der Gemeinde von
Qumran (1957), p p . 9 6 - 1 0 4 ; Y . Yadin, 'A Crucial Passage in the Dead Sea Scrolls ( i Q S a
11,11-17)', JBL 78 (1959), p p . 2 3 8 - 4 1 ; E. F . Sutcliffe, ' T h e R u l e of the Congregation
( i Q S a ) 11,11-12: Text and M e a n i n g ' , R Q , 2 (i960), p p . 5 4 1 - 7 ; M . Smith, 'God's
Begetdng the Messiah i n i Q S a ' , N T S t 5 (1959), pp. 2 1 8 - 2 4 ; O . Michel a n d O. Betz,
' V o n Gott gezeugt', Judentum—Urchristentum—Kirche [Festschrift fiir J. Jeremias] (i960),
pp. 3 - 2 3 ; W. G r u n d m a n n , ' D i e Frage n a c h der Gottessohnschaft des Messias im Lichte
von Q u m r a n ' , in H . Bardtke (ed.), Qumran-Probleme (1963), pp. 86-111 ; Vermes, D S S , p.
196.
3. The nature and identity of this work a r e still d e b a t e d . T h e editor of iQSa is content
with describing it as a 'livre p o p u l a i r e ' ( D J D I, p. 113). Others have sought t o identify it
with the C o m m u n i t y R u l e (A. Dupont-Sommer, Essene Writings, p. 70), a 'written corpus
of T o r a h exegesis' (P. Wernberg-Meller, ' T h e N a t u r e of t h e Tahad ...', A L U O S 6
(1969), p p . 79-80, n. 3 2 ; a sectarian writing for basic instruction (J. M. Baumgarten,
' T h e Unwritten Law i n the Pre-Rabbinic Period', Studies in Qumran Law (1977), pp.
15-16 a n d n. 13) ; or t h e T e m p l e Scroll (Y, Yadin, The Temple Scroll I, p . 301 [Hebrew]).
It is more likely, however, t h a t the book i n question is t h e Bible, or t h e Pentateuch (N.
Wieder, The Judean Scrolls and Karaism (1962), p p . 2 1 5 - 5 1 ; J. Licht, Megillat ha-Serakhim
(1965), p p . 255—6; L. H . Schiffman, The Halakhah at Qumran, p. 4 4 ; Vermes, D S S , p.
113)-
t o t a l l y subjective e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e t e r m m S 7 = avvaycjyrj, hence

avvayitiyrj MatSatW (i M a c . 2:42), a n d on t h e e q u a l l y s u b j e c t i v e
v i e w t h a t iQSa c o m p a r e d t o iQS reveals a n e v o l u t i o n c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o
t h a t b e t w e e n H a s i d i m a n d Essenes.
I n fact, as h a s b e e n i n d i c a t e d e a r h e r , t h e a u t h o r of iQSa looks
t o w a r d s the final s t a g e of the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l future, whereas
the C o m m u n i t y R u l e is p r e - M e s s i a n i c i n o u t l o o k . I n d e e d , t h e g r e a t
a s s e m b l y of i n i t i a t i o n a l l u d e d t o in t h e o p e n i n g lines c o r r e s p o n d s , n o
d o u b t , t o the u l t i m a t e p h a s e o f ' c o n v e r s i o n ' before the d i v i d i n g - h n e
b e t w e e n t h e p a r t y o f G o d a n d t h a t of S a t a n is finally d r a w n . I n t h e
c i r c u m s t a n c e s , t h e d a t e o f o r i g i n of t h e R u l e of the C o n g r e g a t i o n m a y
well be a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e s a m e as t h a t o f t h e C o m m u n i t y R u l e , i.e.
circa 100 B . C
T h e a t t r i b u t i o n o f a u t h o r s h i p to t h e T e a c h e r of R i g h t e o u s n e s s is n o
m o r e d e m o n s t r a b l e i n t h e case of iQSd^ t h a n i t is for the C o m m u n i t y
R u l e (cf a b o v e , p . 3 8 4 ) .
Editions
Barthelemy, D., a n d Milik, J . T., D J D I, pp. 108-18.
Lohse, E., T Q H D , p p . 4 5 - 5 1 .
Transladons
English
Vermes, DSSE^, p p . 118-21.
French
Barthelemy, op. cit.
Dupont-Sommer, A., EE, p p . i i g - 2 3 .
German
Maier, J., T T M I, p p . 173-6.
Lohse, op. cit.
Italian
Moraldi, L., M Q p p . 173—91.
Bibliography
North, R., ' Q u m r a n "Serek a" a n d Related Fragments', Orientalia 25 (1956), p p . 90-9.
Rost, L., 'Die Anhange der Ordensregel ( i Q S a u n d i Q S b ) ' , T h L Z 8 2 (1957), cols.
667-70.
Carmignac, J . , 'Quelques details de lecture d a n s la Regie d e la Congregation, le Recueil
des Benedictions . . . ' , R Q 4 (1962), pp. 8 3 - 8 .
Rinaldi, G., 'L'"ultimo p e r i o d o " della storia. Considerazioni sulla Regola a ( i Q S a ) d i
Q u m r a n ' , Biblia e Oriente 7 (1965), pp. 161-85.
See also the references in notes i a n d 2 above.
4 . J . Carmignac, T M I I , p. 11.
J. The Damascus Rule or âdokite Fragments

T o g e t h e r w i t h the H e b r e w B e n S i r a a n d t h e A r a m a i c T e s t a m e n t of
L e v i , t h e D a m a s c u s R u l e testifies t o a b o n d b e t w e e n t h e D e a d S e a
Scrolls a n d t h e C a i r o G e n i z a h . It is, in fact, t h e o n l y Q u m r a n Essene
c o m p o s i t i o n k n o w n p r i o r t o 1947.
R e m a i n s of t w o m e d i e v a l m a n u s c r i p t s of t h e D a m a s c u s R u l e w e r e
d i s c o v e r e d in t h e G e n i z a h a t t a c h e d to t h e E z r a S y n a g o g u e in O l d
C a i r o in 1896. A c q u i r e d b y t h e C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y , t h e y
were edited i n 1910 by Solomon Schechter. M a n u s c r i p t A (T.-S.
1 0 K 6 ) , d a t i n g to t h e t e n t h c e n t u r y , consists o f e i g h t leaves w r i t t e n o n
b o t h sides, i.e. p a g e s 1 - 1 6 ; M a n u s c r i p t B ( T . - S . 16 3 1 1 ) , from t h e
eleventh o r twelfth c e n t u r y , is r e p r e s e n t e d by a single leaf also i n s c r i b e d
r e c t o a n d v e r s o , d e s i g n a t e d as p a g e s 1 9 - 2 0 . T e x t B p a r t l y o v e r l a p s T e x t
A : p . 7, l i n e 6 t o p . 8, line 21 r u n s p a r a l l e l , w i t h v a r i a n t s , to p . 19, l i n e
I t o h n e 34. P a g e 19, line 34 t o p a g e 20, line 34 furnishes t h e
c o n t i n u a t i o n o f the d o c u m e n t m i s s i n g f r o m M a n u s c r i p t A . T h e text is
g e n e r a l l y well p r e s e r v e d a p a r t f r o m t h e b o t t o m lines o f p a g e s 13—16.
T h e p u b l i c a t i o n of t h e C o m m u n i t y R u l e from Q u m r a n C a v e i
revealed i m m e d i a t e l y its close r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e C a i r o d o c u m e n t
a n d p r o v e d t h a t t h e l a t t e r w a s in s o m e w a y r e l a t e d to t h e D e a d S e a
Scrolls. T h e r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t it w a s a n i n t e g r a l p a r t of Q u m r a n
h t e r a t u r e resulted f r o m t h e d i s c o v e r y of D a m a s c u s R u l e f r a g m e n t s in
C a v e s 4, 5 a n d 6. O f these M . B a i l l e t e d i t e d five s m a l l s c r a p s from C a v e
6 {6Qjf) c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o C D 4 : 1 9 - 2 0 ; 5 : 1 3 — 1 4 ; 5 : 1 8 - 6 : 2 ; 6:20-7:1
a n d a p a s s a g e u n a t t e s t e d in t h e C a i r o m a n u s c r i p t s , p r e s u m e d to b e
from the first c e n t u r y A . D . on p a l a e o g r a p h i c a l g r o u n d s ( D J D I I I , p p .
1 2 8 - 3 1 ) . A n o t h e r f r a g m e n t , d a t e d t o the s e c o n d h a l f of t h e first c e n t u r y
B . C . , w h i c h e c h o e s C D 9 : 7 - 1 0 , has b e e n p u b l i s h e d a m o n g t h e C a v e 5
m a t e r i a l s {3Q12), b y J . T . M i l i k ( D J D I I I , p . 1 8 1 ) . A c c o r d i n g to t h e
s a m e s c h o l a r . C a v e 4 y i e l d e d s e v e n m a n u s c r i p t s of t h e D a m a s c u s R u l e .
T h e y a r e still u n a v a i l a b l e b u t a r e s a i d t o c o r r e s p o n d to t h e T e x t A of
the G e n i z a h , t h o u g h r e p r e s e n t i n g a different r e c e n s i o n ( o r recensions)
a n d to c o n t a i n sections m i s s i n g f r o m the C a i r o version ( R B 63 ( 1 9 5 6 ) ,
p. 6 1 ) . M i l i k f u r t h e r i n d i c a t e d i n 1 9 5 9 ( b u t t h e e v i d e n c e is still
u n p u b l i s h e d ) t h a t on t h e basis o f t h e 4 Q m a t e r i a l the o r i g i n a l
D a m a s c u s R u l e consisted of t h e following s e c t i o n s :
1. I n i t i a l c o l u m n s a b s e n t from the C a i r o text.
2. C D 1—8 a n d p a r a l l e l from 1 9 - 2 0 .
3. A missing p a r t from C D o n r i t u a l p u r i t y , l a w s of diseases ( L e v .
13:29 ff".), s e x u a l i m p u r i t i e s ( L e v . 1 5 ) , m a r r i a g e l a w s , a g r i c u l t u r a l
laws, t i t h e s , c o n t a c t w i t h G e n t i l e s , r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n m e n a n d
w o m e n , m a g i c a l practices, e t c .
4. CD 15-16.
5. CD 9-14.
6. E n d of t h e d o c u m e n t missing f r o m t h e C a i r o m a n u s c r i p t s , d e a h n g
w i t h t h e p e n a l c o d e , a n d t h e l i t u r g y o f t h e feast of t h e R e n e w a l of
the Covenant."
T h e G e n i z a h version o f t h e D a m a s c u s R u l e falls i n t o two d i s t i n c t
p a r t s , a n E x h o r t a t i o n ( 1 : 1 - 8 : 2 1 a n d 1 9 : 1 - 2 0 : 3 4 ) a n d a collection of
Statutes (9:1-16:19).
T h e E x h o r t a t i o n takes t h e f o r m o f a s e r m o n , or e x t r a c t s from several
s e r m o n s , ^ in w h i c h a t e a c h e r a d t n o n i s h e s his 'sons' (2:14), w h o ' e n t e r
t h e C o v e n a n t ' (2:2), t o c o n s i d e r a n d u n d e r s t a n d G o d ' s c o n d u c t
t o w a r d s t h e g o o d a n d t h e evil. A m o r a l t e a c h i n g is p r e a c h e d w i t h t h e
h e l p of e x a m p l e s b o r r o w e d from t h e h i s t o r y of the sect ( 1 : 3 - 2 : 1 ) , ^ a n d
f r o m biblical h i s t o r y , b e g i n n i n g w i t h the fall o f the h e a v e n l y W a t c h e r s
u n t i l t h e f o u n d a t i o n of a g r o u p o f c o n v e r t s , the f o r e r u n n e r s of t h e
Q u m r a n community (2:14-4:12).
A t t h e c e n t r e of the s e r m o n is a n e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e t h r e e chief
s p i r i t u a l t h r e a t s of t h e a g e , the ' t h r e e nets of Belial' (4:15), ' f o r n i c a t i o n ' ,
' r i c h e s ' a n d ' p r o f a n a t i o n of the S a n c t u a r y ' , e a c h b e i n g g i v e n a
p a r t i c u l a r s e c t a r i a n definition (4:12—6:1).* T o e s c a p e these d a n g e r s a n d
s a v e the faithful, a g r o u p of priests a n d I s r a e l i t e s s e p a r a t e d t h e m s e l v e s
f r o m t h e T e m p l e a n d e s t a b l i s h e d a ' n e w C o v e n a n t in t h e L a n d of
D a m a s c u s ' , ^ w h o s e e s s e n t i a l tenets a r e set o u t i n C D 6 : 1 1 - 7 : 9 .
1. See Milik, Ten Years of Discovery, p p . 151-2.

2. There are three openings: 'Hear now, all you w h o know righteousness' (1:1); ' H e a r
now all you who enter the Covenant' (2:2); ' H e a r now, my sons' (2:14).
3. O n the origins of t h e Essenes, see vol. I I , pp. 586-7. F o r special studies on Q u m r a n
history, using the CD evidence, see H . H. Rowley, 'The History of the Q u m r a n Sect',
B J R L 49 (1966), p p . 2 0 3 - 3 2 ; J . M u r p h y - O ' C o n n o r , 'The Essenes and the History', R B
81 (1974), pp. 215-44; M . Delcor, ' Q u m r a n . Document de Damas', DBS I X (1978),
cols. 8 3 6 - 8 ; G. Vermes, ' T h e Essenes a n d History', J J S 32, (1981), pp. 18-31.
4. T h e first 'net of Belial', fornicadon, is diversely interpreted as alluding probably to
polygamy alone ( P . Winter, 'Sadoqite Fragments IV,20, 21 and t h e Exegesis of Gen. 1,27
in L a t e Judaism', ZAW 68 (1956), p p . 7 4 - 7 ; Y. Yadin, ' L ' a t d t u d e essenienne envers la
polygamic et le divorce', R B 79 (1972), pp. 9 8 - 9 [cf. J . M u r p h y - O ' C o n n o r , ' R e m a r q u e s
sur I'expose du professeur Y. Yadin', ibid., p p . 9 9 - 1 0 0 ] ; G . Vermes, 'Sectarian
M a t r i m o n i a l Halakhah i n the Damascus Rule', PBJS, pp. 50-6. C f also J . A. Fitzmyer,
' T h e Matthean Divorce Texts a n d some new Palestinian Evidence', T h S t u d 37 (1976),
pp. 197-226. \^
5. The 'Land of D a m a s c u s ' has been understood either as a straightforward
geographical noun (cf H . H. Rowley, The Zadokite Fragments and the Dead Sea Scrolls
(1952), p p . 75-6; A. D u p o n t - S o m m e r , EE, p . 135; S. Iwry, 'Was there a Migration to
Damascus?', Eretz-Israel 9 (1969), p p . 8 0 - 8 ) , or as a symbolical designadon of the
Community's exile, possibly a t Q u m r a n (F. M. Cross, The Ancient Library of Qumran
(1958), pp. 8 1 - 2 ; R. de Vaux, Archaeology and the Dead Sea Scrolls (1973), pp. 113-14; G.
Vermes, Scripture and Tradition, p p . 43—9; DSS, pp. 159-60). R. North, ' T h e Damascus of
Q u m r a n Geography', P E Q 87 (1955), argues that both Q u m r a n and Damascus were
parts of the Nabataean k i n g d o m : hence the designation. F o r a survey, see P. R . Davies,
T h e final s e c t i o n of t h e E x h o r t a t i o n (7:9-20:34) sketches t h e

respective destinies of t h e faithful a n d t h e w i c k e d m e m b e r s of t h e
C o m m u n i t y . T h o s e w h o p e r s e v e r e ' s h a l l p r e v a i l o v e r t h e sons of t h e
e a r t h . G o d will forgive t h e m a n d t h e y s h a l l s e e his s a l v a t i o n b e c a u s e
t h e y took r e f u g e in h i s h o l y N a m e ' ( C D 2 0 : 3 3 - 4 ) .
T h e second half of the D a m a s c u s R u l e , the Statutes (pages 9 - 1 6 ) ,
c o m b i n e s legal a n d m o r a l p r e c e p t s d e t e r m i n i n g t h e w a y of life of t h e
m e m b e r s of t h e C o m m u n i t y in t h e ' a s s e m b l y of t h e t o w n s ' ( 1 2 : 1 9 ) , a n d
s e c t a r i a n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r e g u l a t i o n s of t h e ' a s s e m b l y
of t h e c a m p s ' (12:22—3) p r e - M e s s i a n i c age.^ T h e y a r e set o u t i n
discrete u n i t s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r s u b j e c t - m a t t e r .
T h e g e n e r a l h a l a k h i c a n d e t h i c a l c o m m a n d m e n t s c o v e r , in t h e
existing o r d e r o f t h e C a i r o M a n u s c r i p t A, t h e f o l l o w i n g t o p i c s :
I . T h e use of G e n t i l e l a w c o u r t s (9:1). 2. T h e d u t y t o w a r n
t r a n s g r e s s o r s before l a y i n g c h a r g e s a g a i n s t t h e m (9:2—8). 3 . T h e j u d i c i a l
o a t h (9:8-16). 4. T h e r i t u a l b a t h ( 1 0 : 1 0 - 1 3 ) . 5. S a b b a t h o b s e r v a n c e s
( 1 0 : 1 4 - 1 1 : 1 8 ) . 6. P u r i t y l a w s c o n c e r n i n g t h e p l a c e of w o r s h i p
( 1 1 : 1 8 - 1 2 : 2 ) . 7. T h e case of t h e m a n p r e a c h i n g a p o s t a s y ( 1 2 : 2 - 3 ) o r
p r o f a n i n g t h e S a b b a t h b y e r r o r ( 1 2 : 3 - 6 ) . 8. C o n t a c t w i t h G e n t i l e s
( 1 2 : 6 - 1 1 ) . 9. L a w s r e l a t i n g t o r i t u a l u n c l e a n n e s s ( 1 2 : 1 1 - 1 8 ) . 1 0 .
Cancellation of vows m a d e by men and w o m e n (16:6-12). 1 1 . Rules
c o n c e r n i n g free-will offerings ( 1 6 : 1 3 — 1 6 ) .
T h e r e m a i n i n g s t a t u t e s b e l o n g to s e c t a r i a n l e g i s l a t i o n p r o p e r :
I . R u l e s c o n c e r n i n g w i t n e s s e s ( 9 : 1 6 - 1 0 : 3 ) a n d j u d g e s (10:4—10). 2.
R e g u l a t i o n s for t h e c a m p s ( 1 2 : 2 2 - 1 3 : 7 ) . 3. T h e functions of t h e
G u a r d i a n of t h e c a m p ( 1 3 : 7 - 1 4 : 2 ) . 4. T h e g e n e r a l a s s e m b l y of t h e
c a m p s ( 1 4 : 3 - 6 ) . 5. T h e c h i e f P r i e s t (14:6—8). 6. T h e G u a r d i a n G e n e r a l
( 1 4 : 8 - 1 2 ) . 7. R u l e s r e l a t i n g t o c o m m u n a l c h a r i t y ( 1 4 : 1 2 - 1 6 ) . 8. A n
i n c o m p l e t e p e n a l c o d e ( 1 4 : 2 0 - 2 ) . 9. O a t h of t h e C o v e n a n t ( 1 5 : 1 - 5 ) . 1 0 .
E n t r y into the C o m m u n i t y (15:5-16:6).
T h i s o u d i n e of t h e S t a t u t e s s h o w s t h a t t h e D a m a s c u s R u l e , f o l l o w i n g
the m o d e l set b y t h e final c h a p t e r s o f j u b i l e e s (see c h a p t e r s 4 9 - 5 0 ) ,
c o n s t i t u t e s a n e a r l y effort to c o n s t r u c t a s y s t e m a t i c a l l y a r r a n g e d l e g a l
c o d e , e v e n e m p l o y i n g specific h e a d i n g s : ' C o n c e r n i n g t h e o a t h ' (9:8);
' T h i s is the R u l e for the j u d g e s of the C o n g r e g a t i o n ' (10:4);
' C o n c e r n i n g purification b y w a t e r ' ( 1 0 : 1 0 ) ; ' C o n c e r n i n g the S a b b a t h '
( 1 0 : 1 4 ) ; ' T h e R u l e of t h e a s s e m b l y of t h e T o w n s of I s r a e l ' ( 1 2 : 1 8 ) ;
' T h i s is t h e R u l e of t h e A s s e m b l y of t h e C a m p s ' ( 1 2 : 2 2 - 3 ) ; ' T h i s is t h e
R u l e of t h e G u a r d i a n of the C a m p ' ( 1 3 : 7 ) ; ' T h i s is t h e R u l e for t h e
The Damascus Covenant (1983), p p . 16-17, 207.

6. Like iQS 9:10-11, a n d in contrast to iQSa, the laws of CD a r e definitely intended for
the then present a g e : 'This is t h e exact statement of the statutes i n which [they shall walk
until the coming o f the Mcssi]ah of A a r o n a n d Israel' (14:18-19). For a recent a t t e m p t to
describe t h e life of the ' D a m a s c u s ' C o m m u n i t y , see V e r m e s , DSS, p p . 97—105.
a s s e m b l y of all t h e C a m p s ' ( 1 4 : 3 ) ; ' T h i s is t h e R u l e for t h e

C o n g r e g a t i o n by w h i c h it shall p r o v i d e for all its n e e d s ' ( 1 4 : 1 2 ) ;
' C o n c e r n i n g t h e o a t h of a w o m a n ' ( 1 6 : 1 0 ) ; ' C o n c e r n i n g t h e S t a t u t e for
free-will offerings' ( 1 6 : 1 3 ) .
B o t h the E x h o r t a t i o n a n d t h e S t a t u t e s i n c l u d e a c o n s i d e r a b l e
a m o u n t of c i t a t i o n s f r o m S c r i p t u r e , a n d p r o d u c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
e x a m p l e s of s e c t a r i a n h a g g a d i c a n d h a l a k h i c Bible exegesis.'' T h e r e a r e
a l s o allusions to a w o r k a s c r i b e d t o L e v i , the son o f J a c o b ( C D 4 : 1 5 ) ,
possibly a n u n k n o w n p a s s a g e of t h e T e s t a m e n t of Levi (cf b e l o w , p .
7 7 7 ) a n d to t h e 'Book o f the Divisions o f the T i m e s i n t o their J u b i l e e s
a n d W e e k s ' , i.e. t h e Book o f j u b i l e e s (cf a b o v e , p . 308). F o r t h e Book of
Hagu or Hagi, see a b o v e , p . 3 8 7 , a n d for t h e ' S e a l e d B o o k of t h e L a w '
( C D 5 : 5 ) , identified as the T e m p l e Scroll b y Y . Y a d i n a n d B. Z .
W a c h o l d e r , see b e l o w , p . 4 1 7 . ^
T h e l i t e r a r y c o m p o s i t i o n a n d t h e p u r p o s e o f the D a m a s c u s R u l e a r e
still h o t l y d e b a t e d issues, as t h e l a t e s t d e t a i l e d s u r v e y b y P. R . D a v i e s
demonstrates.^
I n respect of t h e c o m p o s i t i o n , t h e first p r o b l e m c o n c e r n s t h e
relationship b e t w e e n the E x h o r t a t i o n a n d the Statutes. Scholars whose
m a i n i n t e r e s t lies i n t h e c o m p l e x l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e of t h e E x h o r t a t i o n
(e.g. M u r p h y - O ' C o n n o r and Davies) a r e not particularly bothered by
t h i s p r i m a r y issue. I n fact, b o t h t h e C a i r o M a n u s c r i p t A a n d t h e
e v i d e n c e from C a v e 4 testify t o t h e j o i n t existence o f t h e two sections,
7. The most i m p o r t a n t haggadic examples are found in C D 1:13—14 (Hos. 4:16);

3:20-4:6 (Ezek. 44:15); 4:10-12 (Mic. 7:11) ; 4:12—21 (Isa. 24:17); 5:7-11 (L,ev. i»:i3');
6:2—11 (Num. 21:18; Isa. 54:16); 6:11-14 ( M a t 1:10); 7:9-21 (Isa. 7:17; A m . 5:26-7;
A m . 9:11 ; Num. 24:17); 19:5-13 (Zech. 13:7; Ezek. 9:4) ; 8:1-18 (Hos. 5:10; D t . 32:33;
Ezek. 13:10; Mic. 2:11; Dt. 9:5 ; Dt. 7:8).
T h e following halakhic interpretations a r e n o t e w o r t h y : CD 4:20-5:2 (Gen. 1:27; 7^9;
Dt. 17:17); 9:2:8 (Lev. 19:18; Nah. 1:2; Lev. 19:17); 9:8-10 (i Sam. 25:26); 11:17-18
(Lev. 23:38); 11:18-21 (Prov. 15:8); 12:2-3 (Lev. 20:27) ; 12:17-18 (Lev. 11:32); 16:6-9
(Dt. 23:24); 16:10-11 (Num. 30:9); 16:14—15 (Mic. 7:2). It is remarkable t h a t not only
prophetic passages, but even a verse from the Writings (Prov. 15:8), are employed in legal
arguments. ~~ ~ "~ *" ——
F o r further information, see the commentaries o n C D and studies of Q u m r a n Bible
exegesis, e.g. F. F . Bruce, Biblical Exegesis in the Qumran Texts (1959); O . Betz, Offenbarung
und Schriftforschung in der Qumransekte (i960) ; G. V e r m e s , Scripture and Tradition (1961,
^1973); S. Lowy, 'Some Aspects of Normative and Sectarian Interpretation of the
Scriptures', A L U O S 6 (1969), pp. 8 4 - 1 6 3 ; Vermes, PBJS (1975); 'Interpretation
(History of) at Q u m r a n ' , I D B S , pp. 438-41 ; H. G a b r i o n , 'L'interpretation d e I'Ecriture
d a n s la Htterature de Q u m r a n ' , A N R W 19. i (1979), pp. 779-848.
F o r a special study of CD 4:20-5:2, see t h e references i n note 4 a b o v e ; CD 6:2-11, see
Vermes, Scripture and Tradition, pp. 5 3 - 4 ; CD 7:9-21, see H . Kosmala, 'Damascus
D o c u m e n t 7,9-21', in Essays in the Dead Sea Scrolls in Memory of E. L. Sukenik (1961), pp.
183-90.
8. Cf Yadin, Megillat ha-Miqdash I (1977), p. 302; B . Z. Wacholder, The Dawn of
Qumran: The Sectarian Torah and the Teacher of Righteousness (1983), p p . 119-29.
9. The Damascus Covenant: An Interpretation of the'Damascus Documenf (1983), p p . 3-47.
a n d t h e r e is n o r e a s o n to d o u b t the o r i g i n a h t y of t h e i r j u x t a p o s i t i o n , a t
least as f a r as t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e i r t e x t c a n b e f o l l o w e d . ( F o r s p e c u l a t i o n s
on t h e p r e h i s t o r y o f the d o c u m e n t , see b e l o w . ) T h e p r e s e n t a t i o n , s i d e
by side, o f h o r t a t o r y a n d legal e l e m e n t s i n a single w r i t i n g m a y be s e e n
as a n a d o p t i o n of b i b h c a l p r e c e d e n t s , i n p a r t i c u l a r , t h a t offered b y
D e u t e r o n o m y . F u r t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s will b e f o r m u l a t e d p r e s e n t l y
w h e n t h e p u r p o s e o r Sitz im Leben of C D is discussed.
T h e u n i t y o f t h e E x h o r t a t i o n h a s often b e e n q u e s t i o n e d in v a r i o u s
w a y s . S o m e o f the o b j e c t i o n s , e.g. t h a t p r o s e p a s s a g e s a r e i n t e r p o l a t e d
into a poetic a d m o n i t i o n , " or t h a t there are midrashic elements
a d d i t i o n a l to t h e b a s i c t e x t , ' ^ fail t o c a r r y c o n v i c t i o n b e c a u s e of t h e
u n c e r t a i n t y , i n t h e first case, c o n c e r n i n g t h e p o e t i c c h a r a c t e r of t h e
sections in q u e s t i o n a n d b e c a u s e o f t h e n o r m a l c y a n d b a s i c
a c c e p t a b i l i t y , in t h e s e c o n d , of e x e g e t i c a l s e c t i o n s i n a h o m i l e t i c
address.
O t h e r , m o r e i n f l u e n t i a l t h e o r i e s seek t o d i s t i n g u i s h in t h e
E x h o r t a t i o n several i n d e p e n d e n t literary units and associate these w i t h
v a r i o u s s t a g e s of t h e p r e h i s t o r y a n d h i s t o r y of t h e Q u m r a n sect. A . - M .
D e n i s , t a k i n g t h e t h e m e of k n o w l e d g e a s h i s y a r d s t i c k , p o s t u l a t e s a
p r e - s e c t a r i a n s t a g e d a t i n g to t h e t i m e o f the c o m p o s i t i o n of D a n i e l in
C D 1:1—4:6a, a n d t w o s e c t a r i a n s t a g e s i n 4 : 6 b - 6 : i i a n d 7:4b-2o:34
b e l o n g i n g to l a t e r periods.*^
A w e i g h t i e r a n d m o r e a m b i t i o u s thesis h a s b e e n p u t f o r w a r d b y J .
M u r p h y - O ' C o n n o r . ' * F o r h i m , C D 2 : 1 4 - 6 : 1 r e p r e s e n t s the o r i g i n a l
n u c l e u s o f t h e E x h o r t a t i o n . I t is a ' M i s s i o n a r y D o c u m e n t ' i n t e n d e d to
w i n c o n v e r t s to t h e E s s e n e c o m m u n i t y . T h e l a t t e r is s e e n as a
m o v e m e n t o f B a b y l o n i a n o r i g i n a n d the ' M i s s i o n a r y D o c u m e n t '
r e p r e s e n t s t h e i r r e t u r n a n d p r o s e l y t i z i n g a c t i v i t y in P a l e s t i n e . T h i s
section h a s a historical a n d a t h e o l o g i c a l p r e f a c e ( C D 1:1—2:1 a n d
2:2—14). A s e c o n d l a y e r is r e p r e s e n t e d b y a ' M e m o r a n d u m ' ( 6 : 1 1 - 8 : 3 )
reflecting t h e s t a n d of a g r o u p , w i t h d r a w n f r o m t h e T e m p l e , w h i c h
u n d e r t h e leadership of the T e a c h e r of Righteousness embraces a
s e p a r a t i s t e x i s t e n c e . T h e t w o sections a r e j o i n e d b y m e a n s o f a
10. Cf. E . Cothenet, T Q . I I , p . 132.

11. I. Rabinowitz, ' A Reconsideration of " D a m a s c u s " a n d "390 Years" in the
" D a m a s c u s " (Zadokite) Fragments', J B L 73 (1954), pp. 11-35.
12. J. Becker, Das Heil Gottes (1964), p . 57.
13. Les thhnes de connaissance dans le Document de Damas [Studia Hellenistica 15] (1967).
For the conclusions, see p p . 208-13.
14. 'An Essene Missionary D o c u m e n t ? C D I I , 1 4 - V I , i ' , RB 77 (1970), pp. 2 0 1 - 2 9 ; 'A
Literary Analysis of Damascus D o c u m e n t V I , 2 - V I I I , 3 ' , R B 78 (1971), p p . 2 1 0 - 3 2 ; ' T h e
Critique of the Princes o f J u d a h (CD VIII,3—19)', R B 79 (1972), p p . 2 0 0 - 1 6 ; ' A Literary
Analysis of Damascus D o c u m e n t X I X , 3 3 - X X , 3 4 ' , R B 79 (1972), pp. 544-64. A m o n g the
forerunners of this thesis the following deserve to be n o t e d : I . Rabinowitz, art. cit. in
n. 1 0 ; A. J a u b e r t , 'Le pays de D a m a s ' , RB 6 5 (1958), pp. 2 1 4 - 4 8 ; S. Iwry, art. cit. in n . 5.
' M i d r a s h ' ( 6 : 2 - 1 1 ) . T h e t h i r d u n i t ( 8 : 3 - 1 9 ) consists o f a c r i t i c i s m of t h e

J e w i s h a u t h o r i t i e s u n w i l U n g to s u p p o r t t h e Essene c a u s e . T h i s ' C r i t i q u e
of t h e P r i n c e s of J u d a h ' is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e p e r i o d of J o n a t h a n
M a c c a b a e u s . Finally, t h e fourth section (19:33-20:34) reproaches
u n f a i t h f u l m e m b e r s of t h e C o m m u n i t y a n d stresses t h e n e e d for l o y a l t y
a n d p e r s e v e r a n c e . A p a r t from p a r a g r a p h 2 0 : 1 - 8 , w h i c h M u r p h y -
O ' C o n n o r assigns t o t h e lifetime of t h e T e a c h e r of R i g h t e o u s n e s s , t h e
w h o l e p e r i c o p e is j u d g e d t o h a v e o r i g i n a t e d s h o r t l y after t h e T e a c h e r ' s
death.
N o t u n l i k e it in basic a p p r o a c h , b u t differing from t h e f o r e g o i n g
thesis in some of i t s m a j o r c o n c l u s i o n s , is P . R . D a v i e s ' s r e d a c t i o n -
critical t h e o r y . ' ^ H e , t o o , d i s t i n g u i s h e s a fourfold s t r u c t u r e in t h e
E x h o r t a t i o n , b u t defines t h e m s o m e w h a t differently f r o m M u r p h y -
O ' C o n n o r , viz. ' H i s t o r y ' ( 1 : 1 - 4 : 1 2 3 ) ; ' L a w s ' (4:i2b-7:9) ; ' W a r n i n g s '
( 7 : 9 - 8 : 1 9 ) ; a n d ' T h e N e w C o v e n a n t ' (19:3313-20:34). T h e p r i n c i p a l
n o v e l t y i n Davies's r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e h i s t o r y of t h e E x h o r t a t i o n is
t h a t he d e c l a r e s t h e w h o l e w o r k to b e p r e - Q u m r a n a n d p r e - E s s e n e , a n d
to h a v e b e e n p r o d u c e d b y ' a n o r g a n i s e d , w e l l - d e v e l o p e d c o m m u n i t y
w i t h a c l e a r l y - e x p r e s s e d ideology a n d h i s t o r i c a l t r a d i t i o n s ' ( p . 2 0 2 ) .
T h e r o o t s of t h i s i d e o l o g y ' m a y a n t e d a t e t h e m i d d l e of t h e fifth c e n t u r y
B . C . E . ' ( p . 203), a n d the w o r k itself is c o n j e c t u r e d t o be o f B a b y l o n i a n
d i a s p o r a origin. T h e Q u m r a n c o m m u n i t y s p r a n g from this g r o u p —
a n d n o t from t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C . P a l e s t i n i a n H a s i d i m — a f t e r t h e
a p p e a r a n c e of t h e T e a c h e r of R i g h t e o u s n e s s ( p . 203). T h i s implies t h a t
m e n t i o n of h i m i n the h i s t o r i c a l s c h e m e of C D 1 : 1 - 1 1 m a y n o t b e
o r i g i n a l , b u t ' a p r o d u c t o f Q u m r a n i c r e d a c t i o n ' (p. 200).
T h e last t w o t h e o r i e s offer n o t only a f u l l y - a r g u e d l i t e r a r y a n d
r e d a c t i o n - c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s , b u t a l s o a t e n t a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e
p u r p o s e a n d Sitz im Leben of t h e v a r i o u s u n i t s , as w e l l as a n a t t e m p t to
m a r k o u t t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l s e t t i n g . If p r o v e d c o r r e c t , t h e y m i g h t
n e c e s s i t a t e a n u m b e r of r e a d j u s t m e n t s r e g a r d i n g t h e p r e h i s t o r y a n d
e a r l y history of t h e Essenes.' T h e i r p r i n c i p a l w e a k n e s s — a p a r t f r o m
t h e i n n a t e fragility of h i s t o r i c a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s d e p e n d e n t o n l i t e r a r y
analysis a l o n e — l i e s in the q u e s t i o n a b l e r e h a b i l i t y o f t h e C a i r o
15. Cf. n . 8 above.

16. T h e reconstruction of t h e origins of t h e C o m m u n i t y in vol. I I , p p . 575-85 is based
on a combination of information from CD, the Q u m r a n pesher literature a n d Josephus.
T h e principal difficulty under which it has l a b o u r e d lies i n the dearth of historical d a t a .
T o claim, as Davies does, that the Damascus Document should b e given^priority over the
Commentaries, because the latter have possibly b e e n 'a h i n d r a n c e rather t h a n a help in
the elucidation of the origins . . . of t h e Q u m r a n c o m m u n i t y ' (p. 204), is hkely to lead to
an unnecessary diminution of the already scarce evidence. T h e dangers entailed in his
method a r e revealed by the fact that h e is compelled to relegate t h e passage dealing with
the T e a c h e r of Righteousness i n CD i , an essential link between the Damascus Rule a n d
the pesharim, among the later Q u m r a n interpolations into t h e original C D text.
m a n u s c r i p t s a s the s o u r c e s of f a r - r e a c h i n g critical c o n c l u s i o n s before

t h e y h a v e b e e n c o m p a r e d to t h e f r a g m e n t s , u n e d i t e d so far, c o n t a i n i n g
r e c e n s i o n a l diflferences. A s has b e e n r i g h t l y s t a t e d , ' L i t t l e c a n b e d o n e
on this t e x t t h a t is of l a s t i n g v a l u e before t h e full p u b l i c a t i o n of t h e
C a v e I V material.'*'''
S c h o l a r s who c o n s i d e r the D a m a s c u s R u l e as essentially a u n i t a r y
d o c u m e n t , a n d not o n e c o m p o s e d o f several a u t o n o m o u s u n i t s , believe
t h a t the focus a r o u n d v^hich the E x h o r t a t i o n a n d t h e S t a t u t e s a r e
c o n s t r u e d is t h e Q u m r a n F e a s t o f t h e R e n e w a l of t h e C o v e n a n t .
B e a r i n g i n m i n d t h a t the C a v e 4 m a t e r i a l explicitly d e a l s w i t h t h i s feast,
it c a n b e a r g u e d t h a t t h e p r e a c h e r of t h e E x h o r t a t i o n is the "IpaKl or
G u a r d i a n or p o s s i b l y t h e G u a r d i a n of a l l t h e c a m p s a d d r e s s i n g t h o s e
w h o e n t e r i n t o or r e n e w t h e C o v e n a n t , a n d t h a t the S t a t u t e s w e r e
i n t e n d e d to b e p r o c l a i m e d in t h e s a m e w a y as t h e T o r a h was r e a d o u t
to t h e a s s e m b l y of t h e j e w s i n the d a y s of E z r a ( N e h . 8 : 2 - 3 ) , or ' t h e
p r e c e p t s of t h e C o v e n a n t ' to t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n of t h e M e s s i a n i c R u l e
{iQSa 1 : 4 - 6 ) . ' ^
A s r e g a r d s the d a t e of t h e D a m a s c u s R u l e , t h e m e d i e v a l C a i r o
m a n u s c r i p t s , p r o b a b l y d e r i v i n g f r o m t h e scrolls d i s c o v e r y at t h e e n d of
the e i g h t h c e n t u r y r e f e r r e d to a b o v e ( p p . r 88, 2 0 5 - 6 ) , a r e o f n o a s s i s t a n c e .
T h e Q u m r a n f r a g m e n t s , or a t least s o m e o f t h e m , b e l o n g to t h e
p r e - C h r i s t i a n e r a . ' ^ T h o s e f r o m C a v e 4 h a v e n o t y e t b e e n assigned to
a n y precise p e r i o d . A t t h e u p p e r e n d of t h e scale, P . R . D a v i e s suggests
t h a t this w r i t i n g s h o u l d b e p l a c e d before t h e o c c u p a t i o n of Q u m r a n
w h i c h , i n his v i e w , m a y h a v e o c c u r r e d a s l a t e as t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e
first c e n t u r y B . C . , b u t after t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f j u b i l e e s , w h i c h m a y
h a v e existed b e f o r e 200 B . C . ^ ° M o s t o t h e r a u t h o r s p r o p o s e a d a t e falling
b e t w e e n the s e c o n d h a l f of t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y a n d t h e m i d d l e of t h e
17. J . A. Fitzmyer, 'Prolegomenon' to S. Schechter, Fragments of a âdokite Work (1970),

p. 24. P. R . Davies, conscious of this w a r n i n g which he quotes i n his Introduction (p. i),
tries to counter t h e difficulty b y reducing t h e import of the fragments to the d o m a i n of
textual criticism. As he has deduced from t h e study of the Cairo text t h a t 'the document as a
whote is basically older than the Qumran community', he is obliged to assume t h a t all the
'manuscripts (from Cairo a n d presumably also from t h e Q u m r a n caves) represent a
Q u m r a n i c recension' a n d 'can only attest t h e post-redactional history of t h e document' (pp.
2-3). But even if this were so, would as full a knowledge as possible of the ' Q u m r a n i c
recensions', the only factual evidence available, not be an essential requisite for any
hypothetical reconstruction of the Hterary prehistory of t h e Damascus R u l e ?
18. Cf G. Vermes, DSSE, p p . 95, 97; E . Cothenet, T Q I I , pp. 1 3 7 - 8 ; L . Moraldi,
M Q , p. 213.
i g . Cf. above, p. 389. J . T . Milik declares t h a t the oldest manuscript o f this work
{4QP ) dates to 75-50 B.C. Cf Ten Years of Discovery, pp. 3 8 , 58.
20. Damascus Covenant, p. 203. The latter point is purely speculative, a n d is immediately
weakened by a cautionary c o m m e n t : 'the possibility t h a t Jubilees existed in an earlier
form before the second century B.C.E. c a n n o t be discounted. ( N o r can we be certain that
the reference to J u b i l e e s in C D X I V is not secondary.)' {ibid.).
first c e n t u r y B . C . a n d g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e r C D t o be s o m e w h a t younger
t h a n t h e C o m m u n i t y R u l e . ^ ' I n fact, t h e r e is n o c o m p e l l i n g a r g u m e n t
against suggesting that the composition of the Damascus Rule is
r o u g h l y c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s w i t h it, o r i g i n a t i n g p e r h a p s s h o r t l y after 100
B . C .
Since CD 19:13-15 aUudes to the death of the Teacher of

Righteousness as h a v i n g taken place nearly forty years earlier, the
D a m a s c u s D o c u m e n t is o n e o f t h e few t e x t s w h i c h c a n n o t b e a t t r i b u t e d
to h i m .
Editions
Cairo manuscripts
Schechter, S., Documents of Jewisli Sectaries: Fragments of a Z^^dokite Work (1910). Reprinted
with a Prolegomenon and detailed bibHography b y J . A. Fitzmyer (1970).
Rost, L., Die Damaskusschrift neu bearbeitet (1933).
R a b i n , C , TheZ<^dokite Documents (1954).
Lohse, E., Q T , p p . 63-107 (printed Hebrew text).
Davies, P. R., The Damascus Covenant (1983), p p . 232-67.
Zeitlin, S., The Z^^dokite Fragments (1952). [A facsimile edition of the Genizah manuscripts
from the C a m b r i d g e University Library.]
Qumran fragments
Baillet, M . , and Milik, J . T., D J D I I I , pp. 128-31, 181.
Translations
Engtish
Charies, R . H., A P O T I I , pp. 785-834.
Vermes, DSSE^, p p . 95—117.
Davies, P . R., op. cit., p p . 232-67.
French
Dupont-Sommer, A., E E , pp. 129-78.
Cothenet, E., T Q , I I , p p . 129-204.
German
Maier, J., T T M I , pp. 46-70.
Lohse, E., op. cit., ibid.
Italian
Moraldi, L., M Q , pp. 205-70.
Bibliography
Pre-Qumran
Levi, I., ' U n ecrit sadduceen anterieur a la destruction d u Temple', R E J 61 (1911), pp.
161-205; 63 (1912), pp. 1-19.
21. Cf F . M. Cross, Ancient Library, p. 6 0 ; A. D u p o n t - S o m m e r , Essene Writings, p . 120

(before 48 B.c.); E. Cothenet, T Q I I , pp. 140-3 {c. 60 B . c ) ; L . Moraldi, M Q p. 217
(from J o h n Hyrcanus t o Pompey). A m o n g writers who hold C D to b e older than iQS
m a y be listed H . H . Rowley, From Moses to Qumran (1963), p . 260, and t h e authors n a m e d
in n . I , a n d G. Vermes in his earlier pubHcations {Les manuscrits du desert de Juda (1953),
p p . 53, 6 6 ; Discovery in the Judean Desert (1956), pp. 4 8 , 61).
Lagrange, M.-J., 'La secte juive de la Nouvelle Alliance a u pays d e D a m a s ' , R B 9 (1912),
pp. 213-40, 321-60.
Buchler, A , , 'Schechter's "Jewish Sectaries'", J Q R 3 (1912-13), p p . 429-85.
Meyer, E., Die Gemeinde des Neuen Bundes im Lande Damaskus (1919).
(iinzberg, L., Eine unbekannte jiidische Sekte (1922). E . T . : An Unknown Jewish Sefi^^tg-jS).
Post-Qumran /
{J\f.B. Fitzmyer's Prolegomenon p p . 25-34 [^^^ ' E d i d o n s ' ] contains a detailed biblio
graphy u p to 1969 and Davies, op. cit., pp. 27-31 [see 'Editions'] a select bibliography up
to 1982.)
Brownlee, W. H . , 'A Comparison of the Covenanters of the Dead Sea Scrolls with
pre-Chrisdan Jewish Sects', BA 13 (1950), pp. 50-72.
Segal, M . H., ' T h e H a b a k k u k C o m m e n t a r y a n d the Damascus F r a g m e n t s ' , J B L 70
( i 9 5 i ) , p p . 131-47.
Rowley, H . H., The Zadokite Fragments and the Dead Sea Scrolls (1952).
Rubinstein, A., ' U r b a n H a l a k h a h and C a m p Rules i n the Cairo Fragments of the
Damascus C o v e n a n t ' , Sefarad 12 (1952), pp. 283-96.
Delcor, M . , 'Contribution a I'etude de l a legislation des sectaires de D a m a s et de
Q u m r a n ' , R B 61 (1954), p p . 5 3 3 - 5 3 ; 6 2 (i955).PP- 6o-75-
Rabin, C , 'Notes on t h e H a b a k k u k Scroll and t h e Zadokite D o c u m e n t ' , V T 5 (1955),
pp. 148-62.
Wiesenberg, E., 'Chronological D a t a in t h e Zadokite Fragments', V T 5 (1955), pp.
284-308.
Wernberg-MoUer, P., 'Some Passages in t h e " Z a d o k i t e " Fragments and their ParaUels
in t h e M a n u a l of Discipline', J S S i (1956), p p . 110-28.
Kahle, P., 'The C o m m u n i t y of the N e w C o v e n a n t and t h e H e b r e w ScroUs', Opera Minora
(1956), pp. 9 6 - 1 1 2 .
C a r m i g n a c , } . , 'Comparaison entre les manuscrits "A" e t " B " d u D o c u m e n t de D a m a s ' ,
R Q , 2 ( 1 9 5 ^ 0 ) , p p . 53-67.
Betz, O., 'Zadokite F r a g m e n t s ' , IDB I V , p p . 929-33.
Baltzer, K . , Das Bundesformular (^1964), pp. 117-27.
Eissfeldt, O., Introduction, pp. 6 4 9 - 5 2 .
Schwarz, O . J. R . , Der erste Teil der Damaskusschrift und das Alte Testament (1965).
Denis, A.-M., Les thimes de connaissance dans le Document de Damas (1967).
M u r p h y - O ' C o n n o r , J . , seen. 1 4 a b o v e .
Hoenig, S. B., ' A n Interdict against socializing on the S a b b a t h ' , J Q R 62 (1971), pp.
77-83.
Bardtke, H., 'Literaturbericht iiber Q u m r a n . V I I I . Die Damaskusschrift', T h R 39
(1974), PP- 189-221.
Schiffman, L. H . , The Halakhah at Qumran (1975).
Vermes, DSS, p p . 4 8 - 5 1 , 87-115.
Rosso-UbigU, L . , 'II D o c u m e n t o di D a m a s c o e l a H a l a k a h sectaria', R Q , 9 (1978), pp.
357-99-
Osten-Sacken, P . von der, ' D i e Biicher d e r Tora als Hiitte der Gemeinde-Amos 5,26f in
der Damaskusschrift', Z A W 91 (1979), pp. 423-35.
Brooke, G. J . , ' T h e Amos-Numbers M i d r a s h ( C D 7 , i 3 b - 8 , i a ) and Messianic
Expectation', Z A W 92 (1980), p p . 397-404.
Schwartz, D. R . , 'To join oneself t o the House of J u d a h (Damascus D o c u m e n t I V , i i ) ' ,
R Q , i o (1981), p p . 435-46-
Nickelsburg, G. W. E., J L B B M , pp. 123-6.
Minkowsky, C , ' A g a i n : Damascus in t h e Damascus Document and in Rabbinic
Literature', R Q , i i (1982), pp. 97-106.
Davies, P . R., ' T h e Ideology of the T e m p l e in the Damascus D o c u m e n t ' , J J S 33 (1982),
pp. 287-301.
Schiffman, L. H . , Sectarian Law in the Dead Sea Scrolls : Courts, Testimony and Penal Code (1983).
Idem, 'Legislation concerning Relations with non-Jews i n the Zadokite Fragments and
Tannaitic Literature', R Q , i i (1983), p p . 379-89.
Derrett, J . D. M . , 'Behuqey Hagoyim: Damascus D o c u m e n t I X , i again', RQ_ 11 (1983),
pp. 409-15-
4. The War Rule

A m o n g the d o c u m e n t s d i s c o v e r e d i n C a v e i figures a n i n e t e e n - c o l u m n
scroll d e v o t e d to ' T h e W a r of t h e S o n s of L i g h t a g a i n s t t h e S o n s of
D a r k n e s s ' [iQM). I t w a s p u b l i s h e d p o s t h u m o u s l y b y E . L. S u k e n i k i n
'Ozar ha-Megillot ha-genuzot o r The Dead Sea Scrolls of the Hebrew University
i n 1 9 5 4 / 1 9 5 5 . T h e b o t t o m lines o f e a c h c o l u m n h a v e b e e n d e s t r o y e d ,
a n d c o l . 19 is p a r t i c u l a r l y b a d l y m u t i l a t e d . T h e e n d of t h e w o r k is n o t
e x t a n t , b u t t h e c o n t e n t s of t h e last t w o c o l u m n s w o u l d suggest t h a t o n l y
a s m a l l a m o u n t o f the text is missing. T w o s m a l l f r a g m e n t s d e t a c h e d
f r o m t h e scroll a r e i n c l u d e d i n D J D I, p p . 1 3 5 - 6 . T h e s c r i p t is t h o u g h t
t o b e l o n g to t h e H e r o d i a n e r a . '
R e m a i n s o f six f u r t h e r m a n u s c r i p t s ( M ^ - M ) h a v e b e e n r e t r i e v e d
f r o m C a v e 4 {4Qj9i-49^ w h i c h also c o n t a i n e d p a p y r u s f r a g m e n t s
r e p r e s e n t i n g a c o g n a t e w o r k {4Qjgy). T h e y h a v e a l l b e e n e d i t e d b y M .
Baillet i n D J D V I I in 1982. O f t h e C a v e 4 m a n u s c r i p t s , M*' [4QJ.92)
c o r r e s p o n d s t o p a r t s oi iQM 1 9 : 1 - 1 4 ; M*^ {4Qj94) t o t h e m i s s i n g e n d o f
iQM 1 - 2 : 3 ; {4QA95) to iQM 10:9—10 a n d 1 3 : 9 - 1 2 ; a n d t h e 1 2 2
t i n y p a p y r u s f r a g m e n t s of M {4Qj.^ a p p e a r to h a v e p r e s e r v e d s m a l l
p o r t i o n s of t h e first f o u r c o l u m n s of t h e W a r R u l e . T h e r e a r e also
f u r t h e r scraps w h i c h c a n n o t b e l o c a t e d i n t o t h e f r a m e w o r k oi iQM. By
c o n t r a s t to M'', M"^, a n d M'^ w h i c h reflect the s a m e t y p e o f t e x t as
iQM, {4Qj9^), t h e m o s t e x t e n s i v e of t h e f r a g m e n t s , a n d {4Qj-93)
testify t o a different r e c e n s i o n of t h e W a r R u l e . ^ P a l a e o g r a p h i c a l l y t h e
f r a g m e n t s a r e assigned t o the first c e n t u r y B.c.-first c e n t u r y A . D . ^
1. Cf. F. M . Cross, The Ancient Library of Qumran (1958), p. 89, n. 20; ' T h e
Development ofjewish Script', in E. G. Wright (ed.). The Bible and the Ancient Near East
(1961), p p . 137-91. N. Avigad (Scrip. Hier. 4, p. 74) places the script o f / Q M after iQIsa
a m o n g t h e Herodian group (mid-first century B.C.-A.D. 70). Similarly, Y . Y a d i n is
content with a vague second half of the first century B.C. or first half o f the first century
A.D. {The Scroll of the War of the Sons of Light against the Sons of Darkness {1962), p. 243). J .
T . Milik (Ten Tears of Discovery, p. 40) declares by contrast all t h e W a r manuscripts t o be
'post-Herodian', i.e. belonging to the first century A.D. I n turn, M . Baillet ( D J D V I I , p.
45) opts for the middle of the first century B.C.
2. M. Baillet conjectures t h a t the two manuscripts represent the same recension ( D J D
V I I , p. 50).
3. M. Baillet dates to t h e turn of the eras or slightly eariier (DJD V I I , p . 12); M to
the middle of t h e first century B.c. {ibid., p . 4 5 ) ; M*^ to t h e first half o f the first century
B.C. {ibid., p. 50) ; M to the beginning of t h e first century A.D. {ibid., p . 53) ; M*^ to the
mid-first century E.G. {ibid., p . 55); and M to a litde before 5 0 B.c. {ibid., p . 58). T h e
d o c u m e n t related to t h e W a r Rule {40^97) is also assigned to the mid-first century E.G.
Since some of Baillet's dates depend on that of/QAf, it should b e noted that h e puts the
T h e C a v e i r e c e n s i o n of t h e W a r R u l e m a y be d i v i d e d i n t o e l e v e n
sections.
1 . A n i n t r o d u c t i o n (col. i ) d e a l s w i t h t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s of t h e
p r o c l a m a t i o n of t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l w a r in w h i c h t h e S o n s o f L i g h t ,
identified as t h e 'exiles o f t h e d e s e r t ' r e c r u i t e d f r o m the tribes of L e v i ,
J u d a h a n d B e n j a m i n , c o n f r o n t t h e Sons of D a r k n e s s or a r m y o f Belial,
led by t h e K i t t i m of Assyria a n d t h e i r allies t h e E d o m i t e s , M o a b i t e s ,
A m m o n i t e s , Philistines (i.e. I s r a e l ' s t r a d i t i o n a l e n e m i e s ) , a n d ' t h e
u n g o d l y of t h e C o v e n a n t ' , o r w i c k e d J e w s . T h e S o n s o f L i g h t fight a
b a t t l e i n ' t h e D e s e r t of J e r u s a l e m ' a n d w i t h the h e l p of t h e a n g e h c
forces d e f e a t t h e i r o p p o n e n t s .
2. T h i s v i c t o r y , e n t a i h n g t h e c a p t u r e of J e r u s a l e m , e n a b l e s t h e
C o m m u n i t y t o r e - e n t e r t h e S a n c t u a r y a n d r e - o r g a n i z e its cultic w o r s h i p
(col. 2:1—6).*
3. T h e r e s t o r a t i o n of t h e T e m p l e service o c c u r s i n the s e v e n t h y e a r of
t h e w a r , i.e. a s a b b a t i c a l y e a r d u r i n g w h i c h n o fighting m a y t a k e p l a c e .
T h e r e m a i n i n g period of a forty-year w a r , not counting the subsequent
y e a r s of release, is d e v o t e d t o a p l a n n e d c o n q u e s t of aU t h e foreign
n a t i o n s , t h e c h i l d r e n of S h e m , H a m a n d j a p h e t h ( 2 : 6 - 1 4 ) .
4. T h e b a t t l e t i m e - t a b l e is f o l l o w e d b y rules for t h e t r u m p e t s , a n d for
t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s to b e e n g r a v e d on t h e m ( 2 : 1 5 - 3 : 1 1 ) .
5. L i k e w i s e , t h e d o c u m e n t p r e s c r i b e s t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s a n d
inscriptions o n the various s t a n d a r d s , a n d the legend to a p p e a r on the
shield o f the c o m m a n d e r in c h i e f ( 3 : 1 3 - 5 : 2 ) .
6. N e x t t h e b a t t l e d i v i s i o n s e a c h n u m b e r i n g o n e t h o u s a n d m e n ,
together with their weapons of spear, sword a n d s c a b b a r d , are depicted
in g r e a t d e t a i l (5:3—14).
7. H e r e t h e W a r R u l e lays d o w n r e g u l a t i o n s for t h e m o v e m e n t s of
t h r e e d i v i s i o n s of foot-soldiers, t h e first a r m e d w i t h j a v e l i n s , t h e s e c o n d
w i t h s p e a r s a n d shields a n d t h e t h i r d w i t h shields a n d s w o r d s (5:4-6:6).
T h e foot-soldiers a r e t o be s u p p o r t e d b y c a v a l r y m e n o n e i t h e r w i n g ,
w h o s e h o r s e s m u s t c o n f o r m t o specific r e q u i r e m e n t s . T h e i r r i d e r s a r e to
be furnished with breast-plates, helmets, greaves, bucklers, spears,
j a v e h n s , b o w s a n d a r r o w s . T h e a g e s o f officers a n d m e n a r e defined
( h o r s e m e n : 3 0 - 5 0 y e a r s old ; f o o t - s o l d i e r s : 4 0 - 5 0 ; c a m p i n s p e c t o r s :
5 0 - 6 0 ; officers: 4 0 - 5 0 ; a u x i h a r i e s : 2 5 - 3 0 ) w i t h , c u r i o u s l y , the
m i d d l e - a g e d assigned t o fighting, a n d t h e y o u n g e r m e n to n o n -
c o m b a t a n t d u t i e s (6:8-7:3).
8. A s m a l l p a r a g r a p h c o n c e r n s t h e holiness of t h e a r m y . T o p r o t e c t it
script of the latter to c. 50 B . C , while most other scholars are incHned towards a later
date.
4. T h e link between section i and section 2 is lost in t h e lacuna created by the missing
lines at t h e b o t t o m of col. i, only very partially restored with t h e help oi40]^(494), lines
. - 3 (DJD V I I , p . 53).
f r o m u n c l e a n n e s s , t h e R u l e e x c l u d e s w o m e n , boys, p e r s o n s w i t h b o d i l y
defects from t h e c? m p , a n d forbids m e n suffering from t e m p o r a r y r i t u a l
i m p u r i t y to p a r t i c i p a t e in b a t t l e . L a t r i n e s a r e to b e sited a t a
c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e c a m p s 'for t h e holy a n g e l s will be w i t h
t h e i r hosts' ( 7 : 3 - 7 ) .
9. T h e l e a d i n g roles i n the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l conflict are p l a y e d , n o t b y
t h e fighting m e n , b u t b y t h e priests a n d Levites. S e v e n c h i e f priests,
w e a r i n g w a r v e s t m e n t s , a r e t o l e a d the c o m b a t , t h e first d e l i v e r i n g a n
e x h o r t a t i o n a n d t h e o t h e r s b l o w i n g t h e v a r i o u s t r u m p e t s to d i r e c t t h e
b a t t l e a n d signal i t s p h a s e s . T h e y a r e a c c o m p a n i e d by seven L e v i t e s
e a c h h o l d i n g a shofar w h o s e s o u n d is i n t e n d e d ' t o terrify t h e h e a r t of
the enemy'(7:9-9:9).
10. A brief section outlines a special b a t t l e f o r m a t i o n , c a l l e d ' t o w e r s ' ,
e a c h c o n s i s t i n g of t h r e e h u n d r e d soldiers h o l d i n g shields. T h e s e b e a r t h e
n a m e s o f t h e four a r c h a n g e l s , M i c h a e l , G a b r i e l , Sariel a n d R a p h a e l
(9:10-18).
1 1 . I n the l a c u n a a t t h e b o t t o m of c o l . 9, the w o r d s of t h e b a t t l e
l i t u r g y b e g i n . T h e y i n c l u d e Bible q u o t a t i o n s (Dt. 2 0 : 2 - 4 ; N u m . 10:9;
N u m . 2 4 : 1 7 - 1 9 ; I s a . 3 1 : 8 ) t o g e t h e r w i t h h y m n s , a r e c i t a t i o n of G o d ' s
s a v i n g acts i n Israel's h i s t o r y , a n d t h e y a i m a t b r i n g i n g a b o u t G o d ' s
t r i u m p h o v e r the nations^ ( 1 0 : 1 - 1 2 : 1 8 ) . As the conflict r e a c h e s its
c l i m a x , the H i g h P r i e s t , the p r i e s t s , Levites a n d t h e elders of t h e a r m y
p r o n o u n c e blessings a n d curses, a n d rejoice b e c a u s e G o d ' s ' m i g h t y
h a n d ' a c h i e v e s s a l v a t i o n a n d p e a c e ( 1 3 : 1 — 1 4 : 1 ) . T h e final a c t of
w o r s h i p is a t h a n k s g i v i n g c e r e m o n y o n t h e battlefield after t h e
annihilation of the e n e m y ( 1 4 : 2 - 1 8 ) .
12. T h e l a s t five c o l u m n s oi iQM (cols. 1 5 - 1 9 ) r e p e a t t h e rules set
o u t in t h e p r e v i o u s sections for the b a t t l e a g a i n s t t h e k i n g of t h e K i t t i m
a n d t h e host of Belial. T h e s e i n c l u d e a p r i e s t l y a d m o n i t i o n before t h e
fight; r e g u l a t i o n s for t h e use of t r u m p e t s ; a n e x h o r t a t i o n by t h e H i g h
P r i e s t before t h e b a t t l e , f o u g h t in seven p h a s e s , in t h e last of w h i c h ' t h e
g r e a t h a n d o f G o d ' d e a l s a m o r t a l b l o w t o Belial a n d t h e K i t t i m . C o l .
19 e n d s w i t h a n u n f i n i s h e d t h a n k s g i v i n g r i t u a l w h e r e o n c e m o r e t h e
K i t t i m a r e expressly m e n t i o n e d .
T h e only w h o l l y u n p a r a l l e l e d m a t e r i a l a m o n g t h e f r a g m e n t s f r o m
C a v e 4 consists of t w o i n c o m p l e t e h y m n s in 4Q^gi ( = M ^ ) , f r a g m e n t s
I I a n d 1 2 . Baillet ( D J D V I I , p p . 26, 29) d e s i g n a t e s t h e m as ' S o n g of
M i c h a e l ' (frag. 1 1 , lines 8 - 1 8 a n d frag. 1 2 ) , a l t h o u g h t h e n a m e of t h e
a r c h a n g e l a p p e a r s n o w h e r e i n it, a n d ' S o n g o f the R i g h t e o u s ' (frag. 1 1 ,
h n e s 20—24). T h e t e x t of 4Qjg3 (M*^) p r o v i d e s a n o t h e r a c c o u n t of b a t t l e
m o v e m e n t s g o v e r n e d b y t h e priests' t r u m p e t signals. I n l i n e 1 3 , it
5. In 11:11, the enemies a r e identified as 'the K i t t i m ' , interpreting 'Assyria' in Isa.

31:8.
m e n t i o n s the S a b b a t h t r u m p e t s ; t h e s e a r e u n k n o w n t o iQM.
S t u d y of t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e W a r R u l e h a s g e n e r a t e d d i v e r g e n t
theories. A u t h o r s of t h e e a r l i e s t m o n o g r a p h s , Y . Y a d i n a n d J .
C a r m i g n a c , considered t h e w o r k to be a c o h e r e n t unity, composed b y a
single a u t h o r w h o n o d o u b t r e h e d o n l i t e r a r y sources.^ H o w e v e r , t h e
m a j o r i t y of s u b s e q u e n t s c h o l a r s h a v e j u d g e d iQM to b e a c o m p o s i t e
w o r k . J . v a n d e r P l o e g , r e l y i n g o n t h e r e p e t i t i v e c h a r a c t e r of cols. 15—19
c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e p r e c e d i n g sections, h a s a d v a n c e d t h e thesis t h a t
/QiW i n c l u d e s a n o r i g i n a l w o r k , i n s p i r e d b y D a n . 1 1 : 4 0 - 1 2 : 3 a n d E z e k .
38—39, c o r r e s p o n d i n g r o u g h l y t o iQM i, 1 0 - 1 2 a n d 15—19, a n d
possibly to 1 3 - 1 4 . H e s u g g e s t s t h a t it is c e n t r e d o n a w a r a g a i n s t t h e
K i t t i m i n ' s e v e n l o t s ' o r s t a g e s a n d t h a t this p r i m i t i v e c o m p o s i t i o n w a s
s u b s e q u e n t l y e n l a r g e d b y a n o t h e r w r i t e r to a c c o m m o d a t e t h e c o n c e p t
of a f o r t y - y e a r w a r a g a i n s t all t h e n a t i o n s of t h e w o r l d (cols. 2-9).^
J . B e c k e r s i m i l a r l y a r g u e s a g a i n s t a u n i t a r y c o n c e p t i o n of the W a r
Scroll, a c c e p t i n g C . - H . H u n z i n g e r ' s t h e o r y t h a t a p u b l i s h e d f r a g m e n t
of 4QAf testifies t o a n o l d e r v e r s i o n of t h e text.^ H e , t o o , h a s a d o p t e d
v a n d e r P l o e g ' s v i e w c o n c e r n i n g a first c o l l e c t i o n c o m p r i s i n g cols, i,
1 5 - 1 9 t o w h i c h h e a d d s 7:9 t o 8 : 1 9 ; t h e rest, he b e h e v e s , b e l o n g s t o a
second composition, t h e t w o h a v i n g b e e n subsequently b r o u g h t
t o g e t h e r to f o r m a single w o r k . ^ P . v o n d e r O s t e n - S a c k e n is r e s p o n s i b l e
for a n a l m o s t i d e n t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f / Q A f . ' °
T h e most complex literary theory has been a d v a n c e d b y P. R.
D a v i e s , for w h o m iQM consists of t h r e e o r i g i n a l d o c u m e n t s (cols. 2 - 9 ,
1 5 - 1 9 , 1 0 - 1 2 ) ; t w o i n d e p e n d e n t f r a g m e n t s (cols. 13 a n d 1 4 ) ; a n d a
preface i n t e n d e d t o unify the i n d e p e n d e n t sections (col. i ) . O f t h e t h r e e
m a j o r u n i t s , D a v i e s c o n s i d e r s cols. 2 - 9 to b e a l i t t l e o l d e r t h a n cols.
1 0 - 1 2 , f o l l o w e d m u c h l a t e r b y cols. 1 5 - 1 9 . "
N o d e t a i l e d s t u d y h a s a p p e a r e d since the p u b l i c a t i o n of t h e C a v e 4
m a t e r i a l in 1 9 8 2 , b u t i n t h e l i g h t o f a n d , t o a lesser e x t e n t , of M ^ , it
seems t o be i n c o n t e s t a b l e t h a t the W a r R u l e h a d a p r e h i s t o r y a n d t h a t
6. Y. Y a d i n , The Scroll of the War of the Sons of Light against the Sons of Darkness (1962),
p p . 3-17 ; J . C a r m i g n a c , La Rigle de la Guerre (1958), p. xiii. T h e latter attributes iQM to
the same a u t h o r (the T e a c h e r of Righteousness) a s iQS, iQSa a n d iQH. M o r e nuanced,
Yadin envisages a single (anonymous) a u t h o r e m p l o y i n g a n u m b e r of sources, biblical,
apocryphal, pseudepigraphic, and sectarian.
7. J. v a n der Ploeg, Le rouleau de la Guerre (1959), pp. 11-22.
8. T r a g m e n t e einer alterer Fassung des Buches M i l h a m a a u s H o h l e 4 v o n Q u m r a n ' ,
ZAW 69 (1957), pp. 131-51.
9. J . Becker, Das Heil Gottes (1964).
I o. Gott und Belial (1969).
I I . P. R . Davies, iQM, the War Scroll from Qumran: Its Structure and History (1977). This
author concluded that the relevance of the poetic fragment, corresponding to iQM 14, of
4QM" edited b y Hunzinger is doubtful, since it m a y derive from 'a psalter r a t h e r t h a n an
eariier recension of i Q M ' (p. 8 4 ) . T h e full publication o f 4QM'' has proved this
assumption to b e groundless.
iQM, a n d possibly 4QM'', M^-f, r e p r e s e n t t h e final s t a g e of a l i t e r a r y

evolution.
R e g a r d i n g t h e s t r u c t u r e o f / Q M , t h e r e is n o d o u b t t h a t the t h e o r y of
a c o m p o s i t e w o r k , c l e a r l y divisible a t least i n t o c o l . i, cols. 2—14 a n d
cols. 1 5 - 1 9 , is definitely to b e p r e f e r r e d . B y c o n t r a s t , n o decisive
a r g u m e n t favours a n y of t h e l i t e r a r y theses a d v a n c e d so far.
N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e f a m i l i a r t h e m e , from t h e B o o k of D a n i e l o n w a r d s , o f a
single g r e a t e s c h a t o l o g i c a l e v e n t p r e s i d e d o v e r by t h e h e a v e n l y P r i n c e
M i c h a e l , has all t h e a p p e a r a n c e s of a n t e d a t i n g the u n c o m m o n c o n c e p t
of a progressive c o n q u e s t of t h e w o r l d b y t h e J e w s , c u l m i n a t i n g i n a
final b a t t l e a g a i n s t t h e chief e n e m y . H e n c e , u n t i l t h e c o n t r a r y is
p r o v e d , it c a n be r e a s o n a b l y m a i n t a i n e d t h a t cols. 1 5 - 1 9 h a v e p r i o r i t y
o v e r cols. 2 - 1 4 . C o l . i m a y b e seen a s p a r t l y reflecting t h e s a m e ideas as
cols. 15—19 ( a u n i v e r s a l fight in seven stages a g a i n s t t h e K i t t i m a n d
t h e i r allies), a n d p a r t l y a s a n e d i t o r i a l preface t o a c c o u n t for t h e first six
years of the forty-year w a r . T h e regulations, both military a n d
h t u r g i c a l , set o u t i n cols. 2 - 1 4 s h o u l d i n c o n s e q u e n c e b e u n d e r s t o o d ,
w h e n p a r a l l e l s exist, as m o d e l l e d o n t h o s e in cols. 1 5 - 1 9 . I t h a s b e e n
n o t e d , i n p a r t i c u l a r , t h a t the t e r m ' K i t t i m ' i n cols. 1 5 - 1 9 c o r r e s p o n d s
in cols. 2 - 9 t o the g e n e r i c ' e n e m y ' (3''1X.),'* a n a b s t r a c t i o n r e q u i r e d to
fit t h e s c h e m e of c o n s e c u t i v e b a t t l e s a g a i n s t t h e n a t i o n s listed in c o l .
2:10-14.
T h e p u r p o s e of t h e W a r R u l e h a s b e e n d e f i n e d in s e m i - p r a c t i c a l
t e r m s b y Y. Y a d i n . A c c o r d i n g to h i m t h e a u t h o r seeks t o a n s w e r f o u r
q u e s t i o n s , i. W h e n a n d a g a i n s t w h o m will t h e w a r b e w a g e d ? 2 . W h a t
a r e the b i b h c a l laws c o n c e r n i n g w a r f a r e ? 3. H o w d o t h e s e c u l a r rules of
w a r r e l a t e to t h e T o r a h ? 4. H o w will t h e b a t t l e be f o u g h t in p r a c t i c e ? ' ^
T a k e n t o o literally, such a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e W a r R u l e is likely to
m i s l e a d . I n fact, set a g a i n s t t h e w a r l i k e s y m b o l i s m o f the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l
c a n v a s d r a w n by t h e a u t h o r o f t h e C o m m u n i t y R u l e in t h e section of
t h e ' T w o Spirits' {iQS 3 : 1 3 - 4 : 2 6 ) , t h e W a r R u l e m a y b e s e e n as a n
e l a b o r a t e d r a m a t i z a t i o n of a final s p i r i t u a l conflict, a n a p o c a l y p t i c
t e a c h i n g p r e s e n t e d in t h e form of a h t u r g y . ' * E p h . 6 : 1 0 - 1 7 a t t e s t s a
s i m i l a r m i h t a r y i m a g e r y w i t h i n a strictly r e h g i o u s c o n t e x t . ' ^
A p a r t from the terminus ante quem furnished b y p a l a e o g r a p h y , viz. c.
t h e t u r n of t h e eras, the d a t i n g of t h e W a r R u l e essentially d e p e n d s o n
12. Cf. Davies, op. cit., p. 71. H e m a y also be correct in suggesting t h a t the hymns a n d
prayers included i n cols. 10-12 originally formed a separate collection (p. 123).
13. Yadin, op. cit., p. 6.
14. Cf J . Carmignac, T Q I , p . 84. See also J . v a n der Ploeg, op. cit. [in n. 7 above], p.
20.
15. K. G . K u h n , 'wavoTrAia', T D N T V , pp. 298-300.
t h e historical i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of m i l i t a r y d a t a . ' ^ A few scholars, w r i d n g in

t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f Q u m r a n r e s e a r c h , o n e o f t h e m r e l y i n g only on
p r e l i m i n a r y p u b l i c a t i o n s o f / Q M , h a v e associated t h e c o n t e n t s of this
w o r k w i t h H e l l e n i s t i c w a r f a r e . ' ^ O t h e r s prefer to p o i n t to t h e
M a c c a b a e a n a r m y as t h e s o u r c e o n w h i c h t h e a u t h o r of t h e b a t t l e
sections of t h e W a r R u l e d r e w . ' ^ B u t b o t h k i n d s o f a r g u m e n t fade i n t o
insignificance w h e n c o m p a r e d to t h e precise c o i n c i d e n c e s b e t w e e n the
d a t a of the scroll a n d w h a t is k n o w n of R o m a n w e a p o n r y , a r m y
divisions a n d m a n o e u v r e s . T h i s thesis h a s b e e n associated w i t h the
n a m e s o f A. D u p o n t - S o m m e r , a n d e s p e c i a l l y Y. Y a d i n . Y a d i n has
f u r n i s h e d a full c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n t h e w e a p o n s , b a t t l e f o r m a t i o n s
a n d tactics d e s c r i b e d in t h e scroll a n d t h e i r R o m a n e q u i v a l e n t s (e.g. ]10
= ' s c u t u m ' , n*?157 = ' c l i p e u s ' o r ' p a r m a ' , p T ' D = ' g l a d i u s ' , Hp'lT
= ' i a c u l u m ' or ' h a s t a v e U t a r i s ' , n W I I = ' p i l u m ' , ^11^3 = ' t u r r i s ' or
' t e s t u d o ' , etc.).^° H e c o n c l u d e s t h a t t h e e v i d e n c e as a w h o l e p o i n t s
t o w a r d s a R o m a n m o d e l d a t i n g t o the s e c o n d h a l f of t h e first c e n t u r y
B . C . : 'after t h e R o m a n c o n q u e s t b u t before t h e e n d of H e r o d ' s r e i g n '
{op. cit., p p . 244-6).^' O n t h i s basis, t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f the W a r R u l e
m u s t b e d a t e d to a p e r i o d c o r r e s p o n d i n g to, o r following, the H e r o d i a n
era.
T h e r e f e r e n c e i n iQM 1 5 : 2 to t h e ' K i n g o f the K i t t i m ' m a y also be
u s e d for c h r o n o l o g i c a l p u r p o s e s . B e a r i n g in m i n d t h a t in t h e N a h u m
C o m m e n t a r y f r o m C a v e 4 (cf. b e l o w , p . 4 3 1 ) , A n t i o c h u s a n d
D e m e t r i u s a r e called 'kings of G r e e c e ' (jV ''5*?73: D J D V , p . 3 8 ) , b u t the
l e a d e r s of t h e K i t t i m 'rulers'' (•"'TlD ''VlZntt: ibid.) h e r e a s well as i n the
H a b a k k u k C o m m e n t a r y (see b e l o w ) , t h e t e r m i n o l o g i c a l v a r i a n t in
iQM is m o s t likely to r e v e a l a g o v e r n m e n t a l c h a n g e a m o n g t h e K i t t i m .
I n o t h e r w o r d s , if ' r u l e r s ' a l l u d e t o r e p u b l i c a n R o m e , "^VD refers t o the
e m p e r o r . I n t h a t case, JQM c a n n o t p r e d a t e A u g u s t u s , a n d s h o u l d be
a s s i g n e d to t h e final d e c a d e s o f t h e first c e n t u r y B . C ; o r , if the
16. J. C a r m i g n a c stands o u t a m o n g the students of iQM for completely disregarding

the evidence reladng t o weapons a n d tactics. He dates iQM t o n o B . C . and defines it as
o n e of t h e late works of the T e a c h e r of Righteousness, posterior to iQS a n d iQSa, but
preceding some of the psalms of iQH. Cf T Q , I , p p . 8 5 - 6 ; La Rigle de la Guerre (1958), p.
xiii.
17. C f J. G. Fevrier, ' L a tactique hellenistique d a n s un texte d e 'Ayin Fashkha',
Semitica i (1950), p p . 5 3 - 9 ; K. M . T. Atkinson, 'The Historical Setting of the W a r of
t h e Sons of Light and the Sons of Darkness', B J R L 40 (1958), p p . 272-97.
18. Cf. M. H . Segal, 'The Q u m r a n W a r Scroll and the Date of its Composidon', Scrip.
Hier. 4 (1958), p . 140; P. R. Davies, op. cit. [in n. 11], p p . 58-67.
19. D u p o n t - S o m m e r , 'Reglement de la guerre des fils de lumiere', R H R 148 (1955),
p p . 25-43, 141-80; Essene Writings, p p . 177-83. Yadin, op. cit. [in n. 6 ] .
20. Yadin, op. cit., p p . 114-97.
21. C f also G . R. Driver, The Judaean Scrolls (1965), p p . 1 8 0 - 9 7 : ' R o m a n army . . . of
the imperial period' (p. 193).
p a l a e o g r a p h i c a l d a t a m a y b e s t r e t c h e d a l i t t l e , to t h e e a r l y d e c a d e s of
t h e first c e n t u r y A . D . ^ ^
No individual author of the War Rule can be identified. J.

C a r m i g n a c ' s a t t r i b u t i o n o f it, t o g e t h e r w i t h a n u m b e r o f o t h e r major
Qumran compositions, to the Teacher of R i g h t e o u s n e s s , is totally
baseless.'^^
I n addition to the H e b r e w Bible, from w h i c h he q u o t e s frequently,^'^
t h e c o m p i l e r o f t h e W a r R u l e a p p e a r s to h a v e h a d a t his d i s p o s a l o t h e r
w r i t t e n s o u r c e s . O n e is m e n t i o n e d i n iQM 1 5 : 5 as inS7 "]'10 ISO (the
B o o k of G o d ' s T i m e ) w h i c h i n c l u d e d ' t h e P r a y e r i n t h e T i m e o f W a r '
a n d 'all t h e i r H y m n s ' . S e v e r a l s c h o l a r s t h i n k t h a t t h i s w o r k h a s f o u n d
its w a y i n t o iQM itself'^ T h e D*''?nn ISO ( B o o k of P s a l m s ) , r e f e r r e d to
in f r a g . 17, line 4 of 4QM", may be either the bibhcal book or a
s e c t a r i a n collection.
The War Rule may have been used by the author of the
Thanksgiving H y m n s (/Q//6:29-35).
Editions
(a) jQM
Sukenik, E . L., The Dead Sea Scrolls of the Hebrew University (1954/55).
Lohse, E., T Q H D , pp. 177-225.
Y a d i n , Y., The Scroll of the War of the Sons of Light against the Sons of Darkness edited with
Commentary and Introduction (1962; H e b r e w ed. 1955).
(b) 4(IM {4(^91-497)

Baillet, M . , DJD V H , p p . 12-72.
Hunzinger, C.-H., 'Fragmente einer alterer Fassung des Buches M i l h a m a a u s Hohle 4
von Q u m r a n ' , Z A W 69 (1957), p p . 131-51.
Baillet, M . , 'Les manuscrits de l a Regie de l a G u e r r e de l a grotte 4 de Q u m r a n ' , R B 79
(1972), pp. 217-26.
2 2 . Cf. Vermes, DSSE^, p. 1 2 3 ; D S S , p. 149; see also Driver, op. cit., p . 202. Y a d i n , op.
cit., p . 331, suggests without any jusdfication t h a t from 44 B.C. {sic!) onwards J u l i u s Caesar
'was to all intents and purposes a king'. P. R . Davies's comment o n this point {op. cit., p .
89) seems t o be prejudiced. iQM 15:2 is the only k n o w n passage where t h e phrase 'king of
the K i t t i m ' appears. N o t e , however, that J . T . Milik proposes t o restore line i of frag.
9 - 1 0 in t h e C o m m e n t a r y on Psalm 6 8 to read [ D ' j m S Ôf^li ( D J D I, p . 82) and t h a t
Vermes inserts t h e word ' K i n g ' into t h e lacuna preceding ' K i t d m ' in iQM 1:4 (DSSE^, p.
124).
2 3 . Cf T Q I , p . 86.
2 4 . Cf J . Carmignac, 'Les citadons de I'Ancien T e s t a m e n t d a n s "la G u e r r e des fils de
lumiere contre les fils de tenebres'", R B 63 (1956), p p . 234-60, 375-90.
2 5 . Cf Yadin, op. cit., p . 322 ; C. R a b i n , ' T h e Literary S t r u c t u r e of t h e W a r Scroll', in
Essays on the Dead Sea Scrolls in Memory of E. L. Sukenik (1961), p p . 3 1 - 4 7 ( H e b r . ) ; B.
Jongeling, Le Rouleau de la Guerre des manuscrits de Qumrdn (1962), p . 327.
26. M. Baillet, D J D V I I , pp. 4 0 - 1 .
27. Cf J . Carmignac, T Q I , p p . 86, 224-7.
Translations [with C o m m e n t a r y ]
English
Yadin, op. cit.
Vermes, DSSE'^, pp. 122-48.
French
C a r m i g n a c , J., LM Rigle de la Guerre desfils de lumiire centre lesfils de tinibres (1958).
Ploeg, J . v a n der, Le Rouleau de la Guerre (1959).
C a r m i g n a c , J., ' L a Regie de l a G u e r r e ' , T Q ^ I , pp. 8 1 - 1 2 5 .
German
M a i e r , J . , T T M I, pp. 123-48.
Italian
Moraldi, L., M Q , pp. 271-326.
Bibliography
Ayi-Yonah^ M . , 'The " W a r of the Sons of Light against the Sons of Darkness" a n d the
M a c c a b e a n Warfare', l E J 2 (1952), p p . 1-5.
C a r m i g n a c , J., 'Les Kittim d a n s la " G u e r r e des fils de lumiere contre les fils d e tenebres'",
N R T h 8 7 (1955). PP- 737-48.
Idem, 'Precisions apportees a u vocabulaire de I'hebreu biblique par l a guerre des fils de
lumiere contre les fils de tenebres', V T 5 (1955), pp. 345-65.
Rost, L., 'Zum "Buch der Kriege d e r Sohne des Lichtes gegen die Sohne der Finsternis"',
T h L Z 80 (1955), cols. 205-8.
Carmignac, J., 'Les citadons de I'Ancien T e s t a m e n t d a n s la G u e r r e des fils de lumiere
contre les fils des tenebres', RB 63 (1956), p p . 234-60, 375-90.
K u h n , K . G., ' Z u m V e n t a n d n i s d e r KriegsroUe von Q u m r a n ' , T h L Z 81 (1956), cols.
25-30.
Stegemann, H . , 'Die Risse in der KriegsroUe von Q u m r a n ' , T h L Z 81 (1956), cols.
205—10.
Ploeg, J . van d e r , 'La guerre sainte de la "Regie de la g u e r r e " de Q u m r a n ' , in Milanges
bibliques r^digis en I'honneur d'AndriRobert (1957), pp. 3 2 6 - 3 3 .
Treves, M . , ' T h e Date of the W a r of the Sons of Light', V T 8 (1958), p p . 419-24.
Scâl) M . H., ' T h e Q u m r a n War Scroll a n d the Date o f its Composition', Scrip. Hier. 4
(1958), p p . 138-43.
N o n h , R . , ' " K i t t i m " W a r or "Sectaries" Liturgy?', Bibl 39 (1958), p p . 84-93.
C a r m i g n a c , J., 'Concordance hebraique d e la Regie de l a guerre', R Q i (1958), p p . 7-49.
Ploeg, J . van d e r , 'La composition litteraire de la "Regie de la g u e r r e " de Q u m r a n ' , in J .
Coppens et al. (eds.). Sacra Pagina II (1959), p p . 13-19.
Grintz, J . M., ' T h e W a r Scroll, Its T i m e a n d Authors', in Essays on the Dead Sea Scrolls in
Memory of E. L. Sukenik (1961), p p . 19-30 (Hebr.).
Rabin, C . , ' T h e Literary Structure of the W a r Scroll', ibid., p p . 31-47 (Hebr.).
Ploeg, J . van d e r , ' Z u r literarischen Komposition der KriegsroUe', i n H. Bardtke (ed.),
Qumran-Probleme (1963), p p . 293-8.
Becker, J . , Der Heil Gottes (1964).
QiB5feHS-Si»05Â. M . , ' T h e Structure of the A r m y of the Sons of Light', R Q 5 (1965),
pp. 163-76.
Osten-Sacken, P . von der, Gott und Belial (1969).
y e r m e s ^ G.. ' T h e Archangel Sariel: A T a r g u m i c Parallel to t h e D e a d Sea Scrolls', in J .
Neusner (ed.), Christianity, Judaism and other Greco-Roman Cults. Studies for Morton Smith
atSixtylll (1975), pp. 159-^6-
D u h a i m e , J . - L . , 'La redaction de i Q M X I I I et revolution d u dualisme a Q u m r a n ' , R B
84 (i977)> pp. 210-38.
Davies, P. R . , iQM, the War Scroll from Qumran. Its Structure and History (1977).
y^w, 'Dualism and Eschatology in the Q u m r a n War Scroll', V T 28 (1978), pp. 28-36.
Delcor, M., ' Q u m r a n . Le livre d e la guerre', D B S I X , cols. 919-31.
Hurvitz, A., 'The Garments of A h a r o n and his Sons according to i Q W a r V I I , 9 - 1 0 ' , in
Studies in Bible and the Ancient Near East {i^'j^), pp. 139-41 (Hebr.).
Collins, J . J . , 'Dualism a n d Eschatology in i Q M ' , V T 29 (1979), p p . 212-16.
Davies, K t l . j 'Dualism a n d Eschatology in i Q M . A Rejoinder', V T 30 (1980), p p . 93-7.
Flusser, D., 'Apocalypdc Elements in the W a r Scroll', in A . O p p e n h e i m e r et al. (eds.),
Jerusalem in the Second Temple Period (1980), pp. 434-52 (Hebr.).
5 . The Temple Scroll

T h e T e m p l e Scroll w a s d i s c o v e r e d in o n e o f t h e Q u m r a n c a v e s ( i n C a v e
I I , it is t h o u g h t , i n 1 9 5 6 ) ' a n d r e m a i n e d in t h e h a n d s of a n A r a b
a n t i q u e d e a l e r u n t i l the I s r a e l i m i l i t a r y g o v e r n m e n t confiscated it i n
J u n e 1967. I t was first p u b h s h e d i n H e b r e w u n d e r t h e d t l e nV'^lH
i n p O n b y Yigael Y a d i n i n 1977. A revised English e d i d o n a p p e a r e d i n
1 9 8 3 : The Temple Scroll: I . I n t r o d u c t i o n , I I . T e x t a n d C o m m e n t a r y ,

I I I . P l a t e s a n d T e x t ( h e n c e TS I, I I , I I I ) . T h e story o f its r e c o v e r y a n d
a c q u i s i t i o n is r e c o u n t e d in TS\, p p . 1 - 5 .
T h e m a n u s c r i p t c o n t a i n i n g t h e T e m p l e Scroll is t h e longest of all t h e
Q u m r a n scrolls, m e a s u r i n g 8 . 1 4 8 m . T h e first c o l u m n is lost, a n d t h e
n e x t four s u r v i v e o n l y in f r a g m e n t s . T h e y a d d a n o t h e r 60 c m to t h e
l e n g t h of the m a n u s c r i p t . T h e scroll is m a d e from n i n e t e e n sheets o f
t h i n skin. T h e first i n c l u d e s five c o l u m n s o f t e x t ; t e n sheets h a v e f o u r
c o l u m n s , a n d a f u r t h e r s e v e n , t h r e e c o l u m n s e a c h . T h e last s h e e t h a d
o n l y a few lines ( n o w lost) of a single c o l u m n , the r e m a i n d e r of t h e
l e a t h e r b e i n g left b l a n k . O r i g i n a l l y t h e c o l u m n s consisted o f t w e n t y - t w o
or t w e n t y e i g h t lines, of w h i c h , n o t c o u n t i n g t h e first a n d t h e l a s t
c o l u m n , b e t w e e n six a n d t w e n t y - o n e lines h a v e b e e n p r e s e r v e d .
F u r t h e r T e m p l e Scroll f r a g m e n t s r e t r i e v e d f r o m C a v e s 4 a n d 11 a r e
h o u s e d i n the R o c k e f e l l e r M u s e u m in J e r u s a l e m . T h i r t y - s i x o f t h e m
h a v e b e e n r e p r o d u c e d by Y a d i n as s u p p l e m e n t a r y p l a t e s 3 5 * - 4 0 * , a n d
aU b u t t h i r t e e n a r e , firmly o r h y p o t h e t i c a l l y , l o c a t e d i n t h e m a i n
manuscript.^
T h e scroll is the w o r k of t w o scribes. S c r i b e A w a s r e s p o n s i b l e for
cols. 1 - 5 ; scribe B, for t h e rest of t h e m a n u s c r i p t . B o t h a r e said to b e
H e r o d i a n h a n d s , s c r i b e B b e i n g p l a c e d t o t h e t u r n of t h e e r a s , a n d
1. C f J . A. Fitzmyer, The Dead Sea Scrolls. Major Publications ... (^1977), p. 37. T h e
Scroll is generally designated as iiQTor iiQTemple.
2. For the i i Q m a t e r i a l , seeJ. van d e r Ploeg, ' U n e h a l a k h a inedite de Q u m r a n ' , in M .
Delcor, Qumrdn (1978), p p . 105-13; cf in particular p p . 112-13; Y . Yadin, 'Le R o u l e a u
du T e m p l e ' , ibid., p. 119, n, 2 ; The Temple Scroll I , pp. viii-ix. Cf also L. van d e n
Bogaard, ' L e Rouleau du T e m p l e . Quelques r e m a r q u e s sur les petits fragments', in W. C .
Delsman et al. (eds.), Von Kanaan bis Kerala. Festschrift fur Prof. Mag. Dr. Dr. J. P. M. van
der Ploeg (1982), p p . 285-94.
scribe A a little later . T h e i i Q , f r a g m e n t s a r e also m i d d l e or late

H e r o d i a n , b u t the texts listed u n d e r t h e s y m b o l R o c k e f e l l e r 4 3 . 3 6 6 are
c o n s i d e r a b l y older, r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e m i d d l e - H a s m o n a e a n s e m i - f o r m a l
script. Y a d i n proposes t h a t it s h o u l d b e d a t e d to t h e e n d of t h e s e c o n d
c e n t u r y B . C . ^ O n a c c o u n t of t h e i r t e x t u a l v a r i a t i o n s , t h e s e f r a g m e n t s , as
well as t h e r e m a i n s of t h e u n p u b l i s h e d 4 Q m a n u s c r i p t a l l u d e d to b y J .
S t r u g n e l l , m a y testify t o a n e a r l i e r f o r m , o r a s o u r c e , of t h e T e m p l e
Scroll.
T h e scroll m a y b e d e f i n e d as T e m p l e l a w , a r r a n g e d s y s t e m a t i c a l l y ,
a p p a r e n t l y i n the f r a m e w o r k of a C o v e n a n t o r of i t s r e n e w a l . I t a d o p t s
a n d a d a p t s t h e r e l e v a n t s t a t u t e s r e l a t i n g to t h e d e s e r t t e n t - S a n c t u a r y ,
w i t h its p r i e s t h o o d a n d sacrifices as d e s c r i b e d i n v a r i o u s c h a p t e r s of
E x o d u s , L e v i t i c u s a n d N u m b e r s . B u t it i n c o r p o r a t e s a l s o l a r g e sections
of D e u t e r o n o m y from c h a p t e r 12 o n w a r d s , a n d e s p e c i a l l y c h a p t e r s 17
t o 2 3 : 1 . S c r i p t u r a l laws are s o m e t i m e s r e p r o d u c e d h t e r a U y , s o m e t i m e s
r e - w o r d e d , a n d often s u p p l e m e n t e d by n o n - b i b l i c a l r e g u l a t i o n s .
T h e c o n t e n t s of the T e m p l e S c r o l l a r e set o u t i n d e t a i l in TS' I , p p .

3 9 - 7 0 . T h e y m a y b e s u m m a r i z e d t h e m a t i c a l l y as f o l l o w s .
T h e w o r k o p e n s w i t h a n a c c o u n t , b o r r o w e d f r o m E x o d . 3 4 : 1 0 - 1 6 , of
a C o v e n a n t s t r u c k b e t w e e n G o d a n d I s r a e l (cols. i ( ? ) - 2 ) . T h i s is
followed by a g e n e r a l o u t l i n e of t h e T e m p l e a n d i t s f u r n i t u r e a c c o r d i n g
t o E x o d . 3 5 : 5 - 1 6 (col. 3 ) , w h i c h i n t u r n l e a d s t o m o r e d e t a i l e d
r e g u l a t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g the b u i l d i n g of t h e T e m p l e specifying, a m o n g
o t h e r t h i n g s , the d i m e n s i o n s of t h e v a r i o u s a r c h i t e c t u r a l u n i t s s u c h as
t h e S a n c t u a r y , t h e H o l y of H o l i e s , the u p p e r c h a m b e r , the c o l o n n a d e s
(cols. 4—7). S u b s e q u e n t l y , t h e s a c r e d f u r n i t u r e is d e s c r i b e d : t h e m e r c y
seat, t h e c h e r u b i m , t h e g o l d e n v e i l , t h e t a b l e for t h e b r e a d o f P r e s e n c e ,
t h e f r a n k i n c e n s e , t h e g o l d e n l a m p s t a n d , etc. (cols. 7 - 1 1 ) .
A s u b s t a n t i a l section is d e v o t e d to c u l t i c l a w s , v i z . t h e offering o f t h e
3. TS I, pp. 20, 386. However, his claim that t h e m a n u s c r i p t designated as Rockefeller

43.366, of which three fragments a r e reproduced (III, p p . 38*, 5 a n d 40*, 1-2), belongs
to TS, remains doubtful. For, if the first o f these fragments actually corresponds t o cols.
41:5-42:3, the other two are unidentified. Moreover, as B. A. Levine has already noted
(BASOR 232 (1978), p . 6), F r . 40*, i lines 3 a n d 4 include the phrases (IttTia IDT'I (Lev.
23:44) a n d runO mn'' ^ ^ ^ ^ {ibid. 24:1). Cf TS 11, p . 46. T h i s style, as will be shown
presently, is alien to the T e m p l e Scroll. F u r t h e r m o r e , a c c o r d i n g to a letter written by J .
Strugnell to B. Z. Wacholder on 28 April 1981, a n d published by the latter {The Dawn of
Qumran (1983), pp. 205-6, 278), 'the 4 Q fragments improperly labelled Rockefeller
43.366 d o not pertain to a copy of the T e m p l e Scroll', b u t to ' a Pentateuch with frequent
non-biblical additions'. The fragments are dated palaeographically, n o t to t h e late second
century B.C. as Yadin states, but to 'ca. 75 B.C.'. T h i s peculiar P e n t a t e u c h m a y be a
source of the T e m p l e Scroll or alternatively, it may b o r r o w from it. Another piece of
revolutionary information supplied by Strugnell concerns a g r o u p of unpublished 4Q,
fragments, which were unknown to Yadin, containing ' q u o t a t i o n s from, or t h e text of, the
Temple Scroll, or at least o n e of its sources'. T h e script of this d o c u m e n t c a n scarcely be
placed t o ' m u c h later than 150 B.C.'.
v a r i o u s sacrifices a n d the c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e a l t a r (cols. 1 1 — 1 2 ) . A series

of s t a t u t e s relates to t h e p e r p e t u a l b u r n t - o f f e r i n g a n d t o sacrifices for t h e
S a b b a t h , the b e g i n n i n g o f the m o n t h s , t h e first d a y of t h e first m o n t h ,
the seven d a y s of o r d i n a t i o n , the P a s s o v e r , t h e feast of U n l e a v e n e d
B r e a d a n d the festival of t h e W a v i n g of t h e S h e a f (cols. 1 3 - 1 8 ) .
T h e n e x t section d e a l s wîth t h e festivals of t h e First F r u i t s of W h e a t ,
W i n e a n d Oil (cols. 1 8 - 2 3 ) . T h e W o o d Offering festival w a s to b e
c e l e b r a t e d six d a y s after t h a t of t h e Oil a n d to b e a c c o m p a n i e d b y
several sacrifices (cols. 23—25).
T h e a u t u m n high h o l i d a y s v^êre t o s t a r t w i t h the D a y o f M e m o r i a l
on t h e first d a y o f t h e s e v e n t h m o n t h , followed by t h e D a y o f
A t o n e m e n t a n d the F e a s t of T a b e r n a c l e s , t o g e t h e r w i t h all their r i t u a l s
(cols. 2 5 - 2 9 ) . I n c o n c l u s i o n , it is s t a t e d t h a t t h e s e sacrifices w e r e to b e
offered in the T e m p l e to b e b u i l t by t h e I s r a e l i t e s a n d w e r e to c o n t i n u e
u n t i l the d a y o f blessing v^hen a n e w T e m p l e w o u l d b e c o n s t r u c t e d b y
G o d in c o n f o r m i t y w i t h t h e C o v e n a n t w h i c h h e m a d e w i t h J a c o b i n
B e t h e l (cols. 2 9 - 3 0 ) .
T h e buildings in the T e m p l e courts are next described: t h e
s t a i r h o u s e , the h o u s e of a b l u t i o n s , t h e h o u s e of t h e sacred utensils, a n d
the s l a u g h t e r h o u s e w i t h its e q u i p m e n t . At this p o i n t , the Scroll
i n t r o d u c e s r e g u l a t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g b u r n t - o f f e r i n g s (cols. 30—35).
B e c a u s e of its e x t r e m e h o l i n e s s , t h e a r e a s u r r o u n d i n g the a l t a r was t o
be r e s e r v e d for t h e priests a l o n e , p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e y w e r e r i t u a l l y p u r e ;
access b y all o t h e r s w a s t o be f o r b i d d e n u n d e r the p a i n of d e a t h . A
c o l o n n a d e on t h e w e s t side of t h e S a n c t u a r y w a s to h o u s e t h e g u i l t a n d
sin-offerings of t h e priests, w h i c h w e r e to b e k e p t s e p a r a t e from t h o s e o f
l a y m e n (col. 3 5 ) .
O f the t h r e e c o u r t s of t h e T e m p l e , t h e i n n e r c o u r t , s i m i l a r l y o p e n
only to priests, was to b e f u r n i s h e d w i t h f o u r g a t e s a n d a n i n n e r
c o l o n n a d e . T h e m i d d l e c o u r t , w i t h twelve g a t e s n a m e d after the sons o f
J a c o b , w a s to a d m i t m e n a g e d t w e n t y or o v e r , b u t n o t w o m e n o r b o y s .
T h e o u t e r c o u r t , also possessing twelve g a t e s , c o n t a i n e d c h a m b e r s for
the L e v i t e s a n d b o o t h s for t h e lay l e a d e r s . P r e s u m a b l y , w o m e n a n d
c h i l d r e n w e r e t o be a l l o w e d to e n t e r t h e r e (cols. 3 5 - 4 6 ) .
T h e p u r i t y o f the T e m p l e w a s to b e p r o t e c t e d by b i r d - s c a r e r s a n d b y
a t e r r a c e before t h e g a t e s of t h e o u t e r c o u r t . A d i t c h a r o u n d t h e
T e m p l e , 100 c u b i t s w i d e , was t o p r e v e n t a n y s u d d e n a p p r o a c h to it.
F u r t h e r p u r i t y r e g u l a t i o n s e x c l u d e d from t h e T e m p l e a n d from its c i t y
m e n unfit on a c c o u n t o f n o c t u r n a l emissions, sexual i n t e r c o u r s e ,
blindness, venereal discharge, c o n t a c t with a d e a d body a n d leprosy.
L a t r i n e s w e r e t o be b u i l t a t a d i s t a n c e of 3,000 c u b i t s n o r t h - w e s t of t h e
city, a n d t o t h e east, t h r e e s e p a r a t e r e s e r v e s w e r e to b e e s t a b l i s h e d for
m e n suffering from l e p r o s y , v e n e r e a l d i s c h a r g e a n d for t h o s e w h o h a d
h a d a n o c t u r n a l emission. O n l y c o n t a i n e r s m a d e of t h e skins of a n i m a l s
sacrificed i n the T e m p l e c o u l d b e u s e d i n s i d e t h e T e m p l e city (cols.

4 6 - 4 7 ) . A Ust of c l e a n a n d u n c l e a n a n i m a l s is s u p p l i e d h e r e (col. 4 8 ) .
Special p r o v i s i o n s a r e m a d e to g u a r d the p u r i t y of t h e cities of I s r a e l .
F o u r w e r e t o s h a r e a single c e m e t e r y , a n d p l a c e s o f q u a r a n t i n e w e r e to
b e e r e c t e d , n o t o n l y for l e p e r s a n d p e r s o n s afflicted w i t h a v e n e r e a l
disease, b u t also for w o m e n d u r i n g m e n s t r u a t i o n a n d after c h i l d b i r t h .
L a w s a r e n e x t Hsted c o n c e r n i n g t h e h o u s e a s a s o u r c e of u n c l e a n n e s s
w h e n it contains a d e a d b o d y . A w o m a n c a r r y i n g a d e a d child i n her
w o m b is d e c l a r e d a n a l o g o u s to a g r a v e a n d d e c l a r e d r i t u a l l y i m p u r e .
C o n t a c t w i t h a n i m a l c a r c a s s e s is also said t o c a u s e u n c l e a n n e s s (cols.
48-50-
T h e r e m a i n d e r of t h e S c r o l l m o s t l y follows D e u t e r o n o m y , first
l e g i s l a t i n g o n j u d g e s a n d officers ( D e u t . 1 6 : 1 8 - 1 9 ) , a n d explicitly
i m p o s i n g t h e d e a t h p e n a l t y o n a j u d g e w h o t a k e s b r i b e s (col. 5 1 ) . L a w s
a g a i n s t i d o l a t r y a r e listed a c c o r d i n g to D e u t . 1 6 : 2 1 - 2 2 , etc. (cols.
51-52).
Special r u l e s r e l a t i n g to sacrificial a n d o t h e r a n i m a l s i n c l u d e a b a n
o n s l a u g h t e r i n g b l e m i s h e d o r p r e g n a n t a n i m a l s a n d on t h e s i m u l
t a n e o u s sacrifice of a m o t h e r a n d h e r y o u n g . T h e r e follow laws
c o n c e r n i n g t h e offering of t h e first-born of t h e h e r d a n d t h e flock. T h e
d e u t e r o n o m i c p r o h i b i t i o n t o m u z z l e a t r e a d i n g o x ( D e u t . 25:4) o r to
h a r n e s s a n ox a n d a n ass t o g e t h e r w h e n p l o u g h i n g ( D e u t . 22:10) is
r e p e a t e d . C l e a n a n i m a l s w e r e t o b e killed i n t h e T e m p l e ; t h e i r
s l a u g h t e r w a s f o r b i d d e n in a n a r e a w i t h i n t h r e e d a y s ' j o u r n e y f r o m t h e
city. B l e m i s h e d c l e a n a n i m a l s w e r e n o t to b e killed w i t h i n t h i r t y s t a d i a
from t h e T e m p l e a n d w e r e n o t t o be e a t e n in t h e c i t y of t h e T e m p l e
(cols. 5 2 - 5 3 ) -
Various c o m m a n d m e n t s o n vows, oaths a n d pledges, including those
m a d e by w o m e n , and the special conditions u n d e r which they might be
c a n c e l l e d f o r m a s h o r t s e c t i o n (cols. 53—54). After it c o m e l a w s a i m e d a t
t h e false p r o p h e t ( D e u t . 1 3 : 2 - 6 ) , t h e s e d u c e r ( D e u t . 1 3 : 7 - 1 2 ) , t h e
a p o s t a t e c i t y ( D e u t . 1 3 : 1 3 - 1 9 ) a n d t h e idol w o r s h i p p e r ( D e u t . 1 7 : 2 - 7 )
(cols. 5 4 - 5 5 ) .
D e u t . 1 7 : 8 - 1 3 defines t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e p r i e s t s , Levites a n d j u d g e s ,
a n d D e u t . 17:14—20 is c o n s i d e r a b l y e n l a r g e d to p r o v i d e t h e s t a t u t e s o f
t h e J e w i s h k i n g , w i t h r e g u l a t i o n s d e a l i n g w i t h t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e
a r m y , the r o y a l b o d y g u a r d o f 12,000 m e n , t h e k i n g ' s c o u n c i l , the l a w o f
m o n o g a m y , a n d in g e n e r a l r o y a l d u t i e s in p e a c e a n d w a r (cols. 56—59).
D e u t . i 8 : r - 8 p r o v i d e s t h e f r a m e w o r k for t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e
p r i e s t l y a n d Levitical d u e s a n d 1 8 : 9 - 1 4 b a n s t h e idols of t h e G e n t i l e s
(cols. 6 0 - 6 1 ) . T h i s leads on to l e g i s l a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g witnesses,
i n c l u d i n g t h e t r e a t m e n t of false w i t n e s s ( D e u t . 1 9 : 1 5 - 2 1 ) (col. 6 1 ) , t h e
c o n d u c t of w a r ( D e u t . 2 0 : 1 - 2 1 : 1 4 ) , a n d t h e t r e a t m e n t of a r e b e l l i o u s
son ( D e u t . 2 1 : 1 8 — 2 1 ) .
D e u t . 2 1 : 2 2 - 2 3 p r o v i d e s a basis for the i n t r o d u c t i o n of n e w l a w s i n

r e g a r d to crimes p u n i s h a b l e b y ' h a n g i n g ' , n a m e l y t r e a s o n a n d t h e
c u r s i n g of the J e w i s h p e o p l e a m o n g G e n t i l e s (col. 64). T h e Scroll e n d s
w i t h miscellaneous l a w s m o d e l l e d on D e u t . 22:1—29, a n d a n i n c o m p l e t e
list o f rules a g a i n s t incest ( D e u t . 2 1 : 1 , etc.) (cols. 6 4 - 6 6 ) . T h e e n d of t h e
d o c u m e n t figured i n t h e few lost lines a t t h e t o p of c o l . 6 7 . T h e
s u r v i v i n g p a r t o f the final s h e e t o f the m a n u s c r i p t is blank."^
A p a r t from t h e m a n y s c r i p t u r a l c i t a t i o n s , t h e T e m p l e Scroll m a y b e
d e s c r i b e d as w r i t t e n in i m i t a t i o n b i b l i c a l H e b r e w c o l o u r e d b y
syntactic and terminological features characteristic of inter-
T e s t a m e n t a l a n d r a b b i n i c language.^ Its b o n d with the D e a d Sea
l i t e r a t u r e is a t t e s t e d by t h e p r e s e n c e of t y p i c a l Q u m r a n w o r d s a n d
i d i o m s ( T S I, p . 3 8 ) . T h e h n g u i s t i c aspects of the d o c u m e n t will b e
t o u c h e d o n a g a i n in t h e discussion of t h e o r i g i n a n d d a t e of t h e T e m p l e
Scroll (cf p p . 4 1 2 , 4 1 5 ) .
W h e r e a s t h e s e q u e n c e of the subjects g e n e r a l l y follows t h e
P e n t a t e u c h , s t a r t i n g w i t h E x o d u s a n d finishing w i t h D e u t e r o n o m y , t h e
s t r u c t u r e o f the T e m p l e Scroll m a n i f e s t s a n effort at s y s t e m a t i z a t i o n i n
t h a t a l a w is freely c o m b i n e d w i t h f u r t h e r rules o n the s a m e t o p i c
a p p e a r i n g elsewhere in t h e T o r a h . F o r e x a m p l e , legislation a g a i n s t
incest begins w i t h D e u t . 2 3 : 1 a n d is c o m p l e t e d b y D e u t . 27:22 a n d L e v .
1 8 : 1 2 - 1 3 , 1 7 ; 2 0 : 1 3 , 1 7 , 1 9 , 21 (col. 6 6 : 1 1 - 1 7 ) .
T h e g r o u p i n g of p r e c e p t s m a y r e s u l t i n a legislation t h a t is m o r e
d e v e l o p e d , b u t it m a y also e n d e a v o u r to h a r m o n i z e d u p l i c a t e
c o m m a n d m e n t s . T h u s t h e o b l i g a t i o n to p o u r a w a y the b l o o d of a
slaughtered animal (Deut. 12:23-24) a n d the additional duty of
c o v e r i n g i t with e a r t h ( L e v . 1 7 : 1 3 ) a r e m e r g e d : ' O n l y be s u r e t h a t y o u
d o n o t e a t the b l o o d ; y o u shall p o u r it o n the g r o u n d like w a t e r a n d
c o v e r it w i t h d u s t ' (col. 5 3 : 5 - 6 ) . P e r h a p s t h e m o s t s t r i k i n g i l l u s t r a t i o n
d e r i v e s from t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f D e u t . 2 2 : 2 8 - 2 9 (a r a p i s t m u s t m a r r y
his u n m a r r i e d o r u n b e t r o t h e d v i c t i m w h o m h e c a n n o t d i v o r c e l a t e r )
w i t h E x o d . 2 2 : 1 6 (a s e d u c e r m u s t m a r r y t h e girl he h a s s e d u c e d ) w i t h
the f u r t h e r specification t h a t the law a p p l i e s o n l y i f n o legal
4. I n addition to Yadin's Introduction and C o m m e n t a r y , the following studies may b e

consulted: J . Milgrom, 'Studies i n the Temple Scroll', J B L 9 7 (1978), pp. 501-23 ; B. A.
Levine, 'The Temple Scroll', B A S O R 232 (1978), p p . 5 - 2 3 ; J . M. Baumgarten, Review
o f T S , J B L 97 (1978), pp. 5 8 4 - 9 ; 'The Pharisaic-Sadducean Controversies about Purity
and t h e Q u m r a n Texts', J J S 31 (1980), p p . 157-70.
5. I n addition to TS I, p p . 3 4 - 8 , see E . Qimron, ' T h e Language of the T e m p l e Scroll',
Lesonenu 42 (1978), pp. 83—98; ' T h e Text of t h e Temple Scroll', ibid., pp. 136-45 (both
in H e b r . ) ; G. Brin, 'Linguistic C o m m e n t s on t h e T e m p l e Scroll', ibid. 43 (1978), p p . 20-8
( H e b r . ) ; L. H . Schiffman, 'The T e m p l e Scroll in Literary a n d Philological Perspective',
in W. S. Green (ed.). Approaches to Ancient Judaism I I (1980), pp. 143-58; E. K i m r o n ,
'The Vocabulary of the T e m p l e Scroll', Shnaton 4 (1980), pp. 239-62 (Hebr. with
English summary).
i m p e d i m e n t o p p o s e s the u n i o n (col. 6 6 : 8 - 1 1 ) . E l s e w h e r e , t h e p u r p o s e of
a s u p p l e m e n t is to clarify t h e h a l a k h i c m e a n i n g of a s c r i p t u r a l p a s s a g e .
E.g. the a d d i t i o n of a reference t o t h e b l o o d of a d e a d p e r s o n as a s o u r c e
of d e f i l e m e n t t o t h e text o f N u m . 1 9 : 1 6 r e n d e r s explicit t h e i m p o r t of
N u m . 1 9 : 1 3 w h e r e , o n t h e basis of L e v . 1 7 : 1 4 a n d D e u t . 1 2 : 2 3 , ' s o u l '
(B7D3) is i d e n t i f i e d as ' b l o o d ' (DT);^ h e n c e t h e ' s o u l ' c a u s i n g u n c l e a n n e s s
is u n d e r s t o o d a s the d e a d m a n ' s b l o o d .
M o r e o v e r , t h e sense of a b i b l i c a l c o m m a n d m e n t m a y b e s u b s t a n t i a l l y
a l t e r e d t h r o u g h affixing a n e x t r a c l a u s e . D e u t . 2 1 : 1 0 - 1 4 enjoins t h e
c a p t u r e r of a w o m a n p r i s o n e r to g r a n t h e r a m o n t h ' s r e s p i t e before
cohabiting with her. However, once sexual intercourse h a s taken place
she b e c o m e s h i s wife a n d m a y n o t b e sold as a slave. T h e T e m p l e Scroll
nevertheless specifies t h a t , a l t h o u g h s h e m a y s h a r e h i s b e d , she m a y n o t
h a v e a n y c o n t a c t w i t h h i s p u r e food or p a r t a k e in sacrificial m e a l s for
a n o t h e r seven y e a r s (col. 6 3 : 1 3 — 1 5 ) .
I n a d d i t i o n to m o d i f i c a t i o n s s u c h as t h e s e , t h e Scroll also i n c l u d e s
w h o l e c o m p l e m e n t a r y sections. T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a r e ( i ) the T e m p l e
legislation p r o p e r , i n s p i r e d by t h e r u l e s o f the d e s e r t t a b e r n a c l e ( E x o d .
25—31, 35—40) a n d h i n t e d at i n i C h r o n . 2 8 : 1 1 — 1 2 (cols. 3—12, 3 0 - 4 6 ) ;
(2) laws r e g u l a t i n g t h e festivals (cols. 17—29); (3) p u r i t y rules r e l a t i n g
to t h e T e m p l e a n d its c i t y (cols. 46—47) ; a n d (4) t h e m u c h e n l a r g e d
d e u t e r o n o m i c s t a t u t e s of t h e k i n g (cols. 56—59).
T h e l i t e r a r y g e n r e of t h e d o c u m e n t c a n n o t easily b e d e t e r m i n e d for,
w h e r e a s t h e b u l k of t h e m a t e r i a l is c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e T e m p l e , t h e l a s t
t w e n t y c o l u m n s of t h e m a n u s c r i p t d e a l w i t h m o r e g e n e r a l issues. T h u s
a l t h o u g h the title. T e m p l e S c r o l l , c a n b e j u s t i f i e d , t h e a l t e r n a t i v e
d e s i g n a t i o n of Q u m r a n T o r a h , a d v a n c e d by B . Z . W a c h o l d e r , ^ a n d
indirectly by Y a d i n himself,^ is n o less a p p r o p r i a t e . I n f a v o u r of t h e
thesis t h a t t h e d o c u m e n t e n j o y e d t h e s t a t u s o f S c r i p t u r e in t h e D e a d
Sea c o m m u n i t y is t h e fact t h a t t h e a d d i t i o n a l legislation c o n s i s t e n t l y
presents G o d a s the s p e a k e r a n d t h a t the q u o t a t i o n s from D e u t e r o n o m y
1 2 - 2 3 : 1 a r e s i m i l a r l y r e - p h r a s e d in c o l u m n s 5 3 - 5 7 a n d 60-66.
T h e r e f o r e , n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h a t the g r o u p i n g o f p a r a l l e l o r r e l a t e d l a w s
from diverse p a r t s of S c r i p t u r e a n d t h e i n s e r t i o n of e x p l a n a t o r y
c o m m e n t s i n t o the b i b l i c a l a c c o u n t itself p o i n t t o w a r d s a n c i e n t J e w i s h
exegesis (cf J o s e p h u s ' Antiquities o r t h e P a l e s t i n i a n T a r g u m s ) , t h e
a d o p t i o n of t h e p r o n o u n ' I ' for G o d b y t h e a u t h o r of the T e m p l e ScroU
6. TS I, p p . 335-6. For the interpretation of ITDJ as DI, see Tg. Ps.-Jon. on N u m . 19:13.
mOhol. 2:2 lists t h e blood of a d e a d m a n a m o n g the sources of uncleanness.
7. B. Z. Wacholder, The Dawn of Qumran: The Sectarian Torah and the Teacher of
Righteousness (1983), p. 31.
8. TS I, p . 392 : 'It is difficult to avoid the conclusion t h a t the a u t h o r — a n d a fortiori,
the m e m b e r s of t h e sect—regarded (the Scroll) as a veritable T o r a h of t h e Lord.' Yadin's
popular book is entitled The Temple Scroll: The Hidden Law of the Dead Sea Sect (1985).
c a n o n l y stress t h a t the contents of t h e w r i t i n g represent a divine

r e v e l a t i o n to M o s e s ^ m o r e i m m e d i a t e t h a n t h e b i b h c a l r e c e n s i o n , w h i c h
c o n t a i n s o n l y a M o s a i c r e - w o r d i n g of t h e c o m m a n d m e n t s o f G o d . A
c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n D e u t . 2 1 : 5 a n d its r e - e d i t e d v e r s i o n in col. 6 3 : 3
m a y i l l u s t r a t e this p o i n t .
A n d t h e priests, t h e sons of L e v i , A n d t h e p r i e s t s , t h e sons o f L e v i ,

shall come forward, shall c o m e forward,
for YHWH your God h a s c h o s e n t h e m for / h a v e c h o s e n t h e m
t o m i n i s t e r t o him to m i n i s t e r to me
a n d to bless i n t h e n a m e of YHWH. a n d to bless i n my n a m e . ' "
The origin of the Temple Scroll is the subject of unresolved

c o n t r o v e r s y a m o n g s c h o l a r s . A n o n - Q u m r a n d e r i v a t i o n is a r g u e d on
h n g u i s t i c a n d d o c t r i n a l g r o u n d s b y B. A . L e v i n e , " L. A . Schiffman,''^
and H. Stegemann.'^ The opposite view is c h a m p i o n e d , also on
ideological a n d philological g r o u n d s , by Y a d i n a n d most other writers.
T h e l i n g u i s t i c e v i d e n c e is p r e s e n t e d s u m m a r i l y i n TS I, p . 38, but
Y a d i n ' s thesis is c o n f i r m e d b y G . B r i n ' s study.'''^
T h e d o c t r i n a l k i n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e T e m p l e Scroll a n d o t h e r Dead
9. T h e name of Moses does not appear in the extant d o c u m e n t ; neither does it figure in
Yadin's concordance. However, in cof 45:5, G o d quahfies Aaron as 'your brother'.
W h e t h e r the introduction of t h e first person style is d u e exclusively t o the a u t h o r of the
T e m p l e Scroll will n o t be known until t h e relevant 4Q_ material is published, b u t the
evidence quoted in n. 3 suggests that this m a y well have been the case.
10. Yadin sees an additional a r g u m e n t in favour of the canonical status of the
d o c u m e n t in its use o f square Hebrew letters for writing the T e t r a g r a m , a peculiarity
c o m m o n to the Scroll a n d to the biblical manuscripts from Q u m r a n . By contrast, i n the
non-canonical pesharim the divine n a m e is spelled with proto-Hebraic characters {TS I, p .
3 9 2 ; cf The Temple Scroll: The Hidden Law p. 224). This argument is, however,
unconvincing, for on t h e one h a n d t h e Psalms Scroll from Cave 11, a biblical manuscript,
employs archaic letters for t h e T e t r a g r a m ; on t h e other hand, several pesher fragments
from Cave 4, published in D J D V , display square characters for Y H W H (cf i n d e x ) .
Y a d i n w a s not u n a w a r e of these facts (cf TS I, p . 392, n. 10). For t h e scribal evidence
concerning the divine n a m e prior to the T e m p l e Scroll, see J . P. Siegel, 'The E m p l o y m e n t
of Palaeo-Hebrew Characters for t h e Divine Names at Q u m r a n in the Light of T a n n a i t i c
Sources', H U C A 42 (1971), p p . 159-72.
11. B. A. Levine, 'The T e m p l e Scroll: Aspects o f its Provenance a n d Literary
C h a r a c t e r ' , BASOR 232 (1978), p p . 5-23. See rejoinders by J . Milgrom, ' S a b b a t h a n d
T e m p l e City i n the T e m p l e Scroll', ibid., pp. 2 5 - 7 , a n d by Y . Yadin, 'Is the T e m p l e
Scroll a Sectarian Document?', Thirty Years of Archaeology in Eretz-Israel 1948-1978 (1981),
p p . 152-71 (Hebr.).
12. L . H. Schiffman, art. cit. [in n. 4 ] , p p . 143-58. T h i s article, written soon after t h e
first appearance of t h e Hebrew edition of t h e Temple Scroll, contains some hasty
generalizations.
13. ' D i e Bedeutung der Q u m r a n f u n d e fiir d i e Erforschung der Apokalyptik', in D .
H e l l h o i m (ed.). Apocalypticism in the Mediterranean World and the Near East (1983), p p .
515-16.
14. ' T h e Bible as reflected in the T e m p l e Scroll', Shnaton 4 (1980), p . 223 ( H e b r . ) .
Sea d o c u m e n t s , in p a r t i c u l a r the D a m a s c u s R u l e , s t r o n g l y favours

r e c o g n i t i o n o f the f o r m e r as p a r t of Q u m r a n l i t e r a t u r e . T h e s o l a r
c a l e n d a r to w h i c h t h e y b o t h testify {TS\, pp. 1 1 6 - 1 9 ) m a y admittedly
serve o n l y as b a c k g r o u n d , since t h e s a m e s y s t e m of r e c k o n i n g t i m e also
u n d e r l i e s J u b i l e e s a n d i E n o c h , n e i t h e r of w h i c h is likely t o h a v e
o r i g i n a t e d in t h e sect. O n the o t h e r h a n d , the feast of t h e new oil (col.
2 1 : 1 2 ) , a feast p e c u h a r to t h e T e m p l e Scroll a n d d a t e d to t h e
t w e n t y - s e c o n d d a y of t h e s i x t h m o n t h , a p p e a r s i n a n u n p u b l i s h e d
calendar fragment from G a v e 4 q u o t e d b y J . T . Milik.'^
T h e most i m p o r t a n t ideological overlap with t h e D a m a s c u s R u l e
relates t o the b a n o n r o y a l p o l y g a m y , o n m a r r i a g e b e t w e e n u n c l e a n d
niece, a n d o n s e x u a l i n t e r c o u r s e i n t h e city of t h e S a n c t u a r y ( G D
4 : 2 0 - 5 : 1 1 ; 1 2 : 1 - 2 ) . T h e case of o b l i g a t o r y m o n o g a m y , of g e n e r a l
a p p l i c a t i o n in t h e D a m a s c u s R u l e t h o u g h p a r t i c u l a r l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
K i n g D a v i d , figures e x p l i c i t l y in col. 57:16—18 a m o n g the Scroll's
statutes o f the k i n g : ' H e shall t a k e for himself a wife from the f a m i l y of
his f a t h e r . A n d he s h a l l n o t t a k e a n o t h e r wife i n a d d i t i o n t o h e r , for s h e
a l o n e shall b e w i t h h i m all t h e d a y s of h e r life.''^ T h e p r o h i b i t i o n of
m a t r i m o n y b e t w e e n u n c l e a n d n i e c e is s t a t e d f o r m a l l y in col. 66:15—17
in t h e section d e a l i n g w i t h i n c e s t : ' N o m a n s h a l l m a r r y his b r o t h e r ' s
d a u g h t e r or h i s sister's d a u g h t e r . " ^ A s for the b a n o n s e x u a l i n t e r c o u r s e
in t h e h o l y c i t y , ' ^ it is n o t g i v e n as a f o r m a l s t a t u t e a s in G D 1 2 : 1 - 2 b u t
m a y be d e d u c e d f r o m col. 4 5 : 1 1 - 1 2 b y m e a n s o f a n a fortiori r e a s o n i n g :
'If a m a n lies w i t h h i s wife a n d e j a c u l a t e s , he s h a l l n o t e n t e r a n y p a r t of
the city o f the S a n c t u a r y . . . for t h r e e d a y s . ' ' ^
F e a t u r e s c o m m o n to the T e m p l e Scroll a n d t h e W a r R u l e a r e
e q u a l l y n o t e w o r t h y . T h e exclusion o f w o m e n a n d u n d e r - a g e b o y s f r o m
the c a m p s of t h e S o n s o f L i g h t d u r i n g t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l w a r {iQM
15. 'Le travail d'edition des manuscrits d u Desert de J u d a ' , Volume du Congres Strasbourg
igj6 (1957), p. 25 ; Ten Tears of Discovery, p. 109.
16. 7"5I, pp. 355-7. Cf. Vermes, PBJS, p p . 40-1, 5 0 - 6 ; J . A. Fitzmyer, 'The M a t t h e a n
Divorce Texts a n d some new Palestinian Evidence', Theol. Studies 37 (1976), p p .
197—226; 'Divorce a m o n g First-Century Palestinian J e w s ' , Eretz-Israel 14 (1978), p p .
103—10; J . B. Mueller, ' T h e T e m p l e Scroll a n d the Gospel Divorce Texts', R Q , 10 (1980),
pp. 247-56.
17. Cf L . Ginzberg, An Unknown Jewish Sect (1970), pp. 2 3 - 4 ; V e r m e s , PBJS, pp. 40—1;
Wacholder, op. cit. [in n. 6 above], p. 126.
18. I.e. J e r u s a l e m {pace Levine who limits it to t h e area surrounding the Temple). Cf
Ginzberg, op. cit., p p . 7 3 - 4 ; J. M . B a u m g a r t e n , Studies in Qumran Law (1977), p. 41.
19. In other words, if t h e sex act performed elsewhere rendered a man unfit t o enter the
Temple city for three days afterwards, a fortiori no intercourse could ever be licit within
that city's boundaries. I n fact, the establishment of areas reserved for ritually unclean
men, but none for w o m e n (col. 46:16—18), indicates that there were no p e r m a n e n t female
residents i n the T e m p l e city. T h e other Jewish towns catered for women during their
periods and after childbirth by creating quarters for them outside the inhabited area (col.
48:14-17).
7 : 3 - 4 ) i s parallel t o t h e b a n o n w o m e n in t h e c i t y o f the T e m p l e
i m p l i c i t i n t h e a b s e n c e o f special r e s t r i c t e d a r e a s outside for t h o s e w h o
w e r e r i t u a l l y u n c l e a n . A s h a s b e e n seen, s u c h places o f s e g r e g a t i o n
existed i n t h e o t h e r t o w n s o f Israel (cf. c o l . 48:16 c o n t r a s t e d w i t h
4 6 : 1 6 - 1 8 ) . S i m i l a r l y , t h e b u i l d i n g of l a t r i n e s (T DlpO) 3,000 c u b i t s
n o r t h - w e s t o f t h e T e m p l e city (col. 4 6 : 1 3 - 1 6 ) recalls a similar
a r r a n g e m e n t for TTl QlpQ a t 2,000 c u b i t s ' d i s t a n c e from t h e c a m p s
( / Q M 7:6-7).^°
F i n a l l y b o t h t h e T e m p l e Scroll a n d t h e N a h u m C o m m e n t a r y from
C a v e 4 refer t o t h e u n c o m m o n form of d e a t h p e n a l t y by ' h a n g i n g m e n
(alive) o n t h e t r e e ' . I n ^QpNah (see v o l . I , p p . 2 2 4 - 5 ) , t h e F u r i o u s
Y o u n g L i o n ( A l e x a n d e r J a n n a e u s ) is s a i d t o h a v e t a k e n r e v e n g e of his
e n e m i e s in s u c h a w a y . I n i t s t u r n , t h e T e m p l e Scroll p r e s c r i b e s this
f o r m of execution i n t h e case of a t r a i t o r o r of o n e w h o , g u i l t y o f a
c a p i t a l c r i m e , has fled a b r o a d a n d c u r s e d Israel, h i s o w n p e o p l e (col.
64:6-13)-"
T a k e n together, all t h e s e c o m m o n e l e m e n t s seem t o r e c o m m e n d t h e
t h e o r y t h a t t h e T e m p l e Scroll in i t s final s h a p e s p r a n g from t h e s a m e
s o u r c e a s t h e o t h e r s e c t a r i a n writings from Q u m r a n , a b o v e all t h e
Damascus Rule.
Still i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e g e n r e a n d t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e T e m p l e
Scroll, t h e q u e s t i o n arises w h e t h e r it is t o b e r e g a r d e d a s a h i s t o r i c a l
c o d e of l a w o r as a n eschatological legislation i n t e n d e d for t h e a g e of t h e
n e w c r e a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n for t h e p r e s e n t w o r l d . T h e basic a n s w e r is n o t
in d o u b t . T h e w o r d i n g o f t h e c o m m a n d m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g t h e
S a n c t u a r y i n d i c a t e s t h a t the a u t h o r of t h e Scroll e n v i s a g e d t h r o u g h o u t
a t h i s - w o r l d l y edifice a n d w o r s h i p . I n fact, in col. 2 9 : 8 - 1 0 , h e expressly
p o i n t s t o a n o t h e r e v e r l a s t i n g T e m p l e w h i c h G o d w o u l d c r e a t e in t h e
a g e t o c o m e : ' A n d I will c o n s e c r a t e m y S a n c t u a r y b y m y g l o r y , a n d I
will c a u s e m y glory to d w e l l o n it u n t i l t h e d a y of Blessing^^ o n w h i c h I
will c r e a t e m y S a n c t u a r y , e s t a b l i s h i n g it for myself for a l l d a y s
a c c o r d i n g to t h e C o v e n a n t w h i c h I m a d e w i t h J a c o b at Bethel.'^^
Both the general context, postulating Mosaic antiquity, a n d t h e
d i v e r g e n c e o f the a r c h i t e c t u r a l p l a n in t h e Scroll from t h a t of Ezekiel's
T e m p l e , as well as f r o m t h e S e c o n d T e m p l e a n d t h e H e r o d i a n
S a n c t u a r y , ^ * suggest t h a t t h e d o c u m e n t speaks o f the edifice w h i c h
20. Cf. TS I, p p . 294-304. For a different rendering of tfie phrase, see Wacholder, op.
cit. [in n. 6], p. 7.
21. C f TS I, p p . 373—9. O n the hterature on 'hanging', cf below, p. 4 3 1 .
22. Qimron reads rflDH instead of Yadin's nsian. C f Lesonenu 42 (1978), p . 142.
23. Cf. TS I , pp. 182-7. T h e notion of a T e m p l e m a d e b y God as p a r t of a n e w
creation is well attested in J u b . 1:15—17; 2 6 - 9 .
24. TS I , pp. 188-200. For the apparently H a s m o n a e a n features of t h e slaughterhouse,
see below, p. 415.
S o l o m o n was t o b u i l d . T h e F i r s t T e m p l e , a s is w e l l k n o w n , is n o t
d e s c r i b e d in d e t a i l i n the B i b l e , b u t i t is n o t w i t h o u t i n t e r e s t to n o t e t h a t
J o s e p h u s ' p i c t u r e of S o l o m o n ' s S a n c t u a r y displays n o t a b l e similarities
to t h e Q u m r a n scroll.
T h e d a t i n g of t h e T e m p l e S c r o l l in the a b s e n c e o f a p p a r e n t l y
i m p o r t a n t 4Q^ m a t e r i a l c a n n o t b u t be c o n j e c t u r a l . T h e earliest d a t e
a d v a n c e d is t h a t of t h e f o u r t h o r t h i r d c e n t u r y B.C. T h e t h e o r y is t h a t
of H . S t e g e m a n n w h o in a s u m m a r y n o t i c e d e n i e s t h e Q u m r a n o r i g i n of
the d o c u m e n t . B . Z . W a c h o l d e r also c h a m p i o n s a r e l a t i v e l y e a r l y
d a t e , 200 B.C., a l t h o u g h h e tries to r e c o n c i l e t h i s w i t h a s e c t a r i a n o r i g i n
w i t h i n t h e f r a m e w o r k of h i s o w n r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e e a r l y c h r o n o l o g y
of Q u m r a n . ' ^ ^
Since t h e T e m p l e Scroll c o n t a i n s n o u n c o n t r o v e r s i a l c h r o n o l o g i c a l
d a t a , scholars h a v e h a d to r e l y o n i n d i r e c t e v i d e n c e furnished b y
p a l a e o g r a p h y , p h i l o l o g y , t h e c o n t e n t s of t h e d o c u m e n t a n d its
r e l a t i o n s h i p t o o t h e r Q u m r a n w r i t i n g s . T h e l a t t e r p o i n t envisages t h e
Scroll in its final f o r m i r r e s p e c t i v e of its possible o r p r o b a b l e p r e h i s t o r y .
A s r e g a r d s t h e s c r i p t o f t h e m a i n m a n u s c r i p t a n d of t h e f r a g m e n t s
from C a v e 1 1 , it is c o n s i d e r e d t o be H e r o d i a n , i.e. l a t e first c e n t u r y B.C.
or e a r l y first c e n t u r y A.D. T h e t u r n of t h e e r a s therefore a p p e a r s to b e
the terminus ad quem. T h e use of t h e C a v e 4 f r a g m e n t s (Rockefeller
4 3 . 3 6 6 a n d t h e d o c u m e n t m e n t i o n e d by S t r u g n e l l in n. 3) c a n n o t safely
serve for d a t i n g p u r p o s e s as t h e y p r o b a b l y reflect a s o u r c e , o r a
p r e - Q u m r a n r e c e n s i o n , o f t h e T e m p l e S c r o l l . T h e linguistic f e a t u r e s
yield little in t h e w a y of p o s i t i v e e v i d e n c e e i t h e r b e y o n d i n d i c a t i n g t h a t
t h e y b e l o n g t o t h e l a t t e r p a r t of the s e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d . T h e
'mishnaic' traits would definitely militate against a n early, pre-second
c e n t u r y B.C., d a t i n g .
N o r a r e t h e c o n t e n t s o f the Scroll p a r t i c u l a r l y helpful, t h o u g h Y a d i n
has selected t h r e e d a t a w h i c h in h i s o p i n i o n suggest a H a s m o n a e a n
origin for the c o m p o s i t i o n . R e f e r e n c e s to rings i n t h e s l a u g h t e r h o u s e , as
well as t o pillars a n d w h e e l s (col. 3 4 : 1 - 7 ) , i m p l y t h a t t h e a u t h o r
e n v i s a g e d t h e existence of e q u i p m e n t i n t e n d e d t o i m m o b i l i s e t h e
sacrificial v i c t i m s . T h e M i s h n a h d e s c r i b e s a s i m i l a r s y s t e m ( M i d . 3:5),
b u t it a l l u d e s also ( M . S h . 5 : 1 5 ; S o t . 9:10) t o a n i n n o v a t i o n in t h e
s l a u g h t e r r i t u a l , Y o h a n a n , t h e H i g h Priest ( t h o u g h t to b e J o h n
H y r c a n u s I) is said to h a v e d i s m i s s e d t h e D''Dp13 o r ' s t u n n e r s ' , T e m p l e
functionaries w h o s e task it w a s to r e n d e r t h e a n i m a l s u n c o n s c i o u s b y
p o l e - a x i n g t h e m ( t S o t . 13:10). Y o h a n a n a p p a r e n t l y d e c r e e d t h a t t h i s
p r a c t i c e b l e m i s h e d the v i c t i m s a n d t h u s r e n d e r e d t h e m unfit for t h e
25. See Ant. viii 3, 1-9 (61-98).

26. Art. cit. [in n . 13], p . 516.
27. Op. cit. [in n . 6], p p . 171-229.
a l t a r , a n d i n t r o d u c e d r i n g s ( a n d c h a i n s ) i n s t e a d to w h i c h they w e r e t i e d
( y S o t . 2 4 a ) . Y a d i n c o n s i d e r s this c o n c a t e n a t i o n of d a t a sufficiently
r e l i a b l e to c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e Scroll m u s t h a v e o r i g i n a t e d d u r i n g t h e
r e i g n o f J o h n H y r c a n u s ( 1 3 5 / 4 - 1 0 4 B . C ) , if n o t slightly earlier.^^ M o r e
s c e p t i c a l s t u d e n t s o f r a b b i n i c h t e r a t u r e a r e less inclined to a c c e p t this
a r g u m e n t as c o n s t i t u t i n g solid e v i d e n c e . Besides, t h e n o t o r i o u s hostility
b e t w e e n the D e a d Sea sectaries a n d t h e H a s m o n e a n r u l e r s w e a k e n s
f u r t h e r t h e e v i d e n t i a l v a l u e o f these t e x t s . I f Y a d i n ' s c o n j e c t u r e w e r e
a c c e p t e d as b e i n g a t least p r o b a b l e , viz. t h a t t h e H y r c a n u s r e f o r m w a s
i n s p i r e d e i t h e r b y t h e T e m p l e Scroll itself or b y t h e sect's i d e a s
u n d e r l y i n g it, this o b j e c t i o n w o u l d be e l i m i n a t e d . B u t it r e m a i n s p u r e
speculation.
F u r t h e r m o r e , Y a d i n finds t h e r e g u l a t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g offensive a n d
defensive w a r p a r t i c u l a r l y well suited to t h e c o n d i t i o n s p r e v a i l i n g in t h e
t i m e of H y r c a n u s I (cf cols. 5 8 - 5 9 ) . A g a i n , t h e a u t h o r ' s insistence o n
t h e J e w i s h e t h n i c i t y a n d the r e h g i o u s q u a l i t i e s of t h e r o y a l b o d y g u a r d
(col. 5 7 : 5 - 1 1 ) m a y be s e e n a s a c r i t i c i s m of t h e e m p l o y m e n t o f foreign
m e r c e n a r i e s b y t h e s a m e H a s m o n a e a n r u l e r {Ant. x i h 8, 4 (249)). I n a
m o r e g e n e r a l sense, t h e Scroll's r o y a l s t a t u t e s a r e a s s o c i a t e d by M .
Weinfeld^" a n d D . M e n d e l s ^ ' w i t h H e l l e n i s d c r o y a l ideologies. I f so, t h e
s e c o n d half o f t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C . w o u l d f o r m a n a p p r o p r i a t e
historical background.
H a n g i n g a s a special form of c a p i t a l p u n i s h m e n t , referred t o e a r l i e r
( p . 4 1 4 ) a n d m e n t i o n e d a g a i n a p r o p o s o f the N a h u m C o m m e n t a r y (p.
4 3 1 ) , is the t h i r d h i s t o r i c a l p o i n t e r c i t e d by Y a d i n {TS I, p p . 3 7 3 - 8 ,
3 8 9 ) . If, as is h k e l y , t h e e x e c u t i o n in q u e s t i o n , p r a c t i s e d a l s o by t h e
R o m a n s (HBHS? mD*?Dntr 1*113),^^ is crucifixion, t h e o n l y k n o w n
J e w i s h p a r a l l e l is f u r n i s h e d b y t h e g r u e s o m e e p i s o d e w h e n A l e x a n d e r
J a n n a e u s crucified 800 P h a r i s e e s w h o w e r e his p o l i t i c a l o p p o n e n t s . ^ ^
28. Cf. TS I, p p . 230—1. See also S. Lieberman, Hellenism in Jewish Palestine (1962), pp.
140—I.
29. But would the Q u m r a n Community have approved of a custom invented b y a
H a s m o n a e a n ? Yadin tacitly overcomes this objection by assuming 'that it was the
c o m m a n d s of t h e scroll—or the concept behind them favoured by t h e a u t h o r a n d his
s e c t — t h a t influenced J o h n H y r c a n u s to m a k e the changes in t h e Temple in their spirit'
( r 5 i , p . 388).
30. '"Temple ScroU" and "King's L a w ' " , S h n a t o n 3 (1978-9), pp. 214-37; ' T h e R o y a l
G u a r d according to the T e m p l e Scroll', RB 87 (1980), p p . 394-6.
31. ' " O n Kingship" in the " T e m p l e ScroU" a n d the Ideological Vorlage of the Seven
Banquets in the "Letter of Aristeas to PhUocrates'", Aegyptus 59 (1979), pp. 127-36.
32. Sifre on Deut. 21:22 ( 2 2 1 ) ; bSanh. 46b.
33. Ant. xiii 14, 2 (380): a.vaaTavpa)aa.i\ B.J. i 4, 6 (97) : avaaravpataas. T h e episode of
eighty women ' h a n g e d ' by Simeon ben Shetah in Ashkelon according to m S a n h . 6:4 is
historically unreliable. C f vol. I, p. 231. See also M . Hengel, 'Rabbinische Legende u n d
fruhpharisaische Geschichte: Schimeon b. Schetach und die achtzig Hexen v o n Askalon',
A W H , Philos.-hist. Kl. (1984/2).
M o r e o v e r , crucifixion d o e s n o t s e e m to h a v e b e e n c u r r e n t d u r i n g t h e
r e i g n of H e r o d , b u t b e c a m e c o m m o n d u r i n g t h e R o m a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
of J u d a e a a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y a n a b o m i n a t i o n i n J e w i s h eyes.^* I n t h e
c i r c u m s t a n c e s , t h e H a s m o n a e a n a g e a p p e a r s t o be t h e o n l y c o n v e n i e n t
c h r o n o l o g i c a l f r a m e w o r k for t h e T e m p l e Scroll p a s s a g e .
Y a d i n ' s a r g u m e n t a t i o n falls s h o r t of p r o v i n g t h a t t h e T e m p l e Scroll
w a s a c t u a l l y c o m p o s e d in t h e d a y s o f J o h n H y r c a n u s . I t offers,
n e v e r t h e l e s s , a r e a s o n a b l y s t r o n g h y p o t h e s i s for a n e a r l y Q u m r a n
d a t i n g . S t u d y of t h e l i t e r a r y i n t e r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e Scroll a n d t h e
D a m a s c u s R u l e (cf. a b o v e , p . 4 1 3 ) as w e l l a s t h e W a r R u l e a n d t h e
N a h u m C o m m e n t a r y a l s o suggest t h a t p r i o r i t y b e l o n g s t o t h e T e m p l e
Scroll. I f therefore t h e D a m a s c u s R u l e is to b e d a t e d t o 100 B.C. o r a
little l a t e r (cf p . 3 9 6 ) , t h e s a m e p e r i o d w o u l d p r o v i d e a likely terminus
ante quem for t h e Scroll.^^ N e e d l e s s t o say, if it h a d a p r e h i s t o r y , a s s e e m s
to b e t h e case, it c o u l d d a t e b a c k t o t h e first h a l f of t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y
B.C. or e v e n e a r l i e r .
T h e a u t h o r s h i p o f t h e T e m p l e Scroll is n o m o r e a s c e r t a i n a b l e t h a n
a n y of t h e o t h e r Q u m r a n w r i t i n g s , b u t b e c a u s e o f its p r o b a b l e e a r l y
d a t e a n d a u t h o r i t a t i v e n a t u r e it is b o u n d t o b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e
n a m e of t h e T e a c h e r of R i g h t e o u s n e s s . Y a d i n p r o p o s e s t h i s c a u t i o u s l y .
H e identifies t h e T e m p l e Scroll as ' t h e S e a l e d B o o k o f t h e Law'^^ w h i c h
Z a d o k , i.e. t h e f o u n d e r o f t h e c o m m u n i t y ( t h e T e a c h e r of
Righteousness) discovered a c c o r d i n g to C D 5:2-5. H e further
c o n j e c t u r e s t h a t t h i s w a s t h e T o r a h sent b y t h e T e a c h e r t o t h e W i c k e d
Priest {4QpPs o n P s . 3 7 : 3 2 - 3 3 ) . ^ ^ B . Z . W a c h o l d e r g o e s m u c h f u r t h e r in
his e l a b o r a t e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f Q u m r a n h i s t o r y , d a t i n g t h e T e m p l e
Scroll t o 200 B.C. a n d t h e life-span of t h e T e a c h e r o f R i g h t e o u s n e s s to
2 4 0 - 1 7 0 B.C., a r a t h e r l a r g e m o u t h f u l to swallow.^^
T h e o n l y d e f i n i t e sources o f w h i c h t h e a u t h o r o f t h e T e m p l e Scroll
a v a i l e d h i m s e l f a r e t h e b o o k s of t h e B i b l e . T h e p u b l i c a t i o n of t h e
f r a g m e n t s f r o m C a v e 4 m a y h o w e v e r modify t h i s j u d g e m e n t . E v e n s o , a
d o c u m e n t p u r p o r t i n g t o b e d i r e c t d i v i n e r e v e l a t i o n is u n l i k e l y to
c o n t a i n l i t e r a r y q u o t a t i o n s . B y c o n t r a s t , it is p r o b a b l e t h a t t h e Scroll
34. Cf. M . Hengel, Crucifixion in the Ancient World (1977), p p . 84—5.

35. T h e absence of a n y reference t o the Feast o f the R e n e w a l of t h e Covenant in the
Temple Scroll is interpreted b y T . Elgvin as indicating t h a t it is earlier than iQS or C D .
He dates the T e m p l e Scroll t o mid-second century B.C. Cf ' T h e Q u m r a n Covenant
Festival a n d the T e m p l e Scroll', J J S 3 6 (1985), pp. 103-6.
36. TS I , pp. 394-5. Yadin further suggests that it is connected with t h e 'Book of H a g u '
( C D 10:6; 13:2; 14:7; iQSa 1:7) a n d 'the Book of the Second T o r a h ' minn ISO)
from 4Qj77, line 14 ( D J D V, p . 67). Cf. TS I , pp. 393-4, 396-7-
37. TS I , p. 396.
38. Op. cit. [in n . 6], p p . 99-140, 202-12.
influenced the D a m a s c u s Rule, a n d indirectly perhaps the W a r R u l e

a n d the N a h u m C o m m e n t a r y .
I t s i m p a c t on n o n - s e c t a r i a n w r i t e r s r e m a i n s h i g h l y p r o b l e m a t i c .
Y a d i n ' s h y p o t h e s i s c o n c e r n i n g J o s e p h u s ' d e p e n d e n c e o n the T e m p l e
Scroll i n his d e s c r i p d o n of S o l o m o n ' s S a n c t u a r y is w i l d l y s p e c u l a t i v e
(cf. I, p . 1 9 4 ) . E q u a l l y fragile is W a c h o l d e r ' s t h e o r y in r e g a r d to
E u p o l e m u s ' u s e of t h e T e m p l e S c r o l l . T h e Q u m r a n p a r a l l e l s a r e t o o
flimsy, l a r g e l y b e c a u s e o f the b a d s t a t e o f c o n s e r v a t i o n o f t h e r e l e v a n t
p a s s a g e s . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e d a t e of t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f E u p o l e m u s ' w o r k
( 1 5 7 B . C . a c c o r d i n g to W a c h o l d e r ) w o u l d n e c e s s i t a t e a n e a r l y s e c o n d
c e n t u r y o r t h i r d c e n t u r y B.C. o r i g i n for t h e T e m p l e Scroll.
F o r r a b b i n i c a l l u s i o n s to a T e m p l e Scroll, l i n k e d t o i C h r o n .
2 8 : 1 1 - 1 2 , see Midrash Shemuel (ed. S . B u b e r , 1893) 1 5 : 3 ( p . 9 2 ) , w h e r e
B^^pD^ n''a nVSD is said to h a v e b e e n t r a n s m i t t e d f r o m G o d t o M o s e s ,
to J o s h u a , t o the e l d e r s , to t h e p r o p h e t s , t o D a v i d a n d finally to
S o l o m o n . Cf also Y a l q . S h i m b n i 1 1 5 . S e e also y M e g . 7 0 a ; y S a n h . 2 9 a ;
A g a d . B e r e s h i t h ( e d . B u b e r ) 38:1 ( p p . 7 5 - 6 ) . S e e TS I, p p . 4 0 3 - 4 .
Editions
Yadin, Y., t n p a n n^lD I-III (1977).
Idem, The Temple Scroll l-U\ (1983).
Translations
Engtish
Yadin, Y., op. cit.
French
Caquot, A., 'Le R o u l e a u du Temple', Et. Theol. R e l . 53 (1978), p p . 443-500.
German
Maier, J., Die Tempelrolle vom Toten Meer (1978).
Spanish
Garcia, F., 'El Rollo del T e m p l o ' , Est. Bibl. 36 (1977), pp. 247-92.
Bibliography
Yadin, Y., 'The T e m p l e Scroll', BA 30 (1967), pp. 135-9 [repr. in I i ; ^ ^ F r e e d . m a n a n d J L
C^Greeilfiel^(eds.), New Directions in Biblical Archaeology (1971), pp. 139-48].
Idem-/ T h ? Gate of the Essenes and t h e Temple Scroll', Jerusalem Revealed: Archaeology of
the Holy City ig68-ig74 (1976), pp. 90-1.
Idem, 'Le Rouleau du Temple', in M. Delcor (ed.), Qumrdn (1978), pp. 115-19.
Ploeg, J . v a n der, 'Une halakha inedite de Q u m r a n ' , ibid., p p . 105—13.
Iig.Vine>,Ai»ji,^ ' T h e T e m p l e Scroll: Aspects of its Historical Provenance a n d Literary
Character', B A S O R 232 (1978), p p . 5 - 2 3 .
Milgrom, J . , 'Sabbath a n d T e m p l e City in t h e T e m p l e Scroll', ibid., pp. 25-7.
^?OT,'^Stu3ies in t h e Temple Scroll', J B L 97 (1978), p p . 501-23.
L e h m a j t J i l . R., ' T h e T e m p l e Scroll as Source of Sectarian Halakhah', R Q , 9 (1978), p p .
579-87-
39. Ibid, pp.62-77. Eupolemus' text is preserved i n Eusebius, Praep. ev. ix 34, 4-16. Cf
in general, Wacholder, Eupolemus: A Study of Judeo-Greek Literature (1974).
Kimron, E., 'New Readings in t h e T e m p l e Scroll', l E J 28 (1978), p p . 161-72.

"TSem^ffht L a n g u a g e of t h e T e m p l e Scroll', Lesonenu 42 (1978), p p . 83-98.
llem, 'The T e x t of the Temple Scroll', l E J 28 (1978), pp. 161-72.
WeTSeld, M . , ' " T e m p l e Scroll" and " K i n g ' s L a w ' " , S h n a t o n 3 (1978-9), p p . 213-47
(Hebr.).
Mcndels, D . , ' " O n Kingship" i n the " T e m p l e Scroll" and the Ideological Vorlage of the
Seven Banquets in t h e "Letter of Aristeas to Philocrates'", A e g y p t u s 59 (1979), p p .
127-36.
Bernstein, M . J . , 'Midrash H a l a k h a h a t Q u m r a n ? iiQ^ T e m p l e 64:6-13 a n d
Deuteronomy 21:22-23', Gesher 7 (1979), pp. 145-66.
Baumgarten, J. M . , ' T h e Pharisaic-Sadducean Controversies about Purity and the
Q u m r a n Texts', J J S 31 (1980), p p . 157—70.
Milgrom, J . , 'Further Studies in t h e T e m p l e Scroll', J Q R 71 (1980), pp. 1-17.
Maier, J., 'Die Hofanlagen im T e m p e l - E n t w u r f des Ezechiel im Lichte d e r "Tempelrolle"
von Q u m r a n ' , in J . E m e r t o n (ed.). Prophecy: Essays presented to G. Fohrer (1980), p p .
55-68.
Schiffman, L. H., ' T h e T e m p l e Scroll in Literary a n d Philological Perspective', in W . S.
Green, Approaches to Ancient Judaism II (1980), p p . 143—58.
Mueller, J . B., ' T h e Temple Scroll a n d the Gospel Divorce Texts', R Q , 10 (1980), p p .
247-56.
Weinfeld, M . , ' T h e R o y a l G u a r d according to the T e m p l e Scroll', R B 87 (1980), p p .
394-6.
Jongeling, B., 'A propos d e la Colonne xxiii d u Rouleau d u T e m p l e ' , R Q 10 (1981), p p .
593-5-
Thiering, B . £., 'Mebaqqer and Episkopos in the Light of the T e m p l e Scroll', JBL 100
(1981), pp. 5 9 - 7 4 .
Delcor, M . , 'Le statut d u roi d'apres le R o u l e a u d u T e m p l e ' , H e n o c h 3 (1981), p p .
47-68.
Thorion, Y . , 'Zur Bedeutung v o n nonVaV '?''n m m in i i Q T L V I I , 9 ' — ' Z u r Bedeutung
von Ntsn in i i Q T ' , R Q i o (1981), pp. 597-9.
Laperrousaz, E. M . , 'Note a propos de la d a t a t i o n du R o u l e a u du T e m p l e ' , R Q 10
(1981), pp. 4 4 7 - 5 2 .
Schwartz, D . , ' T h e Contemners of J u d g e s a n d M e n ( i i Q T e m p l e 64:12)', Lesonenu 47
(1982), pp. 18-24 (Hebr.).
Tov, E., ' T h e T e m p l e Scroll a n d O l d T e s t a m e n t T e x t u a l Criticism', Eretz-Israel 16
(1982), pp. l o o - i i ( H e b r . ) .
Bogaard, L . van den, ' L e Rouleau d u T e m p l e . Q u e l q u e s r e m a r q u e s concernant les
"petits fragments'", in W. C. Delsman et al. (eds.), Von Kanaan bis Kerala. Festschrift
fUr ... J.P. M. van der Ploeg (1982), pp. 2 8 5 - 9 4 .
Wilson, A. M., a n d Willis, L., ' L i t e r a r y Sources of t h e T e m p l e Scroll', H T h R 75 (1982),
pp. 287-8.
Sweeney, M . A., 'Sefirah at Q u m r a n : Aspects of the Counting F o r m u l a s for the
First-Fruit Festivals in the T e m p l e Scroll', B A S O R 251 (1983), pp. 61-6.
Thorion, Y., Die S p r a c h e der Tempelrolle u n d die Chronikbiicher', R Q 11 (1983), p p .
423-6.
Idem, 'Tempelrolle lix, 8-11 und Babli, Sanhedrin 98a', ibid., pp. 427-8.
Wacholder, B. Z., The Dawn of Qumran: The Sectarian Torah and the Teacher of Righteousness
(1983).
Rokeah, D . , 'The T e m p l e Scroll, Philo, Josephus, a n d the T a l m u d ' , J T h S t 34 (1983), p p .
515-26.
Bernstein, M . J . , ""iVri DTlVx n'?'?p O (Deut. 21:23) : A S t u d y of Early Jewish Exegesis',
J Q R 74 (1983), pp. 21-45.
Dimant, D . , ' Q u m r a n Sectarian Literature', J W S T P II (1984), p p . 526—30.
Elgvin, T . , 'The Q u m r a n Covenant Festival and the Temple Scroll', J J S 36 (1985), pp.
103-6.
Hengel, M . , Chariesworth, J . H . , and Mendels, D . , 'The Polemical Character of the " O n
Kingship" i n the T e m p l e Scroll: An A t t e m p t at Dating i i Q T e m p l e ' , J J S 37 (1986)
(forthcoming).
VIH B. Bible Interpretation

T h e s u r v i v i n g m a n u s c r i p t e v i d e n c e p r o v e s t h a t s c r i p t u r a l exegesis w a s
o n e of t h e chief l i t e r a r y activities of t h e Q u m r a n C o m m u n i t y . ' F r o m
t h e s t r u c t u r a l p o i n t of view, it m a y b e d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e classes, ( i )
I n t e r p r e t a t i v e e x t r a c t s figure in t h e R u l e s , especially in t h e D a m a s c u s
R u l e , a s s u p p o r t s o f d o c t r i n a l c l a i m s . (2) T h e r e a r e also p a r a p h r a s t i c
r e - w o r d i n g s , a l t e r i n g t h e o r i g i n a l significance o f a t e x t , i n s e r t e d e.g. i n t o
t h e T e m p l e Scroll. T h e s e t w o n o n - a u t o n o m o u s u n i t s r e q u i r e n o special
t r e a t m e n t h e r e . (3) T h e D e a d S e a m a n u s c r i p t s i n c l u d e also a p r o p e r
e x p o s i t i o n of S c r i p t u r e reflecting t w o t y p e s of exegetical p r o c e d u r e : (i)
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of a p a r t i c u l a r b o o k ; a n d (ii) m i d r a s h d e v o t e d t o a
t h e m e , a n d u t i l i s i n g several w o r k s of t h e Bible. T h e f o r m e r m a y t a k e
t h e s h a p e of a q u a s i - v e r s e - b y - v e r s e exegesis ( t h e p r i m e e x a m p l e is t h e
H a b a k k u k C o m m e n t a r y ) , or a m o r e or less free r e c a s t i n g of t h e b i b l i c a l
a c c o u n t in t h e style o f j u b i l e e s a n d the Q u m r a n G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n
(cf. p p . 3 1 8 - 2 5 a b o v e ) . T h e l a t t e r (i.e., exegesis o f a c o m b i n a t i o n of
s c r i p t u r a l passages) m a y d e v e l o p l e g a l or d o c t r i n a l topics ( O r d i n a n c e s —
F l o r i l e g i u m , e t c . ) , or p r e s e n t s i m p l y a set of p r o o f texts ( T e s t i m o n i a ,
Catenae).
A s far as e x e g e t i c a l m e t h o d is c o n c e r n e d , the Q u m r a n d o c u m e n t s
reflect t h e p e c u l i a r i t i e s o f t h e h a l a k h i c a n d h a g g a d i c m i d r a s h (cf v o l .
I I , p p . 3 3 7 - 5 5 ) , a s well as those of t h e ' r e - w r i t t e n B i b l e ' , t h a t is, a
r e f o r m u l a t i o n of t h e s c r i p t u r a l t e x t in w h i c h Bible a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
m e r g e i n t o a single n e w n a r r a t i v e . T h e m o s t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t y p e of
I . For a study of Q u m r a n exegesis, the following works m a y be consulted: W . H.

Brownlee, 'Biblical Interpretation among t h e Sectaries o f the D e a d Sea Scrolls', BA 14
(1951), p p . 54—76; F. F. Bruce, Biblical Exegesis in the Qumran Texts (1959) ; O. Betz,
Offenbarung und Schriftforschung in der Qumransekte ( i 9 6 0 ) ; G. Vermes, Scripture and Tradition
in Judaism—Haggadic Studies (1961, ^1973); J . Carmignac, 'Notes sur les Pesharim', R Q 3
(1962), p p . 505—38; J . D. Amusin, 'Bemerkungen zu d e n Q u m r a n - K o m m e n t a r e n ' , in
Bibel und Qumran—Festschrift H. Bardtke (1968), p p . 9 - 1 9 ; E. Slomovic, ' T o w a r d an
Understanding of the Exegesis in t h e Dead Sea Scrolls', R Q 7 (1969), p p . 3 - 1 5 ; G.
Vermes, Post-biblical Jewish Studies (1975), p p . 3 5 - 5 6 ; L. H . Schiffman, The Halakhah at
Qumran (1975); G. Vermes, 'Interpretation (The History of) at Q u m r a n ' , I D B S (1976),
p p . 4 3 8 - 4 1 ; J. M . B a u m g a r t e n , Studies in Qumran Law (1976); P . M. H o r g a n , Pesharim:
Qumran Interpretation of Biblical Books (1979); H . Gabrion, 'L'interpretation de I'Ecriture a
Q u m r a n ' , A N R W II.19.1 (1979), p p . 779-848; G. J . Brooke, ' Q u m r a n Pesher: Towards
a Redefinition of a Genre', R Q , 10 (i981), p p . 4 8 3 - 5 0 3 ; L. H. Schiffman, Sectarian Law
and the Dead Sea Scrolls (1983); D. Dimant, ' Q u m r a n Sectarian L i t e r a t u r e : Biblical
Interpretation', i n M. Stone (ed.), J W S T P I I , pp. 503-8.
Q u m r a n exegesis is k n o w n as pesher.^ I t exemplifies t h e g e n r e w h i c h

m a y be d e s i g n a t e d as fiilfilment i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , i.e. a n exposition in
w h i c h t h e m e a n i n g of a n o r a c l e , or o f a p r e s u m e d p r o p h e c y , is
d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e historical e v e n t or p e r s o n a U t y w h i c h t h e b i b l i c a l
a u t h o r is t h o u g h t t o h a v e p r e d i c t e d . A c c o r d i n g to Q u m r a n belief, t h e
key to t h e s o l u t i o n o f the m y s t e r i e s o f the s a c r e d w o r d s w a s e n t r u s t e d b y
G o d to t h e T e a c h e r of R i g h t e o u s n e s s a n d t h r o u g h h i m t o his disciples
{iQpHab. 6:14—7:5). I n o t h e r w o r d s , i n t h e sect's t e a c h i n g , d i v i n e
r e v e l a d o n r e g a r d i n g t h e e n d - t i m e w a s t r a n s m i t t e d in t w o s t a g e s : t h e
p r o p h e t s r e c e i v e d a n d c o n v e y e d i t in a n i m p e r f e c t f o r m , b u t t h e
T e a c h e r w a s g r a n t e d full k n o w l e d g e a n d p a s s e d it o n to his i m m e d i a t e
followers w h o , in t h e i r t u r n , d i s c l o s e d it t o t h e initiates o f the Q u m r a n
Community.
A n o t h e r i n t e r p r e t a t i v e g e n r e expHcitly n a m e d is midrash {4QFlor
1:14; cf C D 20:6) i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e exegesis o f a c o m b i n a t i o n of
biblical p a s s a g e s .
T h e i n d i v i d u a l Q u m r a n B i b l e c o m m e n t a r i e s will b e p r e s e n t e d in t h e
o r d e r of t h e b o o k s of S c r i p t u r e in t h e H e b r e w C a n o n . T h e c o m p o s i t e
w o r k s , o n the o t h e r h a n d , will b e a r r a n g e d t h e m a t i c a l l y , as d e v o t e d to
law, messianism, eschatology, etc.
i. Interpretation of Particular Books
1. The Genesis Apocryphon ( i Q a p G e n )

T h i s i m p o r t a n t w o r k , p r e s e r v e d a m o n g t h e D e a d S e a Scrolls b u t
p r o b a b l y of p r e - s e c t a r i a n o r i g i n , h a s a l r e a d y b e e n a n a l y s e d o n p p . !w8-"^:
2. The Ages of the Creation ( 4 Q 1 8 0 )

A H e b r e w f r a g m e n t from C a v e 4 h a s b e e n e d i t e d u n d e r t h i s m i s l e a d i n g
d t l e by J . M . A l l e g r o in D J D V , p p . 77—9. A less c o n t r o v e r s i a l
d e s c r i p t i o n is p r o v i d e d b y t h e o p e n i n g l i n e of t h e t e x t , • ' ' I J p n "ItZ^D,
' I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e A g e s ' . T h e s c r i p t is c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y J . S t r u g n e l l
as ' l a t e H e r o d i a n ' , i.e. n o d o u b t b e l o n g i n g to t h e first c e n t u r y A.D.
T h e t e x t a l l u d e s , in t h e c o n t e x t o f a c h r o n o l o g y of s e v e n t y w e e k s of
y e a r s , t o the b i r t h o f I s a a c , t h e fall of A z a z e l a n d t h e o t h e r angels, a n d
t h e b i r t h of t h e g i a n t s (cf. 4Q181, fr. 2, l i n e 3 ; cf 4QJ80, fr. i , Une 5).
T h e r e s e e m t o be f u r t h e r h i n t s a t A b r a h a m a n d his t h r e e visitors at
M a m r e , a n d p o s s i b l y at t h e sacrifice of I s a a c o n M t . M o r i a h , identified
as Z i o n o r J e r u s a l e m .
2. The introductory formulae a p p e a r i n g between the text a n d its interpretation use

phrases such as ' I t s interpretation concerns' TUTD), ' T h e interpretation of the saying
concerns' (Vs IITS), etc. A repeated p a r t of a longer quotation is preceded by 'And
t h a t which he said' Itt^HI). Cf. iQpHab, passim. F o r a full descripdon, see M . P.
Horgan, Pesharim (1979), pp. 239-44.
T h e n a t u r e of t h i s d o c u m e n t c a n n o t b e e s t a b U s h e d w i t h a n y d e g r e e
of c o n f i d e n c e b e y o n d t h e g e n e r a h t i e s a l r e a d y s t a t e d . S t r u g n e l l w o n d e r s
w h e t h e r 4Q180 m i g h t b e a c o m m e n t a r y o n ^.QjSi, a s e c t a r i a n w i s d o m
composition.' J. T . Milik, in t u r n , associates n o t only these t w o
f r a g m e n t s from C a v e 4, b u t also t h e M e l k i z e d e k d o c u m e n t f r o m C a v e
11.^
Edition
Allegro, J . M., D J D V (1968), p p . 7 7 - 9 ; cf. p p . 79-80 for 4QJ81.
Translation
English
Allegro, op. cit.
French
Milik, art. cit. [in n. 2], p p . 112, 119-21.
Italian
Bibliography
Allegro, J . M., 'Some Unpublished Fragments o f Pseudepigraphical Literature from
Qumran's Fourth Cave', A L U O S 4 (1962-3), p p . 3 - 6 .
Hoenig, S. B., ' T h e New Q u m r a n Pesheron A z a z e r , J Q R 56 (1966), p p . 248-53.
Strugnell, J . , art. cit. [in n. i ] , p p . 254-6.
3. The Blessings of Jacob ( 4 Q P B l e s s )

A s m a l l section of a C a v e 4 d o c u m e n t , d e v o t e d t o a c o m m e n t a r y o n
G e n . 49, a n d c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e classic m e s s i a n i c verse, G e n . 49:10,
h a s b e e n a v a i l a b l e i n a p r e l i m i n a r y e d i t i o n s i n c e 1 9 5 6 , b u t failed t o be
i n c l u d e d in D J D V .
T h e m a i n e m p h a s i s of t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n lies on t h e necessity,
' w h e n e v e r I s r a e l r u l e s ' , of t h e D a v i d i c d e s c e n t of t h e k i n g u n t i l a n d
i n c l u d i n g ' t h e M e s s i a h of R i g h t e o u s n e s s ' , c a l l e d a l s o t h e ' B r a n c h of
David'.' T h e exegesis p r o b a b l y discloses a n anti-Hasmonaean
s e n t i m e n t , a n d is b e s t assigned to t h e p r e - H e r o d i a n e p o c h .
T h e full e d i t i o n , e n t r u s t e d a p p a r e n t l y t o J . T . M i l i k , is still to c o m e .
Editions
Allegro, J . M., 'Further Messianic References in Q u m r a n Literature', J B L 75 (1956), p p .
174-6.
1. 'Notes en marge d u volume V des Discoveries in the Judaean Desert of Jordan', R Q 7

(1970), p p . 252, 254.
2. 'Milki-sedeq et Milki-resa'dans les anciens ecrits juifs e t Chretiens', J J S 23 (1972), p p .
109—24. I n her yet unpublished 'Pesher on t h e Periods' D . Dimant rejects this
combination on material and structural grounds. Cf ' Q u m r a n Sectarian Literature',
J W S T P I I , p. 521, n. 185.
I . Cf vol. II, p p . 550—1 ; Vermes, D S S , p p . 184-5, i95-
Lohse, E., T Q H D , pp. 245-7.
Translations
Engtish
Vermes, D S S E ^ p . 224.
French
Carmignac, J., T Q ^ I I , p p . 285-8.
German
Maier, J., T T M I , pp. 182-3.
Lohse, op. cit.
Italian
Moraldi, L., M Q p p . 5 7 0 - 1 .
Bibliography
Wieder, N . , 'Notes on t h e new Documents from t h e F o u r t h C a v e of Q u m r a n ' , J J S 7
(1956), pp. 7 2 - 4 .
Yadin, Y., 'Some Notes on Commentaries o n Genesis X L I X a n d Isaiah from Cave 4',
lEJ 7 (1957), p p . 6 6 - 8 .
Vermes, G., Scriptureand Tradition (1961, 1973), p p . 52-3.
Stegemann, H., 'Weitere Stiicke von 4QpPs37, von 4 Q P a t r i a r c h a l Blessings . . . ' , R Q , 6
(i967-9)>PP- 193-227.
Vermes, D S S , p. 6 9 .
Schwartz, D . R., ' T h e Messianic D e p a r t u r e from J u d a h ( 4 Q P a t r i a r c h a l Blessings)', T Z
37 ( i 9 8 i ) , p p - 257-66.
4. Pentateuch Anthology (4(^158)

F o u r t e e n f r a g m e n t s ( w r i t t e n b y a ' H e r o d i a n ' i i a n d , a c c o r d i n g to J .
S t r u g n e l l ) of a w o r k e n t i t l e d 'Biblical P a r a p h r a s e : G e n e s i s - E x o d u s '
h a v e b e e n p u b l i s h e d by J . M . A l l e g r o i n D J D V . T h e d e s i g n a t i o n is
m i s l e a d i n g b e c a u s e the e x t r a c t s a r e n e i t h e r r e s t r i c t e d t o Genesis or
E x o d u s , n o r g e n e r a l l y p a r a p h r a s t i c . I n fact, t h e y m o s t l y r e p r o d u c e t h e
biblical t e x t w i t h o u t r e a l e x e g e t i c a l a d d i t i o n s . T h e p a s s a g e s a p p e a r in
t h e following s o m e w h a t h a p h a z a r d o r d e r : G e n . 3 2 : 2 5 - 3 2 ; E x o d .
4 : 2 7 - 8 ( F r s . 1 - 2 ) ; G e n . 3 2 : 3 1 (?) ( F r . 3 ) ; ' E x o d . 3 : 1 2 ; 2 4 : 4 - 6 (Fr. 4 ) ;
E x o d . 1 9 : 1 7 - 2 3 ( F r . 5 ) ; E x o d . 2 0 : 1 2 , 16, 1 7 , 2 1 , 22—26; 2 1 : 1 , 3 , 4, 6, 8,
10 (Frs. 7 - 8 ) ; E x o d . 2 1 : 1 5 , 1 6 , 18, 20, 2 2 , 25 (Fr. 9 ) ; E x o d . 2 1 : 3 2 , 34,
3 5 - 3 7 ; 2 2 : 1 - 1 1 , 1 3 (Frs. 1 0 - 1 2 ) ; E x . 30:32, 3 4 ( F r . 1 3 ) ; A p o c r y p h a l
discourse of G o d after t h e e x o d u s ( F r . 14).^
T h e o n l y n o t a b l e e x e g e t i c a l s u p p l e m e n t , in a d d i t i o n to Fr. 14,
a p p e a r s i n F r s , 1 - 2 , lines 7 - 1 2 , a n d r e p r e s e n t s the b l e s s i n g of J a c o b by
t h e a n g e l , a l l u d e d t o in G e n . 3 2 : 2 9 : ' A n d h e said to h i m : M a y t h e
L o [ r d ] m a k e you fruitful [ a n d m u l t i p l y ] y o u . . . [ k n o j w l e d g e a n d
1. Strugnell, R Q 7 (1970), p . 170, wonders whether this passage derives from J a c o b ' s
death-bed speech.
2. For a fresh reading of Fr. 14, see Strugnell, art. cit., p p . 175-6.
u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a n d m a y he d e h v e r y o u from all v i o l e n c e a n d . . . u n t i l
t h i s d a y a n d for e v e r l a s t i n g ages . . . ' T h e blessing is followed b y t h e
p r o c l a m a t i o n of a r i t u a l p r e c e p t : ' A n d w h e n h e h a d blessed h i m t h e r e ,
h e w e n t on h i s w a y . . . o n t h a t d a y a n d h e s a i d , " D o not e a t . . . " '
Edition
Allegro, J . M., D J D V , pp. 1-6.
Bibliography
Strugnell, J., 'Notes en marge . . . ' , R Q , 7 (1970), p p . 168-75.
5 . The Words of Moses {iQDM = rQ22)

F r a g m e n t s b e l o n g i n g t o four v e r y p o o r l y p r e s e r v e d c o l u m n s o f a
m a n u s c r i p t h a v e b e e n p i e c e d t o g e t h e r b y J . T . M i l i k i n D J D I, p p .
91—7. T h e y form a n a n t h o l o g i c a l a c c o u n t o f a d i v i n e r e v e l a t i o n to
M o s e s a n d his m e s s a g e to t h e IsraeUtes. S i n c e t h e i n s p i r a t i o n of t h e
w o r k is m a i n l y d e u t e r o n o m i c , M i l i k p r o p o s e s t h e title, ' L i t t l e
D e u t e r o n o m y ' , m o d e l l e d on ' L i t t l e G e n e s i s ' , t h e s e c o n d a r y d e s i g n a t i o n
o f t h e Book o f J u b i l e e s ( c f a b o v e , p . 3 1 5 ) .
If t h e heavily r e c o n s t r u c t e d t e x t o f t h e e d i t o r is a c c e p t e d , t h e
d o c u m e n t consists, in a d d i t i o n to t h e d a t e of t h e e v e n t ( 1 : 1 - 2 : the first
d a y of t h e e l e v e n t h m o n t h i n the fortieth y e a r after t h e e x o d u s f r o m
E g y p t : cf D t . 1:3) of a speech b y G o d (1:2—11), followed b y M o s e s '
a d d r e s s to E l e a z a r a n d J o s h u a , e x h o r t i n g t h e m t o faithfulness to t h e
c o m m a n d m e n t s ( 1 : 1 1 - 2 : 5 ) . H e t h e n enjoins the I s r a e l i t e s t o a p p o i n t
s a g e i n t e r p r e t e r s of t h e L a w ( 2 : 5 - 1 1 ) . T h e w o r k i n c l u d e s also
instruction regarding t h e sabbatical year ( 3 : 1 - 7 ; cf Lev. 25 and Dt.
1 5 ) a n d the D a y o f A t o n e m e n t ( 3 : 8 - 4 : 1 2 ; cf L e v . 1 6 a n d 23).
T h e r e are t w o p a r t i c u l a r l y n o t e w o r t h y exegetical a d d i t i o n s . T h e first
a p p e a r s in c o l . 1 : 3 , w h e r e t h e v e r b pjO^D (to i n t e r p r e t ) is e m p l o y e d in
c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f the w o r d s of G o d to t h e Levites a n d
priests, as a g a i n s t HIS (to c o m m a n d ) a p r o p o s of t h e I s r a e l i t e s ,
i n d i c a t i n g t h e specific t e a c h i n g r o l e of the f o r m e r . T h e s e c o n d (col.
3 : 9 - 1 0 ) concerns t h e o r i g i n o f the D a y of A t o n e m e n t , a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
t h e w a n d e r i n g s of t h e I s r a e l i t e s in t h e w i l d e r n e s s u n t i l t h e t e n t h d a y of
t h e seventh m o n t h . '
Edition
Milik, J. T., D J D I, p p . 91-7.
Translations
English
Vermes, DSSE'^, pp. 225-6.
I. Cf. Milik, D J D I, p . 95. S e e j u b . 34:18-19.

French
C a r m i g n a c , J . , T Q , I I , p p . 247-53.
German
Maier, J., T T M I, p p . 168-70,
Italian
Moraldi, L., M Q , p p . 597-9.
Bibliography
Carmignac, J., 'Quelques details de lecture d a n s . . . les Dires de Moise', R Q . 4 (1963), p p .
88-96.
Delcor, M., ' Q u m r a n . Dires de Moise', DBS I X , cols. 9 1 0 - 1 1 .
6. Commentaries on Isaiah
R e m a i n s of six pesharim o f the Boole of I s a i a h h a v e b e e n r e t r i e v e d f r o m
C a v e s 3 a n d 4. T h e y a r e m o s t l y b a d l y m u t i l a t e d a n d t h e e x p l a n a t o r y
sections r a r e l y offer l a r g e e n o u g h c o n t e x t s for t r a n s l a t i o n . T h e
f r a g m e n t s will b e p r e s e n t e d in t h e s e q u e n c e of t h e b i b l i c a l c h a p t e r s .
(a) 3(U
C a v e 3 has y i e l d e d a s m a l l f r a g m e n t c o r r e s p o n d i n g to Isa. 1 : 1 . T h e
script is c o n s i d e r e d to b e ' H e r o d i a n ' . O f t h e s u r v i v i n g p a r t of t h e
e x p o s i t i o n , o n l y the p h r a s e ' d a y of j u d g e m e n t ' c a n b e d e c i p h e r e d .
(b) 4QpIsa' or 4Q161
T h e first of five s e v e r e l y d a m a g e d I s a i a h i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s from C a v e 4
deals w i t h I s a . 10:21 ( F r . i ) ; 10:22, 2 4 - 7 ( F r s . 2 - 4 ) ; 1 0 : 2 8 - 3 2 ( F r s .
5-6) ; a n d 1 0 : 3 3 - 1 1 : 5 (Frs. 8:10). T h e T e t r a g r a m is w r i t t e n w i t h a r c h a i c
letters in F r s . 2—4, h n e 9 a n d F r s . 8 - 1 0 , l i n e 1 3 .
F r a g m e n t s o f exegesis s u r v i v e i n F r s . 5 - 6 , lines 2 - 3 , w h e r e t h e
message o f d e l i v e r a n c e o f Isa. 10:27 is l i n k e d w i t h t h e ' P r i n c e of t h e
C o n g r e g a t i o n ' a n d d a t e d to t h e p e r i o d following the C o m m u n i t y ' s
r e t u r n from ' t h e d e s e r t o f t h e p e o p l e s ' ( c f iQJA 1 : 2 - 3 ) 5 a n d in h n e s
1 0 - 1 3 , w h e r e e v e n t s t a k i n g p l a c e a t t h e e n d of d a y s a r e referred to, a n d
the m a r c h of t h e ' i n v a d e r ' (?) t o w a r d s J e r u s a l e m is said t o s t a r t in t h e
n o r t h , in ' t h e V a l e o f A c c o ' .
T h e ' p e s h e r ' of I s a . 1 0 : 3 3 - 4 in F r s . 8—10 a p p h e s the o r a c l e to t h e
defeat of t h e K i t t i m . T h e l a t t e r a r e identified i n v e r s e 34 w i t h I s a i a h ' s
' L e b a n o n ' , ' a n d t h e v i c t o r ( t h e P r i n c e o f the C o n g r e g a t i o n ? ) w i t h t h e
biblical -inK.
T h e m e s s i a n i c p r o p h e c y of I s a . 1 1 i n t r o d u c e s ' t h e [ B r a n c h ] o f D a v i d
arising i n the last [ d a y s ] to d e f e a t t h e n a t i o n s a n d M a g o g ' (Frs. 8 - 1 0 ,
h n e s 17—19). H i s j u d i c i a l w i s d o m is a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e i n s t r u c t i o n he h a s
received from t h e priests (lines 2 2 - 4 ) .
T h e r e f e r e n c e to t h e V a l e of A c c o has b e e n s e e n a s a n a l l u s i o n to t h e
I . Cf. Vermes, Scripture and Tradition, pp. 32—5.

a d v a n c e of P t o l e m y L a t h y r u s from A c r e t o J u d a e a , m e n t i o n e d b y
J o s e p h u s in Ant. xiii 1 2 , 2 ( 3 2 4 ) - ! 3 , 3 (364) a n d B.J. i 4 1 2 (86-7).^ T h e
b a s i c w e a k n e s s of t h i s t h e o r y lies in its a u t o m a t i c e q u a t i o n of t h e K i t t i m
w i t h t h e Seleucids, a l t h o u g h such a n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n finds n o s u p p o r t in
t h e less f r a g m e n t a r y c o m m e n t a r i e s (cf b e l o w , p p . 4 3 1 , 4 3 4 - 5 ) . I t s h o u l d
also b e n o t e d t h a t a n y i n v a d e r of P a l e s t i n e a p p r o a c h i n g J e r u s a l e m f r o m
S y r i a w a s e x p e c t e d to pass t h r o u g h t h e c o a s t a l p l a i n b y w a y of A c r e
a n d Caesarea.^
(c) 4QpIsa o r 4QJ62
T h e t h r e e c o l u m n s o f the s e c o n d C a v e 4 I s a i a h pesher, w i t h only t h e
s e c o n d c o l u m n c o n t a i n i n g a n y c o n t i n u o u s e x p o s i t i o n , is d e v o t e d to I s a .
5 : 5 - 6 , 1 0 - 1 4 , 2 4 - 2 5 , 29—30. T h e script, a c c o r d i n g t o S t r u g n e l l , m a y b e
slightly p r e - H e r o d i a n (RQ^ 7 ( 1 9 7 0 ) , p . 186). T h e i n t e r p r e t a t i v e
c o n t e x t is e s c h a t o l o g i c a l , a n d t h e J e w i s h g r o u p criticized i n verses
1 1 - 1 4 a n d 2 4 - 2 5 consists of ' t h e scoffers in J e r u s a l e m ' (cf C D 2 0 : 1 1 ;
1 : 1 4 ) , i.e. t h e d o c t r i n a l o p p o n e n t s o f the Q u m r a n sect.
( d ) 4QpIsd o r 4QJ63
P a l a e o g r a p h i c a l l y t h e oldest of the peskarim, a c c o r d i n g t o J . S t r u g n e l l ,
d a t i n g t o t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e first c e n t u r y B.C. ( R Q , 7 ( 1 9 7 0 ) , p . 1 8 8 ) ,
t h e third Isaiah c o m m e n t a r y , a papyrus document, deals with Isa.
8 : 7 - 8 ; 9 - 1 1 (?), 1 4 - 2 0 ; 1 0 : 1 2 - 1 3 , i 9 ( ? ) - 2 4 ; 14:8, 2 6 - 3 0 ; 19:9-12;
2 9 : 1 0 - 1 1 , 15-16, 1 9 - 2 3 ; 30:1-5, 1 5 - 1 8 , 1 9 - 2 1 ; 3 1 : 1 a n d 32:5-6. T h e
i n t e r p r e t e r seems also to h a v e i n t r o d u c e d q u o t a t i o n s f r o m o t h e r
p r o p h e t s , Z e c h a r i a h ( F r s . 8 - 1 0 , l i n e 8; F r . 2 1 , line 7) a n d H o s e a ( F r . 2 3
I I , fine 1 4 a ) . T h e pesher refers t o ' t h e seekers o f s m o o t h t h i n g s i n
J e r u s a l e m ' , a well k n o w n c r y p t i c n a m e for t h e sect's a d v e r s a r i e s (cf
jQH 2 : 1 5 , 3 2 ; C D 1:8; 4QpNah F r s . 3 - 4 , 1 : 2 ) , w h o flourish i n ' t h e last
days'.
(e) 4QpIsa o r 4Q164
T h i s pesher c o n t a i n s , i n f r a g m e n t a r y f o r m , a s m a l l p a r t of a n exegesis
o f Isa. 5 4 : 1 1 - 1 2 . T h e v a r i o u s precious s t o n e s a p p e a r i n g in t h e b i b l i c a l
t e x t a r e all identified. T h e ' a n t i m o n y ' is I s r a e l ; ' t h e s a p p h i r e s ' , G o d ' s
elect, i . e . ' t h e C o u n c i l o f t h e C o m m u n i t y ' , f o u n d e d by t h e priests a n d
t h e p e o p l e ; ' t h e p i n n a c l e s o f a g a t e ' a r e ' t h e t w e l v e [chief p r i e s t s ] ' a n d
' t h e g a t e s of c a r b u n c l e s ' r e p r e s e n t ' t h e chiefs o f the tribes of I s r a e l ' .
T h e script, in S t r u g n e l l ' s o p i n i o n , p r o b a b l y b e l o n g s to a n e a r l y
H e r o d i a n d a t e ( R Q 7 ( 1 9 7 0 ) , p . 196).
(f) 4QpIsa'or 4Q163
T h e fifth C a v e 4 pesher is g r a v e l y m u t i l a t e d . T i n y s c r a p s from I s a .
2. J . D . Amusin, ' A propos de I'interpretation d e 4Qî6i', R Q , 8 (1974), p p . 381—92;

' T h e Reflecdon of Historical Events of First Century B.C.E. in Q u m r a n Commentaries',
H U C A 4 8 ( i 9 7 7 ) , p p . 123-34.
3. M. Hengel, for instance, expresses the view t h a t the allusion concerns Cestius Gallus'
m a r c h from Ptolemais to Jerusalem in A.D. 66. Cf Die êloten (^1976), p p . 2 8 9 - 9 0 .
VIII. The Writings of the Qumran Community 42 7
1 4 : 1 9 ; 1 5 : 4 - 6 ; 2 1 : 1 1 - 1 5 a n d 32:5—7 h a v e b e e n i d e n d f i e d , b u t t h e
exegetical r e m a i n s c o n v e y n o c o n n e c t e d m e a n i n g : ' T h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
of t h e s a y i n g . . . r e v e a l e d t h e t e a c h i n g of r i [ g h t e o u s n e s s ] ' ( F r s . 1 - 2 , h n e
3 ) ; ' t h e elect of I s r a e l ' ( F r . 6, h n e i ) ; ' m e n of t h e C o m m u [ n i t y ] ' (Fr. 9,
line 3 ) .
Editions
Baillet, M., D J D I I I , pp. 95-6.
Allegro, J. M . , D J D V, p p . 11-30.
Translations
English
Vermes, D S S E ^ p p . 226-9.
French
Carmignac, J . , T Q ^ I I , p p . 65-76.
Dupont-Sommer, A., EE, pp. 286-8.
German
Maier, J., Q,-E, p p . 3 0 8 - 1 1 .
Italian
Moraldi, L., M Q , p p . 525—36.
Bibliography
Vaux, R. de, 'Exploration de la region d e Q u m r a n ' , R B 60 (1953), p p . 555-6.
Allegro, J. M . , 'Further Messianic References in Q u m r a n L i t e r a t u r e ' , J B L 75 (1956), pp.
177-82.
Idem, 'More Isaiah Commentaries from Q u m r a n ' s F o u r t h C a v e ' , J B L 77 (1958), pp.
215-21.
Yadin, Y., 'Some Notes o n the newly published Pesharim on Isaiah', l E J 9 (1959), pp.
39-42.
Flusser, D., 'The Pesher of Isaiah a n d the Twelve Apostles', Eretz-Israel 8 (1967), pp.
52-62 ( H e b r e w ) .
Strugnell, J . , 'Notes en marge . . . ' , R Q , 7 (1970), pp. 183-99.
Amusin, J. D . , 'A propos d e l'interpretation d e 4Q_i6i', R Q , 8 (1974), pp. 381-92.
Horgan, M . P., Pesharim: Qumran Interpretation of Biblical Books (1979), pp. 70-148.
Dimant, D., ' Q u m r a n Sectarian Literature', J W S T P I I , p p . 513-14.
7. The New Jerusalem

F r a g m e n t s of a n A r a m a i c c o m p o s i t i o n , r e w o r k i n g t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l
d e s c r i p t i o n of J e r u s a l e m c o n t a i n e d in Ezekiel 4 0 - 4 8 , h a v e b e e n
d i s c o v e r e d in C a v e s i , 2, 4, 5 a n d 1 1 . A p a r t f r o m t w o l a r g e pieces from
C a v e 4, w h i c h a r e still u n p u b l i s h e d , t h e y a r e a v a i l a b l e i n definitive o r
provisional editions.
T h e o n l y a v a i l a b l e m a n u s c r i p t aflfording a l o n g e n o u g h text is jQjj,
p u b l i s h e d by J . T . M i h k , w h o w a s a b l e also to c o n s u l t the C a v e 4
m a t e r i a l . A c c o r d i n g to h i s s u m m a r y of t h e l a t t e r , t h e v i s i o n a r y of t h e
d o c u m e n t visits t h e h e a v e n l y city a n d T e m p l e in t h e c o m p a n y of a n
angelic s u r v e y o r , w h o s e w o r k it is to m e a s u r e e v e r y a r c h i t e c t u r a l u n i t i n
t h e N e w J e r u s a l e m . First they observe t h e walls with their twelve gates.

T h e n t h e y e n t e r t h e c i t y a n d m e a s u r e its blocks o f houses. F r o m this
p o i n t o n w a r d s , t h e a c c o u n t is a v a i l a b l e f r o m t h e texts f o u n d in C a v e 5.
(a)5to
T h e r e m a i n s o f t w o c o l u m n s in a H e r o d i a n s c r i p t h a v e b e e n
c o m p l e t e d b y M i l i k w i t h t h e h e l p of t h e ^Q, f r a g m e n t s . T h e n a r r a t i v e
o p e n s w i t h a d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e s q u a r e b l o c k s of houses (357 c u b i t s o n
e a c h s i d e ) , a n d c o n t i n u e s w i t h t h a t of t h e t h o r o u g h f a r e s ( t h r e e s i t u a t e d
i n a n e a s t - w e s t a n d t h r e e in a n o r t h - s o u t h d i r e c t i o n ) a n d streets, p a v e d
w i t h w h i t e stones, m a r b l e a n d j a s p e r .
T h e a u t h o r d e s c r i b e s t h e side p o r t a l s ( 1 4 c u b i t s w i d e ) a n d t h e
e n t r a n c e g a t e s (21 cubits) w i t h t h e i r t w o t o w e r s . N e x t t h e d o o r l e a d i n g
i n t o a n block of houses is m e a s u r e d (14 c u b i t s w i d e ) a n d the i n t e r i o r o f
t h e blocks d e s c r i b e d in d e t a i l . S m a l l h o u s e s (21 c u b i t s l o n g , 14 c u b i t s
h i g h a n d 14 c u b i t s w i d e ) s t a n d o n e n e x t to t h e o t h e r . T h e r e a r e a l s o
d i n i n g halls c o n t a i n i n g t w e n t y - t w o c o u c h e s .
O f t h e rest of t h e m a n u s c r i p t s , 1Q22, p u b l i s h e d also b y J . T . M i l i k ,
consists of t w e n t y - t w o u n c o n n e c t e d fragments with occasional
a r c h i t e c t u r a l t e r m s ( c o l u m n , d o o r , wall) a n d m e a s u r e m e n t s .
T h e e l e v e n f r a g m e n t s of 2Q24, e d i t e d by M . Baillet, a r e s o m e w h a t
l a r g e r , b u t unless set a g a i n s t a b e t t e r p r e s e r v e d t e x t , t h e y c a n i n d i c a t e
o n l y t h e g e n e r a l t o p i c o f the p a s s a g e . F r . i a p p e a r s to c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e
b e g i n n i n g of 5 Q / 5 , w h e n the v i s i o n a r y e n t e r s t h e city. F r s . 3 a n d 4 t r e a t
o f the b r e a d of p r e s e n c e , t h e two l o a v e s offered o n the F e a s t of W e e k s
a n d t h e r a m . F r s . 5 - 8 h a v e for o b j e c t t h e a l t a r of b u r n t offerings,
d e s c r i b i n g its d i m e n s i o n s a n d p u r p o s e .
T h e fragment of iiQJerNouvAr, published by B. J o n g e l i n g ,
c o r r e s p o n d s to lines 9—16 o f Fr. 4 of Its m a i n c o n t r i b u t i o n is
t h a t t h e m e n t i o n of XVDTI ] 0 XS^*? ( o u t s i d e t h e T e m p l e ) r e n d e r s
i m p r o b a b l e Baillet's h y p o t h e s i s t h a t F r . 3 refers to t h e t a b l e of t h e
b r e a d o f p r e s e n c e , since t h e l a t t e r w a s s i t u a t e d w i t h i n t h e S a n c t u a r y .
A p a r t from E z e k . 4 0 - 4 8 , t h e H e a v e n l y J e r u s a l e m d o c u m e n t s h o w s
similarities t o t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l city d e s c r i b e d i n Isa. 5 4 : 1 1 - 1 2 a n d
T o b . 1 3 : 1 7 (gold a n d p r e c i o u s stones u s e d as b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l ) . T h e r e
a r e c o n n e c t i o n s a l s o w i t h t h e T e m p l e Scroll.
T h e d o c u m e n t discloses, m o r e o v e r , s t r o n g r e s e m b l a n c e s to t h e
J e r u s a l e m d e s c e n d i n g f r o m h e a v e n in R e v e l a t i o n 21:10—27 i n the N e w
T e s t a m e n t . T h e r e is, n e v e r t h e l e s s , a f u n d a m e n t a l difference, viz. t h e
p r e s e n c e of a T e m p l e i n t h e n e w C i t y ( 2 1 : 2 2 ) .
Editions
Milik, J . T., D J D III, p p . 184-93 C5Q/5)-
Idem, D J D I, p p . 134-5 ('Qj^)-
Baillet, M . , D J D I I I , p p . 8 4 - 9 {2Q24).
Jongeling, B., 'Publication provisoire d ' u n fragment p r o v e n a n t de la grotte 11 de

Q u m r a n (i i Q J e r N o u v a r ) ' , J S J i (1970), p p . 58-64.
Translation
English
Vermes, D S S E ' ^ , p p . 260—4.
French
Milik, op. cit.
Italian
Bibliography
Baillet, M . , ' F r a g m e n t s arameens de Q u m r a n . 2. Description d e la J e r u s a l e m nouvelle',
R B 6 2 (1955). PP- 222-45.
Jongeling, B . , ' N o t e additionelle', J S J i (1970), p p . 185-6.
Licht, J., 'An I d e a l T o w n P l a n from Q u m r a n . T h e Description of the New J e r u s a l e m ' ,
I E j 2 9 ( i 9 7 9 ) , p p . 45-59.
Dimant, D . , ' Q u m r a n S e c t a r i a n L i t e r a t u r e ' , J W S T P I I , p p . 5 3 1 - 2 .
8. Commentaries on Hosea (4QpHos = 40^166-167)

T w o f r a g m e n t a r y m a n u s c r i p t s , c o p i e d b y d i f f e r e n t scribes u s i n g t h e
' R u s t i c S e m i - f o r m a l H e r o d i a n ' w r i t i n g , r e p r e s e n t s m a l l sections o f a
H o s e a pesher ( o r possibly two c o m m e n t a r i e s ? ) . T h e i d e n t i f i a b l e passages
a r e H o s . 2 : 8 - 1 4 {4Q166) ; 5 : 1 3 - 1 5 ; 6:4, 7, 9 - 1 0 ; 8:6-7, 1 3 - 1 4 {4Q167).
T h e surviving interpretative m a t e r i a l alludes t o wicked J e w s w h o
rejected the d i v i n e c o m m a n d m e n t s b e c a u s e t h e y l i s t e n e d to s e d u c e r s in
t h e age of w r a t h . T h e y w e r e p u n i s h e d a n d h u m i l i a t e d b y G o d before
t h e n a t i o n s , a n d t h e i r e n j o y m e n t o f G e n t i l e feasts w o u l d b e c h a n g e d to
mourning {4QJ66).
T h e q u o t a t i o n of H o s . 5 : 1 3 - 1 5 {4Qj6y) is f o l l o w e d b y c r y p t i c
historical references to ' t h e f u r i o u s y o u n g l i o n ' (cf. 4QpJVah F r s . 3—4, i
5 - 6 below) a n d t o ' t h e last P r i e s t ' w h o will s m i t e ' E p h r a i m ' (cf C D
7 : 1 2 - 1 3 ; 14:1 ; 4QTest 2 7 ; 4QpPss'', Frs. 1 - 2 , ii 1 7 - 1 9 ; 4QpNah Frs. 3 - 4 ,
i I2;h2,8;iii5;iv5).
A l t h o u g h i n s i g n i f i c a n t in itself, 4QpHos yields a few clues to u s e in
c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e b e t t e r p r e s e r v e d t e x t of t h e N a h u m a n d P s a l m 37
(ommentaries.
Edition
Allegro, J . M., D J D V, p p . 31-6.
Translations
English
Vermes, DSSE^, p. 230.
French
(:armignac, J., T Q I I , p p . 7 7 - 8 1 .
Italian
Bibliography
Allegro, J . M., ' F u r t h e r Light on t h e History of the Q u m r a n Sect', J B L 75 (1956), p p .
89-95-
Idem, 'A recently discovered F r a g m e n t of a C o m m e n t a r y of Hosea from Q u m r a n ' s F o u r t h
Cave', J B L 78 (1959), p p . 142-7-
Strugnell, J., 'Notes en marge . . . ' , R Q 7 (1970), p p . 199-203.
H o r g a n , M . P., Pesharim (1979), pp. 138-58.
Carlson, D. C , 'An Alternative Reading of 4 Q p Osea^ II, 3-6', R Q 11 (1983), p p .
417-21.
g. Commentary on Micah ( i Q p M i c = i Q i 4)
T w e n t y - t h r e e v e r y s m a l l f r a g m e n t s , f o u n d in C a v e i a n d r e p r e s e n t i n g a
pesher o n M i c a h , h a v e b e e n e d i t e d b y J . T . M i l i k i n D J D I. T h e
p a s s a g e s c o r r e s p o n d to M i c . 1:2-5, S^?? ^~9 5 4^13 (^) J 6 : 1 4 - 1 6 ; 7 : 8 - 9 ,
17. T h e exegesis is e s c h a t o l o g i c a l in c h a r a c t e r : S a m a r i a is seen as
a l l u d i n g to ' T h e S p o u t e r o f L i e s ' (see i QpHab 10:9; C D 8 : 1 3 ; cf.
19:25); J u d a a n d J e r u s a l e m a r e associated with t h e T e a c h e r of
R i g h t e o u s n e s s a n d the C o u n c i l of t h e C o m m u n i t y .
R e m a i n s of M i c . 4 : 8 - 1 2 {4QJ68) m a y a t t e s t a n o t h e r M i c a h
c o m m e n t a r y , possibly p a r t o f a c o m p l e t e pesher on t h e m i n o r p r o p h e t s ,
unless, of course, t h e f r a g m e n t s i m p l y b e l o n g s to a biblical scroll. N o
exegetical content has survived.
Editions
Milik, J. T . , D J D I, p p . 77-80.
A l l e g r o , J . M . , D J D V, p . 36.
Translations
English
Vermes, DSSE^, pp. 230-1.
French
Milik, op. cit.
C a r m i g n a c , J., T Q I I , p p . 8 2 - 4 .
Italian
Bibliography
C a r m i g n a c , J., 'Notes sur les Pesharim', R Q 3 (1962), p p . 515-19.
Strugnell, J., 'Notes en marge . . . ' , R Q 7 (1970), p . 204.
H o r g a n , M . P., Pesharim (1979), pp. 55-63.
10. Commentary on Nahum ( 4 Q p N a h = 4(^169)

Substantial fragments of a N a h u m pesher from C a v e 4, p a l a e o
graphically d a t e d to the s e c o n d h a l f of the first c e n t u r y B . C
( S t r u g n e l l ) , p r e s e r v e the text a n d a g o o d p o r t i o n of t h e exegesis of N a h .

1 : 3 - 6 ; 2 : 1 2 - 1 4 ; a n d 3:1—14.
I n t h e l a r g e f r a g m e n t s 3 - 4 , r e p r e s e n t i n g f o u r m u t i l a t e d c o l u m n s of
t h e m a n u s c r i p t , t h e p r o p h e t i c m e t a p h o r s ' l i o n ' a n d ' y o u n g lion' a r e
a p p l i e d b y t h e e x e g e t e t o kings, G e n t i l e a n d J e w i s h . A m o n g t h e former,
t w o a r e a c t u a l l y n a m e d : D e m e t r i u s (OnOpX)"!]) a n d A n t i o c h u s
(01D''132N), k i n g s of G r e e c e (p** ''3*70), a n o v e l t y in Q u m r a n l i t e r a t u r e .
D e m e t r i u s is said to h a v e failed to i n v a d e J e r u s a l e m , w h i c h h a d
r e m a i n e d u n c o n q u e r e d by G e n t i l e m o n a r c h s since A n t i o c h u s , a n d
w o u l d b e t a k e n o n l y b y t h e r u l e r s of t h e K i t t i m ( • ' ' T l D "''^CnZi). T h e i r
e s c h a t o l o g i c a l d i s c o m f i t u r e s e e m s t o b e f o r e t o l d in t h e m u t i l a t e d pesher
on N a h . 1:4 (Frs. 1 - 2 ) , in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h G o d ' s p u n i s h m e n t of ' t h e
sea' (on t h e a s s o c i a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e K i t t i m a n d t h e sea, see b e l o w , p .
434)-
T h e D e m e t r i u s e p i s o d e resulted i n t h e p u n i s h m e n t of t h e ' s e e k e r s of
s m o o t h t h i n g s ' , t h e J e w i s h g r o u p t h a t h a d i n v i t e d the Seleucid
m o n a r c h to J e r u s a l e m , b y ' t h e F u r i o u s Y o u n g L i o n ' w h o ' h a n g e d m e n
a l i v e ' . ' H i s p u n i s h m e n t is a l l u d e d to i n a d a m a g e d p a r t of the t e x t .
N e x t t h e c o m m e n t a t o r d e a l s w i t h ' t h e seekers of s m o o t h t h i n g s ' , c a l l e d
also ' E p h r a i m ' (cf 4QpHos a b o v e ) . T h e y a r e i n d i c t e d a s false t e a c h e r s
a n d t h e i r c o n t i n u o u s c h a s t i s e m e n t a n d final a n n i h i l a t i o n by ' t h e s w o r d
of the n a t i o n s ' a r e p r e d i c t e d . T h e r e w o u l d , h o w e v e r , be a p a r t i a l
c o n v e r s i o n of ' t h e s i m p l e of E p h r a i m ' w h o a r e to j o i n t h e t r u e I s r a e l
' w h e n t h e g l o r y ofJ u d a h shall a r i s e ' .
T h e ' A m o n ' of N a h . 3:8 is identified a s ' M a n a s s e h ' , t o w h o s e ' g r e a t
m e n ' t h e u n f a i t h f u l d e f e c t e d . T h i s g r o u p is a l s o t h r e a t e n e d w i t h
c a p t i v i t y a n d t h e s w o r d i n t h e final a g e .
T h e o r a c l e of N a h u m is e x p o u n d e d as a p r o p h e c y foretelling t h e
r e t r i b u t i o n o f the sect's o p p o n e n t s , of w h o m ' E p h r a i m ' , the d o c t r i n a l
a d v e r s a r i e s , a r e u s u a l l y identified a s the P h a r i s e e s , a n d ' M a n a s s e h ' , t h e
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of political p o w e r , as t h e S a d d u c e e s . T h e h i s t o r i c a l
I . The rabbinic parallels relevant t o nVn, in contexts different from hanging a corpse
(cf. T a r g u m on D t . 21:22), a r e to b e found in m S a n h . 6:4 (ySanh. 23c; y H a g . 7 7 d ) :
Simeon b . Shetah 'hanged' eighty women i n Ashkelon, i.e. no d o u b t executed them (cf
vol. I, p. 231, n . 7). Similarly T g R u t h 1:17 where S C p rD''*?2£ is substituted for j?in
(strangulation) as the fourth m o d e of judicial execution (cf J. H e i n e m a n n , ' T h e Targum
of Ex. xxii, 4 a n d the Ancient Halakha\ T a r b i z 38 (1968-9), p p . 2 9 4 - 6 (Hebrew). T h e
l e m p l e Scroll 64:6-13, paraphrasing D e u t 21:22, twice uses the sequence: 'you shall
hang him on t h e tree and h e shall die' (lines 8, l o - i i ) . N o n e of these texts defines
precisely the meaning of nVn. Cf J . M . B a u m g a r t e n , Studies in Qumran Law (1977), pp.
172-82. O n the other hand, Sifre o n Dt. 21:22 (221) [cf. also b S a n h . 46b] specifically
contrasts the biblical ' h a n g i n g ' of a dead body with ' h a n g i n g someone ahve' ('p'?in
'n inK ) as the R o m a n imperial authority does CpSHS msVDnS? ÎID). See N. Wicder,
Notes on the N e w D o c u m e n t s from the F o u r t h Cave of Q u m r a n ' , J J S 7 (1956), pp.
71 2 ; D. N . Halperin, 'Crucifixion, t h e N a h u m Pesher a n d the Penalty of Strangulation',
) )S 32 ( i g B i ) , p p . 32-46. For fuller bibliography see n. 4 below.
e v e n t c r y p t i c a l l y p o r t r a y e d is g e n e r a l l y r e c o g n i z e d a s t h e conflict
between Demetrius I I I Eucaerus (95-88 B.C) a n d Alexander
J a n n a e u s , 'the Furious Y o u n g Lion'. T h e charge that the latter hanged
m e n alive recalls t h e crucifixion b y J a n n a e u s o f e i g h t h u n d r e d P h a r i s e e s
( t h e 'seekers of s m o o t h t h i n g s ' ) , allies of D e m e t r i u s , after his w i t h d r a w a l
from J u d a e a . ^
A l t h o u g h t h e r e is g e n e r a l a g r e e m e n t o n t h e c h r o n o l o g i c a l s e t t i n g o f
t h e N a h u m pesher, c o n t r o v e r s y persists i n r e g a r d to t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f
••'TI •''IJÎN n'^ri'' IITX. I n t h e l i g h t of t h e a v a i l a b l e e v i d e n c e n o
c e r t a i n t y is possible c o n c e r n i n g t h e significance a n d precise h a l a k h i c
s t a t u s o f e x e c u t i o n by ' h a n g i n g ' . J . M . B a u m g a r t e n , ^ w h i l e a g r e e i n g
t h a t t h e e v e n t a l l u d e d t o i n the pesher is Hkely t o be i d e n d c a l t o t h e
J a n n a e u s episode, c o n s i d e r s T I n'^n to m e a n ' t o h a n g ' b y t h e n e c k , b u t
t h e m a j o r i t y o f the s c h o l a r s w h o h a v e w r i t t e n o n t h e t o p i c h a v e u n d e r s t o o d
it t o m e a n ' t o crucify',* especially since Y . Y a d i n h a s s h o w n t h a t i n t h e
T e m p l e Scroll ( 6 4 : 6 - 1 3 ) ' h a n g i n g ' is t h e form of e x e c u t i o n r e s e r v e d for
traitors.^ H i s theory concerning the c o m m e n t a t o r ' s a p p r o v a l of
J a n n a e u s ' a c t fails to t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e i n h e r e n t i m p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t
a n y Q u m r a n s p o k e s m a n s h o u l d h a v e a d o p t e d a positive a t t i t u d e
t o w a r d s one of t h e chief e n e m i e s of t h e C o m m u n i t y .
Editions
Lohse, E., T Q H D , p p . 261-7.
2. For Alexander J a n n a e u s ' vengeance o n the Pharisees, see Josephus, Ant. xiii 15, 2
( 3 8 0 - 3 ) ; B.J. i 4, 6 ( 9 6 - 8 ) ; cf. vol. I, p. 224 a n d n. 22. A m o n g scholars identifying the
Furious Young Lion as J a n n a e u s , note J . M . Allegro, ' T h r a k i d a n , the "Lion of W r a t h "
a n d Alexander J a n n a e u s ' , P E Q 91 (1959), pp. 47-51 (cf. however M . Stern, T a r b i z 29
(1959-60), p p . 2 0 7 - 9 ) ; J . T. Milik, Ten Years of Discovery (1959), p . 7 3 ; A.
D u p o n t - S o m m e r , Essene Writings, p p . 2 6 8 - 7 0 ; Vermes, DSSE, p . 65; J . Carmignac, TQ^
I I , pp. 5 3 - 4 ; A. D u p o n t - S o m m e r , 'Observations sur le Commentaire d e N a h u m ' ,
J o u r n a l des Savants (1963), pp. 2 0 1 - 2 7 ; Y. Yadin, 'Pesher N a h u m (4QpNahum)
reconsidered', l E J 21 (1971), pp. 1-12; J . D. Amusin, ' T h e Reflection of Historical
Events i n the First Century B.C.E. in Q u m r a n C o m m e n t a r i e s ' , H U C A 48 (1977), p p .
134-46; G. Vermes, D S S , p p . 114, 152; D. Dimant, ' Q u m r a n Sectarian Literature',
J W S T P I I , pp. 51 I - I 2. For a second-century B.C. framework with Demetrius identified
as Demetrius I Soter (162-150 B . C ) , see t h e speculative essay by I. Rabinowitz, ' T h e
M e a n i n g of the Key ("Demetrius") Passage in t h e Q u m r a n N a h u m Pesher', J A O S 98
(1978), p p . 394-9.
3. 'Does T L H in the T e m p l e Scroll refer to Crucifixion?', Studies in Qumran Law (1977),
p p . 172-82. Originally published in J B L 91 (1972), pp. 472-81.
4. Cf Yadin, 'Pesher N a h u m . . . ' , lEJ 21 (1971), p p . 1-12; Vermes, D S S , p. 114;
Yadin, Temple Scroll I (1977), p . 289 ( H e b r . ) ; M . Hengel, Crucifixion (1977), p p . 8 4 - 5 ; } .
A. Fitzmyer, 'Crucifixion i n Ancient Palesdne, Q u m r a n Literature a n d the N e w
T e s t a m e n t ' , C B Q 40 (1978), pp. 4 9 3 - 5 1 3 ; D. N . Halperin, 'Crucifixion, the N a h u m
Pesher a n d the Penalty of Strangulation', J J S 32 (i 981), p p . 32-46.
5. Cf Temple Scroll I, p p . 285-90 (Hebr.).
Translations
English
Allegro, op. cit.
Vermes, D S S E ' ' , p p . 231-5.
I'rench
Carmignac, J., T Q I I , p p . 85-92.
(ierman
Maier, J . , T T M I , p. 180.
Lohse, E., op. cit.
Italian
Moraldi, L . , M Q , pp. 545-52.
Bibliography
Allegro, J . M., ' F u r t h e r Light on t h e History of t h e Q u m r a n Sect', J B L 75 (1956), pp.
89-95-
Idem, ' T h r a k i d a n , the "Lion of W r a t h " a n d Alexander J a n n a e u s ' , P E Q 9 1 (1959), pp-
47-51-
Idem, ' M o r e unpublished Pieces of a Q u m r a n C o m m e n t a r y on N a h u m (4QpNah)', J S S 7
(1962), pp. 304-8.
D u p o n t - S o m m e r , A., 'Observations s u r le C o m m e n t a i r e d e N a h u m decouvert pres d e la
Mer M o r t e ' , J o u r n a l des Savants (1963), pp. 201-27.
Amusin, J . D., ' E p h r a i m et Manasse d a n s le Pesher d e N a h u m ' , R Q 4 (1964), pp.
389-96-
Hoenig, S. B., 'Dorshe H a l a k o t in t h e Pesher N a h u m Scroll', J B L 83 (1964), p p . 119-38.
Idem, 'Pesher N a h u m " T a l m u d " ' , J B L 86 (1967), p p . 4 4 1 - 5 .
Strugnell, J . , 'Notes en marge . . . ' , R Q 7 (1970), p p . 204-10.
D u p o n t - S o m m e r , A., 'Observations nouvelles s u r I'expression "Suspendu vivant s u r le
bois" dans le C o m m e n t a i r e de N a h u m (4QpNah I I , 8) a l a lumiere du R o u l e a u du
T e m p l e (i i Q T e m p l e Scroll L X I V , 6-13)', C R A I 1973, p p . 709-20.
Amusin, J . D., ' T h e Reflection of Historical Events in the First Century B.C.E. in
Q u m r a n Commentaries', H U C A 48 (1977), p p . 134-46.
Vermes, D S S , p p . 114, 152.
Yadin, Y . , The Temple Scroll I (1977), p p . 285-90 ( H e b r . ) .
Rabinovs'itz, I., ' T h e M e a n i n g of the Key ("Demetrius") Passage in t h e Q u m r a n N a h u m
Pesher', J A O S 98 (1978), pp. 394-9.
Fitzmyer, J . A . , 'Crucifixion in Ancient Palestine, Q u m r a n Literature a n d the New
T e s t a m e n t ' , C B Q 4 0 (1978), p p . 493-513-
Halperin, D. N . , 'Crucifixion, the N a h u m Pesher and t h e Penalty of Strangulation', J J S
32 (1981), p p . 32-46.
Oarcia M a r t i n e z , F., '4QpNah y la Crucifixion', EstBib 3 8 (1979-80), p p . 221—35.
Dimant, D . , ' Q u m r a n Sectarian L i t e r a t u r e ' , J W S T P I I , p p . 511—12.
/ /. Commentary on Habakkuk (i Q p H a b )
T h e l o n g e s t a n d b e s t p r e s e r v e d o f all t h e Q u m r a n peskarim, i QpHab,
i n c l u d e s , in a ' H e r o d i a n ' script a n d with the T e t r a g r a m w r i t t e n in
a r c h a i c l e t t e r s , t h e first t w o c h a p t e r s of t h e b i b l i c a l p r o p h e c y a n d m o s t
o f t h e a c c o m p a n y i n g e x p o s i t i o n s . T h e scroll c o n s i s t s of t h i r t e e n c o l u m n s
o f text. T h e first is b a d l y w o r n , t h e final c o u p l e of fines b e i n g a b s e n t
4-34 §32- Jewish Literature in Hebrew or Aramaic
t h r o u g h o u t , e x c e p t in col. 1 3 , w h e r e the w r i t i n g stops a t Hne 4,

c o r r e s p o n d i n g to t h e e n d a n d i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e C o m m e n t a r y d i d n o t
c o v e r c h a p t e r 3 of H a b a k k u k . '
T h e d o c u m e n t , d e s p i t e its c r y p t i c style, p r o v e s t o be o n e o f t h e m o s t
i m p o r t a n t sources n o t o n l y for s e c t a r i a n B i b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n b u t also
for t h e s t u d y o f t h e history o f Q u m r a n origins, a n d for t h e
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e C o m m u n i t y ' s i d e a s r e l a t i n g to p r o p h e c y . T h e
conflict of t h e r i g h t e o u s a n d t h e w i c k e d a n d t h e m i s s i o n of t h e
C h a l d e a n s , a s i n s t r u m e n t s of d i v i n e p u n i s h m e n t r e c o r d e d in H a h . 1 - 2 ,
a r e understood b y the c o m m e n t a t o r as foreshadowing the struggle
b e t w e e n the T e a c h e r o f R i g h t e o u s n e s s a n d t h e W i c k e d Priest a n d t h e
s u b s e q u e n t rise o f t h e K i t t i m . T h i s powerful G e n t i l e n a t i o n is
c o m m i s s i o n e d by G o d to e x e c u t e r e v e n g e on t h e 'last p r i e s t s o f
J e r u s a l e m ' , t h e lawless successors o f the ' W i c k e d Priest', w h o i l l - t r e a t e d
' t h e T e a c h e r of R i g h t e o u s n e s s ' a n d his followers.
T h e d i r e c t c h r o n o l o g i c a l o r d e r o f the e v e n t s a p p e a r s t o b e a s follows.
A l e a d i n g religious a u t h o r i t y , d e s i g n a t e d as ' t h e L i a r ' / ' t h e S p o u t e r of
L i e s ' ( 2 : 1 - 2 ; 5 : 1 1 ; 10:9), d e f e c t e d f r o m t h e g r o u p h e a d e d by t h e
T e a c h e r of R i g h t e o u s n e s s to f o u n d a r i v a l c o n g r e g a t i o n . T h i s o p p o n e n t
may h a v e b e e n ' t h e W i c k e d P r i e s t ' , or ' t h e Priest w h o r e b e l l e d ' , or ' t h e
i g n o m i n i o u s P r i e s t ' (8:8, 1 6 ; 9:8; 1 1 : 4 , 1 2 ; 1 2 : 2 , 8), b u t this i d e n t i t y is
n o t assured. T h e ' W i c k e d Priest' fell f r o m g r a c e o n l y after h e b e c a m e
I s r a e l ' s ruler. P r o m p t e d by g r e e d , h e seized t h e w e a l t h of t h e n a t i o n s
(8:12) a n d r o b b e d ' t h e r i c h e s of t h e P o o r ' , i.e. the C o m m u n i t y ( 1 2 : 1 0 ) .
H e also s i n n e d a g a i n s t the T e a c h e r o f R i g h t e o u s n e s s a n d his m e n
( 9 : 9 - 1 0 ) , chastised h i m (5:10), a n d p u r s u e d h i m to h i s exile on t h e
C o m m u n i t y ' s D a y of A t o n e m e n t ( i 1:5). H e w a s to b e p u n i s h e d first b y
u n n a m e d ' e n e m i e s ' (9:10) a n d l a t e r b y G o d ( 1 0 : 3 - 5 ; 1 1 : 1 4 — 1 5 ) . H i s
successors a n d i m i t a t o r s , ' t h e Last Priests of J e r u s a l e m ' , w o u l d lose all
t h e i r unjust g a i n s t o the K i t t i m , ' t h e r e m n a n t o f the p e o p l e s ' (9:4-7).
T w o of t h e c r y p t o g r a m s , viz. ' K i t t i m ' a n d ' t h e W i c k e d P r i e s t ' ,
a p p e a r t o be m o r e easily d e c i p h e r a b l e t h a n t h e rest. ' K i t t i m ' , o r i g i n a l l y
designating t h e inhabitants of Kition, a Phoenician colony on Cyprus,
a c q u i r e d in l a t e r J e w i s h p a r l a n c e t h e g e n e r i c sense of p e o p l e l i v i n g o n
islands a n d s e a shores,'^ especially p o w e r f u l m a r i t i m e c o n q u e r o r s , s u c h
1. The most likely reason for the omission of the last chapter is that the Psalm
contained in it does n o t furnish suitable material for t h e kind of exegesis t h e a u t h o r
intended t o produce. T o deduce from the absence of c h a p . 3 from the C o m m e n t a r y that
at t h e d m e of the redaction of i QpHab it h a d not yet been joined to t h e scriptural book
(cf A. Dupont-Sommer, Observations sur le Commentaire d'Habacuc (1950), p. 4) is wholly
u n w a r r a n t e d . T h e Psalm of H a b a k k u k is extant in the L X X , a n d is also partly attested
(3:9-15) i n col. 14 of t h e Greek Minor Prophets from N a h a l Hever (cf. D. Barthelemy,
Les devanciers d'Aquila (1963), p . 176).
2. Cf Josephus, Ant. i 6, i (128): 'Chethimos held the island of C h e t h i m a — w h i c h is
now called Cyprus—whence all the islands a n d most maritime regions a r e n a m e d Chethim
iis the G r e e k s or t h e R o m a n s . ^ T h e r e is n o w q u a s i - g e n e r a l a g r e e m e n t
t h a t t h e Q u m r a n references a r e t o the l a t t e r . * I t is to b e stressed t h a t
t h e K i t t i m a r e n o w h e r e l i n k e d w i t h the T e a c h e r of R i g h t e o u s n e s s o r t h e
W i c k e d P r i e s t a n d a p p e a r to b e l o n g to a s o m e w h a t l a t e r p e r i o d . F r o m
t h i s it m a y b e inferred t h a t t h e s t r u g g l e b e t w e e n t h e T e a c h e r a n d his
o p p o n e n t d a t e s to t h e H e l l e n i s t i c e r a .
The 'Wicked Priest', seen by almost all scholars as a historical
personage^ (a m a n who ruled Israel, conquered and looted
n e i g h b o u r i n g n a t i o n s a n d fell in t h e e n d i n t o e n e m y h a n d s ) , m u s t
c o r r e s p o n d t o one o f t h e H i g h P r i e s t s of t h e s e c o n d o r e a r l y first c e n t u r y
B.C. T h e m a j o r i t y o p i n i o n assigns t h e t i t l e t o J o n a t h a n a n d / o r S i m o n
M a c c a b a e u s . ^ V a r i o u s i d e n t i t i e s h a v e b e e n s u g g e s t e d for t h e T e a c h e r of
l)y the Hebrews {KOI OLTT' avrrjs vijaoi re rrdaai Kal ra wAcico rujv rrapa ddXarrav Xedtfj, vvo
'Eppaiwv 6vop.at,€rai.) ... one o f the cities of Cyprus . . . even in its Hellenized form Kition
(Kiriov), is not far removed from the name Chethimos.' C f iQpHab 3:10-11 interpreting
Mab. 1:8 (the Chaldeans coming from afar = p i m o ) as alluding to the Kittim
advancing 'from the islands of the sea' (DTI "'"'ND). C f also 4QpNah, on p . 431 above.
3. For Alexander t h e Great portrayed as proceeding IK yrjs Xerrup,, or Perseus
described as Kirieu)v âmXevg, see i M a c . 1:1; 8:5. The 'ships of Kittim' (DTID D"2J) in
Dan. 11:30 are exphcitly rendered i n the L X X as 'Pojfiaioi {Kinoi in Theodotion). T h e •
association of t h e Kittim with the final foreign c o n q u e r o r is based on N u m . 24:24 (D''S1
DTID TO ). T h e disdnction between Greece and K i t d m is manifest in 4QpNah Frs. 3 - 4 i 3
where reference is m a d e , on t h e o n e h a n d , to ^sVs, and o n the other h a n d t o the
D^DD •'Vima. Cf above, p . 431 -
4. O n e of the principal arguments invoked for t h e R o m a n idendty of the Kittim is the
allusion i n iQpHab 6:3-4 to their sacrificing to their standards (miTIK). F o r a striking
example of the R o m a n practice, see Josephus, B.J. vi 6 , 1 ( 3 1 6 ) , depicting the worship of the
signa by t h e legionaries in the burning T e m p l e of Jerusalem i n A.D. 70 {KOfxiaavres ras
(Trifi.aias els ro Upov ... eOvadv T€ aurais avdori). F o r a discussion of t h e problem of the
Kittim, see R. Goossens, 'Les Kittim du C o m m e n t a i r e d ' H a b a c u c ' , L a Nouvelle Clio 4
(1952), p p . I'jj—JO; Vermes, Les manuscrits du desert de Juda {ig^^}, pp. 84-9 ( = Discovery
in the Judean Desert, pp. 79-85) ; G. R . Driver, The Judaean Scrolls (1965), pp. 197-216. For
tlic Seleucid identity of the Kittim, see H. H . Rowley, The ^cuiokite Fragments and the Dead
Sea Scrolls (1952), pp. 6 2 - 8 8 ; I. Rabinowitz, ' T h e Meaning of the K e y ("Demetrius")
i'a.ssage of the Qiamran N a h u m Pesher', J A O S 98 (1978), p p . 394-9.
5. The opposite theory, viz. that ' t h e Wicked Priest' represents, not a single person, but
,1 succession of priestly figures from J u d a s M a c c a b a e u s to Alexander J a n n a e u s , has been
recently argued by A. S. v a n der W o u d e , 'Wicked Priest or Wicked Priests?', J J S 33
I Essays in Honour of Yigael Yadin] (1982), pp. 349-59.
6. For the J o n a t h a n / S i m o n thesis see G. Vermes, Les manuscrits du desert de Juda (1953),
pp. 92-100 [ = Discovery, pp. 8 9 - 9 7 ]'•>J- T. Mihk, Dix ans de decouvertes dans le desert de Juda
f '9.')7) I ~ Years of Discovery, p p . 84-7] ; F. M . Cross, The Ancient Library of Qumran
1958), p p . 135—53; ^ - V a u x , L'archeologie et les manuscrits de la Mer Morte (1961), pp.
()i> I [ = Archaeology and the Dead Sea Scrolls (1973), pp. 116-17; G. Vermes, DSSE, pp.
t)3 4 ; G. Jeremias, Der Lehrer der Gerechtigkeit (1963); L. Moraldi, M Q , p . 107; H.
Stegemann, Die Entstehung der Qumrangemeinde (1971); M . Hengel, Judaism and Hellenism 1
1974), p p . 224-7 ; J . M u r p h y - O ' C o n n o r , ' T h e Essenes a n d their History', R B 81 (1974),
J))). 215-44; idem, 'Demetrius I and the T e a c h e r of Righteousness', R B 83 (1976), pp.
.|()<)-2o; idem, ' T h e Essenes in Palestine', BA 40 (1977), p p . 100—24; G. Vermes, DSS, pp.
137 62; H . Burgmann, 'Gerichtsherr und Generalanklager: J o n a t h a n und Simon', R Q
R i g h t e o u s n e s s , b u t n o n e of t h e m is b a s e d o n sufficiently c o n v e r g e n t
a r g u m e n t . ^ T h e ' H o u s e of A b s a l o m ' , a f r i e n d l y g r o u p w h i c h failed to
s u p p o r t t h e T e a c h e r of R i g h t e o u s n e s s a g a i n s t ' t h e L i a r ' ( 5 : 9 - 1 2 ) , a l s o
remains undefined.^
Editions
Burrows, M . , Trever, J . C. a n d Brownlee, W. H . , The Dead Sea Scrolls of St. Mark's
Monastery I (1950), pi. L V - L X I .
Lohse, E., T Q H D , pp. 227-43.
Translations
English
Vermes, DSSE'^, p p . 235—43.
French
C a r m i g n a c , J., T Q I I , p p . 93-117.
German
M a i e r , J . , T T M I , pp. 149-56.
Lohse, op. cit.
Italian
Bibliography
D u p o n t - S o m m e r , A., Observations sur le Commentaire d'Habacuc dicouvert pris de la Mer Morte
(1950)-
9 (l'977)> PP- 3-72 ; J- Starcky, 'Le Maitre de Justice et la chronologie de Q u m r a n ' , in M .

Delcor (ed.), Qumrdn (1978), pp. 2 4 9 - 5 6 ; H. Burgmann, 'Das umstrittene inter-
sacerdotium in J e r u s a l e m 159-152 v. Chr.', J S J 11 (1980), pp. 135-76; G. Vermes, ' T h e
Essenes a n d History', J J S 32 (1981), p p . 18-31 [ = Jesus and the World of Judaism (1983),
pp. 128-39, 1 8 2 - 4 ] ; D i m a n t , ' Q u m r a n Sectarian Literature', J W S T P H, p . 510. For
the identification of the Wicked Priest as Menelaus, cf. H. H . Rowley, The âdokite
Fragments and the Dead Sea Scrolls (1952), p p . 6 8 - 7 0 . F o r Alexander J a n n a e u s , see J .
C a r m i g n a c , T Q I I (1963), pp. 48-55.
7. The following identifications of t h e Teacher h a v e been advanced : Onias I I I (H. H .
Rowley, .^^dokite Fragments, p p . 6 7 - 8 ) ; Yose ben Yoezer (E. Stauffer, 'Der gekreuzigte
Thoralehrer', Z R G G 8 (1956), pp. 2 5 0 - 3 ) ; anonymous successor of Alcimus as H i g h
Priest (J. M u r p h y - O ' C o n n o r , 'The Essenes and their History', RB 81 (1974), p p .
229—30); Eleazar the Pharisee (H. H . Brownlee, ' T h e Historical Allusions of the D e a d
Sea H a b a k k u k M i d r a s h ' , B A S O R 126 (1952); the Essene J u d a s (J. Carmignac, 'Qui etait
le D o c t e u r de Justice?', R Q 10 (1980), pp. 235-46, 5 8 5 - 6 ) ; Onias t h e Righteous (R.
Goossens, 'Onias le J u s t e , le Messie de la Nouvelle Alliance', La Nouvelle Clio 1-2
(1949-50), pp. 3 3 6 - 5 3 ; J o h n the Baptist (B. E . Thiering, Redating the Teacher of
Righteousness (1979), p. 212); Jesus of Nazareth (J. L. Tcicher, 'Jesus i n the H a b a k k u k
Scroll', J J S 3 (1952), p p . 53-5) ; Menahem, son ofJ u d a s t h e Galilean ( G . R. Driver, The
Judaean Scrolls (1965), p p . 267—81).
8. Unless Absalom is simply taken as symbolizing a rebellious son, t h e c o m m e n t a t o r
m a y refer to various historical characters of t h e M a c c a b a e a n age (i M a c . 11:70 ; 13:11 or
2 M a c . 11:17; cf. D. N . Freedman, ' T h e House o f Absalom in the H a b a k k u k Scroll',
B A S O R 114 (1949), p p . 11-12) or to an associate o f M e n a h e m son o f j u d a s t h e GaHIean
(Josephus, B.J. ii 17, 9 ( 4 4 8 ) ; cf. Driver, Judaean Scrolls, p. 281).
Delcor, M . , Essai sur le Midrash d'Habacuc (1951).

Dagut, M . B., ' T h e H a b a k k u k Scroll a n d Pompey's C a p t u r e of J e r u s a l e m ' , Bibl 32
(1951), pp. 542-8.
Segal, M . H., ' T h e H a b a k k u k C o m m e n t a r y a n d the D a m a s c u s F r a g m e n t s ' , J B L 70
( i 9 5 i ) . P P - 131-47-
Stauffer, E . , ' Z u r Friihdatierung des H a b a k u k m i d r a s c h ' , T h L Z 7 6 (1951), cols. 667-74.
Talmon, S., 'Yom Hakkippurim i n the H a b a k k u k Scroll', Bibl 32 (1951), p p . 549-63.
Brownlee, W . H . , 'Historical Allusions in t h e Dead Sea H a b a k k u k Midrash', B A S O R 126
(1952), pp- 10-20.
Elliger, K . , Studien zum Habakuk-Kommentar vom Toten Meer (1953).
Wieder, N . , ' T h e H a b a k k u k Scroll a n d the T a r g u m ' , J J S 4 (1953), pp. 14-18.
T e i c h e r , J . L . , ' T h e H a b a k k u k Scroll', J J S 5 (1954), p p . 47-59-
R a b i n , C , 'Notes on t h e H a b a k k u k Scroll a n d t h e Zadokite D o c u m e n t s ' , V T 5 (1955),
pp. 148-62.
Brownlee, W. H . , ' T h e H a b a k k u k M i d r a s h a n d t h e T a r g u m of J o n a t h a n ' , J J S 7 (1956),
pp. 169-86.
Osswald, E., ' Z u r Hermeneutik des H a b a k u k - K o m m e n t a r ' , Z A W 58 (1956), p p . 243-56.
Ploeg, J . v a n d e r , 'L'usage d u parfait et de I'imparfait c o m m e m o y e n d e datation d a n s le
C o m m e n t a i r e d ' H a b a c u c ' , in Les manuscrits de la Mer Morte (1957), p p . 25-35.
Bruce, F. F . , ' T h e Dead Sea H a b a k k u k Scroll', A L U O S i (1958-9), p p . 5-24.
Atkinson, K. M . T., ' T h e Historical Setting of the H a b a k k u k C o m m e n t a r y ' , J S S 4
(•959). PP- 238-63.
Brownlee, W. H . , The Text of Habakkuk in the Ancient Commentary from Qumran (1959).
Winter, P . , ' T w o Non-Allegorical Expressions in t h e D e a d Sea Scrolls', PEQ_9i (1959),
pp. 38-46.
Silberman, L. H . , 'UnriddHng the R i d d l e : A Study of t h e Structure a n d Language o f the
Habakkuk Pesher', R Q , 3 (1961), pp. 3 2 8 - 6 4 . -
Vermes, G . , ' L e b a n o n ' , Scripture and Tradition, pp. 26-39.
Williamson, H. G . M., ' T h e T r a n s l a t i o n of i Q , p H a b V, 10', R Q , 9 (1977), p p . 263-5.
Delcor, M . , ' Q u m r a n ' , DBS I X , cols. 904-8.
Brownlee, W. H . , The Midrash Pesher of Habakkuk (1979).
Horgan, M . P., Peskarim (1979), pp. 10-55.
12. Commentaries on êphaniah ( i Q , i 5 and 4 Q 1 7 0 )

Insignificant fragments of t w o e x p o s i t i o n s of Z e p h a n i a h have been
d i s c o v e r e d i n C a v e s i a n d 4. T h e f o r m e r c o v e r s Z e p h . 1:18—2:2. T h e
d i v i n e n a m e is w r i t t e n i n a r c h a i c c h a r a c t e r s . I n l i n e 4, t h e t e r m 1tt?D
c a n be r e a d b u t o n l y t h e w o r d s ' l a n d of J u d a h ' a r e preserved from the
c o m m e n t a r y . S i m i l a r l y , t h e t w o m i n u t e s c r a p s of4Qj/o indicate that
Z e p h . 1 : 1 2 - 1 3 is f o l l o w e d b y t h e i n t r o d u c t o r y f o r m u l a , 1*1tJ^D.
Editions
Milik, J . T . , D J D I, p . 80.
Allegro, J . M., D J D V , p . 42.
Bibliography
C a r m i g n a c , J., T Q I I , p . 118.
Strugnell, J., 'Notes e n marge . . . ' , R Q 7 (1970), p p . 210—11.
Moraldi, L., M Q , p. 5 4 4 .
Horgan, M . P., Pesharim (1979), pp. 6 3 - 5 .
ij. Commentaries on the Psalms (4QpPss^''' or 4Q171, 173)

T w o ' H e r o d i a n ' m a n u s c r i p t s c o n t a i n i n g pesher-type commentaries o n
tlie P s a l m s h a v e e m e r g e d from C a v e 4 a n d h a v e b e e n e d i t e d b y J . M .
A l l e g r o i n D J D V . T h e first of t h e s e , o r i g i n a l l y k n o w n as 4QpPsjy,
consists o f t h i r t e e n f r a g m e n t s a n d r e p r e s e n t s t h e t e x t a n d s u b s t a n t i a l
r e m a i n s of t h e exegesis of P s . 3 7 : 7 - 4 0 ; 4 5 : 1 - 2 a n d 60:8-9.
T e t r a g r a m appears i n archaic script eight times. T h e second m a n u s c r i p t
survives i n five f r a g m e n t s a c c o r d i n g to its e d i t o r s , b u t Fr. 5 a p p e a r s t o
h a v e b e e n copied b y a different, s o m e w h a t later h a n d . ' T h e y are all
t i n y , b u t it is p o s s i b l e to r e c o g n i z e P s . 1 2 7 : 2 - 3 , 5 ; 1 2 9 : 7 - 8 , a n d F r . 5
c o n t a i n s a r e f e r e n c e to P s . 1 1 8 : 2 6 - 7 . F r . 3 m e n t i o n s t h e T e a c h e r o f
Righteousness.
T h e f o u r c o l u m n s oi 4Qjyi d e a l i n g w i t h Ps. 3 7 a p p l y a d e s c r i p t i o n o f
t h e d e s t i n y of t h e r i g h t e o u s a n d t h e w i c k e d t o the sectaries a n d t h e i r
o p p o n e n t s . T h e first a r e p o r t r a y e d as ' t h o s e w h o r e t u r n to T o r a h '
( 2 : 2 - 3 ) ; ' t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n of ( G o d ' s ) e l e c t ' (2:5 ; 3 : 5 ) ; ' t h e P o o r ' (2:9;
3 : 1 0 ) ; ' t h e C o u n c i l of t h e C o m m u n i t y ' ( 2 : 1 4 ) ; ' t h e p e n i t e n t s of t h e
d e s e r t ' ( 3 : 1 ) ; ' t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n of t h e C o m m u n i t y ' (4:19). T h e y a r e l e d
by ' t h e I n t e r p r e t e r o f K n o w l e d g e ' ( 1 : 1 9 ) ; ' t h e Priest, t h e T e a c h e r o f
R i g h t e o u s n e s s ' ( 3 : 1 5 ; 4:8). T h e e n e m i e s o f t h e sect a r e ' t h e w i c k e d o f
E p h r a i m a n d M a n a s s e h ' ( 2 : 1 7 ) ; ' t h e v i o l e n t . . . w h o p l o t to d e s t r o y
t h o s e w h o p r a c t i s e t h e T o r a h ' (2:13—14). T h e y a r e t h e followers o f ' t h e
L i a r ' ( 1 : 1 8 ; 4 : 1 4 ) ; o f ' t h e W i c k e d P r i e s t ' (4:8) w h o seeks ( u n s u c c e s s
fully, it seems) to e l i m i n a t e t h e T e a c h e r of R i g h t e o u s n e s s a n d h i s
associates ( 2 : 1 8 - 1 9 ; 4:8-9), a n d is d e s t i n e d t o be d e l i v e r e d i n t o t h e
h a n d s of t h e v i o l e n t o f t h e n a t i o n s ( 4 : 9 - 1 0 ; cf 2 : 1 9 ) .
T h e h i s t o r i c a l allusions usefully s u p p l e m e n t t h e i n f o r m a t i o n g a t h e r e d
f r o m t h e p r o p h e t i c pesharim, e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e of H a b a k k u k a n d N a h u m ,
in p a r d c u l a r b y t h e c l e a r s t a t e m e n t r e g a r d i n g t h e priestly c h a r a c t e r o f
the T e a c h e r of R i g h t e o u s n e s s , a n d b y specifying t h a t the e n e m i e s w h o
p u n i s h e d t h e W i c k e d Priest w e r e G e n t i l e s a n d n o t J e w s . T h i s f e a t u r e
a p p e a r s t o w e i g h h e a v i l y in f a v o u r of t h e identification o f J o n a t h a n
M a c c a b a e u s a s t h e chief adversary, since h e w a s c a p t u r e d a n d
m u r d e r e d by t h e S e l e u c i d g e n e r a l , T r y p h o n . * I t is w o r t h n o t i n g o n c e
m o r e t h a t the K i t t i m a r e n o t m e n t i o n e d i n t h e age o f t h e T e a c h e r o f
Righteousness a n d t h e Wicked Priest.
T h e r e is no c l e a r d a t i n g c r i t e r i o n i n t h e e x t a n t m a t e r i a l , b u t i t m a y
be a s s u m e d t h a t , like o t h e r pesharim, 4QpPss a l s o o r i g i n a t e d in t h e first
c e n t u r y B.C.
P s . 37 is followed, after a single b l a n k l i n e , b y Ps. 4 5 ( 4 : 2 3 - 7 ) . O n l y
five n o n - c o n t i n u o u s w o r d s of the pesher to verses 1 - 2 a r e e x t a n t , w i t h a
I . J . Strugnell, 'Notes e n marge', R Q , 7 (1970), p. 219.

2. Cf. vol. I, pp. 186-8; vol. I I , p. 587.
possible m e n t i o n o f t h e ' T e a c h [ e r o f R i g h t e o u s n e s s ] ' . S i m i l a r l y , all t h a t

c a n be d e d u c e d f r o m F r . 13 is t h a t it b e l o n g s t o a c o m m e n t a r y o n Ps.
60:8-9. ^ o l - 4 w h i c h P s a l m s 37 a n d 4 5 a r e j u x t a p o s e d p r o v e s t h a t t h e
c o m m e n t a r y deals, not w i t h t h e w h o l e Psalter, b u t o n l y w i t h a selection
of P s a l m s .
4QpPs (40/73) contains two mentions of the Teacher of
R i g h t e o u s n e s s ( F r . i, h n e 4 a n d F r . 2, l i n e 2) w i t h o u t a n y m e a n i n g f u l
c o n t e x t . F r . 4 c o n t a i n s t h e q u o t a t i o n of P s . 1 2 9 : 7 - 8 .
Fourteen t i n y r e m a i n s of u n i d e n t i f i a b l e pesher texts {4Qjy2) may
b e l o n g , b e c a u s e o f t h e a p p a r e n t i d e n t i t y of t h e s c r i p t , e i t h e r t o 4QPss^
= 4QJ71, o r 4Qj)Isa'' = 4QJ61, or 4QpHos'' = 4Qi66.^
Editions
Allegro, J . M., D J D V , p p . 4 2 - 5 3 .
Lohse, E., T Q H D , pp. 269-75.
Translations
English
Allegro, op. cit.
French
German
Maier, J . , Q-E, p p . 302-4.
Italian
Bibliography
Allegro, J . M., ' A newly discovered F r a g m e n t of a C o m m e n t a r y on Psalm 37 of Q u m r a n ' ,
P E Q 8 6 (1954), p p . 69-74.
Idem, 'Further Light o n the History of the Q u m r a n Sect', J B L 7 5 (1956), pp. 9 4 - 5 .
Carmignac, J., 'Notes sur les Pesharim', R Q 3 (1962), p p . 505-38.
Stegemann, H . , 'Der Peser Psalm 37 a u s Hohle 4 v o n Q u m r a n ' , R Q 6 (1963), pp.
235-70.
D u p o n t - S o m m e r , A., 'Explicadon des textes hebreux . . . : C o m m e n t a i r e d u Psaume
X X X V i r , Annuaire d u College de F r a n c e 6 4 (1964), pp. 3 2 0 - 3 .
Stegemann, H . , 'Weitere Stiicke von 4QPsalm 37', R Q 6 (1967), pp. 193-227.
D u p o n t - S o m m e r , A., '4QpPs37', A n n . du Coll. d e F r a n c e 69 ( 1 9 6 9 - 7 0 ) , pp. 3 9 5 - 4 0 4 .
Strugnell, J., 'Notes en marge', R Q 7 (1970), pp. 211-20.
C o o t e , R . B., ' M W T ) H T ' N Y T i n 4Q.171', R Q 8 (1972), p p . 8 1 - 5 .
Pardee, D . , 'A R e s t u d y of the C o m m e n t a r y on Psalm 37 from Q u m r a n Cave I V ' , R Q 8
(1973), PP- 163-94-
Horgan, M . P., Pesharim (1979), pp. 192-226.
Dimant, D., ' Q u m r a n Sectarian L i t e r a t u r e ' , J W S T P I I , p p . 512—13.
3. Allegro, op. cit., p . 50 adds ?4QHos'' to this list, b u t Strugnell, ?art. cit., p. 218 believes to
b e able t o ?distinguish there another hand. ? ?
14. Prayer of Nabonidus (4QprNab)

T h r e e A r a m a i c texts r e l a t e d i n s o m e w a y to t h e B o o k of D a n i e l h a v e
b e e n d i s c o v e r e d in C a v e 4 a n d issued i n p r e l i m i n a r y e d i t i o n s . S o m e
m a y b e l o n g t o t h e p r e - E s s e n e p e r i o d , b u t u n d l f u r t h e r e v i d e n c e is
f o r t h c o m i n g it is safer to classify t h e m as s e c t a r i a n .
T h e first, a n d so far t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t , d o c u m e n t is t h e P r a y e r of
N a b o n i d u s {^.QprNab) w h i c h p e r t a i n s to t h e m a n u s c r i p t lot e n t r u s t e d t o
J . T . Milik, w h o d a t e s it p a l a e o g r a p h i c a l l y to t h e s e c o n d h a l f of t h e first
century B.C.
T h e d o c u m e n t is f u r n i s h e d w i t h a h e a d i n g : ' T h e w o r d s o f t h e p r a y e r
u t t e r e d b y N a b u n a i , k i n g of [ t h e ] l [ a n d of B a ] b y l o n , [ w h e n h e w a s
afflicted] w i t h a n evil u l c e r in T e i m a n by t h e d e c r e e o f the [ M o s t H i g h ]
G [ o d ] . ' T h e title is followed b y the a c t u a l p r a y e r c o m p o s e d in t h e first
p e r s o n . T h e k i n g relates t h a t after h e h a d suffered from a disease for
seven y e a r s , a J e w i s h exorcist (*1T1)' p a r d o n e d h i s sins, a n d o r d e r e d h i m
to r e c o r d the s t o r y o f his r e c o v e r y to h o n o u r t h e M o s t H i g h G o d w h o ,
u n l i k e m a n - m a d e g o d s , w a s a b l e to r e s t o r e h i m t o h e a l t h .
T h e a c c o u n t is p a r a l l e l to t h a t of t h e illness a n d m i r a c u l o u s c u r e o f
N e b u c h a d n e z z a r in D a n . 4. T h e p r i n c i p a l difference b e t w e e n t h e two is
t h a t in t h e Q u m r a n v e r s i o n the J e w i s h exorcist p l a y s a p r o m i n e n t role.
M i l i k c o n j e c t u r e s t h a t ^.QprNab, o r t h e t r a d i t i o n o n w h i c h it d e p e n d s ,
is t h e s o u r c e o f t h e s c r i p t u r a l story.* H i s m a i n r e a s o n is t h a t t h e
r e p l a c e m e n t o f the less well k n o w n N a b o n i d u s by t h e m o r e f a m o u s
N e b u c h a d n e z z a r is m o r e likely t h a n vice versa.^ I n the a b s e n c e of a
fuller a c c o u n t o f t h e w o r k , this a r g u m e n t , t h o u g h a t t r a c t i v e , r e m a i n s
u n c o n v i n c i n g , a s it is c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t t h e a p o c r y p h a l s t o r y c o n c e r n e d
two h e a l i n g m i r a c l e s , o n e w i t h N a b o n i d u s , t h e o t h e r w i t h N e b u c h
adnezzar as the patient.
T h e l i n k attested i n this passage b e t w e e n sickness, forgiveness of sins
a n d physical c u r e is a n i m p o r t a n t l a n d m a r k i n p o s t - b i b l i c a l J e w i s h
religious t h o u g h t . *
I n r e g a r d to t h e d a t e o f 4QprNab, if M i l i k ' s h y p o t h e s i s is a c c e p t e d ,
the d o c u m e n t m u s t b e l o n g t o t h e p r e - D a n i e l , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y
1. Cf. A. Dupont-Sommer, 'Exorcismes et guerisons d a n s les ecrits d e Q p u m r a n ' ,

Congress Volume Oxfordig^g (i960), pp. 256-9.
2. 'Priere d e Nabonide e t autres ecrits d ' u n cycle de Daniel', RB 6 3 (1956), p. 4 1 1 .
3. Ten Tears of Discovery, p. 37.
4. C f Vermes, Jesus the Jew, p p . 6 5 - 9 ; Jesus and the World of Judaism, pp. 6-10. P .
Grelot, 'La priere d e Nabonide (4 Q O r N a b ) ' , R Q , 9 (1978), p p . 483-95, attempts t o
reconstruct the damaged text so that t h e healing is a t t r i b u t e d to G o d : ' E t ap[res cela,]
D[ieu] dirigea [sa face vers moi e t il me guerit,] et m o n pcche, il le remit. U n d e v i n — e t
celui-ci [etait un homme j ] u i f . . . ' (p. 485). T h e weakness of the hypothesis is t h a t Grelot
overlooks the ideological link between healing and forgiveness of sins. H i s new reading
creates also a n unnatural division between Th p3ir a n d ITl. It is m u c h s m o o t h e r to e n d
the phrase with the latter, a n d start a n e w sentence with Kim.
p r e - Q u m r a n , e r a a n d m a y b e a s s i g n e d t o t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e s e c o n d
c e n t u r y , or p e r h a p s t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y B.C., if n o t e a r U e r . ^ B u t if it is n o t
c o n s i d e r e d a s a s o u r c e of t h e b i b h c a l c o m p o s i t i o n — t h e referetide to
h e a h n g / f o r g i v e n e s s of sins m a y b e s e e n a s a n E s s e n e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ^ — a
l a t e s e c o n d c e n t u r y or first c e n t u r y B.C. d a t e w o u l d s e e m a p p r o p r i a t e .
T h e choice of A r a m a i c r a t h e r t h a n H e b r e w w o u l d favour t h e earlier
period.
Editions
Milik, J . T., 'Priere d e Nabonide et autres ecrits d ' u n cycle de D a n i e l : Fragments
arameens de Q u m r a n 4', RB 6 3 (1956), p p . 4 0 7 - 1 1 .
Fitzmyer, J . A. a n d H a r r i n g t o n , D. J . , M P A T , no. 2, pp. 2 - 4 , 1 9 1 - 3 .
Jongeling, B., Labuschagne, C . J . a n d W o u d e , A. S. van der, Aramaic Texts from Qumran I
(1976), p p . 123-31.
Translations
English
Vermes, DSSE^, p. 229.
Fitzmyer and H a r r i n g t o n , op. cit.
Jongeling et al., op. cit.
French
D u p o n t - S o m m e r , A., E E , pp. 3 3 6 - 4 1 .
Carmignac, J., T Q H , p p . 289-94.
German
Meyer, R . , Das Gebet des Nabonid. Eine in den Qumranschriften wiederentdeckte Weisheits-
erz&hlung ( 1 9 6 2 ) .
Italian
Bibliography
Vogt, E., 'Precatio regis Nabonid in pia n a r r a d o n e iudaica', Bibl 37 (1956), p p . 532-4.
D u p o n t - S o m m e r , A., 'Exorcismes et guerisons d a n s les ecrits d e Q u m r a n ' , Congress Volume
Oxford Ig^g [ V T S 7] (i960), p p . 246-61.
Meyer, R., Das Gebet des Mabonid: Eine in den Qumran-Handschriften wiederentdeckte
Weisheitserzdhlung (1962).
Dommershausen, W., Jâbonid im Buche Daniel (1964), p p . 68-76.
Delcor, M . , 'Le Testament d e J o b , l a priere de N a b o n i d e et les traditions targoumiques',
in Bibel und Qumran ( H . Bardtke Festschrift) (1968), pp. 57-74.
Mertens, A., Das Buch Daniel im Lichte der Texte vom Toten Meer (1970), p p . 34—42.
Kirchschlager, W . , 'Exorcismus in Q u m r a n ? ' , Kairos 18 (1976), p p . 135-53.
Grelot, P . , 'La priere d e Nabonide ( 4 Q O r N a b ) . Nouvel essai de restauration', R Q 9
(1978), p p . 483-95.
Woude, A. S. v a n d e r , 'Bemerkungen z u m G e b e t des N a b o n i d ' , in M . Delcor, Qumrdn
(1978), p p . 121-9.
5. R. Meyer, Das Gebet des Nabonid (1962), places it in t h e Persian period, a n d is

followed by Nickelsburg ( J W S T P I I , p . 36). Grelot, art. cit., p . 4 9 5 , prefers a third
century B.C. d a t e d u r i n g the reign of Antiochus I I I .
6. Cf Vermes, PBJS, pp. 8 - 2 9 .
442 §32. Jewish Literature in Llebrew or Aramaic
Garcia Martinez, F., ' 4 Q , O r N a b . N u e v a sintesis', Sefarad 4 0 (1980), pp. 5-25.

Nickelsburg, G. E . W., 'Stories of Biblical a n d Early Post-Biblical Times', J W S T P I I , p p .
35-7-
Cross, F. M . , ' T h e Prayer of Nabonidus', l E J 34 (1984), p p . 260-4.
/ J . Pseudo-Daniel Cycle (4QpsDan ar*"'^)

S m a l l A r a m a i c f r a g m e n t s d e t a c h e d from t w o m a n u s c r i p t s of t h e s a m e
w o r k ( M a n u s c r i p t s a a n d b, d i v i d e d i n t o sections A - F ) , a n d p o s s i b l y
f r o m a t h i r d m a n u s c r i p t (c), h a v e b e e n r e t r i e v e d from C a v e 4. T h e
s c r i p t is d e s c r i b e d as ' H e r o d i a n ' by t h e e d i t o r , J . T . M i l i k .
T h e w o r k r e p r e s e n t s a h i s t o r y o f m a n k i n d , b e g i n n i n g in sectiofl A
w i t h N o a h ' s d e s c e n t f r o m M o u n t L u b a r (cf a b o v e , p . 3 1 9 ) after t h e
flood a n d t h e b u i l d i n g o f t h e t o w e r . I n t h e n e x t e p i s o d e (section B ) ,
reference is m a d e t o E g y p t a n d t h e crossing o f t h e J o r d a n , n o d o u b t
following t h e e x o d u s . T h e t h i r d section ( C ) a l l u d e s t o t h e w i c k e d n e s s of
the Israelites (sacrificing t h e i r sons to d e m o n s ) , for w h i c h t h e y w e r e
p u n i s h e d by N e b u c h a d n e z z a r . S e c t i o n D a p p e a r s to i n t r o d u c e t h e
D a n i e l l e c o n c e p t o f t h e four k i n g d o m s , explicitly referring (if t h e
r e c o n s t r u c t i o n [Kn''D]lp> is c o r r e c t ) t o t h e first of t h e s e , n o
d o u b t t h a t of B a b y l o n , a s t h e m e n t i o n of ' s e v e n t y y e a r s ' s u g g e s t s .
S e c t i o n E has p r e s e r v e d t h e n a m e O n D ' ? 3 , a n d t w o f u r t h e r e n d i n g s i n
D i n * n . . . a n d 0 1 . . . H e n c e t h e p a s s a g e m u s t d e a l w i t h t h e k i n g d o m of t h e
Greeks. Section F a n d M a n u s c r i p t c relate to t h e eschatological e r a .
O w i n g to t h e f r a g m e n t a r y n a t u r e o f t h e d o c u m e n t , it is i m p o s s i b l e t o
assert w i t h a n y d e g r e e of c o n f i d e n c e w h e t h e r i t s w o r l d p o w e r s a r e t h e
s a m e as D a n i e l ' s , v i z . B a b y l o n , M e d i a , P e r s i a , a n d G r e e c e . B u t since
t h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e of t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e K i t t i m - R o m a n s , it is
r e a s o n a b l e to e n d h i s t o r y w i t h t h e S e l e u c i d s .
I f t h e a b s e n c e o f t h e R o m a n s is n o t f o r t u i t o u s , the w o r k w o u l d
a n t e d a t e 63 B.C. If, m o r e o v e r , M i l i k ' s s u g g e s t i o n t h a t B a l a k r o s is
A l e x a n d e r B a l a s , a c o n t e m p o r a r y of J o n a t h a n M a c c a b a e u s (cf vol. I ,
p p . 130, 1 8 1 ) , a m i d - s e c o n d c e n t u r y B.C. terminus a quo w o u l d b e
n e e d e d . T h e d a t e o f c o m p o s i t i o n , p r o p o s e d b y t h e e d i t o r , is circa 100
B.C.'
I. A n o t h e r fragment of the Pseudo-Daniel cycle, designated 4QpsDanA'' (= 4Q24S),\s/as
presented b y J . T . MiHk in a public lecture at H a r v a r d University in 1972, a n d w a s
published, n o doubt on t h e basis of a hand-out, by J . A . Fitzmyer in 'The Contribution of
Q u m r a n Aramaic t o the Study o f the N e w T e s t a m e n t ' , N T S t 20 (1973-74), PP- 382-407
(= A Wandering Aramean (1979), pp- 85—113; esp. 90—3). T h e Aramaic text is c o n t a i n e d
in a badly mutilated two-column fragment which Milik assigns, on palaeographical
grounds, to the last third o f the first century B.C.
T h e document appears to speak of t h e eschatological distress preceding the triumph of
God's people. T h e 'king of Assyria' a n d 'Egypt' a r e mentioned. T h e better preserved
section consists of a prophetic a n n o u n c e m e n t of someone called 'Son of G o d ' ( b s "^1 m 3 ) ,
and ' S o n of the Most H i g h ' (P'''?S7 *13). Milik offers a historical interpretation a n d , oddly,
proposes to identify the personality as Alexander Balas. Fitzmyer, by contrast, prefers a
Editions
Milik, J. T . , 'Priere d e Nabonide e t autres ecrits d ' u n cycle de Daniel. Fragments
arameens de Q u m r a n 4', R B 63 (1956), p p . 411-15.
I'iizmyer, J . A., a n d H a r r i n g t o n , D. J . , M P A T no. 3 , pp. 4 - 9 .
Translations
English
Fitzmyer, op. cit.
French
Milik, op. cit.
Bibliography
Mertens, A., Das Buch Daniel im Lichte der Texte vom Toten Meer (1970), p p . 42-50.
a. Interpretation of Diverse Biblical Texts
I. Ordinances or Commentaries on Biblical Laws (40,159, 5 1 3 , 5 1 4 )

T h r e e ' H e r o d i a n ' manuscripts found in C a v e 4 preserve parts of a
r e - i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of s c r i p t u r a l c o m m a n d m e n t s . 4QJ39 a n d 4Q313 p a r t l y
o v e r l a p . I t is less c e r t a i n t h a t 4Q314 also b e l o n g s t o the s a m e h a l a k h i c
complex.
T h e first section {4QJ39 2 : 1 - 5 ) d e a l s w i t h D t . 2 3 : 2 5 - 6 . W h e r e a s t h e
Bible p e r m i t s a t r a v e l l e r to p l u c k e a r s of c o r n i n a n o t h e r ' s field as l o n g
as h e d o e s n o t use a sickle, t h e Q u m r a n e x e g e t e , a p p l y i n g the law t o a
d e s t i t u t e Israelite, s t i p u l a t e s t h a t h e m a y eat i n t h e field, b u t m u s t n o t
collect g r a i n t o s t o r e it i n his h o m e .
T h e s e c o n d section ( 2 : 6 - 1 7 a n d 4Q513, F r s . 1 - 2 ) r e l a t e s to t h e
half-shekel t a x i m p o s e d b y E x o d . 3 0 : 1 1 - 1 6 o n e v e r y Israefite m a n f r o m
t h e age of t w e n t y y e a r s . T h i s is i n t e r p r e t e d t o m e a n a single p a y m e n t ,
a c c o r d i n g to t h e shekel of t h e S a n c t u a r y , a n d n o t a y e a r l y t r i b u t e as
w a s the g e n e r a l r u l e from N e h . 10:32 o n w a r d s . '
T h e t h i r d exegetical c o m p l e x {4QJ59, F r s . 2—4) e x p o u n d s L e v .
2 5 : 3 9 - 4 6 c o n c e r n i n g t h e p r o h i b i t i o n to sell a n Israefite as a slave to
G e n t i l e s . N e x t , t h e d o c u m e n t i n t r o d u c e s a c o u r t c o n s i s t i n g of ten
Jewish ruler. It is useless to speculate further whether i n fact t h e character in question

should be recognized as eschatological or messianic until more authoritative information
is m a d e available.
J . T. M i h k has also published three small fragments of an Aramaic manuscript which
'appears t o date to the second half of the first century B . C ' and comes from Cave 4. He
conjectures that they a r e from the Daniel cycle and represent the background of the
Susannah story: 4QPanSus(?). However, as no specific traits a r e discernible in the text,
the identification must remain highly problematic. C f 'Daniel et Susanne a Q u m r a n ? ' , in
J. Dore et al. (eds.), De la TSrah au Messie. Melanges Henri Gazelles (1981), pp. 337-59, esp.
355-7-
I . Cf J . Liver, 'The Half-Shekel ?Offering in Biblical and Post-BibHcal ?Literature',
H T h R 56 (1963), pp. 173-98; G. ?Vermes, PBJS, p p . 4 1 - 2 . ?
I s r a e l i t e s a n d t w o priests,* e n d o w e d w i t h c a p i t a l j u r i s d i c t i o n . I n the
f o l l o w i n g section, Dt. 22:5, o u t l a w i n g any interchange of garments
b e t w e e n the sexes, is r e s t a t e d i n g e n e r a l t e r m s in r e g a r d t o w o m e n , b u t
as far a s m e n a r e c o n c e r n e d i t is specified t h a t t h e y m u s t w e a r n e i t h e r
t h e m a n t l e n o r t h e t u n i c of a w o m a n . F i n a l l y , t h e l a w of D t . 2 2 : 1 3 — 2 1 ,
c o n c e r n i n g a v i r g i n i t y s u i t , is s u m m a r i z e d .
4Q513, Frs. 2-4 t r e a t of p u r i t y rules r e g a r d i n g food, and of feasts
m e n t i o n e d i n L e v . 23. F r . 1 2 s e e m s to refer t o u n c l e a n n e s s c a u s e d by
oil;^ Fr. 18 t o t h e s a b b a t i c a l y e a r . T h e r e s t is so b r o k e n that no
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is p o s s i b l e .
4Q514 also legislates on ritual purification in connection with
c o m m o n meals.*
Editions
Allegro, J . M., D J D V, p p . 6 - 9 .
Baillet, M . , D J D V I I , p p . 2 8 7 - 9
Translations
English
Allegro, op. cit.
Vermes, DSSE^, pp. 249, 252.
French
Italian
Bibliography
Allegro, J . M., ' A n Unpublished Fragment of Essene H a l a k h a h ( 4 Q O r d i n a n c e s ) ' , J S S 6
( i 9 6 i ) , p p . 71-3.
Liver, J . , 'The Half-Shekel Offering in Biblical a n d Post-Bibhcal Literature', H T h R 56
(1963), pp. 173-98.
Yadin, Y . , ' A N o t e o n 4Q159 (Ordinances)', lEJ 18 (1968), pp. 250-2.
Strugnell, 'Notes en marge . . . ' , R Q 7 (1970), pp. 175-9.
2. Cf J . M. Baumgarten, ' T h e Duodecimal Courts of Q u m r a n , t h e Apocalypse, a n d

the Sanhedrin', Studies in Qumran Law (1977), pp. 145-71.
3. Cf J . M. Baumgarten, ' T h e Essene Avoidance of Oil and t h e Laws of Purity', op. cit.,
p p . 88-97.
4. A small fragment of a halakhic d o c u m e n t {4QHalakhah 5), developing the law
regarding the offering of n e w grain and wine (Lev. 23:15-21 ; Dt. 26:1-11), has been
a p p e n d e d to the Copper Scroll b y J . T . Milik ( D J D I I I , p . 300). It has been subjected to
a fuller analysis by J . M. Baumgarten, fQHalakah''^, the L a w of Hadash, a n d the
Pentecostal Calendar', J J S 27 (1976), p p . 36-46 = Studies in Qumran Law (1977), p p .
131-42-
T h e halakhic composition from Cave 1 1 , summarily described by J . v a n der Ploeg,
' U n e halakha inedite d e Q u m r a n ' , i n M. Delcor, Qumrdn (1978), pp. 107-13, belongs to
t h e Temple Scroll. Cf ibid., p p . 112-13, a n d Y. Yadin, ' L e Rouleau d u Temple', ibid., p .
119, n. 2.
Weinert, F . D., '4Q,i59: Legislation for an Essene C o m m u n i t y outside o f Q u m r a n ' , J S J 5

(1974), pp. 179-207-
Vermes, G., PBJS, pp. 41—2.
Idem, DSS, p p . 79-80.
Weinert, F . D., ' A Note on 4Q,i59 a n d a N e w T h e o r y of Essene Origins', R Q , 9 (1977),
pp. 223-30.
2. Florilegium or Midrash on the Last Days (4QFlor = 4Qî 74)

T w e n t y - s i x f r a g m e n t s of a n ' e a r l y H e r o d i a n ' m a n u s c r i p t , t h e first t e n of
w h i c h a r e l a r g e e n o u g h to b e m e a n i n g f u l , t r a n s m i t a selection of
biblical texts w i t h e x p o s i t o r y c o m m e n t s .
T h e s c r i p t u r a l c i t a t i o n s i n c l u d e 2 S a m . 7:10—14, c o m b i n e d w i t h
Exod. 1 5 : 1 7 - 1 8 a n d A m o s 9 : 1 1 ; P s . 1:1 together with Isa. 8:11 a n d
Ezek. 4 4 : 1 0 ; P s . 2 : 1 ; D a n . 1 2 : 1 0 a n d v a r i o u s e x c e r p t s from D t . 33
(8-11, 12?, 1 9 - 2 1 ) .
T h e m a i n text i n t h e first section, 2 S a m . 7 : 1 0 - 1 4 , i m m e d i a t e l y
introduces a n eschatological slant b y a p p l y i n g t h e words of 2 S a m .
7:10, in t h e l i g h t o f E x o d . 1 5 : 1 7 - 1 8 , to t h e T e m p l e 'in t h e last d a y s ' ,
w h i c h s h a l l n o t b e p r o f a n e d b y G e n t i l e s a s w a s t h e historical b u i l d i n g .
A t h i r d T e m p l e c o n c e p t a p p e a r s i n t h e p h r a s e DIN tJ?lptt, ' S a n c t u a r y
of m e n ' , w h e r e t h e ' w o r k s of t h e T o r a h ' form t h e sacrificial offerings.
T h e biblical r e f e r e n c e t o S o l o m o n is i n t e r p r e t e d h e r e a s a n n o u n c i n g
' t h e B r a n c h o f D a v i d ' a n d ' t h e I n t e r p r e t e r of t h e T o r a h ' , the r o y a l a n d
( p r o b a b l y ) t h e priestly M e s s i a h s . '
T h e ITIIK) c o m p o s e d o f Ps. 1 : 1 , I s a . 8 : 1 1 a n d E z e k . 4 4 : 1 0 a p p e a r s to
identify t h e ' w i c k e d ' as t h e u n f a i t h f u l m e m b e r s o f t h e sect a n d t h e
'blessed' as t h e C o u n c i l o f the C o m m u n i t y .
T h e o p e n i n g v e r s e of P s a l m 2 is u n d e r s t o o d to a l l u d e t o t h e e n m i t y
b e t w e e n t h e elect a n d t h e G e n t i l e s , a n d t o t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l t r i a l
foretold b y D a n i e l . T h e final e x c e r p t c o n t a i n s t h e b l e s s i n g of M o s e s in
D e u t e r o n o m y 33 c o n c e r n i n g L e v i , p e r h a p s also B e n j a m i n , Z e b u l u n a n d
G a d , b u t n o t r a n s l a t a b l e r e m a i n s o f t h e exegesis are e x t a n t .
A l t h o u g h i n 1 : 1 7 the c o m m e n t a t o r a p p l i e s t h e p r o p h e t i c w o r d s t o t h e
'sons of Z a d o k ' , t h e style of t h e exegesis differs f r o m t h a t of a pesher.
I n d e e d i n 1 : 1 4 t h e a c t u a l t e r m 'midrash' is u s e d , i m p l y i n g no d o u b t a n
interpretative m e t h o d w h e r e b y t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e text u n d e r
c o n s i d e r a t i o n is d e r i v e d f r o m o t h e r b i b l i c a l q u o t a t i o n s . S c r i p t u r a l
works a r e c i t e d as ' t h e B o o k o f I s a i a h t h e p r o p h e t ' ( 1 : 1 5 ) ; ' t h e B o o k of
Ezekiel t h e p r o p h e t ' ( 1 : 1 6 ) ; ' t h e B o o k of D a n i e l t h e p r o p h e t ' ( 2 : 3 ) ; a n d
p r o b a b l y ' t h e Book of [ M o s e s ] ' (1:2—3), i n t r o d u c i n g E x o d . 15.
T h e ' S a n c t u a r y of m e n ' n o d o u b t c o r r e s p o n d s to t h e i d e a o f a n
i n t e r m e d i a r y s p i r i t u a l c e n t r e o f w o r s h i p f o r m e d b y t h e m e m b e r s of t h e
I . For T - n n » S see 4QpIsa , Frs. 8 - 1 0 , line 17; 4QPBlessor\; for minn i n n , cf iQS
t):f);CD6:7; 7-'S- See Vermes, DSS, p p . 184-5, '95-^-
s e c t a f t e r t h e i r secession from t h e J e r u s a l e m s a n c t u a r y , b u t p r i o r to t h e
r e s t o r a t i o n o f t h e T e m p l e c u l t in t h e s e v e n t h y e a r of t h e final w a r . *
Editions
Allegro, J . M., D J D V, p p . 5 3 - 7 .
Lohse, E., T Q H D , pp. 255-9.
Translations
English
Allegro, op. cit.
French
German
Maier, J . , T T M I , pp. 185-6.
Lohse, op. cit.
Italian
Bibliography
Allegro, J . M., ' F u r t h e r Messianic References in Q u m r a n Literature', J B L 75 (1956), p p .
174-6.
Idem, 'Fragments of a Q u m r a n Scroll of Eschatological Midrashim', J B L 77 (1958), pp.
351-4-
Yadin, Y., 'A Midrash o n 2 Samuel V I I (4Q_Florilegium)', lEJ 9 (1959), pp. 9 5 - 9 .
Flusser, D . , ' T w o Notes on t h e Midrash on 2 Sam. V I I ( 4 Q F l o r i l e g i u m ) ' , l E J 9 (1959),
p p . 99-109.
Strugnell, J., 'Notes en marge . . . ' , R Q , 7 (1970), p p . 220-5. ^
Vermes, DSS, p . 80.
Delcor, M . , ' Q u m r a n ' , DBS I X , col. 912.
Schwartz, D. R., 'The T h r e e Temples of 4QFlorilegium', R Q i o (1979), pp. 8 3 - 9 1 .
Ben-Yashar, M., 'Noch zum Miqdas A d a m i n Florilegium', R Q 10 (1981), pp. 587-8.
Dimant, D . , ' Q u m r a n Sectarian Literature', J W S T P I I , p p . 518-21.
3. Testimonia or Messianic Anthology {^QÎe&t = 40,175)

A n e a r l y c o m p l e t e c o l u m n of a ' m i d - H a s m o n e a n ' manuscript (first
quarter of t h e first century B . c . ) ' lists t h r e e b i b l i c a l citations (Dt.
5:28-9; 18:18-19 [ = S a m a r i t a n E x o d . 20:21b];* N u m . 2 4 : 1 5 — 1 7 ; D t .
33:8-11) and a quotation from the sectarian Psalms of Joshua,
c o m b i n e d w i t h J o s h . 6:26. N o n e o f t h e e x t r a c t s is a c c o m p a n i e d b y a n
e x p o s i t i o n , b u t t h e first t h r e e c l e a r l y p o i n t to e s c h a t o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r s :
2. Cf Vermes, Scripture and Tradition, p p . 26—39; PBJ'^) PP- ^4-5- ^lô D . R.

Schwartz, 'The T h r e e T e m p l e s of 4QFlorilegium', R Q i o (1979), pp. 8 3 - 9 1 .
1. Cf Strugnell, R Q 7 (1970), p. 225. See also F . M . Cross, Ancient Library, p . 114; J . T.
Milik, Ten Tears oJDiscovery, p . 124.
2. Cf Strugnell, art. cit., p. 172 apropos oi'4Qij8.
(a) a p r o p h e t h k e M o s e s , i.e. a m e s s i a n i c p r o p h e t , or t h e p r o p h e t i c
M e s s i a h ; (b) the S t a r a r i s i n g f r o m J a c o b a c c o r d i n g to B a l a a m ' s
p r o p h e c y , or t h e r o y a l M e s s i a h ; a n d (c) the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l r e p r e s e n t
a t i v e of L e v i , o r t h e priestly M e s s i a h . ^
T h e P s a l m s of J o s h u a q u o t a t i o n is u s u a l l y t a k e n t o refer to a n
a n t i - M e s s i a h . * H o w e v e r , the m e n t i o n o f 'two i n s t r u m e n t s of v i o l e n c e '
(Une 25) s e e m s to i m p l y t h a t t h e w r i t e r b e a r s i n m i n d n o t one b u t t w o ,
if n o t t h r e e , w i c k e d m e n , viz. a f a t h e r a n d his t w o sons, o n the m o d e l of
J o s h . 6:26. I f the l a t t e r h y p o t h e s i s is c o r r e c t , t h e d o c u m e n t w o u l d
portray three messianic characters set against three antichrists.^
T h e o n l y solid p o i n t e r for d a t i n g is t h e i d e n t i t y of t h e t h e o l o g i c a l
o u t l o o k r e g a r d i n g a n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l trio b e t w e e n a n d iQS 9 : 1 1 .
T o g e t h e r w i t h the p a l a e o g r a p h i c a l e v i d e n c e , i t w o u l d f a v o u r t h e e a r l y
first c e n t u r y B.C.
O n t h e l i t e r a r y g e n r e o f T e s t i m o n i a i n r e l a t i o n to t h e N e w
T e s t a m e n t , s e e J . A . F i t z m y e r , Essays on the Semitic Background of the JVew
Testament ( 1 9 7 1 ) , p p . 59—89.
Editions
Lohse, E., T Q H D , pp. 249-53.
Translations
English
Allegro, op. cit., p . 60.
French
German
Maier, J., T T M I , pp. 183-5.
Lohse, op. cit.
Italian
3. Cf. vol. II, p p . 5 5 0 - 3 ; Vermes, D S S , p p . 184-5, 195-6.

4. Cf J . T. Milik, Ten Tears of Discovery, p. 125; D . Flusser, ' T h e Hubris of the
Antichrist in a F r a g m e n t from Q u m r a n ' , I m m a n u e l 10 (1980), p p . 31—7.
5. For historical identifications, see Mihk, op. cit., pp. 6 3 - 4 ( M a t t a t h i a s , J o n a t h a n and
Simon); Cross, op. cit., p. 113 (Simon M a c c a b a e u s a n d his two sons); A . Dupont-
Sommer, EE^, p p . 366-7 (John H y r c a n u s I, Alexander J a n n a e u s a n d Aristobulus I).
Vermes, DSS, p . 144 suggests that t h e phrase 'instruments of violence', borrowed from
Gen. 49:5, brings to m i n d t w o m u r d e r o u s brothers a n d would refer to J o n a t h a n and
Simon.
Bibliography
Allegro, J . M., ' F u r t h e r Messianic References in Q u m r a n Literature', J B L 75 (1956), p p .
182-7.
Strugnell, J . , 'Notes en m a r g e . . . ' , R Q , 7 (1970), p p . 225-9.
Amusin, J . D., ' 4 Q Testimonia 16—17', Hommages a Andri Dupont-Sommer (1971), p p .
357-61.
Fitzmyer, J . A., '4Q_Testimonia and the N e w Testament', Essays on the Semitic Background
of the New Testament (1971), pp. 59-89.
Vermes, DSS, p p . 80-1.
Delcor, M . , ' Q u m r a n ' , D B S I X , cols. 912-13.
D i m a n t , D . , ' Q u m r a n Sectarian Literature', J W S T P II, p . 518.
4. Tanhumim or Words of Consolation ( 4 Q T a n h = 4Qî 76)

Fifty-seven f r a g m e n t s , a b o u t a q u a r t e r of w h i c h c a n b e identified,
r e p r e s e n t an a n t h o l o g y of biblical passages w i t h c o n s o l a t i o n as t h e i r
c o m m o n t h e m e . T h e y w e r e o r i g i n a l l y followed by exegeses, b u t m o s t of
t h e s e a r e e i t h e r c o m p l e t e l y missing o r d a m a g e d b e y o n d r e c o v e r y .
T h e m a j o r i t y of t h e q u o t a d o n s a r e b o r r o w e d from D e u t e r o - I s a i a h ( I s a .
4 0 : 1 - 5 ; 4 1 : 8 - 9 ; 4 3 : 1 - 2 , 4 - 6 ; 49:7, 1 3 - 1 7 ; 5 1 : 2 2 - 3 ; 5 2 : 1 - 3 ; 5 4 : 4 - 1 0 ) .
F r o m t h e exegetical material only the introductory formula, ' A n d
c o n s o l a t i o n s from t h e B o o k of I s a i a h ' (•''ZDinin n''S?Cr I S O p i ) , a n d t h e
very fragmented c o m m e n t a r y attached to 54:10, survive. T h e latter
also c o n t a i n s t h e p h r a s e D''Din3n (Frs. 8 - 1 1 , hne 1 3 ) . Citations
a p a r t from I s a i a h i n c l u d e Z e c h . 13:9 a n d P s a l m 7 9 : 2 - 3 ( F r s . 1—2, h n e s
1—4) w i t h s c r a p s of exegesis w h e r e t h e p h r a s e ' b o d i e s of y o u r s e r v a n t s '
in verse 2 is r e p l a c e d by ' b o d i e s of y o u r priests' (JT'iniD).
Edition and Bibliography

Allegro, J . M., D J D V, p p . 6 0 - 7 .
Strugnell, J . , 'Notes en m a r g e . . . ' , R Q , 7 ( i 9 7 o ) / p p . 229-36.
5. Catena A or Midrash on the Psalms (4Q,i 7 7 )

U n d e r t h e g e n e r i c title C a t e n a , t h i r t y f r a g m e n t s of v a r i o u s sizes,
d e t a c h e d from a n ' e a r l y H e r o d i a n ' m a n u s c r i p t , a t t e s t a c o m p o s i t e
e x e g e t i c a l w r i t i n g . E d i t e d b y J . M . A l l e g r o in D J D V , it h a s b e e n
r e - e x a m i n e d by J . S t r u g n e l l w h o h a s s h o w n t h a t t h e t h e m e is
e s c h a t o l o g i c a l (cf F r s . 1 - 4 , lines 5, 7; 9, h n e 2 ; 1 2 - 1 3 , col. 1 : 2 ; c o l .
2:3), a n d t h a t in a n u m b e r of passages the basic text is t a k e n from
P s a l m s 6 - 1 6 : Ps. 6 : 2 - 3 , 6 (Frs. 1 2 - 1 3 , c o l . 1:2—3, 5) 5 Ps. 1 1 : 1 ( F r s . 5—6,
l i n e 7 ) ; Ps. 1 2 : 1 {ibid., l i n e 1 2 ) ; Ps. 1 2 : 7 ( F r s . 1 0 - 1 1 , line i ) ; Ps. 13:2—3,
5 {ibid., lines 8-9, 1 1 - 1 2 ) ; Ps. 16:3 ( F r s . 1 - 4 , l i n e 2) ; Ps. 1 7 : 1 {ibid., l i n e
4). S t r u g n e l l f u r t h e r n o t e s t h a t t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e w o r k , w i t h t h e
q u o t a t i o n of t h e o p e n i n g verses of a t least Pss. 1 1 , 1 2 a n d 1 7 , r e s e m b l e s
t h a t of t h e Midrash o n P s a l m s 1 a n d 2 in 4QFlor or 4Qjy4 (cf a b o v e , p .
445)-
The Writings of the Qumran Community 449
T h e c o m m e n t a r y is far too b r o k e n to b e c o m p r e h e n s i b l e , b u t several

t y p i c a l p h r a s e s s u c h as ' s e e k e r s of s m o o t h t h i n g s ' ( F r . 9, Hne 4 ) ; 'his
a n g e l of T r u t h ' a n d ' s o n s of L i g h t ' ( F r s . 1 2 - 1 3 , l i n e 7) ; ' m e n of t h e
C o m m u n i t y ' a n d e s p e c i a l l y ' C o u n c i l of t h e C o m m u n i t y ' (Frs. 5 - 6 , l i n e
I ; 14, Une 5) a r e i n c o n t r o v e r t i b l y s e c t a r i a n . '
Edition
Translations
English
Allegro, op. cit.
Italian
Moraldi, L . , M Q , pp. 582-6.
Bibliography
Strugnell, J . , 'Notes en marge . . . ' , R Q 7 (1970), p p . 179-83.
6. The Melchizedek Midrash (11 Q M e l c h )

A n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l pesher, t h i r t e e n f r a g m e n t s o f w h i c h , in ' l a t e
H a s m o n a e a n o r e a r l y H e r o d i a n ' b o o k h a n d , h a v e s u r v i v e d , h a s as its
principal character the heavenly prince Melchizedek, a n d final
s a l v a t i o n as i t s m a i n t h e m e . T h e b i b l i c a l text o n w h i c h t h e e x p o s i t i o n is
b a s e d is L e v i t i c u s 2 8 . ' S i n c e b o t h L e v . 2 5 : 1 3 i n Hne 2, a n d L e v . 25:9 in
l i n e 25, a r e i n t r o d u c e d w i t h a f o r m u l a used in i QpHab to
r e p e a t p a r t of a q u o t a t i o n g i v e n in full e a r l i e r i n t h e d o c u m e n t , it w o u l d
b e logical to infer t h a t t h e lost s e c t i o n p r e c e d i n g line i m u s t h a v e
c o n t a i n e d at least L e v . 2 5 : 8 - 1 3 , a n d possibly e v e n a l l t h e verses r e l a t i n g
to t h e j u b i l e e legislation.
T h e L e v i t i c u s m a t e r i a l is l i n k e d t o D t . 1 5 : 2 , d e a l i n g w i t h t h e
r e m i s s i o n of d e b t s i n the s a b b a t i c a l y e a r , a n d I s a . 6 1 : 1 , p r o c l a i m i n g t h e
H b e r a t i o n of c a p t i v e s , n o d o u b t b e c a u s e t h e y a r e e n v i s a g e d as o w i n g a
d e b t to G o d . T h e c o m p o s i t e pesher identifies M e l c h i z e d e k as t h e a g e n t of
r e d e m p t i o n , a n d p l a c e s t h e e v e n t s d e s c r i b e d in t h e first w e e k of t h e
t e n t h j u b i l e e cycle, the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l D a y o f A t o n e m e n t followed b y
u l t i m a t e s a l v a t i o n b e i n g e x p e c t e d a t t h e end of t h a t c y c l e (lines 6—7).^
1. 4QJ82, designated as C a t e n a B, and 4Q/83 a r e historico-exegetical fragments, the

former referring to 'the Book of J e r e m [ i a h ] ' and t o 'the e n d of d [ a y s ] ' , and t h e latter to
the profanation of the sanctuary. I n col. 2, both the t e r m and t h e T e t r a g r a m are
written in archaic characters. Cf Allegro, D J D , p p . 80—2; Strugnell, R Q 7 (1970), pp.
256, 263; Moraldi, M Q p. 587.
1. Cf J . A. Fitzmyer, ' F u r t h e r Light on Melchizedek from Q u m r a n Cave 11', Essays on
the Semitic Background of the New Testament (1971), p . 251.
2. If the jubilee is a period of 49 (7 x 7) years, t h e end of the tenth jubilee in the year
490 coincides with the completion of seventy weeks of years.
M e l c h i z e d e k is d e p i c t e d as t h e final j u d g e i n fiilfilment of P s . 8 2 : 1 - 2 ,
c o u p l e d w i t h Ps. 7 : 7 - 8 ; a n d those c o n d e m n e d by h i m a r e t h e spirits o f
B e h a l , a l l u d e d to i n P s . 82:2. Isa. 52:7 is e x p l a i n e d as p r o c l a i m i n g t h e
g r e a t d a y o f r e d e m p t i o n , a n d t h e four key w o r d s in ' H o w b e a u t i f u l
u p o n the mountains a r e t h e feet of the messenger . .. w h o says to îon, Y o u r
Elohim r e i g n s ' a r e e x p l a i n e d as r e f e r r i n g to ' t h e p r o p h e t s ' {mountains) ;
' t h e A n o i n t e d of t h e spirit' {the messenger), a s s o c i a t e d w i t h D a n i e l {no
d o u b t 9:25: ' a n a n o i n t e d o n e , a p r i n c e ' ) ; ^ ' t h o s e w h o u p h o l d t h e
C o v e n a n t ' {Zion) ; a n d a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y [ ' M e l k i z e d e k w h o will s a v e
t h e m from] t h e h a n d of B e l i a l ' {Elohim).
Since the chief c h a r a c t e r is said t o be t h e l e a d e r o f t h e h e a v e n l y h o s t ,
of ' t h e sons of G o d ' , w h o shall e x e c u t e v e n g e a n c e o v e r t h e spirits o f
B e h a l , i t is s c a r c e l y possible t o a v o i d c o n c l u d i n g t h a t M e l c h i z e d e k =
P r i n c e of L i g h t {iQS 3 : 2 0 ; C D 5 : 1 8 ; iQM 13:10) = the a r c h a n g e l
M i c h a e l {iQM 1 7 : 6 - 7 ) . T h i s d e d u c t i o n a c q u i r e s further s u b s t a n c e f r o m
t h e parallel n a m e M e l c h i r e s h a g i v e n to B e l i a l / S a t a n in t h e T e s t a m e n t
o f A m r a m (cf. a b o v e , p . 334) a n d i n 4Q280-282 (cf b e l o w , p . 4 5 9 ) .
F o r t h e l e g e n d o f M e l c h i z e d e k , see 2 E n o c h (p. 749 b e l o w ) a n d t h e

Episde to the Hebrews 7 : 1 - 1 0 . Cf V . Aptowitzer, ' M a l k i z e d e k : Zu d e n
S a g e n d e r A g a d a ' , M G W J 70 (1926), p p . 9 3 - 1 0 3 ; O . M i c h e l ,
MeXxiaehiK, T D N T I V , p p . 5 6 8 - 7 1 ; J . A . F i t z m y e r , Essays on the Semitic
Background of the N.T. ( 1 9 7 1 ) , p p . 2 2 1 - 4 3 ; M . D e l c o r , ' M e l c h i z e d e k
f r o m Genesis t o t h e Q u m r a n T e x t s a n d t h e Epistle t o t h e H e b r e w s ' , J S J
2 ( 1 9 7 1 ) , p p . 1 1 5 — 3 5 ; F . L. H o r t o n , The Melchizedek Tradition ( 1 9 7 6 ) ;
P. J . K o b e l s k i , Melchizedek and MelchireSa' ( 1 9 8 1 ) .
Edition
Woude, A . S. v a n der, 'Melchisedek als himmlische Erlosergestalt in d e n neugefundenen
eschatologischen Midraschim aus Q u m r a n Hohle X F , O T S 14 (1965), p p . 354—73.
Transladons
English
J o n g e , M . de, a n d Woude, A . S. v a n der, ' i i Q Melchizedek a n d the New T e s t a m e n t ' ,
N T S t 12 (1966), p p . 301-26.
Fitzmyer, J . A., T u r t h e r Light on Melchizedek from Q u m r a n Cave 11', J B L 86 (1967),
pp. 25-41 [ = Essays on the Semitic Background, p p . 245-67].
Vermes, D S S E ' , p p . 265-8.
French
Milik, J . T., 'Milki-sedeg et Milki-reia' dans les a n c i e n s ecrits juifs et Chretiens', J J S 23
(1972), pp. 95-144.
German
Woude, A . S. van der, art. cit.
3. It would seem that this 'Anointed one' is the royal Messiah. Cf also Fitzmyer, op.
cit., p . 266.
The Writings of the Qumran Community 451
Italian
xMoraldi, L . , M Q , p p . 577-80.
Bibliography
Yadin, Y., ' A Note on Melchizedek a n d Q u m r a n ' , l E J 15 (1965), p p . 105-8.
Dupont-Sommer, A., 'Explication des textes hebreux decouverts a Q o u m r a n . . .
11 QMelch', A n n u a i r e du Coll. d e F r a n c e 68 (1968-9), pp. 426-30.
Carmignac, J., ' L e document d e Q u m r a n sur Melkisedeq', R Q , 7 (1970), p p . 343-78.
Delcor, M . , 'Melchizedek from Genesis to the Q u m r a n Texts a n d t h e Epistle to the
Hebrews', J S J 2 (1971), p p . 115-35-
Laubscher, F. d u T., 'God's Angel o f T r u t h and Melchizedek. A N o t e on i i Q M e l c h
i 3 b ' , J S j 3 ( i 9 7 2 ) , p p - 46-51-
Aune, D. E . , 'A Note o n Jesus' Messianic Consciousness a n d i i Q M e l c h i z e d e k ' , Evang.
Q u a r t . 45 (1973), p p . 161-5.
Sanders, J . A., ' T h e O l d Testament i n i i Q Melchizedek', J . of t h e A n c . N. East Soc. of
Columbia U n i v . 5 (1973), p p . 373-82.
Woude, A. S. v a n der, 'Melchizedek', IDBS, p p . 585-6.
Vermes, D S S , p p . 82-3.
Skehan, P. W., ' Q u m r a n . Apocryphes. A . T . ' , DBS I X , cols. 826-8.
Kobelski, P . J., Melchizedek and Melkirela'{igSi).
C. Poetry
A m o n g t h e poetic (or q u a s i - p o e t i c ) ' compositions o f the Q u m r a n sect,

p r i d e of p l a c e b e l o n g s t o t h e T h a n k s g i v i n g h y m n s or Hodayoth {iQH)
from C a v e i. T o these a r e to be a d d e d a h y m n i n c o r p o r a t e d into t h e
C o m m u n i t y R u l e {iQS 10:9-11:22) ; another into the W a r Rule {iQM
1 2 : 1 0 - 1 8 , r e p e a t e d a t 1 9 : 2 - 8 ) ; t h e r e m a i n s of t w o L a m e n t a t i o n s {4QJ79
a n d 4(1501); a n d a n u m b e r of small poetic fragments, painstakingly
edited, b u t devoid of i n d e p e n d e n t meaning.^ Material still awaiting
p u b h c a t i o n i n c l u d e s six f r a g m e n t a r y m a n u s c r i p t s o f t h e Hodayoth Scroll
f r o m C a v e 4,^ a n d five f u r t h e r C a v e 4 m a n u s c r i p t s c o n t a i n i n g poems
other than those k n o w n from iQH.'^ V a r i o u s o t h e r p a s s a g e s in the
C o m m u n i t y R u l e , the D a m a s c u s R u l e , the W a r R u l e , etc. h a v e b e e n
t r a n s l a t e d as h y m n i c or p o e t i c , b u t since t h e r e is n o t e v e n a m i n i m u m
d e g r e e o f a g r e e m e n t a m o n g s c h o l a r s , it is a d v i s a b l e n o t t o i n c l u d e t h e m
in this s e c t i o n .
1. O w i n g to t h e difficulty in defining H e b r e w poetry, it is not surprising that for certain

scholars i Q H Ttprt%tnts no m o r e t h a n rythmic prose. Cf D , Dombkowski Hopkins, ' T h e
Q u m r a n C o m m u n i t y a n d the i Q H o d a y o t : A Reassessment', R Q 10 ( i 9 8 i ) , p . 331.
2. Cf J . T . Milik, D J D I {1Q35,1Q36,1Q37-40) a n d M . Baillet, D J D I I I {3Q6; 6Qj8;
8Q3) and T>]T>VU {4(^98-9).
3. J . Strugnell, 'Le travail d'edition', R B 63 (1956), p. 6 4 . T h e oldest of the 4 Q
manuscripts is d a t e d to the beginning of t h e first century B.C. (100-80 B.C.): J . Starcky,
'Les q u a t r e etapes du messianisme a Q u m r a n ' , RB 70 (1963), p. 483, n. 8.
4. Strugnell, art. cit. (in n. 3 ) , p. 64.
I. The Hodayoth or Thanksgiving Hymns (iQH)

T h e t e x t of e i g h t e e n c o l u m n s t o g e t h e r w i t h sixty-six f u r t h e r u n p l a c e d
f r a g m e n t s w a s e d i t e d b y E. L. S u k e n i k u n d e r t h e title Hodayoth i n The
Dead Sea Scrolls of the Hebrew University in 1 9 5 4 / 5 . iQJi survives i n t w o
o r i g i n a l l y s e p a r a t e m a n u s c r i p t s , w r i t t e n b y two different ' H e r o d i a n '
h a n d s . T h e a r r a n g e m e n t of t h e c o l u m n s by S u k e n i k will be followed t o
a v o i d confusion, a l t h o u g h J . C a r m i g n a c ' s careful e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e
m a t e r i a l , i n c l u d i n g t h e f r a g m e n t s , suggests t h e following order:^
Manuscript A
Cols. 1 3 - 1 6 ( S u k e n i k )
Frs. 1 5 , 1 8 , 22
Manuscript B
Cols. 1 - 3 lost
Col. 4 = S u k e n i k 17
Cols. 5 - 1 6 = S u k e n i k 1 - 1 2
Col. 17 = Fr. 5
Col. 18 = Frs. 1 , 4 6 , 58
Col. 19 = S u k e n i k 1 8
Col. 20 = Frs. 6, 9, 5 0
Col. 21 = Frs. 2 , 8
Col. 22 = Frs. 3 , 7
Col. 23 = Fr. 4
Col. 24 lost.
T h e m u d l a t e d s t a t e of t h e scrolls m a k e s it i m p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e
p r e c i s e n u m b e r o f p o e m s i n c l u d e d in t h e m . S i n c e m o s t H y m n s o p e n
w i t h ' I t h a n k y o u , O L o r d ' C^nX HSTIN: iQLl 2:20, 31 ; 3 : 1 9 , 3 7 ; 4:5';
5 : 5 , 2 0 ; 7:6, [26], 3 4 ; 8:4; 1 1 : 3 , 1 5 ; 14:23) o r 'Blessed a r e y o u , O L o r d '
nriN "]T13 : [5:20, v a r i a n t ] 1 0 : 1 4 ) , it w o u l d seem t h a t t h e r e a r e
a t least t h i r t e e n u n i t s . I n fact, w i t h o u t c o u n t i n g t h e f r a g m e n t s ,
e s t i m a t e s v a r y b e t w e e n twenty-five ( V e r m e s , C a r m i g n a c ) , t h i r t y - t w o
( D u p o n t - S o m m e r , Licht), thirty-three (Moraldi), etc.
Ah t h e p s a l m s a r e w r i t t e n in i m i t a t i o n biblical H e b r e w w i t h a v e r y
l a r g e n u m b e r of b o r r o w i n g s from S c r i p t u r e . ^ T h e y m a y be classified as
i n d i v i d u a l t h a n k s g i v i n g h y m n s , ^ since t h e p o e t a l w a y s speaks i n t h e first
5. TQÎ, p. 129. Cf. also idem, ' R e m a r q u e s sur le texte des Hymnes d e Q u m r a n ' , Bibl 39
(1958), p p . 139—58; 'Localisation des fragments 15, 18 et 22 des Hymnes', R Q i (1959),
p p . 4 2 5 - 3 0 ; 'Complements a u texte des Hymnes d e Q u m r a n ' , R Q 2 (i960), pp. 267-76,
549-58.
6. Cf. J. Carmignac, 'Les citations d e I'Ancien T e s t a m e n t d a n s les H y m n e s d e
Q u m r a n ' , R Q 2 (i960), pp. 357-94 [673 borrowings]. F o r a list of biblical texts used in
iQHsec S. Holm-Nielsen, Hodayot: Psalmsfrom Qumran (i960), p p . 354—9.
7. O n this type of poems in the Bible, see Eissfeldt, Introduction, pp. 121-4.
p e r s o n s i n g u l a r , e x c e p t a p p a r e n t l y i n F r s . 10:6—8; 18:2 a n d 4 7 : 1 , w h e r e
t h e s u b j e c t is ' w e ' .
T h e p r i n c i p a l r e a s o n s for t h a n k s g i v i n g , s t a t e d a t t h e o p e n i n g of e a c h
h y m n , a r e t h e following. T h e p s a l m i s t ' s life h a s b e e n s a v e d , p r o t e c t e d
or s t r e n g t h e n e d b y G o d ( 2 : 2 0 - 1 ; 2 : 3 1 ; 3 : 1 9 ; 3 : 3 7 ; 5 : 1 5 ; 5:20; 7:6). H e
h a s b e e n e n l i g h t e n e d b y the d i v i n e t r u t h of t h e C o v e n a n t (4:5; 7 : 2 6 ;
1 1 : 1 5 ; I 4 - 2 3 ) - H e h a s n o t b e e n p l a c e d a m o n g t h e w i c k e d (7:34), b u t
beside a s p r i n g of w a t e r (8:4). H e h a s b e e n g r a c i o u s l y a n d m a r v e l l o u s l y
treated by G o d (10:14; 11:3). I n short, a dual t h e m e d o m i n a t e s :
d e l i v e r a n c e f r o m evil, p e r s e c u t i o n , o p p r e s s i o n a n d t h e d i v i n e gift of
election a n d k n o w l e d g e w i t h i n the C o v e n a n t o f the C o m m u n i t y .
T h e s e c o n d g r o u p of H y m n s is a s s o c i a t e d i n v a r i o u s w a y s w i t h e n t r y
i n t o t h e sect. A n u m b e r of t h e m w o u l d a p p l y to a n y m e m b e r . O t h e r s
w o u l d fit b e t t e r a t e a c h e r of t h e s e c t , s u c h as t h e *1p!lZ3 of the C o m m u n
ity R u l e (e.g. iQII 7:6 ff.; 1 2 : 3 ff.; 14:8 ff.; 1 7 : 2 6 ff.).^ A m o n g t h e
p o e m s i n w h i c h d e l i v e r a n c e p l a y s a l e a d i n g p a r t , t h e r e are a few (in
p a r t i c u l a r 2 : 3 - 1 8 a n d 4 : 5 - 4 0 ) t h a t a p p e a r to d e p i c t a p e r s e c u t e d
l e a d e r , b e t r a y e d a n d a b a n d o n e d b y s o m e o f his d i s c i p l e s . ' F o r I a m
despised by t h e m ( t h e t e a c h e r s of lies) . . . T h e y h a v e b a n i s h e d m e f r o m
m y l a n d like a b i r d from its n e s t ; a l l m y f r i e n d s a n d b r e t h r e n a r e d r i v e n
far from m e a n d h o l d m e for a b r o k e n vessel' (4:8—9). T h e d e s t i n y of
t h i s psalmist r e s e m b l e s t h a t of t h e T e a c h e r of R i g h t e o u s n e s s as p o r
t r a y e d i n iQpHab ( c f p . 3 3 4 ) . I n d e e d , h e is t h o u g h t b y s o m e s c h o l a r s to
b e the a u t h o r of t h e s e h y m n s , if n o t of all t h e Hodayoth (see b e l o w ) .
A s far as t h e i r p u r p o s e is c o n c e r n e d , s o m e Hodayoth a r e u n d e r s t o o d by
m a n y a s e x p r e s s i n g the s e n t i m e n t s a n d e x p e r i e n c e s o f t h e i r a u t h o r . T h i s
w o u l d a p p l y first a n d f o r e m o s t t o ' t h e p s a l m s of t h e T e a c h e r of
Righteousness'.^ F o r others, t h e H y m n s are p r i m a r i l y d i d a c t i c poems.
C o n t a i n i n g m u c h w i s d o m m a t e r i a l , t h e y a r e i n t e n d e d t o be r e a d a n d
m e d i t a t e d o n by i n d i v i d u a l s . T h e y are m e a n t to s e r v e p r i v a t e p i e t y . ' "
Y e t a n o t h e r t h e o r y c l a i m s t h a t t h e f u n c t i o n o f the p o e m s w a s , from the
o u t s e t , c u l t i c : t h e y w e r e to b e r e c i t e d b y i n d i v i d u a l s in the c o n t e x t of
communal worship."
8. See in particular 7:20-1 (lOH "laV 3S a n d nSID "'WK'? paN).Cf. also V"'DB>73 in
12:11, a term used in connection with the person in charge of instruction i n iQS 3:13;
9:12, 2 1 ; CD 12:21; 13:22. It should further b e noted that iQSb 1:1 a n d 3:22 are
dedicated to the maskil a n d t h a t ^'''yO'Kh appears also in / QH, fr. 8:1 o.
9. Cf M . Delcor, ' Q u m r a n . Les H y m n e s ' , DBS I X , col. 897.
10. Cf. H. Bardtke, 'Considerations sur les cantiques d e Q u m r a n ' , R B 63 (1956), pp.
220-33.
11. Cf. B. Reicke, ' R e m a r q u e s sur I'histoire de l a forme (Formgeschichte) des textes de
Q u m r a n ' , Les manuscrits de la Mer Morte. Collogue de Strasbourg (1957), pp. 38—44. Reicke
sees the model for the Sitz im Leben of t h e Hodayoth, t h e liturgy of the T h e r a p e u t a e ,
described by Philo in De vita contemplativa 10 (80). (On t h e T h e r a p e u t a e , see vol. I I , pp.
O f t h e t h r e e t h e o r i e s , the last a p p e a r s to m a k e t h e b e s t o v e r a l l s e n s e .
I n d e e d , e v e n if it c o u l d be s u b s t a n t i a t e d t h a t several o f the p o e m s a r e
g e n u i n e lyric c o m p o s i t i o n s b y the T e a c h e r of R i g h t e o u s n e s s , t h e b u l k o f
t h e m d o n o t b e l o n g t o this c a t e g o r y , a n d t h e stylistic a r g u m e n t s
a d v a n c e d in f a v o u r of a single a u t h o r ' * a p p e a r to b e far t o o flimsy w h e n
t h e p a r a m o u n t b i b l i c a l c o l o u r i n g of t h e l a n g u a g e a n d t h e s t e r e o t y p e d
f o r m o f the m a j o r i t y o f t h e h y m n s a r e b o r n e i n m i n d . N e i t h e r c a n
B a r d t k e ' s stress o n t h e s a p i e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r o f the Hodayoth b e justified.
T h e p s a l m i s t ' s i n s i s t e n c e o n the d i s p r o p o r t i o n b e t w e e n t h e frailty o f
m a n — a c r e a t u r e of c l a y — a n d h i s s u p e r n a t u r a l d e s t i n y , r a t h e r t h a n
p r o v i d i n g food for w i s d o m m e d i t a t i o n , serves to h e i g h t e n h i s sense o f
g r a t i t u d e for his e l e c t i o n .
I n s u p p o r t of t h e c u l t i c h y p o t h e s i s , i t m a y be p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e
Q u m r a n feast of t h e R e n e w a l of t h e C o v e n a n t (cf a b o v e , p . 3 9 5 ) oflTers
a n i d e a l setting for the Hodayoth. T h e s e w o u l d h a v e been recited b y t h e
G u a r d i a n a n d t h e sectaries i n d i v i d u a l l y a s w a s the case w i t h t h e
p r e s i d e n t a n d the m e m b e r s o f the r e l i g i o u s b a n q u e t of t h e T h e r a p e u t a e ,
referred to a b o v e . T h i s h y p o t h e s i s is s t r e n g t h e n e d by a r e m i n d e r t h a t
before t h e c o m m u n a l m e a l m e n t i o n e d in t h e M e s s i a n i c R u l e , t h e
b e n e d i c t i o n p r o n o u n c e d b y ' t h e P r i e s t ' a n d ' t h e M e s s i a h of I s r a e l ' is
followed by p r a y e r s r e c i t e d b y each p a r t i c i p a n t . ' ^ F u r t h e r m o r e iQIL
1 4 : 1 7 - 1 8 alludes t o a n o a t h w h i c h is n o d o u b t the s a m e as t h a t in iQS
5:8.'* F i n a l l y , the h y m n w h i c h b e g i n s a t 14:23 m a y well b e d e s c r i b e d as
a p o e t i c c o m m e n t a r y o n t h e l i t u r g y of t h e e n t r y i n t o the C o v e n a n t . ' ^
I n t h e a b s e n c e o f c l e a r evidence, i t w o u l d b e u n w a r r a n t e d t o a d v a n c e
definitive claims r e g a r d i n g the a u t h o r s h i p of t h e Hodayoth. T h e
a t t r i b u t i o n o f the w h o l e collection t o a single p o e t o n stylisdc g r o u n d s is
b a s e d o n specious r e a s o n i n g (see a b o v e p p . 453—4 a n d n. 1 2 ) , a n d w h e r e a s
it is i m p o s s i b l e c a t e g o r i c a l l y t o d e n y t h a t s o m e of t h e h y m n s m i g h t h a v e
b e e n t h e w o r k of t h e T e a c h e r of R i g h t e o u s n e s s , t h e i r firm a s c r i p t i o n t o
t h i s a u t h o r is m a n i f e s t l y u n p r o v a b l e . ' ^ S. H o l m - N i e l s e n ' s c o n c l u s i o n
f o r m u l a t e d a q u a r t e r of a c e n t u r y a g o is still w o r t h r e p e a t i n g : ' T h e r e is
e v i d e n c e t h a t (these psalms) a r e n o t all o f t h e s a m e cast, b u t t h a t t h e y
59I-7-)
12. Cf. J . C a r m i g n a c , T Q , I, p . 132. F o r a sinnilar, b u t less emphatic view, see A.
Dupont-Sommer, Le Livre des Hymnes dicouvert pres de la Mer Morte [Semitica 7] (1957), pp.
11-12. See also J . Licht, The Thanksgiving Scroll {ig^y), p p . 22-4 (Hebrew).
13. m a D pc"? irriK twn m » Vid i s p r ] {iQSa 2:21).
14. Compare •'tTDl V» ''mO''pn n»n»31 {iQH 14:17) to nON ns;i3W Vs; Op-n {iQS
5:8) and Qn''V» l a y n''-»3n ns7i3iy3 (CD 15:6).
15. Cf Vermes, DSSE^, pp. 149-50 ; DSS, p p . 5 6 - 7 . See also Carmignac, T Q , I , p. 135.
16. For a refutation of the authorship of t h e Teacher of Righteousness, see Licht, op. cit.
(in n. 12), pp. 25-6. T h e use o f Hodayoth evidence for the reconstrucdon of the history of
Q u m r a n seems therefore highly unsafe pace G. J e r e m i a s , Der Lehrer der Gerechtigkeit (1963), p p .
3 6 - 7 8 ; H . Stegemann, Entstehung der Qumrangemeinde (1971), pp. 95-113, 198-252.
form a c o l l e c t i o n of different p o e m s , possibly f r o m d i f f e r e n t a u t h o r s a n d

from different t i m e s . N o t h i n g c a n be s a i d d e f i n i t e l y o f the a u t h o r s
t h e m s e l v e s , a n d t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e i r i d e n t i t y is of m i n o r s i g n i f i c a n c e . " ^
If, in t h e l i g h t of these c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , t h e a u t h o r s h i p o f the T e a c h e r
of R i g h t e o u s n e s s is n o t a l l o w e d to p l a y a n y p a r t in d a t i n g the Hodayoth,
a n d if it is f u r t h e r m o r e a d m i t t e d t h a t t h e p o e m s m a y h a v e o r i g i n a t e d
from several w r i t e r s , p a l a e o g r a p h y r e m a i n s t h e sole e v i d e n c e for
d e t e r m i n i n g t h e a g e of t h e c o l l e c t i o n . T h e r e f o r e , t h e least o b j e c t i o n a b l e
c o n j e c t u r e is t o assign t h e v a r i o u s h y m n s t o t h e first c e n t u r y B.C.
O f t h e t w o h y m n s i n c o r p o r a t e d in o t h e r Q u m r a n scrolls, iQS
i o : g - i 1:22 r e p r e s e n t s t h e s a m e g e n r e of p o e t r y as t h e Hodayoth, possibly
a t e a c h e r ' s p s a l m . By c o n t r a s t , t h a t from the W a r Scroll {iQM
1 2 : 1 0 - 1 8 ; 1 9 : 2 - 8 ) is a h y m n o f v i c t o r y , c e l e b r a t i n g G o d ' s prowess a n d
J e r u s a l e m ' s future glory.
T h e first of t h e t w o L a m e n t a t i o n s from C a v e 4 {4QJ79) is a t t e s t e d by
two d a m a g e d fragments and three further scraps, d a t e d b y J. Strugnell
on p a l a e o g r a p h i c a l g r o u n d s t o t h e mid-first c e n t u r y B.C. I n s p i r e d by
t h e biblical b o o k o f the s a m e n a m e , it p o r t r a y s J e r u s a l e m as a forsaken
w o m a n w h o h a s lost all h e r c h i l d r e n . ' ^
T h e s e c o n d L a m e n t a t i o n {4Q301), a ' H e r o d i a n ' m a n u s c r i p t assigned
by M . Baillet to t h e t h i r d q u a r t e r of t h e first c e n t u r y B . C , voices t h e
c o m p l a i n t s o f G o d ' s c h i l d r e n , sons of his C o v e n a n t , b e c a u s e of t h e
s l a n d e r o u s a t t a c k s d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s t h e m by t h e w i c k e d . T h e t o n e of
t h e p o e m a n d s o m e of i t s v o c a b u l a r y a r e r e m i n i s c e n t o f iQH, e x c e p t
t h a t 4Q301 is a c o m m u n a l , n o t i n d i v i d u a l , l a m e n t . ' ^
Editions
Sukenik, E . L., The Dead Sea Scrolls of the Hebrew University (1954/5).
Licht,J., The Thanksgiving Scroll (1957) (Hebrew).
Delcor, M . , Les Hymnes de Qumrdn. Texte hebreux, introduction, traduction, commentaire (1962).
Lohse, E., T Q H D , pp. 109-75.
Translations
English
Mansoor, M., The Thanksgiving Hymns translated and annotated with an Introduction (1961).
French
Dupont-Sommer, A., Le Livre des Hymnes decouvert pres de la Mer Morte [Semitica 7] (1957).
Idem, EE, p p . 213—66.
17. Op. cit. (in n. 6 above), p . 331.

18. 4Qj79 has been edited b y J. M . Allegro, D J D V, p p . 7 5 - 7 . Cf. J . Strugnell, R Q . 7
(1970), p p . 250-2. See also Vermes, DSSE^, pp. 2 5 4 - 5 ; L . Moraldi, M Q , pp. 6 9 3 - 4 ;
P. H o r g a n , A L a m e n t over J e r u s a l e m (4Q179)', J S S t 17 (1972), pp. 2 2 2 - 3 4 ; H. Pabst,
'Eine S a m m l u n g von Klagen in d e n Q u m r a n f u n d e n (4Q179)', in M . Delcor, Qumrdn
(1978), p p . 137-49-
19. See M . Baillet, D J D V I I , pp. 79—80, containing also a French translation.
C a r m i g n a c , J., T Q I , p p . 129-280.
Delcor, M., op. cit.
German
Maier, J . , T T M I, p p . 71-122.
Lohse, E., op. cit.
Italian
M o r a l d i , L., M Q , pp. 329-463.
Bibliography
B a u m g a r t e n , J . M., a n d Mansoor, M . , 'Studies i n the n e w Hodayot', J B L 74 (1955), p p .
115-24, 188-95; 75 (1956), pp- 107-13.
Licht, J . , 'The Doctrine of t h e Thanksgiving H y m n s ' , l E J 6 (1956), p p . 1-13.
Silberman, L. H . , ' L a n g u a g e and Structure in the H o d a y o t ' , J B L 75 (1956), p p . 96-106.
Mowinckel, S., 'Some R e m a r k s on H o d a y o t h 39 (V, 2-20)', J B L 75 (1956), p p . 265—76.
Bardtke, H., 'Considerations sur les cantiques de Q u m r a n ' , RB 63 (1956), p p . 220-33.
Idem, ' D a s " I c h " des Meisters i n den Hodajoth v o n Q u m r a n ' , Wissenschaftliche
Zeitschrift der K a r l - M a r x Universitat 6 (1956-57), p p . 93-104.
Betz, O . , 'Die G e b u r t d e r Gemeinde durch den Lehrer. Bemerkungen zum Q u m r a n p s a l m
i Q H I I I , I ff.', N T S t 3 (1957), pp. 314-26.
Reicke, B., ' R e m a r q u e s sur l'histoire d e la forme (Formgeschichte) d e s textes d e
Q u m r a n ' , Les manuscrits dela Mer Morte. Collogue de Strasbourg (1957), pp. 38-44.
M o r a w e , G., Aufbau und Abgrenzung der Loblieder von Qumrdn (i960).
Holm-Nielsen, S., ' " I c h " in den H o d a y o t h und die Q u m r a n g e m e i n d e ' , in H . B a r d t k e
(ed.), Qumran-Probleme (1963), p p . 217-29.
J e r e m i a s , G., Der Lehrer der Gerechtigkeit (1963).
T h i e r i n g , B., ' T h e Poetic Forms of t h e Hodayot', J S S t 8 (1963), pp. 189-209.
Stegemann, H., Rekonstruktion der Hodayot. Die ursprungliche Gestalt der Hymnenrolle aus Hohle I
von Qumrdn (1964).
Wernberg-Moller, P., ' C o n t r i b u d o n of t h e H o d a y o t to Biblical T e x t u a l Cridcism',
T e x t u s 4 ( i 9 6 4 ) , p p . 133-75.
Eissfeldt, O., Introduction, pp. 654-7.
Holm-Nielsen, S., ' E r w a g u n g e n zu dem Verhaltnis zwischen den Hodajot und den
Psalmen Salomos', in Bibel und Qumran (Festschrift Bardtke) (1966), pp. 112-31.
R i n g g r e n , H., 'Die W e l t b r a n d in den Hodajot', ibid., pp. 177-82.
Sanders, E. P., 'Chiasmus a n d the Translation of i Q H o d a y o t V I I , 25-27', R Q 6 (1968),
pp. 427-32.
H u b n e r , H., 'Anthropologischer Dualismus in d e n H o d a y o t h ' , N T S t 18 (1972), pp.
268-84.
Nielsen, E., 'i Q^H V, 1, 20-27 '• An A t t e m p t at Filling o u t some Gaps', V T 24 (1974), pp.
240-3.
Vermes, DSS, p p . 56-8.
Delcor, M . , ' Q u m r a n . Les Hymnes', DBS I X , cols. 861-4, 897-904.
Dombrowski Hopkins, D., ' T h e Q u m r a n C o m m u n i t y and i Q H o d a y o t : A Reassessment',
R Q I O (1981), p p . 323-64.
Kittel, B. P., The Hymns of Qumran: Translation and Commentary (1981).
Thorion, Y . , ' D e r Vergleich in i Q H o d a y o t ' , R Q 11 (1983), p p . 193-217.
Dimant, D., ' Q u m r a n Sectarian Literature', J W S T P II, p p . 522—4.
D. Liturgical Texts
A l a r g e n u m b e r o f f r a g m e n t s f o u n d in C a v e s i, 2 , 4 a n d 6 r e p r e s e n t
b e n e d i c t i o n s a n d p r a y e r s w h i c h w e r e n o d o u b t used in t h e f r a m e w o r k
of t h e C o m m u n i t y ' s w o r s h i p . T h e b e s t p r e s e r v e d c o m p o s i t i o n s will b e
followed h e r e b y s m a l l e r u n i t s b e l o n g i n g t o the s a m e l i t e r a r y g e n r e .
/. The Master's Blessings ( i Q S b )

As h a s b e e n n o t e d e a r l i e r (cf. p . 3 8 1 ) , t h e C o m m u n i t y R u l e (iQS) is
a c c o m p a n i e d i n t h e s a m e scroll b y t w o s u p p l e m e n t a r y sections, T h e
M e s s i a n i c R u l e or R u l e of t h e C o n g r e g a t i o n {iQSa) a n d a series of
liturgical b e n e d i c t i o n s {iQSb). T h e l a t t e r h a v e b e e n p u b l i s h e d b y J . T .
M i l i k in D J D I. L i k e t h e rest of t h e m a n u s c r i p t s , t h e y a r e assigned
p a l a e o g r a p h i c a l l y t o t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e first c e n t u r y B.C. R e m a i n s of
five v e r y d a m a g e d c o l u m n s s u r v i v e o u t of a n o r i g i n a l s i x - c o l u m n
d o c u m e n t . T h e s e q u e n c e o f t h e blessings is n o t c e r t a i n .
T h r e e u n i t s a r e p r o v i d e d w i t h a n incipit: ' W o r d s o f blessing. F o r t h e
m a s t e r t o bless ...'—-|-in*? b^'D^Kib [n]Dn3 ( 1 : 1 ; 3:22) a n d ' F o r
the m a s t e r t o bless ...'—"I'^^V *7''DtJ?DV (5:20). T h e s e r e l a t e to t h e
faithful o f t h e C o v e n a n t ( 1 : 1 - 2 0 ) , t o t h e H i g h P r i e s t ( i : 2 i ? - 3 : 2 i ) , ' to
the priests, s o n s o f Z a d o k (3:22—5:19), a n d to t h e P r i n c e of t h e
C o n g r e g a t i o n (5:20—29).
T h e b l e s s i n g of t h e m e m b e r s of t h e C o v e n a n t is to e n a b l e t h e m to
p e r s e v e r e ; t h a t of t h e H i g h P r i e s t (if his b l e s s i n g is s e p a r a t e from t h a t of
the priests in g e n e r a l ) is to r e n d e r his office o n e o f e v e r l a s t i n g p e a c e .
T h e priests a r e to b e blessed t h a t t h e y m a y s e r v e i n t h e T e m p l e of t h e
K i n g d o m in t h e c o m p a n y o f t h e a n g e l s a n d glorify G o d ' s n a m e .
Finally, t h e b l e s s i n g of t h e P r i n c e o f t h e C o n g r e g a t i o n foresees h i m as
d e s t r o y e r of t h e u n g o d l y , fortified b y G o d ' s n a m e a n d filled w i t h his
spirit.
Like t h e R u l e o f t h e C o n g r e g a t i o n , these blessings also a p p e a r to
envisage t h e messianic a g e . A g a i n , if iQS—of w h i c h iQSb is a n
a p p e n d i x — i s a c c e p t e d a s a g u i d e , a d i s t i n c t b l e s s i n g of t h e H i g h Priest
a p p e a r s p r o b a b l e . I f so, t h e H i g h P r i e s t is t h e M e s s i a h o f A a r o n of / QS
9 : 1 1 a n d ' t h e P r i e s t ' o f iQSa 2 : 1 2 , 19, a n d t h e P r i n c e of t h e
C o n g r e g a t i o n is t h e M e s s i a h o f I s r a e l , or B r a n c h of D a v i d (/QS 9 : 1 1 ; C D
7:20; 4QPBless; 4QFlor).
A c c o r d i n g t o M i l i k , t h i s l i t u r g i c a l d o c u m e n t w a s n o t m e a n t for use
by t h e s e c t a r i e s , b u t w a s t o a w a i t t h e d a w n o f t h e m e s s i a n i c era.'^ Y e t if
t h e r u b r i c a p p e n d e d t o iQSa, e n j o i n i n g t h e m e m b e r s of t h e sect to
i m i t a t e i n a d v a n c e t h e p r o g r a m m e of t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l b a n q u e t ' a t
e v e r y m e a l ' , is t a k e n a s i n d i c a t i v e of s e c t a r i a n p r a c t i c e , t h e a c t u a l
r e c i t a t i o n of t h e m e s s i a n i c b e n e d i c t i o n s m a y a l s o h a v e b e e n i n t e n d e d as
1. R. Leivestad has a d v a n c e d the thesis t h a t t h e scroll consists of three blessings o n l y :

those of t h e people (1:1-3:21), the priests (3:22—5:19), a n d t h e Messiah (5:20 ff.). Cf
'Enthalten die Segensspriiche i Q S b eine Segnung des Hohenpriesters d e r messianischen
Zeit?', S T 21 (1977). PP- 137-45-
2. DJD I , p. 120.
458 §32. Jewish Literature m Hebrew or Aramaic
a r i t u a l a n t i c i p a t i o n o f the c o m i n g K i n g d o m . ^
Because o f t h e i r Hnk w i t h the C o m m u n i t y R u l e , the Blessings of i QSb
a r e b e s t d a t e d t o a r o u n d 100 B.C.
F i v e insignificant p a p y r u s f r a g m e n t s f r o m C a v e 6 (6Qj6), d a t e d b y
M . Baillet to t h e first c e n t u r y A.D., a p p e a r t o h a v e d e r i v e d from
b e n e d i c d o n s s i m i l a r t o iQSb^ A n o t h e r s m a l l piece, e n t i t l e d b y h i m
' B e n e d i c t i o n ' {4Q500), has p r e s e r v e d a l l u s i o n s to a n o r c h a r d a n d a v i n e
y a r d , b u t i t m a y b e j u s t as w e l l a p s a l m as a blessing.^
Editions
Milik, J . T., D J D I, p p . 118-30.
Lohse, E., T Q H D , p p . 5 3 - 6 1 .
Translations
English
Vermes, DSSE*, pp. 206-g.
French
Milik, op. cit.
Dupont-Sommer, A., EE, p p . 124—7.
Carmignac, J . , T Q H , pp. 31-42.
German
Maier, J . , T T M I, p p . 176-9.
Italian
Moraldi, L., M Q p p . 193-204.
Bibliography
Rost, L . , 'Die Anhange des Ordensregel ( i Q S a und i Q S b ) ' , T h L Z 82 (1957), cols.
667-72.
T a l m o n , S., ' T h e " M a n u a l of Benedictions" of the Sect of t h e J u d a e a n Desert', R Q 2
(i960), p p . 475-500.
Carmignac, J . , 'Quelques details d e lecture dans . . . le "Recuil de Benedictions'", R Q 4
(1963), p p . 83-96. ^
Leivestad, R., 'Enthalten die Segensspriiche i Q S b eine Segnung des Hohenpriesters d e r
messianischen Zeit?', S T 21 (1977), p p . 137-45.
Vermes, DSS, p . 61.
Delcor, M., ' Q u m r a n . Recueil des Benedictions', DBS I X , cols. 859-60.
2. Blessings and Curses

T w o f r a g m e n t a r y d o c u m e n t s from C a v e 4 w e r e issued i n a p r e l i m i n a r y
p u b l i c a t i o n b y J . T . M i l i k i n 1 9 7 2 in J J S 2 3 . B o t h e c h o t h e h t u r g i c a l
blessings a n d curses f o r m i n g p a r t of t h e r i t u a l o f t h e r e n e w a l o f t h e
C o v e n a n t a c c o r d i n g t o iQS 2:1—18, w i t h a f u r t h e r p a r a l l e l in iQM
13:4-6.
3. Vermes, DSSE^, p . 206.
4. M . Baillet, DJD I I I , p p . 131-2.
5. M. Baillet, DJD V I I , p p . 78-9.
T h e first t e x t , p r o v i s i o n a l l y e n t i t l e d 4QBerakot, exists in tv\ô

m a n u s c r i p t s , a a n d b, or 4Q286 a n d 4Q28y. Its first Une e n d s the blessing
of t h e C o u n c i l of the C o m m u n i t y . T h i s is follovyêd by r e p e a t e d
m a l e d i c t i o n s o f Belial, t h e W i c k e d O n e , t h e A n g e l o f P e r d i t i o n a n d t h e
Spirit of D e s t r u c t i o n a n d all his r e a l m .
T h e s e c o n d c o m p o s i t i o n , 4QTeharotD o r 4Q280, a l s o echoes iQS 2:4
ff., b u t is d i s t i n g u i s h e d b y its i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f S a t a n as ' M e l c h i r e s h a '
(cf a b o v e , p . 4 5 0 ) .
Edition and Bibliography
Milik, J. T . , 'Milki-sedeq et Milki-reSa dans les anciens ecrits juifs et chredens', J J S 23
(1972), p p . 126-35 (texts and French translations).
3 . Daily Prayers
T w o s u b s t a n t i a l c o m p o s i t i o n s from C a v e 4 offer p r a y e r s for t h e d a y s of
t h e week a n d o f t h e m o n t h . T h e first, the W o r d s of t h e H e a v e n l y L i g h t s
or Dibre Ha-Me'oroth, exists i n t h r e e m a n u s c r i p t s {DibHam" * ^ =
4Q304-6). 4Q504 consists of f o r t y - e i g h t f r a g m e n t s , a b o u t a d o z e n of
w h i c h a r e fairly l a r g e , w r i t t e n b y a ' H a s m o n a e a n ' h a n d . M . Baillet's
d a t i n g , t h e m i d - s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C , m a y be e x a g g e r a t e d l y h i g h . ^ Q j o j
includes ten s m a l l f r a g m e n t s w i t h ' l a t e H a s m o n a e a n ' c a l l i g r a p h y ('circa
70—60 B.C.') a n d 4Q506 is a p a p y r u s m a d e u p of fifty-eight t i n y pieces
d a t e d o n a p a l a e o g r a p h i c a l basis to mid-first c e n t u r y A.D.
T h e second work, entitled by M. Baillet 'Prieres quotidiennes'
{4Q503), is also w r i t t e n o n p a p y r u s by a ' H a s m o n a e a n ' scribe
a p p a r e n t l y in 100—75 A l t o g e t h e r 225 f r a g m e n t s a r e e x t a n t .
(a) The Words of the Heavenly Lights (4Q504-6)
T h e title is said to a p p e a r on F r . 8 v e r s o as fll'H^J^n ' ' 1 3 1 , w i t h
t h e last five l e t t e r s m a r k e d as u n c e r t a i n . T h e w o r k r e p r e s e n t s collective
p r a y e r s w i t h b i b l i c a l r e m i n i s c e n c e s , e.g. I s r a e l c a l l e d G o d ' s first-born
son, D a v i d c h o s e n a s ' p r i n c e l y s h e p h e r d ' , I s r a e l b a n i s h e d in exile. S i n c e
t h e second u n i t (col. 7, l i n e 4) is e n t i t l e d D^tt^n D V n T m n , H y m n s on
t h e D a y of S a b b a t h , it m a y safely b e i n f e r r e d t h a t it is p r e c e d e d by
p r a y e r s i n t e n d e d for F r i d a y . A f u r t h e r r e f e r e n c e a p p e a r s to ' t h e f o u r t h
[ d a ] y ' o n Fr. 3 (col. 2, l i n e 5 ) . T h e p r a y e r m e n t i o n s h o w G o d c a r r i e d
his p e o p l e o n a n e a g l e ' s w i n g s ( F r . 6, lines 6 - 7 ) a n d h o w A d a m w a s
c r e a t e d i n t h e G a r d e n o f E d e n (Fr. 8 r e c t o , lines 4—6). A c c o r d i n g to t h e
e d i t o r , t h e l a t t e r p a s s a g e is to b e c o n n e c t e d w i t h S u n d a y . I t w o u l d s e e m
reasonable to conclude that the complete d o c u m e n t contained hymns
or p r a y e r s for e a c h d a y o f the w e e k .
(b) Daily Prayers (4Q503)

I n t h i s p o o r l y p r e s e r v e d d o c u m e n t , e v e n i n g a n d m o r n i n g blessings
a r e listed for e a c h d a y of a n unspecified m o n t h . T h e first d a t e , ' t h e fifth'
o f the m o n t h , a p p e a r s o n col. 3, h n e 6, a n d t h e last, ' t h e [ t w e n t y - J s i x t h ' ,

o n col. 12, line 2 3 . T h e p r a y e r s , n o n e of w h i c h is e x t a n t i n full, a r e
r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t a n d s t e r e o t y p e d , b e g i n n i n g w i t h 'Blessed be t h e G o d o f
I s r a e l ' pVCyiT *?« yni) a n d e n d i n g w i t h ' P e a c e be o n y o u , I s r a e l '
( V K I i r nD''bs; •n*?tP). T h e fifteenth o f t h e m o n t h a p p e a r s to b e a
j o y o u s feast d a y (col. 7, Frs. 2 4 - 5 , line 5 ) .
T h e fact t h a t , c o n t r a r y t o the a r r a n g e m e n t u n d e r l y i n g for e x a m p l e
iQS 1 0 : 1 - 3 , w h e r e h g h t c o m e s before d a r k n e s s , h e r e e v e n i n g p r e c e d e s
m o r n i n g , presupposes not a solar b u t a l u n a r time reckoning. T h e
e d i t o r , M . Baillet, w o n d e r s , h o w e v e r , w h e t h e r the m o n t h is m e a n t t o b e
a n i d e a l m o d e l for a c o m b i n e d l u n a r a n d a n c i e n t priestly s o l a r
c a l e n d a r , t h e festival c e l e b r a t e d in t h e m i d d l e of it b e i n g Passover ( D J D
V I I , p p . 105-6).
Editions
Baillet, M., D J D V I I , p p . 105-36 ['Prieres q u o t i d i e n n e s ' ] ; 137-75 ['Paroles des
Luminaires], both with French translation.
Translations
English
Vermes, DSSE*, pp. 202-5.
French
Baillet, op. cit.
Italian
Moraldi, L., M Q , pp. 6 4 3 - 5 1 .
Bibliography
Baillet, M . , ' U n recueil hturgique d e Q u m r a n , grotte 4 : Les Paroles des Luminaires', RB
68 (1961), p p . 195-250.
Idem, 'Remarques sur I'edition des Paroles des Luminaires', R Q 7 (1964), pp. 23-42.
L e h m a n n , M. R., 'A Re-Interpretation of 4 Q D i b r e ham-me'oroth', R Q 7 (1964), pp.
106-10.
Rinaldi, G., ' U n a "Supplica" da Q u m r a n ( 4 Q D i b H a m ) ' , Bibbia e Oriente 14 (1972),
p p . 119-31.
4. Prayers for Festivals

T h r e e e x t r e m e l y w o r n m a n u s c r i p t s f r o m C a v e 4 {4Q3oy-g), together
w i t h f r a g m e n t s from C a v e i {iQj4 a n d i(l34^"), represent liturgical
p r a y e r s i n t e n d e d for v a r i o u s festivals. O f t h e C a v e 4 texts, 4050^ a n d
4Q308 a r e a s s i g n e d by M . Baillet, on t h e basis of their script, to t h e
b e g i n n i n g of the first c e n t u r y A.D., w h i l e fQôg is s a i d to be ' l a t e
H a s m o n a e a n ' (70—60 B . C ) .
T h e p r a y e r s a r e in the first p e r s o n p l u r a l w i t h t h e c u s t o m a r y
b e g i n n i n g s ('Blessed be t h e L o r d ' , o r ' R e m e m b e r , L o r d ' ) a n d e n d i n g s
( ' A m e n , a m e n ' ) . T h e r e is explicit r e f e r e n c e o n l y to CIIDD DV*? r i ' ? S n
P r a y e r for t h e D a y of A t o n e m e n t ' : iQj4^", F r s . 2 + 1 , Hne 6 ; 4Qô8,

l i . 2 , Hne i ) , b u t t h e e d i t o r a s s u m e s t h a t 4Q5og s t a r t s w i t h t h e N e w
Y<'ar, c o n t i n u e s w i t h t h e D a y o f A t o n e m e n t , T a b e r n a c l e s , a n d n o
d o u b t o t h e r s (Passover, e t c . ) , a n d finally w i t h •''•11Da[n DVV nVsn]
( [ ' P r a y e r for t h e D a y of] First-fruits', o r F e a s t of W e e k s : F r s . 1 3 1 - 2 ,
({)1. 2, l i n e 5 ) .
Editions
. V l i l i k , J . T . , D J D I , p p . 136,152-5-
Baillet, M . , D J D V I I , p p . 175-215.
Translations
English
Vermes, D S S E ' , p p . 2 0 5 - 6 {1Q34").
French
Milik, op. cit.
Baillet, op. cit.
Italian
Bibliography
Carmignac, J., ' L e recueil de prieres liturgiques de la grotte i', R Q 4 (1963), p p . 271-6.
5. Marriage Ritual (?) (4Q502)

T h r e e h u n d r e d a n d forty-four m i n u t e p a p y r u s s c r a p s a t t e s t a l i t u r g i c a l
w o r k f r o m C a v e 4 d a t e d p a l a e o g r a p h i c a l l y b y M . Baillet to t h e
b e g i n n i n g of t h e C h r i s t i a n e r a . T h e c o n t e n t s a p p e a r t o b e l o n g t o t h e
hymnic genre with benedictions recited b y a c o m m u n i t y w h i c h includes
b o t h sexes a n d v a r i o u s a g e g r o u p s . J o y is t h e d o m i n a t i n g f e a t u r e , t h e
n o u n nriDtP a n d t h e v e r b flQC? o c c u r r i n g e i g h t e e n t i m e s .
Baillet c o n j e c t u r e s t h a t t h e c e r e m o n y is t h a t o f a w e d d i n g o n t h e
basis of allusions t o ' [ m a n ] a n d h i s wife' (Fr. i , l i n e 3 : G e n . 2:25) a n d
to ' p r o d u c i n g s e e d ' (S7"1T PltTS?*?: ibid., l i n e 4 ) . F r . 16 a p p e a r s to b e a
q u o t a t i o n from t h e C o m m u n i t y R u l e ' s section c o n c e r n i n g t h e T w o
Spirits {iQS 4:4—6). H o w e v e r , t h e e d i t o r ' s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of the
d o c u m e n t as a m a r r i a g e r i t u a l h a s b e e n q u e s t i o n e d , ' a n d a n a l t e r n a t i v e
t h e o r y h a s b e e n p r o p o s e d b y J . M . B a u m g a r t e n , w h o notes t h e
f r e q u e n c y of references t o ' m e n of m a t u r e a g e ' (•"'tZTtTX : Fr. 9, lines 3,
9, I I , 1 3 ) , t o 'old m e n ' (Q''3pT) a n d 'old w o m e n ' (mipT), a n d e v e n t o a n
' a s s e m b l y (^^D) o f old m e n a n d w o m e n ' ( F r . 2 4 , H n e 4). S u c h a n
e m p h a s i s on t h e e l d e r l y of b o t h sexes d o e s n o t , in h i s o p i n i o n , suggest a
I . See G . Vermes, Review o f DJD V I I in T L S , i Oct. 1982, p . 1082.

w e d d i n g - f e a s t , b u t recalls t h e w o r s h i p p i n g a s s e m b l y of t h e T h e r a p e u t a e
o f P h i l o (cf vol. I I , p p . 591—7), a n d possibly also t h e joyful c e l e b r a t i o n
i n the T e m p l e c o u r t y a r d s a t the feast o f T a b e r n a c l e s a l l u d e d to i n t h e
T o s e f t a ( t S u k . 4:2).
Edition
Baillet, M . , D J D V I I , p p . 81-105 (^îth French translation).
Bibliography
Baillet, M . , 'Debris d e textes sur papyrus d e la grotte 4 de Q u m r a n ' , RB 71 (1964), p p .
353-71-
6. The Angelic Liturgy or Serekh Shiroth 'olath ha-Shabbath

A liturgical d o c u m e n t d e s c r i b i n g a n g e l i c w o r s h i p i n the h e a v e n l y
T e m p l e has b e e n d i s c o v e r e d in six copies in C a v e 4 {4Q400, 400', 401,
402, 40J, a n d 403). F u r t h e r s m a l l f r a g m e n t s h a v e b e e n f o u n d i n C a v e 1 1 ,
a n d a l a r g e piece at M a s a d a . T h e y a r e all the w o r k of ' H e r o d i a n '
h a n d s . N o n e of t h e texts has yet b e e n p u b l i s h e d in a n y 'oflficiar e d i t i o n ,
b u t p a r t s of 4Q402 a n d 403 w e r e issued in a p r e l i m i n a r y s t u d y b y J .
S t r u g n e l l in i960. T h e M a s a d a f r a g m e n t w a s discussed b y Y . Y a d i n in
1965, a n d all t h e C a v e 4 m a n u s c r i p t s h a v e b e e n s u b j e c t e d t o a
t h o r o u g h scrutiny, including edition, translation a n d interpretation, by
C a r o l Ann Newsom in a H a r v a r d P h . D . dissertation u n d e r the
supervision of J . Strugnell.'
D e d i c a t e d to ' t h e I n s t r u c t o r ' ('^''DC^ZD'?),* t h e songs c o n v e y a n g e l i c
praises to G o d . T h e title specifies t h e p l a c e of t h e s a b b a t h in q u e s t i o n in
t h e s e q u e n c e of t h e fifty-two weeks of t h e s o l a r y e a r a n d its d a t e w i t h i n
o n e of t h e twelve m o n t h s . T h e first, sixth, s e v e n t h , e i g h t h a n d e l e v e n t h
s a b b a t h s a r e m e n t i o n e d in t h e s u r v i v i n g passages.
T h e best p r e s e r v e d h e a d i n g is a t 4Q^02 i i 3 0 : ' F o r t h e I n s t r u c t o r .
S o n g o f the sacrifice o f the s e v e n t h S a b b a t h , on t h e s i x t e e n t h of t h e
m o n t h : Praise t h e G o d of h e a v e n , O y o u e l e v a t e d o n e s a m o n g t h e
g o d s of k n o w l e d g e ! '
T h e songs in g e n e r a l a r e c o n c e r n e d n o t so m u c h w i t h G o d as w i t h
2. '4Q302, Marriage or Golden Age Ritual?', J J S 34 (1983), p p . 125-35.

I . J . Strugnell, ' T h e Angelic Liturgy of Q u m r a n ' , V T S V I I (i960), pp. 3 1 8 - 4 5 ; Y.
Yadin, ' T h e Excavations at M a s a d a : 1963-1964. A Preliminary Report', l E J 15 (1965),
p p . 1 0 5 - 8 ; Carol A. Newsom, 4(lSerelc SirSt Mat HaSSabbat (The Qumran Angelic Liturgy).
Edition, Translation and Commentary (1982). T h e editors a r e particularly grateful to C a r o l
Newsom for kindly providing a copy of her thesis.
T h e Masada fragment {MasSirSabb) has now been published by Y. Yadin and Carol
Newsom, 'The M a s a d a Fragment of the Q u m r a n Songs of the S a b b a t h Sacrifice', in l E J
34 (1984), pp. 77-88. T h e text represents t h e conclusion of the song for the Fifth S a b b a t h
a n d the first half of that of the Sixth S a b b a t h . T h e r e are overlaps with 4QJ.02, 403,404 and
405. 4QJ00 preserves a closely related version.
2. Cf 4Qjpo 1-2, line i ; 4Q^2 i i, line 30.
h e a v e n l y w o r s h i p : w i t h p s a l m s a n d blessings s u n g b y t h e seven a n g e l i c
princes {^Qôs), w i t h t h e d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e c e l e s t i a l T e m p l e a n d t h e
d i r o n e - c h a r i o t , w i t h a n g e l s a n d spirits a n d t h e i r special g a r m e n t s
{•\Qj-of). A l t h o u g h t h e h e a d i n g s refer to S a b b a t h burnt offerings (m*7lS7),
the p o e m s i n c l u d e n o p o i n t e r s to sacrificial w o r s h i p or t o a h e a v e n l y
.ihar.
The m a i n s o u r c e o f i n s p i r a t i o n of t h e A n g e l i c L i t u r g y is Ezekiel c h s . i
;ind 10, r e g a r d i n g t h e t h r o n e - c h a r i o t , a n d chs. 4 0 - 4 8 , for the h e a v e n l y
s a n c t u a r y . I n d e e d , this d o c u m e n t c o n s t i t u t e s a n i m p o r t a n t l a n d m a r k
for the s t u d y o f t h e h i s t o r y of Merkabah m y s t i c i s m a n d o f the so-called
Ilekhaloth hymns.^
T h e c o m p o s i t i o n c o n t a i n s n o t h i n g d i r e c t l y d a t a b l e . B e a r i n g in m i n d
the p a l a e o g r a p h i c a l e v i d e n c e a n d g e n e r a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s on Q u m r a n
l i t e r a t u r e , t h e A n g e l i c L i t u r g y m a y b e s t b e a s s i g n e d to t h e first
(entury B.C.
T h r e e e x p l a n a t i o n s a r e possible for t h e p r e s e n c e o f this Q u m r a n w o r k

in t h e fortress o f M a s a d a . ( i ) T h e Q u m r a n sectaries w e r e Z e a l o t s . ( 2 ) A
g r o u p of t h e Q j a m r a n - E s s e n e s e m b r a c e d t h e Z e a l o t c a u s e a n d b r o u g h t
w i t h t h e m s o m e of t h e i r l i t e r a t u r e . (3) T h e Q u m r a n site w a s seized b y
the Z e a l o t s after it h a d b e e n e v a c u a t e d b y t h e C o m m u n i t y a n d t h e y
transferred t h e c o n t e n t s of o n e of t h e c a c h e s to M a s a d a . T h e first of
these h y p o t h e s e s is u n l i k e l y o n g e n e r a l h i s t o r i c a l grounds.''^ T h e s e c o n d
is f a v o u r e d b y Y . Y a d i n , ^ b u t t h e t h i r d a p p e a r s e q u a l l y p r o b a b l e .
Editions
Strugnell, J . , ' T h e Angelic Liturgy at Q u m r a n — 4 Q Serek Sirot • Olat Hassabbaf,
Congress Volume Oxford ig^g [ V T S V I I ] (1960), p p . 318-45.
Newsom, C . A., 4(1 Serek Shot "Olat HaSSabbat (The Qumran Angelic Liturgy) : Edition,
Translation and Commentary [University Microfilms International] (1982).
Translations
English
Strugnell, op. cit.
Newsom, op. cit.
\ crmes, D S S E ' , p p . 210-13.
French
Dupont-Sommer, A., E E , pp. 4 2 7 - 3 3 .
(Mirmignac, J., T Q I I , p p . 311-20.
Italian
3. Cf. G. Scholem, Jewish Gnosticism, Merkabah Mysticism and Talmudic Tradition (1965),
I 28, a n d , in particular, ch. V I I of Carol N c w s o m ' s dissertadon (pp. 79-92).
4. Vermes, D S S , pp. 122-5.
5. (:f Masada: Herod's Fortress and the ^êalots' Last Stand (1966), p . 174.
Bibliography
Carmignac, J . , 'Quelques details d e la lecture d a n s la Regie des chants p o u r I'holocauste
d u Sabbat', R Q , 7 (1964), p p . 563-6.
Yadin, Y., 'Excavations at M a s a d a : 1963-1964. Preliminary R e p o r t ' , lEJ 15 (1965), p p .
I - 1 2 0 , esp. 105—8.
Vermes, DSS, pp. 6 3 - 4 .
Delcor, M., ' Q u m r a n . Liturgie', DBS I X , cols. 915-16.
D i m a n t , D., ' Q u m r a n Sectarian Literature', J W S T P I I , pp. 524-5.
Newsom, C. and Yadin, Y., ' T h e M a s a d a F r a g m e n t of the Q u m r a n Songs of the
S a b b a t h ' , lEJ 3 4 (1984), pp. 77-88.
7. Small Liturgical Fragments

T h e r e r e m a i n a few e x i g u o u s pieces, a p p a r e n t l y l i t u r g i c a l i n c h a r a c t e r ,
b u t t o o b r o k e n for p r o p e r e v a l u a t i o n .
(a) iQ2g consists o f s i x t e e n s c r a p s o f l e a t h e r o n w h i c h ' t o n g u e s o f fire'
a n d ' t h r e e t o n g u e s o f fire' a r e m e n t i o n e d , t o g e t h e r w i t h a ' p r i e s t '
a d d r e s s i n g a g r o u p of Israelites a n d p r o n o u n c i n g p r a y e r s o v e r t h e m .
(b) 1Q30 a p p e a r s t o be a p r a y e r b u t i n c l u d e s also the w o r d ' t h e i r
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s ' (DrT'ltTS).
(c) 1Q21 s p e a k s of ' t h e m e n o f the C o m m u n i t y ' , of ' t h e e l e c t ' a n d of
' c a m p s ' . I t m a y b e l o n g to a b a t t l e l i t u r g y .
(d) 2Q26, a n A r a m a i c f r a g m e n t f r o m a ' H e r o d i a n ' h a n d , seems t o
a l l u d e to t h e r i t u a l w a s h i n g of a XmV, a t a b l e t or b o a r d .
(e) 4Q181 i n c l u d e s t w o ' H e r o d i a n ' f r a g m e n t s w h i c h m a y r e p r e s e n t a
s e c t a r i a n l i t u r g i c a l w o r k , t h e first d e a l i n g w i t h unfaithful m e m b e r s of
' t h e a s s e m b l y of t h e s o n s of h [ e a v e n ] a n d e a r t h ' a n d t h e election of t h e
m e m b e r s of ' t h e holy c o n g r e g a t i o n ' , a n d t h e second c o n t a i n i n g
allusions t o biblical h i s t o r y .
Editions
M i l i k , J . T . , D J D I , p p . 130-4.
Baillet, M., D J D I I I , pp. 9 0 - 1 .
Allegro, J. M . , DJD V , pp. 79-80.
E. Miscellaneous Texts
T o c o m p l e t e t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e Q u m r a n m a t e r i a l , c o n s i d e r a t i o n is
t o b e given to a few d o c u m e n t s w h i c h , for v a r i o u s r e a s o n s , d o n o t fall
w i t h i n a n y of t h e p r e v i o u s c a t e g o r i e s . T h e y m a y b e g r o u p e d u n d e r
t h r e e h e a d i n g s : ( i ) ' h o r o s c o p e s ' ; (2) c a l e n d a r s ; a n d (3) t h e C o p p e r
Scroll.
/. 'Horoscopes' (4QCryptic = 4Q186)

T w o ' H e r o d i a n ' f r a g m e n t s f r o m C a v e 4, b o t h w r i t t e n f r o m left t o
r i g h t a n d u s i n g i r r e g u l a r l y letters of t h e a r c h a i c a l p h a b e t m i x e d w i t h
(iicck c h a r a c t e r s , c o n t a i n ' h o r o s c o p e s ' . ' T h e f r a g m e n t a r y s t a t e of the

(IM« u t n e n t s d o e s n o t aUow a full g r a s p of t h e m e a n i n g b u t it w o u l d seem
ill.11 p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s p i r i t u a l qualities, as
w i l l as w i t h t h e b i r t h d a y of t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d h i s Z o d i a c a l symbol.
li p e r s o n is s e e n a s c o n s i s t i n g of n i n e p a r t s , a n d in t h e extant
r x . i r n p l e s l i g h t a n d d a r k n e s s a r e v a r i o u s l y m i x e d . As t h e n u m b e r is
u n e v e n , e i t h e r g o o d or evil is b o u n d to d o m i n a t e . T h e first 'horoscope'
refers t o a l e a n m a n w i t h a six to t h r e e r a t i o o f l i g h t a n d darkness, a n d
I a u r u s as his a n i m a l . T h e s e c o n d is fat, w i t h u n e v e n t e e t h , thick fingers
. m d t h i c k , h a i r y t h i g h s . T h e p r o p o r t i o n of l i g h t t o d a r k n e s s is one to
right. T h e third 'horoscope' describes a black-eyed, bearded man, with
.1 g e n t l e v o i c e a n d fine, s t r a i g h t t e e t h , m e d i u m h e i g h t , h a v i n g thin,
(•longated fingers a n d s m o o t h t h i g h s . H i s s p i r i t consists o f eight p a r t s of
light a n d o n e of d a r k n e s s .
For a s t r o l o g y a m o n g J e w s in g e n e r a l , see a b o v e , p p . 3 6 9 - 7 2 , a n d in
I lellenistic J u d a i s m a n d E u p o l e m u s , in p a r t i c u l a r , see b e l o w , p . 529.
12) Horoscope of the Elect of God or Birth of Noah

T w o b a d l y d a m a g e d c o l u m n s o f a m a n u s c r i p t f r o m C a v e 4, d a t e d on
p a l a e o g r a p h i c a l g r o u n d s to a r o u n d the t u r n o f the e r a s , w e r e issued i n a
| ) r c l i m i n a r y p u b l i c a t i o n by J . S t a r c k y in 1964. H i s title, ' U n texte
m e s s i a n i q u e a r a m e e n ' , r e v e a l s t h a t in S t a r c k y ' s o p i n i o n the subject of
d i e w o r k , d e s i g n a t e d a s Sn*7X TTIS ( t h e E l e c t of G o d ) is a messianic
ligure. H e is said t o h a v e red h a i r a n d v a r i o u s b i r t h m a r k s , some of these
o n his t h i g h s . H e is fuU o f w i s d o m a n d l e a r n e d in t h e ' t h r e e books'.^
A l t h o u g h t h e m e s s i a n i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is possible, a n alternative
e x p l a n a t i o n , a d v a n c e d by J . A . F i t z m y e r , ^ is g a i n i n g m o m e n t u m ,
. i c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h t h e text r e l a t e s t h e m a r v e l l o u s b i r t h of N o a h (cf.
a b o v e , p p . 3 1 9 , 3 3 2 ) . M o r e r e c e n t l y J . T . M i l i k a n d F . G a r c i a Martinez
h a v e d e c l a r e d t h e m s e l v e s in f a v o u r of t h i s t h e o r y . *
Needless t o say, if t h e w o r k is a life o f N o a h , it is likely to d a t e t o an
earlier p e r i o d , p o s s i b l y to t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C . , a n d may be
p r e - s e c t a r i a n (cf a b o v e , p . 3 3 3 ) . If, b y c o n t r a s t , it c o n t i n u e s t o be
I c c o g n i z e d a s a m e s s i a n i c h o r o s c o p e , t h e c o m p o s i t i o n m a y b e assigned
lo the l a t e first c e n t u r y B . C . o r t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e first century A.D.,
w h i c h is t h e d a t e s u g g e s t e d for t h e m a n u s c r i p t itself.
1. O t t o Neugebauer {Ethiopic Astronomy and Computus (1979), P- 21) queries whether

ilicsc documents are properly described a s horoscopes, and suggests that they may be
II .igments of astrological treatises.
2. T h e 'three books' a r e variously interpreted as referring cither to Torah-
I'rophcts-Writings, or to three sectarian works.
;V Essays on the Semitic Background of the New Testament (1971), p p . 158—60.
\. Milik, The Books of Enoch (1976), p. 5 6 ; Garcia M a r t i n e z , ' 4 Q M e s Ar y el libro de
N<>( \ Escrilosde Bibliay Oriente (1981), pp. 195-232.
Editions (Horoscopes)
Allegro, J . M., D J D V , pp. 8 8 - 9 1 .
Translations
English
Allegro, op. cit.
Vermes, DSSE^, pp. 268-70.
Italian
M o r a l d i , L., M Q , pp. 677-84.
Bibliography
Allegro, J . M . , A n Astrological Cryptic D o c u m e n t from Q u m r a n ' , J S S 9 (1964), p p .
291-4.
C a r m i g n a c , J., 'Les horoscopes de Q u m r a n ' , R Q 5 (1965), pp. 199-206.
D u p o n t - S o m m e r , A., 'Deux documents horoscopiques esseniens decouverts pres d e l a
M e r M o r t e ' , C R A I (1965), pp. 239-53.
Cordis, R., 'A D o c u m e n t in Code from Q u m r a n ' , J S S 11 (1966), pp. 3 7 - 9 .
Delcor, M . , 'Recherches sur u n horoscope en langue h e b r a i q u e provenant d e Q u m r a n ' ,
R Q , 5 (1966), pp. 5 2 1 - 4 2 .
L e h m a n n , M. R . , ' N e w Light on Astrology in Q u m r a n a n d t h e T a l m u d ' , R Q 8 (1975),
pp. 599-602.
Vermes, DSS, p p . 8 4 - 5 .
Editions (Elect o f God)

Starcky, J . , ' U n texte messianique arameen de la grotte 4 d e Q u m r a n ' , Memorial du
cinquantenaire de I'Ecole des langues orientales anciennes de I'Institut Catholique de Paris
(1964), p p . 51-66.
Fitzmyer, J . A., Essays on the Semitic Background of the New Testament (1971), pp. 1 2 7 - 6 0 .
Translations
English
Fitzmyer, op. cit.
Vermes, D S S E " " , p. 270.
Bibliography
Garcia M a r t i n e z , F., ' 4 Q M e s Ar y el libro d e N o c ' , Escritos de Bibliay Oriente [Bibliotheca
Salmanticensis 38] (1981), pp. 195-232.
2. Calendars
S e v e r a l c a l e n d r i c f r a g m e n t s f r o m C a v e 4 h a v e b e e n m e n t i o n e d by J . T .
M i h k i n v a r i o u s p u b l i c a t i o n s , b u t t h e y a r e still a w a i t i n g e d i t i o n .
A first g r o u p , d e s i g n a t e d 4QMishmaroth, offers a c o n c o r d a n c e betwêen
t h e l u n a r a n d t h e s o l a r m o n t h , c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e n a m e of t h e p r i e s t l y
class officiating in t h e T e m p l e . T h u s t h e d o c u m e n t r e a d s : ' O n t h e s i x t h
day ( = F r i d a y ) i n ( t h e s e r v i c e p e r i o d of) E z e k i e l , t h e 29th ( d a y o f t h e
lunar month) = o n t h e 22nd of t h e e l e v e n t h m o n t h ( S h e b a t of t h e
l u n i - s o l a r c a l e n d a r ) ' : "WS T l t r y V ( 2 2 ) 3 (29)*? '?NpTn*'3 ( 6 ) 3 . A t h r e e -
Near cycle p e r m i t s t h e t w o c a l e n d a r s to s y n c h r o n i z e : 3 t i m e s 364 = 3

limes 3 5 4 p l u s t h i r t y .
T h e s a m e m a n u s c r i p t lists a l s o t h e festivals i n t h e c o n s e c u t i v e y e a r s of
I lie cycle. E . g . T h e first y e a r — i t s feasts.: O n t h e t h i r d d a y ( T u e s d a y )
ill (the s e r v i c e of) M e b z y a h : P a s s o v e r . . . O n t h e first d a y ( S u n d a y ) in
t h e service of) Y e s h u a ' : F e a s t of W e e k s ' , etc.
A n o t h e r s i m i l a r w o r k , c o n t a i n e d in t w o v e r y d a m a g e d m a n u s c r i p t s ,
s e t s out t h e o r d e r o f the p r i e s t l y g r o u p s a c c o r d i n g t o the s a b b a t h s of t h e
y e a r , b u t o c c a s i o n a l l y a l l u d e s also t o h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t s s u c h as ' S a l o m e
killed . . . ' : '[VSO'^tZ? I p n ] . O t h e r h isto r ical p e r s o n a h t i e s n a m e d a r e
II v r c a n u s ( O l l p i n ) a n d A e m i U u s ( O r ' ? a X ) , n o d o u b t A e m i l i u s
S c a u r u s , g o v e r n o r of S y r i a (cf. vol. I, p p . 244—5). T h e l a t t e r d o c u m e n t
h a s s o m e h n k w i t h Megillath Tdanith (cf. v o l . I , p p . 1 1 4 - 1 5 ) .
A f u r t h e r m i n u t e c a l e n d a r f r a g m e n t c o m e s f r o m C a v e 6 {6Qjy).
Editions a n d Bibliography
Milik, J. T . , 'Le travail d'edition des manuscrits d u Desert de J u d a ' , Volume du Congres,
Strasbourg 1936 (^g^j), p p . 24-6.
litem, Ten Tears of Discovery, pp. 107-9.
H.iillet, M . , D J D V I I , p p . 132-3.
•j. The Copper Scroll (3QJ5)

A scroll of h e a v i l y o x i d i z e d c o p p e r w a s d i s c o v e r e d i n C a v e 3 in 1 9 5 2 . As
it c o u l d not b e u n r o U e d , it w a s d i v i d e d i n t o l o n g i t u d i n a l strips a t t h e
Manchester College of Science a n d T e c h n o l o g y in 1956 a n d
s u b s e q u e n t l y e d i t e d b y J . T . M i l i k i n D J D I I I in 1962. T h e t e x t
i c p r e s e n t s t w e l v e c o l u m n s a n d t h e s c r i p t is s a i d to b e H e r o d i a n .
I n a l l , t h e d o c u m e n t hsts sixty-four u n d e r g r o u n d h i d i n g p l a c e s , in
J e r u s a l e m a n d in v a r i o u s r e g i o n s of P a l e s t i n e , w h e r e g o l d , silver,
a r o m a t i c s a n d scrolls, i n c l u d i n g a n o t h e r c o p y of the i n v e n t o r y w i t h
c o m p l e t e d e t a i l s (col. 1 2 , h n e s 1 1 - 1 3 ) , h a v e b e e n d e p o s i t e d . E a c h c a c h e
is s e m i - c r y p t i c a l l y d e s c r i b e d . E . g . ' A t H o r e b b e h , i n the V a l e of A c h o r ,
u n d e r t h e s t e p s g o i n g e a s t w a r d s , forty c u b i t s ' (col. i, lines 1 - 3 ) . T h e
t i c a s u r e d e s c r i b e d r e p r e s e n t s colossal w e a l t h . A c c o r d i n g t o J . M .
. \ l l e g r o , it t o t a l s a p p r o x i m a t e l y sixty-five t o n s of silver a n d t w e n t y - s i x
Ions of g o l d . '
S c h o l a r l y o p i n i o n is n e a t l y d i v i d e d b e t w e e n t h o s e w h o a c c e p t the
icality o f t h e h i d d e n t r e a s u r e , w h i c h is t h o u g h t to h a v e b e l o n g e d e i t h e r
to the E s s e n e s (A. D u p o n t - S o m m e r ) , or t o t h e T e m p l e o f J e r u s a l e m (K.
( i . K u h n , J . M . A l l e g r o ) , o r to h a v e r e p r e s e n t e d a s u m o f m o n e y
I o l l e c t e d after the d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e s a n c t u a r y to f i n a n c e its r e b u i l d i n g
B. Z. L u r i e , M . R . L e h m a n n ) , o r to h a v e b e e n t h e h i d d e n t r e a s u r e of
l i a r K o k h b a ( E . - M . L a p e r r o u s a z ) . I f the r e a h t y of the d e p o s i t is
I. The Treasure of the Copper Scroll ( i 9 6 0 ) , p . 59.

a s s u m e d — a n d t h e p r o s a i c style of t h e d e s c r i p t i o n e n g r a v e d o n d u r a b l e
m a t e r i a l m a y be c i t e d i n its f a v o u r — t h e C o p p e r Scroll will b e classified
a s a h i s t o r i c a l d o c u m e n t a n d not a s a l i t e r a r y w o r k , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y
r e q u i r e s no discussion h e r e .
By c o n t r a s t , if i t is d e c i d e d t h a t t h e c o n t e n t s of t h e C o p p e r Scroll a r e
closer t o fiction t h a n t o r e a l i t y — a n d t h i s is M i l i k ' s o p i n i o n — t h e n it
m a y b e r e c o g n i z e d as t h e p r o t o t y p e of a l i t e r a r y g e n r e r e p r e s e n t e d b y
t h e m e d i e v a l J e w i s h T r a c t a t e c o n c e r n i n g t h e T e m p l e Vessels or riDDD
D''Vd , d e s c r i b i n g t h e c o n c e a l m e n t of t h e t r e a s u r e s of t h e S a n c t u a r y a t
t h e t i m e of its d e s t r u c t i o n by N e b u c h a d n e z z a r .
I n t h e p r e s e n t s t a t e o f r e s e a r c h , t h e p r o b l e m of t h e C o p p e r Scroll is
still i n s o l u b l e . T h e folkloristic g e n r e t o w h i c h it s h o u l d b e a s c r i b e d
a c c o r d i n g t o the s e c o n d h y p o t h e s i s scarcely c o n c u r s w i t h t h e c h o i c e of
c o p p e r r a t h e r t h a n l e a t h e r o r p a p y r u s . N o r d o e s it fit t h e d r y r e a l i s m of
t h e d e s c r i p t i o n i n s t e a d of t h e colourful style s u i t a b l e t o a l e g e n d a r y
account.
Editions
Milik, J . T., D J D III, p p . 199-302.
Allegro, J . M., The Treasure of the Copper Scroll {1^60).
Translations
English
Allegro, op. cit.
French
Milik, op. cit.
Italian
Bibliography
K u h n , K.-G., 'Les rouleaux d e cuivre de Q u m r a n ' , RB 61 (1954), pp. 193-205.
D u p o n t - S o m m e r , A., 'Les rouleaux de cuivre trouves a Q u m r a n ' , R H R 151 (1957), pp.
22-35.
Milik, J . T., 'Le rouleau de cuivre', R B 66 (1959), p p . 321-57, 567-75.
Idem, and Jeremias, J., 'Remarques sur le rouleau de cuivre de Q u m r a n ' , R B 67 ( i 9 6 0 ) ,
pp. 220-23.
Ullendorff, E., ' T h e Greek Letters of the Copper Scroll', V T 11 (1961), pp. 227-8.
Laperrousaz, E.-M., ' R e m a r q u e s sur I'origine des rouleaux de cuivre decouverts d a n s la
grotte 3 de Q u m r a n ' , R H R 159 (1961), pp. 157-72.
Lurie, B. Z., The Copper Scroll from the Wilderness of Jerusalem (1963) [Hebrew].
L e h m a n n , M. R . , 'Idendfication of the Copper Scroll based on its Technical T e r m s ' , R Q
5 (1964). PP- 97-105.
2. A. JeUinek, Bet ha-Midrasch I I (1853), pp. xxvi-vii, 88-91. Milik further cites a
popular A r a b literary work. The Book of the Buried Pearls, published by A h m e d Bey K a m a l
in Cairo in 1907.
j e r e m i a s , J., 'Die KupferroUe von Q u m r a n u n d Bethesda', in Abba (1966), p p . 361-4.

Vermes, G., D S S E ' , p p . 271-3.
Idem, D S S , pp. 8 3 - 4 .
Laperrousaz, E.-M., Qumrdn. L'itablissement essenien des bords de la Mer Morte. Histoire et
archdologie </M (1976), p p . 131 - 4 7 .
Pixner, B . , 'Unravelling the C o p p e r Scroll Code: A S t u d y on t h e T o p o g r a p h y of 3Q15',
R Q i i (1983), PP- 323-65-
§ 3 3 A. J E W I S H L I T E R A T U R E C O M P O S E D I N G R E E K
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
T h e J e w i s h l i t e r a t u r e of this p e r i o d w r i t t e n in G r e e k is as v a r i e d as t h e
S e m i t i c J e w i s h U t e r a t u r e . Biblical J u d a i s m a n d a n o r a l m i d r a s h i c
t r a d i t i o n , on t h e o n e h a n d , G r e e k p h i l o s o p h e r s , p o e t s , a n d h i s t o r i a n s ,
o n the o t h e r , c o m b i n e d to p r o d u c e a l i t e r a t u r e of t h e m o s t m i x e d
v a r i e t y , diverse n o t only i n its l i t e r a r y forms b u t also w i t h r e g a r d to t h e
p o i n t s o f view w h i c h t h e a u t h o r s r e p r e s e n t e d a n d t h e p u r p o s e s w h i c h
they pursued.
G e n e r a l l y , this U t e r a t u r e s h a r e d t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l a n d Uterary
c h a r a c t e r of t h e t i m e , n a m e l y the Hellenistic era, d u r i n g w h i c h G r e e k
U t e r a t u r e s p r e a d b e y o n d G r e e c e itself a n d b e c a m e a w o r l d l i t e r a t u r e . '
T h e n a t i o n s a r o u n d t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a did not m e r e l y a d o p t
G r e e k c u l t u r e b u t also c o n t r i b u t e d to t h e l i t e r a r y p r o d u c t i o n of t h e
p e r i o d . I n e v e r y c o u n t r y , m e n w i t h G r e e k e d u c a t i p n a p p e a r e d as
a u t h o r s w h o took p a r t i n aU k i n d s of l i t e r a r y e n t e r p r i s e a n d t h r o u g h
their collaboration imprinted a cosmopolitan s t a m p on Greek
l i t e r a t u r e , c o s m o p o l i t a n b o t h from t h e p o i n t o f v i e w of o r i g i n a n d of
effect. T h e i n t e l l e c t u a l a c h i e v e m e n t s of t h e E a s t n o w e n t e r e d
increasingly i n t o G r e e k l i t e r a t u r e . R e l i g i o n a n d p h i l o s o p h y t h u s
received new s t i m u l i , a n d p o e t s a n d h i s t o r i a n s n e w m a t e r i a l . By t h e
s a m e t o k e n , t h e effect w a s also c o s m o p o l i t a n i n t h a t w h o e v e r took u p
his p e n m i g h t h a v e a n a u d i e n c e not only w i t h i n the small G r e e k n a t i o n
b u t a m o n g the educated of the whole world.
Hellenistic J e w s also t o o k p a r t i n this l i t e r a r y p r o d u c t i v i t y . I n d e e d ,
t h e a b o v e r e m a r k s a p p l y t o t h e m to a special d e g r e e , p r i m a r i l y b e c a u s e
they introduced a n entirely n e w e l e m e n t into Greek literature. T h e
religious k n o w l e d g e of I s r a e l , w h i c h u n t i l t h e n h a d b e l o n g e d t o o n l y a
smaU circle, n o w b e g a n t o exercise a n influence w i t h i n G r e e k U t e r a t u r e .
T h e religious faith of I s r a e l , its history, a n d i t s s a c r e d a n t i q u i t y w e r e
r e p r e s e n t e d in the forms a n d w i t h t h e m e d i a offered by G r e e k l i t e r a r y
I . See F . Susemihl, Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur in der Alexandrirurzjeit I - I I

(1891-2); Knaack, 'Alexandrinische Litteratur', R E I . i (1893), cols. 1399-1407; idem,
RE suppl. I (1903), cols. 5 3 - 4 ; Beloch, Griechische Geschichte I I L i (1904), pp. 408^556;
W. V. Christ, O. Stahlin and W . Schmidt, Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur etc. I I . i
(1920); H . N. Fowler, A History of Ancient Greek Literature ( 1923); J. G. Droysen and E.
Bayer, Geschichte des Hellenismus (1952-3); W . W. T a r n a n d G. T. Griffith, Hellenistic
Civilization (^1952) ; H . J . Rose, A Handbook of Greek Literature from Homer to the Age of Lucian
(*I957)> PP- 313^94; F- CI. G r a n t , 'Hellenismus', R G G I I I (^1959), cols. 2 0 9 - 1 2 ; V. A.
Tcherikover, Hellenistic Civilization and the Jews (1961), pp. 344-77 ; A. Lesky, A History of
Greek Literature (1965), p p . 642-806.
Introductory Remarks 471
( u l t u r e , a n d t h e r e b y m a d e accessible t o t h e w h o l e w o r l d . T h i s effect
w a s also c e r t a i n l y i n t e n d e d b y a p a r t o f J e w i s h - H e l l e n i s t i c l i t e r a t u r e .
S o m e J e w i s h a u t h o r s n o l o n g e r w r o t e s i m p l y for t h e i r o w n p e o p l e a n d
(()-religionists, b u t w i s h e d to a c q u a i n t t h e w o r l d w i t h I s r a e l ' s
d i s t i n g u i s h e d h i s t o r y a n d its s u p e r i o r religious k n o w l e d g e . O t h e r
a u t h o r s , h o w e v e r , w r o t e to p r o v i d e t h o s e of t h e i r fellow J e w s w h o h a d
b e e n a t t r a c t e d b y t h e i r n o n - J e w i s h e n v i r o n m e n t w i t h a m o d e r n , i.e.
hellenized, d r e s s for a c c e p t e d J e w i s h religious i d e a s .
A q u e s t i o n of c o n t i n u i n g a n d fruitful d e b a t e h a s b e e n w h e t h e r , for
t h e J e w s as for o t h e r O r i e n t a l p e o p l e s , the c o m b i n a t i o n of t h e i r o w n
national culture w i t h t h a t of the Greeks w a s merely a n external one.
Some h a v e a r g u e d t h a t J u d a i s m a n d Hellenism really entered i n t o a
process of i n n e r fusion w i t h o n e a n o t h e r . ^ A c c o r d i n g to this v i e w ,
J u d a i s m , w h i c h a p p e a r e d s o u n a p p r o a c h a b l y e x c l u s i v e in its strict,
p r o t o - P h a r i s a i c f o r m l a u n c h e d b y E z r a , p r o v e d itself o p e n t o c h a n g e
a n d a c c o m m o d a t i o n o n the soil o f H e l l e n i s m ; it a l l o w e d t h e powerful
( i r e e k spirit to exercise a f a r - r e a c h i n g i n f l u e n c e u p o n it. T h a t w h i c h
w a s t h e c o m m o n p r o p e r t y of t h e e d u c a t e d w o r l d , t h e g r e a t p o e t s ,
p h i l o s o p h e r s , a n d h i s t o r i a n s of t h e G r e e k s , t h e H e l l e n i s t i c J e w s also
w i s h e d to enjoy. T h e y too d r e w from the fresh s o u r c e of t h e G r e e k
classical a u t h o r s w h a t a p p e a r e d t o the a n c i e n t w o r l d t o be t h e h i g h e s t
g o o d , i.e., h u m a n c u l t u r e . U n n o t i c e d , h o w e v e r , J u d a i s m c h a n g e d
u n d e r this i n f l u e n c e . I t cast a s i d e its m o r e p a r t i c u l a r i s t i c c h a r a c t e r a n d
developed its universalizing tendencies. It discovered true a n d godly
t h o u g h t also in t h e h t e r a t u r e of t h e G e n t i l e w o r l d a n d a p p r o p r i a t e d it.
I t e m b r a c e d all m e n a s b r o t h e r s , a n d w i s h e d to l e a d t o the k n o w l e d g e
of the t r u t h t h o s e w h o w e r e still in d a r k n e s s .
O t h e r s , h o w e v e r , h a v e p r e f e r r e d to a r g u e t h a t n o s u c h fusion a n d n o
drastic change within J u d a i s m took place. W h i l e t h e J e w s m o v e d
c o m f o r t a b l y w i t h i n G r e e k c u l t u r e , like o t h e r O r i e n t a l p e o p l e s , it
b e c a m e a p p a r e n t at t h e s a m e t i m e t h a t J u d a i s m w a s s o m e t h i n g
2. O n Hellenistic J u d a i s m in generid, cf. P. W e n d l a n d , 'Alexandrian Philosophy', J E I

( i g o i ) , cols. 3 6 8 - 7 1 ; idem, Die hellenist.-rom. Kultur in ihren Beziehungen zu Judentum und
Christentum [Handbuch zum jV. T., ed. H . L i e t z m a n n and G . B o r n k a m m , I.2, 3rd ed., 1912;
4ih ed., with a d d i d o n a l bibliography b y H. Dorrie, 1972) ; J. Juster, Les Juifs dans
I'Empire romain etc. (1914), 2 vols.; G. H . Box, Judaism in the Greek Period (1932); O.
Stahlin, 'Die Hellenistisch-Jvidische Litteratur' in W . v. Christ, O . Stahhn a n d W.
Schmidt, op. cit. II. i (1920), pp. 5 3 5 - 6 5 6 ; E. R. Goodenough, By Light, Light! (1935); P.
Dalbert, Die Theol. der jiid.-hellenist. Misstonslit. {Theologische Forschung 4, 1954); E. R.
Goodenough, Jewish Symbols in the Greco-Roman Period, 13 vols. (1953-68) ; S. Cohen,
Judische Philosophie', R G G I I I (^1959), cols. 1001-6; K . Galling, ' J u d e n t u m ( V o m Exil
his H a d r i a n ) ' , R G G ^ I I I (1959), 9 7 8 - 8 6 ; V . A. Tcherikover, Hellenistic Civilization and the
Jews (1961); O . Eissfeldt, The O.T, An Introduction etc. ( E T 1965), p p . 571 ff.; S.
Sandmel, Judaism and Christian Beginnings (1978), p p . 2 5 5 - 3 0 1 . For further bibliography,
see G. Delling, Bibliographie zur jiidisch-hellenistischen und intertest. Literatur, igoo-igyo
(''975). PP- 2 0 - 3 .
472 §33-A- Jewish Literature Composed in Greek
different from p a g a n religions. Its i n n e r p o w e r of resistance was

i n c o m p a r a b l y g r e a t e r . W h i l e t h e o t h e r O r i e n t a l reUgions d i s a p p e a r e d
i n t h e g e n e r a l religious fusion of t h e t i m e , J u d a i s m r e m a i n e d essentially
u n a l t e r e d . I t a d h e r e d strictly t o the u n i t y of G o d a n d h i s w o r s h i p
w i t h o u t images, a s w e l l as t o faith in t h e L a w a n d t o the b e h e f t h a t
G o d ' s ways w i t h m a n l e a d to a blessed e n d . I t p r o v e d its s u p e r i o r
religious s t r e n g t h a g a i n s t t h e p r e s s u r e s o f H e l l e n i s m in this firm
a d h e r e n c e t o its c e n t r a l concepts.^
It is nonetheless r e a s o n a b l e to a s s u m e t h a t it w a s at least possible t h a t
t h e v e r y fact t h a t such i d e a s were expressed i n G r e e k will h a v e affected
their c o n t e n t , w h i c h is t h e j u s t i f i c a t i o n for t r e a t i n g h e r e t h e J e w i s h
w r i t i n g s in G r e e k s e p a r a t e l y from t h o s e in S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e s . T h e r e
are, however, considerable problems i n a t t e m p t i n g valid generaliza
tions a b o u t Hellenistic J u d a i s m a s a w h o l e . M o s t of t h e a u t h o r s w h o s e
w o r k h a s s u r v i v e d a r e r e p r e s e n t e d o n l y b y s m a l l f r a g m e n t s of their
w r i t i n g s . T h o s e f r a g m e n t s were selected i n the m a i n by t h e e a r l y
C h r i s t i a n writers in w h o s e w o r k s t h e y a r e p r e s e r v e d . I t is i m p o s s i b l e to
tell w h e t h e r the s u r v i v i n g a u t h o r s are r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of a m u c h l a r g e r
J e w i s h literature o r w h e t h e r the n u m b e r of G r e e k w o r k s c o m p o s e d by
J e w s in this p e r i o d w a s m e a g r e c o m p a r e d t o t h o s e i n Semitic
l a n g u a g e s . * I n e i t h e r case, if m u c h m i d r a s h w a s o r a l l y t r a n s m i t t e d , the
e x t a n t writings m a y b e of only p a r t i a l r e l e v a n c e in r e c o n s t r u c t i n g
religious a t t i t u d e s .
It c a n be said, h o w e v e r , t h a t consciousness of religious s u p e r i o r i t y has
s t a m p e d its c h a r a c t e r o n t h e s u r v i v i n g J e w i s h l i t e r a t u r e . T h e a u t h o r s
l a r g e l y p u r s u e d t h e p r a c t i c a l g o a l n o t o n l y of s t r e n g t h e n i n g fellow-
believers a n d famiUarizing t h e m w i t h its g r e a t p a s t b u t also of
c o n v i n c i n g n o n - J e w i s h r e a d e r s o f the foolishness of p a g a n i s m a n d of
p e r s u a d i n g t h e m of t h e g r e a t n e s s of t h e h i s t o r y of I s r a e l a n d o f the
g r o u n d l e s s n e s s of all a t t a c k s o n its p e o p l e . I t is t h u s l a r g e l y a p o l o g e t i c in
t h e m o s t c o m p r e h e n s i v e sense o f t h e w o r d . I n this p r e d o m i n a n t l y
p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e , all t h e J e w i s h l i t e r a t u r e is a h k e , b u t w h i l e t h e w o r k s
i n Semitic l a n g u a g e s m a i n l y p u r s u e d t h e g o a l o f s t r e n g t h e n i n g a n d
e n l i v e n i n g fidelity to the L a w , t h e c h i e f p r e o c c u p a t i o n s of the
Hellenistic J e w i s h a u t h o r s w h o s e w o r k s s u r v i v e l a y in t h e p r a i s e a n d
3. T h e argument against extensive changes in Jewish rehgious behefs c a n be found

most clearly stated in H . A. Wolfson, Philo ( 1 9 4 7 ) . Cf also, Collins, BAAJ, p. 9.
4. In favour of scepticism about claims r e g a r d i n g the existence of a much larger corpus
of Hellenistic Jewish literature, see G. Vermes a n d M. G o o d m a n , ' L a Litterature juive
intertestamentaire a l a Lumiere d ' u n Siecle de Recherches et de Decouvertes', i n R.
K u n t z m a n n a n d J. Schlosser, eds.. Etudes sur judaisme hellenistique (1984), p p . 30-9. The
m a i n reason for scepticism is the fact that such Jewish writings in Greek were likely to
h a v e been of great use to the apologists in the early C h u r c h a n d would have been easily
accessible to early Jewish writers. Failure t o use m o r e t h a n a handful suggests that only a
few ever existed.
Introductory Remarks 473
a g g r a n d i s e m e n t o f j e w i s h reUgion a n d t h e h i s t o r y o f the J e w i s h p e o p l e .
T h e size a n d w i d e s p r e a d of t h e J e w i s h d i a s p o r a i n t h e e a s t e r n
. M e d i t e r r a n e a n (see a b o v e , p p . 1 - 8 5 ) m a k e i t i m p o s s i b l e to assert t h a t
a n y o n e p l a c e was t h e c e n t r e o f G r e e k - s p e a k i n g J u d a i s m a n d t h e o r i g i n
of this l i t e r a t u r e . S o m e of t h e s u r v i v i n g a u t h o r s c e r t a i n l y w r o t e in
A l e x a n d r i a w h i c h , as t h e c a p i t a l o f t h e P t o l e m a i c k i n g d o m , h a d b e e n
raised b y t h e efforts o f t h e P t o l e m i e s i n t o the p r i n c i p a l c e n t r e of
s c h o l a r s h i p d u r i n g the H e l l e n i s t i c e r a . S i n c e A l e x a n d r i a also h o u s e d the
largest J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y o u t s i d e P a l e s t i n e , a n d s i n c e t h a t c o m m u n i t y
s p o k e G r e e k , it w a s i n e v i t a b l e t h a t s o m e of t h e J e w i s h w r i t i n g s in t h a t
l a n g u a g e s h o u l d d e r i v e from t h e r e . I t is h o w e v e r u n l i k e l y a n d c e r t a i n l y
u n p r o v a b l e t h a t a l l , or even m o s t , of s u c h w r i t i n g s c a m e f r o m E g y p t .
T h e J e w i s h texts a r e n o t t h e p r o d u c t of g r e a t l e a r n i n g a n d as s u c h
c o u l d h a v e b e e n p r o d u c e d i n a n y G r e e k c i t y ; it is c e r t a i n l y w r o n g to
a s s u m e t h a t a n A l e x a n d r i a n o r i g i n s h o u l d b e s t i p u l a t e d unless
i n d i c a t i o n s t o the c o n t r a r y a r e f o u n d . I t is p r o b a b l e t h a t s o m e , t h o u g h
p e r h a p s not m a n y , of t h e s e w o r k s w e r e p r o d u c e d in P a l e s t i n e . ^
T h e d i v e r s i t y o f literary f o r m s a n d o f t h e o l o g i c a l s t a n d p o i n t s o f the
w r i t i n g s to b e discussed h e r e is m a i n l y d u e to t h e fact t h a t t h e y
s o m e t i m e s follow b i b l i c a l e x a m p l e s a n d s o m e t i m e s G r e e k . B u t b e t w e e n
these t w o e x t r e m e s t h e r e is a l a r g e v a r i e t y o f p h e n o m e n a difficult to
classify. S o m e w r i t i n g s c a n n o t b e c l e a r l y d e s i g n a t e d a s G r e e k r a t h e r
t h a n S e m i t i c c o m p o s i t i o n s , a n d t h e s e w o r k s of d u b i o u s o r i g i n will be
discussed in 3 3 B. O t h e r w o r k s a r e n o w so t h o r o u g h l y i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o
l a t e r C h r i s t i a n texts t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l J e w i s h w r i t i n g is b e y o n d full
recall. T h e s e t e x t s will be c o n s i d e r e d in a n a p p e n d i x . T h e w r i t i n g s
w h i c h a r e c e r t a i n l y G r e e k c o m p o s i t i o n s b y J e w s c a n n o t b e usefully sep
a r a t e d i n t o e i t h e r G r e e k or b i b l i c a l g e n r e s , a n d a r e best d i s c u s s e d i n the
following g e n e r a l c a t e g o r i e s .
5. O n Hellenistic J u d a i s m in Palesdne, cf. J. F r e u d e n t h a l , Alexander Polyhistor (1875),

127-9; Bousset a n d H. Gressmann, Die Religion des Judentums (^1926); E . R. Bevan,
Jerusalem under the High Priests (1904); S. Lieberman, Hellenism in Jewish Palestine {Texts
and Studies of the Jew. Theol. Sem. of America, 18, 1950) ; S. L i e b e r m a n , Greek in Jewish
Palestine (1942) ; F. M . Abel, Hist, de la Palestine depuis la conquete d'Alexandre jusqu'd
I'invasion arahe, 2 vols. (1952) ; W. R . Farmer, Maccabees, Zealots and Josephus. An Inquiry
into Jewish Nationalism in the Greco-Roman Period (1956) ; V. A . Tcherikover, Hellenistic
Civilization and the Jews (1961), pp. 39-265 ; M. Hengel, Judaism and Hellenism (ET 1974);
B. Z. W a c h o l d e r , Eupolemus: A Study of Judaeo-Greek Literature (1974), p p . 259-306
( E S J L ) ; and further bibliography in G. Delling, Bibliographie, p p . 29-32.
§ 3 3 ^ . Jewish Literature Composed in Greek
I. TRANSLATIONS OF THE CANONICAL BIBLE
/. The Septuagint
T h e basis of all J e w i s h - H e l l e n i s t i c c u l t u r e is t h e old, a n o n y m o u s G r e e k
B i b l e t r a n s l a t i o n k n o w n as the Septuagint o r L X X (oi i^Sofju^Kovra,
septuaginta interpretes) a n d p r e s e r v e d for us m a i n l y by C h r i s t i a n t r a d i t i o n .
W i t h o u t it t h e religion o f G r e e k - s p e a k i n g J e w s w a s as u n t h i n k a b l e as
t h e C h u r c h o f E n g l a n d w i t h o u t the A u t h o r i s e d Version.^
T h e u n i f o r m n a m e s h o u l d n o t l e a d to t h e i d e a t h a t this is t h e w o r k of
a single h a n d . W h a t w a s b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r u n d e r t h i s n a m e a t a l a t e r
t i m e is n o t o n l y t h e w o r k of different t r a n s l a t o r s , it also c a m e a b o u t at
different times. T h e oldest p a r t is t h e t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e P e n t a t e u c h . T h e
so-called L e t t e r of A r i s t e a s p u r p o r t s to g i v e d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n o f its
o r i g i n . K i n g P t o l e m y I I P h i l a d e l p h u s ( 2 8 3 - 2 4 6 B.C.) was p e r s u a d e d b y
his l i b r a r i a n D e m e t r i u s of P h a l e r u m to h a v e the J e w i s h L a w
t r a n s c r i b e d a n d t r a n s l a t e d i n t o G r e e k for his l i b r a r y . At h i s r e q u e s t , t h e
J e w i s h h i g h priest E l e a z a r s e n t h i m s e v e n t y - t w o qualified m e n , six from
e a c h t r i b e , w h o finished t h e w h o l e w o r k i n s e v e n t y - t w o d a y s (cf. f u r t h e r
u n d e r section V I I ) . T h e d e t a i l e d h i s t o r i c i t y o f this a c c o u n t c a n n o t be
m a i n t a i n e d a n d m a n y o f the e m b e l l i s h m e n t s a r e fanciful.^ It is at first
s i g h t at least possible, h o w e v e r , t h a t a g e n u i n e historical t r a d i t i o n w a s
k n o w n t o the a u t h o r of t h e letter, a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h t h e t r a n s l a t i o n of
t h e J e w i s h L a w i n t o G r e e k w a s m a d e a t the c o m m a n d o f P t o l e m y , at
t h e suggestion of D e m e t r i u s o f P h a l e r u m . ^ It w o u l d b e c o n c e i v a b l e a n d
in k e e p i n g w i t h t h e l e a r n e d , l i t e r a r y zeal of t h e P t o l e m i e s , a n d
e s p e c i a l l y of P t o l e m y P h i l a d e l p h u s , t h a t he s h o u l d h a v e w a n t e d to
i n c l u d e in h i s l i b r a r y the J e w i s h L a w . ^ Also t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of
Ps.-Aristeas h a v i n g i n v e n t e d t h e w h o l e s t o r y h i m s e l f is l e s s e n e d by t h e
fact t h a t the J e w i s h p h i l o s o p h e r A r i s t o b u l u s , a t the t i m e o f P t o l e m y V I
P h i l o m e t o r , r e l a t e d the m a i n e l e m e n t s o f P s . - A r i s t e a s ' n a r r a t i v e a b o u t
P h i l a d e l p h u s a n d D e m e t r i u s w i t h o u t b e t r a y i n g a n y k n o w l e d g e of t h e
o t h e r e l e m e n t s of t h e P s . - A r i s t e a s ' w o r k . A l t h o u g h a r g u m e n t s h a v e
b e e n p u t forward for t h e d i r e c t r e l i a n c e of A r i s t o b u l u s o n Ps.-Aristeas
6. The name 'Septuagint' first referred to the t r a n s l a d o n of t h e Pentateuch only, b u t

was later applied to that of the other (O.T.) books as well.
7. The objections to the p u r p o r t e d authorship and d a t e a r e given by M . H a d a s ,
Aristeas to Philocrates (1951), p p . 5-9.
8. So e.g. L. Valckenaer, Diatribe de Aristobulo Judaeo (1806), p p . 49-58. Cf G. Zuntz,
'Aristeas Studies I I : Aristeas on the Translation of t h e T o r a h ' , J S S 4 (1959), p. 125.
9. O n the Alexandrian Hbraries, see Dziatzko, s.v. 'Bibliotheken', R E I I I . i (1899),
cols. 4 0 9 - 1 4 ; Leclercq, 'Alexandrie', Dictionnaire d'archiologie chretienne I.i (1907), cols.
1098-1182 ; E. A. Parsons, The Alexandrian Library, Glory of the Hellenic World (1952); A.
Pelleder, Lettre d'Aristee a Philocrate (1962), pp. 64 f, 6 6 - 7 1 ; P . M. Eraser, Ptolemaic
Alexandria (1972), ch. 6.
/. Translations of the Canonical Bible 475
a n d (less p l a u s i b l y ) v i c e - v e r s a , it is m o s t likely t h a t b o t h w r i t e r s
recorded i n d e p e n d e n t l y a c o m m o n t r a d i t i o n . ' ° T h e r o l e of D e m e t r i u s of
I ' h a l e r u m c a n n o t , h o w e v e r , b e h i s t o r i c a l since h e w a s n e v e r in c h a r g e of
the l i b r a r y , w a s e a r l y at v a r i a n c e w i t h P t o l e m y P h i l a d e l p h u s a n d w a s
l)anished b y h i m i m m e d i a t e l y after t h e d e a t h o f P t o l e m y I . " T h e r o l e
o i ' t h e k i n g is n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a l s o fictional, b u t it is i n fact i m p r o b a b l e
t h a t he w a s i n v o l v e d to a n y g r e a t e r d e g r e e t h a n i n t h e a c q u i r i n g of
copies for t h e r o y a l l i b r a r y o r i n s o m e s i m i l a r c o n n i v a n c e in, o r
e n c o u r a g e m e n t of, the t r a n s l a t i o n p r o j e c t w i t h o u t b e i n g d i r e c t l y
involved. T h e t r a n s l a t i o n m o s t likely c a m e a b o u t t h r o u g h the n e e d s of
the A l e x a n d r i a n J e w s t h e m s e l v e s . T h e w o r k of P s . - A r i s t e a s m a k e s it
d e a r t h a t the P e n t a t e u c h t r a n s l a t i o n was a c c e p t e d a s a n oflScial version
by t h e A l e x a n d r i a n J e w i s h p o p u l a c e . T h e p r o d u c t i o n of s u c h a w o r k b y
the J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y is e n t i r e l y p l a u s i b l e . J e w s for w h o m c o n t i n u e d
s t u d y of t h e L a w w a s d e a r r e a c t e d to t h e d e c r e a s e d k n o w l e d g e of t h e
holy l a n g u a g e in t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n d i a s p o r a a n d t h e a d o p t i o n of
O r e e k as t h e m a i n s p o k e n l a n g u a g e b y t r a n s l a t i n g t h e L a w i n t o G r e e k .
It w a s n a t u r a l t h a t t h e y s h o u l d b e g i n w i t h t h e P e n t a t e u c h , a n d t h e
evidence of P s . - A r i s t e a s to this effect s h o u l d b e a c c e p t e d . T h e
t r a n s l a t i o n m a y w e l l h a v e b e e n m a d e for a p r i v a t e p u r p o s e a t first,
p e r h a p s for s y n a g o g u e w o r s h i p a n d i n s t r u c t i o n , a n d it is possible t h a t
the story i n P s . - A r i s t e a s w a s p r o d u c e d in o r d e r t o l e n d it t h e s t a t u s of a n
official v e r s i o n . ' ^ A t a n y r a t e , h o w e v e r o b s c u r e t h e o r i g i n of t h i s
t r a n s l a t i o n m a y b e , it is m o s t u n l i k e l y t h a t P s . - A r i s t e a s w o u l d h a v e
claimed a n o r i g i n in A l e x a n d r i a if this w a s n o t t h e case, a n d
. M e x a n d r i a n i n v o l v e m e n t is c o n f i r m e d b o t h b y linguistic e v i d e n c e a n d
10. The passage from Aristobulus is given i n Eusebius, Praep. ev. xiii 12, 1—2.
Aristobulus says here t h a t Plato knew the Jewish Law. T o prove it, h e asserts that its
I ssential contents h a d already been translated into Greek before Demetrius of Phalerum.
lie continues: 'H 8' oXrj epfirjveia TWV 8ia TOV VO^JLOV rrdvTwv fTri TOV TTpoaayopevOevros
't>i\a8€X<l>ov âaiXecos, oov trpoyovov, TTpoaeveyKafj-evov yi,eCt,ova (piXorifMiav, Arjfj-rjTpLOV TOV
'PaXrjpeois v-payp.aTevaapi.evov r d nepl TOVTOJV. This passage is reproduced freely i n Clement
111 Alexandria, Strom, i 22, 148, where, through inserdon of a KOI in front of
nf)ayp.aTevoapifvov, enthusiasm for the m a t t e r and t h e organization of t h e translation are
.ISC ribed to Demetrius; b u t the /cm is p u t in square brackets by M o n d e s e r t (SC ( 1 9 5 1 ) , p.
I ,2) and Stahlin a n d Fruchtel (GCS, 5 2 , p. 92).
I I . The authority for this is H e r m i p p u s of Smyrna, a follower of Calhmachus w h o
li\fd under Ptolemy I I I and I V . Cf t h e passage from Diogenes Laertius, v 78 in Muller,
r H ( J , 111, p . 47; on H e r m i p p u s , cf S. Heibges, ' H e r m i p p o s ( 6 ) ' , RE V I I I ( 1 9 1 3 ) , cols.
l!| , 52. O n Demetrius, see R E IV.2 (1901), cols. 2 8 1 7 - 4 1 , s.v. 'Demetrios' (85).
I 2 . this was certainly the function of the legend a t later times, see below.
II lias been suggested t h a t Pseudo-Aristeas wished to p r o m o t e a new transladon into
• .icck in opposition to earlier versions (P. K a h l e , C G , p. 2 1 7 ) , b u t it is more likely t h a t
\iisicas was concerned to assert the a u t h o r i t y of t h e L X X translation over against the
iiLidcquate copies of t h e Hebrew text currently available in Alexandria, cf D. W.
(.ooding, 'Aristeas and Septuagint O r i g i n s : A Review of R e c e n t Studies', V T 13 (1963),
158 80, and below, note 278.
476 §33 A- Jewish Literature Composed in Greek
b y t h e s u r v i v a l to t h e t i m e of P h i l o of a festival o n P h a r o s
c o m m e m o r a t i n g t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e project.'^ N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e r e is
n o r e a s o n t o d e n y the p a r t i c i p a t i o n of t h e J e r u s a l e m a u t h o r i t i e s t h a t is
d e s c r i b e d b y Ps.-Aristeas.'* T h i s t r a n s l a t i o n or s o m e t h i n g v e r y s i m i l a r
t o it w a s a l r e a d y w r i t t e n before t h e e n d of t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y B.C. w h e n
i t was used b y t h e h i s t o r i a n D e m e t r i u s (see b e l o w , p . 5 1 4 ) .
W h e t h e r t h e n e e d for a G r e e k v e r s i o n of t h e T o r a h i n the H e l l e n i s t i c
d i a s p o r a w a s filled by a u n i q u e eflfort o f t r a n s l a t i o n , i.e. the L X X , o r b y
s e v e r a l , possibly local, a t t e m p t s w h i c h w e r e l a t e r g i v e n a unified a n d
s t a n d a r d form, still r e m a i n s a n o p e n q u e s t i o n a n d a subject for fruitful
d e b a t e . ' ^ A l l a g r e e h o w e v e r t h a t s o m e s o r t o f t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e
P e n t a t e u c h w a s e x t a n t in t h e e a r l y t h i r d c e n t u r y B.C., a n d t h a t this still
s u r v i v e s in l a t e r witnesses to t h e L X X . T h i s is g u a r a n t e e d b y the u s e o f
e a r l y t h i r d c e n t u r y B.C. G r e e k w o r d forms in the e x t a n t L X X t e x t , ' ^ b y
D e m e t r i u s ' use of a G r e e k version of t h e H e b r e w Bible i n t h e late t h i r d
c e n t u r y ' ^ a n d b y the p r e s u p p o s i t i o n o f t h e P e n t a t e u c h t r a n s l a t i o n i n
t h e L X X of I s a i a h a n d P s a l m s . ' ^
W h a t h a s b e e n s a i d so far is t r u e only of t h e t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e
P e n t a t e u c h , w h i c h is t h e o n l y p a r t of t h e H e b r e w Bible to w h i c h t h e
A r i s t e a s l e g e n d refers. After t h e s a c r e d T o r a h h a d b e e n m a d e a v a i l a b l e
t o H e l l e n i s t i c J e w s , t h e n e e d w a s felt to h a v e t h e o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e
S c r i p t u r e s i n G r e e k as well. T r a n s l a t i o n s i n t o G r e e k of t h e Prophets a n d
finally of t h e Hagiographa followed.'^ T h e s e too p r o b a b l y o r i g i n a t e d
m a i n l y in E g y p t . S i n c e s o m e of t h e W r i t i n g s , s u c h as p a r t s of D a n i e l ,
w e r e themselves w r i t t e n i n t h e M a c c a b a e a n p e r i o d , t h e G r e e k
t r a n s l a t i o n s of t h e s e l a t e r W r i t i n g s c a n n o t b e d a t e d e a r l i e r t h a n t h e
13. Philo, Vita Mosis ii 7 (41). See Swete and O t d e y , l O T G , pp. 9 ff., 16 ff., 2 8 9 - 3 1 4 ;
Fraser, PA I, p . 689.
14. M . Caster, The Samaritans (1925), p p . 112 ff., claims that t h e translation c a m e
entirely from Palestine, which is most unlikely, b u t Wacholder, ESJL, pp. 274-6, points
o u t rightly t h a t the accuracy of the L X X translation suggests greater knowledge of
H e b r e w than, ex hypothesi, was available a m o n g Alexandrian J e w s at this time.
15. Kahle, C O , argued for the L X X as a Greek targum p u t together from unofficial
versions, with the Pentateuch being given a ' s t a n d a r d ' form only c. 100 B.C., this
standardization being the act to which the Letter of Aristeas refers. But there is n o
evidence for such a revision of the text and most scholars still assume an original official
translation, cf Jellicoe, S M S , pp. 59—63.
16. Wackernagel, J . , 'Die griechische S p r a c h e ' , Kultur der Gegenwart 1.8 (^1924), p p .
371-97, esp. p. 388.
17. HoUaday, F H J A , I, p p . 52-3.
18. O . Eissfeldt, The O.T., An Introduction etc. ( E T 1965), p. 703.
19. F . X. Wutz, Die Transkriptionen von der Septuaginta bis Hieronymus (1933); idem,
Systematische Wege von der Septuaginta zum hebrdischen Urtext (1937), argued for a n
intermediate stage of the transcription of the Hebrew characters into Greek letters. This
hypothesis is however unproven and unnecessary.
/. Translations of the Canonical Bible ^yj
m i d d l e of the s e c o n d c e n t u r y B.C.^" B u t i t s e e m s in fact t h a t t h e m a i n

b o d y of t h e W r i t i n g s t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e P r o p h e t s w e r e a v a i l a b l e in
( r r e e k t r a n s l a t i o n a t a r o u n d t h i s t i m e . T h i s is r e f l e c t e d in t h e r e m a r k s of
the g r a n d s o n o f J e s u s son of S i r a , w h o c a m e t o E g y p t in 132 B.C. a n d
m u s t h a v e w r i t t e n before t h e d e a t h o f P t o l e m y V I I E u e r g e t e s P h y s c o n
in c. 116 B.C. H e excuses t h e i m p e r f e c t i o n of h i s t r a n s l a t i o n b y s t a t i n g
t h a t the m e a n i n g of H e b r e w s e n t e n c e s is n o t q u i t e t h e s a m e w h e n t h e y
are t r a n s l a t e d i n t o a n o t h e r l a n g u a g e , as is t h e case not o n l y w i t h his
work, b u t also w i t h t h e L a w , t h e P r o p h e t s , a n d t h e r e m a i n i n g w r i t i n g s
(Ecclus., p r o l o g u e : ' F o r w h a t w a s o r i g i n a l l y e x p r e s s e d in H e b r e w d o e s
not h a v e e x a c t l y t h e s a m e sense w h e n t r a n s l a t e d i n t o a n o t h e r l a n g u a g e .
Not only this w o r k , b u t e v e n t h e L a w itself, t h e p r o p h e c i e s a n d t h e r e s t
of t h e b o o k s differ n o t a little as o r i g i n a l l y e x p r e s s e d . ' ) . H e m a n i f e s t l y
a l r e a d y also k n e w a t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e P r o p h e t s a n d of t h e ' r e m a i n i n g
w r i t i n g s ' . A G r e e k t r a n s l a t i o n o f C h r o n i c l e s , e i t h e r t h a t o f the L X X or
a ' T h e o d o t i o n i c ' v e r s i o n , w a s possibly a v a i l a b l e t o E u p o l e m u s , w h o
w r o t e a b o u t t h e m i d d l e o f t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B.C. ( c f J . F r e u d e n t h a l ,
Alexander Polyhistor, p . 1 1 9 ; b u t n o t e also t h e d o u b t s expressed b y B . Z .
W a c h o l d e r , E S J L , p p . 2 5 2 - 4 ) ; t h a t of J o b w a s p r o b a b l y k n o w n to t h e
historian Aristeas t h e E x e g e t e , w h o s e d a t e is a d m i t t e d l y u n c e r t a i n ,
t h o u g h h e m u s t h a v e lived a t t h e latest in t h e first h a l f of t h e first
( e n t u r y B.C., b e c a u s e he is q u o t e d b y A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r (cf. b e l o w ,
])art I I I , a n d F r e u d e n t h a l , Alexander Polyhistor, p . 139). E v e n if, as
K a h l e h a s d e n i e d , b u t t h e c o n s i s t e n t p a t r i s t i c t r a d i t i o n of a single L X X
version o f t h e H e b r e w B i b l e r e n d e r s p r o b a b l e , t h e r e w a s one o r i g i n a l
Official' S e p t u a g i n t t r a n s l a t i o n , it is still likely t h a t a l l t h e s e b o o k s w e r e
t r a n s l a t e d at different t i m e s . T h e P e n t a t e u c h , t h e m i n o r p r o p h e t i c a l
books a n d s o m e of t h e a p o c r y p h a a r e a t t e s t e d in p r e - C h r i s t i a n
f r a g m e n t s , b u t t h e s e a r e even so t o o l a t e to d o m o r e t h a n confirm t h e
termini ante quem a l r e a d y s u g g e s t e d .
T h a t all t h e s e t r a n s l a t i o n s h a v e a J e w i s h o r i g i n n e e d s n o f u r t h e r
p r o o f T h e n a t u r e o f the t r a n s l a t i o n v a r i e s g r e a t l y in t h e d i f f e r e n t b o o k s .
20. Dating the translation of individual books is very difficult a n d depends almost
riitirely o n internal evidence, and on possible interdependence a m o n g the books
ilicinselves. Cf R e d p a t h , 'A Contribution towards settling the dates of the translation of
ilic various books of the Septuagint', J T h S t 7 ( 1 9 0 6 ) , p p . 6 0 6 - 1 5 (dividing t h e books of
I he L X X in groups on the basis of different renderings of the divine names). It m a y be
ili.it the extremely unequal translation of individual books outside the Pentateuch
iiidit ates differences in date, cf. H e r m a n n a n d Baumgartel, 'Beitrage zur Entstehungs-
I'.ischichte der Septuaginta', B W A T new series, v ( 1 9 2 3 ) , but this too is disputed, cf. J.
/ii-gler, 'Die Einheit d e r Septuaginta z u m Zwolfprophetenbuch', Vorlesungsverzeichnis
Huiunsberg ( 1 9 3 4 ) ; H. St. J . T h a c k e r a y , The Septuagint and Jewish Worship ( ^ 1 9 2 3 ) ; E. T o v ,
t h e impact of t h e L X X transladon of the Pentateuch on the transladon of the other
Imoks', in P. Casetti, O . Keel a n d A. Schenker, eds.. Melanges Dominique Barthelemy ( 1 9 8 1 ) ,
l'l>- 5 7 8 - 9 2 -
478 §33-^- Jewish Literature Composed in Greek
s o m e t i m e s r a t h e r free, s o m e t i m e s a w k w a r d l y l i t e r a l , p r e d o m i n a n t l y t h e
l a t t e r . A m o r e d e t a i l e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n has s o far b e e n u n d e r t a k e n only for
s o m e o f the books.'*' J u d g e m e n t a b o u t t h e c o m p e t e n c e o f t r a n s l a t i o n s
h a s too often b e e n v i t i a t e d b y p r e c o n c e p t i o n s a b o u t t h e a i m s of t h e
translators. W h e t h e r the intention w a s to reproduce the m o o d o r simply
t h e sense of t h e o r i g i n a l was a difficult c h o i c e for t h e L X X , a s for all,
t r a n s l a t o r s . If, as s o m e h a v e a r g u e d , t h e t r a n s l a t i o n s w e r e i n t e n d e d for
s y n a g o g a l l i t u r g y i n t h e diaspora,*^ the q u a l i t i e s desired will h a v e b e e n
m u c h m o r e rhetorical t h a n a pedestrian word-for-word version could
p r o v i d e . T h e task of e x a m i n i n g t r a n s l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e is especially
difficult b e c a u s e f r e q u e n t l y t h e t r a n s l a t o r s ' H e b r e w t e x t m u s t b e
r e c o n s t r u c t e d first. A l t h o u g h f r a g m e n t s from Q u m r a n C a v e 4 h a v e
definitely p r o v e d the existence o f a L X X - t y p e H e b r e w text, it
n o n e t h e l e s s r e m a i n s c l e a r t h a t s o m e of t h e p e c u l i a r i t i e s of t h e G r e e k
B i b l e n e e d t o be seen a g a i n s t the b a c k g r o u n d of t h e h i s t o r i c a l , social,
a n d religious c o n d i t i o n s i n w h i c h a n d for w h i c h t h e y c a m e a b o u t . W i t h
s o m e r e s e r v a t i o n t h e w o r d s of B e r t r a m still h o l d t r u e : ' T h e S e p t u a g i n t
b e l o n g s m o r e to t h e h i s t o r y o f O l d T e s t a m e n t exegesis t h a n t o t h a t of
t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t text';^^ a n d t h e L X X d e s e r v e s s t u d y as a G r e e k
c o m p o s i t i o n i n its o w n r i g h t a n d n o t j u s t as a m e a n s for c o r r e c t i n g t h e
H e b r e w text. T h e l a n g u a g e of all t h e s e w r i t i n g s is t h e c o m m o n G r e e k as
it w a s s p o k e n in E g y p t , o n l y s o m e w h a t i n f l u e n c e d b y H e b r e w . * *
2 1 . For general studies of translation techniques, see M. L . Margolis, 'Complete

Induction for the Identification of the V o c a b u l a r y in t h e Greek Versions o f the O l d
T e s t a m e n t with its Semitic Equivalents. Its Necessity a n d the Means of O b t a i n i n g it',
J A O S 30 (1910), pp. 3 0 1 - 1 2 ; idem, ' T h e M o d e of Expressing the Hebrew'a'jrf in the Greek
H e x a t e u c h ' , A J S L 29(1912/13), pp. 2 3 7 - 6 0 ; E . J . Bickermann, 'The Septuagint a s a
Translation', PAAJR 28 (1959), pp. 1-39 = Studies in Jewish and Christian History I (1976),
p p . 167-200. F o r references to studies on individual books, see Jellicoe, SMS, p p .
269-313. T h e most relevant of these for the study of translation method a r c : A. Rahlfs,
Studie fiber den griechischen Text des Buches Ruth (1922) ; M. L. Margolis, The Book of Joshua in
Greek, parts I-IV (1931-8), p a r t V a n d the introduction n o t published; H . M . Orlinsky,
' T h e Treatment of Anthropomorphisms and Anthropopathisms in the L X X of Isaiah',
H U C A 29 (1956), p. 2 0 0 ; idem, 'Studies in t h e Septuagint of the Book of J o b ' , H U C A 29
(1958), PP- 2 2 9 - 7 1 ; 30 (1959), pp. 153-67; 32 (1961), PP- 239-68; M . Dahood, The
Psalms I (1966), p p . xxiv-xxx.
22. H. St. J. T h a c k e r a y , The Septuagint and Jewish Worship (^1923).
2 3 . G. Bertram, ' D a s Problem der Umschrift u n d die religionsgeschichdiche
Erforschung der Septuaginta', B Z A W 66 (1936), p. 109.
24. A. Deissmann emphasized the Koine Greek basis, cf Deissmann, 'Hellcnistisches
Griechisch', Herzog a n d Hauck, Realencyclopadie etc} V I I , cols. 627-39, and 'Die
Hellenisierung des semitischen Monotheismus', N e u e J a h r b i i c h e r fur das klassische
Altertum 6 (1903), pp. 161-77. From studies of the papyri in secular Koine Greek, it has
become clear t h a t the Hebraisms and Aramaisms in the Greek of the L X X are
considerably fewer than was once assumed. T h e Greek of each book or section must be
dealt with separately, however, because the L X X is not a unified translation: the Greek
of 2 Kings, for example, reflects a marked Semitic s t a m p in its syntax, whereas t h a t of J o b
is relatively free from a n y H e b r e w influence. Cf E. Wiirthwein, The Text of the 0. T. etc.
O c c a s i o n a l l y , h o w e v e r , t h e H e b r a i s m s a r e so p r e d o m i n a n t , for e x a m p l e
in t h e s y n t a x , t h a t a n e d u c a t e d G r e e k w o u l d h a r d l y h a v e u n d e r s t o o d
them, and the Hebrew also had a considerable influence on the
d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e m e a n i n g o f s o m e w o r d s . N o t a few G r e e k words
w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d t o one m e a n i n g of a H e b r e w w o r d w e r e e q u a t e d to the
whole range of i t s m e a n i n g s , so t h a t t h e y w e r e g i v e n m e a n i n g s w h i c h t h e y
d o n o t h a v e i n G r e e k a t all (one need only t h i n k of hoâ, elp'qvrj,
biKaioavvT] and others).*^ T o what extent the colloquialisms of the
Hellenistic Jews paved the way for the translators cannot be
determined. Presumably the influence was reciprocal. Many of t h e
t r a n s l a t o r s ' r e n d e r i n g s w e r e f o u n d b y t h e m in c o l l o q u i a l l a n g u a g e . B u t
equally strong at least must have been the influence which the
translation, having passed into common use, exercised on the
d e v e l o p m e n t o f j e w i s h G r e e k , a s is m a n i f e s t in t h e i d i o m o f t h e N . T . ^ ^
T h e translations in question were not only united into a whole, b u t
w e r e also g e n e r a l l y r e c e i v e d b y t h e J e w s o f t h e d i a s p o r a a s t h e i r B i b l e .
If t h e p a t r i s t i c e x t r a c t s i n w h i c h his w r i t i n g s h a v e s u r v i v e d a r e r e l i a b l e ,
it s e e m s t h a t o n e of t h e o l d e s t H e l l e n i s t s , D e m e t r i u s , a l r e a d y b a s e d his
works o n biblical history entirely o n t h e L X X ; Philo and Josephus
a s s u m e d it p r e d o m i n a n t l y . ^ ' I t is r e m a r k a b l e t h a t , d e s p i t e t h e v a r i a n t
readings in c i r c u l a t i o n i n his t i m e , P h i l o a c c e p t e d the LXX of t h e
P e n t a t e u c h as a s a c r e d text t o s u c h a n extent t h a t he argued from
(^^1980), p . 48. T h e Hebraic character of L X X Greek is re-emphasized in opposition to

Deissmann by H . S. G e h m a n , ' T h e H e b r a i c C h a r a c t e r of S e p t u a g i n t Greek', V T i
(1951), p p . 8 1 - 9 0 ; for a partial rehabilitation o f Deissmann's views, see M . Silva,
'Bilingualism a n d the c h a r a c t e r of P a l e s d n i a n Greek', Bibl. 61 (1980), p p . 198-219,
especially p p . 209—13 on Alexandria. F o r g r a m m a r s , cf H . St. J . T h a c k e r a y , A Grammar
of the O.T. in Greek According to the LXX I ( 1 9 0 9 ) ; F . - M . Abel, Grammaire du grec bibtique,
suivie d'une clioix de papyrus (1927); E. Mayser, Grammatik der griech. Papyri aus der
Ptolemderzeit, mit Einschluss der gleichzeitigen Ostraka und der in Agypten verfassten Inschriften I
(1936); II (1926-34).
25. G. B e r t r a m , ' Z u r Septuaginta-Forschung', T h R 3 (1931), 2 8 3 - 9 6 ; 5 (1933),
173—86; 10 (1938), 69—80, 133-59; A . Descamps, 'La Justice d e D i e u d a n s la Bible
grecque'. Stud. Hell. V (1948), pp. 6 9 - 9 2 ; D . Hill, Greek Words and Hebrew Meanings
(SNTS M o n o g r a p h 5) (1967); E. R e p o , Der Begriff'Rhema' im biblisch-griechischen, p a r t I :
'Rhema' in der Septuaginta (1951) ; N. M . W a t s o n , 'Some Observations o n the use of 8i#caios
in t h e Septuagint', J B L 79 (i960), p p . 2 5 5 - 6 6 ; J . Barr, Semantics of Biblical Language
(1961); M . Silva, Biblical words and their meaning: an introduction to lexical semantics (1983).
Cf t h e m a n y useful examples given in T D N T .
26. Cf M . Johannessohn, ' D a s biblische Kat tyivero u n d seine Geschichte', Zeitschrift
fur vergleichende Sprachforschung 53 (1925), p p . 1 6 1 - 2 1 2 ; A. D . Nock, ' T h e
Vocabulary of t h e New Testament', J B L 5 2 (1953), p- 138; M . Johannessohn, ' D a s
biblische icat i8ou in d e r Erzahlung samt seiner hebraischen V o r l a g e ' , Zeitschrift fiir
vergleichende Sprachforschung 66 (1939), p p . 1 4 5 - 9 5 ; ^7 ('942), PP- 3 0 - 8 4 .
27. P. K a t z , Philo's Bible: The Aberrant Text of Bible Quotations in some Philonic Writings
and its Place in the Textual History of the Greek Bible (1950), argues t h a t some L X X quotations
in Philo were imported b y later (Christian) copyists. T h e q u e s d o n of Philo's knowledge of
Hebrew should b e left open, cf E. von Dobschiitz, 'Philo', Diet. Ap. Chr. I I (1918), 229a.
o c c a s i o n a l details i n it, a n d t h a t t h i s t r a n s l a t i o n w a s not only g e n e r a l l y

in p r i v a t e use b u t also served a s H o l y S c r i p t u r e in t h e s y n a g o g u e service
(cf. a b o v e , p p . 1 4 2 f f ) . O n t h e i s l a n d o f P h a r o s in A l e x a n d r i a , w h e r e ,
a c c o r d i n g t o t r a d i t i o n , the t r a n s l a t i o n w a s p r o d u c e d , a n a n n u a l
c e l e b r a t i o n o f t h a n k s g i v i n g like t h a t of t h e F e a s t of B o o t h s took p l a c e in
r e m e m b r a n c e o f ' t h e a n c i e n t gift of G o d , so o l d yet e v e r new'.''^ E v e n in
P a l e s t i n e it a c h i e v e d c o n s i d e r a b l e p r e s t i g e , b e i n g freely used b y
J o s e p h u s . T h e p o p u l a r i t y of t h e L X X i n Jewîsh circles m e a n s t h a t it
s h o u l d n o t b e s t u d i e d o n l y as a witness t o the u n d e r l y i n g H e b r e w B i b l e
b u t , as h a s b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d in a n u m b e r of r e c e n t studies, a s a p r i m e
s o u r c e of H e l l e n i s t i c J e w i s h religious, social a n d exegetical i d e a s .
F r o m J e w i s h h a n d s it p a s s e d to C h r i s t i a n i t y , w h e r e it was d i r e c t l y
a c c e p t e d as t h e a u t h e n t i c t e x t of S c r i p t u r e . H o w e v e r , t h e t r i u m p h of
t h e p r o t o - M a s o r e t i c codification of the H e b r e w Bible in P a l e s t i n e a n d
p e r h a p s , i n d i r e c t l y , t h e fact t h a t the C h r i s t i a n s a n d o t h e r J e w i s h
n o n - c o n f o r m i s t s h a d u s e d the L X X as a p o l e m i c a l w e a p o n in d i s p u t e s ,
c o n t r i b u t e d t o its g r a d u a l d i s c r e d i t i n g a m o n g J e w s a n d , after first
c e n t u r y A.D. J e w i s h a t t e m p t s at r e v i s i n g it a c c o r d i n g t o a M a s o r e t i c
t y p e H e b r e w text,^*' to A q u i l a ' s n e w t r a n s l a t i o n w h i c h a t t h e t i m e of
O r i g e n w a s h e l d in h i g h e r esteem b y the J e w s t h a n t h e L X X .
I n t h e history o f the L X X text t h e l e a r n e d efforts o f O r i g e n w e r e

e p o c h - m a k i n g t h o u g h , t h r o u g h n o fault of h i s , t h e y led u l t i m a t e l y to
confusion in t h e t e x t . B e c a u s e of t h e u n c e r t a i n t y of t h e t e x t of t h e L X X
a n d its m a r k e d differences from t h e H e b r e w t e x t a v a i l a b l e to h i m (i.e.,
28. Philo, Vita Mosis ii 41-4.

29. See the Uterature cited in S. P . Brock, C. T . Fritsch and S. Jellicoe, A Classified
Bibliography of the Septuagint (1973), sections 12 (Particular Concepts), 13 (Anthropo-
morphism/-pathism), 14 (Hellenistic Exegesis), 39 (Individual Books). Particularly
fruitful have been studies of t h e conception of God in the L X X (e.g. T . Wittstruck, ' T h e
so-called anti-anthropomorphisms in the Greek text of Deuteronomy', C B Q 38 (1976),
p p . 29-34 j 2- Zlotowitz, The Septuagint translation of the Hebrew terms in relation to God in
the book of Jeremiah (1981)) a n d analysis of exegetical methods i n the light of exegesis at
Q u m r a n , in Josephus, i n the rabbinic writings, a n d in t h e Aramaic t a r g u m i m . See for
example G . Vermes, S T J , pp. 178-92 and passim; E. T o v , 'Midrash-type exegesis in the
L X X ofJ o s h u a ' , R B 8 5 (1978), pp. 50-61.
30. D. Barthelemy, 'Redecouverte d ' u n chainon m a n q u a n t de I'histoire de la
Septante', RB 60 (1953), pp. 18-29, argues from t h e evidence of the Leather Scroll of the
Twelve Prophets found in the J u d a e a n Desert that the L X X was subjected to revision by
J e w s in t h e first century A.D. P. Kahle, 'Die in August 1952 entdeckte LederroUe mit
d e m griechischen Text der Kleinen Propheten', Op. Min. (1956), pp. 113-28, took the
s a m e evidence to indicate that the L X X had not yet reached a final form, but this view is
not widely accepted. F o r pre-Origen assimilation of the L X X to the Hebrew text, cf. H.
A. Sanders and C . Schmidt, The Minor Prophets in the Freer Collection and the Berlin Fragment
of Genesis (1927), pp. 25 ff., 265 ; J . Ziegler, Duodecim Prophetae (1943), p p . 33 f ; idem, 'Die
Bedeutung des Chester Beatty-Scheide Papyrus 967 fiir die Textiiberlieferung der
Ezechiel-LXX', Z A W 61 (1945/8), p p . 76-94. See especially D. Barthelemy, Les devanciers
d'Aquila (1963); below, p p . 501-2.
the p r o t o - M a s o r e t i c t e x t ) , O r i g e n p r e p a r e d a l a r g e e d i t i o n of t h e Bible
w i t h six p a r a l l e l c o l u m n s w h i c h w o u l d m a k e c l e a r t h o s e differences.
T h e c o n t e n t s of t h e first four of t h e s e c o l u m n s are g e n e r a U y a c c e p t e d
to h a v e b e e n , in o r d e r , ( i ) a H e b r e w t e x t i n H e b r e w script, (2) a
H e b r e w t e x t i n G r e e k s c r i p t , (3) t h e t r a n s l a t i o n o f A q u i l a , (4) t h e
t r a n s l a t i o n of S y m m a c h u s . C o l u m n (5) was probably O r i g e n ' s o w n
critical r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e ' s t a n d a r d ' L X X t e x t w i t h r e f e r e n c e to t h e
H e b r e w a n d t h e use of d i a c r i t i c a l m a r k s t o s h o w d i v e r g e n c e s f r o m t h e
H e b r e w t e x t . H o w e v e r , it has b e e n n o t e d c o r r e c t l y b y K a h l e t h a t t h e r e
is n o e v i d e n c e for d i a c r i t i c a l signs b e i n g u s e d a c t u a l l y in t h e H e x a p l a , so
t h a t the c o l u m n s m a y h a v e b e e n i n t e n d e d as t h e foundation of O r i g e n ' s
criticism of t h e L X X t e x t r a t h e r t h a n its c u l m i n a t i o n ( J B L 79 (i960),
p p . 1 1 1 — 1 8 ) . I f K a h l e is c o r r e c t , t h e O r i g e n i a n r e c e n s i o n will h a v e b e e n
a w o r k q u i t e s e p a r a t e f r o m t h e H e x a p l a , a n d the fifth c o l u m n of t h e
H e x a p l a was p r e s u m a b l y a t r a n s c r i p t i o n of a t e x t in c u r r e n t
c i r c u l a t i o n , p r o b a b l y t h e A l e x a n d r i a n J e w i s h r e v i s i o n of t h e L X X t e x t
w i t h the use o f ' T h e o d o t i o n i c ' r e a d i n g s ( c f J e l l i c o e , S M S , p p . 89, 1 2 3 ,
for this t e x t a s the Koivq of P a l e s t i n e , a n d b e l o w , p . 502). C o l u m n (6)
c o n t a i n e d m a i n l y , b u t n o t exclusively, t h e t r a n s l a t i o n o f T h e o d o t i o n .
F o r the P s a l t e r this c o l u m n c o n t a i n e d t h e t r a n s l a t i o n n a m e d ' Q u i n t a '
(cf M e r c a t i , Studie Testi 5 ( 1 9 0 1 ) , p p . 2 8 - 5 6 ; H . - J . V e n e t z , Die Quinta
des Psalteriums. Ein Beitrag zur Septuaginta- und Hexaplaforschung ( 1 9 7 4 ) ) ,
w h i l e for t h e m i n o r p r o p h e t s t h i s c o l u m n c o n t a i n e d a r e c e n s i o n
' t a r d i v e , e c l e c t i q u e e t p s e u d e p i g r a p h e ' a c c o r d i n g to B a r t h e l e m y on t h e
basis of t h e Q u m r a n D o d e k a p r o p h e t o n scroll {Les Devanciers d'Aquila
(1963), p . 269). Cf. t h e t e s t i m o n y of J e r o m e , Comment, in Tit., 3, 9;
E p i p h . De mens, et pond., 1 9 , a n d t h e r e m a i n i n g witnesses g i v e n i n F i e l d ,
Origenis Hexaplorum quae supersunt, prolegom p. L . T h e a t t e n t i o n of m o s t
a n c i e n t C h r i s t i a n users w a s n a t u r a l l y focused o n t h e four last c o l u m n s
of t h e H e x a p l a b e c a u s e they w e r e in G r e e k , to s u c h a n e x t e n t t h a t
E u s e b i u s refers to t h e m , a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y i n c o r r e c t l y , as a s e p a r a t e w o r k
of O r i g e n {Hist. Ecc. vi 1 6 , 4 ; cf H . M . O r l i n s k y , ' O r i g e n ' s
T e t r a p l a — a S c h o l a r l y F i c t i o n ? ' , Proceedings of the First World Congress of
Jewish Studies, ig^y I ( 1 9 5 2 ) , p p . 1 7 3 - 8 2 ) . O n e r e s u l t of this i n t e r e s t in
t h e four G r e e k versions w a s t h a t t h r e e o t h e r , a n o n y m o u s , t r a n s l a t i o n s
a d d e d t o the H e x a p l a a t a l a t e r d a t e w e r e referred t o by E u s e b i u s as t h e
'Fifth', ' S i x t h ' , a n d ' S e v e n t h ' v e r s i o n s , i.e., Q u i n t a , S e x t a a n d S e p t i m a
{Hist. Ecc. vi 1 6 , 1 - 3 , as e m e n d e d b y K a h l e , C G , p . 2 4 1 , in t h e light of
G. M e r c a t i , ' D ' a l c u n i f r a m m e n t i e s a p l a r i s u l l a v^ e vi^ e d i z i o n e g r e c a
d e l l a B i b b i a ' , S t u d i e T e s t i 5 ( 1 9 0 1 ) , p p . 28—60). O f these, so h t t l e is
k n o w n a b o u t S e p t i m a t h a t it p r o b a b l y e i t h e r n e v e r existed o r is n o w
lost to k n o w l e d g e (Field, op. cit. I, p . xlvi, b u t , contra, J . Ziegler,
Duodecim Prophetae ( 1 9 4 3 ) , p p . 1 0 7 ff".). I n c o n t r a s t t h e r e a d i n g s of
Q u i n t a a n d S e x t a e v i d e n t l y diflfered c o n s i d e r a b l y f r o m t h e o t h e r
482 §33'^- Jewish Literature Composed in Greek
t r a n s l a t i o n s a n d m a y h a v e s u r v i v e d q u i t e extensively (so, especially,

M e r c a t i , Psalterii Hexapli Reliquiae I ( 1 9 5 8 ) , p p . xix-xxxv, o n Q a i n t a i n
the sixth c o l u m n of the H e x a p l a ; c f t h e H e x a p l a a p p a r a t u s of t h e
G o t t i n g e n L X X ) . Cf. g e n e r a l l y a b o u t t h e w h o l e w o r k , t h e Prolegomena
in F . F i e l d , Origenis Hexaplorum quae supersunt, 2 vols. ( 1 8 7 5 , r e p r . 1964) ;
also C. T a y l o r , ' H e x a p l a ' , D C B I I I , cols. 14—23; M . L . M a r g o l i s ,
' H e x a p l a a n d H e x a p l a r i c ' , A J S L 32 (1915—16), p p . 1 2 6 - 4 0 ; S w e t e a n d
O t t l e y , l O T G , p p . 5 9 - 7 8 ; J e l l i c o e , S M S , p p . 100—33. S e e a l s o t h e
i n t r o d u c t i o n s t o the O . T . , e.g. O . Eissfeldt, The O.T., An Introduction etc.
(ET1965).
D i s a s t r o u s l y , h o w e v e r , e i t h e r in t h e fifth c o l u m n of t h e H e x a p l a or i n
a s e p a r a t e recension b a s e d on t h e H e x a p l a , O r i g e n w a s n o t c o n t e n t t o
set t h e t e x t of the L X X p a r a l l e l t o the o t h e r s , b u t , to facilitate its
r e a d i n g , m a r k e d in t h e t e x t of t h e L X X itself t h e d i v e r g e n c e s from t h e
H e b r e w , i n t h a t he ( a ) s u p p l i e d with a n o b e l u s (the sign o f cancelHng)
w o r d s , s e n t e n c e s , o r p a r a g r a p h s a b s e n t from t h e H e b r e w ; a n d (b)
i n c l u d e d from o t h e r t r a n s l a t i o n s , g e n e r a l l y from T h e o d o t i o n , w o r d s ,
sentences o r p a r a g r a p h s f o u n d i n the H e b r e w b u t l a c k i n g i n t h e L X X ,
m a r k i n g t h e m w i t h a n a s t e r i s k (cf O r i g e n ' s o w n d e s c r i p t i o n of h i s
m e t h o d s i n Comment, in Matth. x v , c. 1 4 , P G 1 3 , 1 2 9 3 , G C S , O r i g e n X ,
p. 3 8 8 ; a n d J e r o m e ' s specific a s s e r t i o n t h a t t h e i n s e r t e d p a s s a g e s w e r e
from T h e o d o t i o n in Praef. in vers. Paralipom. P L X X V I I I , 1 3 2 4 ff.). H e
often p r o c e e d e d similarly i n cases of i n e x a c t t r a n s l a t i o n s in t h e L X X , i n
t h a t h e a d d e d b e h i n d the r e a d i n g of t h e L X X m a r k e d w i t h a n o b e l u s
the r e a d i n g p a r a l l e l t o t h e H e b r e w f r o m a n o t h e r version, m a r k e d w i t h
a n asterisk, a s s i m i l a t i n g t h e L X X to t h e H e b r e w text w i t h the h e l p o f
the o t h e r G r e e k t r a n s l a t i o n s . Because O r i g e n ' s L X X t e x t w a s
f r e q u e n t l y c o p i e d after E u s e b i u s (cf F i e l d , Proleg., p . x c i x ) , a n d often
c i r c u l a t e d in a form in w h i c h the critical signs h a d b e e n t r e a t e d
n e g l i g e n t l y , a n d b e c a u s e f u r t h e r m o r e t h e c o m m o n L X X t e x t ( t h e Koivrj
€K8oais) w a s also c o r r e c t e d on t h e basis o f the h e x a p l a r i c o n e , a l a r g e
n u m b e r o f ' h e x a p l a r i c ' r e a d i n g s f o u n d t h e i r w a y i n t o t h e text of t h e
L X X . T h i s process m a y w e l l h a v e b e e n a i d e d if, as is possible, O r i g e n
himself p r o d u c e d , s e p a r a t e l y from t h e H e x a p l a , a critical e d i t i o n of t h e
L X X b a s e d on his o w n r e s e a r c h e s a n d without t h e critical m a r k s w h i c h
w e r e n a t u r a l l y c o n f i n e d to his n o t e s o n the old text.^' T h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f
31. P. Kahle, review of I. Soisalen-Soininen, Der Charakter der asterisierten ûsdtze in der
Septuaginta (1959), T h Z 84 (1959), p p . 743—5- T h i s view is based o n the Mercati
fragments b u t is still controversial; see above, p . 481. For t h e text used b y Origen when
preaching, see P. NauUn, introduction t o Origen, Horn, in leremiam I (SC 232 (1976), p p .
112-25), ^^ô shows that Origen sometimes quoted (and misquoted) from memory b u t
that h e frequently m a d e a point from the presence or absence of particular readings in the
translations other than t h e Septuagint, presumably in such cases using a text which
contained this information.
the hexaplaric additions is therefore one of the chief tasks of

s e p t u a g i n t a l r e s e a r c h . I t is g e n e r a l l y p o s s i b l e t o d o t h i s , a t least for m o s t
b o o k s of t h e O . T . , b e c a u s e O r i g e n ' s c r i t i c a l n o t e s h a v e b e e n p r e s e r v e d
for the largest part of t h e O . T . The signs a r e found partially but
i m p e r f e c t l y p r e s e r v e d in s o m e G r e e k m s s . ( t h e G r e e k C o d e x C o l b e r t o -
Sarravianus and the Chigi ms. 88) and partly in mss. of other
text-families w i t h h e x a p l a r i c r e a d i n g s i n t h e i r m a r g i n s , e.g. Codices
Coislinianus a n d M a r c h a h a n u s , cf. J e l l i c o e , S M S , p. 146, b u t most
importantly in the Syriac translation of the hexaplaric LXX text
( S y r o h e x a p l a ) , a l t h o u g h t h e a c c u r a c y of t h e r e p r o d u c t i o n of t h e s i g n s
in t h e S y r o h e x a p l a s h o u l d n o t a l w a y s b e t r u s t e d , cf C . T . F r i t s c h , ' T h e
T r e a t m e n t of t h e H e x a p l a r i c S i g n s i n t h e S y r o - H e x a p l a r of P r o v e r b s ' ,
J B L 72 ( 1 9 5 3 ) , p p . 1 6 9 - 8 1 . T h e fullest c o l l e c t i o n o f p e r t i n e n t material
was made by Field, Origenis Hexaplorum quae supersunt, sive veterum
interpretum Graecorum in totum Vetus Testamentum fragmenta, 2 vols. ( 1 8 7 5 ) .
Cf A. Mohle, 'Ein neuer Fund zahlreicher Stiicke aus den
J e s a i a i i b e r s e t z u n g e n des A k y l a s , S y m m a c h o s und Theodotion. Probe
e i n e s n e u e n " F i e l d " ' , Z A W , n e w series, 1 1 ( 1 9 3 4 ) , p p . 1 7 6 ff.; for t h e
m a t e r i a l in E u s e b i u s , Comment, in Isaiam d i s c u s s e d b y M o h l e , see n o w
GCS Eusebius IX (1975). Since Field, the material has been
significantly e x p a n d e d b y t h e f i n d s o f M o r i n , M e r c a t i , a n d Taylor.^'^
32. See the list of sources a n d editions of Hexaplaric materials in Swete a n d Ottley,
l O T G , p . 76, including C. Taylor, Hebrew-Greek Cairo Genizah Palimpsests from the
Taytor-Schechter Collection including a fragment of the twenty-second Psalm according to Origen's
Hexapla (1900). Noteworthy additional material c a n be found i n L. L u t k e m a n n a n d A.
Rahlfs, Hexaplarische Randnoten zu Isaias I-I6 aus einer Sinai-Handschrift (MSU i, 6) (1915)
and, especially, G. Mercati, Psalterii Hexapli Reliquiae, Pars Prima: Codex Rescriptus
Bybliothecae Ambrosianae O 39 sup. phototypice expressus et transcriptus (1958). I n this latter
publicadon, a palimpsest of the Ambrosiana library contains five of the six columns of the
Hexapla o f the Psalms: (i) Hebrew in Greek script, (2) Aquila, (3) Symmachus, (4)
Septuagint without critical signs, (5) Q u i n t a ; the total v o c a b u l a r y of this palimpsest is
included i n Hatch and R e d p a t h , Concordance to the Septuagint, s u p p l e m e n t fasc. I I (1906).
Cf A. Schenker, Hexaplarische Psalmenbruchstiicke: Der hexaplarische-Psalmenfragmente der
Handschriften Vaticanus graecus 732 und Canonicianus graecus 62 (1975). F o r research on the
Hexapla, see bibliography in S. P. Brock, C. T . Fritsch and S. Jellicoe, A Classified
Bibliography of the Septuagint (1973), pp. 88-92. Note especially t h e w o r k on the
transcription of t h e Hebrew text in t h e second c o l u m n : H . M. O r l i n s k y , ' T h e columnar
order of t h e Hexapla', J Q R n.s. 27 (1936/7), p p . 137—49, suggesting that the whole
Hexapla w a s intended a s a teaching a i d for learning H e b r e w ; G . M e r c a t i , ' I I problema
della colonna II dell'Esaplo', Bibl. 28 (1947), pp- 1-30, 1 7 3 - 2 1 5 ; J . A . Emerton, ' T h e
purpose of the second column o f the H e x a p l a ' , J T h S t n.s. 7 (1956), 79-87, suggesdng that
the transliteration was intended to h e l p with the vocalization of t h e consonantal H e b r e w
text, cf also idem, 'A further consideration of the p u r p o s e of t h e second column in the
Hexapla', J T h S t 22 (1971), p p . 15-28. O n t h e Syro-Hexapla, see bibliography in Brock,
Fritsch a n d Jellicoe, Bibliography, p p . 1 9 1 - 3 ; W. Baars, New Syro-hexaplaric texts, edited,
commented upon and compared with the LXX (1968); A . Voobus, Discovery of very important
manuscript sources for the Syro-Hexapla (1970); idem. The Hexapla and the Syro-Hexapla (1971);
idem. The Pentateuch in the version of the Syro-Hexapla: a facsimile edition of a Midyat Ms.
E l i m i n a t i o n of t h e p a s s a g e s m a r k e d w i t h an asterisk f r o m t h e
H e x a p l a r i c L X X b y n o m e a n s signifies, h o w e v e r , t h a t one a r r i v e s at t h e
o r i g i n a l L X X text. T h e m a n u s c r i p t s a l r e a d y v a r i e d g r e a t l y at t h e t i m e
of O r i g e n (cf O r i g e n , Comment, in Matth. x v , c. 14, P G 1 3 , 1 2 9 3 , G C S
O r i g e n X , p . 388). F r o m these, h e himself first c o n s t r u c t e d a L X X t e x t .
E v e n t h o u g h t h e r e a r e g o o d g r o u n d s to b e l i e v e t h a t h e w a s s c r u p u l o u s
in h i s s c h o l a r s h i p in i n c l u d i n g t h e p u r e s t a v a i l a b l e form o f t h e G r e e k
text u n d e r o b e l u s w h e n inserting a r e a d i n g from a n o t h e r v e r s i o n
( F r i t s c h ) , and t h a t t h e c h a n g e s to a c c o r d w i t h the H e b r e w m a d e b y
h i m in t h e L X X t e x t , a p a r t from the a d d i t i o n s ( w h i c h a r e easily
r e c o g n i z a b l e ) w e r e relatively few a n d m i n o r (cf H . M . O r l i n s k y ,
' S t u d i e s i n the S e p t u a g i n t of t h e Book ofJ o b ' , H U C A 28 ( 1 9 5 7 ) , p . 5 6 ) ,
n o n e t h e l e s s o n l y the recension of Origen is o b t a i n e d in t h i s way.^^
O t h e r C h r i s t i a n s c h o l a r s besides O r i g e n also w o r k e d o n the text o f
the L X X in t h e t h i r d a n d f o u r t h c e n t u r i e s A.D. D e s p i t e t h e s u p p o r t o f
E u s e b i u s a n d P a m p h i l u s for O r i g e n ' s version, t h e r e were a t least t w o
o t h e r recensions, a n d r e c e n t a t t e m p t s to d i s t i n g u i s h g r o u p s a m o n g t h e
e x t a n t manuscripts have almost certainly revealed a third recension,
identified as r e c e n s i o n ' C b y R a h l f s w h e n w o r k i n g o n the t e x t o f R u t h ,
a n d b y M a r g o l i s in t h e t e x t of J o s h u a , cf M . L. M a r g o l i s , ' S p e c i m e n o f
a N e w E d i t i o n of t h e G r e e k J o s h u a ' , i n Jewish Studies in Memory of Israel
Abrahams ( 1 9 2 7 ) , p . 309, w i t h t h e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t this recension ' w a s a t
h o m e in C o n s t a n t i n o p l e a n d A s i a M i n o r ' . T h e versions o f H e s y c h i u s
a n d L u c i a n a r e explicitly m e n t i o n e d b y J e r o m e ; t h a t o f H e s y c h i u s
a p p a r e n t l y c i r c u l a t e d in E g y p t , w h e r e a s t h a t o f L u c i a n w a s p r e f e r r e d
from A n t i o c h t o C o n s t a n t i n o p l e ( J e r o m e , In Evangelistas ad Damasum
praefatio, P L 29, 557—62, cf. 5 5 9 ) . T h e v i e w t h a t Hesychius w a s t h e s a m e
p e r s o n as the E g y p t i a n b i s h o p of this n a m e w h o was m a r t y r e d i n A.D.
3 1 2 d u r i n g the p e r s e c u t i o n u n d e r M a x i m i n u s ( E u s e b i u s , Hist. Eccl. viii
13, 7) r e m a i n s p r o b a b l e b u t u n p r o v a b l e , c f J e l l i c o e , S M S , p p . 1 4 6 - 8 .
N o t h i n g m u c h is k n o w n a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f his recension, a l t h o u g h t h e
text of C o d e x V a t i c a n u s (B) h a s b e e n w i d e l y s u p p o s e d to b e H e s y c h i a n
in m a n y of its b o o k s , a n d r e a d i n g s i n v a r i o u s o t h e r m a n u s c r i p t s h a v e
b e e n plausibly assigned t o this r e c e n s i o n , cf. S. J e l l i c o e , ' T h e H e s y c h i a n
R e c e n s i o n R e c o n s i d e r e d ' , J B L 82 ( 1 9 6 3 ) , p p . 4 0 9 - 1 8 , a n d idem, S M S ,
154—8, contra the scepticism of H . D o r r i e , ' Z u r G e s c h i c h t e d e r
discovered 1964 (1975); idem. The Book of Isaiah in the Version of the Syro-Hexapla: a facsimile
edition of Ms St Mark i in Jerusalem (1983).
33. O n Origen's treatment of the L X X text, arguing that Origen changed it only httle
apart from the additions a n d deletions, and t h a t all such changes were purely mechanical
insertions of the text in the other extant versions when they seemed closer to the H e b r e w ,
cf M . L. Margolis, 'The M o d e of Expressing Hcbrew'aW in the Greek H e x a t e u c h ' , A J S L
29(1912/13), pp. 2 3 7 - 6 0 ; L Soisalon-Soininen, Der Charakter der asterisierten ûsdtze in der
Septuaginta (1959). C f Jellicoe, S M S , p p . 134-46.
S e p t u a g i n t a i m J a h r h u n d e r t K o n s t a n t i n s ' , Z N W 39 (1940), p p .
5 7 - 1 1 0 . O v e r w h e l m i n g l y p r o b a b l e is t h e i d e n t i t y of Lucian w i t h t h e
p r e s b y t e r of t h a t n a m e m a r t y r e d in A.D. 3 1 2 d u r i n g t h e s a m e
p e r s e c u t i o n after a c t i n g a s l e a d e r o f t h e s c h o o l in A n t i o c h ( E u s e b i u s ,
Hist. Eccl. viii 1 3 , 2 ; ix 6, 3 ) . A link w i t h A d o p t i o n i s t t h e o l o g y m a d e his
o r t h o d o x y at least d u b i o u s , cf G . L . P r e s t i g e , Fathers and Heretics (1940),
p. 104. A c c o r d i n g t o the s u d a , s.v. AovKiavos 6 fxaprvs, L u c i a n e m e n d e d
the L X X on t h e basis of t h e H e b r e w , b u t since t h e r e is n o o t h e r
e v i d e n c e for h i s k n o w l e d g e of H e b r e w , it m u s t b e a d m i t t e d m o r e likely
t h a t the c h a n g e s i n s e r t e d i n t o his r e c e n s i o n c a m e from o l d e r G r e e k
versions (Jellicoe, S M S , p p . 1 6 0 - 3 ) . P r e s u m a b l y he u s e d O r i g e n ' s
H e x a p l a w i t h o u t r e c o u r s e to t h e h e x a p l a r i c v e r s i o n . D e s p i t e difficulties
in c o r r e c t l y i d e n t i f y i n g t h e L u c i a n i c t e x t in e x t a n t m a n u s c r i p t s (see
b e l o w ) , m u c h c a n b e s a i d a b o u t h i s d i s t i n c t i v e v e r s i o n of t h e L X X .
Lucian apparently aimed at a comprehensive, a n d sometimes
c o n f l a t i n g , i n c l u s i o n of all p o s s i b l y g e n u i n e , i.e. w e l l - a t t e s t e d a n d
a n c i e n t , r e a d i n g s a n d s h o w e d a m a r k e d p r e f e r e n c e for A t t i c G r e e k
forms o v e r H e l l e n i s t i c forms. See, b a s e d on t h e L u c i a n i c t e x t of t h e
N . T . , r e m a r k s in K . L a k e , The Text of the M.T. (^1928), p . 69; J e l H c o e ,
S M S , p . 159. C f o n L u c i a n i n g e n e r a l . F i e l d , Prolegom.., ch. 9 ; G . F .
M o o r e , ' T h e A n t i o c h i a n R e c e n s i o n o f t h e S e p t u a g i n t ' , A J S L 29
( 1 9 1 2 - 1 3 ) , p p . 3 7 - 6 2 ; G . B a r d y , Recherches sur Saint Lucien d'Antioche et
son ecole ( 1 9 3 6 ) ; J . Ziegler, ' H a t L u k i a n d e n g r i e c h i s c h e n S i r a c h
rezensiert?', B i b l . 40 ( 1 9 5 9 ) , p p . 2 1 0 - 2 9 ; B . M . M e t z g e r , ' T h e L u c i a n i c
R e c e n s i o n of t h e G r e e k B i b l e ' , Chapters in the Historj of JVew Testament
Textual Criticism ( 1 9 6 3 ) , p p . i — 4 1 ; B a r t h e l e m y , Les Devanciers d'Aquila
(1963), p p . 1 2 6 f ; N . F e r n a n d e z - M a r c o s , ' T h e L u c i a n i c t e x t in t h e
Books of K i n g d o m s ' , in A . P i e t e r s m a a n d C. C o x ( e d s . ) , De Septuaginta :
Studies in Honour of J. W. Wevers ( 1 9 8 4 ) , p p . 1 6 1 - 7 4 . C f also S w e t e a n d
O t t l e y , l O T G ; E. W i i r t h w e i n , The Text of the O.T., etc. (^1980), p p . 41
f ; Eissfeldt, The O.T.,An Introduction, p. 7 1 2 .
T h e r e c e n s i o n of L u c i a n h a s b e e n p r e s e r v e d in s e v e r a l m a n u s c r i p t s ,
t h o u g h i n all cases L u c i a n i c r e a d i n g s a r e f o u n d m i x e d w i t h r e a d i n g s
from o t h e r r e c e n s i o n s . T h e t e x t p u b l i s h e d by P . L a g a r d e as ' L u c i a n i c '
in Librorum Veteris Testamenti Canonicorum Pars Prior Graece (1883) is in
fact not a l w a y s w h a t it p u r p o r t s t o be since L a g a r d e a s s u m e d q u i t e
w r o n g l y t h a t a L u c i a n i c r e a d i n g i n o n e p a r t of a m a n u s c r i p t w o u l d
classify t h e w h o l e m a n u s c r i p t a s L.ucianic. M o r e r e l i a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n on
t h e L u c i a n i c t e x t c a n b e f o u n d in t h e G o t t i n g e n e d i t i o n s of t h e L X X
(see b e l o w , p . 490). See also on t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n of t h e text, F i e l d ,
Origenis Hexaplorum etc. I , p p . Ixxiv f; A . R a h l f s , Septuaginta-Studien i:
Studien zu den Konigsbuchern (1904) ; J . D a h s e , ' T e x t k r i t i s c h e S t u d i e n ' ,
Z A W 28 (1908), p p . 1 - 2 1 , 1 6 1 - 7 3 ; P r o c k s c h , Studien zur Geschichte
der Septuaginta : die Propheten ( B W A T V I I ) ( 1 9 1 0 ) ; A . R a h l f s , Septuaginta
Studien I I I : Lucians Rezension der Konigsbiicher ( 1 9 1 1 ) ; K a h l e , C G , p p .

231 fF. J e l l i c o e , S M S , p p . 163-8.^*
T h e l a b o u r s of H e s y c h i u s a n d L u c i a n c a u s e d still f u r t h e r confusion i n
t h e e x t a n t m a n u s c r i p t s o f the L X X for n o w n o t o n l y t h e h e x a p l a r i c
text, b u t also t h a t of H e s y c h i u s a n d L u c i a n w e r e m i x e d w i t h t h e
s t a n d a r d text t h a t h a d f o r m e d t h e basis of O r i g e n ' s r e c e n s i o n . A n d
since t h e l a t t e r was v e r y u n c e r t a i n a l r e a d y in O r i g e n ' s t i m e , it is v e r y
difficult t o recover o n e original t e x t of t h e L X X . I t is n e v e r t h e l e s s
possible, since the m a i n recensions are still k n o w n , to j u d g e w h i c h
m a n u s c r i p t s a r e r e l a t i v e l y m o s t free of t h e peculiarities o f t h e s e l a t e r
r e c e n s i o n s . A n i m p o r t a n t aid i n this is p r o v i d e d by t h e Old Latin texts,
a n d the Oriental s e c o n d a r y t r a n s l a t i o n s , a s w e l l as t h e q u o t a t i o n s i n
P h i l o a n d the o l d e r C h u r c h F a t h e r s . C f a b o u t t h e a n c i e n t versions, H .
B. S w e t e a n d R . R. O t d e y , l O T G ; R . H . Pfeiffer, Introduction to the 0. T.
(^1948), p p . 1 1 4 - 1 9 ; J e l l i c o e , S M S , p p . 2 4 3 - 6 8 . V a r i a n t r e a d i n g s i n
the p a t r i s t i c sources a n d t h e earliest e x t a n t m a n u s c r i p t s , i n p a r t i c u l a r
the n e w l y found p a p y r i a n d l e a t h e r d o c u m e n t s , c a n also be used t o
c l e a n s e t h e text of l a t e r e d i t o r i a l a c c r e t i o n s .
A l l this assumes t h a t one original v e r s i o n of t h e L X X did in fact exist,
as a r g u e d a b o v e , p . 477. T h e c o n t r a r y v i e w , s t r o n g l y m a i n t a i n e d b y
K a h l e , t h a t n u m e r o u s different G r e e k t r a n s l a t i o n s w e r e m a d e of a
H e b r e w text, w h i c h itself existed i n v a r i o u s versions a s p r o v e d b y
Q u m r a n , w o u l d m a k e p o i n t l e s s t h e a t t e m p t t o discover o n e o r i g i n a l
form of t h e L X X . O n t h e a n a l o g y of t h e A r a m a i c t a r g u m i m , all t h e
G r e e k versions of t h e Bible w o u l d , o n this view, d e s e r v e e q u a l
p r o m i n e n c e as p a r t of t h e c o n t i n u i n g exegesis o f the H e b r e w text.^^ I t
34. This Lucianic recension embodies readings which a r e also found in very m u c h
older quotations. T h u s 'Lucianic' readings are to be found i n Philo (P. K a t z , Pfiilo's Bible
(1950), p. 12) and in Josephus (A. M e z , Die Bibel des Josephus, untersucht fur Buch v-vii der
Archdologie (1895); P. W e n d l a n d , Philologus 5 7 (1898), p p . 2 8 3 - 7 ; H. St. J. T h a c k e r a y ,
'Note on t h e evidence of Josephus', in The Old Testament in Greek II. i, / and II Samuel
(1927), p. ix ; idem, Josephus, the Man and the Historian (1929), pp. 81 ff.). T h e y also a p p e a r
in the Old Latin a n d therefore presumably in the Greek text from which that translation
was m a d e (S. R. Driver, JVotes on the Hebrew text... of the Book of Samuel (^1913), pp. Ixxi,
Ixxxvii; J. A. Montgomery, Daniel, p . 45). Confirmadon that the Lucianic text is
sometimes based o n materials considerably earlier t h a n Lucian himself has come from t h e
alleged discovery of Lucianic readings i n P. R y l . Gk. 458, a papyrus fragment of a part of
Deuteronomy dating to the second century B . C , cf K a h l e , G G , pp. 220-2, in t h e
Leather Scroll of t h e Greek M i n o r Prophets from Q u m r a n , which dates p r o b a b l y to t h e
beginning of the first century A . D . (Kahle, CG, p p . 226 f ) , a n d in 4QSam°. Cf G .
H o w a r d , 'Lucianic readings in a Greek Twelve Prophets scroll from the J u d a e a n desert',
J Q R 62 (1971/2), p p . 51-60. Cf, in general, E . Tov, ' L u c i a n and p r o t o - L u c i a n : T o w a r d
a new solution of the problem', R B 79 (1972), pp. 1 0 1 - 1 3 ; A. Pietersma, 'Proto-Lucian
and the Greek psalter', V T 28 (1978), pp. 6 6 - 7 2 ; T . M u r a o k a , 'The Greek text of 2
Samuel 11 i n the Lucianic manuscripts', Abr N a h r a i n 20 (1981/2), p p . 37-59.
35. P. E. Kahle, T h S t K r 88 (1915), p p . 410 ff.; idem, in Festschrift 0. Eissfeldt (1947),
pp. 161-80; idem, CG, p p . 209-264. See, contra, P. K a t z , T h Z 5 (1949), pp. i ff".; idem.
m u s t be s a i d h o w e v e r t h a t , a l t h o u g h o t h e r unofficial G r e e k t r a n s l a t i o n s
d o u b d e s s existed, t h e h y p o t h e s i s of o n e o r i g i n a l L X X text, of w h i c h t h e
p r e s e n t m a n u s c r i p t s preserve m o r e or less e d i t e d r e c e n s i o n s , r e m a i n s
m u c h t h e m o s t Ukely, a n d the a t t e m p t to r e c o n s t r u c t t h a t t e x t r e m a i n s
a valid e n d e a v o u r .
T h e n u m b e r of m s s . o f this G r e e k t r a n s l a t i o n is v e r y l a r g e , not far
from t w o t h o u s a n d . C f A . R a h l f s , Verzeichnis der griechischen Handschriften
des Alten Testaments ( 1 9 1 4 ) ; S w e t e a n d O t t l e y , l O T G ; B . J . R o b e r t s ,
The O.T. Text and Versions ( 1 9 5 1 ) , p p . 1 4 4 - 6 1 ; F . G . K e n y o n a n d A .
W , A d a m s , Our Bible and the Ancient Manuscripts ( ^ 1 9 5 8 ) ; F . G . K e n y o n
a n d A. W . A d a m s , The Text of the Greek Bible ( ' 1 9 6 1 ) ; J e l l i c o e , S M S ,
pp. 176-242.
T h e oldest m s s . a r e t h e p a p y r i a n d l e a t h e r d o c u m e n t s . Papyrus Greek
458 of the John Rylands Library i n M a n c h e s t e r , w i t h a f r a g m e n t f r o m D t . ,
d a t e d in t h e m i d d l e of t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C , is t h e o l d e s t e x t a n t t e x t
of t h e G r e e k O . T . ( C . H . R o b e r t s , Two Biblical Papyri in the John Rylands
Library (1936) ; cf K a h l e , C G , p p . 220 ff.; J . W . W e v e r s , T h e earliest
witness t o t h e L X X D e u t e r o n o m y ' , C B Q 39 ( 1 9 7 7 ) , p p . 240—4). T h e
Cairo Papyrus Fouad 266, w i t h f r a g m e n t s f r o m G e n . a n d D t . , is d a t e d to
t h e mid-first c e n t u r y B . C (Z. Aly a n d L . K o e n e n , Three Rolls of the
Early Septuagint: Genesis and Deuteronomy ( 1 9 8 0 ) ) . F r a g m e n t s f r o m
Qumran 4 i n c l u d e a p a p y r u s w i t h f r a g m e n t s of L e v . , a f r a g m e n t a r y
l e a t h e r scroll w i t h p a r t s o f N u m . , b o t h of w h i c h h a v e b e e n d a t e d a b o u t
t h e end of t h e first c e n t u r y B . C o r the b e g i n n i n g o f t h e first c e n t u r y
A.D., a n d a f r a g m e n t of a l e a t h e r scroll o f L e v . , d a t e d t o w a r d s the e n d
of t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B.C. (P. W . S k e h a n , T h e Q u m r a n M a n u s c r i p t s
a n d T e x t u a l C r i t i c i s m ' , Suppl. to VT, I V ( 1 9 5 7 ) , p p . 1 5 5 - 6 0 ; c f J . W .
W e v e r s , ' A n e a r l y revision of t h e L X X of N u m b e r s ' , E r e t z I s r a e l 16
(1982), p p . 2 3 5 - 9 ) . S o m e f r a g m e n t s h a v e b e e n f o u n d in c a v e 7, e.g. of
E x . , a n d h a v e b e e n p u b l i s h e d in M . Baillet, J . T . M i l i k , a n d R . d e
V a u x , Discoveries in the Judaean Desert of Jordan I I I ( 1 9 6 2 ) , p p . 1 4 2 ff., pi.
x x x . C f E . U l r i c h , ' T h e G r e e k m s s . of t h e P e n t a t e u c h f r o m Q u m r a n ' ,
in A . P i e t e r s m a a n d C. C o x (eds.), De Septuaginta: Studies in Honour of J.
W. Wevers (1984), p p . 7 1 - 8 2 , w i t h a c o l l a t i o n of all t h e f r a g m e n t s . T h e
Leather Scroll of the Greek Minor Prophets, d i s c o v e r e d b y B e d o u i n in 1 9 5 2 ,
in the s u b s e q u e n t l y identified ' C a v e of H o r r o r ' i n N a h a l H e v e r , of
w h i c h a n a d d i t i o n a l t h i r t e e n f r a g m e n t s w e r e r e c o v e r e d i n 1 9 6 1 b y Y.
Y a d i n , is d a t e d b e t w e e n 5 0 B.C. a n d A.D. 5 0 ( D . B a r t h e l e m y ,
' R e d e c o u v e r t e d ' u n chainon m a n q u a n t d e l'histoire d e la S e p t a n t e ' , R B
60 ( 1 9 5 3 ) , p p . 1 8 - 2 9 ; devanciers d'Aquila: Premiere publication integrate
du texte des fragments du Dodecapropheton trouves dans le desert de Juda, precedee
Phito's Bible. The aberrant Text of Bible Quotations in some Philonic Writings and its Place in the
Textual History of the Greek Bible (1950); D. Barthelemy, Les devanciers d'Aquila (1963), p.
272.
d'une etude sur les traductions et recensions grecques de la Bible realisee au premier
siecle de notre ere sous I'irifluence du rabbinat palestinien i n Suppl. to VT X ,
1 9 6 3 ; t h e 1961 f r a g m e n t s h a v e b e e n p u b l i s h e d b y B. Lifshitz, ' T h e
G r e e k D o c u m e n t s from t h e C a v e of H o r r o r ' , Israel Exploration Journal 12
(1962), p p . 2 0 1 - 7 ) . O f l a t e r p a p y r u s texts the most i m p o r t a n t a r e : ( i )
t h e Chester Beatty-John H. Scheide Papyri, from t h e s e c o n d to t h e f o u r t h
c e n t u r i e s A.D., c o n t a i n e.g. p a r t s o f n i n e O . T . b o o k s ( F . G. K e n y o n ,
The Chester Beatty Biblical Papyri, 7 vols., 1 9 3 3 - 7 5 ^''^^ ^- C . J o h n s o n , H .
S. G e h m a n , E . H . K a s e , The John H. Scheide Biblical Papyri: Ezekiel
{Princeton Univ. Stud, in Papyrology I H ( 1 9 3 8 ) ) ; c f A. AUgeier, Die Chester
Beatty Papyri zum Pentateuch {Studien zur Geschichte und Kultur des Altertums
X X I . 2 ( 1 9 3 8 ) ) ; A . P i e t e r s m a , ' F . G. K e n y o n ' s t e x t of P a p y r u s 963
( N u m b e r s a n d D e u t e r o n o m y ) ' , V T 24 ( 1 9 7 4 ) , p p . 1 1 3 - 1 8 ; idem, Chester
Beatty Biblical Papyri IV and V. A new edition with text-critical analysis
( 1 9 7 7 ) ; (2) t h e Berlin Genesis fragments, from t h e m i d d l e to t h e e n d of t h e
t h i r d c e n t u r y , w h i c h w e r e p u b l i s h e d t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e Freer Minor
Prophets Papyrus of t h e s a m e d a t e ( H . A. S a n d e r s a n d C. S c h m i d t , The
Minor Prophets in the Freer Collection and the Berlin Fragment of Genesis,
1 9 2 7 ) ; (3) Amherst Papyrus 3, o f the l a t e t h i r d c e n t u r y , w h i c h c o n t a i n s a
f r a g m e n t of G e n e s i s 1:1—5 in A q u i l a ' s version p r e c e d e d b y t h e L X X
p a r a l l e l i n a h a n d o f the first h a l f o f the f o u r t h c e n t u r y ( B . P. Grenfell
a n d A. S. H u n t , The Amherst Papyri I (1900), p p . 3 0 ff".; cf A .
D e i s s m a n n , Light from the Ancient East ( 1 9 1 0 ) , p p . 192 ff.); (4) The
Antinoopolis Papyri, w i t h s e c o n d - to t h i r d - c e n t u r y f r a g m e n t s of P s a l m s ,
P r o v e r b s , W i s d o m , B e n S i r a a n d Ezekiel (C. H . R o b e r t s , The
Antinoopolis Papyri I (1950)).
C f f u r t h e r C . H . R o b e r t s , J T h S t 50 ( 1 9 4 9 ) , p . 1 5 5 , n . 2 ; J e l l i c o e ,
S M S , p p . 224—42, a n d f u r t h e r b i b l i o g r a p h y in idem, S M S , p p . 3 2 6 - 8 8
a n d S. P . Brock, C. T . Fritsch a n d S . Jellicoe, A Classified Bibliography of
the Septuagint ( 1 9 7 3 ) , p p . 6 9 - 7 4 . ^^ô J . O ' C a l l a g h a n , ' L i s t a de los
p a p i r o s d e los L X X ' , Bibl. 56 ( 1 9 7 5 ) , p p . 7 4 - 9 3 ; J . van H a e l s t ,
Catalogue des papyrus litteraires juifs et chritiens ( 1 9 7 6 ) ; K . A l a n d ,
Repertorium der griechischen christlichen Papyri I . Biblische P a p y r i (1976).
A m o n g the G r e e k m a n u s c r i p t s w h i c h c o n t a i n t h e w h o l e O . T . or a t
least a l a r g e p a r t of it, Codex Vaticanus i2og (B), from t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y ,
is t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t . P h o t o g r a p h i c e d i t i o n i n Vetus Testamentum iuxta
LXX Interpretum versionem e Codice omnium antiquissimo Graeco Vaticano i2og
phototypica repraesentatum . . . , 5 vols. (1889-90), reissued i n 4 vols, as
Bibliorum sacrorum graecorum codex vaticanus i2og denuo phototypice expressus
(1905-7)-
O f h a r d l y less i m p o r t a n c e is t h e Codex Sinaiticus (K o r S), also from t h e
fourth c e n t u r y , discovered i n t h e C o n v e n t of S t . C a t h e r i n e b y
T i s c h e n d o r f in 1845 a n d n o w i n t h e British M u s e u m . A b o u t h a l f of t h e
O . T . h a s b e e n p r e s e r v e d in t h i s m a n u s c r i p t . P h o t o g r a p h i c edition b y
H . a n d K . L a k e , Codex Sinaiticus Petropolitanus . . . 2 vols., N . T . 1 9 1 1 ,

O . T . 1 9 2 2 . T h i s e d i t i o n s u p e r s e d e s t h a t b y T i s c h e n d o r f , Bibliorum Codex
Sinaiticus Petropolitanus, 4 vols. ( 1 8 6 2 ) , w i t h o t h e r f r a g m e n t s p u b l i s h e d
s e p a r a t e l y in 1846, 1 8 5 5 , 1 8 5 7 , 1867 a n d 1 8 7 5 .
T h e t h i r d m a j o r m a n u s c r i p t is the Codex Alexandrinus ( A ) , w h i c h d a t e s
to s o m e t i m e b e t w e e n t h e l a t e f o u r t h a n d t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y . T h i s t e x t is
eclectic, w i t h h e x a p l a r i c , L u c i a n i c a n d H e s y c h i a n r e a d i n g s all
r e p r e s e n t e d . P h o t o g r a p h i c e d i t i o n s : a u t o t y p e facsimile p u b l i s h e d b y
the British M u s e u m as E . M . T h o m p s o n , e d . , Facsimile of the Codex
Alexandrinus ... published by order of the Trustees, 4 vols., N . T . 1 8 7 9 , O . T .
1 8 8 1 - 3 ; r e d u c e d c o l l o t y p e facsimile p u b l i s h e d a s F . G . K e n y o n a n d H .
J . M . M i l n e , e d s . . The Codex Alexandrinus of the British Museum, 5 vols.,
N . T . 1909, O . T . 1 9 1 5 - 5 7 .
O t h e r i m p o r t a n t m a n u s c r i p t s available in p h o t o g r a p h i c editions a r e :
Codex Marchalianus ( Q ) , a c o m p l e t e t e x t o f t h e P r o p h e t s w r i t t e n in t h e
sixth c e n t u r y , p u b l i s h e d as J . C o z z a , e d . , Prophetarum codex Graecus
Vaticanus 2125 heliotypice editus ( 1 8 9 0 ) ; Codex Colberto-Sarravianus (G),
s o m e t i m e s d e s c r i b e d m o r e s i m p l y as Codex Sarravianus, a l a t e f o u r t h o r
e a r l y fifth c e n t u r y m a n u s c r i p t w h i c h r e t a i n s t h e H e x a p l a r i c d i a c r i t i c a l
signs, p u b l i s h e d as Codices graeci et latine photographice depicti duce G. N. du
Rieu I, 1 8 9 7 ; Codex Purpureus Vindobonensis ( L ) , a fifth-sixth c e n t u r y
m a n u s c r i p t , p u b l i s h e d as W . R i t t e r v o n H a r t e l a n d F . W i c k h o f f , e d s . ,
Die Wiener Genesis ( 1 8 9 5 ) .
Transcriptions of other i m p o r t a n t manuscripts may b e found i n :

von Tischendorf, C , Monumenta sacra inedita, nova collectio I (1885), II (1857), I I I ( i 8 6 0 ) ,
I V , V I (1869), IX (1870).
von Tischendorf, C , Codex Ephraemi syri rescriptus sive fragmenta veteris testamenti . . . (1845);
a new edition of this ms. is in preparation, cf R . W . Lyon, 'A R c - c x a m i n a d o n of
Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus', N T S t 5 (1958-9), p p . 260-72.
Abbott, T. K., Par Palimpsestorum Dublinensium ... Fragments of the Book of Isaiah in the LXX
Version ( 1 8 8 0 ) .
Sanders, H . A., Facsimile of the Washington manuscript of Deuteronomy and Joshua in the Freer
Collection (1910).
Tisserant, E . , Codex ûgnirunsis rescriptus veteris testamenti (1911).
Gerhauser, W., a n d A. Rahlfs, Miinchener Septuaginta-Fragmente (1913).
Vaccari, A., Codex Melphictensis rescriptus Ezechielisfragmentagraeca (1918).
Bicler, L., Psalteriumgraeco-latinum Codex Basiliensis A vii.j ( i 9 6 0 ) .
Pietersma, A., Two manuscripts of the Greek Psalter in the Chester Beatty Library Dublin (1978).
See further about the mss.: Swete and Ottley, l O T G ; F. G . K e n y o n a n d A. W .
Adams, Our Bible and the Ancient Manuscripts (^1958), p p . 1 1 3 - 2 7 ; Jellicoe, S M S , p p .
175-242; E . Wiirthwein, The Text of the Old Testament (^1980), p p . 68-72 ; B. M . Metzger,
Manuscripts of the Greek Bible: an introduction to Greek palaeography (1981). See also the
introductions to t h e separate volumes of the G o t t i n g e n Septuagint, cf below, p. 490.
Editions of the Septuagint

(See for bibliographical references: Nestle in H D B IV, cols. 4 3 7 - 5 4 , for o l d e r b o o k s ;
490 § 3 3 ^ - Jewish Literature Composed in Greek
S. P . Brock, C. T . Fritsch and S. Jellicoe, A Classified Bibliography of the Septuagint (1973),

p p . 4-7, for modern editions.)
Edidons of t h e Whole O . T .
(1) Holmes, R., and J . Parsons, Vetus Testamentum Graecum cum variis lectionibus, 5 vols.,
1798-1827 (based on t h e Sixtine edition, Vetus Testamentum iuxta Septuaginta ex
auctoritate Sixti V Pont. Max. editum (1587), which was itself based on Codex V a d c a n u s
(B), b u t with a still unrivalled collection of critical material).
(2) Swete, H. B., The Old Testament in Greek according to the Septuagint I ('^1909); I I (^1907);
III ( * i 9 i 2 ) . (A m a n u a l edition based o n Codex Vaticanus (B) with lacunae supplied
from A and N (S) b u t with many other manuscripts collated.)
(3) Brooke, A. E . , N. Mclean a n d H. St. J . T h a c k e r a y , The Old Testament in Greek according
to the text of Codex Vaticanus, supplemented from other uncial manuscripts with a critical
apparatus containing the variants of the chief ancient authorities for the text of the LXX, 9 p a r t s
(1906-40). (The Larger C a m b r i d g e edidon, based on Codex V a t i c a n u s (B) with
lacunae supphed from A a n d N (S) and a rich collection of variants. Incomplete.)
(4) Gottingen Septuagint: Vetus Testamentum Graecum Auctoritate Societatis Litterarum
Gottingensis editum (1931- ). (The text here is a composite, critical reconstruction of
the earliest attainable text, in which a t each variant the r e a d i n g is chosen which
appears best in the light of the m a n u s c r i p t tradition as a whole. A critical apparatus
gives the variants in text groups. So far published a r e : vol. I, Genesis, ed. J . W.
Wevers (1974); I I I . i Kumeri, ed. J . W . Wevers (1982); I I I . 2 , Deuteronomium, ed.
Wevers (1977); V I I I . i , Esdrae liber I, ed. R . H a n h a r t (1974); V I I I . 3 , Esther, ed.
H a n h a r t (1966); V I I I . 4 , ludith, ed. H a n h a r t (1979); V I I I . 5 , Tobit, ed. H a n h a r t
(1983); I X . I , Maccabaeorum liber 1, ed. W . Kappler (1936); IX.2, Maccabaeorum liber
2, ed. W. K a p p l e r and R. H a n h a r t (^1976); I X . 3 , Maccabaeorum liber j , e d . H a n h a r t
(^1980); X , Psalms cum Odis, ed. A. Rahlfs (1931); X I . 4 , lob, ed. J . Ziegler (1982);
X I I . I , Sapientia Salomonis, ed. J . Ziegler (^^1980); X I I . 2 , Sapientia lesu Filii Sirach, ed.
Ziegler ( 1980); X I I I , Duodecim Prophetae, ed. Ziegler ( 1967); X I V , Laias, ed.
Ziegler (^1967); X V , leremias, Baruch, Threni, Epistula leremiae, ed. Ziegler (^1976);
X V I . I , Ezechiel, ed. Ziegler (^^1977); X V I . 2 , Susanna, Daniel, Bel et Draco, ed. Ziegler
(1954)-
(5) Rahlfs, A., Septuaginta. Id est Vetus Testamentum Graece Iuxta LXX Interpretes, 2 vols.
(•935)- (A cridcal, m a n u a l edition, based mainly on the three major uncials, B,
(S) a n d A.)
I m p o r t a n t Editions of Single Books

Ottley, R . R., The Book of Isaiah according to the Septuagint (Codex Alexandrinus), 2 vols., I
(^1909), II (1906).
Rahlfs, A . , Das Buch Ruth griechisch als Probe einer kritischen Handausgabe der Septuaginta
(1922).
Idem, Genesis [Septuaginta Societatis Scientiarum Gottingensis Auctoritate I) (1926).
Margolis, M . L., The Book of Joshua in Greek, Parts I - I V (1931-8). (Incomplete.)
Nestle, E., ed. J . Dahse and E. Nestle, Das Buch leremia griechisch und hebrdisch (^1934).
T o v , E., The Hebrew and Greek Texts of Samuel (1980).
Concordance
H a t c h , E., and H . A. R e d p a t h , A Concordance to the Septuagint and the other Greek Versions of
the O.T. (including the Apocryphal Books), 2 vols. (1897, with Supplement, 1900-6,
reprinted i n 2 vols., 1954). C f E. Tov, 'The use o f concordances in the
reconstruction of t h e Vorlage of the L X X ' , CBQ, 40 (1978), pp. 29-36. C f also X.
Jacques, Index des mots apparentes dans la Septante (1972) ; E. C. Dos Santos, An expanded
Hebrew Index for the Hatch-Redpath Concordance to the LXX (n.d. 1977?); T . M u r a o k a , A
Greek-Hebrew/Aramaic Index to i Esdras (1984).
General Works o n the S e p t u a g i n t

See the thorough bibliographies in G. Delling, Bibliographic zur Jiidisch-Hellenistischen und
Intertestamentarischen Literatur (^1975), p p . 98-114 and especially S. P. Brock, C. T . Fritsch
and S. Jellicoe, A Classified Bibliography of the Septuagint (1973). F o r works pubHshed since
1970, see t h e Bulletin of the International Organization for Septuagint and Cognate Studies and, for
a m o r e complete list, Elenchus (the bibliographical supplement to Bibl.). See also below,
33A.II.2 on Aquila and T h e o d o t i o n , 3 3 A . V I I . 5 on Ps.-Aristeas. Mentioned here a r e only the
most important widely applicable studies. See also t h e studies listed in E. Tov, A classified
bibliography of lexical and grammatical studies in the language of the Septuagint (1980).
Introductions to the S e p t u a g i n t
Nestle, E., 'Septuagint', i n H D B IV, cols. 437-54.
Swete, H. B., and R. R. Ottley, An Introduction to the O.T. in Greek (1914), repr. 1968)
(lOTG).
Orlinsky, H . M., The Septuagint: the oldest translation of the Bible (1949).
Metzger, B. M., a r t . 'Versions, A n c i e n t ' , in I D B IV, cols. 749-60.
Wevers, J. W . , art. 'Septuagint', in I D B IV, cols. 273—8.
Kenyon, F . G., revised H . S. G e h m a n , art. 'Greek versions of the O . T . ' , in H D B (^1963),
cols. 347-54.
Jellicoe, S., The Septuagint and Modem Study {ig68) (SMS).
Tov, E., a n d R. Kraft, a r t . 'Septuagint', in I D B S , cols. 807-15.
O'Connell, K. G., art. 'Greek versions (minor)', I D B S , cols. 377-81.
Fernandez-Marcos, N., Introduccion a las versiones griegas de la Biblia (1979).
Brock, S. P., art. 'Bibeliibersetzungen I', i n G. K r a u s e and G. Miiller, Theologische
RealenzyklopddieW (1980), p p . 161-9.
General Bibliography on Problems in the Study of the Septuagint

Burkitt, F. C., The Rules of Tyconius (1894).
Rahlfs, A., Septuaginta-Studien I - I I I (1904-11, repr. 1965).
Rahlfs, A., Verzeichnis der griechischen Handschriften des Alien Testaments (1914).
Thackeray, H. St. J . , The Septuagint and Jewish Worship (^^1923).
Gaster, M., The Samaritans (1925), pp. 112 ff.
W u t z , F. X . , '1st der hebraische Urtext wieder erreichbar?', Z A W N . F . 2 (1925), p p .
115-19-
W u t z , F. X . , Die Transkriptionen von der Septuaginta bis zur Hieronymus (BWAT I I . 9 ) , P a r t i
(1925), Part 2 (1933).
Margolis, M . L., 'Transliteration in t h e Greek O . T . ' , J Q R n.s. 16 (1925), pp. 117-25.
Thackeray, H. St. J . , Some Aspects of the Greek Old Testament (1927).
Bertram, G., 'Zur L X X - F o r s c h u n g ' , T h R 3 (1931), pp. 2 8 3 - 9 6 ; 5 (1933), p p . 173—85;
10 (1938), PP- 69-80, 133-59.
Kenyon, F . G., Recent Developments in the Textual Criticism of the Greek Bible (1933).
Kenyon, F . G., rev. A. W . A d a m s , The Text of the Greek Bible (1937, ^1975)-
W u t z , F. X . , Systematische Wege von der Septuaginta zum hebrdischen Urtext (1937).
Seeligmann, I. L . , ' P r o b l e m e n en perspectieren in h e t moderne L X X - o n d e r z o e k ' ,
J a a r b e r i c h t . . . Ex O r i e n t e Lux 2, 7 (1940), pp. 3 5 9 - 9 0 , 763—6.
Orlinsky, H . M., ' O n t h e Present State of Proto-Septuagint Studies', J A O S 61 (1941),
pp. 81-91.
Orlinsky, H . M . , ' C u r r e n t progress and problems in L X X research', in H. R.
Willoughby, ed.. The Study of the Bible Today and Tomorrow (1947), p p . 144—61.
Soisalon-Soininen, I., Die Textformen der Septuaginta-Ubersetzung des Richterbuches [Annates

Acad. Scient. Fennicae L X X I I , 1951).
Wevers, J . W., ' L X X - F o r s c h u n g e n ' , T h R 22 (1954), pp. 85-137, 171-90.
K a t z , P., 'Septuagint Studies i n the M i d - C e n t u r y , Their Links with t h e Past and their
Present Tendencies', in W . D. Davies a n d D. D a u b e , eds.. The Background to the N. T.
and its Eschatology [ 1956).
Jouassard, G., ' R e q u e t e d'un patrologue a u x bibhstes t o u c h a n t les Septante', Studia
Patristica I (1957), p p . 307-27-
Kahle, P., 'Problems of the Septuagint', Studia Patristica I (1957), p p . 328-38.
Soisalon-Soininen, I., Der Charakter der asterisierten J(ûsdtze in der Septuaginta (1959).
Kahle, P., The Cairo Geniza (^959) ( C O ) .
Kahle, P., ' L X X - F o r s c h u n g ' , i n R G G ^ V, cols. 1404-7.
Kenyon, F . G., rev. A. W . Adams, Our Bible and the Ancient Manuscripts (^1958).
Ziegler, J., Beitrdge zur Jeremias Septuaginta ( M S U V I , 1958).
Kahle, P., 'The Greek Bible and t h e Gospels. F r a g m e n t s from the J u d a e a n Desert',
Studia Evangelica 73 (1959), pp. 6 1 3 - 2 1 .
Kahle, P., ' T h e Greek Bible Manuscripts used by Origen', J B L 79 (i960), pp. 111-18.
Gooding, D . W., 'Aristeas and Septuagint O r i g i n s : a Review of Recent Studies', V T 13
(1963), pp. 357-79.
Barthelemy, D., Les Devanciers d'Aquila (1963).
Jellicoe, S., 'The L X X today', E T 77 (1965/66), p p . 68-74.
Wevers, J . W., ' L X X - F o r s c h u n g e n seit 1954', T h R 33 (1968), p p . 18-76.
Jellicoe, S., ' L X X Studies in the Current Century', J B L 88 (1969), pp. 191-9.
Ziegler, J . , Sylloge : Gesammelte Aufsdtze zur LXX (1971).
Brock, S. P . , ' T h e phenomenon of the Septuagint', Oudtestamentische Studien 17 (1972),
pp. 11-36.
Orlinsky, H . M., Essays in biblical culture and Bible translation (1973) •
J a n z c n , J . G., Studies in the text of Jeremiah (1973).
Walters (Katz), P., ed. D . W. Gooding, The text of the Septuagint: its corruptions and their
emendations (1973).
Klein, R. W., Textual criticism of the Old Testament -.from the Septuagint to Qumran (1974).
Jellicoe, S., Studies in the Septuagint: origins, recensions and interpretations (1974).
Orlinsky, H . M., 'The Septuagint as Holy Writ a n d the philosophy of the translators',
H U C A 46 (1975), p p . 89-114.
Gooding, D . W., Relics of Ancient Exegesis (1976).
Barthelemy, D., Etudes d'histoire du texte de I'Ancien Testament (1978).
Ulrich, E. L., The Qumran text of Samuel and Josephus (1978).
Wevers, J . W., Text History of the Greek Deuteronomy ( M S U X I I I , 1978).
H a n h a r t , R., Text urui Text-geschichte des Buches Judith (1979).
SoUamo, R . , Renderings of Hebrew Semiprepositions in the LXX (1979) •
Bodine, W . R., The Greek text of Judges: recensional developments (1980).
T o v , E., The text-critical use of the Septuagint in biblical research (1981).
T o v , E., Lexical and grammatical studies on the language of the Septuagint and its revisions (^^1982).
Wevers, J . W., Text History of the Greek Numbers ( M S U X V , 1982).
Aejmelaeus, A., Parataxis in the LXX [ 1982).
Silva, M., Biblical words and their meaning (1983).
Lee, J. A. L..,A lexical study of the Septuagint version of the Pentateuch [ 1983).
Greenspoon, L, Textual studies in the Book of Joshua (1983).
H a n h a r t , R., Text und Textgeschichte des Buches Tobit (1984).
Pietersma, A., a n d C. C o x (eds.), De Septuaginta: Studies in Honour of J. W. Wevers (1984).
See also t h e introductions to the O.T. especially:

Eissfeldt, O . , The O.T., An Introduction etc. ( E T 1965), pp. 701-15.
Roberts, B. J . , The Old Testament Text and Versions (1951), p p - 101—87.

Wiirthwein, E., The Text ojthe Old Testament ('^1980), p p . 49—74.
2. Aquila and Theodotion

The t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e S e p t u a g i n t p r e v a i l e d a m o n g J e w s of t h e
( i r e e k - s p e a k i n g d i a s p o r a as t h e m a i n s a c r e d v e r s i o n of t h e B i b l e u n t i l
the b e g i n n i n g of t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y A.D. T h e p e r i o d of its
p r e d o m i n a n c e c o i n c i d e d w i t h t h e g o l d e n a g e o f the J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y
in A l e x a n d r i a . I n t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y A.D., h o w e v e r , it suffered n e a r
e x t i n c t i o n a n d the t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e Bible w h i c h it h a d c h a m p i o n e d fell
i n t o disfavour a m o n g J e w s . T h i s process w a s a i d e d b y t w o f a c t o r s : a n
increase i n t h e p r e s t i g e o f r a b b i n i c c o m m e n t a t o r s o u t s i d e P a l e s t i n e a n d
the successful a d v a n c e o f C h r i s t i a n i t y . A n i m p o r t a n t s y m p t o m of t h i s
c h a n g e is to b e f o u n d in t h e n e w G r e e k t r a n s l a t i o n s of t h e B i b l e , w h i c h
w e r e i n t e n d e d to p r o v i d e G r e e k - s p e a k i n g J e w s w i t h a t r a n s l a t i o n b a s e d
on t h e a u t h o r i t a t i v e H e b r e w t e x t . O n t h e o n e h a n d , the fact t h a t t h e s e
t r a n s l a t i o n s w e r e u n d e r t a k e n is e v i d e n c e of t h e existing s t r e n g t h a n d
i m p o r t a n c e of G r e e k - s p e a k i n g J u d a i s m . B u t o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e y
i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e H e b r e w w a s progressively a t t a i n i n g a p o s i t i o n of
increasing influence a n d recognition also a m o n g Hellenistic J e w s ,
w h i c h m a y in t u r n h a v e e n c o u r a g e d a d e c l i n e in t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f a
distinctively G r e e k J e w i s h l i t e r a t u r e . T h e s e t r a n s l a t i o n s a r e also a
m e m o r i a l of t h e s t r u g g l e b e t w e e n J u d a i s m a n d C h r i s t i a n i t y , s i n c e t h e y
w e r e to p r o v i d e t h e J e w s w i t h a p o l e m i c a l w e a p o n i n the b a t t l e a g a i n s t
C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g i a n s , w h o e x p l o i t e d the u n c e r t a i n t e x t o f the L X X in
t h e i r o w n interest (cf e s p e c i a l l y J u s t i n , Dial. c. Tryph. 68, 7 1 , a n d
elsewhere).
O f t h e t h r e e G r e e k t r a n s l a t i o n s of t h e B i b l e w h i c h O r i g e n p l a c e d
p a r a l l e l to t h e L X X i n h i s H e x a p l a ( A q u i l a , S y m m a c h u s , a n d
Theodotion, cf above, p . 481), only A q u i l a a n d T h e o d o t i o n are
discussed h e r e , b e c a u s e S y m m a c h u s , a l t h o u g h h e w a s b o t h a c q u a i n t e d
w i t h earlier J e w i s h r e c e n s i o n s , i n c l u d i n g t h a t r e p r e s e n t e d in t h e
L e a t h e r Scroll of t h e M i n o r P r o p h e t s f o u n d a t Q u m r a n , a n d w a s
c a p a b l e o f u s i n g t h e H e b r e w t e x t i n d e p e n d e n t l y (cf D . B a r t h e l e m y , Les
Devanciers d'Aquila ( 1 9 6 3 ) , p p . 261 f ) , w a s n o t h i m s e l f J e w i s h . T h e
t e s t i m o n y of E u s e b i u s , Hist. Eccl. vi 1 7 , t h a t h e was a n E b i o n i t e
C h r i s t i a n s h o u l d b e a c c e p t e d . C f H . J . S c h o e p s , Symmachus-Studien I - I I I
( = I. Ebionitisches bei Symmachus ( 1 9 4 2 ) ; I I . ' M y t h o l o g i s c h e s b e i
S y m m a c h u s ' , Bibl. 26 ( 1 9 4 5 ) , p p . l O O - i i ; I I I . ' S y m m a c h u s u n d d e r
M i d r a s c h ' , Bibl. 2 9 ( 1 9 4 8 ) , p p . 3 1 - 5 1 ) ; D . B a r t h e l e m y , ' Q u i est
S y m m a q u e ? ' , C B Q 36 ( 1 9 7 4 ) , p p . 4 5 1 - 6 5 . I t is h o w e v e r c e r t a i n t h a t
T h e o d o t i o n a n d A q u i l a w e r e J e w i s h a n d t h a t A q u i l a was a p r o s e l y t e . I t
is likely t h a t these t r a n s l a t i o n s w e r e p r e c e d e d b y a n u m b e r o f J e w i s h
h e b r a i z i n g r e c e n s i o n s a l o n g t h e s a m e lines. T h e n a m e s of t w o s u c h
recensionists h a v e b e e n p r e s e r v e d a s B e n L a ' a n a a n d B e n T i l g a , cf. S.
K r a u s s , T w o h i t h e r t o u n k n o w n Bible V e r s i o n s i n G r e e k ' , B J R L 27
( 1 9 4 2 - 3 ) , p p . 9 7 - 1 0 5 . I t h a s also b e e n c l a i m e d b y B a r t h e l e m y t h a t a t
least t h e Q u i n t a if not t h e S e x t a a n d S e p t i m a versions u s e d b y O r i g e n
w e r e also o f j e w i s h o r i g i n (cf Les Devanciers d'Aquila ( 1 9 6 3 ) , p p . 215—20,
o n the Q u i n t a as possibly to b e identified w i t h t h e text of t h e l e a t h e r
scroll o f the M i n o r P r o p h e t s , w h i c h is c e r t a i n l y J e w i s h ) . T h i s , h o w e v e r ,
is s p e c u l a t i v e , a n d the o n l y s t r o n g assertion t h a t s h o u l d b e p u t f o r w a r d
a b o u t t h e s e t r a n s l a t i o n s is t h a t t h e y existed.
A c c o r d i n g to I r e n a e u s , w h o is t h e first to m e n t i o n A q u i l a , h e w a s a
J e w i s h p r o s e l y t e from P o n t u s . T h e i n f o r m a t i o n r e l a t i n g to A q u i l a ' s
h o m e l a n d is a little suspect b e c a u s e of t h e s t r i k i n g p a r a l l e l w i t h A c t .
18:2, a l t h o u g h E p i p h a n i u s goes e v e n f u r t h e r a n d n a m e s S i n o p e in
P o n t u s as A q u i l a ' s n a t i v e p l a c e . T h e t r a d i t i o n s h o u l d n o n e t h e l e s s
p r o b a b l y b e a c c e p t e d . I n v i e w of t h e n a t u r e a n d p u r p o s e of his
u n d e r t a k i n g , h o w e v e r , a n d e s p e c i a l l y if he is to b e identified w i t h t h e
' O n k e l o s ' m e n t i o n e d in r a b b i n i c t e x t s as the m a n t o w h o m a n A r a m a i c
t a r g u m was assigned (see a b o v e , v o l . I, p p . l O O - i , 1 0 9 - 1 0 ) , i t is m u c h
m o r e p r o b a b l e t h a t the t r a n s l a t i o n itself w a s m a d e i n P a l e s d n e , cf A . E .
Silverstone, Aquila and Onkelos ( 1 9 3 1 ) , p . 160. O n the o t h e r h a n d , it
seems c e r t a i n t h a t A q u i l a w a s a proselyte, in s p i t e o f his t h o r o u g h
k n o w l e d g e o f H e b r e w , for h e is d e s c r i b e d as s u c h n o t o n l y b y all
C h u r c h F a t h e r s b u t also in t h e J e r u s a l e m T a l m u d a n d in r a b b i n i c a l
h t e r a t u r e g e n e r a l l y , as 117\ O V p X . O f t h e f a n t a s t i c stories t o l d a b o u t
h i m b y E p i p h a n i u s , De mens, et pond. 1 4 — t h a t he w a s a r e l a t i o n
{irevdepiSrjs) of t h e E m p e r o r H a d r i a n a n d b e c a m e a C h r i s t i a n b u t w a s
t h e n e x c l u d e d from t h e C h r i s t i a n c o n g r e g a t i o n b e c a u s e of his
i n c h n a t i o n t o w a r d astrology, a n d t h a t h e finally b e c a m e a J e w — t h e
o n l y c r e d i b l e p o i n t is t h a t he lived d u r i n g t h e t i m e of H a d r i a n .
R a b b i n i c a l t r a d i t i o n also ( y K i d d . 59a) places h i m in t h e t i m e of R .
Eliezer, R . J o s h u a , a n d R. A k i b a , i.e. i n t h e first t h i r d of t h e s e c o n d
c e n t u r y A.D.
T h e p u r p o s e o f his t r a n s l a t i o n w a s t o i m i t a t e t h e H e b r e w t e x t as
closely as possible. T h e r e c a n b e n o d o u b t t h a t he w o r k e d directly f r o m
t h e H e b r e w , t h o u g h t h e survival o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c r e a d i n g s from before
his t i m e in, e.g., P h i l o m a k e s it likely t h a t h e u s e d e i t h e r a H e b r e w
version different from t h a t u s e d for the L X X , or t h a t h e a d o p t e d s o m e
r e n d e r i n g s f r o m e a r l i e r r e c e n s i o n s of t h e L X X . T h u s , h e n o t o n l y
v e n t u r e d a n u m b e r of n e w , d a r i n g w o r d - f o r m a t i o n s in o r d e r t o o b t a i n
Greek w o r d s which c o r r e s p o n d e d exactly t o the H e b r e w , but also
r e n d e r e d H e b r e w particles s l a v i s h l y b y G r e e k p a r t i c l e s , p r o d u c i n g a
q u i t e i d i o s y n c r a t i c G r e e k style. T h e t r a n s l a t i o n has b e e n r i d i c u l e d s i n c e
J e r o m e for t r a n s l a t i n g i n the v e r y first s e n t e n c e of G e n . t h e nota accusativi
'et b y avv (avv TOV ovpavov Kal aw rrjv yfjv). R i d i c u l e m a y however be

m i s p l a c e d if this u s a g e w a s i n fact n o t a g r a m m a t i c a l a b s u r d i t y b u t
i m i t a t i o n of t h e H o m e r i c u s e of avv a s a n a d v e r b r a t h e r t h a n a
p r e p o s i t i o n , cf. B a r t h e l e m y , Les Devanciers, p p . 1 5 - 2 1 , in k e e p i n g w i t h
A q u i l a ' s style e l s e w h e r e , w h e r e h e also tries to b e H o m e r i c ( F i e l d ,
Origenis Hexapla, p . x x i i i ) . T h i s a t t e n t i o n to t h e s m a l l e s t d e t a i l m a y
p e r h a p s b e t r a c e d t o t h e i n f l u e n c e o f A k i b a , w h o s e p u p i l A q u i l a is s a i d
to h a v e b e e n .
J e r o m e f r e q u e n t l y m e n t i o n e d a prima a n d a secunda e d i t i o n o f A q u i l a .
T h e n u m e r o u s passages w h e r e t w o different translations h a v e b e e n
traced b a c k to A q u i l a (collected by Field) suggest t h a t either this w o r k
existed i n t w o different r e c e n s i o n s or o t h e r J e w i s h t r a n s l a t i o n s w e r e
a t t r i b u t e d to h i m b e c a u s e of his g r o w i n g p r e s t i g e . B e c a u s e of his close
c o r r e s p o n d e n c e to t h e H e b r e w , w h i c h m a d e his w o r k fully c o m p r e
h e n s i b l e only t o s o m e o n e a l r e a d y a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t h a t l a n g u a g e , his
t e x t w a s a p p r o v e d as soon as it a p p e a r e d by t h e m o s t e s t e e m e d
r a b b i n i c a l a u t h o r i t i e s , R . EUezer a n d R , J o s h u a , a n d b e c a m e q u i c k l y
p r e f e r r e d to t h e L X X b y H e l l e n i z e d J e w s , as w a s a l r e a d y i n d i c a t e d b y
O r i g e n a n d still c o n f i r m e d i n A.D. 5 3 3 b y J u s t i n i a n in his Novella 146
(cf. K a h l e , G G , p p . 3 1 5 - 1 7 , for t r a n s l a t i o n ) . A b o u t a d o z e n p a s s a g e s
a r e q u o t e d f r o m it i n r a b b i n i c a l l i t e r a t u r e also.
T h e work as a whole disappeared with Greek-speaking Judaism. W e
o w e t h a t p a r t of i t w h i c h survives m a i n l y t o its i n c l u s i o n in O r i g e n ' s
H e x a p l a . F r o m this, n u m e r o u s notes h a v e b e e n preserved concerning
Aquila's translation, partly t h r o u g h q u o t a t i o n s b y Eusebius, J e r o m e ,
a n d o t h e r C h u r c h F a t h e r s , w h o still u s e d t h e o r i g i n a l e d i t i o n of t h e
H e x a p l a in P a m p h i l u s ' l i b r a r y in G a e s a r e a ( J e r o m e , Comment, in Tit. 3,
9, P L X X V I I , 6 3 0 ; Comment, in Psalm., C G L L X X I I , p . 1 8 5 ) , a n d
p a r t l y t h r o u g h m a r g i n a l n o t e s in m a n u s c r i p t s of t h e h e x a p l a r i c L X X
t e x t . T h e p u b l i c a t i o n of M e r c a t i ' s find ( c f a b o v e , n . 32) has p r o v i d e d
l a r g e r f r a g m e n t s o f A q u i l a ' s t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e P s a l m s ; t h e Amherst
Papyri c o n t a i n a s m a l l f r a g m e n t ( G e n . 1 : 1 - 5 ) . But besides t h e s e
f r a g m e n t s f r o m C h r i s t i a n t r a d i t i o n , s o m e o f J e w i s h o r i g i n h a v e also
b e e n k n o w n since 1 8 9 7 . S i x t h - c e n t u r y A.D. p a l i m p s e s t leaves w i t h
f r a g m e n t s f r o m A q u i l a h a v e b e e n f o u n d a m o n g the m a n u s c r i p t t r e a s u r e
f r o m t h e C a i r o g e n i z a h ( c f a b o v e , u n d e r b e n S i r a , p . 203).
Irenaeus, iii 2 1 , i ( G r e e k in E u s e b i u s , Hist. Eccl. v 8, 1 0 : dXX' ovx (Jos

evtoi (f>aaiv TOJV VVV ToXficovrcov fiedepfirjveveiv T-qv ypa<f>'f]v 'i8ov vcdvis iv
yaarpl eêi Kal reêrai vi6v\ ws ©eoSoTicov -qpixrivevaev 6 *E(f>€aios Kal
ÂKvXas 6 HovTiKos, dficfiOTepoL TovSatoi Trpoa-qXvToi. E u s e b i u s , Demonstr.
evang. v i i i, 3 2 , e d . H e i k e l , G C S E u s e b i u s V I , p . 3 0 4 : TrpocnyAuros bk 6
'AKvXas T)v, ov <f>va€i TovSatos. E p i p h a n i u s , De mensuris et ponderibus,
14-15.
49^ § 3 3 ^ - Jeu}ish Literature Composed in Greek
J e r o m e , Epist. 5 7 ad Pammachium, 1 1 ( e d . B a r t e l i n k (1980), p p .

19—20) : ' A q u i l a a u t e m p r o s e l y t u s et c o n t e n t i o s u s i n t e r p r e s , q u i n o n
s o l u m v e r b a , sed e t y m o l o g i a s v e r b o r u m t r a n s f e r r e c o n a t u s est, i u r e
p r o i c i t u r a n o b i s . Qjuis e n i m p r o f r u m e n t o e t v i n o et oleo possit vel
l e g e r e v e l i n t e l l i g e r e X'^^P^> oTrcopiaftov, aTihrvoT^ra, q u o d nos p o s s u m u s
d i c e r e " f u s i o n e m " , " p o m a t i o n e m " q u e et " s p l e n d e n t i a m " ; a u t , q u i a
H e b r a e i n o n s o l u m h a b e n t apdpa, sed e t rrpoapdpa, <ut> ille
KaKoîqXws e t syllabus i n t e r p r e t e t u r et l i t t e r a s d i c a t q u e atjv TOV ovpavov
Kat avv TT)V yijv, q u o d G r a e c a et L a t i n a l i n g u a o m n i n o n o n r e c i p i t ? ' I n
g e n e r a l , J e r o m e a p p r o v e d of A q u i l a ' s a c c u r a c y a n d t r u s t w o r t h i n e s s . Cf.
Epist. 32 ad Marcellam (ed. H i l b e r g , C S E L L I V , p . 2 5 2 ) , Comm. in
Esaiam. xiii 49, 5 - 6 ( C C L L X X I I I A , p . 5 3 7 ) , Comm. in Hoseam 2 : 1 6 - 1 7
( C C L L X X V I , p . 29), Comm. in Habak. 3 : 1 1 - 1 3 ( C C L L X X V I A , p .
6 4 1 ) . T h e p a s s a g e s w h e r e J e r o m e m e n t i o n s t h e prima a n d secunda editio
of A q u i l a c a n be f o u n d in F i e l d , Origenis Hexapl. quae supersunt, p r o l e g .
p p . XXV f.
y M e g . i 1 1 , 7 1 c : ' A q u i l a t h e p r o s e l y t e t r a n s l a t e d t h e L a w i n the t i m e
of R . E h e z e r a n d R . J o s h u a ; a n d t h e y p r a i s e d h i m a n d said to h i m .
Y o u a r e t h e m o s t b e a u t i f u l a m o n g t h e c h i l d r e n of m e n ' (n''D''B''
DTK ''IStt), P s . 4 5 : 3 , w i t h a n a l l u s i o n to t h e t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e T o r a h i n t o
' J a p h e t i c ' , i.e. G r e e k . y K i d d . i i, 5 9 a : ' A q u i l a t h e p r o s e l y t e t r a n s l a t e d
i n the t i m e of R . A k i b a . ' J e r o m e , Comment, in Esaiam. 8 : 1 1 ff. ( C C L
L X X I I I , p. 1 1 6 ) : 'Akibas q u e m magistrum Aquilae proselyti
a u t u m a n t . ' C f a b o v e , vol. I I , p . 3 7 8 . A collection of r a b b i n i c a l
p a s s a g e s w h e r e A q u i l a ' s t r a n s l a t i o n is q u o t e d w a s a l r e a d y given b y
A z a r i a h de Rossi, Meor Enajim, 4 5 ; cf also R . A n g e r , De Akila ( 1 8 4 5 ) ,
p p . 12—25. T h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of A q u i l a w i t h O n k e l o s , t h e r e p u t e d
c o m p i l e r of t h e A r a m a i c t a r g u m of t h e P e n t a t e u c h , is n o w w i d e l y
a c c e p t e d b e c a u s e of t h e close p a r a l l e l s in the t r a d i t i o n s r e c o r d e d
r e s p e c t i v e l y o f O n k e l o s i n t h e B a b y l o n i a n T a l m u d a n d T o s e f t a a n d of
A q u i l a in t h e J e r u s a l e m T a l m u d , cf A . E . S i l v e r s t o n e , Aquila and
Onkelos ( 1 9 3 1 ) . T h e k n o w l e d g e o f H e b r e w e v i d e n t in A q u i l a ' s G r e e k
t r a n s l a t i o n w o u l d r e n d e r it q u i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t he w o u l d also h a v e b e e n
c o m p e t e n t t o p r o d u c e the t a r g u m in a c o g n a t e S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e ,
t h o u g h t h e a l t e r n a t i v e , t h a t r a b b i n i c references to both n a m e s c o n c e r n a
t r a n s l a t i o n i n t o G r e e k a n d n o t A r a m a i c , a n d t h a t the e x t a n t t a r g u m
w a s n o t p r o d u c e d b y O n k e l o s a t a l l , is q u i t e possible ( B a r t h e l e m y , Les
Devanciers, p p . 148—54).
Origen, Epist. ad African. 4(2) (ed. D e L a n g e , SC 3 0 2 , p . 526) : AKVXOS
... (f)iXoTifJt,6T€pov n€'nioT€vp.evos irapd ^lovSaiois -qpfirjviVKCvat, rrjv ypatprjv
<x> iiaXiara eldydaaiv ol dYvootJVTes TTJV 'E^paiwv SidXcKTOv xprjaQai, d)S
TrdvTwv fxdXXov ImT^Tivy^xivo). I t is m e n t i o n e d in J u s t i n i a n ' s Xovella 146
t h a t t h e r e w a s conflict a m o n g t h e J e w s t h e m s e l v e s a b o u t w h e t h e r t h e
Bible w a s to b e r e a d in t h e s y n a g o g u e w o r s h i p service i n H e b r e w o n l y ,
or in H e b r e w a n d G r e e k . J u s t i n i a n d i r e c t s t h a t t h e l a t t e r s h o u l d n o t be
i m p e d e d , a n d as a C h r i s t i a n e m p e r o r r e c o m m e n d s a b o v e all t h e u s e of
t h e L X X , b u t also p e r m i t s A q u i l a ' s t r a n s l a t i o n ( w h i c h was t h e r e f o r e
e v i d e n t l y p r e f e r r e d b y a t least s o m e of t h e J e w s ) .
F o r a collection of t h e f r a g m e n t s to b e f o u n d in d e s c r i p t i o n s a n d
c i t a t i o n s in p a t r i s t i c a n d t a l m u d i c l i t e r a t u r e a n d i n c o r p o r a t e d in the
texts o r m a r g i n s o f L X X m a n u s c r i p t s , s e e F . F i e l d , Origenis Hexaplorum
quae supersunt, 2 vols. ( 1 8 7 5 ) .
A n i m p o r t a n t e n r i c h m e n t of t h e m a t e r i a l since F i e l d ' s c o l l e c t i o n
r e s u l t e d from ( i ) M e r c a t i ' s d i s c o v e r y of a s i x t h - c e n t u r y m s . c o n t a i n i n g
t h e H e x a p l a of s o m e 1 5 0 verses of t h e P s a l t e r , i n c l u d i n g the v e r s i o n of
A q u i l a (see a b o v e , p . 4 8 3 , n. 3 2 ) ;
(2) T h e find in t h e G e n i z a h of t h e s y n a g o g u e i n C a i r o , ( a ) A m o n g
t h e m a s s of f r a g m e n t s w h i c h S c h e c h t e r b r o u g h t to C a m b r i d g e from this
t r e a s u r y w e r e t h r e e p a l i m p s e s t leaves w i t h t h e u p p e r w r i t i n g i n H e b r e w
a n d t h e l o w e r w r i t i n g i n G r e e k u n c i a l s of t h e fifth or sixth c e n t u r y ,
c o n t a i n i n g t h e t e x t , a d m i t t e d l y often difficult to r e a d , of i K g . 2 0 : 7 - 1 7
a n d 2 K g . 2 3 : 1 1 - 2 7 , e v i d e n t l y in A q u i l a ' s t r a n s l a t i o n . Cf. the e d i t i o n by
F. C. B u r k i t t , Fragments of the Books of Kings according to the Translation of
Aquila ( 1 8 9 7 ) .
(b) S i m i l a r l y f r o m t h e C a i r o G e n i z a h is t h e H e x a p l a f r a g m e n t o f Ps.
2 2 , e d i t e d b y T a y l o r , c o n t a i n i n g A q u i l a ' s t r a n s l a t i o n o f Ps. 2 2 : 2 0 - 2 8
( c f a b o v e , p . 483, n . 3 2 ) .
(c) O f c o n s i d e r a b l y l a r g e r e x t e n t a r e t h e f r a g m e n t s of A q u i l a ' s
t r a n s l a t i o n o f the P s a l m s c o m m u n i c a t e d in t h e s a m e p u b l i c a t i o n b y C.
T a y l o r {Hebrew-Greek Cairo Genizah Palimpsest, 1900). T h e r e a r e t h r e e
leaves, w i t h w r i t i n g s i m i l a r t o the G r e e k s c r i p t of B u r k i t t ' s f r a g m e n t s of
K i n g s . T h e y c o n t a i n A q u i l a ' s t r a n s l a t i o n o f P s . 9 0 - 1 7 ; 9 1 : 1 - 1 6 ( t h e last
four verses d e f e c t i v e ) ; 9 2 : 1 - 1 0 (the first four verses d e f e c t i v e ) ; 96:7—13 ;
9 7 : 1 - 1 2 (defective) ; 9 3 : 3 ; 1 0 2 : 1 6 - 2 9 ; a n d 1 0 3 : 1 - 1 3 (defective).
(d) N e w f r a g m e n t s of t h e t e x t of M a l a c h i a n d J o b h a v e r e c e n t l y b e e n
identified, cf. N . R . , M . d e L a n g e , ' S o m e n e w f r a g m e n t s of A q u i l a on
M a l a c h i a n d J o b ? ' , V T 30 (1980), p p . 2 9 1 - 4 ; 3 1 ( 1 9 8 1 ) , p . 1 2 6 .
(3) The Amherst Papyri, ed. b y G r e n f e l l a n d H u n t , I (1900), c o n t a i n ,
a m o n g s t o t h e r s , a l e t t e r w i t h on t h e r e v e r s e s i d e t h e text of G e n . 1 : 1 - 5
of the L X X a n d A q u i l a in h a n d w r i t i n g f r o m t h e time of C o n s t a n t i n e
( p . 3 1 ) . T h e b e g i n n i n g r e a d s : ev K€(f>a\€cp €KTIO€V deos avv TOV ovpavov
Kal TTjv y-qv. ( c f A. D e i s s m a n n , Light from the Ancient East ( 1 9 1 0 ) , p p . 192
(4) A few f u r t h e r A q u i l a n i c r e a d i n g s h a v e b e e n identified s i n c e F i e l d ,

s o m e t i m e s in p r e - A q u i l a n i c c o n t e x t s . Cf. P. K a t z , ' N o t e s on t h e L X X .
I L A fresh A q u i l a f r a g m e n t r e c o v e r e d from P h i l o ' , J T h S t 4 7 (1946),
p p . 31—3; A. Rahlfs, ' O b e r T h e o d o t i o n - L e s a r t e n in N e u e n T e s t a m e n t
u n d A q u i l a - L e s a r t e n b e i J u s t i n ' , Z N W 20 ( 1 9 2 1 ) , p p . 1 8 2 - 9 9 ;
498 §33-^- Jeuîsh Literature Composed in Greek
R i i g e r , ' V i e r A q u i l a - G l o s s e n in e i n e m h e b r a i s c h e n Proverbien-
F r a g m e n t aus d e r K a i r o - G e n i z a ' , Z N W 50 (1959), p p . 2 7 5 - 7 . the
i n d e x to A q u i l a ' s v e r s i o n : J . R e i d e r , Prolegomena to a Greek-Hebrew and
Hebrew-Greek Index to Aquila ( 1 9 1 6 ) ; N . T u r n e r , An Index to Aquila
(suppl. t o V T , 1 2 ) (1966) (revision a n d c o m p l e t i o n of R e i d e r ' s
P r o l e g o m e n a ) ; E. T o v , ' S o m e c o r r e c d o n s to R e i d e r - T u r n e r ' s Index to
Aquila', T e x t u s 8 ( 1 9 7 3 ) , p p . 1 6 4 - 7 4 .
T h e L X X t r a n s l a t i o n of Ecclesiastes recalls A q u i l a ' s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
t r a n s l a t i o n so s t r o n g l y t h a t o n e is t e m p t e d to a s s u m e t h a t i t is t h e l a t t e r
(so F r e u d e n t h a l , Alexander Polyhistor, 6 5 ; G r a t z , Koheleth ( 1 8 7 1 ) , p p . 4 8 1
ff.; A. H . M c N e i l e , An Introduction to Ecclesiastes ( 1 9 0 4 ) ; H . St. J .
T h a c k e r a y , A Grammar of the Old Testament in Greek ( 1 9 0 9 ) , p . 1 3 , n. 2.
C f also B a r t h e l e m y , Les Devanciers, p p . 2 1 - 3 0 , d e a l i n g w i t h t h e
o b j e c t i o n s of, e.g., C . H . H . W r i g h t , The Book of Koheleth ( 1 8 8 3 ) , p . 5 2 ) .
O n the o t h e r h a n d , the t r a n s l a t i o n a c t u a l l y a t t r i b u t e d to A q u i l a in t h e
h e x a p l a r i c n o t e s f r e q u e n t l y differs from the L X X t e x t ; cf. J e r o m e ' s
reference to t h e t w o w o r k s , Praef. in Ecclesiasten, P L X X I I I , 1062, C C L
L X X I I , p . 249. O n e text m i g h t be c a l l e d editio prima of A q u i l a a n d t h e
o t h e r editio secunda (so G r a t z a n d M c N e i l e ) , b u t it is m o r e Ukely,
a l t h o u g h only h y p o t h e t i c a l , t h a t t h e A q u i l a version h a d b e e n s o firmly
e s t a b l i s h e d in t h e L X X c a n o n by t h e t i m e of O r i g e n t h a t the version
p l a c e d i n the ' A q u i l a ' c o l u m n o f t h e H e x a p l a h a d in fact n o c o n n e c t i o n
at all w i t h A q u i l a b u t w a s s i m p l y i n s e r t e d from a n o t h e r e x t a n t version
to fill t h e g a p , c f B a r t h e l e m y , op. cit., p . 30.
Bibliography
Field, F., Proleg., p p . xvi-xxvii.
Krauss, S., 'Akylas der Proselyt', Festschrift zum 80. Geburtstage M. Steinschneiders (1896),
pp. 148-63.
Friedmann, M., Onkelos und Akylas (1896).
Burkitt, F. C , and L. Ginzberg, 'Aquila', i n J E (1902), pp. 34-8.
Swete, H. B . , and R . R. Ottley, l O T G , pp. 31-42.
Abrahams, M., Aquila's Greek Version of the Hebrew Bible (1919).
Rahlfs, A., 'Uber Theodotion-Lesarten im N . T . u n d Aquila-Lesarten bei Justin', Z N W
20(1921), p p . 182-99.
Blondheim, D. S., 'Echos de judeo-hellenisme. Influence d e la L X X et d'Aquila sur les
versions neo-grecques des Juives', R E J 78 (1924), pp. 1-14.
Silverstone, A. E., Aquila and Onkelos (1931).
Mohle, A., 'Ein neuer F u n d zahlreicher Stiicke aus den Jesajaiibersetzungen des Akylas,
Symmachus u n d T h e o d o d o n ' , Z A W 52 (1934), p p . 176-83.
Walker, N., 'The W r i d n g of the Divine N a m e in Aquila a n d the Ben Asher T e x t ' , V T 3
(1953), pp. 103 f; cf comments b y P. K a t z , V T 4 (1954), pp. 428 f
Vaccari, A., 'S. Augustin, S. Ambrosius et S. Aquila', in Augustinus Magister (1955), p p .
473-82.
K a t z , P., a n d J. Ziegler, 'Ein Aquila-Index in Vorbereitung', V T 8 (1958), pp. 264-85.
Kahle, P., C G , p p . 191-5.
Barthelemy, T)., Les Devanciers d'Aquila (suppl. t o V T , 10) (1963).
Smit Sibinga,J., TheO.T. Text of Justin Martyr,i: The Pentateuch (1963).

Jellicoe, S., SMS, p p . 7 6 - 8 3 .
Jrllicoc, S., 'Aquila and his Version', J Q R 59 (1968/9), p p . 3 2 6 - 3 2 .
Soininen-Soisalon, I., 'Einiger M e r k m a l e d e r Ubersetzungsweise von Aquila', in Wort,
Lied und Gottesspruch {Festschrift fur Joseph îegler), e d . J . Schreiner (1972), I, p p .
177-84.
Hyvarinen, H., Die Obersetzung von Aquila (1977).
(Jf. also the introductions to the O . T . , e.g., O. Eissfeldt, The O.T., An Introduction etc.
KT 1965), pp. 715 f, a n d other works cited above, p p . 4 9 1 - 3 .
I t m a y a p p e a r q u e s t i o n a b l e w h e t h e r Theodotion s h o u l d b e m e n t i o n e d
h e r e at a l l since, like S y m m a c h u s , h e is i n o n e p a s s a g e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y
J e r o m e a s a n E b i o n i t e . B u t J e r o m e h i m s e l f in a n o t h e r p a s s a g e d e s c r i b e s
h i m as a J e w a n d e l s e w h e r e e x p l a i n s t h a t t h e E b i o n i t e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
w a s o n l y held by s o m e . T h e o p i n i o n t h a t T h e o d o t i o n w a s a J e w , a n d
m o r e p a r t i c u l a r l y a J e w i s h p r o s e l y t e , is c o n f i r m e d b y I r e n a e u s , w h o s e
evidence cannot be discounted. I r e n a e u s ' s t a t e m e n t that T h e o d o t i o n
c a m e fi-om E p h e s u s is a l s o likely to b e c o r r e c t , g i v e n the f o r m e r ' s o w n
Asiatic o r i g i n s . E p i p h a n i u s ' d e s c r i p t i o n o f T h e o d o t i o n as a M a r c i o n i t e
from P o n t u s w h o l a t e r p r o s e l y t i z e d to J u d a i s m is of n o i n d e p e n d e n t
v a l u e . T h e d i v e r g e n t t e s t i m o n i e s of I r e n a e u s a n d J e r o m e m a y b e d u e to
confusion w i t h S y m m a c h u s , b u t t h e y w o u l d a l s o b e p a r t i a l l y e x p l a i n e d
if T h e o d o t i o n was a J e w w h o b e c a m e t e m p o r a r i l y a t t a c h e d t o J e w i s h
C h r i s t i a n i t y — h e n c e t h e E b i o n i t e t r a d i t i o n — b e f o r e r e t u r n i n g to
J u d a i s m . M o d e r n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of T h e o d o t i o n w i t h t h e first c e n t u r y
A.D. J o n a t h a n ben T J z z i e l to w h o m a t a r g u m , u s u a l l y a s s u m e d t o be
i n t o A r a m a i c , is a s c r i b e d i n r a b b i n i c t e x t s (so B a r t h e l e m y , Les
Devanciers, p p . 1 4 8 - 5 4 ) , has little to r e c o m m e n d it. E v e n t h o u g h
E p i p h a n i u s ' i n f o r m a t i o n is n o t in itself v e r y t r u s t w o r t h y , his a s c r i p t i o n
10 T h e o d o t i o n of a d a t e d u r i n g t h e t i m e of C o m m o d u s (A.D. 180—92)
sliould p r o b a b l y b e followed (see b e l o w , p . 500). I n t h a t case h i s w o r k
w a s c a r r i e d o u t after A q u i l a b u t b e f o r e t h a t of t h e J e w i s h C h r i s t i a n
S y m m a c h u s . I n a s s e r t i n g this o r d e r , n o w e i g h t s h o u l d b e p u t on t h e
o r d e r of the c o l u m n s in O r i g e n ' s H e x a p l a , i n w h i c h T h e o d o t i o n w a s
p l a c e d last, since this p r o v i d e s n o e v i d e n c e of the o r d e r of t h e
t r a n s l a t i o n s t h e m s e l v e s . T h e o r d e r of t h e H e x a p l a , w h a t e v e r its
r a t i o n a l e , was c l e a r l y n o t i n t e n d e d t o p r o v i d e a sort of h i s t o r i c a l s u r v e y
of t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e Bible i n Greek.^^ S i m i l a r l y , the fact t h a t
3b. T h e r e is no consensus o n the reasons for the order o f the H c x a p l a r columns. T h e y

may have been a r r a n g e d solely on the basis of content, w i t h Aquila next to t h e H e b r e w
Kxt because it was most similar to it and Theodotion n e x t to the L X X for the same
reason, though the position of S y m m a c h u s next to Aquila would then be strange since this
iianslation was i n some cases not d e p e n d e n t at all on Aquila. H. M . Orlinsky, ' T h e
Columnar Order of the H e x a p l a ' , J Q R n.s. 27 (1936/7), p p . 139-49, h a s suggested t h a t
I he order was intended t o provide Christians with a textbook for learning Hebrew, b u t in
s i l l h a scheme the sixth (Theododonic) column would b e redundant. I t may be best to
.illow the possibility of chance i n the o r d e r of columns three to six.
50O §33"^- Jeî^h Literature Composed in Greek
I r e n a e u s lists T h e o d o t i o n before A q u i l a is m e n t i o n e d is i r r e l e v a n t for

t h e d a t e s of t h e i r t r a n s l a t i o n s . T h e o d o t i o n ' s w o r k g e n e r a l l y h a d t h e
s a m e p u r p o s e as t h a t of A q u i l a , i.e., to r e n d e r a t r a n s l a t i o n closer to t h e
H e b r e w text t h a n t h e L X X , b u t h e p a i d s o m e w h a t m o r e a t t e n t i o n to
literary e l e g a n c e t h a n A q u i l a . A p e c u l i a r i t y o f his w o r k is his h a b i t of
transliterating Hebrew words into Greek, rather t h a n providing
t r a n s l a t i o n s , e v e n m o r e t h a n A q u i l a a n d S y m m a c h u s did (Field,
Proleg., p p . xi ff., for instances of t h i s ) . T h e o d o t i o n , h o w e v e r , b e g a n his
w o r k w i t h a n a l r e a d y existing G r e e k t r a n s l a t i o n before h i m , w h i c h h e
c o r r e c t e d after the H e b r e w . I n s o m e cases, t h a t t r a n s l a t i o n will h a v e
b e e n t h e A l e x a n d r i a n L X X t e x t , b u t in o t h e r s it is c l e a r t h a t h e u s e d a
different G r e e k version a l t o g e t h e r w h i c h c a m e i n t o e x i s t e n c e in the l a t e
p r e - C h r i s t i a n e r a a n d is the s o u r c e of ' T h e o d o t i o n i c ' r e a d i n g s in first
c e n t u r y A.D. texts t h a t p r e c e d e d T h e o d o t i o n h i m s e l f (See b e l o w , p p .
501—2, o n ' U r - T h e o d o t i o n ' . )
N o e v i d e n c e exists c o n c e r n i n g t h e use o f this t r a n s l a t i o n by t h e J e w s .
S o m e of his t r a n s l a t i o n o f D a n i e l h a s b e e n p r e s e r v e d w i t h i n t h e L X X
t r a d i t i o n , a l t h o u g h it c a n n o t b e a s s u m e d to b e c o m p l e t e . ^ ' P r o b a b l y
t h r o u g h t h e e d i t o r i a l decision o f O r i g e n T h e o d o d o n ' s version o f D a n i e l
s u p p l a n t e d t h e A l e x a n d r i a n t e x t t h a t h a d b e e n in c o m m o n use before.
T h e original L X X v e r s i o n of D a n i e l has o n l y s u r v i v e d in t h e f o l l o w i n g :
in t h e t e n t h c e n t u r y C h i g i cursive Cod. Chisianus, in a f r a g m e n t a m o n g
t h e C h e s t e r B e a t t y p a p y r i c o v e r i n g a b o u t one t h i r d of Daniel,^^ a n d in
t h e S y r o h e x a p l a (cf. a b o v e , p . 4 8 3 ; b e l o w , p . 5 0 3 ) . O t h e r w i s e , m a n y
T h e o d o t i o n i c f r a g m e n t s h a v e b e e n p r e s e r v e d i n t h e s a m e w a y as t h o s e
of A q u i l a . T h e p u b l i c a t i o n of M e r c a t i ' s find of t h e H e x a p l a r i c P s a l t e r in
t h e A m b r o s i a n h b r a r y i n M i l a n h a s also b r o u g h t n e w T h e o d o t i o n i c
m a t e r i a l (cf a b o v e , p . 4 8 3 , n. 3 2 ) .
Jerome, De viris illustr. 54 ( P L X X I I I , 7 0 2 ) : ' A q u i l a e scilicet P o n t i c i

proselyti et T h e o d o t i o n i s H e b i o n e i et S y m m a c h i e i u s d e m d o g m a t i s . '
Idem, Comment, in Habak., 3 : 1 1 — 1 3 ( C C L L X X V I A , p . 64) : ' T h e o d o t i o
a u t e m v e r e q u a s i p a u p e r et E b i o n i t a , sed e t S y m m a c h u s e i u s d e m
d o g m a t i s , p a u p e r e m s e n s u m secuti l u d a i c e t r a n s t u l e r u n t . . . Isti
S e m i c h r i s t i a n i l u d a i c e t r a n s t u l e r u n t , et l u d a e u s A q u i l a i n t e r p r e t a t u s
est, ut C h r i s t i a n u s . ' Idem, Praef. in vers. lob ( P L X X V I I I , 1 1 4 1 - 2 ) :
' J u d a e u s A q u i l a , S y m m a c h u s et T h e o d o t i o , j u d a i z a n t e s h a e r e t i c i . '
H o w e v e r , e l s e w h e r e J e r o m e s i m p l y caUs T h e o d o t i o n a J e w . C f Epist.
112 ad Augustin. 1 9 ( C S E L L V , p . 3 8 9 ) : ' h o m i n i s J u d a e i a t q u e
37. In Theodotion's revision of Daniel, t h e apocryphal additions were retained. F r o m

this they were translated by J e r o m e (PL X X V I I I , 1386). Cf further J. Ziegler, ed.,
Susanna, Daniel, Bel et Draco (^1977), p p . 28 ff., 61 ff. Against T h e o d o d o n as author of an^
of the '6' text in Daniel, cf A. Schmitt, Stammt der Sogenannte '^'-Text bei Daniel wirklich
von Theodotion? (NAG Phil.-hist. Klasse, n o . 8) (1966).
38. F. G. Kenyon, The Chester-Beatty Biblical Papyri V I I (1937), p . x.
b l a s p h e m i ' . J e r o m e e x p r e s s e s himself m o s t carefully in t h e prol.,

Comment, in Daniel ( C C L L X X V A , p . 774) : ' I l l u d q u o q u e l e c t o r e m
a d m o n e o , D a n i e l e m n o n j u x t a L X X i n t e r p r e t e s sed j u x t a T h e o -
d o t i o n e m ecclesias l e g e r e , q u i u t i q u e p o s t a d v e n t u m C h r i s t i i n c r e d u l u s
fuit, h c e t e u m q u i d a m d i c a n t E b i o n i t a m , q u i a l t e r o g e n e r e J u d a e u s e s t . '
I r e n a e u s , iii 2 1 , 1 ( = E u s e b . , Hist. eccl. v 8, 1 0 ) ; c f the p a s s a g e a b o v e ,
p. 495. E p i p h a n i u s , De mensuris et ponderibus 17—18.
A s f a r as c h r o n o l o g y is c o n c e r n e d , t h e c o n c l u s i v e p o i n t is t h a t
Theodotion was certainly older t h a n Irenaeus, who mentions h i m
explicitly. H e therefore w o r k e d before t h e e n d of t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y
A.D., cf. Oxford Diet. Christ. Church (^1974), s.v. ' I r e n a e u s ' . T h e
e x i s t e n c e of T h e o d o t i o n i c r e a d i n g s b e f o r e this d a t e c a n n o t b e t a k e n as
e v i d e n c e for t h e d a t e of his r e c e n s i o n , g i v e n t h e e x i s t e n c e of a n e a r l i e r
t r a n s l a t i o n ( ' U r - T h e o d o t i o n ' ) f r o m w h i c h he e v i d e n t l y w o r k e d .
I n d e e d , t h e u s e of T h e o d o t i o n i c d e t a i l s w i t h i n a b a s i c a l l y A l e x a n d r i a n
version o f D a n i e l b y J u s t i n M a r t y r i n a l o n g s e c t i o n of D a n i e l q u o t e d in
Dial. c. Tryph. 3 1 , m i g h t r e a s o n a b l y b e t a k e n t o suggest t h a t no
T h e o d o t i o n i c recension of U r - T h e o d o t i o n w a s y e t a v a i l a b l e t o J u s t i n
(see b e l o w , p . 5 0 2 ; cf t h e s t u d y b y J . S m i t S i b i n g a , The 0. T. Text of
Justin Martyr I : The Pentateuch ( 1 9 6 3 ) . O n b o t h I r e n a e u s a n d J u s t i n
M a r t y r , see S w e t e a n d O t t l e y , l O T G , p p . 47, 4 1 4 - 2 4 ; B a r t h e l e m y , Les
Devanciers, p p . 203—12. I t is i n fact the case t h a t m a n y T h e o d o t i o n i c
r e a d i n g s are f o u n d w i d e l y s c a t t e r e d a t a m u c h e a r l i e r d a t e .
D a n . 6:23 is f o u n d in t h e Shepherd of Hermas, Vis. iv 2 , 4, i n a f o r m
w h i c h a g r e e s r e m a r k a b l y w i t h T h e o d o t i o n a g a i n s t the L X X (cf. H o r t
in Johns Hopkins University Circular, D e c . 1884, a n d H a r n a c k , T h L Z ,
1 8 8 5 , 1 4 6 ) ; t h e s a m e p a s s a g e o c c u r s in Clement of Rome a n d Barnabas (cf
S c h l a t t e r , Gesch. Israels, ^, 294).
T h a t T h e o d o t i o n is used in t h e G r e e k Baruch, c. 1 - 2 , is a l m o s t
u n q u e s t i o n a b l e (cf. J . A . M o n t g o m e r y , The Book of Daniel ( 1 9 2 7 ) , p p .
49 f-)-
A l r e a d y m a n y c o n t a c t s w i t h T h e o d o t i o n a p p e a r i n the New Testament
as well. T h e s a m e p a s s a g e f r o m D a n . w h i c h is used i n H e r m a s , Vis. i v 2,
4, is a l l u d e d t o also in H e b . 1 1 1 3 3 , i n a t e x t t h a t a g r e e s w i t h T h e o d o t i o n
a g a i n s t L X X , cf K . J . T h o m a s , ' T h e O . T . C i t a t i o n s in H e b r e w s ' , N T S t
I I (i965)>PP- 3 0 3 - 2 5 -
I n R e v . s e n t e n c e s a n d e x p r e s s i o n s f r o m D a n i e l a r e f r e q u e n t l y u s e d in
a t e x t m o r e r e m i n i s c e n t of T h e o d o t i o n t h a n of t h e L X X (9:20; 1 0 : 6 ;
1 2 : 7 ; 1 3 : 7 ; 1 9 : 6 ; 20:4; 2 0 : 1 1 ) . C f G . S a l m o n , A Historical Introduction to
the Study of the Books of the N.T. ( ' ° i 9 i 3 ) , p p . 5 4 8 - 5 0 ; A . B l u d a u , ' D i e
A p o k a l y p s e u n d T h e o d o t i o n s D a n i e l i i b e r s e t z u n g ' , T h Q ( 1 8 9 7 ) , 1—26;
H . B. S w e t e a n d R . R . O t t l e y , l O T G , p . 48. C f also R . H . C h a r l e s , A
Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Revelation of St. John, i n t h e I C C
series (1920), I, p p . Ixvi-lxxxii. M o s t s t r i k i n g a r e t h e following t w o N . T .
p a s s a g e s : (i) i C o r . 1 5 : 5 4 : Kareirodr] 6 ddvaros els VIKOS — Isa. 25:8, in

e x a c t a g r e e m e n t w i t h T h e o d o t i o n a n d m a r k e d d e p a r t u r e from L X X
{KareTTiev 6 ddvaros taxoaas). Cf. h e r e B a r t h e l e m y , Les devanciers, p . 1 4 8 .
(2) J n . 1 9 : 3 7 : ot/tovTai els ov iêKevrrjaav = Z e c h . 12:10, similarly
R e v . 1:7, c o r r e c d y following the o r i g i n a l t e x t . T h e L X X t r a n s l a t e s
eTTi^Xeipovrai Trpos pê dvd' tSv KaTwpx'fjoavTo h a v i n g r e a d rkdw in p l a c e
of dkrw. J e r o m e c o m m e n t s o n this i n his c o m m e n t a r y o n Z e c h . 1 2 : 1 0 ,
C C L L X X V I A , p . 868. T h e c o r r e c t eêKevrrjaav is a l s o f o u n d i n J u s t i n ,
Apol. i 5 2 fin., Dial. c. Tryph. 1 4 fin. (in t h e first e x a m p l e t h e q u o t a t i o n
from Z e c h . is m o r e extensive, so t h a t it c a n n o t be f r o m J n . 19:37). I t is
r e m i n i s c e n t o f B a r n a b a s 7:9 {KaraKevr-qaavTes). B u t precisely t h i s
e$€K€VTr)aav is p r e s e n t i n Theodotion a n d Aquila. C f for this passage
g e n e r a l l y : B o h l , Die alttestam. Citate im N.T., p p . 1 1 0 - 1 2 ; Resch,
Ausserkanon. Paralleltexte I V ( 1 8 9 6 ) , p p . 184 ff. I n a d d i t i o n t o these
t r a c e s i n t h e N . T . , t h e r e a r e a l s o s o m e in J o s e p h u s , cf. A. M e z , Die Bibel
des Josephus ( 1 8 9 5 ) , p p . 8 3 f
A n u m b e r o f e x p l a n a t i o n s m a y b e g i v e n for these e a r l y T h e o d o t i o n i c
r e a d i n g s . T h e o d o t i o n m a y himself h a v e w o r k e d before t h e apostles, a s is
asserted b y B a r t h e l e m y , Les devanciers, p p . 1 4 4 ff., w h o identifies h i m
w i t h J o n a t h a n b e n TJzziel of t h e first h a l f of t h e first c e n t u r y A.D. If SO,
h o w e v e r , t h e p a t r i s t i c e v i d e n c e for his s e c o n d c e n t u r y d a t e w o u l d h a v e
to b e d i s c o u n t e d , a n d t h i s is n o t w a r r a n t e d . F u r t h e r m o r e , a g a i n s t so
e a r l y a d a t e for T h e o d o t i o n ' s r e c e n s i o n is t h e rarity of T h e o d o t i o n i c
t r a c e s i n t h e N . T . a n d t h e t e n d e n c y for s u c h t r a c e s t o be m i x e d u p w i t h
r e a d i n g s from the L X X . O t h e r s h a v e s u p p o s e d , m o r e p l a u s i b l y , t h a t
t h e r e existed a ' T h e o d o t i o n ' b e f o r e T h e o d o t i o n . T h e e x a c t n a t u r e of
this ' U r - T h e o d o t i o n ' is still d i s p u t e d . I t is possible t h a t a r e v i s i o n of t h e
L X X w h i c h w a s itself l a t e r r e v i s e d by T h e o d o t i o n existed before his
t i m e , cf. M e z , op. cit. It is m o r e likely t h a t a c o m p l e t e G r e e k v e r s i o n of
t h e Bible q u i t e s e p a r a t e from the m a i n A l e x a n d r i a n L X X t r a d i t i o n
c i r c u l a t e d in p r e - C h r i s t i a n t i m e s a n d f o r m e d t h e basis of T h e o d o t i o n ' s
version i n t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y A.D. (SO J . G w y n n in Diet. Christ. Biog. I V
(1887), cols. 970 ff.; H . St. J . T h a c k e r a y , The Septuagint and Jewish
Worship (^1923), p p . 24 ff.). I t has e v e n b e e n c l a i m e d t h a t this version
p r e d a t e s the L X X , cf K a h l e , C G , p p . 2 5 2 - 8 . T h e l a t e r s u p p r e s s i o n of
so m u c h of t h i s version w o u l d h o w e v e r b e r e m a r k a b l e . A l t e r n a t i v e l y ,
T h e o d o t i o n i c r e a d i n g s of specific t e x t s m a y h a v e c i r c u l a t e d in o r a l f o r m
as a sort of H e l l e n i s t i c t a r g u m , cf J . A . M o n t g o m e r y , The Book oJDaniel
( 1 9 2 7 ) , p p . 46 f F i n a l l y , a q u i t e full r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n
history of t h e U r - T h e o d o t i o n i c v e r s i o n h a s b e e n p r o p o s e d by
B a r t h e l e m y , w h o assigns it t o T h e o d o t i o n himself i n t h e first c e n t u r y
A.D. B a r t h e l e m y h a s m a d e o u t a s t r o n g c a s e for the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of t h e
Kaiye r e c e n s i o n r e p r e s e n t e d i n the G r e e k scroll of t h e M i n o r P r o p h e t s
f o u n d i n Q u m r a n w i t h t h a t o f U r - T h e o d o t i o n (cf. Les devanciers, p p .
33—47 o n the Kaiye g r o u p , b u t see also the c a u t i o u s n o t e a b o u t t h e

i n c l u s i o n of T h e o d o t i o n i n t h i s g r o u p s o u n d e d by F . M . C r o s s , H T h R
57 (1964), p. 283, n . 1 1 ) . C f S. J e l l i c o e , ' S o m e reflections on t h e KaCye
r e c e n s i o n ' , V T 23 ( 1 9 7 3 ) , p p . 1 5 - 2 4 . B a r t h e l e m y ' s c l a i m t h a t t h i s w a s a
Palestinian r e c e n s i o n u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f the r a b b i s is h o w e v e r
h y p o t h e t i c a l , ^ ^ a n d a n o r i g i n in A l e x a n d r i a o r , g i v e n t h e u s e of this
version b y Asiatic w r i t e r s . W e s t e r n A s i a M i n o r is likely, cf J e l l i c o e ,
S M S , p p . 89—94; t h o u g h a S y r i a n or M e s o p o t a m i a n m i l i e u h a s also
been proposed, cf K. Koch, 'Die Herkunft der Proto-
T h e o d o t i o n - O b e r s e t z u n g des D a n i e l b u c h e s ' , V T 2 3 ( 1 9 7 3 ) , p p . 3 6 2 - 5 .
T h e fact t h a t m u c h of T h e o d o t i o n ' s revision w a s a p p a r e n t l y n o n e t h e l e s s
b a s e d o n the L X X r a t h e r t h a n U r - T h e o d o t i o n or a n y o t h e r v e r s i o n (so
R a h l f s , a c c . t o W i i r t h w e i n , The Text of the O.T. (^1980), p . 54) m a y be
explained either b y supposing t h a t in some books t h e L X X a n d
U r - T h e o d o t i o n diflfered little ( S w e t e ) , o r t h a t U r - T h e o d o t i o n w a s o n l y
a p a r t i a l t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e B i b l e i n t e n d e d to c o v e r those b o o k s t h a t t h e
L X X c o v e r e d b a d l y or n o t a t all (Jellicoe), so t h a t T h e o d o t i o n himself
n a t u r a l l y h a d r e c o u r s e t o b o t h versions. W h a t e v e r the m a t e r i a l s w i t h
w h i c h h e w o r k e d , t h e r e a r e n o s t r o n g g r o u n d s for p u t t i n g T h e o d o t i o n ' s
o w n w o r k before t h a t o f A q u i l a [contra b o t h H . M . O r h n s k y , J Q R n.s.
27 ( 1 9 3 6 - 7 ) , p . 1 4 3 , n . 14, w h o i g n o r e s a l t o g e t h e r t h e e v i d e n c e of
E p i p h a n i u s , a n d B a r t h e l e m y , Les devanciers, p p . 144—57, ^ i t h t h e
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of T h e o d o t i o n w i t h t h e first-century A.D. J o n a t h a n b e n
U z z i e l ) . T h e o r d e r in w h i c h I r e n a e u s cites t h e i r w o r k is i r r e l e v a n t to
t h e i r d a t i n g . I t is t r u e t h a t T h e o d o t i o n ' s w o r k is m u c h less l a b o r i o u s l y
faithful t o t h e H e b r e w t h a n t h a t o f A q u i l a , a n d it is also t r u e t h a t its
d i s a p p e a r a n c e from J e w i s h t r a d i t i o n c o u l d b e e x p l a i n e d as a r e s u l t of
t h i s . B u t t h e r e is n o r e a s o n t o a s s u m e a priori t h a t a n y s u r v i v i n g less
literal t r a n s l a t i o n m u s t m a r k a p o i n t in a p r o g r e s s i o n t o w a r d s
a c c e p t a n c e of the stilted G r e e k of A q u i l a , a n d T h e o d o t i o n ' s c o m p r o m i s e
b e t w e e n literalness a n d e l e g a n c e m a y b e a c c e p t e d a s a l a t e r w o r k .
O n t h e r e l a t i o n o f T h e o d o t i o n t o the L X X , J e r o m e says in Comment.
39. D. Barthelemy, Les devanciers d'Aquita (1963), p p . 154-6. It should b e seen that
objections to the Theodotionic recension itself being o f the first century A . D . d o not
preclude acceptance of the circulation of Theodotionic readings in an earlier form i n the
Kalye group. Barthelemy's a r g u m e n t s should therefore be accepted to this extent. O n the
other h a n d , identification of Ur-Theodotionic readings in later texts, including the
T h e o d o t i o n version in O r i g e n ' s Hexapla, m a y well be impossible given the n u m b e r of
text revisions which m a y have taken place i n the interim, cf Barthelemy, op. cit., p p . 253
ff., 267. Barthelemy's sole grounds for asserting t h e involvement of Palestinian rabbis in
the translation seems to be the fact t h a t the Minor Prophets scroll was found a t Q u m r a n .
T h e r e is no reason t o believe t h a t this is particularly significant for t h e place of
composition. T h e text of the Q u m r a n scroll is similar to t h a t in t h e Q u i n t a , cf. G.
Howard, 'The Q u i n t a of the M i n o r P r o p h e t s : a first century Septuagint text?', Bibl. 55
(1974), p p . 15-22.
in Ecclesiasten 2:2 (CCL LXXII, p. 262): 'Septuaginta vero et

T h e o d o t i o n , s i c u t i n p l u r i b u s locis, i t a in h o c q u o q u e c o n c o r d a n t ' (i.e.
against A q u i l a and S y m m a c h u s ) .
T h e a c c e p t a n c e b y t h e C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h of T h e o d o t i o n ' s t r a n s l a t i o n
of D a n i e l in p l a c e o f t h e L X X is r e p e a t e d l y a f f i r m e d b y J e r o m e . Cf
Contra Rujin. ii 33 ( C C L L X X I X , p p . 6 9 - 7 0 ; e d . L a r d e t , S C 303, p .
1 9 2 ) ; Praef. comment, in Daniel ( C C L L X X V A , p . 7 7 4 ) ; Praef. in version.
Daniel ( P L X X V I I I , 1 3 5 7 ) . O n e m a i n r e a s o n for t h e r e j e c t i o n of t h e
L X X w a s p r o b a b l y its false r e n d e r i n g of t h e i m p o r t a n t p a s s a g e s a b o u t
t h e w e e k s of y e a r s , s o B l u d a u , Die alex. Uebersetzung des B. Daniel (1897),
p. 24; cf Jellicoe, SMS, pp. 84—7, w i t h the suggestion that the
s u b s t i t u t i o n o f T h e o d o t i o n ' s v e r s i o n for t h e L X X w a s m a d e by O r i g e n .
Bibliography
Hody, H., De Bibliorum textibus (1705), p p . 579-85.
Field, F., Orig. Hexapl., proleg. p p . xxxviii-xlii.
Gwynn, J., ' T h e o d o d o n ' , DCB I V (1887), p p . 970-9.
Salmon, G., ^ Historical Introduction to the Study of the Books of the N.T. { 1897), p p . 538-51.
Torrey, C. C , ' T h e A p p a r a t u s of the T e x t u a l Criticism of Chronicles-Ezra-Nehemiah',
0. T. and Semitic Studies in Memory of William Rainer Harper II (1908), p p . 55-111.
Swete, H. B., and R . R. Ottley, l O T G , pp. 4 2 - 9 .
Charles, R . H., A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Revelation of St. John, in the I C C
Series (1920).
Rahlfs, A., ' C b e r Theodotion-Lesarten im Neuen Testament u n d Aquila-Lesarten bei
J u s t i n ' , Z N W 20 (1921), p p . 182-99.
W u t z , F., Die Transkriptionen von der Septuaginta bis zu Hieronymus, I (1925), I I (1933).
Montgomery, J . A . , A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Daniel, in the I C C
Series (1927), pp. 46—50.
Mohle, F., 'Ein neuer F u n d zahlreicher Stiicke aus d e m Jesajaubersetzungen d e s Akylas,
Symmachos u n d Theodotion', Z A W 52 (1934), p p . 176-83.
Orlinsky, H . M., ' T h e C o l u m n a r O r d e r of the Hexapla', J Q R , n e w series, 27 (1936-7), p .
Johnson, S. E., ' T h e biblical quotations in M a t t h e w ' , H T h R 36 (1943), p p . 135-55-

Cooper, C. M., 'Theodotion's influence on the Alexandrian text of J u d g e s ' , JBL 67
(1948), pp. 6 3 - 8 .
Roberts, B. J . , The O.T. Textand Versions etc. (1951), 123-6.
Barthelemy, D., 'Redecouverte d ' u n chainon m a n q u a n t d e I'histoire de l a L X X ' , RB 60
(1953), pp. 25 ff".
Barthelemy, D., Les devanciers d'Aquila (1963).
Kahle, P. E . , CG, 252-8.
Gil, L., 'Theodotion', EB V I (1965), cols. 934-5.
Jellicoe, S M S , pp. 83-94.
O'Connell, K . G., The Theodotionic revision of the Book of Exodus (1972).
Wiirthwein, E., The Text of the O. T. etc. ("^1980), pp. 38 f
Saiz, J . R. B., 'El texto Teodocionico d e Daniel y l a traduccion d e Simaco', Sefarad 40
(1980), pp. 41-55.
N o t e also the introductions t o the O . T . by, e.g., O . Eissfeldt, The O.T., An Introduction
etc. ( E T 1965), p p . 715 ff. Cf also above u n d e r the general bibliography o n the L X X a n d
Aquila.
I I . TRANSLATIONS INTO GREEK OF NON-SCRIPTURAL SEMITIC TEXTS
T h e w o r k of t r a n s l a t i n g r e h g i o u s texts i n t o G r e e k was not c o n f i n e d

a m o n g J e w s i n t h e H e l l e n i s t i c a n d R o m a n p e r i o d s t o the b o o k s of
S c r i p t u r e . M a n y o t h e r w r i t i n g s w e r e also t r a n s l a t e d in this p e r i o d . O f
w o r k s o f h i s t o r i o g r a p h y , I M a c c a b e e s a n d J o s e p h u s B.J. w e r e b o t h p u t
i n t o G r e e k b y a J e w s o o n after t h e i r o r i g i n a l c o m p o s i t i o n . G r e e k
versions were also p r o d u c e d o f t h e f o l l o w i n g : the P s a l m s of S o l o m o n ;
t h e g n o m i c w i s d o m of J e s u s b e n S i r a ; t h e n a r r a t i v e s of J u d i t h , T o b i t
a n d A h i q a r ; the p s e u d e p i g r a p h i c p r o p h e c i e s in i ( E t h i o p i c ) E n o c h ,
Assumption of Moses (Testament of Moses), 4 Baruch (The Chronicles
of J e r e m i a h ) , 4 E z r a , a n d t h e Life of A d a m a n d E v e ; a n d t h e b i b l i c a l
m i d r a s h in J u b i l e e s , t h e M a r t y r d o m o f I s a i a h , a n d t h e L i v e s of t h e
P r o p h e t s . * ° If, as is q u i t e possible, m a n y or m o s t o f the texts discussed
b e l o w i n 33 B a n d A p p e n d i x w e r e also o r i g i n a l l y s e m i d c c o m p o s i t i o n s ,
t h e y s h o u l d also b e a d d e d to t h e list o f j e w i s h G r e e k t r a n s l a t i o n s .
E x p l i c i t e x t e r n a l e v i d e n c e of t h e o r i g i n of t h e t r a n s l a t o r is r a r e l y to
b e f o u n d for t h e s e t e x t s a n y m o r e t h a n for t h e S e p t u a g i n t . T h e
n o n - h i s t o r i c i t y of P s . - A r i s t e a s ' a c c o u n t o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n of t h e G r e e k
P e n t a t e u c h h a s b e e n d i s c u s s e d a b o v e , p . 4 7 4 . O f all t h e b o o k s of the
G r e e k Bible only the b o o k of E s t h e r p r e s e r v e s a n o t e a b o u t its
t r a n s l a t o r . A c o l o p h o n a t t h e e n d o f s o m e of t h e m a n u s c r i p t s s h o w s t h a t
it w a s t h e w o r k of L y s i m a c h u s , t h e son o f P t o l e m y from J e r u s a l e m , a n d
t h a t it h a d b e e n b r o u g h t t o E g y p t d u r i n g t h e f o u r t h y e a r of K i n g
P t o l e m y a n d C l e o p a t r a by t h e p r i e s t D o s i t h e u s a n d his son P t o l e m y .
T h e t r u s t w o r t h i n e s s of t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n is p r o b a b l y n o t t o be d o u b t e d , * '
b u t it d o e s n o t yield a c e r t a i n c h r o n o l o g i c a l r e s u l t since t h e r e w e r e
several occasions w h e n E g y p t was r u l e d b y a P t o l e m y a n d a C l e o p a t r a .
40. For the Greek text of t h e pseudepigraphic prophecies a n d the bibhcal midrashic
works, see Denis, FPG, pp. 6 1 - 1 1 4 , 118-20, 129—48. See also above, p p . 250, 278, 294,
etc.
41. B. J a c o b , 'Das Buch Esther bei d e m L X X ' , Z A W 10 (1890), p p . 280-7, denied
t h a t the translation was m a d e in J e r u s a l e m on the grounds of E g y p t i a n influence o n the
Greek, b u t close contacts w i t h Egypt can be admitted w i t h o u t rejecting t h e colophon,
since the names anyway imply this. M o r e seriously, the c o l o p h o n describes Dositheus as a
'priest a n d a Levite', cf. R. M a r c u s , 'Dositheus, Priest a n d Levite', J B L 64 (1945), pp.
269-71, contra E . J. Bickermann, ' T h e Colophon of the Greek Book of Esther', J B L 63
(1944), p . 348 = Studies in Jewish and Christian History \ (1976), p p . 225—45, w h o proposes
to read t h e personal n a m e ' L e v e i t e s ' ; this must indicate some confusion. C. A. Moore,
Daniel, Esther and Jeremiah: The Additions (1977), p p . 2 5 0 - 2 , discusses the colophon and
suggests that t h e repeated etfrq indicates t h e colophonist's scepticism about Dositheus'
(laims a b o u t his origins. Nonetheless, the colophon is more likely to be genuine in its
cssendals than not.
5o6 §33A. Jewish Literature Composed in Greek
A d a t e i n e i t h e r c. 1 1 4 B . C , C. 77 B.C. o r c. 48 B.C. w o u l d be p o s s i b l e ;
1 1 4 B.C. is p r o b a b l y to b e preferred.*^ I t is q u i t e s t r i k i n g t h a t E s t h e r
s h o u l d h a v e b e e n singled out i n this w a y a n d it is possible t h a t t h e n e e d
for a c o l o p h o n asserting t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y o f t h e t r a n s l a t i o n is c o n n e c t e d
w i t h t h e fact t h a t the G r e e k text is e x t a n t in t w o w i d e l y differing
versions, n e i t h e r of w h i c h is a t all close t o the M a s o r e t i c H e b r e w text.*^
T h e u s u a l L X X text is r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e m a i n m a n u s c r i p t s ,
V a t i c a n u s , A l e x a n d r i n u s a n d S i n a i t i c u s . A m u c h s h o r t e r G r e e k text is
found i n C o d d . 19, 93a a n d io8b. T h i s s h o r t e r text m a y r e p r e s e n t t h e
' L u c i a n i c ' r e c e n s i o n of t h e L X X t e x t , cf. P. d e L a g a r d e , Lihrorum Vet.
Test, canonicorum pars prior graece ( 1 8 8 3 ) , b u t i t is i m p o s s i b l e t o p r o v e
d e p e n d e n c e o n t h e L X X t e x t a n d it m a y b e t h a t it w a s a s e p a r a t e
t r a n s l a t i o n f r o m t h e H e b r e w , i n w h i c h case the H e b r e w t e x t on w h i c h it
d e p e n d e d p r e s u m a b l y differed c o n s i d e r a b l y from t h a t w h i c h survives in
t h e M.T.*"^ If v a r i a n t texts of E s t h e r w e r e in c i r c u l a t i o n a t t h e time of
Lysimachus' translation, that w o u l d explain t h e colophon concerning
t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y of his version. I t is likely, b u t n o t c e r t a i n , t h a t his t e x t
is t h e l o n g e r o n e since, a l t h o u g h t h e c o l o p h o n is a p p e n d e d to o n e of t h e
t h r e e m a n u s c r i p t s o f t h e s h o r t version, i t is m i s s i n g in t h e o t h e r t w o ,
a l t h o u g h it is f o u n d i n all the m a n u s c r i p t s o f t h e long text."^^
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , the possibility t h a t t h e H e b r e w text w h i c h h e t r a n s l a t e d
w a s not t h e o n e n o w e x t a n t m a k e s it h a r d to j u d g e the n a t u r e of his
t r a n s l a t i o n , as of m u c h of the S e p t u a g i n t .
O f t h e t r a n s l a t i o n s of t h e a p o c r y p h a l books o n l y t h e r e n d e r i n g of B e n
S i r a ' s w o r k b y his g r a n d s o n c a n be s i m i l a r l y a s s i g n e d a d a t e a n d p l a c e .
T h e preface t o Ecclus. states t h a t t h e t r a n s l a t o r c a m e to E g y p t in t h e
t h i r t y - e i g h t h y e a r of K i n g E u e r g e t e s , i.e., P t o l e m y V I I E u e r g e t e s
4 2 . B . J a c o b , art. cit., pp. 279 ff., proposes Ptolemy I X Soter I I in c. 114 B.C.; E. J.
Bickermann, art. cit., p p . 339-62, suggests Ptolemy X I I , c. 77 B . C . ; J . B. Schildenberger,
Das Buch Esther (1941), p . 21, suggests Ptolemy X I V in c. 48 B . C . ; cf. also H . Willrich,
Judaica (1900), p. 4.
4 3 . Cf C . C. Torrey, ' T h e Older Book of Esther', H T h R 37 (1944), p. i .
4 4 . C. A . Moore, 'A Greek Witness to a Different Hebrew T e x t of Esther', ZAW 79
(1967), p p . 3 5 1 - 8 ; H . J . Cooke, 'The ^-text of the Greek Version of the Book of Esther',
Z A W 81 (1969), p p . 369-76; E. T o v , ' T h e "Lucianic" text of the canonical and the
apocryphal sections of Esther: a rewritten biblical book', Textus 10 (1982), pp. 1-28. For
further bibliography on these texts, see Brock, Fritsch and JeUicoe, pp. 112-13 ; Delling,
Bibliographic 147—8.
45. C. A . Moore, Daniel, Esther and Jeremiah: The Additions (1977), p. 252. Whichever
text contained the colophon is likely to have also contained some of the a d d i d o n s , but the
differences between the additions in t h e two versions are too small to help in t h e present
discussion, see below, §33B.I.2, p . 721. In favour of the antiquity of the shorter text is the
presence of readings agreeing with it in the Old Latin, but both the Old Latin itself
elsewhere a n d all the other ancient versions are based on the longer ( L X X ) text, a p a r t
from the Syriac a n d the Vulgate, which are based o n the H e b r e w , cf Moore, op. cit., p.
.67.
//. Translations of Non-Scriptural Semitic Texts 507
P h y s c o n , a n d , finding g r e a t s c o p e for e d u c a t i o n , t h o u g h t it v e r y
n e c e s s a r y to s p e n d s o m e e n e r g y a n d l a b o u r o n t h e t r a n s l a t i o n of his
g r a n d f a t h e r ' s b o o k ' t o p u b l i s h it for t h e use o f t h o s e w h o h a v e m a d e
t h e i r h o m e i n a foreign l a n d a n d w i s h t o b e c o m e s c h o l a r s b y t r a i n i n g
t h e m s e l v e s to live a c c o r d i n g t o t h e l a w ' . His t r a n s l a t i o n was t h e r e f o r e
m a d e i n E g y p t before t h e d e a t h of E u e r g e t e s in c. 1 1 6 B.c. A g a i n ,
h o w e v e r , despite d i s c o v e r i e s of H e b r e w f r a g m e n t s at Q u m r a n a n d
M a s a d a a n d a l a r g e p a r t of a H e b r e w v e r s i o n i n a m e d i e v a l m a n u s c r i p t
from t h e C a i r o G e n i z a h , t h e r e l a t i o n of t h e s e texts t o t h e H e b r e w
a r c h e t y p e is itself u n c l e a r (see a b o v e , p . 204) so t h a t t h e n a t u r e of t h e
t e x t u s e d by t h e G r e e k t r a n s l a t o r c a n n o t be d e t e r m i n e d a n d o n l y v e r y
g e n e r a l r e m a r k s c a n b e m a d e a b o u t h i s t r a n s l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s . I t is,
h o w e v e r , s a l u t a r y t o n o t e his o w n a w a r e n e s s t h a t i t is i m p o s s i b l e for a
t r a n s l a t o r to find p r e c i s e e q u i v a l e n t s for t h e o r i g i n a l H e b r e w i n a n o t h e r
l a n g u a g e (Ecclus. Prologue) .'^^
F o r a l l the o t h e r b o o k s t r a n s l a t e d i n t o G r e e k in this p e r i o d it is o n l y
possible to use the style a n d v o c a b u l a r y a s e v i d e n c e for p r o v e n a n c e . So,
for e x a m p l e , the G r e e k text of t h e H i s t o r y a n d M a x i m s o f A h i q a r ,
p r e s e r v e d as a section o f t h e Life of A e s o p , m a y d e r i v e f r o m E g y p t
b e t w e e n 30 B.C. a n d A.D. 100 b e c a u s e o f the use o f L a t i n t e r m s w h i c h
p r e s u m a b l y p o s t - d a t e R o m a n o c c u p a t i o n (so B. E . P e r r y , Aesopica I,
Greek and Latin Texts ( 1 9 5 2 ) , p p . 4 - 5 ) .
D e s p i t e t h e p r o b l e m s in c o m p a r i n g t h e s e t r a n s l a t i o n s to t h e i r
o r i g i n a l s , e n o u g h c a n b e d i s c e r n e d to s u g g e s t t h a t t h e y s h o u l d be
t r e a t e d as c o m p o s i t i o n s i n t h e i r o w n r i g h t . T h e S e p t u a g i n t is n o t a l w a y s
a l i t e r a l t r a n s l a t i o n , b u t s o m e t i m e s a t h e o l o g i c a l or h a g g a d i c
c o m m e n t a r y o n t h e H e b r e w text, s o m e t i m e s a l i t e r a r y p a r a p h r a s e ,
s o m e t i m e s a n a m p l i f i c a t i o n or c u r t a i l m e n t (cf J e l l i c o e , S M S , p p .
3 1 4 - 1 8 , 3 2 1 — 2 ; E . J . B i c k e r m a n n , ' T h e L X X as a T r a n s l a t i o n ' ,
P A A J R 28 ( 1 9 5 9 ) , p p . i ~ 3 9 ; C. R a b i n , ' T h e T r a n s l a t i o n Process a n d
t h e C h a r a c t e r of t h e L X X ' , T e x t u s 6 ( 1 9 6 8 ) , p p . 1 - 2 6 ; for f u r t h e r
b i b l i o g r a p h y , see S . P. B r o c k , C. T . F r i s c h a n d S. J e l l i c o e , A Classified
46. O n the translator a n d his work s e e : P. Auvray, 'Notes sur le prologue de

I'Ecclesiastique', in Melanges A. Robert (1957), pp. 2 8 1 - 7 ; H . J . C a d b u r y , ' T h e Grandson
ofBen Sira', H T h R 48 (1955), pp. 2 1 9 - 2 3 ; L. F. H a r t m a n n , 'Sirach in H e b r e w a n d in
Greek', CBQ_23 (1961), pp. 443-51 ; D. de Bruyne, 'Le Prologue, le titre et la finale de
I'Ecclesiastique', ZAW 47 (1929), pp. 2 5 7 - 6 3 ; J . H . A. H a r t , ' T h e Prologue to
Ecclesiasticus', J Q R 19 (1907), pp. 284-97.
For the Greek text, see J . Ziegler, ed., Sapientia Jesu Filii Sirach (1965; ^1980).
For studies on that text, see especially J. Ziegler, 'Hat L u k i a n den griechischen Sirach
rezensiert?', Bibl. 40 (1959), 2 1 0 - 2 9 ; idem, 'Urspriingliche Lesarten im griechischen
Sirach', i n Melanges E. Tisserant [Studi e Testi 231, 1964), p p . 4 6 1 - 8 7 ; Jellicoe, S M S , pp.
306—10.
F u r t h e r bibliography in Brock, Fritsch and JelHcoe, op. cit., pp. 1 2 9 - 3 2 ; Delling,
Bibliographie, pp. 131-6.
Bibliography of the Septuagint ( 1 9 7 3 ) , p p . 3 4 - 7 , a n d b i b l i o g r a p h y o n

i n d i v i d u a l b o o k s ; E . T o v , ' M i d r a s h - t y p e exegesis in t h e L X X o f
J o s h u a ' , R B 85 (1978), p p . 5 0 - 6 1 , w i t h further references a t n o t e i ; cf.
also a b o v e , n o t e 29). A l l these a i m s c o m b i n e d w i t h the special
r e s o n a n c e s of p a r t i c u l a r G r e e k w o r d s to p r o d u c e a d o c u m e n t w i t h its
o w n m e a n i n g q u i t e different f r o m t h e S e m i d c o r i g i n a l (cf C . H . D o d d ,
The Bible and the Greeks (1934, r p . 1 9 5 4 ) , p p . 3—95, a n d t h e n u m e r o u s
scholarly w o r k s on p a r t i c u l a r c o n c e p t s i n t h e L X X c i t e d in B r o c k ,
Fritsch a n d J e l l i c o e , op. cit., p p . 18—23). j ^ ^ t the same way, the
t r a n s l a t i o n of n o n - s c r i p t u r a l b o o k s b y J e w s i n this p e r i o d s h o u l d b e
n o t e d as a powerful m e a n s of s p r e a d i n g religious i d e a s a m o n g t h e J e w s
themselves, a n d p e r h a p s also a g e n t i l e a u d i e n c e . I n t e r m s of l i t e r a r y
o u t p u t s u c h t r a n s l a t i o n s m a y well h a v e b e e n j u s t as influential a m o n g
G r e e k - s p e a k i n g J e w s as i n d e p e n d e n t c o m p o s i t i o n s . I n d e e d , t h e fact
t h a t m a n y s u c h writings s u r v i v e e n t i r e t h r o u g h p r e s e r v a t i o n b y e a r l y
C h r i s t i a n a u t h o r s w h o p r o b a b l y k n e w t h e m o n l y in their G r e e k form
a r g u e s for a p o p u l a r i t y g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t e n j o y e d by t h e o r i g i n a l G r e e k
c o m p o s i t i o n s w h i c h in m a n y cases w o u l d h a v e b e e n e n t i r e l y lost if t h e y
h a d not b e e n q u o t e d f r a g m e n t a r i l y b y p a g a n a u t h o r s s u c h a s
Alexander Polyhistor.
I I I . PROSE LITERATURE ABOUT THE PAST
T h e l i t e r a r y p r o d u c t i o n s discussed so f a r a r e t r a n s l a t i o n s of S e m i t i c
w o r k s in w h i c h the H e l l e n i s t i c e l e m e n t s i m p o r t e d b y t h e use o f G r e e k ,
t h o u g h e v i d e n t e v e n in t h e L X X , a r e n o n e t h e l e s s n o t g r e a t . P o t e n t i a l l y
different are those J e w i s h - H e l l e n i s t i c w r i t i n g s w h i c h i n f o r m a r e
m o d e l l e d on n o n - b i b l i c a l , G r e e k c o m p o s i t i o n s , in t h e field t h e r e f o r e of
historical, poetical, a n d philosophical h t e r a t u r e . First we deal w i t h t h e
h i s t o r i c a l writings. B i b l i c a l w r i t e r s w e r e less i n t e r e s t e d in h i s t o r y as s u c h
t h a n as a p a t t e r n d i s c l o s i n g d i v i n e i n t e r v e n t i o n in t h e w o r l d a n d a s a
source of instruction indicating h o w G o d should be served. F o r
H e l l e n i s t i c J u d a i s m , h o w e v e r , a k n o w l e d g e of p a s t h i s t o r y w a s p a r t of
c o n t e m p o r a r y culture. A people could claim t o be c o u n t e d a m o n g the
civilized n a t i o n s o n l y w h e n i t c o u l d p o i n t t o a l o n g a n d i m p o s i n g
history. H e n c e e v e n n a t i o n s earlier r e g a r d e d a s b a r b a r i a n n o w
h e l l e n i z e d t h e i r h i s t o r y i n o r d e r to m a k e it a c c e s s i b l e t o the c i v i l i z e d
w o r l d . H e l l e n i s t i c J e w s a l s o s h a r e d t h e s e a s p i r a t i o n s . T h e y too c o m p i l e d
t h e i r s a c r e d h i s t o r y b o t h for t h e m s e l v e s a n d for t h e g e n t i l e s . I t is
r e a s o n a b l e to a s s u m e a n a p o l o g e t i c t e n d e n c y i n all the h i s t o r y of t h i s
g e n r e , e v e n t h o u g h it is often k e p t in the b a c k g r o u n d . T h e m o s t
c o m p r e h e n s i v e w o r k of t h i s k i n d w h i c h w e h a v e is t h e g r e a t h i s t o r y of
J o s e p h u s . H e h a d h o w e v e r a n u m b e r of p r e d e c e s s o r s w h o w o r k e d a t
s o m e t i m e s l a r g e r a n d s o m e t i m e s s h o r t e r p e r i o d s o f j e w i s h h i s t o r y in
v a r i o u s forms, s o m e in t h e s o b e r style of a n n a l s ( D e m e t r i u s ) , o t h e r s w i t h
l e g e n d a r y m i d r a s h i c e m b e l l i s h m e n t s in maiorem ludaeorum gloriam
(Eupolemus, Artapanus). Others, again, adopted a philosophizing
m a n n e r t o p r e s e n t t h e g r e a t J e w i s h L a w g i v e r as t h e best p h i l o s o p h e r ,
i n d e e d e v e n as the f a t h e r of all p h i l o s o p h y ( P h i l o ) .
Hellenistic J e w s did not, however, only compile a c c o u n t s of biblical
h i s t o r y i n a style s i m i l a r to a n d p a r t l y d e p e n d e n t o n P a l e s t i n i a n
m i d r a s h , they also r e c o r d e d c o n t e m p o r a r y e v e n t s ( J a s o n of C y r e n e ,
P h i l o , J o s e p h u s , J u s t u s of T i b e r i a s ) . S o m e w r i t e r s w o r k e d i n b o t h a r e a s .
I t is useful to c o n s i d e r in e a c h case t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e J e w i s h v i e w
of t h e p a s t h a s b e e n affected b y t h e G r e e k h t e r a r y g e n r e . T h a t g e n r e ,
h o w e v e r , a l t h o u g h well e s t a b l i s h e d b y t h e H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d , w a s itself
n o t a b l e d u r i n g t h a t p e r i o d for t h e diversity o f a p p r o a c h e s t a k e n b y
h i s t o r i a n s , from t h e d r y a n d a n t i q u a r i a n t o t h e m o r e c o m m o n r o m a n t i c
a n d r h e t o r i c a l history c e n t r e d on i n d i v i d u a l s . I t is s o m e t i m e s h a r d to
see a n y t h i n g G r e e k in t h e w o r k s o f t h e H e l l e n i s t i c J e w i s h h i s t o r i a n s
a p a r t f r o m t h e l a n g u a g e of c o m p o s i d o n . I n s u c h cases t h e y a r e b e s t
51 o § 3 3 ^ . Jewish Literature Composed in Greek
u n d e r s t o o d w i t h i n t h e m i d r a s h i c t r a d i t i o n s familiar from c o n t e m p o r a r y
Semitic texts.
M o s t of t h e oldest J e w i s h - H e l l e n i s t i c h i s t o r i a n s h a v e b e e n s a v e d from
c o m p l e t e o b l i v i o n only in t h e e x c e r p t s m a d e by Alexander Polyhistor.
P o l y h i s t o r ' s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y was n o t t o t a l , for a few t e x t s m a y h a v e b e e n
p r e s e r v e d t h r o u g h a different l a t e first c e n t u r y B.C. c h r o n o g r a p h e r ,
possibly P t o l e m y of M e n d e s (see b e l o w , p . 520), a n d , since it is u n h k e l y
t h a t his w o r k w a s itself a v a i l a b l e t o the m a i n s u r v i v i n g a u t h o r s (cf N .
W a l t e r , ' Z u r U b e r l i e f e r u n g e i n i g e r R e s t e friiher j i i d i s c h - h e l l e n i s t i s c h e r
L i t e r a t u r b e i J o s e p h u s , C l e m e n s u n d E u s e b ' , Studia Patristica
V I I (1966), p p . 3 1 4 - 2 0 ) , t h e role of o t h e r i n t e r m e d i a r i e s w a s also
crucial. A t a n y r a t e , A l e x a n d e r w a s a v o l u m i n o u s a u t h o r , w h o lived
a b o u t 80-40 B.C. ( a c c o r d i n g to t h e s t a t e m e n t s of t h e S u d a , s.v.
ÂXeâvhpos, a n d S u e t o n . , De gramm. 20, cf. C. M i i l l e r , F H G I I I , p . 206,
a n d t h e w o r k s m e n d o n e d b e l o w , especially S u s e m i h l , S c h w a r t z ,
J a c o b y , F G r H I I I A, p p . 248 ff., a n d S t e r n , G L A J J I , p . 1 5 7 ) . H e
w r o t e a m o n g o t h e r s a w o r k e n t i t l e d wept VouSaicov, i n w h i c h h e s t r u n g
t o g e t h e r e x c e r p t s from n o n - J e w i s h a u t h o r s a b o u t t h e J e w s , a p p a r e n t l y
w i t h o n l y m i n o r a d d i t i o n s a n d critical c o m m e n t s o f his o w n . E u s e b i u s
in t u r n i n c l u d e d a l a r g e p o r t i o n o f t h i s collection in his Praeparatio
evangelica (ix i 7 - 3 9 ) . It is a l m o s t e n t i r e l y to t h i s c i r c u m s t a n c e t h a t w e
o w e o u r k n o w l e d g e of t h e o l d e s t J e w i s h - H e l l e n i s t i c a n d S a m a r i t a n
c o m p i l a t i o n s of b i b h c a l h i s t o r y i n p r o s e a n d p o e t r y : t h o s e b y
Demetrius, E u p o l e m u s , A r t a p a n u s , Aristeas, Cleodemus, Philo, T h e o d -
o t u s , a n d E z e c h i e l . Besides E u s e b i u s , C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a also o n c e
q u o t e s A l e x a n d e r ' s Trcpt 'lovSaiojv {Strom, i 2 1 , 130) ; a n d he p r o b a b l y
uses it w h e n h e q u o t e s from the a u t h o r s of w h o m A l e x a n d e r g a v e
e x c e r p t s : D e m e t r i u s , P h i l o , E u p o l e m u s , A r t a p a n u s , Ezechiel {Strom, i
2 1 , 141 ; 23, 1 5 3 - 6 ) . J o s e p h u s ' q u o t a t i o n of A l e x a n d e r i n Ant. i 1 5 , i
(240) m a y also h a v e c o m e from irepl '/ouSatcuv, since h e p r o b a b l y b e t r a y s
a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h t h e w o r k e l s e w h e r e , C. Ap. i 23 ( 2 1 8 ) , a l t h o u g h i t is
possible t h a t this q u o t a t i o n c a m e f r o m A l e x a n d e r ' s Libyca. T h e r e a r e a
n u m b e r of o t h e r possible t r a c e s in t h e Antiquities, a n d it is a r g u e d b y
s o m e t h a t J o s e p h u s uses A l e x a n d e r very extensively, t h o u g h t h i s is still
d i s p u t e d , cf S t e r n , G L A J J I, p . 1 5 7 , n. 2 . B u t this is all t h a t h a s c o m e
d o w n of A l e x a n d e r ' s w r i t i n g i n i n d e p e n d e n t q u o t a t i o n s .
E u s e b i u s ' e x c e r p t s a r e in c h r o n o l o g i c a l o r d e r of s u b j e c t m a t t e r . T h e y
b e g i n w i t h f r a g m e n t s o f t h e h i s t o r y o f A b r a h a m from E u p o l e m u s ,
A r t a p a n u s , M o l o n , P h i l o , a n d K l e o d e m u s . T h e r e follow p a r t s of t h e
history o f J a c o b from D e m e t r i u s a n d T h e o d o t u s ; a n d finally o f J o s e p h
from A r t a p a n u s a n d P h i l o , e t c . T h e n a t u r e o f t h e text i n d i c a t e s t h a t
this o r d e r d o e s n o t d e r i v e f r o m E u s e b i u s , b u t w a s followed before h i m
by A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r himself, for t h e i n d i v i d u a l sections a r e j o i n e d
b y m e a n s of c o n n e c t i n g w o r d s b y A l e x a n d e r . T h i s is c o n f i r m e d b y
///. Prose Literature about the Past 511
c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e q u o t a t i o n s i n C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a . As in
E u s e b i u s , t h a t is t o say, e x c e r p t s i n C l e m e n t of t h e h i s t o r y o f M o s e s
d i r e c t l y follow one a n o t h e r :
E u p o l e m u s = E u s e b . i x 26 = C l e m e n t , Strom, i 2 3 , 1 5 3 .
A r t a p a n u s = E u s e b . i x 27 = C l e m e n t , Strom, i 2 3 , 154.
E z e c h i e l = E u s e b . ix 2 8 = C l e m e n t , Strom, i 23, 1 5 5 - 6 .
I t is t h u s clear t h a t this was the o r i g i n a l o r d e r of A l e x a n d e r
Polyhistor.
T h e a u t h e n t i c i t y of A l e x a n d e r ' s w r i t i n g h a s b e e n d i s p u t e d , since it
h a s b e e n t h o u g h t i n c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t a g e n t i l e a u t h o r such as A l e x a n d e r
s h o u l d h a v e h a d s u c h a s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t in J e w i s h affairs. I t has also b e e n
t h o u g h t s t r a n g e t h a t h e describes t h e O . T . S c r i p t u r e s a s kpat j3ij8Atoi
( E u s e b . ix 24, 29; 1 5 = J a c o b y , F G r H I I I C 729 F 3 ; 7 2 2 , F 2 a n d 4)
a n d gives s u c h d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t s h e r e of J e w i s h history, w h e r e a s
e l s e w h e r e he b e t r a y s a m o s t p e c u l i a r i g n o r a n c e of it. All this h o w e v e r
c a n be s e e n t o s t e m from A l e x a n d e r ' s v e r b a l d e p e n d e n c e on h i s J e w i s h
sources, c f F r e u d e n t h a l , p p . 1 7 4 - 8 4 . T h e q u e s t i o n is a n y w a y o f m i n o r
i m p o r t a n c e , since i t d o e s n o t r e a l l y m a t t e r w h e t h e r the e x c e r p t s w e r e
c o m p i l e d by A l e x a n d e r h i m s e l f or b y s o m e o n e else. T h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y
differences in form a n d c o n t e n t in these f r a g m e n t s g u a r a n t e e s in a n y
c a s e t h a t these are e x t r a c t s f r o m w o r k s w h i c h r e a l l y existed a n d n o t t h e
unified w o r k of a forger. I t w o u l d n e v e r t h e l e s s be o f c o n c e r n in
d e t e r m i n i n g t h e d a t e if i t c o u l d r e a l l y b e p r o v e d t h a t t h e c o m p i l a t i o n
w a s n o t m a d e by A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r , for t h e n h i s hfetime c o u l d be
d r o p p e d as a d a t i n g c r i t e r i o n . But since t h e f r a g m e n t s t h e m s e l v e s g i v e
n o c a u s e for d a t i n g t h e m to a l a t e r t i m e , A l e x a n d e r ' s r e s p o n s i b i h t y for
t h e c o m p i l a t i o n s h o u l d be a c c e p t e d . T h e m o s t r e c e n t a m o n g t h e
a u t h o r s from w h o m e x c e r p t s a r e m a d e a n d w h o s e time c a n be
d e t e r m i n e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y of A l e x a n d e r is A p o l l o n i u s M o l o n ( E u s e b . ix
1 9 ) , a G r e e k o r a t o r of t h e first h a l f of t h e first c e n t u r y B.C. (cf. b e l o w ,
section V I ) .
I t n e e d s a l w a y s t o be k e p t i n m i n d in t h e s t u d y of t h e J e w i s h G r e e k
h i s t o r i a n s t h a t this selection o f m a t e r i a l , first b y A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r
a n d t h e n by t h e e a r l y C h u r c h f a t h e r s , is likely t o h a v e p r o d u c e d a g r e a t
d i s t o r t i o n in t h e c o n t e n t of t h e s u r v i v i n g f r a g m e n t s . It s h o u l d also be
n o t e d t h a t A l e x a n d e r s e e m s to h a v e m a d e n o d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n
J e w i s h a n d S a m a r i t a n w r i t e r s . I n this h i s d e c i s i o n has b e e n h e l p f u l to
m o d e r n s c h o l a r s h i p s i n c e it is c l e a r t h a t t h e S a m a r i t a n a u t h o r s often
w r o t e w i t h i n t h e s a m e m i d r a s h i c t r a d i t i o n s a n d for similar r e a s o n s to
t h e i r J e w i s h c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , a n d a n a c c o u n t o f t h e i r w o r k has t h e r e f o r e
been included here.
A n o t h e r w o r k o f A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r w a s also c o n c e r n e d w i t h
biblical history, i.e., a Historj of the Chaldeans, i n w h i c h h e follows
512 § 3 3 A . Jewish Literature Composed in Greek
essentially B e r o s s u s ( t h e title is n o t k n o w n e x a c t l y ) . E u s e b i u s in
p a r t i c u l a r m a k e s m u c h use of t h e w o r k i n his C h r o n i c l e s . C f H . G e l z e r ,
Julius Africanus I I . i , p p . 24 ff.; J a c o b y , F G r H I I I A , p p . 79, 1 0 9 - 1 4 . I n
this w o r k A l e x a n d e r also q u o t e d t h e J e w i s h Sibyl ( E u s e b . , Chron., e d .
S c h o e n e , I, c o l . 2 3 ; CyrilL, Adv. Julian., ed. S p a n h . , g c ; Syncell., e d .
D i n d o r f , I, p . 8 1 ; c f J o s e p h u s , Ant. i 4, 3 (i 18) ; F r e u d e n t h a l , p p . 25 f;
J a c o b y , F G r H I I I A , p p . n o — 1 1 ) . A c c o r d i n g to t h e S u d a , a w o r k b y
h i m on R o m e c o n t a i n e d t h e s t r a n g e a s s e r t i o n t h a t t h e J e w i s h L a w
d e r i v e d from a w o m a n n a m e d M o s o ( S u d a , s.v. 'AXcâvSpos; Miiller,
F H G , n o . 2 5 ; J a c o b y , F G r H I I I A 273, F 7 0 ; Stern, G L A J J I, p. 163).
I t is possible t h a t this w o r k , o t h e r w i s e u n k n o w n , w a s i d e n t i c a l w i t h his
history of I t a l y ( J a c o b y , F G r H 2 7 3 , F 2 0 ) . Also, t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t
J u d a e a takes its n a m e f r o m J u d a a n d I d u m e a , t h e c h i l d r e n of
S e m i r a m i s , p r o b a b l y s p r i n g s e i t h e r from h i s w o r k o n the J e w s or
his C h a l d a e a n history ( S t e p h . B y z . , s.v. Tov8aia; M i i l l e r , F H G , n o s .
9 8 - 1 0 2 ; J a c o b y , F G r H , 273 F 1 2 1 ; S t e r n , G L A J J I, p . 164). It w a s
these o d d s t a t e m e n t s t h a t g a v e rise t o t h e d e n i a l o f A l e x a n d e r ' s
a u t h o r s h i p o f Trepl VouSaiojv o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t t h e y a r e a n t i - J e w i s h .
B u t it is u n n e c e s s a r y to assert a n y difficulty for A l e x a n d e r in i n c l u d i n g
in his w o r k s s t a t e m e n t s b o t h f r i e n d l y a n d hostile to t h e J e w s . H e s i m p l y
c o p i e d w h a t h e f o u n d in t h e e a r l i e r d o c u m e n t s . T h e v a l u e of his
i n f o r m a t i o n t h e r e f o r e v a r i e s a c c o r d i n g to t h e q u a l i t y of h i s sources.
T h e a p p a r e n t a s c r i p t i o n b y P s . - J u s t i n , Cohort, ad Graec. 9, to
A l e x a n d e r of a s t a t e m e n t a b o u t t h e d a t e of M o s e s rests o n a confusion
a n d is n o t to b e t a k e n seriously.
Editions of the fragments Trcpi 'lovSaiwv c a n be found in the following:

Eusebius, Praeparatio Evangelica (ed. M r a s , G C S 43, 1954-6).
Clement of Alexandria, Stromata (vol. I, ed. Stahlin and T r e u , G C S 56 (^1972); vol. II,
ed. Stahlin a n d Friichtel, GCS 52 (^1960); vol. I l l , ed. Stahlin, Friichtel and T r e u ,
GCS 17^^ (^1970)). Also, ed. C. M o n d e s e r t et al., Strom, i (SC 30, 1951), Strom, ii (SC
38, 1954), Strom. V (SC 278, 1981).
Prose Fragments i n :
Muller, C , F H G I I I , p p . 211-30.
Freudenthal, J., Alex. Polyh., p p . 219—36.
Jacoby, F G r H I I I A, 273, F19.
Stern, G L A J J I, p p . 159-63.
Bibliography
Vaillant, V., De historicis qui ante Josephum res scripsere, nempe Aristea, Demetrio, Eupolemo,
Hecataeo Abderita, Cleodemo, Artapano, Justo Tiberiensi, Comelio Alexandra Polyhistore
(1851), pp. 88-98.
Freudenthal, J., Alexander Polyhistor und die von ihm erhaltenen Reste jUdischer und samaritanischer
Geschichtswerke (1875). (Still the most i m p o r t a n t work.)
Susemihl, F . , Gesch. der griech. Litteratur in der Alexandrinerzeit I I (1892), p p . 356-64.

Schwartz, E., 'Alexander von Milet', R E I.2 (1894), cols. 1 4 4 9 - 5 2 .
Jacoby, F G r H I I I A Komm., p p . 248-313.
Denis, I P G A T , p p . 244-8.
Stern, G L A J J I, p p . 157-64.
Wacholder, ESJL, pp. 4 4 - 5 2 .
/. Demetrius
A b o u t sixty y e a r s after Berossus w r o t e t h e a n c i e n t h i s t o r y of t h e
C h a l d e a n s a n d M a n e t h o t h a t of t h e E g y p t i a n s , in c. 220—204 B . C . , t h e
J e w i s h H e l l e n i s t D e m e t r i u s c o m p i l e d a b r i e f c h r o n o l o g i c a l h i s t o r y of
I s r a e l f o l l o w i n g t h e s a c r e d s c r i p t u r e s a n d p r o d u c i n g , in his r e w o r k i n g
of the b i b l i c a l a c c o u n t s , a d r y b u t a u t h e n t i c version o f n a t i v e
t r a d i t i o n . C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a [Strom, i 2 1 , 1 4 1 ) gives t h e t i t l e of t h e
w o r k as Txepi tcov kv TTJ 'lovSaia jSaaiAccov a n d t h e r e is very little r e a s o n to
d o u b t t h i s . I t is t r u e t h a t t h e f r a g m e n t s d e a l a l m o s t exclusively w i t h t h e
v e r y e a r l y h i s t o r y of I s r a e l , b u t tfiis p r o v i d e s insufficient g r o u n d s to
s u p p o s e this n a m e t o b e i n c o r r e c t s i n c e J u s t u s of T i b e r i a s , for e x a m p l e ,
also d e a h w i t h t h e t i m e of M o s e s i n his C h r o n i c l e of t h e J e w i s h k i n g s ,
a n d P h i l o as w e l l d e s c r i b e s M o s e s a s âaiXevs (Vita Mosis i i 3 - 6 ) . O n t h e
o t h e r h a n d , i t is q u i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t D e m e t r i u s w r o t e m o r e t h a n o n e
w o r k , o r t h a t C l e m e n t q u o t e s a t i t l e t h a t a p p l i e d o n l y t o the s e c t i o n of
D e m e t r i u s ' h i s t o r y t h a t h e w a s u s i n g . T h e first f r a g m e n t in E u s e b i u s ,
Praep. ev. ix 2 1 , t r e a t s o f t h e h i s t o r y of J a c o b f r o m his e m i g r a t i o n to
M e s o p o t a m i a u n t i l his d e a t h . I t c o n c l u d e s w i t h t h e g e n e a l o g y of t h e
t r i b e of Levi t a k e n to t h e b i r t h of A a r o n a n d M o s e s . I n this, t h e m a i n
i n t e r e s t is in c h r o n o l o g y r a t h e r t h a n in a h i s t o r y of t h e G r e e k t y p e . T h e
a i m s e e m s to h a v e b e e n t o p r o v i d e b y c h r o n o l o g i c a l analysis a faithful
c o n f i r m a t i o n of t h e t e x t of S c r i p t u r e , a n a i m w h i c h p a r a d o x i c a l l y led
D e m e t r i u s o c c a s i o n a l l y t o a l t e r t h e S c r i p t u r a l t e x t to fit in w i t h his
chronological schemes, c f W a c h o l d e r , E S J L , pp. 99-104. T h e precise
t i m e is e s t a b l i s h e d for e v e r y single o c c u r r e n c e i n J a c o b ' s life, e . g . for t h e
b i r t h of each of h i s t w e l v e sons, e t c . N a t u r a l l y , m a n y d a t e s h a d t o be
p o s t u l a t e d for w h i c h S c r i p t u r e p r o v i d e s n o c l u e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , a l a r g e
p a r t of the c h r o n o l o g y is b a s e d on c o m b i n a t i o n s , s o m e t i m e s v e r y
c o m p l i c a t e d c o m b i n a t i o n s , of r e a l d a t e s i n S c r i p t u r e . A s e c o n d
f r a g m e n t ( E u s e b . , Praep. ev. i x 29, 1 - 3 ) , f r o m t h e life of M o s e s , a d d s a n
i n t e r e s t i n g e n e a l o g y t o t h a t i n d a t e s , m a i n l y a t t e m p t i n g to p r o v e t h a t
Z i p p o r a , t h e wife of M o s e s , w a s a d e s c e n d a n t of A b r a h a m a n d
K e t u r a h . T h i s f r a g m e n t is a l s o u s e d in Chronicon paschale, ed. D i n d o r f , I,
p . 1 1 7 , a n d is q u o t e d w i t h specific r e f e r e n c e to E u s e b i u s ' Chronicle by
L e o G r a m m a d c u s [Cramer Anecdota Paris., I I , p . 256 = Leo
G r a m m a t i c u s , ed. B e k k e r , 2 4 : Kadws laropci Arjfxrjrpios, ct>s <f)daK€i
Evoe^LOs iv ra> XpoviKot) a n d G e o r g i u s C e d r e n u s (ed. B e k k e r , I, p . 76,
w i t h e x a c t l y t h e s a m e f o r m u l a of q u o t a t i o n a s in L e o G r a m m a t i c u s ) . I n
a t h i r d f r a g m e n t ( E u s e b . , Praep. ev. ix 29, 1 5 ) , t h e story is t o l d of t h e

bitjter waters^ (Ex. 15:22 fF.). A f o u r t h , brief, f r a g m e n t , i n E u s e b . , Praep.
ev. ix 29, 1 6 , c o n c e r n s t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e o r i g i n o f t h e w e a p o n s
possessed b y t h e J s r a d i t e s i n t % d e s e r t A fifth f r a g m e n t i n E u s e b . ,
Praep. ev.ix 1 9 , 4, a b o u t A b r a h a m ' s near-sacrifice_of I s a a c , is t e n t a t i v e l y
a s c r i b e d to D e m e t r i u s b y FreudeiTthaT, cf. J a c o b y , F G r H 7 2 2 , F 7 ;
HoUaday, F H J A I , p. 62. Finally, t h e chronological fragment preserved
in C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a ' s Strom, i 2 1 , 1 4 1 , defines precisely t h e
d m e - s p a n b e t w e e n t h e d e p o r t a t i o n s i n t o exile of t h e t e n tribes a n d t h e
tnibes o f J t i d a a n d B e n j a n i i h . M i d u r e i g n of P t o l e m y I V .
C l e m e n t o f A l e x a n d r i a , Strom, i 2 1 , 1 4 1 : 2lT//i'^Tpio? ^rjaiv ev T<X>
Tiepl T6)V ev rfj ^lovSaia âaiXecov ti)v '/ouSa ^vXrjv KOL BeviafjLelv Kal Aevl p-q
aixpaXcDTiad'qvat. VTTO TOV Zevaxqp^Cp', OLW eivai drro Trjs alxp-o-Xayaias
TavTTjs els TTjv eoxd.TT]v, -^v eTrofqaaro NaôvxoSovoaop e^ Tep€ao\vp,cov,
CTT} eKarov eiKoai OKTOJ p^rjvas e^. d(f)' ov Se al <f>v\al al 8eKa CK SapapeCas
atxpd.\cxiToi yeyovaaiv ecjs LlToXefxalov reTaprov (221—205 B.C.) err/
irevTaKoaia e^Sop'qKovTa rpla pLrjvas ewea, d(f>' ov 8e 'l€poaoXvp,o)v CTT]
TpiaKoaia TpiaKOVTa OKTOJ prjvas Tpets.
T h e t e x t o f this f r a g m e n t m a y b e c o r r u p t a t a n u m b e r of p l a c e s , cf
J a c o b y , F G r H 7 2 2 , F 6 , ad. loc. ( i ) I t is s t r a n g e t h a t D e m e t r i u s , so
p a i n f u l l y a c c u r a t e in h i s b i b l i c a l c h r o n o l o g y , c o u l d h a v e r e c k o n e d t h e
i n t e r v a l b e t w e e n t h e d e p o r t a t i o n o f the t e n tribes a n d t h e d e p o r t a t i o n
of t h e t r i b e s o f J u d a a n d B e n j a m i n as 2 3 5 years^ (573) less 3 3 8 ) , s i n c e i F
was*m"Tact a b o u t a h u n d r e d y e a r s less. H e n c e t h e n u m b e r 5 7 3 s h o u l d
p e r h a p s e i t h e r be r e d u c e d b y o n e h u n d r e d , o r 3 3 8 i n c r e a s e d by o n e
h u n d r e d . T h e l a t t e r is m o r e likely t o be c o r r e c t for i t c a n b e s h o w n t h a t
o t h e r a n c i e n t c h r o n o l o g i s t s a l s o m a d e t h e post-exilic p e r i o d t o o long (cf
a b o v e , u n d e r D a n i e l , p p . 2 4 9 f ) . A c c o r d i n g l y , if D e m e t r i u s c o u n t e d
s e v e n t y y e a r s t o o m a n y for t h i s p e r i o d , it is unjustified, p r e c i s e l y on t h a t
basis, t o r e m o v e t h e e r r o r b y c h a n g i n g ' P t o l e m y I V ' i n t o ' P t o l e m y V I I '
( M e n d e l s s o h n ) , for such a m i s t a k e in t h e post-exilic t i m e , e v e n by t h e
careful D e m e t r i u s , c a n n o t s u r p r i s e u s since t h e b i b l i c a l d a t e s c o m p l e t e l y
let h i m d o w n h e r e .
(2) T h r o u g h a s h o r t e n i n g of t h e text t h e a b s u r d i t y h a s a r i s e n t h a t
D e m e t r i u s first d e n i e s a c a p t i v i t y o n t h e p a r t o f ' S e n a c h e r e i m ' a n d t h e n
r e c k o n s o n t h e basis of t h i s c a p t i v i t y . T h e m e a n i n g of t h e o r i g i n a l t e x t
w a s u n d o u b t e d l y t h a t t h e t r i b e s of J u d a a n d B e n j a m i n w e r e n o t
c a p t u r e d b y S e n n a c h e r i b , b u t only p i l l a g e d b y h i m , a n d t h a t 1 2 8 y e a r s
e l a p s e d b e t w e e n t h i s p l u n d e r i n g e x p e d i t i o n a n d t h e d e p o r t a t i o n of J u d a
a n d B e n j a m i n . I t t h e n a g r e e s best w i t h this c a l c u l a t i o n to c o u n t 1 3 5
y e a r s ( 5 7 3 - 4 3 8 ) from t h e d e p o r t a t i o n of t h e t e n tribes to t h e
d e p o r t a t i o n o f J u d a a n d B e n j a m i n . F o r t h e d e p o r t a t i o n o f the t e n tribes
b y S h a l m a n e z e r a c t u a l l y took p l a c e a b o u t seven o r e i g h t y e a r s p r i o r to
S e n n a c h e r i b ' s invasion o f J u d a e a (2 K g . 18:9—13). F o r a full discussion
of the chronological problems in the text, cf. E. J. Bickerman, 'The

Jewish Historian Demetrios', in J. Neusner^dj^Âm^^^^^^ and
other Greco-Roman CM/£yJ[II_(i975771pp^ 7 2 - 8 4 . Bi(^manj'^ concIiiHon
(pp. 8 0 - 4 ) , that Demetrius may well have been totally confused about
the duration of the exile as^ w e l l as the post-exilic period, and that it is
therefore wrong to amend any of the figures on the basis of our
chronological knowledge, may be correct.
This fragment, which may well have been found by Clement in some
compilation other than that of Alexander Polyhistor, also indicates
when Demetrius lived. He clearly chose the time of Ptolemy IV
( 2 2 1 - 2 0 5 B.C.) as the terminus for his calculations because he himself
lived during the reign of that monarch.
TKirfixe3*3ate is of great importance in ascertaining those of other
Jewish writings in G r e e k . N o t least important, Demetrius' use of a
translation of the Pentateuch similar to the LXX proves, the existence of
sucTi a translairdh or something like it i D e f o r e the end of the third
century? B.G. Demetrius' methods show probable Hellenistic influence
in, e.gr7the characteristic hterary technique of posing dnopiai (but cf.,
contra, Wacholder, ESJL, p. 280, for a Jewish origin for this).
Nonetheless, it is entirely obvious from the contents of the fragments
that their author was a Jew. It would not have occurred to a gentile to
take such pains in calculating and completing biblical chronology. As
EuseT)ius says correctly, quoting Clement of Alexandria {Hist. Eccl. vi
13, 7), D^metriusjivas one of the; Jewish writers who tried to show to the
Greeks the antiquity of Moses and the Jewish people. The subject
matter is entirely Jewish, Demetrius failing even to attempt any
synchronization of biblical chronology with that of other peoples, but
engaging in biblical criticism for its own sake. Josephus nevertheless
may have thought him to be a gentile, perhaps because he identified
him with Demetrius of Phalerum and took his information straight and
uncritically from /dexander P^^ {218^ = Euseb.,
Praep. ev. ix 4 2 ) , cf Freudenthal, p. 1 7 0 , note; but cf Jacoby, FGrH
722 T I = 723 T3, who suggests the excision of 0aAepeus from the text.
Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. vi 1 3 , 7, and after him Jerome, De vir. illustr. 38 (PL
XXIII, 687) however made the correct judgement. The intended
47. It is not at all implausible that a Jew should have reached such a level of literary
sophistication in t h e third century B.C. in t h e Ptolemaic k i n g d o m . The case of Dositheos
b. Drimylus is instructive. T h e m a n is mendoned in 3 M a c . 1:3 a s a renegade J e w of the
time of Ptolemy I V Philopator. I t appears from the papyri not only that the tradition i n 3
Mac. is correct b u t also that Dositheos rose to become t h e royal vnop,v7)fiaToypdcl)os, i.e.
head of one of the two branches of the royal secretariat ( C P J I, n o . 127). Such a position
will have required literary expertise, which there is no reason t o suppose w a s entirely
confined to Jews w h o apostasized.
a u d i e n c e of t h e w o r k c a n n o t b e k n o w n for c e r t a i n , b u t it is h a r d to
imagine any people other than Jews being tempted to r e a d about
biblical c h r g n o l o g y in this form, a n d n o polemic against gentile n a t i o n s
is e v e r m a d e explicit {contra F r a s e r , P A I, p . 6 9 3 , w h o a r g u e s that
Demefniiis ihtended to counter hostile Egyptian versions of the
E x o d u s ) . T h e p l a c e of w r i t i n g is a l s o u n c e r t a i n . S o m e w h e r e w i t h i n t h e
P t o l e m a i c k i n g d o m is i n d i c a t e d b y t h e reference t o P t o l e m y I V . T h a t
cbuTd a s w e l l be P a l e s t i n e o r C y r e n e a s t h e m o r e c o m m o n l y assumed
o r i g i n , A l e x a n d r i a . It c a n n o t be t a k e n for g r a n t e d t h a t D e m e t r i u s ' use
oF a Greek Bibie was occasioned by ignorance of Hebrew (cf.
Wacholder, E S J L , p p . 2 8 1 - 2 ; contra H o h a d a y , F H J A , vol. I , p p . 5 3 ,
55-6).
Editions
Fragments collected i n :
Jacoby, F G r H 722, I I I C, p p . 666-7.
Denis, F P G , p p . 175-9.
Holladay, F H J A I, p p . 51-91.
Transladons
English:
H o l l a d a y , F H J A , loc. cit.
Hanson, J . S., i n Chariesworth, O T P II (forthcoming).
German:
Riessler, P., Altjud. Schrijt. (1928), p p . 241-5, 1280 ff.
Walter, N . , Fragmente jiidisch-hellenistischer Exegeten ( J S H R Z 111.2) (1975), pp. 284-92.
Bibliography
Freudenthal, J . , Alexander Polyhistor (1875), p p . 35-82, 205 ff., 219 ff.
Mendelssohn, L . , Anzeige Freudenthals in der Jenaer Lit.-^tg. (1875), ^•
Gutschmid, A. von, Kleine Schriften I I , pp. 186 ff.
Gelzer, Yi., Julius Africanus (1880), p p . 8 7 - 9 (conjectured that Africanus used Demetrius).
Susemihl, F., Gesch. der griech. Litt. in der Alexandrinerzeit I I (1891-2), p p . 647 ff.
Schwartz, E., 'Demetrios', in R E I V . 2 (1901), cols. 2813-14.
Schlatter, A., Geschichte, pp. 72-5.
Gaster, M . , 'Demetrius und Seder O l a m . Ein Problem der hellenistischen Literatur', i n
Studies and Texts in Folklore, Magic etc. I I (1928), pp. 650-9.
Dalbert, P., Die Theologie der hellenistisch-judischen Missionstiteratur (1954), pp. 27-32.
G u t m a n , ¥ . , The Beginning of Jewish-Hellenistic Literature I (1958), pp. 132-9 (Heb.).
H a d a s , M . , Hellenistic Culture, Fusion and Diffusion (1959), p p . 9 4 - 5 .
Walter, N . , Der Toraausleger Aristobulos (1964), pp. 41-51, 97-9.
Wacholder, B. Z . , ' H o w long did A b r a m stay in E g y p t ? A Study in Hellenistic, Q u m r a n
and Rabbinic Chronography', H U C A 35 (1964), p p . 43-56.
Walter, N . , 'Untersuchungen zu d e n F r a g m e n t e n der judisch-hellenistischen Historiker'
(Habihtationsschrift, Halle) (1967-8), p p . 15-36, 141-55.
Wacholder, B. Z., 'Biblical Chronology i n the Hellenisdc World Chronicles', H T h R 6
(1968), p p . 452-8.
Denis, I P G A T , p p . 248-51.
Fraser, PA, vol. I, pp. 510, 6 9 0 - 4 .

Bickerman, E. J . , 'The J e w i s h Historian D e m e t r i u s ' , i n J . Neusner, ed., Christianity,
Judaism and other Greco-Roman Cults: Studies for Morton Smith at Sixty (1975) H I , pp.
72-84 (repr. in Studies in Jewish and Christian History (1980) H , pp. 347-58).
Walter, N . , Fragmente jiidisch-hellenistischer Exegeten ( J S H R Z I I I . 2 ) (1975), pp. 280-3.
Wacholder, ESJL, pp. 98—104, 280-2.
HoUaday, C. R., 'Demetrius t h e C h r o n o g r a p h e r as Historian a n d Apologist', i n Christian
Teachings: Studies in Honor oJLemoine G. Lewis (1981), p p . 117—29.
Collins, BAAJ, p p . 27-30.
2. Eupolemus
I n E u p o l e m u s we f i n d , i n s t e a d of t h e d r y , c h r o n o l o g i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s of
D e m e t r i u s , a colourfiil n g , i i a t i y e w h i c h d e a l s freely w i t h t h e b i b l i c a l
a c c o u n t , r e w r i t i n g S c r i p t u r e a n d embellisTiing it w i t h v a r i o u s m i d r a s h i c
a d d i t i o n s c u l l e d f r o m his o w n i m a g i n a t i o n a n d G r e e k sources, i n c l u d i n g
H e r o d o t u s a n d Ctesias a s well as J e w i s h t r a d i t i o n . H e r e t o o , h o w e v e r ,
t h e m a i n a i m is to s h o w t h e i n t e r n a l h a r m o n y of t h e b i b l i c a l a c c o u n t ,
i n c l u d i n g its c h r o n o l o g y , w h i l e d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e m a g n i f i c e n c e of t h e
p a s t h i s t o r y o f the J e w i s h p e o p l e a n d its k i n g s . T w o d t l e s of w o r k s b y
t h i s ^ a i i t h o r a r e m e n t i o n e d in t h e a n c i e n t s o u r c e s : ( i ) nepl rrjs 'HXiov
TTpo<f)'rjT€ias, a n d (2) irept royv iv rrj ^lovSaCa âoiXewv.
H o w e v e r , t h e f r a g m e n t assigned b y A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r t o a w o r k
TTcpi T-qs *HXiov TTpo<f>rjT€ias ( E u s e b i u s , Praep. ev. ix 3 0 - 4 ) c l e a r l y b e l o n g s
in fact t o the h i s t o r y of t h e J e w i s h k i n g s , cf. J a c o b y , F G r H 7 2 3 , F 2 , w i t h
t h e t e n t a t i v e e m e n d a t i o n ev n v i npo rrjs "HXei 7Tpo<l)r)T€las a n d t h e
s u g g e s t i o n t h a t this p a s s a g e is q u o t e d f r o m a n e a r l y p a r t of t h e h i s t o r y
before E u p o l e m u s d e a l t w i t h t h e c a r e e r of t h e y o u n g S a m u e l . T h e r e
a r e , t h e n , no g r o u n d s for p o s i t i n g m o r e t h a n o n e w o r k .
A f u r t h e r l a r g e f r a g m e n t a s s i g n e d i n E u s e b i u s , Praep. ev. ix 1 7 to
E u p o l e m u s is g e n e r a l l y a t t r i b u t e d t o a t o t a l l y different w r i t e r , w h o s e
a t t i t u d e s are seen a s i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h o s e o f E u p o l e m u s . I t is b y no
m e a n s c e r t a i n t h a t E u s e b i u s w a s w r o n g in g i v i n g E u p o l e m u s as t h e
a u t h o r , b u t t h e f r a g m e n t will n o n e t h e l e s s b e discussed s e p a r a t e l y (see
b e l o w , n o . 6, p . ^28^ qnPa-.:JEll^tQleIIlys^ If E u p o l e m u s d i d i n d e e d w r i t e
t h i s f r a g m e n t , his w o r k m u s t h a v e b e e n m o r e v a r i e d a n d s y n c r e t i s t i c
t h a n is r e v e a l e d b y t h e rest o f t h e s u r v i v i n g p a s s a g e s of his h i s t o r y . A
48. Identification of Pseudo-Jûpolemusasji distinct historian, on the grovmds, o f his

divergent attitude towards the S a m a r i t a n site on M o u n t Gerizim and tovvards A b r a h a m
rather t h a n Moses as t h e originator of knowledge, is n o w generally b u t not universally
accepted. A. Schlatter, Geschichte Israels (^1925), pp. 187-92, denies any distinction
between Eupolemus a n d Pseudo-Eupolemus and assigns both sets of fragments to an
Alexandrian Jewish historian. Both W . G. L a m b e r t , The Background of Jewish Apocalyptic
(1978), p . 14, a n d F. Millar, ' T h e Background to t h e M a c c a b e a n Revolution: Reflections
on M a r t i n Hengel's "Judaism a n d Hellenism'", J J S 29 ^ I 9 7 8 ) j p . 6, n. 12, a r g u e t h a t the
reference to M o u n t Gerizim is perfectly possible fo^â Palestinian J e w pf the midrsecciid
century B.C.
f r a g m e n t , g i v e n in n e a r l y i d e n t i c a l form in E u s e b . Praep. ev. i x 26, a n d

C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a , Strom, i 2 3 , 1 5 3 , p r e s e n t s M o s e s as t h e 'first
p h i l o s o p h e r ' , w h o g a v e the k n o w l e d g e of a l p h a b e t i c a l w r i t i n g to t h e
J e w s , w h i c h w a s t h e n t r a n s m i t t e d b y t h e m t o the P h o e n i c i a n s , a n d by
t h e P h o e n i c i a n s to the G r e e k s . T h e Chronicon paschale, e d . Dindorf, I , p .
1 1 7 , a n d Georgius Cedrenus, ed. B e k k e r , I, p . 87, h a v e this f r a g m e n t a s in
E u s e b i u s , a n d C y r i l of A l e x a n d r i a , Adv. Julian., ed. S p a n h . , 2 3 i d , a s in
C l e m e n t . T h e l a r g e f r a g m e n t in E u s e b . , Praep. ev. i x 3 0 - 4 , refers to t h e
history of D a v i d a n d S o l o m o n . I t b e g i n s w i t h a n a c c o u n t — m u c h
t r u n c a t e d , t h o u g h this m a y h a v e b e e n d u e t o the e x c e r p t o r A l e x a n d e r
P o l y h i s t o r — o f t h e c h r o n o l o g y from M o s e s to D a v i d , t h e n briefly r e l a t e s
t h e m a i n e v e n t s o f the h i s t o r y of D a v i d ( E u s e b . i x 30), a n d after this
gives, i n the style t r a d i t i o n a l in H e l l e n i s t i c h i s t o r i o g r a p h y , a n 'official'
c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n S o l o m o n a n d K i n g V a p h r e s of E g y p t a n d
K i n g S u r o n of P h o e n i c i a c o n c e r n i n g a s s i s t a n c e in t h e b u i l d i n g of t h e
t e n i p l e ( E u s e b . ix 3 1 - 4 ; cf C l e m e n t o f A l e x a n d r i a , Strom, i 2 1 , 1 3 0 ,
Chron. pasch., ed. D i n d o r f , I, p . 1 6 8 ) . F i n a l l y , it d e s c r i b e s in d e t a i l t h e
b u i l d i n g of t h e t e m p l e itself ( E u s e b . ix 34). T h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w i t h
S u r o n ( = H i r a m ) is t a k e n f r o m 2 C h r . 2 : 2 - 1 5 , cf i K g . 5:15—25; t h a t
w i t h V a p h r e s is a free i m i t a t i o n of this m o d e l . P r o b a b l y , the f r a g m e n t
in E u s e b . ix 3 9 , in w h i c h the s t o r y is told of h o w J e r e m i a h p r e d i c t e d t h e
exile, a n d h o w this p r e d i c t i o n w a s fulfilled in N e b u c h a d n e z z a r ' s
c o n q u e s t of J e r u s a l e m , also b e l o n g s to E u p o l e m u s . T h e f r a g m e n t is
a n o n y m o u s a c c o r d i n g t o s o m e of the mss., b u t c a n b e a s c r i b e d to
E u p o l e m u s o n i n t e r n a l g r o u n d s ( F r e u d e n t h a l , p p . 208 ff. It is a c c e p t e d
t e n t a t i v e l y b y J a c o b y , F G r H 723, F 5 , w i t h o u t h e s i t a t i o n by H o l l a d a y ,
F H J A I, p. 1 3 2 ) .
I n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e d a t e o f E u p o l e m u s is g i v e n in a
c h r o n o l o g i c a l f r a g m e n t in C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a , Strom, i 2 1 , 1 4 1 ,
w h l r h " " surnifiarily c a l c u l a t e s t h e t i m e from A d a m a n d Moses
respectively t o t h e fifth y e a r of D e m e t r i u s or t h e twelfth y e a r of
P t o l e m y . By this D e m e t r i u s is p r o b a b l y (cf b e l o w ) m e a n t D e m e t r i u s I
S o t e r ( 1 6 2 - 1 5 0 B.C.), so t h a t E u p o l e m u s p r o b a b l y w r o t e in 1 5 8 / 7 B.C;.,
or s h o r t l y after. A d a t e after 1 4 5 B . C is p r o p o s e d b y W . B o u s s e t a n d H .
G r e s s m a n n , Die Religion des Judentums (^1926), p . 20, n. 2 . H e is a l m o s t
c e r t a i n l y therefore i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e Eujgolemus m e n t i o n e d i n i M a c .
R^_7 a n H ^ M g r 4 : 1 1 .
I n t h a t c a s e li£jwia&Ji:,Qm^Palestine a n d m a y well be m a k i n g a p o i n t
a b o u t c o n t e m p o r a r y politics in His friendly a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s E g y p t
( W a c h o l d e r , E S J L , p p . 1 3 5 - 9 ) , a b o u t H a s m o n a e a n e x p a n s i o n in
P a l e s d n e b y his references to S o l o m o n ' s e x p a n d e d k i n g d o m ( M .
H e n g e l , Judaism and Hellenism I ( E T 1 9 7 4 ) , p. 9 3 ) , a n d a b o u t t h e
M a c c a b a e a n r e p u r i f i c a t i o n o f the T e m p l e b y his d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t of
S o l o m o n ' s b u i l d i n g ( H e n g e l , p . 94). F u r t h e r m o r e , h i s w r i t i n g s m a y weU
h a v e b e e n o n e of t h e c o m m o n s o u r c e s of i a n d 2 M a c c a b e e s . A
P a l e s t i n i a n o r i g i n is s u p p o r t e d b y t h e fact t h a t , a l t h o u g h h e m a y h a v e
u s e d the L X X of t h e B o o k of C h r o n i c l e s ( t h o u g h t h i s is d u b i o u s , see
a b o v e , p . 4 7 7 ) , h e c e r t a i n l y also m a d e u s e o f a H e b r e w t e x t
( W a c h o l d e r , E S J L , p . 2 5 2 ) . F u r t h e r m o r e h ^ j G r e e k style is p o m p o u S j
c r u d e a n d p o o r , a n d t h e l i t e r a r y s t j : u c t u r e i s „ H f i b t a l ^ I t is c e r t a i n l y
unTTKely, o n t h e s e g r o u n d s a l o n e , t h a t h e c a m e from A l e x a n d r i a
J a c o b y , R E V I , 1229). T h e hypothesis t h a t h e was a Palestinian w h o
s t u d i e d i n A l e x a n d r i a , cf. V . A . T c h e r i k o v e r , Eos 4 8 ( 1 9 5 6 ) , p . 187, is
n o t i m p l a u s i b l e , b u t u n n e c e s s a r y . A s to w h e t h e r h e w a s a J e w o r a
g e n t i l e , a n c i e n t o p i n i o n s v a r y a s in t h e c a s e of D e m e t r i u s . J o s e p h u s , C.
Ap. i 23 (218) ( = E u s e b . , Praep. ev. i x 42) suggests t h a t h e , like
D e m e t r i u s , w a s a geritile, b u t since h e is b r a c k e t e d h e r e w i t h t h e e l d e r
P h i l o this m a y b e i n t e n t i o n a l l y m i s l e a d i n g b y J o s e p h u s . E u s e b i u s , Hist.
eccL vi 1 3 , 7, a n d J e r o m e , De viris illustr. 3 8 , h e r e d e p e n d e n t o n C l e m e n t
of A l e x a n d r i a , Strom, i 23, 1 5 3 , took h i m for a J e w a n d w e r e
u n d o u b t e d l y c o r r e c t , cf F r e u d e n t h a l , p p . 8 3 - 5 , 109 ff. I n g e n e r a l , t h e
J e w i s h h e r i t a g e is s t r o n g e r in E u p o l e m u s ' w r i t i n g t h a n t h e H e l l e n i s t i c .
E v e n if h i s i d e n t i t y w i t h the E u p o l e m u s m e n t i o n e d in i M a c . is n o t
a c c e p t e d , his i n t e r e s t in t h e Temple suggests t h a t he w a s a p r i e s t , a n d
t h e title ' O n t h e k i n g s of J u d a e a ' h a s m o r e J e w i s h t h a n g e n t i l e p a r a l l e l s ,
cf W a c h o l d e r , E S J L , p . 2 5 .
C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a , Strom, i 2 1 , 141 ( = J a c o b y , F G r H , 7 2 3 , F 4 ) :
'ETL hk Kal EvTToXefjLOS kv T-fj oyLoia T r / j a y / x a r e i a r a T r a v r a €.Tq <f>r)alv O-TTO
'ASdp dxpi- TOV TTepuTTTOv €Tovs AT]fir]Tpiov jSaaiAetas, LlroXeixaiov TO
8u}8€KaTov jSaaiAeuovTO? AlyvTrrov, avvdyeadai err] epfjud. d<f>' ov 8k
Xpovov i^rjyaye Mojvarjs roiis *Iov8aiovs k^ MiyuTTTOu i n l rrjv TTpo€ip'rjix4vT]v
npodeapiav avvdyeaOai err) [SiCTJîAia -nevTaKoaia o y S o i j K o v r a . (0.776 8k TOV
Xpdvov TOVTOV dxpi' TOIV i v 'Pcoprj VTrdratv Fatov Aoperiavov Kaaiavov
avvadpoi£,€Tai errj e / c a r o v eiKoai).
I n t h i s f r a g m e n t , as w e l l , t h e t e x t is defective. T h e n u m b e r 2 5 8 0
s h o u l d p e r h a p s b e e m e n d e d t o 1 5 8 0 b y c h a n g i n g StaxiAia t o xi-^â
( C l i n t o n ) , w h i c h w o u l d b r i n g t h e d a t e of t h e E x o d u s closer to t h e
a c t u a l d a t e a n d t o t h a t g i v e n in t h e L X X , b u t t h e u n e m e n d e d t e x t
leaves E u p o l e m u s i n closer h a r m o n y w i t h t h e d a t e o f the E x o d u s in t h e
p r o t o - M a s o r e t i c t r a d i t i o n , cf. W a c h o l d e r , E S J L , p p . 1 1 2 , 250—4;
H o U a d a y , F H J A I , p . 1 5 5 , n . 1 2 0 . T h e r e a r e difficulties w i t h t h e
s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n of t h e fifth y e a r o f D e m e t r i u s a n d the t w e l f t h y e a r of
P t o l e m y . T h e fifth y e a r o f D e m e t r i u s I ( 1 5 8 / 7 B.C.) c o i n c i d e d w i t h t h e
twelfth y e a r o f P t o l e m y V I I I E u e r g e t e s I I P h y s c o n ( 1 5 9 / 8 B . C ) , b u t
P t o l e m y V I I I P h y s c o n w a s a t t h a t t i m e o n l y r u l e r o f C y r e n a i c a , n o t of
E g y p t as E u p o l e m u s states, while his b r o t h e r , Ptolemy V I Philometor,
w h o r e i g n e d a t t h e s a m e t i m e in E g y p t , h a d b e g u n his r u l e a t m o s t
520 §33-^- Jeî^h Literature Composed in Greek
seven y e a r s e a r l i e r . T h e w h o l e s t a t e m e n t a b o u t P t o l e m y m a y b e a gloss
b y Clement or a n intervening source, o r the n u m b e r m a y b e corrupt
( G u t s c h m i d ; cf. J a c o b y , R E V I . i ( 1 9 0 7 ) , 1 2 2 8 ) . H o w e v e r this m a y b e ,
t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t D e m e t r i u s I S o t e r is m e a n t is s u p p o r t e d b y the fact
t h a t this w a s t h e view of C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a , a n d it s h o u l d b e
a c c e p t e d . C l e m e n t , or t h e s o u r c e from w h i c h h e q u o t e s E u p o l e m u s ,
c o u n t e d f r o m t h e fifth y e a r of D e m e t r i u s t o t h e c o n s u l s h i p of C n .
D o m i t i u s C a l v i n u s a n d C. A s i n i u s Pollio (these n a m e s a r e c e r t a i n l y t o
b e r e a d i n s t e a d of the c o r r u p t r e a d i n g Tâiou Aofxeriavov Kaaiavov; cf
F r e u d e n t h a l ; Jacoby, F G r H 723, F4, with other suggested emendations
ad loc.), i.e. t o 40 B . C , w h e n H e r o d was n a m e d k i n g (Jos. Ant. xiv 1 4 , 5
(389)), a t o t a l of 1 2 0 y e a r s w h i c h necessarily r e a c h e s b a c k to D e m e t r i u s
I, even t h o u g h t h e c a l c u l a t i o n is n o t q u i t e a c c u r a t e . T h i s closing
sentence c a n n o t have been written b y E u p o l e m u s himself but was
a d d e d b y a l a t e r w r i t e r , p r e s u m a b l y i n 40 E.G. since t h e e n d d a t e is
o t h e r w i s e h a r d to u n d e r s t a n d . G u t s c h m i d ' s r e s t o r a t i o n of these w o r d s
as Fvalov Aoixerlov Kal Âaiviov VTTO Kaaiavov avvadpoit,€rai, indicating
t h a t they were derived from the second century A . D . Gnostic
chronographer Julius Cassianus, has been correctly challenged by N.
W a l t e r , ' D e r a n g e b h c h e C h r o n o g r a p h J u l i u s C a s s i a n u s ' , in Stud, zum
Neuen Testament und zur Patristik: Erich Klostermann zum go Geburtstag
( 1 9 6 1 ) , p p . 1 7 7 - 9 2 . T h e n a m e of t h e c h r o n o g r a p h e r w h o a d d e d t h e 40
B.C. d a t e is therefore u n c e r t a i n . I t m a y h a v e b e e n A l e x a n d e r
P o l y h i s t o r , o r P t o l e m y o f M e n d e s ( W a c h o l d e r ) , or a n u n k n o w n a u t h o r .
Editions
Jacoby, F G r H I I I C, 723, pp. 671-8.
Denis, F P G , p p . 179-86.
Holladay, F H J A I, pp. 112-35.
Translations
English:
Wacholder, E S J L , Appendix A.
Holladay, loc. cit.
Fallon, F . , in Chariesworth, O T P II (forthcoming).
German:
Riessler, P., Altjud. Schrift. (1928), p p . 328-33, 1287 f
Walter, N . , Fragmente jiidisch-hellenistischer Historiker ( J S H R Z 1.2) (1976), pp. 99-108.
Bibliography
Freudenthal, J., Alex. Polyh., p p . 82 fF., 105-30, 208 ff., 225 ff.
Gutschmid, Jahrbb. f. prot. Theol. (1875), 749 ff. = Gutschmid, Kleine Schriften II (1890),
pp. 191 ff.
Schlatter, A., 'Eupolemus als Chronolog und seine Beziehungen zu Josephus u n d
M a n e t h o ' , T h S t K r (1891), 633-703 (very hypothetical).
Susemihl, F., Gesch. der griech. Litt. I I (1891-2), pp. 648-51.
Krauss, S., 'Eupolemus', J E V (1903), p . 269.

J a c o b y , F., 'Eupolemos', R E V I . i (1907), cols. 1227-9.
Schnabel, P . , Berossos und die babylonische-hellenistische Literatur (1923), pp. 6 7 - 9 .
Schlatter, A . , Geschichte Israels (31925), p p . 187-92.
Bousset, W . , and H . Gressmann, Die Religion des Judentums (^1926), p p . 20, 494-5.
Weinreich, O . , 'Gebet u n d W u n d e r . Zwei A b h a n d l u n g e n z u r Religions- und L i t e r a t u r -
geschichte', Tubinger Beitrdge zur Altertumswissenschaft (Genethliakon Wilhelm
Schmidt) (1929), p p . 298-309;
Dalbert, P., Die Theologie der hell.-jiid. Missionstiteratur (1954), pp. 35-42.
Schunck, K . D., Die Quellen des I. und II. Makkabderbuches (1954), p p . 70-4.
Vermes, G., 'La figure d e Moise au t o u r n a n t des deux testaments', Moise, Thomme de
I'Alliance (1955), p. 6 8 .
W?LAaiS,M,, Hellenistic Culture (1959), p p . 95-6.
G u t m a n , Y . , The Beginnings of Jewish-Hellenistic'Literature I I (.1^63) j PR: 7,5rS.i-
Giblet, J., 'Eupolehie et I'historibgfiaphic d u J u d a i s hellenistique', E T h L 3 9 (1963),
PP- 539-54-
Walter, N . , 'Untersuchungen z u den F r a g m e n t e n d e r jiidisch-hellenisdschen Historiker'
(Habilitationsschrift, Halle) (1967-8), p p . 37-56, 156-75.
Wacholder, B. Z., 'Bibhcal Chronology in t h e Hellenisdc World Chronicles', H T h R 61
(1968), pp. 451-81.
Denis, I P G A T , p p . 252-5.
Fraser, PA, vol. I, p . 6 9 4 ; vol. I I , p. 9 6 2 .
Hengel, M . , Judaism and Hellenism I ( E T 1974), pp. 9 2 - 5 .
Momigliano, A., Alien Wisdom: The Limits of Hellenization (1975), p p . 93, 113.
Wacholder","K"Z'., £'«/>ofem«i .• A Study of Judaeo-Greek Literature (1974) (ESJL).
Walter, N., Die Fragmente jud.-hell. Hist. ( J S H R Z I.2) (1976), pp. 9 3 - 8 .
CoUins, BAAJ, pp. 40-2.
Holladay, F H J A I , pp. 93-156.
5. Artapanus
Artapanus in his c o l o u r f u l historical romance Trjept ^lovSaicov is still

further r e m o v e d from the s o b e F ^ T e l 5 f f>enietrius t h a n E u p o l e m u s . In
his h a n d s , b i b l i c a l h i s t o r y is e m b e l l i s h e d , o r r a t h e r , _ ^ j j i o d e U c d , i n a
h a g g a d i c s t y l e w T t h t h e p u r p o s e of g l o r i f y i n g t h e j e \ y i s h pexuple. S p e c i a l
attendon is d i r e c t e d to p r o v i n g t h a t the Egypdans oyêd a l l useful
k n o w l e d g e a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s t o t h e j e w s . T h u s t h e first f r a g m e n t (Euseb.
Praep. ev. i x 18) r e c o u n t s t h a t w h e n A b r a h a m i m m i g r a t e d i n t o E g y p t h e
t a u g h t K i n g P h a r e t o t h e s (or P h a r e t o n e s ) a s t r o l o g y . A s e c o n d fragment
( E u s e b . i x 23) tells h o w J o s e p h , r a i s e d b y t h e k i n g t o be c h i e f g o v e r n o r
of t h e c o u n t r y , p r o v i d e d b e t t e r c u l t i v a t i o n of t h e l a n d . B u t t h e w h o l e of
the l a r g e s e c t i o n o n M o s e s ( E u s e b . i x 2 7 ) g i v e s d e t a i l e d e v i d e n c e that
h e w a s t h e r e a l f o u n d e r o f all c u l t u r e in E g y p t , e v e n of t h e w o r s h i p of
the g o d s . I t s e e m s c l e a r that this life o f M o s e s w a s i n t e n d e d as the
c e n t r a l m o t i f o f the w o r k a n d t h a t t K e s e c t i o n s o n A b r a h a m a n d J o s e p h
w e r e o n l y i n t e n d e d a s i n t r o d u c t o r y . Mfi§gs is t h e h e r o w h o m t h e G r e e k s
c a l l e d Musaeus,'^^ t h e t e a c h e r of O r p h e u s , t h e a u t h o r o f m a n y useful
49. T h e name Movaaios for Moses is found i n t h e second century A . D . p a g a n

philosopher Numenius o f A p a m e a , quoted i n Eusebius, Praep. ev. ix 8, 2. Otherwise the
52 2 §33'^- Jewish Literature Composed in Greek
i n v e n t i o n s a n d skills: n a v i g a t i o n , a r c h i t e c t u r e , m i l i t a r y science, a n d
p h i l o s o p h y . H e a l s o d i v i d e d t h e l a n d i n t o thirty-six p r o v i n c e s , a n d
c o m m a n d e d e a c h p r o v i n c e t o w o r s h i p G o d . H e g a v e t h e priests t h e
sacred w r i t i n g - c h a r a c t e r s . H e set r i g h t t h e affairs of s t a t e . T h e r e f o r e h e
w a s loved b y t h e E g y p t i a n s a n d c a l l e d H e r m e s , ' b e c a u s e of t h e
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n [epfi-rfveCav) of t h e s a c r e d w r i t i n g s ' . B u t t h e k i n g w a s
e n v i o u s a n d w a n t e d to b e rid of h i m . Y e t n o n e of t h e m e t h o d s w h i c h h e
chose w e r e successful. W h e n K i n g C h e n e p h r e s c o n t r a c t e d e l e p h a n t i a s i s
a n d d i e d , M o s e s w a s c o m m a n d e d by G o d to free h i s p e o p l e f r o m
E g y p t i a n slavery. T h e n t h e story o f t h e e x o d u s a n d of all t h e e v e n t s
p r e c e d i n g it, especijLUy. t h e j n i r - a c k s w h i c h p r o c u r e d it, a r e r e c o u n t e d in
d e t a i l , following t h e biblical n a r r a t i v e b u t w i t h m a n y t r i m m i n g s a n d
embellishments.
S o m e e l e m e n t s o f this f r a g m e n t a r e a l s o found w i t h explicit reference
to A r t a p a n u s in C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a , Strom, i 23, 154, i n Chron. pasch.,
e d . Dindorf, I, p . 1 1 7 , i n Chron. anonym, b y C r a m e r , Anecdota H , p . 1 7 6 ,
b y G e o r g i u s C e d r e n u s , e d . Bekker, I, p p . 8 6 - 7 ( h e r e w i t h o u t m e n t i o n of
A r t a p a n u s ) . T r a c e s c a n also b e f o u n d i n Ps.-Dionysius o f T e l m a h r e (cf.
G e l z e r , Julius Africanus H, i, p . 400), a n d l a t e r S y r i a c s o u r c e s , cf S . P .
Brock, ' S y r i a c legends c o n c e r n i n g M o s e s ' , JJS 33 ( 1 9 8 2 ) , p p . 2 3 7 - 5 5 .
T r a c e s of t h e use o f this w o r k c a n be seen especially i n Jos. Ant. ii 9,
I — 1 6 , 6 ( 2 0 1 - 3 4 9 ) (cf F r e u d e n t h a l , pp. 1 6 9 - 7 1 ) . T h i s influence m a y
h a v e b e e n d i r e c t o r t h r o u g h a l a t e r t r a d i t i o n t a k e n by a n i n t e r v e n i n g
w r i t e r from t h e q u o t a t i o n s o f A r t a p a n u s in A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r o r
e l s e w h e r e , b u t a t a n y rate it is helpful in the c l a r i f i c a d o n of t h e
A r t a p a n u s n a r r a t i v e w h e n t h a t is f r a g m e n t a r y .
T h e c l e a r e r it b e c o m e s t h a t A r t a p a n u s w a s , a Jew, t h e m o r e
s u r p r i s i n g it m a y a p p e a r t h a t M o s e s a n d the p a t r i a r c h s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d
as the f o u n d e r s of .the E g y p t i a i n c u l t of t h e gods. Jacob a r i d his Ions a r e
salcftb Tiave f o u n d e d t h e s a n c t u a r i e s a t A t h o s ancTHeliopoiis ( E u s e B . ix
2 3 , 4TrTôsifsrro h a v e i n s l f u c t e d e a c h p r o v i n c e to w o n E i p ' i t s special g o d
( 2 7 , 4 ) , a n d t o h a v e p r e s c r i b e d t h e c o n s e c r a t i o n of t h e Ibis ( 2 7 , 9 ) a n d t h e
A p i s (27, 1 2 ) . I n short, t h e E g y p t i a n cult is t r a c e d b a c k t o Jewish
a u t h o r i t i e s . F r e u d e n t h a l e x p l a i n e d t h i s fact by a s s u m i n g t h a t t h e
a u t h o r w a s i n d e e d a Jew b u t w i s h e d t o b e taken for a gentile, a n d
i n d e e d for a n E g y p t i a n priest ( 1 4 9 ff., 1 5 2 ff.), w h i c h is i n c o r r e c t .
N o w h e r e is t h e r e any clear e v i d e n c e of s u c h a n attempt. T h e k n o w l e d g e
of E g y p t i a n religiqn d i s p l a y e d _ b y A r t a p a n u s is m e d i a t e d t h r o u g h
Hettefirstic s o u r c e s as i n t h e e q u a t i Q n of T h o t h w i t h Hermes. I n
p a r d c u l a r , a n u n k n o w n n a m e s u c h as A r t a p a n u s w o u l d not h a v e b e e n
Greek forms of the n a m e of Moses varied, c f J . G . Gager, Moses in Greco-Roman Paganism

(1972), p . 20 a n d passim.
c h o s e n as a c o v e r for this p u r p o s e . ^ " Also, the p h e n o m e n a t h e m s e l v e s

are n o t e x p l a i n e d b y this h y p o t h e s i s , for, if the w o r k a p p e a r e d u n d e r a
heathen mask, it would be expected t o inveigh energetically against t h e
h o r r o r of i d o l - w o r s h i p in t h e n a m e o f t h e a c k n o w l e d g e d a u t h o r i t y , as is
a c t u a l l y t h e c a s e w i t h t h e Sibyl (iii 30) a n d P s . - A r i s t e a s 134—9.
T h e r e f o r e the s u r p r i s i n g f a c t r e m a i n s t h a t a J e w i s h w r i t e r r e p r e s e n t e d
M o s e s as t h e f o u n d e r of E g y p t i a n r e l i g i o n . Y e t h o w e v e r s t r a n g e t h i s
m a y s e e m , it c a n be e x p l a i n e d from t h e t r e n d o f t h e w h o l e , a n d is n o t
i m p o s s i b l e for a J e w w i t h this s o r t o f a p o l o g e t i c i n t e n t . M o s e s
i n t r o d u c e d all c u l t u r e , e v e n religious c u l t u r e : t h i s is t h e m e a n i n g a n d
n o t h i n g else. I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d also t h a t t h e g e n t i l e c u l t is b a s i c a l l y
r e p r e s e n t e d in a fairly h a r m l e s s l i g h t — A r t a p a n u s is not a p o l y t h e i s t ,
n o r a n a s s i m i l a d o n i s t . T h e s a c r e d a n i m a l s w e r e n o t so m u c h
w o r s h i p p e d as ' c o n s e c r a t e d ' t o G o d on a c c o u n t o f t h e i r usefulness.
N e v e r t h e l e s s , if the n a r r a t i v e e x c e r p t e d b y P o l y h i s t o r is a sufficient
g u i d e , it seems t h a t this J e w i s h a u t h o r w a s m o r e i n t e r e s t e d in t h e g l o r y
a n d h o n o u r of t h e JewisTi n a t i o n t h a n l n t h e p u r i t y of d i v i n e w o r s h i p .
PerTiaps, also, an a p o l o g e t i c p u r p o s e p l a y e d a p a r t h e r e , i.e. t o
r e p r e s e n t t h e J e w s , w h o h a d b e e n d e c r i e d as m o c k e r s of t h e g o d s , a s
f o u n d e r s of religious cults, a n d in t h e case of M o s e s t o offer a p o s i t i v e
d e n i a l of s l a n d e r s b y g e n t i l e w r i t e r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y M the name
of t h e L a w g i v e r , t h o u g h i n the form of a g e n e r a l p a n e g y r i c r a t h e r t h a n
specific a p o l o g e t i c . N o f u r t h e r p r o o f is n e e d e d t h a t t h e a u t h o r w a s
E g y p t i a n t h a n t h e m a r k e d p r o m i n e n c e o f E g y p t i a n references, a n d i n
p a r t i c u l a r his p o r t r a y a l o f M o s e s as a n E g y p t i a n p a t r i o t . I t is p o s s i b l e
t h a t , g i v e n his i n t e r e s t in n a t i v e E g y p t i a n t r a d i t i o n s , h e c a m e f r o m o n e
of t h e J e w i s h s e t d e m e n t s i n E g y p t o t h e r t h a n A l e x a n d r i a . H i s p r o b a b l e
r e l i a n c e i n E u s e b . Praep. ev. ix 1 8 , 1, o n a t r a d i t i o n b a s e d o n a H e b r e w
text of G e n . 1 4 : 1 3 for the c l a i m t h a t t h e j e w s w e r e c a l l e d ' H e b r e w ' a f t e r
A b r a h a m (cf H o l l a d a y , F H J A I, p . 226, n. 5) d o e s not s h o w t h a t h e
himself k n e w a n y H e b r e w .
W i t h r e g a r d to his d a t e we c a n o n l y s a y w i t h c e r t a i n t y t h a t h e , l i k e
m o s t of t h e o t h e r h i s t o r i a n s e x a m i n e d h e r e , m u s t h a v e lived b e f o r e
A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r . H i s uge of t h e L X X suggests a d a t e a | t e r c. 2 5 0
B.C. M o r e precise d a t i n g is o n l y s p e c u l a d v e . T h e l a t e s t d a t e s u g g e s t e d "
has b e e n c. 100 B.C. ( W a l t e r ) . T h e a r g u m e n t o f W a c h o l d e r , H T h R 61
(1968), p . 460, n. 34, t h a t A r t a p a n u s ' f o r m of n o n - a s s i m i l a t i o n i s t
s y n c r e t i s m w o u l d b e u n t h i n k a b l e after t h e M a c c a b a e a n r e v o l t is, e v e n if
t r u e , n o t a p p l i c a b l e to t h e E g y p t i a n J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y . T h e m u c h
e a r l i e r d a t i n g , to t h e e n d of t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y B.C., rests on p a r a l l e l s
b e t w e e n t h e a t t e m p t of P t o l e m y I V P h i l o p a t o r ( 2 2 1 - 2 0 5 B.C.) to
50. The^jiaine-is^PeiaisiJV like Artabazus, Artaphernes, Artavasdes, Artaxerxes, a n d

also occdrs in the form A r t a b a n u s . No Rrsian by tKis riamc w h o was a n a u t h o r i t y on
rehgious matters is known, cf Fraser, P A II, p . 985, n. 199.
524 §33 A- Jewish Literature Composed in Greek
organize the cult of Dionysus and the treatment of Moses by the

Pharaoh according to Artapanus, cf L. Cerfaux, Recueil L. Cerfaux I
( 1 9 5 4 ) , pp. 8 1 - 5 , who suggests that Artapanus reflects an attempt by
Ptolemy IV to promote a Jewish Dionysiac cult. However, the evidence
for such an attempt is still uncertain. Dates based on the mention of
elephantiasis (Wacholder), the inclusion of Egyptian farmers in Moses'
army (Collins), the reference, at Euseb. Praep. ev. ix 23, 4, to a temple
not explicitly connected to the Oniad Jewish temple at Leontopolis
(HoUaday), or alleged dependence on Hecataeus, Ps.-Hecataeus or
Eupolemus (cf HoUaday, FHJA I, p. 190), are aU too speculative to be
useful.
Editions
Jacoby, F G r H 726, H I A, pp. 680-6.
Denis, F P G , pp. 186-95.
HoUaday, F H J A I, pp. 189-243.
Translations
English:
HoUaday, ad loc.
GoUins, J . J., in Charlesworth, O T P I I (forthcoming).
German:
Riessler, P., Altjud. Scfiri/t. (1928), p p . 186-91, 1276 f
Walter, N . , Die FragmentejUdisch-hellenistischer Historiker ( J S H R Z 1.2) (1976), p p . 127-36.
Bibliography
Freudenthal, J., Alex. Polyh. (1875), PP- i43~74» 215 ff., 231 ff.
Susemihl, F., Gesch. dergriech. Lilt. II (1892), pp. 646 ff.
Schwartz, 'Artapanus', RE I I . i (1895), 1306. Levi, I., 'Moise en Ethiopia', R E J 53
(1907), pp. 201-11.
Schlatter, A., Gesch. Israels (^1925), p p . 193-6.
Halevy, M . A., Moise dans I'histoire et dans la legende (1927), p p . 5 4 - 5 , 61.
Goodenough, E. R., 5y Light, Light! (1935, repr. 1969), p. 291.
H e i n e m a n n , I., 'Moses', RE X V I . i (1935), 365-9.
Bieler, L., 6EIOZ A N H P . Das Bild des 'Gottlichen Menschen' in Spatantike und
Friihchristentum I I (1936, repr. 1967), p p . 26, 30-3.
Braun, M . , History and Romance in Greco-Oriental Literature (1938), p p . 26—31, 99—102.
Dalbert, P., Die Theologie der hell.-jiid. Missionsliteratur (ig^^.), pp. 42-52.
Vermes, G., ' L a figure de Moise au t o u r n a n t de deux testaments', in Moise, I'homme de
ralliance (1955), p p . 63-92 ( = S T J , pp. 80-2).
T o n n e a u , R. M . , 'Moise dans la tradition syrienne', in Moise, I'homme de I'alliance (1955),
PP- 245-65-
HadaSjJiLj Hellenistic Culture (1959), p p . 96 ff.
Meirendtis, K.I., Ho loudaios Logios Artapanos kai to Ergon autou (1961).
G u t m a n , Y., The Beginning of Jewish-Hellenistic LiteratureW (1963), pp. 109-35.
Georgi, D . , Die GegnerdesPaulus im2. Korintherbrief (1964), pp. 147-51, 201.
Denis, I P G A T , p p . 255-7.
Schaht, A., ' A r t a p a n u s ' , Enc. J u d . (1971), 645-6.
Tiede, D. L., The Charismatic Figure as Miracle-Worker (1972), pp. 146-77.
Fraser, P A I, p p . 704-6, 714.
Hengel, M . , Judaism and Hellenism I ( E T 1974), pp. 9 0 - 4 .

Walter, N . , Die Fragmente jud.-hetl. Historiker ( J S H R Z 1.2) (1976), p p . 121-6.
Holladay, C. R., THEIOS AJVER in Hellenistic Judaism {igyj), pp. 199-232.
Rajak, T., 'Moses in E t h i o p i a : Legend and L i t e r a t u r e ' , J J S 29 (1978), p p . 111—22.
C.(mzc\mann,TA:, Heiden, Judeii, ChfiSten (1981), pp. 149^52.
Brock, S. P . , 'Syriac legends concerning Moses', J J S 33 (1982), p p . 237—55.
Runnalls, D., 'Moses' E t h i o p i a n campaign', J S J 14 (1983), pp. 135-56.
4. Aristeas the Exegete

E u s e b i u s , Praep. ev. ix 2 5 , gives a f r a g m e n t f r o m t h e w o r k Trepl TovSaiwv
of t h e o t h e r w i s e u n k n o w n a u t h o r A r i s t e a s . ' C o n c e r n i n g J e w s ' , w h i c h
m a y be a title o r a d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e w o r k , briefly tells t h e h i s t o r y of J o b
following t h e b i b l i c a l a c c o u n t . T h e s t o r y itself c o n t a i n s n o t h i n g
n o t e w o r t h y e x c e p t t h a t p a r t i c u l a r s c o n c e r n i n g J o b a n d his friends a r e
a d d e d from o t h e r b i b l i c a l m a t e r i a l in a n a t t e m p t to e l u c i d a t e t h e
o r i g i n a l a c c o u n t in a w a y s i m i l a r t o t h a t used by D e m e t r i u s . T h u s i t is
s a i d of J o b t h a t h e u s e d to b e c a l l e d J o b a b , the s o n o f E s a u . I n t h e
Genesis a c c o u n t , J o b a b is a s o n of Z e r a h ( G e n . 3 6 : 3 3 ) , a n d t h e l a t t e r a
g r a n d s o n of E s a u ( G e n . 3 6 : 1 0 a n d 1 3 ) . A d m i t t e d l y , a c c o r d i n g to t h e
e x c e r p t of A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r , A r i s t e a s is s a i d t o h a v e r e l a t e d t h a t
E s a u h i m s e l f ' m a r r i e d B a s s a r a in E d o m a n d b e g o t a son J o b of h e r ' . B u t
m o s t p r o b a b l y this is b a s e d o n a n i n a c c u r a t e r e f e r e n c e of A l e x a n d e r
P o l y h i s t o r , a n d A r i s t e a s m a y h a v e got t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of E s a u t o his
g r e a t - g r a n d s o n r i g h t . I n t h a t c a s e vlov s h o u l d p e r h a p s be o m i t t e d ,
following o n e m a n u s c r i p t ( F r e u d e n t h a l ) or, if r e t a i n e d , p u t d o w n to
P o l y h i s t o r ' s carelessness. T h e n a m e of B a s s a r a as J o b ' s m o t h e r (/cujSajS
vlos Zapd €K Poaoppas) a l s o c o m e s from G e n . 3 6 : 3 3 . A c t u a l l y B o z r a h in
t h e H e b r e w is n o t t h e m o t h e r b u t J o b a b ' s h o m e . I t is n o t i c e a b l e t h a t
A r i s t e a s ' m i s t a k e is o n l y possible f r o m a G r e e k v e r s i o n of t h e B i b l e s u c h
as the L X X , as i n d e e d is t h e c o n n e c t i o n of J o b w i t h J o b a b , b u t i t is
r e m a r k a b l e t h a t t h e e p i l o g u e to J o b i n t h e L X X c o m p i l e s p e r s o n a l
i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t J o b i n e x a c t l y t h e s a m e w a y as A r i s t e a s . F r e u d e n t h a l
considered t h a t this s u p p l e m e n t certainly d e p e n d e d o n Aristeas, b u t
(bis is h a r d t o r e c o n c i l e w i t h t h e L X X ' s reference t o ' t h e S y r i a n b o o k '
as t h e s o u r c e of t h e a p p e n d i x . I t is p r o b a b l e t h a t A r i s t e a s used t h e L X X
o f J o b , t h o u g h possible t h a t b o t h v e r s i o n s d e p e n d u p o n a c o m m o n o r a l
e x e g e t i c a l t r a d i t i o n . T h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f J o b a n d J o b a b a p p e a r s a l s o in
d i e T e s t a m e n t of J o b a n d e l s e w h e r e (cf. b e l o w , p . 5 5 2 ) . T h e d a t e of
, \ r i s t e a s therefore lies b e f o r e t h e t i m e of P o l y h i s t o r a n d p r o b a b l y af t er c.
.!f)0 B.C., the d a t e o f a G r e e k t r a n s l a t i o n of G e n e s i s . T h e p l a c e of o r i g i n
is u n k n o w n a n d c a n n o t be s u g g e s t e d e v e n t e n t a t i v e l y . T h e r e a r e n o
i^rounds for p o s t u l a t i n g a n y r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h i s A r i s t e a s a n d the
p s e u d o n y m o u s a u t h o r o f the L e t t e r of P h i l o c r a t e s , d e s p i t e t h e r e f e r e n c e
526 §33-^. Jewish Literature Composed in Greek
in t h e L e t t e r , c. 6, t o a n e a r l i e r w o r k by t h e a u t h o r . T h e two w r i t i n g s
are of q u i t e different style a n d this Aristeas, u n h k e t h e o t h e r , is q u i t e
openly Jewish.
Editions
Muller, C , F H G I I I , p p . 207 ff.
Jacoby, F G r H 725, III C , p. 680.
Denis, FPG, pp. 195-6.
HoUaday, F H J A I , pp. 261-75.
Translations
English:
HoUaday, loc. cit.
Doran in Charlesworth, O T P I I (forthcoming).
German:
Riessler, P., Altjud. Schrift. (1928), pp. 178, 1275.
Walter, N., Die Fragmente hell.-jud. Exegeten ( J S H R Z III.2) (1975), p p . 295-6.
Bibliography
Schwartz, E., R E I I . i (1895), 879.
Wendland, P., 'Aristeas the Historian', J E II (1902), p . 92.
Gray, G. B., 'The Addition in t h e Ancient Greek Version of J o b ' , The Expositor 19 (1920),
p p . 422-38, esp. 431-4.
Schlatter, A., Geschichte Israels (^1925), p p . 75—7.
Ginzberg, L., The Legends of the Jews \ (1925, repr. 1968), p . 384.
Dalbert, P., Die Theologie der hell.-jiid. Missionsliteratur (1954), pp. 67-70.
Walter, N., 'Untersuchungen zu den F r a g m e n t e n der jiid.-hell. Historiker' (Habilitadons-
schrift, Halle) (1967-8), p p . 86-92, 216-21.
Denis, I P G A T , p p . 258-9.
Wacholder, B. Z., 'Aristeas', Enc. Jud. I I (1971), p p . 438-9.
Hengel, M . , Judaism and Hellenism I ( E T 1974), p. 169.
5 . Cleodemus or Malchus
T h e m y t h o l o g y of a c e r t a i n C l e o d e m u s or M a l c h u s , o n w h i c h w e
u n f o r t u n a t e l y possess o n l y a s h o r t n o t e , a p p e a r s to h a v e p r e s e n t e d a
classic e x a m p l e of the mixtiixe p o p u l a j : t h r o u g h o u t t h e field of
H e l l e n i s m of n a t i v e ( O r i e n t a l ) a n d G r e e k t r a d i t i o n s . T h e r e l e v a n t
r e p o r t b y A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r c a n b e f o u n d i n E u s e b . Praep. ev. ix 20,
w h o q u o t e s J o s e p h u s , Ant. i 1 5 , i (240), w h o i n t u r n q u o t e s A l e x a n d e r
P o l y h i s t o r literally. H e r e the a u t h o r is d e s c r i b e d a s ' C l e o d e m u s t h e
p r o p h e t also c a l l e d M a l c h u s , in h i s history of t h e J e w s relates i n
c o n f o r m i t y w i t h t h e n a r r a t i v e of their lawgiver M o s e s ' . B o t h t h e
Semitic n a m e M a l c h u s , a n d t h e c o n t e n t of h i s w o r k , p r o v e t h a t t h e
autHor w a s n o t a G r e e k b y origin, b u t e i t h e r a S e m i t i c p a g a n , o r a J e w
o r a Sahiarit.ari..4 p a g a n o r i g i n is p r o p o s e d by W a c h o l d e r , E S J L , p . 5 4 ,
n. 1 1 4 ; p . 55, n . I i g ^ o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t M o s e s is r e f e r r e d to a s ' t h e i r '
l a w g i v e r , the d e s i g n a t i o n ' p r o p h e t ' is unlikely for a J e w i n this p e r i o d ,

a n d J o s e p h u s q u o t e s h i m as if he w e r e a p a g a n a u t h o r , cf. idem, E n c .
J u d . V X197O? 663. N o n e o f t h e s e a r g u m e n t s is s t r o n g , g i v e n t h e
i m p l a u s i b i h t y of p a g a n interest i n p r o d u c i n g such a n a c c o u n t .
R e f e r e n c e to ' t h e i r ' l a n g u a g e m a y b e d u e t o t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n of t h e t e x t
by A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r , a n d J o s e p h u s q u o t e s o t h e r J e w i s h a u t h o r s a s if
t h e y w e r e gentile (see a b o v e , p . 5 1 4 , o n D e m e t r i u s ) . F r e u d e n t h a l
preferred a S a n i a r i t a n o r i g i n , m a i n l y b e c a u s e o f the fusion of G r e e k a n d
J e w i s h t r a d i t i o n s , a n d h e is followed b y F r a s e r , P ^ C T l , p . 9 6 3 , w h o
a c c o r d i n g l y also a g r e e s w i t h F r e u d e n t h a l i n i d e n t i f y i n g H e r a k l e s in t h e
Cleodemus fragment with Melkart, to w h o m the Samaritans dedicated
the M o u n t G e r i z i m t e m p l e . S u c h a fusion of t r a d i t i o n s w a s h o w e v e r j u s t
as p o s s i b l e for a J e w after c. 200 B.C. a s for a S a m a r i t a n , a n d it is
r e a s o n a b l e to a c c e p t t h e i m p l i c a d o n of t h e t i t l e g i v e n t o his w o r k b y
A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r t h a t he w a s a J e w . T h i s M a l c h u s r e l a t e s in h i s
w o r k t h a t A b r a h a m h a d t h r e e sons b y K e t u r a h , A(f>epav, Âaovpeifx, a n d
ld(f>pav ( t h e precise n a m e s v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y i n t h e mss., cf J a c o b y ,
F G r H 727, a p p a r a t u s ; H o l l a d a y , F H J A I, p p . 252, 254), from w h o m
the Assyrians, t h e t o w n o f A p h r a , a n d t h e l a n d of Africa r e c e i v e d t h e i r
n a m e s . T h e s e a r e o b v i o u s l y i d e n t i c a l w i t h the n a m e s in G e n . 2 5 : 3 - 4 of
A s s h u r i m , E p h a h a n d E p h e r . B u t , w h e r e a s A r a b t r i b e s a r e i n t e n d e d in
G e n . 25, o u r a u t h o r d e r i v e s f r o m t h e m e n t i r e l y different n a t i o n s k n o w n
to h i m . H e r e c o r d s f u r t h e r t h a t t h e t h r e e sons of A b r a h a m w e n t w i t h
Heracles to Libya a n d Anteus, and t h a t H e r a c l e s married the d a u g h t e r
of A p h r a a n d h a d a c h i l d c a l l e d D i o d o r u s , w h o s e son w a s S o p h o n a s ,
after w h o m t h e S o p h a k i w e r e n a m e d .
T h e l a t t e r l e g e n d s a r e also f o u n d in P l u t a r c h , Sertor., 9, e x c e p t t h a t
the g e n e a l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n o f D i o d o r u s a n d S o p h a x is r e v e r s e d : S o p h a x is
the child of H e r a c l e s a n d T i n g e , t h e w i d o w o f A n t e u s , a n d D i o d o r u s
the son o f S o p h a x . ^ '
C l e o d e m u s - M a l c h u s p r e s u m a b l y w i s h e d to w i n for t h e _ J e 5 ^ , a s h a r e
in t h e P h o e n i c i a n g l o r y o f t h e c o l o n i z a t i o n of Africa, p r o m p t e d p e r h a p s
by t h e p r o b l e m s of t h e P u n i c colonies, e s p e c i a l l y C a r t h a g e , f r o m t h e
t h i r d c e n t u r y B.C. o n w a r d s , a n d t h e r e s u l t i n g c h a n g e i n a t t i t u d e to
t h e i r P h o e n i c i a n n e i g h b o u r s b y t h e N o r t h A f r i c a n J e w s (so G u t m a n ;
no J e w s a r e a c t u a l l y a t t e s t e d , e v e n i n C y r e n a i c a , u n t i l t h e first c e n t u r y
H . c , see p p . 6 0 - 2 a b o v e ) . T h e g e n e r a l t e n d e n c y to assert a r e l a t i o n s h i p
w i t h o t h e r peoples is f o u n d also, e.g. in t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h S p a r t a
c l a i m e d in i M a c . 1 2 : 5 - 2 3 . T h i s suggests p e r h a p s a n African o r
I \ g y p t i a n b a c k g r o u n d for C l e o d e m u s . W a l t e r believes C l e o d e m u s to
f, I . It cannot b e proved that Plutarch depended on a work of King J u b a , a s held by

Muller, F H G I I I , p . 471, but it is likely, cf R . Flaceliere a n d E. C h a m b r y , Plutarque Vies
\ ' I I I (1973), pp. 6-7, contra H . Peter, Die Quellen Plutarchs in den Biographien der Romer
:Hd5), pp. 61-5.
h a v e c o m e f r o m t h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y i n C a r t h a g e itself, w h i c h is n o t
impossible; b u t none are attested there until the R o m a n Imperial
p e r i o d , p . 62 a b o v e . I n f a v o u r of a n o r i g i n in S y r i a or P a l e s t i n e is o n l y
t h e S e m i t i c n a m e M a l c h u s . T h e r e is n o hint t h a t C l e o d e m u s k n e w or
u s e d t h e H e b r e w t e x t o f the B i b l e , t h o u g h his spelling of p r o p e r n a m e s
is so o d d t h a t it is impossible t o s h o w use of t h e L X X . F o r the d a t e i t is
o n l y c e r t a i n t h a t C l e o d e m u s m u s t h a v e w r i t t e n before A l e x a n d e r
Polyhistor.
Editions
Muller, F H G H I , pp. 207 ff.
Jacoby, F G r H 727, H I C pp. 686-7.
Denis, F P G , pp. 196-7.
HoUaday, F H J A I, p p . 245-59.
Translations
English:
HoUaday, loc. cit.
D o r a n in Charlesworth, O T P H (forthcoming).
German:
Riessler, P., Altjiid. Schrift. (1927), p p . 667, 1311.
Walter, N . , Die Fragmente jiid.-hell. Historiker ( J S H R Z 1.2) (1976), pp. 119-20.
Bibliography
Freudenthal, J . , Alex. Polyh. (1875), p p . 130-6, 215, 230.
Susemihl, F., Gesch. der griech. Litt. H (1892), p. 652.
Broyde, I., 'Malchus/Cleodemus the Prophet', J E V I I , 277.
v o n Christ, W., O . Stahlin a n d W. Schmidt, Gesch. der griech. Litt. II ( 1920), p . 591.
Jacoby, F . , 'Kleodemus', RE X I . i (1921), 675.
Dalbert, P., Die Theologie der hell.-jiid. Missionsliteratur (1954), p. 11.
G u t m a n , Y., The Beginnings of Jewish-Hellenistic Literature 11 (1963), pp. 136-43 (Heb.).
Walter, N . , 'Untersuchungen zu den Fragmenten der jiid.-heU. Historiker' (HabUitations-
schrift, Halle) (1967-8), p p . 97-107, 224-33.
Denis, I P G A T , p p . 259-61.
Hengel, M., 'Anonymitat, Pseudepigraphie u n d "Literarische Falschung" in der
jiid.-hell. L i t e r a t u r ' , Pseudepigrapha I (Entredens H a r d t , 18) (1972), pp. 231-329.
Hengel, M . , Judaism and Hellenism I ( E T 1974), p p . 69, 74, 302 ; I I , pp. 50, 52.
Walter, N . , Die Fragmente jiid.-hell. Historiker ( J S H R Z I.2) (1976), pp. 115-18.
CoUins, BAAJ, p . 40.
6. An Anonymous Writer (Pseudo-Eupolemus)

A m o n g the e x c e r p t s of A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r a r e t w o in E u s e b i u s , Praep.
ev. ix 1 7 a n d 18, w h i c h are o b v i o u s l y i d e n t i c a l in c o n t e n t , t h o u g h t h e
s e c o n d is m u c h s h o r t e r t h a n t h e first. T h e l o n g e r e x c e r p t ( E u s e b . ix 17)
p r e s e n t s itself as t a k e n from E u p o l e m u s , w h o r e c o r d s t h a t A b r a h a m w a s
a t e n t h - (or t h i r t e e n t h - , cf J a c o b y , F G r H 724, F i , 1. 19, a p p a r a t u s )
g e n e r a t i o n d e s c e n d a n t of t h e g i a n t s w h o b u i l t the t o w e r of B a b e l a f t e r
t h e flood. A b r a h a m himself is said to h a v e e m i g r a t e d f r o m C h a l d e a t o
P h o e n i c i a , a n d to h a v e t a u g h t t h e P h o e n i c i a n s ' t h e c o u r s e of the s u n
a n d the m o o n a n d all o t h e r t h i n g s ' . H e also p r o v e d useful to t h e m in
w a r (a m i d r a s h o n G e n . 14). H e t h e n b e c a u s e of f a m i n e m i g r a t e d to
E g y p t , w h e r e h e l i v e d w i t h t h e priests i n H e l i o p o l i s , a n d t a u g h t t h e m
much, instructing t h e m i n 'astrology and the like'. Enoch, however, was
t h e real discoverer of a s t r o l o g y ; h e r e c e i v e d it f r o m t h e a n g e l s a n d
t r a n s m i t t e d it t o m e n (cf. E n o c h , c. 7 2 - 8 2 a n d J u b i l e e s 4 : 1 7 - 2 1 ) .
T h e s e c o n d e x c e r p t , E u s e b . ix 1 8 , w h i c h A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r t o o k
from a n a n o n y m o u s w o r k {lv 8e dSearroTois evpofxev), is essentially t h e
s a m e , t h o u g h m u c h s h o r t e r . T o t h e fact t h a t t h i s p a r a l l e l is r e m a r k a b l e
m u s t b e a d d e d a n o t h e r , n a m e l y t h a t t h e l o n g e r e x c e r p t m a y n o t be
from E u p o l e m u s . E u p o l e m u s was a J e w w h o g a v e p r i m a c y to t h e
Jewish T e m p l e ; i n t h e e x c e r p t , h o w e v e r , A r g a r i z i m (i.e.. M o u n t
G e r i z i m ) is d e s c r i b e d as ' t h e m o u n t a i n o f t h e M o s t H i g h {Hypsistos)',
a n d A b r a h a m ' s e n c o u n t e r w i t h M e l c h i z e d e k is specifically l o c a t e d
t h e r e . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e Syticreti&tic use o f p a g a n m y t h o l o g y , e.g. Belus,
A t l a s , is m u c h m o r e m a r k e d i n this e x c e r p t t h a n in E u p o l e m u s . I t is less
significant t h a t in E u p o l e m u s M o s e s w a s s a i d to h a v p b e e n t h e first
s a g e , w h e r e a s in t h e e x c e r p t A b r a h a m is glorified as f a t h e r of all
k n o w l e d g e , for e v e n w i t h i n P s . - E u p o l e m u s t h e r e is a c o n t r a d i c t i o n
b e t w e e n the roles o f A b r a h a m a n d E n o c h . F r e u d e n t h a l ' s h y p o t h e s i s is
therefore plausible, that these two sections d e p e n d o n the same original
a n d t h a t t h e l o n g e r A l e x a n d e r e x c e r p t is e r r o n e o u s l y a s c r i b e d to
E u p o l e m u s . ^ ^ I t is p o s s i b l e t h a t the a u t h o r of t h e f r a g m e n t s w a s a Jew,^^
b u t , g i v e n t h e e m p h a s i s o n M o u n t G e r i z i m , it is also possible t h a t t h i s is
a n a n o n y m o u s w o r k of a S a m a r i t a n , in w h i c h G r e e k a n d B a b y l o n i a n
legends h a v e b e e n fused w i t h b i b h c a l h i s t o r y w i t h t h e a p o l o g e t i c i n t e n t i o n
of s h o w i n g t h a t t h e J e w s h a d b r o u g h t c u l t u r e to all w e s t e r n p e o p l e s ,
i n c l u d i n g t h e G r e e k s . T h i s is a w o r k e n t i r e l y w i t h i n the g e n r e of
Hellenistic h i s t o r i o g r a p h y in its h i s t o r i c i z i n g of m y t h s a n d i n t e r e s t in
the spread of culture. T h e anti-Egyptian tendency of the writing
suggests t h a t t h e S a m a r i t a n a u t h o r m a y h a v e lived in E g y p t . H e will
52. T h e fragments a r e still ascribed to ?the Jewish E u p o l e m u s by W . Bousset a n d H.

(Iressmann, Die Religion des Judentums im spdthellenistischen êitalter (^1926), p. 2 1 , n. 2 ; W.
(',. Lambert, The Background of Jewish Apocalyptic (1978), p . 14; F. Millar, ' T h e
Background to t h e M a c c a b e a n Revoludon', J J S 29 (1978), p. 6, n. 12. T h e y a r e assigned
10 a n Alexandrian Jewish writer by Schlatter (see above, note 48). If the ascription to
I'.upolemus is erroneous, so too, almost certainly, is t h e title of t h e book given by
Alexander Polyhistor, namely 'Concerning t h e j e w s of Assyria' (Eusebius, Praep. ev. ix 17,
2). 'Of Assyria' in this context probably modifies TTOAIV Ba^vXwva, a n d 'concerning the
lews' is descriptive only, cf. B. Z . W a c h o l d e r , 'Pseudo-Eupolemos' T w o Greek
Fragments', H U C A 34 (1963), p . 85 ; Holladay, F H J A I, p . 178, n. 3.
53. T h e anonymous, shorter, fragment is attributed b y Miiller, F H G I I I , p. 212, to
Artapanus, cf also P. Riessler, Altjiid. Schrift. (1928), p . 186. H o w e v e r J. F r e u d e n t h a l ,
Alexander Polyhistor (1875), p p . 14, 90, notes that this fragment cites its sources and that
this is contrary to the practice of Artapanus.
then h a v e come into contact with J e w i s h midrashic traditions through

t h e J e w s t h e r e . H e is h o w e v e r e q u a l l y likely t o h a v e w r i t t e n in S a m a r i a
itself, w h i c h w o u l d e x p l a i n h i s a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h P a l e s t i n i a n haggada
a n d t h e E n o c h t r a d i t i o n . I t is n o t c l e a r w h e t h e r h e w a s a c q u a i n t e d w i t h
Hebrew (cf W a l t e r , K l i o 4 3 / 5 ( 1 9 6 5 ) , p p . 2 8 4 - 6 ; contra, Wacholder,
ESJL, p p . 87-8). H e used t h e L X X , b u t this w a s a s possible in
Palestine as in Egypt. For the date, his f a i l u r e to mention the
d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e G e r i z i m t e m p l e i n 1 2 9 &.tT,Mggestsr a rim^' e a r l i e r
t h ^ m t o f t ~ y e a r . A d a t e i n t h e first h a l f of t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B.C. is
likely, g i v e n t h e close c o n t a c t w i t h J e w i s h t r a d i t i o n s w h i c h suggests t h a t
t h e s c h i s m h a d n o t y e t b e c o m e final, as i t w a s t o d o i n t h e H a s m o n a e a n
period.^*
Editions
Miiller, F H G I I I , pp. 207 ff.
Jacoby, F G r H , 724, I I I C, pp. 678-9.
Denis, F P G , pp. 197-8.
Translations
English:
Wacholder, E S J L , Appendix B.
HoUaday, loc. cit.
Doran, R., in Charlesworth, O T P II (forthcoming).
German:
Riessler, P . , Altjud. Schrift. (1927), pp. 11 ff., 186, 1266 ff.
Walter, N . , Die Fragmente jiid.-hell. Historiker ( J S H R Z 1.2) (1976), p p . 141-3.
Bibliography
Freudenthal, Alex. Polyh. (1875), pp. 8 2 - 1 0 3 , 207 f, 223 ff.
Schnabel, P., Berossos und die babylonisch-hellenistische Literatur (1923), pp. 67-93, 246.
Vermes, G . , STJ, pp. 77-83, 97, 115, 124.
Wacholder, B. Z . , 'Pseudo-Eupolemus' T w o Greek Fragments o n the Life of A b r a h a m ' ,
H U C A 34 (1963), p p . 83-113.
G u t m a n , Y . , The Beginnings of Jewish-Hellenistic LiteratureW (1963), pp. 95-108.
Walter, N . , 'Zu Pseudo-Eupolemus', Klio 43/5 (1965), pp. 282-91.
Walter, N . , 'Untersuchungen z u den F r a g m e n t e n d e r jiid.-hell. Historiker' (Habilitations-
schrift, Halle) (1967—8), p p . 112—27, 236—57.
Denis, I P G A T , p p . 259-61.
Kippenberg, H. G., Garizim und Synagoge (1971), pp. 80-3.
Hengel, M . , Judaism and Hellenism I ( E T 1974), pp. 88-92.
54. It is claimed by A . Peretti, La Sibilla Babilonese (1942), p p . 123-52, that there a r e

close contacts between Pseudo-Eupolemus a n d the third Sibyl, to t h e extent that the Sibyl
should be seen as writing polemic against Pseudo-Eupolemus. T h e similarities a r e
however insufficient for any literary dependence t o be shown, cf. V. Nikiprowetzky, La
Troisieme Sibylle (1970), p p . 127 ff. Pseudo-Eupolemus must at a n y rate have written after
293-292 B.C. because h e makes use o f the Babyloniaca of Berossus, cf B . Z. Wacholder,
H U C A 34 (1963), p. 85.
Wacholder, ESJL, pp. 287-93, S'S f-

Denis, A. M., 'L'historien a n o n y m e d'Eusebe (Praep. Ev. 9, 17-18) et l a crise des
Macchabees', JSJ 8 (1977), pp. 4 2 - 9 .
(iollins, BAAJ, p p . 38-9.
7. Jason of Cyrene and the Second Book of Maccabees

T h e w o r k of J a s o n of C y r e n e , o n w h i c h t h e S e c o n d Book of M a c c a b e e s
is b a s e d , is a n e x a m p l e of h o w s o m e H e l l e n i s t i c J e w s d e a l t also w i t h
i m p o r t a n t p e r i o d s of l a t e r J e w i s h h i s t o r y w h i c h t h e y t h e m s e l v e s h a d
e x p e r i e n c e d . 2 M a c . is i n effect, as t h e a u t h o r i n f o r m s us, n o m o r e t h a n
a n a b r i d g e m e n t (2 M a c . 2:26, 28) from the l a r g e r w o r k of a c e r t a i n
J a s o n of C y r e n e (2 M a c . 2:23). T h e o r i g i n a l c o n s i s t e d o f five v o l u m e s ,
w h i c h a r e c o n d e n s e d i n t o o n e in 2 M a c . (2 M a c . 2:23). T h e c o n t e n t s of
t h e f o r m e r t h e r e f o r e s e e m to h a v e b e e n p a r a l l e l w i t h t h e l a t t e r . T h e
c o n d e n s e d version w h i c h has b e e n p r e s e r v e d first r e c o u n t s t h e s t o r y of
a n unsuccessful a t t a c k o n the T e m p l e t r e a s u r y m a d e d u r i n g t h e t i m e of
S e l e u c u s I V ( 1 8 7 - 1 7 5 B.C.) b y his m i n i s t e r H e l i o d o r u s . I t t h e n tells of
t h e religious p e r s e c u t i o n by A n t i o c h u s E p i p h a n e s a n d t h e a p o s t a s y of
s o m e of t h e J e w s . F i n a l l y , it gives a n a c c o u n t o f t h e M a c c a b a e a n r e v o l t
u n t i l t h e decisive v i c t o r y o f j u d a s over N i c a n o r ( 1 6 1 B.C.). T h e b o o k
t h u s covers a p e r i o d of fifteen y e a r s ( i 7 5 - 1 6 1 B.C.).
T h e e v e n t s r e l a t e d a r e for the m o s t p a r t t h e s a m e a s in i M a c ,
e x c e p t t h a t 2 M a c . p r o v i d e s t h e o n l y d e t a i l e d e x t a n t a c c o u n t of t h e
s i t u a t i o n just before a n d d u r i n g t h e h e l l e n i z i n g of J e r u s a l e m ( c h a p t e r s
3 - 5 ) . B u t the n a r r a t i v e differs in a g r e a t m a n y p a r t i c u l a r s , p a r t l y e v e n
in t h e o r d e r o f e v e n t s , f r o m t h e a c c o u n t o f i M a c . ( c f a b o v e , v o l . I, p p .
•51-3)-
T h e e x p l a n a t i o n s offered for s u c h differences a r e v a r i e d . It h a s b e e n
s u g g e s t e d t h a t i M a c . r e p r e s e n t s a r e w r i t i n g of t h e w o r k of J a s o n of
C y r e n e a l o n g w i t h o t h e r sources ( S c h l a t t e r a n d K o l b e ) , so t h a t t h e
e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e differences m u s t c o m e from s t u d y of i M a c .
A l t e r n a t i v e l y , 2 M a c . m a y r e l y on a w r i t t e n s o u r c e i g n o r e d b y i M a c .
for political r e a s o n s , s u c h a s a h y p o t h e t i c a l p r o p a g a n d i s t i c h i s t o r y
w r i t t e n by O n i a s I V ; o t h e r sources u n i q u e to 2 M a c , s u c h a s a
l e g e n d a r y history w h i c h a c t e d as t h e f o u n d a t i o n of 2 M a c . 1 3 , c a n also
be postulated, t h o u g h n o t d e m o n s t r a t e d (Goldstein). Thirdly, a n d most
p l a u s i b l y , e i t h e r t h e e p i t o m a t o r of J a s o n of G y r e n e ' s w o r k o r the still
l a t e r reviser w h o a d d e d t h e t w o letters to 2 M a c . 1:1 a n d 2:18 m a y h a v e
c h a n g e d the o r d e r of e v e n t s w h i c h w e r e p l a c e d in t h e i r c o r r e c t position
(i.e. like i M a c . ) in t h e o r i g i n a l w o r k of J a s o n . I f t h i s l a t t e r h y p o t h e s i s is
c o r r e c t , it c a n be a s s u m e d t h a t b o t h i M a c . a n d J a s o n o f C y r e n e u s e d
largely t h e s a m e s o u r c e s . T h e s e will h a v e i n c l u d e d a Seleucid c h r o n i c l e
a n d H a s m o n a e a n d o c u m e n t s a n d also, a c c o r d i n g t o W a c h o l d e r , E S J L ,
p p . 3 8 - 4 0 , 239, fiupolemus, a s well as o r a l t r a d i t i o n . 2 M a c . is t h e r e f o r e
532 §33-A- J^'^lsh Literature Composed in Greek
as likely t o b e historically a c c u r a t e a s i M a c . w h e n e v e r t h e r e is n o g o o d
r e a s o n w i t h i n the tendenz of t h e e p i t o m a t o r to suspect t a m p e r i n g w i t h
J a s o n ' s o r i g i n a l version. C e r t a i n l y t h e r e c a n b e n o d o u b t t h a t J a s o n w a s
e x t r e m e l y a c c u r a t e on t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s o f the Seleucid m o n a r c h y a n d
t h e r o y a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . M o s t if n o t all t h e official d o c u m e n t s q u o t e d
w i t h i n 2 M a c . a r e n o w g e n e r a l l y a g r e e d t o be genuine.^^
I f t h e a s s u m p t i o n is c o r r e c t t h a t J a s o n of C y r e n e b a s e d his history
p a r t l y o n o r a l r e p o r t s o f c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , he p r o b a b l y w r o t e n o t l o n g
after i6i B.C. T h e r e is n o c o m p e l h n g r e a s o n t o posit a d a t e m u c h l a t e r ,
a n d , if 2 M a c . w a s itself c o m p o s e d in 124 B.C. (see b e l o w ) , e v e r y
r e a s o n t o s u p p o s e t h a t J a s o n m u s t h a v e w r i t t e n q u i t e s o m e d m e before
t h e n , cf 2 M a c . 2:23. O n l y if t h e a n t i - H a s m o n a e a n bias o f 2 M a c . is to
be a t t r i b u t e d to a d e h b e r a t e a t t e m p t by J a s o n himself ( r a t h e r t h a n b y
t h e e p i t o m a t o r ) to refute t h e H a s m o n a e a n p r o p a g a n d i s t w h o c o m p o s e d
I M a c . d o e s i t b e c o m e n e c e s s a r y t o a r g u e t h a t J a s o n w r o t e a r o u n d 90
B.C. ( G o l d s t e i n ) . I n favour of a m u c h earlier d a t e it c a n be s a i d t h a t
t h e l e g e n d a r y n a t u r e o f m a n y n a r r a t i v e s (e.g. t h e m a r t y r d o m of
E l e a z a r a n d h i s seven b r o t h e r s , 2 M a c . 6 - 7 ) d o e s n o t s p e a k a g a i n s t a n
e a r l y o r i g i n since i t n e e d s o n l y a few d e c a d e s for t h e f o r m a t i o n of s u c h
legends, especially far a w a y f r o m t h e s c e n e of t h e e v e n t s . T h e n o t i c e of
1 5 : 3 7 , t h a t J e r u s a l e m r e m a i n e d in t h e h a n d s o f t h e H e b r e w s after t h e
victory o v e r N i c a n o r , is m i s l e a d i n g g i v e n the e x t e n t of l a t e r Seleucid
interference a n d c a n only h a v e b e e n written b y s o m e o n e very distant
from t h e r e , b u t it d e r i v e s n o t from J a s o n , b u t from his s u m m a r i z e r .
G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , we d o n o t k n o w h o w m u c h is d u e to t h e reviser a n d
h o w m u c h to t h e o r i g i n a l a u t h o r .
W h y t h e n a r r a t i v e b r e a k s off precisely w i t h t h e v i c t o r y over N i c a n o r
is s o m e w h a t p u z z l i n g . P o s s i b l y this e n d i n g w a s n o t c o n t e m p l a t e d b y
Jason.
I t m a y be t h a t n o n e o f the ' p a t h e t i c ' e l e m e n t s of 2 M a c . g o b a c k to
J a s o n ' s o r i g i n a l w o r k a n d t h a t he h i m s e l f was a s o b e r h i s t o r i a n . G i v e n
his n a m e he m u s t h a v e c o m e from C y r e n a i c a , b u t it is likely t h a t his
n a r r a t i v e s h o w s h i m to h a v e s p e n t s o m e d m e in J u d a e a . T h e r e is n o
e v i d e n c e a b o u t J a s o n o u t s i d e 2 M a c , c f a b o v e , vol. I , p p . 1 9 - 2 0 ;
J a c o b y , R E I X . i ( 1 9 1 4 ) , 7 7 8 - 8 0 ; idem, F G r H 1 8 2 , T i with
commentary.
T h e s u m m a r i z e r is likely to h a v e w o r k e d in 124 B.C. (Niese,
M o m i g l i a n o ) a n d c e r t a i n l y before P o m p e y in the 60s B.C., cf 2 M a c .
1 5 : 3 7 . T h e r h e t o r i c a l G r e e k style o f 2 M a c . m u s t b e largely h i s w o r k .
H e himself d e c l a r e s his i n t e n t i o n of p r o d u c i n g a n edifying a n d p l e a s i n g
a c c o u n t in c o n t r a s t to the mass of m a t e r i a l m o r e suited to r e a l
55. See C. Habicht, 'Royal Documents in Maccabees I I ' , H S C P h 80 (1976), pp. i—18,
with citations of earlier literature.
l i i s t o r i a n s (2:23 ff.). T h e r e s u k is ' p a t h e t i c ' h i s t o r y , for w h i c h the

c o n v e n t i o n s a r e e n t i r e l y H e l l e n i s t i c a l t h o u g h t h e y defy rigid classifica
t i o n , cf. R. D o r a n , '2 M a c c a b e e s a n d " T r a g i c H i s t o r y ' " , H U C A 50
(1979)5 PP- 1 0 7 - 1 4 . T h e r e is n o r e a s o n t o e x p e c t m u c h o f J a s o n ' s G r e e k
style t o s u r v i v e so d r a s t i c , a n d in p l a c e s i n c o m p e t e n t , a c o m p r e s s i o n .
T h e e p i t o m a t o r e x p l a i n s t h a t his w o r k is i n t e n d e d t o e n t e r t a i n a n d
edify. I t does so b y c o m b i n i n g a t r a d i t i o n a l v i e w of t h e M a c c a b e e s as
o l d H e b r e w w a r r i o r s , a n d t h e T e m p l e s e r v i c e as c e n t r a l t o J u d a i s m ,
w i t h r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t t h e o l o g i c a l beliefs f r o m t h o s e o f i M a c . T h e s e n e w
ideas are most concerned w i t h s u p e r n a t u r a l intervention and,
especially, m a r t y r d o m , w h i c h is closely a s s o c i a t e d w i t h b e h e f in
i n d i v i d u a l b o d i l y r e s u r r e c t i o n for t h e p i o u s . I t h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t
t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of 2 M a c . o n J u d a s , t o t h e exclusion o f his b r o t h e r s ,
reflects a n a n t i - H a s m o n a e a n b i a s ( G o l d s t e i n ) , b u t this is u n l i k e l y .
A r g u m e n t continues over the relation b e t w e e n t h e t w o letters
p r e f i x e d to t h e b o o k (2 M a c . 1 : 1 - 2 : 1 8 ) a n d t h e b o o k itself T h e e d i t o r
w h o a d d e d t h e l e t t e r s w a s n o t the a u t h o r of t h e s u m m a r y since t h e y are
n o t fully i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e t e x t , w h i c h s t a r t s afresh w i t h a n e w
p r o l o g u e in 2 : 1 9 - 3 2 a n d c o n t a i n s m i n o r d i s c r e p a n c i e s w i t h t h e l e t t e r s .
T h e s e a r e letters o f P a l e s t i n i a n J e w s t o E g y p t i a n J e w s , in w h i c h the
l a t t e r a r e s u m m o n e d t o t h e festival of t h e r e d e d i c a t i o n of t h e T e m p l e .
T h e o r i g i n o f t h e l e t t e r s is d u b i o u s . S o m e believe t h a t t h e y w e r e
i n c o r p o r a t e d by a n editor later t h a n t h e a u t h o r o f the s u m m a r y , and
w h o t r i e d to p r o m o t e t h e e p i t o m e a s a l i t u r g i c a l w o r k in A l e x a n d r i a for
t h e feast of H a n n u k a h s o m e t i m e i n t h e mid-first c e n t u r y B.C. I n this
c a s e , t h e e d i t o r is likely to h a v e b e e n a n A l e x a n d r i a n w h o w r o t e to
e n c o u r a g e c o n t i n u e d l o y a l t y to t h e T e m p l e i n J e r u s a l e m . I n f a v o u r of
t h i s h y p o t h e s i s is t h e f a c t t h a t , a l t h o u g h t h e first l e t t e r ( 1 : 1 - 9 ) is firmly
d a t e d t o 1 2 4 / 3 ^ . c . (cf. E . B i c k e r m a n n , ' E i n j i i d i s c h e r F e s t b r i e f v o m
J a h r e 124 v. Chr. (II M a c . 1 : 1 - 1 9 ) ' , Studies in Jewish and Christian
History I I ( 1 9 8 0 ) , p p . 1 3 6 - 5 8 ) , t h e s e c o n d l e t t e r ( 1 : 1 0 - 2 : 1 8 ) is
impossible t o d a t e a n d could h a v e b e e n written m u c h later (but
p r o b a b l y n o t after 67 B . C , cf. G o l d s t e i n , H Maccabees, p p . 540—5). I f so,
t h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e in t h e o r d e r o f e v e n t s d e s c r i b e d b e t w e e n t h e l e t t e r s
a n d 2 M a c , in o p p o s i t i o n t o the o r d e r in i M a c , will h a v e b e e n the
w o r k o f this l a t e r e d i t o r (Eissfeldt). A s e c o n d h y p o t h e s i s , p r o p o s e d in
essence b y M o m i g l i a n o , is s i m p l e r . A c c o r d i n g to t h i s version, t h e s e c o n d
letter, p e r h a p s w i t h s o m e l a t e r i n t e r p o l a t i o n s in t h e l e g e n d a b o u t the
T e m p l e fire, w a s w r i t t e n before 1 2 4 / 3 B . C , a s w a s the first l e t t e r . T h e
w h o l e w o r k w a s p r e p a r e d b y t h e J e r u s a l e m a u t h o r i t i e s in 1 2 4 B . C to
p e r s u a d e E g y p t i a n J e w s to r e m a i n w i t h i n t h e fold of the J e r u s a l e m
F e m p l e . I t is possible b u t n o t n e c e s s a r y to v i e w t h i s as p o l e m i c a g a i n s t
t h e L e o n t o p o l i s J e w s , w h o w e r e i n v o l v e d in this p e r i o d as m e r c e n a r i e s
in the d y n a s t i c s t r u g g l e s of t h e P t o l e m i e s . T h e e p i t o m e will t h e n h a v e
534 §33-'^- Jewish Literature Composed in Greek
b e e n p r e p a r e d for the a u t h o r i t i e s by a w r i t e r a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t h e
t e c h n i q u e s of p a t h e t i c h i s t o r i o g r a p h y in o r d e r to b e c o m e a festal b o o k
like t h e Book of E s t h e r a n d t h u s fulfil t h e p r o p a g a n d a p u r p o s e o f c h e
w h o l e w o r k . T h e J e r u s a l e m a u t h o r i t i e s t h e n a d d e d t h e i r letters to t h e
a u t h o r i z e d e p i t o m e . T h i s h y p o t h e s i s h a s the a d v a n t a g e of e x p l a i n i n g
t h e a p p a r e n t excesses i n t h e s e c o n d l e t t e r ( 1 : 1 8 - 2 : 1 6 ) in w h i c h t h e
m i r a c l e s a n d holiness of the J e r u s a l e m T e m p l e a r e e m p h a s i z e d . It h a s
t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e t h a t it is h a r d to e x p l a i n w h y t h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e t h a t
2 M a c . was i n d e e d e v e r r e a d as a festal b o o k . N e i t h e r h y p o t h e s i s is
entirely satisfactory.
P h i l o ' s b o o k Quod omnis probus liber, 89—91, d e s c r i b e s t h e w a y in w h i c h

m a n y tyrants persecuted the pious a n d virtuous. T h e individual
features of t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n a r e q u i t e r e m i n i s c e n t of the p o r t r a i t d r a w n
of A n t i o c h u s E p i p h a n e s in 2 M a c . T h e y are n o t h o w e v e r sufficient for
c e r t a i n t y t h a t P h i l o k n e w this b o o k .
J o s e p h u s h a s a few notices i n c o m m o n w i t h o u r b o o k , a n d l a c k i n g in
I M a c , b u t i t is i m p r o b a b l e t h a t htki\£N_2^M.dx:_{contra Goldstein, /
Maccabees, p p . 5 5 - 6 1 ; II Maccabees, p . 5 4 9 ) .
O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l e x h o r t a t i o n s k n o w n as t h e
F o u r t h Book of M a c c a b e e s d e p e n d e n t i r e l y o n the c o n t e n t s o f 2 M a c .
T h e s a m e is t r u e of t h e l a t e r t r e a t m e n t s of t h e h i s t o r y of t h e
M a c c a b a e a n m a r t y r s in J e w i s h h a g g a d a h , cf I. L e v i , ' L e m a r t y r e d e s
septs M a c h a b e e s d a n s la P e s i k t a R a b b a t i ' , R E J 54 ( 1 9 0 7 ) , p p . 1 3 8 - 1 4 1 .
C h r i s t i a n e v i d e n c e b e g i n s w i t h H e b . 1 1 : 3 5 , , for iTvinravLaOrjaav
e v i d e n t l y d e p e n d s o n 2 M a c . 6:19, 28 ( c m TO TVfxiTavov npoarjye, iiri TO
TVfiTTavov €v9€a)s rjXdc), w h i l e o t h e r allusions, e.g. in H e b . 1 1 : 3 5
recall 2 M a c . 6 - 7 .
T h e oldest c i t a t i o n is b y C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a , Strom, v 14, 97 (cf. 2
M a c . 1:10).
H i p p o l y t u s refers to t h e b o o k i n De Christo et Antichristo 49 ( e d .
Achelis, G C S H i p p o l y t u s I, p . 3 3 ) . I n t h e c o m m e n t a r y o n D a n i e l a l s o
use is m a d e o f the b o o k , c f 2:20; 3:4 (ed. B o n w e t s c h , G C S H i p p o l y t u s
I, p p . 80, 1 2 4 ; ed. L e f e v r e , p p . i i i , 1 3 4 ) .
O r i g e n a p p e a l s t o the b o o k r e p e a t e d l y t o p r o v e i m p o r t a n t d o c t r i n e s :
( i ) to 2 M a c . 7:28 for t h e d o c t r i n e of c r e a t i o n ex nihilo: Comment in
Joann. i 17 ( G C S , O r i g e n I V , p . 2 2 ) ; De principiis ii i, 5 ( G C S , O r i g e n
V , p . I I I ; e d . C r o u z e l a n d S i m o n e t t i , S C 2 5 2 , p . 2 4 4 ) ; (2) t o 2 M a c .
1 5 : 1 4 for the d o c t r i n e of t h e i n t e r c e s s i o n o f the s a i n t s : Comment, in Joann.
xiii 58 (57) ( G C S , O r i g e n I V , p . 2 8 9 ) ; Hom. in Cant., lib. iii ( G C S ,
O r i g e n V I I I , p . 1 9 1 ) ; Z>^ oratione 1 1 , i ( G C S , O r i g e n I I , p . 322) ; (3) h e
also m a k e s p a r t i c u l a r m e n t i o n of t h e s t o r y o f E l e a z a r a n d t h e seven
M a c c a b a e a n b r o t h e r s (2 M a c . 6 : i 8 - 7 ; ^ n . ) as g l o r i o u s e x a m p l e s of t h e
c o u r a g e of m a r t y r s in Exhortatio ad martyrium 2 2 - 7 ( G C S , O r i g e n I, p p .
1 9 - 2 3 ) ; cf. also Comment, in epist. ad Rom. i, iv 10 ( P G X I V , 999).

(4) F o r o t h e r q u o t a t i o n s in O r i g e n see Fragm. in Exod. ( P G X I I ,
2 6 7 ) ; Contra Cels. viii 4 6 ( G C S , O r i g e n I I , p . 2 6 1 ; cf. H . C h a d w i c k ,
Origen : Contra Celsum ( 1 9 5 3 ) , p . 486).
Cyprian, t o o , m a i n l y cites t h e s t o r y o f t h e M a c c a b a e a n m a r t y r s of 2
M a c . 6 - 7 [Ad Fortunatum 1 1 , a n d Testim. iii 1 7 ) .
T h e C h u r c h F a t h e r s in g e n e r a l liked to refer t o t h e s e M a c c a b a e a n
m a r t y r s (often u s i n g t h e F o u r t h B o o k o f M a c c a b e e s ) ; i n d e e d t h e y w e r e
e v e n finally g i v e n a p l a c e a m o n g C h r i s t i a n s a i n t s . C f W . H . C. F r e n d ,
Martyrdom and Persecution in the Early Church ( 1 9 6 5 ) , especially p p . 20—2.
T h e d e s i g n a t i o n . S e c o n d Book of t h e M a c c a b e e s , is first f o u n d in
E u s e b . Praep. ev. viii 9, 38, a n d J e r o m e , Prol. galeatus to t h e b o o k s of
S a m u e l (PL X X V I I I , 602-3).
P r e s u m a b l y H i p p o l y t u s a n d O r i g e n a l r e a d y followed t h e s a m e
n u m b e r i n g , since t h e y n a m e t h e o t h e r b o o k i M a c . (cf a b o v e , p . 1 8 3 ) .
W i t h regard to manuscripts, editions, a n d ancient translations,
essentially t h e s a m e a p p h e s as for i M a c . ( c f a b o v e , p p . 1 8 3 ff.). C f
especially LXX, VT Graecum Auct. ... Gottingensis ed. I X . 2 , Maccabaeorum
liber 2, ed. W . K a p p l e r a n d R. H a n h a r t (^1976). F o r the text, c f E .
N e s t l e , Septuagintastudien I V ( 1 9 0 3 ) , p p . 1 9 - 2 2 ; D . D e B r u y n e , ' L e texte
g r e c d e s d e u x p r e m i e r s livres d e s M a c c h a b e e s ' , R B 31 ( 1 9 2 2 ) , p p .
3 1 - 5 4 ; Idem, ' L e t e x t e g r e c d u d e u x i e m e livre des M a c h a b e e s ' , R B
( 1 9 3 0 ) , p p . 5 0 3 - 1 9 ; P . K a t z , ' T h e T e x t of 2 M a c c a b e e s R e c o n s i d e r e d ' ,
Z N W 51 ( i 9 6 0 ) , p p . 1 0 - 3 0 ; R . H a n h a r t , Z^m Text des 2. und 3 .
Makkabderbuches. Probleme der Oberlieferung, der Auslegung and der Ausgabe
( M S U V H ) (1961), p p . 427-86.
It s h o u l d be n o t e d f u r t h e r ( i ) t h a t C o d e x S i n a i t i c u s h a s n o t
p r e s e r v e d 2 M a c . ; a n d (2) t h a t , b e s i d e s t h e r e c e n s i o n o f t h e O l d L a t i n
t r a n s l a t i o n w h i c h p a s s e d i n t o t h e V u l g a t e , a n u m b e r o f O l d L a t i n texts
s u r v i v e w h i c h a r e f r e q u e n t l y b a s e d on a f o r m of t h e G r e e k n o t f o u n d i n
t h e G r e e k m a n u s c r i p t s , cf t h e e d i t i o n of t h e s e t e x t s i n D . D e B r u y n e ,
Les anciennes traductions latines des Macchabies ( A n e c d o t a M a r e d s o l a n a I V )
( 1 9 3 2 ) . T h e v a l u e of these for c o r r e c t i n g the G r e e k m a n u s c r i p t s is
e m p h a s i z e d by D e B r u y n e b u t m i n i m i z e d b y H a n h a r t . O n t h e S y r i a c
a n d A r m e n i a n v e r s i o n s , see G o l d s t e i n , II Maccabees, p . 1 2 7 .
T h e exegetical a n d c r i t i c a l l i t e r a t u r e for t h i s b o o k is also m a i n l y t h e
s a m e a s t h a t for i M a c . (cf a b o v e , p p . 184 fT.).
F o r commentaries, s e e :
K a m p h a u s e n in E. K a u t z s c h , Die Apokryphen und Pseudepigraphen des A.T. etc. I (1900;
reprinted 1921), p p . 81-119.
Moffatt, J., ' T h e Second Book of Maccabees', in Charles, A P O T I, p p . 125-54.
Bevenot, H., i n F. F e l d m a n n and H . Herkenne, Die Heilige Schrift des A.T. (1931).
Abel, F.-M. ( = L.-F.), Les Livres des Maccabees (Et. Bibliques) (1949) (full t e x t a n d
commentary).
Grandclaudon, M . , in L. Pirot a n d A. C l a m c r , La Sainte Bible (1951).

Tedesche, S. S., S. Zeidin in S. Zeidin, Jewish Apocryphal Literature (1954).
K a h a n a , A., D"'ns''nn D n o o n (''1956).
H a r t u m , E. S., •"•nS'-nn DnDOH (1958).
Laconi, M., La Sacra Bibbia (i960).
Abel, F.-M. ( = L.-F.) a n d J. Starcky, Les Livres des Maccabies (Jerusalem Bible) (1961 ;
E T 1966).
Bartlett, J. R., The First and Second Books of the Maccabees (Cambridge Bible Commentary)
(1973)-
Habicht, Chr., 2 Makkabderbuch Q S H R Z , I.3) (1976).
Goldstein,J. A., II Maccabees (Anchor Bible) (1983).
General Introductions
Eissfeldt, O . , The O.T., An Introduction etc. (ET 1965), pp. 579-81.
Nickelsburg, G. W . E., Jewish Literature between the Bible and the Mishnah (1981), p p .
118-21.
Bibliography
(See also the books listed in G. Delling, Bibliographic zur jiid.-hell. und intertestamentarischen
Literatur, ig(X)-igjo (^1975), pp- 141-6.)
Willrich, H . , Juden und Griechen vor der makkabdischen Erhebung (1895), pp. 6 4 ff.
Idem, Judaica (1900), pp. 131-76.
Biichler, A., Die Tobiaden und die Oniaden im II. Makkabderbuche und in der verwandten judisch-
hellenistischen Litteratur (1899), pp. 277-398.
Niese, B., 'Kritik der beiden Makkabaerbiicher nebst Beitragen z u r Gesch. d e r
makkabaischen Erhebung', Hermes 35 (1900), p p . 268-307, 453-527.
Levi, I., ' L a date d e la redaction du H e livre des Machabees', R E J 43 (1901), p p . 222-30
(against Niese).
Krauss, S., 'Jason of Cyrene', J E V I I I , col. 75.
Barton, G. A., 'II Maccabees', J E V I I I , cols. 240-1.
Abrahams, I., 'II Maccabees', J E V I I I , cols. 243-4.
Torrey, C. C., 'Second Maccabees', EB I I I (1902), cols. 2869-79.
Laqueur, R . , Kritische Untersuchungen zum zweiten Makkabderbuch (1904).
Wellhausen, J., 'Ueber den geschichtlichen Wert des zweiten Makkabaerbuchs, i m
Verhaltniss z u m ersten', Nachrichten der Gottinger Gesellsch. der Wissensch., philol.-hist.
Kl. (1905), p p . 117-63.
Jacoby, F., 'lason von Kyrene', R E I X . i (1914), cols. 778-80.
Juster, J., Les Juifs dans I'Empire romain etc. I (1914), p p . 1-3. ^
Stahlin, O., in W. v. Christ-W. Schmidt, Gesch. der griech. Lit. II. i ( 1920), pp. 367-8.
Bickermann, E., 'Makkabaerbiicher. Buch I u n d I F , R E X I V . i (1928), cols. 779-97.
Kappler, W . , De memoria alterius libri Maccabaeorum (1929).
Tcherikover, V. A., 'Documents in II Maccabees', Tarbiz i (1929-30), p p . 31-45 (Heb.).
Kraeling, C . H., ' T h e Jewish C o m m u n i t y at Antioch', J B L 51 (1932), p p . 130-60 (on 2
Mac. 4:9).
Bickerman(n), E. J . , Der Gott der Makkabder (1937); E T The God of the Maccabees (1979).
Surkau, H.-W., Martyrien in jiidischer und friihchristlicher êit ( F R L A N T 54, 1938), p p .
9-29-
Cavaignac, E., ' R e m a r q u e s sur le deuxieme livre des "Macchabees"', R H R 130 (1945),
pp. 42-58.
Levy, I., 'Notes d'histoire hellenistique sur le second livre des Maccabees', A I P h H O S 10
(1950). PP-681-99.
Dagut, M. G., 'II Maccabees a n d the Death of Antiochus I V Epiphanes', J B L 72 (1953),
pp. 149-57-
Schunck, K.-D., Die Quellen des I und II Makkabaerbuches (1954).

Levy, L, 'Les d e u x livres des Maccabees et le livre hebraique des Hasmoneens', Semitica 5
(1955)-PP- 27-32-
M a n s o n , T . W., 'Martyrs a n d M a r t y r d o m ' , B J R L 39 (1956/7), p p . 463-84.
Gil, Luis, 'Sobre el estilo del Libro Secundo de los Macabeos', Emerita Revista de linguistica
y filologia classica 26 (1958), pp. 11-32.
H a d a s , M . , Hellenistic Culture (1959), pp. 126-7.
K a t z , P., 'Eleazar's M a r t y r d o m in 2 M a c c a b e e s : The L a t i n Evidence for a Point of the
Story', Studia Patristica I V (1961), pp. 118-24.
Adinolfi, M., ' L e apparizioni de 2 M a c . v, 2-4 e x, 29—30', Rivista Biblica 11 (1961), pp.
167-85.
Brownlee, W. H . , ' M a c c a b e e s , Books of, I D B I I I (1962), cols. 201-15.
Zambelli, M., ' L a Composizione del secondo h b r o dei M a c c a b e i e la nuova cronologia di
Antioco I V Epiphane', Miscellanea Greca e Romana (1965), p p . 195-299.
Arenhoevel, D . , Die Theokratie nach dem i. und2. Makkabderbuch (1967).
Bunge, J . G., ' U n t e r s u c h u n g e n zum Zweiten M a k k a b a e r b u c h ' , diss. Bonn (1971).
S c h m u t t e r m a y r , G., '"Schopfung a u s dem Nichts" in 2 Makk. 7,28?', BZ 17 (1973), pp.
203-22.
Momigliano, A., ' T h e Second Book of Maccabees', CPh 70 (1975), p p . 81-8.
Momigliano, A., Mûafow (1975), pp. 103-6.
H a b i c h t , Chr., 'Royal Documents i n Maccabees I T , H S C P h 8 0 (1976), pp. 1-18.
D o r a n , R., '2 Maccabees a n d " T r a g i c History'", H U C A 50 (1979), p p . 107-14.
K e l l e r m a n n , U . , Auferstanden in der Himmel. 2 Makkabder 7 und die Auferstehung der Mdrtyrer
(1979)-
D o r a n , R., Temple Propaganda : the Purpose and Character of 2 Maccabees (1981).
O n t h e two letters at t h e beginning of the book, cf (in addition to the literature
mentioned a b o v e ) :
Gratz, H . , 'Das Sendschreiben der Palastinenser a n die agyptisch-judaischen Gemeinden
w e g e n d e r Feier d e r Tempelweihe', M G W J (1877), pp. 1 - 1 6 , 4 9 - 6 0 .
Buchler, A., 'Das Sendschreiben der J e r u s a l e m e r a n die J u d e n in Aegypten in I I
M a k k a b . i, 11-12, 18', M G W J 41 (1897), p p . 481—500, 529-54.
T o r r e y , C. C , 'DieBriefe 2 Makk. i , 1-2, 18', Z A W 20 (1900), pp. 225-42.
Winckler, 'Die J u d e n und R o m ' , Altorientalische Forschungen, 3rd series, 1.2 (1902), pp.
97—134 ( p p . 97-1 i2g. o n 2 M a c . 1:10 fF.).
M e r c a t i , RB (1902), p p . 203-11 (on the text of 2 M a c . 1:7).
Kolbe, W., Untersuch. zfud. und syr. Gesch. (1925).
Bi(c)kerman(n), E., 'Ein judischer Festbrief v o m J a h r e 124 v. Chr. (II M a c e . 1.1-9)',
Z N W 32 (1933), pp. 233-54 (reprinted in Studies in Jewish and Christian History I I
(1980), p p . 136-58).
T o r r e y , C. C , 'The Letters Prefixed to Second M a c c a b e e s ' , J A O S 60 (1940), pp. 119-50.
Idem, The Apocryphal Literature etc. (1945), p p . 78—9.
Wacholder, B. Z., ' T h e Letter from J u d a h M a c c a b e e to Aristobulus: Is 2 Maccabees
1:10-2:18 Authentic?', H U C A 49 (1978), p p . 89-133.
8. The Third Book of Maccabees

Besides 2 M a c . , t h e s o - c a l l e d T h i r d B o o k o f M a c c a b e e s m a y a l s o b e
m e n t i o n e d h e r e , since it h a s at least t h e f o r m o f a h i s t o r i c a l n a r r a t i v e
c o n c e r n i n g a n a l l e g e d e p i s o d e o f l a t e r J e w i s h h i s t o r y . I n fact i t is a
r o m a n t i c fiction, f o u n d e d on a t t h e m o s t v a g u e r e m i n i s c e n c e s o f
h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t s , of w h i c h o n l y a few o c c u r r e d i n t h e t i m e a n d p l a c e
described by the book. I t recounts h o w Ptolemy IV Philopator
( 2 2 1 - 2 0 5 B . C . ) c a m e to J e r u s a l e m after his v i c t o r y o v e r A n t i o c h u s t h e
G r e a t at R a p h i a ( 2 1 7 B . C . ) a n d w i s h e d also to e n t e r t h e i n n e r p a r t o f
the T e m p l e . S i n c e n o t h i n g c o u l d deflect h i m from his p u r p o s e , t h e J e w s
cried in t h e i r distress to G o d , w h o a n s w e r e d t h e i r p r a y e r s a n d s t r u c k
P t o l e m y s o t h a t he fell s t u n n e d to t h e g r o u n d ( 1 - 2 : 2 4 ) . E n r a g e d , h e
r e t u r n e d t o E g y p t a n d p l a n n e d r e v e n g e . H e d i v e s t e d the A l e x a n d r i a n
J e w s of t h e i r civil r i g h t s a n d c o m m a n d e d all t h e J e w s of E g y p t , w i t h
their wives a n d c h i l d r e n , t o be b r o u g h t in c h a i n s to A l e x a n d r i a , w h e r e
he l o c k e d t h e m u p i n t h e h i p p o d r o m e . T h e i r n u m b e r s w e r e so g r e a t
t h a t t h e scribes w h o w e r e to r e c o r d their n a m e s h a d still n o t finished
after forty d a y s a n d w e r e o b l i g e d t o stop for l a c k of w r i t i n g m a t e r i a l
(2:25-4^?^.). P t o l e m y t h e n c o m m a n d e d t h a t 500 e l e p h a n t s b e
i n t o x i c a t e d w i t h incense a n d w i n e a n d incited a g a i n s t t h e J e w s in t h e
h i p p o d r o m e . T h e p r e p a r a t i o n s w e r e m a d e , b u t t h e p l a n w a s left until a
d a y l a t e r b e c a u s e t h e k i n g slept till d i n n e r t i m e . O n the s e c o n d d a y ,
again nothing happened, because through God's providence the king
s u d d e n l y forgot e v e r y t h i n g a n d was v e r y a n g r y t h a t hostile plots h a d
been m a d e a g a i n s t t h e J e w s , his m o s t faithful s e r v a n t s . B u t o n t h e v e r y
s a m e d a y a t m e a l t i m e he r e p e a t e d his earUer c o m m a n d t h a t the J e w s b e
e x t e r m i n a t e d . W h e n on t h e t h i r d d a y , m a t t e r s at last a p p e a r e d t o
b e c o m e serious a n d t h e k i n g w a s a p p r o a c h i n g t h e h i p p o d r o m e w i t h h i s
troops, t w o a n g e l s a p p e a r e d f r o m h e a v e n i n a n s w e r t o t h e J e w s ' p r a y e r ,
and the t r o o p s a n d the king b e c a m e transfixed w i t h t e r r o r . T h e
elephants, however, threw themselves on t h e king's troops, t r a m p l e d o n
them, a n d destroyed them (5-6:21). T h e king w a s n o w very irate with
his counsellors a n d c o m m a n d e d t h a t t h e J e w s be freed from t h e i r
c h a i n s , i n d e e d t h a t they even be e n t e r t a i n e d for seven d a y s a t h i s
expense. T h e y therefore c e l e b r a t e d t h e i r d e l i v e r a n c e w i t h feasting a n d
rejoicing a n d d e t e r m i n e d t o k e e p t h e s e d a y s forever a s a festival. T h e
king issued letters of p r o t e c t i o n for t h e J e w s to all t h e g o v e r n o r s in t h e
provinces a n d p e r m i t t e d t h e J e w s to p u t to d e a t h a p o s t a t e s a m o n g t h e i r
p e o p l e . O v e r 300 of these w e r e killed in o n e d a y a n d t h e J e w s r e t u r n e d
h o m e h a p p i l y (6:22-7;^^.).
T h i s s t o r y is m o s t l y fictional, b e i n g closest i n g e n r e t o Hellenistic
r o m a n c e . C e r t a i n e l e m e n t s m a y reflect g e n u i n e p r o b l e m s of t h e
A l e x a n d r i a n J e w s u n d e r P t o l e m y I V P h i l o p a t o r . T h u s t h e a c c o u n t of t h e
b a t t l e of R a p h i a ( 1 : 1 - 5 ) is n o t i n a c c u r a t e . I t is q u i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t
P t o l e m y I V d i d , as h e is m a d e t o c l a i m , t r y to i n i t i a t e J e w s w i t h o t h e r s
into t h e m y s t e r i e s of Dionysus a n d t o give t h e m citizen r i g h t s ( 3 : 2 1 ) .
E m p h a s i s o n t h e i m p o s i t i o n of a c e n s u s by P t o l e m y I V is n o t i m p l a u s i b l e
(2:28). It is h o w e v e r n o t justified to c l a i m t h a t 3 M a c . is therefore a g o o d
historical s o u r c e for t h e p e r i o d ( K a s h e r ) . O n t h e c o n t r a r y , the a u t h o r
seems to d e l i g h t in a c c u m u l a t i n g p s y c h o l o g i c a l impossibilities. H i s style
is also c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y p r e t e n t i o u s , b o m b a s t i c a n d i n v o l v e d .
T h e m a i n basis for t h e a u t h o r ' s fiction s e e m s r a t h e r to h a v e b e e n a n

o l d e r l e g e n d c o n t a i n e d i n J o s e p h u s . A c c o r d i n g t o this (C. Ap. ii 5
(50—5)) P t o l e m y V I I I P h y s c o n ( 1 4 5 - 1 1 6 B . C . ) w i s h e d to cast t h e j e w s
of A l e x a n d r i a , w h o as s u p p o r t e r s of C l e o p a t r a w e r e his p o l i t i c a l
e n e m i e s , before t h e i n t o x i c a t e d e l e p h a n t s . T h e s e , h o w e v e r , t u r n e d
i n s t e a d a g a i n s t the k i n g ' s friends, w h e r e a t h e g a v e u p his p l a n . I n
r e m e m b r a n c e , the J e w s of A l e x a n d r i a h a v e since t h e n celebrated this
d a y as a festival.
A c c o r d i n g t o this t h e c e l e b r a t i o n of t h e festival, also m e n t i o n e d i n 3
M a c . (6:36), a p p e a r s at least t o b e h i s t o r i c a l . T h e r e m a y after all b e
s o m e fact as t h e basis o f the l e g e n d . T h e t h r e a t t o the J e w s d u r i n g
P h y s c o n ' s r u l e w a s g e n u i n e e n o u g h b e c a u s e of their s u p p o r t for
C l e o p a t r a I I . T h e o l d e r f o r m o f the l e g e n d s e e m s to b e t h a t of J o s e p h u s
b e c a u s e e v e r y t h i n g is m u c h s i m p l e r h e r e a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y m o r e
u n d e r s t a n d a b l e , a n d he e v i d e n t l y d i d n o t k n o w 3 M a c . T h u s w h e n 3
M a c . associates this s t o r y w i t h P t o l e m y I V i n s t e a d o f P t o l e m y V I I I , its
a u t h o r d e p a r t s from the o l d e r l e g e n d . O t h e r a d d i t i o n s w i t h w h i c h t h e
a u t h o r e n r i c h e s his s t o r y i n c r e a s e t h e d i v e r g e n c e s still further. I t is for
i n s t a n c e possible t h o u g h u n p r o v a b l e t h a t h e h a s c o n f l a t e d yet a n o t h e r
episode o f p e r s e c u t i o n w i t h t h o s e u n d e r P t o l e m y I V a n d P t o l e m y V I I I ,
n a m e l y t h e h t t l e - k n o w n t r o u b l e s of t h e A l e x a n d r i a n J e w s in 88/87
k n o w n f r o m J o r d a n e s , Romana 8 1 , e d . M o m m s e n (so W i l l r i c h ) . W h a t
seems to h a v e o c c u r r e d is t h a t 3 M a c . i n t e n t i o n a l l y conflated l e g e n d s
from diflferent p e r i o d s . S o , for i n s t a n c e , D o s i t h e u s , w h o is m e n t i o n e d in
1:3 as a c o m p a n i o n of P t o l e m y I V , is k n o w n to h a v e existed, a n d to
h a v e b e e n alive in 2 2 2 B . c . (P. H i b e h 90, c f H . W i l l r i c h , K h o 7 (1907),
p p . 293 flf.); b u t t h e n a m e is also p e r h a p s i n t e n t i o n a l l y r e m i n i s c e n t of
the g e n e r a l of P t o l e m y P h i l o m e t o r m e n t i o n e d in C. Ap. ii 5 (49). T h e
a u t h o r a i m e d t o e x p l a i n a n a l r e a d y e x i s t i n g festival a n d t o p r o v i d e t h e
J e w s of A l e x a n d r i a w i t h a m m u n i t i o n i n t h e i r s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t t h e
resident G r e e k s w h i c h o c c u p i e d t h e m f r o m t h e late P t o l e m a i c i n t o t h e
R o m a n period.
O n t h e d a t e of t h e a u t h o r , e s t i m a t e s h a v e v a r i e d from t h e earliest
p a r t of t h e first c e n t u r y B . C . t o t h e late first c e n t u r y A . D . T h e earliest
possible d a t e is fixed by t h e a u t h o r ' s k n o w l e d g e of t h e G r e e k a d d i t i o n s
to D a n i e l (3 M a c . 6:6), w h i c h b e l o n g i n t h e i r p r e s e n t form to t h e
second c e n t u r y B . C . , b u t m a y h a v e c i r c u l a t e d s e p a r a t e l y e a r l i e r (see
b e l o w , p . 7 2 5 ) . T h e l a t e s t possible d a t e is A . D . 70 b e c a u s e the T e m p l e
is a s s u m e d to b e still s t a n d i n g a n d t h e b o o k p a s s e d i n t o C h r i s t i a n i t y .
M o r e precise d a t e s h a v e b e e n s u g g e s t e d . I f t h e r o y a l e d i c t i n c l u d e d in
the p r e s e n t G r e e k t e x t of E s t h e r was i n c l u d e d i n the o r i g i n a l t r a n s l a t i o n
c o m p l e t e d p r o b a b l y in 1 1 4 B . C b u t p o s s i b l y in 7 7 or 48 B . c (see
a b o v e , p . 506; b e l o w , p . 719) a n d if it w a s b a s e d o n 3 M a c , t h e n t h e
l a t t e r w o r k m u s t d a t e to b e f o r e 1 1 4 (or 7 7 or 48) B . C (cf B . M o t z o , TI
R i f a c i m e n t o G r e c o di E s t e r e il I I I M a c . ' , in Saggi di Storia e Letteratura

Giudeo-Ellenistica (1924), p p . 2 7 2 - 9 0 ) . H o w e v e r , a l t h o u g h s o m e l i t e r a r y
c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e G r e e k E s t h e r is c e r t a i n , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p m a y
p l a u s i b l y be r e v e r s e d , so t h a t 3 M a c . will h a v e u s e d t h e G r e e k E s t h e r
a n d c a n be d a t e d after 1 1 4 B . C . at t h e earliest. F u r t h e r m o r e if t h e e d i c t
w a s i n s e r t e d i n t o the G r e e k t r a n s l a t i o n after t h e t r a n s l a t i o n by
L y s i m a c h u s h a d b e e n c o m p l e t e d , i t c o u l d h a v e b e e n c o m p o s e d at a n y
t i m e before i t s first c i t a t i o n b y J o s e p h u s (see b e l o w , p . 7 1 9 ) . W i l c k e n ,
T c h e r i k o v e r a n d H a d a s m a i n t a i n t h a t a R o m a n d a t e is a s s u m e d by t h e
t e r m u s e d for the c e n s u s , laographia (2:28), a n d , m o r e specifically, t h a t
t h e c o n c e r n e x p r e s s e d for J e w i s h civil r i g h t s is Ukely to g o b a c k to t h e
y e a r s 2 5 - 1 5 B . C . a n d t h e census o f 2 4 / 2 3 B . C . , in w h i c h a special p o l l
t a x was i m p o s e d o n the J e w s t o t h e i r c o n s i d e r a b l e distress. T h e t e r m is
n o t a d e c i s i v e i n d i c a t o r of c o m p o s i t i o n in t h e R o m a n p e r i o d , cf A.
K a s h e r , The Jews in Hellenistic and Roman Egypt ( 1 9 7 8 ) , p p . 2 0 7 - 8
( H e b . ) , b u t i t m a k e s a R o m a n d a t e h k e l y . D a t i n g specifically to t h e
t i m e of C a h g u l a b e c a u s e of t h e g e n e r a l a t m o s p h e r e o f s t a t e o p p r e s s i o n is
h y p o t h e t i c a l g i v e n the lack o f a n y references specific t o t h a t p e r i o d ,
contra C o l l i n s , B A A J , p p . 1 0 5 - 1 1 . I n fact, n o specific p e r s e c u d o n is
n e e d e d t o e x p l a i n t h e c o m p o s i t i o n of a n a e t i o l o g i c a l historical r o m a n c e
of this s o r t i n the c o n s t a n t l y tense J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y of A l e x a n d r i a a t
a n y t i m e after the m i d - s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C
T h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r m a k e s it c e r t a i n t h a t t h e w o r k w a s w r i t t e n in
A l e x a n d r i a . T h e v e r b o s e , r h e t o r i c a l G r e e k style p o i n t s clearly t o a n
original Greek composition rather t h a n a translation.
The oldest Christian evidence is t h a t of E u s e b i u s , for it m a y b e

c o n c l u d e d , f r o m t h e a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n t h e m , t h a t t h e references in
S y n c e l l u s a n d J e r o m e c o m e f r o m E u s e b i u s ( E u s e b . , Chron., ed. S c h o e n e ,
I I , cols. 1 2 2 ff.: S y n c e l l . : 17 rpiViy TU)V Ma/c/cajSaicov j8t)3Aos rrepl TOV
îXoTTOLTopos TOVTOV HToXepLalov loTopei; J e r o m e , ed. H e l m , G C S
E u s e b i u s V I I , 2nd ed., p . 1 3 4 : ' E a q u a e in t e r t i o M a c c a b a e o r u m l i b r o
scripta sunt, sub h o c principe gesta referuntur').
T h e Apostolic Canons h a v e i n c a n o n 84, MaKKaâicov rpia ( Z a h n , Gesch.
des neutestamentl. Kanons, ii, 1 8 4 - 9 3 5 S w e t e a n d O t t l e y , l O T G , p . 209).
T h e s t i c h o m e t r y of N i c e p h o r u s also c o u n t s MaKKaâi'Ko. y (Zahn II,
p . 299; S w e t e a n d O t d e y , p . 208).
T h e Synopsis Athanasii r e a d s i n s t e a d of this, MaKKaâiKo. j3i|3Aia S'
nToXefjLa'iKd ( Z a h n II, p . 3 1 7 ; Swete a n d Ottley, p . 207). A c c o r d i n g to
C r e d n e r ' s c o n j e c t u r e K a l s h o u l d b e r e a d i n s t e a d o f t h e n u m b e r 8', so
t h a t HToXi^jLaiKd w o u l d refer to 3 M a c . Z a h n I I , p . 309, p r o p o s e d t h a t
w e s h o u l d r e a d TToXeynKd, ' o f a hostile c o n t e n t ' , i.e. ' n o t c a n o n i c a l ' .
S i n c e S y n c e l l u s ( I , p . 5 1 6 ) cites t h e L e t t e r of Aristeas w i t h t h e f o r m u l a
Kadojs iv Tois HToXepaiKOLS yeypaiTTai it is possible t h a t 3 M a c . w a s
sometimes included with the Letter under the not inappropriate title of
//roAejitaiKa.
Apparently the book never became known in the Latin Church, and
for that reason is also lacking in the Vulgate. On the other hand, it was
accepted in the Syrian Church, as is proved by the extant old Syriac
translation.
The name 'Book of Maccabees' has been given to it quite improperly
only because it deals with the persecution of faithful Jews.
The book has been preserved in only some of the LXX manuscripts.
It is found in the Codex Alexandrinus (A) but not in Vaticanus or
Sinaiticus. The main check on A is provided by the Codex Venetus. It
appears therefore in most editions of the LXX, cf especially LXX, V. T.
Graecum Auct. ... Gottingensis ed. XI.3, Maccabaeorum liber 3, ed. R.
Hanhart (^1980), and in the separate editions of the Greek Apocrypha
(cf above, p. 184).
Of the ancient translations, mention need only be made of the old
Syriac (cf above, p. 184). Cf R. Hanhart, ^wm Text des 2. und 3.
Makkabderbuches. Probleme der Oberlieferung, der Auslegung und der Ausgabe
(MSU, VII) ( 1 9 6 1 ) ; W. Baars, 'Eine neue griechische Handschrift des
3 Makkabaerbuches', VT 13 ( 1 9 6 3 ) , pp. 8 2 - 7 .
Commentaries
Grimm, C. L. W., Das zweite, dritte und vierte Buch der Maccabder: Exegetisches Handbuch z"
den Apokryphen des A.T.s, ^ parts (1857).
Kautzsch, E., in E . Kautzsch, A P A T I (1900 ; repr. 1921), p p . 119-35.
Kmmett, C . W., ' T h e T h i r d Book of Maccabees', in Charles, A P O T 1(1913), p p . 155-73.
Riessler, P . , Altjiidisches Schrifttum ausserhalb der Bibet, iibersetzt und erldutert (1928), pp.
682-99, 1312-13.
Hadas, M . , 'The Third a n d F o u r t h Books of Maccabees', in S. Zeitlin, Jewish Apocryphal
Literature (1953).
Gaster, T. H . , in A . K a h a n a , • " J i m n D-nDOn ( ^ 9 5 6 ) .
H a r t u m , E . S., D''nS"'nn DnBDH (1958).
Bibliography
(Jratz, H., Gesch. der Juden I I I Cî888), pp. 613-15.
lorrey, C. C , EB I I I (1902), cols. 2879 ff.
Willrich, H . , 'Der historische K e r n des I I I . M a k k a b a e r b u c h e s ' , Hermes 39 (1904), pp.
244-58.
Kmmett, C . W., The Third and Fourth Book of Maccabees (1918).
Harris, J. R . , 'Metrical F r a g m e n t s in I I I Maccabees', B J R L 5 (1919), p p . 195-207.
Motzo, B., 'II Rifacimento Greco di Ester e il I I I M a c . ' , Saggi di Storia e Letteratura
Giudeo-EUenistica (1924), p p . 272—90.
Bickermann, E., ' M a k k a b a e r b u c h e r ( I I I ) ' , R E X X V I I (1928), cols. 797-800.
1 racy, S., ' I l l Maccabees and Pseudo-Aristeas', Y C S i (1928), p p . 241—52.
Cohen, J., Judaica et Aegyptiaca. De Maccabaeorum Libro Hf Quaestiones Historicae (1941).
.V1oreau,J., 'Le troisieme livre des Maccabees', Chronique d'figypte 16 (1941), p p . 111—22.
542 §33-^' Jewish Literature Composed in Greek
Hadas, M . , ' H I Maccabees a n d Greek R o m a n c e ' , Review of Religion 13 (1949), p p .

155-62.
Levy, L, 'Ptolemee Lathyre et les Juifs', H U C A 23.2 (1950/1), p p . 127-36.
Jesi, F., 'Notes s u r I'edit Dionysiaque de Ptolemee I V Philopator', J N E S 15 (1956), p p .
236-40.
Loewe, R., 'A Jewish Counterpart to the Acts of t h e Alexandrians', J J S 12 (1961), p p .
105-22.
Tcherikover, V. A., ' T h e Third Book of Maccabees as a Historical Source of Augustus'
Time', Scripta Hieros. VII (1961), p p . 1-25.
Kasher, A., 'Anti-Jewish Persecutions in Alexandria in the Reign of Ptolemy Philopator
according to I I I Maccabees', in Studies in the History of the Jewish People and the Land of
Israel, ed. U . R a p p a p o r t , I V (1978), pp. 59-76 (Heb.).
K a s h e r , A . , The Jews in Hellenistic and Roman Egypt (igyS), pp. 194-211 (Heb.).
Nickelsburg, G. W . E., J L B B M (1981), pp. 169-72.
g. Philo's Historical Writings

As the a u t h o r of h i s t o r i c a l w o r k s o n J e w i s h h i s t o r y , t h e p h i l o s o p h e r
P h i l o also n e e d s to b e n a m e d h e r e . I n d e e d , h e has left us a c c o u n t s n o t
o n l y on b i b l i c a l subjects b u t also of e v e n t s of his o w n t i m e .
( i ) W i t h r e g a r d t o t h e first, o n e l a r g e w o r k m u s t b e m e n t i o n e d a b o v e
all, one t h a t is a l m o s t c o m p l e t e l y p r e s e r v e d , n a m e l y a c o m p r e h e n s i v e
p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the g i v i n g of t h e M o s a i c L a w . I t is a d m i t t e d l y n o t a t r u e
historical r e c o r d b u t a s y s t e m a t i c d e s c r i p t i o n o f the essential c o n t e n t s of
t h e P e n t a t e u c h . Y e t it is historical in so far a s P h i l o surveys i n it t h e
legislative w o r k of M o s e s . It is c l e a r t h a t h e is i n f l u e n c e d i n this task b y
i n h e r i t e d t r a d i t i o n s (cf, e.g., G . V e r m e s , S T J , p p . 1 2 7 - 7 7 ) even
m o r e b y his o w n p h i l o s o p h i c a l v i e w s . B u t his m a i n p u r p o s e is s i m p l y to
offer as a h i s t o r i a n a review o f t h e g i v i n g of M o s a i c legislation. T h e
i n d i v i d u a l p a r t s of this w o r k h a v e c o m e d o w n in t h e m a n u s c r i p t s a n d
editions as s e p a r a t e books w i t h special titles. I t will be s h o w n b e l o w
( p p . 8 4 0 - 1 ) t h a t t h e p l a n of t h e w h o l e is as follows, (a) T h e first b o o k
d e a l s w i t h t h e c r e a t i o n of the w o r l d , for M o s e s a p p a r e n t l y discussed t h i s
at t h e b e g i n n i n g of his e x p o s i t i o n o f the L a w i n o r d e r to m a k e it c l e a r
t h a t his legislation c o r r e s p o n d e d to t h e will of n a t u r e , (b) T h e following
books t r e a t of the lives o f E n o s , E n o c h , N o a h , A b r a h a m , I s a a c , J a c o b ,
a n d J o s e p h , b u t in such a w a y t h a t the first t h r e e a r e d e a l t w i t h o n l y
briefly i n the i n t r o d u c t i o n to the life of A b r a h a m , w h e r e a s a special
b o o k is d e v o t e d to the o t h e r four. T h e lives o f A b r a h a m a n d J o s e p h
h a v e b e e n p r e s e r v e d . T h e s t o r y of all these m e n is told b e c a u s e t h e y
r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e i r lives u n i v e r s a l t y p e s o f m o r a l i t y , the 'living,
u n w r i t t e n l a w s ' , (c) O n l y n o w follows t h e a c t u a l g i v i n g of t h e L a w , first
t h e ten m a i n c o m m a n d m e n t s in o n e b o o k , a n d t h e n t h e special l a w s
a r r a n g e d in four b o o k s a c c o r d i n g to t h e r u b r i c s of t h e t e n m a i n
c o m m a n d m e n t s (further d e t a i l s o n p p . 847—54). I n t h i s w a y , t h e
essenrial c o n t e n t s o f the P e n t a t e u c h a r e p r e s e n t e d r e a l l y lucidly. T h e
t e n d e n c y of t h e w o r k is e v e r y w h e r e t o r e p r e s e n t t h e J e w i s h L a w as t h e
wisest a n d t h e m o s t h u m a n e . T h e r i t u a l a n d c e r e m o n i a l laws a r e n o t
o m i t t e d , b u t P h i l o a l w a y s k n e w h o w to m a k e t h e m a p p e a r r e a s o n a b l e ,
so t h a t w h o e v e r o b s e r v e d t h e m perfectly w a s n o t o n l y the best b u t a l s o
the m o s t c u l t u r e d p e r s o n — t h e t r u e p h i l o s o p h e r .
I n a s e p a r a t e c o m p o s i t i o n w h i c h does n o t , a s m a n y h a v e a s s u m e d ,
b e l o n g t o this w h o l e w o r k , P h i l o also w r o t e a life of M o s e s . T h e m e t h o d
a n d p u r p o s e a r e t h e s a m e h e r e as in t h e s y s t e m a t i c w o r k . M o s e s is
d e s c r i b e d as t h e g r e a t e s t a n d wisest l a w g i v e r , w h o s e m i g h t y d e e d s a n d
miraculous experiences raised h i m above all others.
(2) T h e J e w i s h h i s t o r y of h i s o w n t i m e is d e a l t with i n a w o r k in
w h i c h P h i l o d e s c r i b e s in d e t a i l h o w t h e p e r s e c u t o r s o f the J e w s c a m e to
a v i o l e n t end (for t h i s , a s far as c a n be a s c e r t a i n e d from the sections
p r e s e r v e d , is t h e essential t h e m e ; m a k i n g it t h u s a n a l o g o u s t o t h a t of
L a c t a n t i u s ' De mortibus persecutorum). A c c o r d i n g to E u s e b i u s , t h e w h o l e
consisted of five b o o k s . T h e s e c o n d d e a l t w i t h Sejanus, t h e f o l l o w i n g
w i t h F l a c c u s a n d C a l i g u l a . B u t the c o m p l e t e w o r k o n F l a c c u s h a s b e e n
p r e s e r v e d a n d p a r t of t h e h i s t o r y of C a l i g u l a m i s s i n g h e r e is t h e
d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e d o w n f a l l of C a l i g u l a b y G o d ' s a v e n g i n g h a n d . T h e
sections p r e s e r v e d p r o b a b l y f o r m e d the t h i r d a n d f o u r t h b o o k s of t h e
t o t a l w o r k (further d e t a i l s on p p . 8 5 9 - 6 4 ) . S i n c e P h i l o w a s to a g r e a t
e x t e n t a n eye-witness of t h e e v e n t s r e c o u n t e d , i n d e e d a s l e a d e r o f a
J e w i s h d e l e g a t i o n t o C a l i g u l a t o o k a p r o m i n e n t p a r t in t h e m , h i s w o r k
is a foremost s o u r c e for t h e h i s t o r y of his t i m e .
10. Thallus
It h a s b e c o m e e v i d e n t t h a t S a m a r i t a n a u t h o r s s u c h as P s . - E u p o l e m u s
may have been worked within the same framework as the Jewish
a u t h o r s w h o w r o t e i n G r e e k . S i n c e m a n y h a v e a r g u e d for a S a m a r i t a n
o r i g i n for the h i s t o r i a n T h a l l u s , it is also a p p r o p r i a t e to m e n t i o n h i m
h e r e . H i s w o r k was a p p a r e n t l y a ' w o r l d - c h r o n i c l e ' from p r i m i t i v e t i m e s
to t h e p r e s e n t , s i m i l a r to t h a t of C a s t o r ( c f a b o v e , vol. I , p . 4 3 ) , a n d ,
like the l a t t e r , it w a s o n e of t h e sources o n w h i c h l u l i u s A f r i c a n u s a n d
E u s e b i u s relied. E u s e b i u s m e n t i o n s it a m o n g his sources as follows
( E u s e b i u s , Arm. Chron., e d . K a r s t , G C S 20, p . 1 2 5 ) : ' F r o m t h e t h r e e
books of T h a l l u s in w h i c h h e collects [ m a t e r i a l ] from the fall of T r o y to
the 167th O l y m p i a d [ i 1 2 - 1 0 9 B . C ] . ' T h a l l u s , a c c o r d i n g t o l u l i u s
A f r i c a n u s , m e n t i o n e d a solar eclipse w h i c h A f r i c a n u s i d e n t i f i e d w i t h
t h a t at J e s u s ' crucifixion ( J u l . A f r i c a n u s in G e o r g i u s S y n c e l l u s , e d .
Dindorf, I, p. 610), so e i t h e r E u s e b i u s d i d not h a n d d o w n c o r r e c t l y t h e
n u m b e r of O l y m p i a d s o r T h a l l u s ' w o r k m u s t h a v e b e e n e x t e n d e d a t a
l a t e r d a t e . T h a t t h e w o r k goes b a c k t o a t i m e e a r l i e r t h a n E u s e b i u s s a y s
is also s u g g e s t e d by t h e fact t h a t t h e r e m a i n i n g f r a g m e n t s a n d n o t e s a r e
mostly c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e m y t h o l o g i c a l p r i m e v a l a g e , t h e s t o r y of Bel,
K r o n o s , a n d O g y g u s a n d the r e l a t i o n of M o s e s to t h e m ; ^ ^ o t h e r s r e l a t e
to t h e s t o r y of Cyrus.^^ T h e r e a s o n s for b e l i e v i n g T h a l l u s t o h a v e b e e n a
S a m a r i t a n a r e two-fold. First, h e w r o t e a b o u t t h e h i s t o r y of S y r i a
a c c o r d i n g to Africanus, in E u s e b i u s , Praep. ev. x l o , 8. S e c o n d , a n d
m o r e significantly, if T h a l l u s is c o r r e c t l y r e p o r t e d by Africanus as
h a v i n g w r i t t e n a b o u t t h e e c h p s e of A . D . 29, his w o r k goes u p t o at least
t h e t i m e of T i b e r i u s , a n d it m a y t h e r e f o r e b e possible t o identify h i m
w i t h a S a m a r i t a n T h a l l u s , w h o m J o s e p h u s m a y ( d e p e n d i n g on t h e
t e x t ; see b e l o w ) h a v e m e n t i o n e d a s a f r e e d m a n of T i b e r i u s w h o o n c e
l o a n e d a l a r g e s u m of m o n e y to A g r i p p a w h e n t h e l a t t e r was in d e b t
(Jos. Ant. xviii 6, 4 ( 1 6 7 ) ) : KOI brj TIS "^V ddXXos Iâp-apeiis TO yevos
Kaiaapos Se drreXevdepos). H o w e v e r , ddXXos i n J o s e p h u s ' text is o n l y
a c o n j e c t u r e from dXXos i n t h e m a n u s c r i p t s , a n d , a l t h o u g h t h e o r i g i n a l
aXXos is difficult to u n d e r s t a n d in c o n t e x t b e c a u s e n o o t h e r S a m a r i t a n
h a s just b e e n m e n t i o n e d , n o n e t h e l e s s it is possible a n d h a s s e e m e d to
s o m e p r e f e r a b l e to keep t h e t e x t u n a m e n d e d ( c f L. H . F e l d m a n , L o e b
e d . , ad loc.). I n t h a t case t h e e v i d e n c e for T h a l l u s as a S a m a r i t a n
h i s t o r i a n w o u l d d i s a p p e a r , a n d h e c o u l d be a s s u m e d to b e J e w i s h or,
m o r e p r o b a b l y , p a g a n , since a n i n t e r e s t in M o s e s o f the sort d i s p l a y e d
in t h e e x t a n t f r a g m e n t s is f o u n d in o t h e r g e n t i l e a u t h o r s , a n d n o t h i n g in
t h e f r a g m e n t s positively r e q u i r e s J e w i s h or S a m a r i t a n a u t h o r s h i p . I n
favour o f identification w i t h J o s e p h u s ' S a m a r i t a n T h a l l u s is the fact
t h a t t h e n a m e o c c u r s m a n y times o n R o m a n i n s c r i p t i o n s a m o n g t h e
e m p l o y e e s of C l a u d i u s ' h o u s e . T h e c o n j e c t u r e is c e r t a i n l y r e a s o n a b l e
a n d s h o u l d b e a c c e p t e d w i t h c a u t i o n . I t is no a r g u m e n t a g a i n s t it t h a t
J o s e p h u s does not m e n t i o n this T h a l l u s m o r e t h a n h e d o e s since he h a d
n o need to d o so. T h e m i x t u r e o f O r i e n t a l a n d G r e e k legends i n a
d e m y t h o l o g i z i n g , e u h e m e r i s d c fashion w h i c h is f o u n d in t h e f r a g m e n t s
c o n t a i n s n o t h i n g specifically S a m a r i t a n b u t w o u l d n o t b e at all
i n c o n g r u o u s i n a S a m a r i t a n a u t h o r a n y m o r e t h a n a J e w i s h one.^^
56. Theophilus, Ad Aulolycum, 3, 29 (ed. G r a n t , p . 144), cf. also Lactantius, Div. Inst, i
2 3 ; Tertullian, Apologet. 10, cf also Tertullian, Ad JVat. ii 12; Lactantius, Div. Inst, i 13;
Minucius Felix, Octav. 21, 4; J u h u s Africanus in Eusebius, Praep. ev. x 10, 7 ; Georgius
Syncellus, ed. Dindorf, I, p. 172. Moses is mentioned in Pseudo-Justin, Cohortatio ad
Graecos 9, which is directly derived from Julius Africanus, cf. Eusebius, Praep. ev. x 10, 7—8.
57. Julius Africanus i n Eusebius, Praep. ev. x 10, 4. J o h n Malalas, ed. Dindorf, p. 157
(which should read OaXXos instead oiOdX-qs).
58. A 'Ti(berius) Cl(audius) Thallus praepositus velariorum domus Augustanae' in
C I L VI 8649. Others in Rome with t h e same name are listed in C I L V I , pp. 6987-8.
59. Willrich ( L e h m a n n and K o r n e m a n n , eds., Beitrdge zur alten Geschichte I I I , p. 106)
idendfied the S a m a r i t a n Thallus with the mint official C. lulius Thallus, w h o was a
freedman of the imperial house, probably of Augustus. T h i s is possible but unlikely, cf
Hirschfeld {Die Kaiserlichen Verwaltungsbeamten bis auf Diokletian (^1905), p . 181. T h e n a m e
is also far too common t o connect our a u t h o r with the secretary of Augustus by this n a m e
mendoned in Suetonius, Div. Aug. 6 7 , contra, E. T a u b l e r , 'Der Chronograph Thallos',
Editions
Miiller, C , F H G , I I I , p p . 517-19.
jacoby, F G r H 256, II B, p p . 1156-8 (komm. in II D , pp. 8 3 5 - 7 ) .
Bibliography
Vxt\iAtn\hz.\, Alexander Polyhistor (1875), pp. 100 ff.
Goguel, M . , 'Un nouveau temoignage non-chretien sur la tradition evangelique d'apres
M . Eisler', R H R 9 8 ( i 9 2 8 ) , p p . 1-12.
Laqueur, R . , 'Thallos ( i ) ' , R E V A . i (1934), cols. 1225-6.
Stein, A., 'Thallus (4) a n d (5)', R E V A , i (1934), cols. 1226-7.
Rigg, H. A . , 'Thallus: t h e Samaritan?', H T h R 34 (1941), p p . 111-19.
Denis, I P G A T , p p . 267-8.
Wacholder, B. Z., 'Thallus', EJ X V , col. 1045.
Kippenberg, H. G., Garizim und Synagoge (1971), p. 8 4 .
Bruce, F. F . , Jesus and Christian Origins Outside the New Testament (1974), p p . 29-30.
Hengel, M . , Judaism and Hellenism I ( E T 1974), p. 8 9 ; II, p p . 6 0 - 1 .
//. Josephus
T h e b e s t k n o w n h i s t o r i c a l w r i t e r on J e w i s h affairs i n t h e G r e e k
l a n g u a g e is t h e P a l e s t i n i a n J o s e p h u s , m o r e p r e c i s e l y J o s e p h t h e s o n of
M a t t h i a s , a p r i e s t f r o m J e r u s a l e m {BJ. i p r a e f (3)). O f his t w o m a i n
w o r k s , o n e , t h e '/ouSai/ci) ApxaioXoyCa, is a c o m p r e h e n s i v e p r e s e n t a t i o n
of t h e w h o l e o f J e w i s h h i s t o r y from t h e b e g i n n i n g u n t i l his o w n t i m e . I t
is t h e m o s t e x t e n s i v e w o r k o n J e w i s h h i s t o r y i n t h e G r e e k l a n g u a g e of
which w e know, a n d h a s therefore been lastingly p o p u l a r a m o n g
J e w i s h , p a g a n , a n d C h r i s t i a n r e a d e r s , w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t it h a s b e e n
p r e s e r v e d c o m p l e t e i n m a n y m a n u s c r i p t s (cf v o l . I, p p . 4 3 - 6 3 ; a d d a l s o
to t h e b i b l i o g r a p h y T . R a j a k , Josephus : the Historian and his Society
( 1 9 8 3 ) ; L . H . F e l d m a n , Josephus and Modern Scholarship (1984)). Its
t r e n d is a p o l o g e t i c . W i t h his w h o l e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n J o s e p h u s w i s h e s n o t
o n l y to i n s t r u c t his g e n t i l e r e a d e r s , for w h o m t h e b o o k w a s i n t e n d e d in
the first p l a c e , in t h e h i s t o r y of his p e o p l e , b u t a l s o t o i n s p i r e in t h e m a n
e s t e e m for t h e J e w i s h p e o p l e b y s h o w i n g t h a t t h e y h a d a v e r y a n c i e n t
history a n d a g r e a t n u m b e r of o u t s t a n d i n g m e n b o t h in w a r a n d p e a c e ,
a n d t h a t in r e g a r d to t h e i r laws a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s t h e y c o m p a r e d
f a v o u r a b l y w i t h o t h e r p e o p l e s (cf p a r t i c u l a r l y Ant. x v i 6, 8 (174—8)).
T h e o t h e r chief w o r k of J o s e p h u s , t h e History of the Jewish War of
A . D . 66—74, p r e s e n t s h i s t o r y m o r e for its o w n s a k e . T h e o c c u r r e n c e s of
those y e a r s a r e so i m p o r t a n t i n t h e m s e l v e s t h a t t h e y s e e m e d w o r t h y o f a
(l(;tailed a c c o u n t . F o r t h e m o t i v a t i o n o f J o s e p h u s in c o m p o s i n g this
w o r k , see n o w T . R a j a k , op. cit., p p . 78—103. A l t h o u g h p r o b a b l y n o t
w r i t t e n a t t h e d i r e c t c o m m a n d of V e s p a s i a n , i t a p p a r e n t l y p l e a s e d h i m
w h e n d e l i v e r e d as s o o n a s it h a d b e e n c o m p l e t e d (C. Ap. 1 9 ( 5 1 ) ; Vita
R h M 71 (1916), p p . 572-4.
546 §33-^- J^'^î^h Literature Composed in Greek
65 ( 3 6 1 ) ) . I n this w o r k , i n c i d e n t a l l y , t h e a p o l o g e t i c t e n d e n c y refers
m o r e to J o s e p h u s ' o w n p e r s o n a n d t o the R o m a n s t h a n to t h e j e w s a n d
t h e i r religion.
12. Justus of Tiberias
J u s t u s o f T i b e r i a s was a c o n t e m p o r a r y a n d f e l l o w - c o u n t r y m a n of
J o s e p h u s . Like h i m , he a p p l i e d himself to w r i t i n g after t h e defeat of h i s
n a t i o n i n A . D . 70, but, a l t h o u g h a m a n of g o o d G r e e k e d u c a t i o n
( J o s e p h u s , Vita 9 (40)), h e w a s less successful t h a n J o s e p h u s in t h a t h i s
w o r k s w e r e less r e a d , at least after E u s e b i u s h e l p e d to m a k e J o s e p h u s
p o p u l a r , a n d h a v e t h e r e f o r e b e e n lost. L i k e h i m also, J u s t u s d e a l t w i t h
J e w i s h h i s t o r y as a w h o l e as w e l l a s w i t h the e v e n t s of h i s o w n t i m e ,
e a c h in a s e p a r a t e w o r k . His Chronicle of the Jewish Kings from Moses to
Agrippa II w a s , a c c o r d i n g to t h e s t a t e m e n t s of P h o t i u s w h o still k n e w it
[Biblioth. cod. 3 3 ) , ' v e r y b r i e f i n e x p r e s s i o n a n d o m i t t i n g m u c h t h a t is
n e c e s s a r y ' . S i n c e it was used b y l u l i u s A f r i c a n u s i n his Chronicle, t h i s
w o r k w a s p r e s u m a b l y i n the form of a c h r o n i c l e w i t h a n interest in
c h r o n o g r a p h y . P e r h a p s t h e m a t e r i a l c o n c e r n i n g the Jewish Kings w h i c h
P h o t i u s h a d w a s m e r e l y a n e x c e r p t from a l a r g e r w o r k , viz. a
w o r l d - c h r o n i c l e , for, a c c o r d i n g to D i o g e n e s L a e r t i u s ii 5, 4 1 , t h e history
of S o c r a t e s w a s discussed by J u s t u s as weU. I f so, this c o r r e l a t i o n of
J e w i s h w i t h u n i v e r s a l history is f o u n d in o t h e r J e w i s h w r i t e r s c o m p o s i n g
in G r e e k .
I n a n o t h e r w o r k , J u s t u s p r e s e n t e d t h e History of the Jewish War in
s u c h a w a y t h a t J o s e p h u s felt himself c o m p r o m i s e d a n d e n g a g e d in
c o n s e q u e n c e i n a s h a r p c o n t r o v e r s y a g a i n s t h i m in his Vita (cf. vol. I,
p p . 3 4 - 7 ; to t h e b i b l i o g r a p h y g i v e n t h e r e , a d d T . R a j a k , ' J u s t u s of
T i b e r i a s ' , CQ^ n.s. 2 3 ( 1 9 7 3 ) , p p . 3 4 5 - 6 8 ; W a c h o l d e r , E S J L , esp. p p .
1 2 3 - 7 , 2 9 8 - 3 0 6 ; S. J . D . C o h e n , Josephus in Galilee and Rome (1979), e s p .
pp. 114-43).
Editions
Jacoby, F G r H , 734, H I C, pp. 695-9.

Holladay, F H J A I , pp. 371-89 (with translation and commentary).
13. Joseph and Asenath

J o s e p h a n d A s e n a t h is a r o m a n t i c love s t o r y i n w h i c h t h e a u t h o r h a s
p u t a m i d r a s h i c e l a b o r a t i o n o f Genesis 4 1 : 4 5 , 5 0 - 2 a n d 46:20 i n t o t h e
form of a H e l l e n i s t i c r o m a n c e . All t h e n o r m a l i n g r e d i e n t s of t h a t g e n r e
a r e i n c l u d e d i n the story. T h e p r o t a g o n i s t s a r e of e x t r a o r d i n a r y b e a u t y
a n d virtue a n d they undergo m a n y adventures in exotic locations; even
the epic t o n e o f t h e e n d o f t h e b o o k is a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e genre.^° I t is
n o t a w o r k of g r e a t l i t e r a r y q u a l i t y b u t i t is n o w o r s e t h a n s o m e of t h e
other romances t h a t h a v e survived. T h e contents c a n be divided into
t w o p a r t s . T h e first, a n d l o n g e r , section ( P h i l o n e n k o 1 - 2 1 ) describes t h e
love affair b e t w e e n J o s e p h a n d A s e n a t h . J o s e p h , t r a v e l l i n g r o u n d E g y p t
c o l l e c t i n g c o r n d u r i n g t h e y e a r s of p l e n t y , a r r i v e s a t H e l i o p o l i s w h e r e
A s e n a t h , d a u g h t e r of t h e local p r i e s t P e n t e p h r e s , is v o l u n t a r i l y
i m m u r e d in a t o w e r t o a v o i d m a r r i a g e d e s p i t e her g r e a t b e a u t y .
A s e n a t h ' s p a r e n t s t r y t o p e r s u a d e h e r t o m a r r y J o s e p h . At first s h e
refuses, p r e f e r r i n g t h e s o n o f P h a r a o h , b u t , i m p r e s s e d by J o s e p h ' s
a p p e a r a n c e , s h e c h a n g e s h e r m i n d o n l y t o b e s p u r n e d by J o s e p h on t h e
g r o u n d s of h e r p a g a n i s m . R e t u r n i n g in grief t o h e r t o w e r she r e p e n t s
v e h e m e n t l y of h e r i d o l a t r y a n d is as a r e s u l t e n t i r e l y t r a n s f o r m e d after a
visit by a n a n g e l . J o s e p h c o m e s b a c k to H e l i o p o l i s , kisses A s e n a t h a n d ,
w i t h P h a r a o h ' s blessing, m a r r i e s h e r . F r o m t h e i r u n i o n M a n a s s e h a n d
E p h r a i m are b o r n . T h e s e c o n d section ( P h i l o n e n k o 22—9) t a k e s p l a c e
l a t e r , d u r i n g t h e y e a r s o f f a m i n e , a n d d e t a i l s t h e j e a l o u s y of P h a r a o h ' s
son a n d t h e failure of h i s a t t e m p t t o get A s e n a t h for himself d u r i n g a
visit by J o s e p h a n d his wife t o J a c o b in G e s h e m . P h a r a o h ' s s o n tries to
enlist s o m e of J o s e p h ' s b r o t h e r s on his s i d e a n d succeeds w i t h D a n a n d
G a d , b u t Levi a n d especially B e n j a m i n resist h i m a n d h e is e v e n t u a l l y
killed, d e s p i t e the a t t e m p t s o f L e v i to p r e s e r v e h i s life. P h a r a o h is
m o v e d b y Levi's c o m p a s s i o n for h i s s o n , b u t he t o o dies a n d J o s e p h
succeeds to t h e t h r o n e .
T h e o r i g i n of t h i s s t o r y i n earlier, p r o b a b l y o r a l , J e w i s h m i d r a s h
a b o u t J o s e p h is v e r y likely.^' H o w e v e r , in t h e p r e s e n t f o r m of t h e
earliest r e c e n s i o n o f t h e t e x t , i n so f a r as i t c a n b e r e c o v e r e d (see b e l o w ) ,
t h e w o r k is clearly a G r e e k c o m p o s i t i o n , a s is e v i d e n c e d n o t o n l y by t h e
l a n g u a g e , w h i c h is full o f S e p t u a g i n t a l i s m s , b u t also t h e p r e s e n c e of
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y G r e e k ideas.^"^ T h e w o r k seems to h a v e filled a
6 0 . M. Philonenko, ed., Joseph et Aseneth (1968), p p . 43—8. If K. Kerenyi, Die

griechisch-orientalische Romanliteratur in religionsgeschichtlicher Beleuchtmg (^1962) and R.
Merkelbach, Roman und Mysterium in der Antike (1962), are correct in asserting that all or
most Greek romances c a r r y a religious message connected with t h e mystery religions, the
genre was particularly a p p r o p r i a t e for the a u t h o r t o choose, but this association is in fact
very dubious, cf R. T u r c a n , ' L e r o m a n " i n i t i a t i q u e " : A propos d'un livre recent', R H R
163 (1963), pp. 1 4 9 - 9 9 ; E. Perry, The Ancient Romances (1967), p . 336, n. 17.
6 1 . Cf the other similar Jewish legends collected in Philonenko, op. cit., pp. 32-40, and
below, p. 798, o n the Prayer of J o s e p h ; direct influence on o u r text from a n y of these
stories in the form in which they survive is not likely, but they attest the growth of
traditions about Joseph. The strongest evidence of a Semitic source c a n be found in the
play on t h e name of Asenath (cf. Philonenko 15, 6 : 'You will no longer b e called Aseneth,
but your name will b e City of Refuge') which presupposes knowledge of Hebrew
(Philonenko, op. cit., pp. 30-2).
62. O n the l a n g u a g e as Greek, based on analysis of the shortest recension, see
Philonenko, op. cit., p p . 27-32. See also G . Delling, 'Einwirkungen der S p r a c h e der
548 §33-^- J^'îsh Literature Composed in Greek
number of d i f f e r e n t purposes apart from its p r i m a r y function as

midrash, and it m a y well h a v e been intended to convey different
messages to J e w i s h and to gentile readers; both audiences were
p r o b a b l y i n t e n d e d . T h e love s t o r y in t h e first s e c t i o n s e e m s to h a v e
b e e n d e s i g n e d to p r o m o t e a n d to p r a i s e t h e r e p e n t a n c e o f gentiles a n d
their conversion to J u d a i s m , a n d to reassure J e w s a b o u t t h e desirability
of m i x e d marriage with converts and its c o m p a t i b i l i t y with pious
a c c e p t a n c e o f the religious s e p a r a t i o n of J e w from gendle which is
e n j o i n e d by t h e Law.^^ T o s o m e c o n s i d e r a b l e e x t e n t , h o w e v e r , t h e s t o r y
is also symbolical, with Asenath at the start a representative of
p a g a n i s m t h r o u g h h e r d e p i c t i o n as t h e g o d d e s s N e i t h , b u t possibly a l s o
including an allegory o f the s e a r c h for w i s d o m a n d an astrological
m e a n i n g . ^ * T h e e p i c s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t t h e P h a r a o h ' s son i n t h e s e c o n d
p a r t of t h e w o r k m a y h a v e c a r r i e d a p o l i t i c a l m e a n i n g b u t , if s o , it
cannot n o w b e recovered.
T h e p l a c e o f w r i t i n g o f the b o o k w a s a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y E g y p t since t h e
a t t a c k s o n specifically E g y p t i a n i d o l a t r y a n d the d e t a i l e d allegorical
references to the goddess Neith would have been incomprehensible
e l s e w h e r e . T h e r e is no r e a s o n to b e l i e v e t h a t t h e a u t h o r b e l o n g e d t o a
sect of a n y s o r t s i n c e t h e i d e a s e x p r e s s e d w o u l d be p e r f e c t l y possible for
Septuaginta in "Joseph a n d Aseneth'", J S J 9 (1978), pp. 29-56. O n t h e extent to which

the ideas a r e identifiably Greek, see Philonenko, op. cit., p p . 56—7, on Repentance as a
hypostasis; on t h e use of motifs from the Hellenistic romances, see further, C. Burchard,
Untersuchungen zu Joseph und Aseneth (1965), p p . 84—96; idem, Der dreizehnte êuge (1970),
pp. 5 9 - 8 6 ; S. West, J o s e p h a n d A s e n a t h : A Neglected Greek R o m a n c e ' , CQ^24 (1974),
pp. 70-81.
6 3 . Cf Philonenko, op. cit., pp. 4 8 - 6 1 . T h a t Asenath is regarded as converted is
evident, despite t h e lack of references to t h e rituals associated with conversion in other
texts, cf Philonenko, op. cit., p. 52.
64. T h e precise references of t h e symbolism are naturally debated. For these
suggestions, of which t h e reference t o the golden Neith must b e regarded as the most
convincing, see Philonenko, op. cit., p . 61-89, ibid., pp. 107-8, for t h e correct
insistence that there is n o reason to deny a n u m b e r of different meanings on various levels
to a single text. T h e suggestion that t h e romance is an allegory for a particular mystical
rite of initiation should however be treated with great caution since there is no reason to
posit any such rite beyond Asenath's acceptance of the laws of J u d a i s m in general. C f
Collins, BAAJ, p p . 213—16, contra Philonenko, op. cit., p p . 89—98. Cf also D . Sanger,
Antikes Judentum und die Mysterium (1980). U . Fischer, Eschatologie und Jenseitserwartung im
Hellenistischen Diasporajudentum (1978), p p . 115-23, argues that Asenath is identified with
the heavenly Jerusalem b u t , though t h e transference of some Jerusalem salvadon imagery
to Asenath is correctly noted, there is nothing sufficiently specific to show a dehberate
reference. Note also the hypothesis of D . Sanger, 'Bekehrung und Exodus. Zum jiidischen •
Tradidonshintergrund v o n "Joseph u n d Aseneth'", J S J 10 (1979), p p . 11-36, that the
conversion of Asenath is a n allegory of the exodus.
65. Philonenko, op. cit., pp. 4 0 - 1 , has also pointed o u t literary similarities between
Joseph a n d Asenath a n d an Egyptian story of the nineteenth Dynasty. Suggestions of
origin elsewhere presume wrongly a sectarian or Christian origin for the work; for
references see Burchard, Untersuchungen, pp. 140-3.
a n y Jew.^^ T h e d a t e o f c o m p o s i t i o n c a n o n l y b e fixed w i t h s o m e
p r o b a b i l i t y t o before A . D . 1 1 7 , if t h e w o r k is i n d e e d of E g y p d a n o r i g i n ,
since t h e eirenic a t t i t u d e e x p r e s s e d t o w a r d s g e n t i l e s w o u l d b e u n l i k e l y
t h e r e after t h a t d a t e , a n d t o s o m e t i m e after t h e t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e
p r o p h e t i c b o o k s i n t h e L X X w h i c h h a v e influenced the a u t h o r ' s
l a n g u a g e , i.e. after c. 100 B . C . ^ ^
T h e w o r k is c l e a r l y o f J e w i s h o r i g i n , b o t h b e c a u s e t h e w h o l e subject
of c o n v e r s i o n a n d t h e m i d r a s h on G e n e s i s w o u l d h a v e l a c k e d i n t e r e s t
for a C h r i s t i a n a u t h o r a n d b e c a u s e t h e earliest r e c e n s i o n s s h o w g r e a t
u s e of t h e L X X b u t n o o b v i o u s use of t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t . T h i s is n o t to
d e n y t h a t t h e l a t e r r e c e n s i o n s h a v e b e e n r e w o r k e d by a C h r i s t i a n , cf
P h i l o n e n k o , op. cit., p p . 100—i, b u t , a g a i n s t t h e a t t e m p t by T . H o l t z ,
' C h r i s t l i c h e I n t e r p o l a t i o n e n in " J o s e p h u n d A s e n a t h ' " , N T S 14
( 1 9 6 7 - 8 ) , p p . 482—97, t o establish C h r i s t i a n a u t h o r s h i p of p a r t s of the
e a r l i e r r e c e n s i o n s , cf. C. B u r c h a r d , Der dreizehnte êuge (1970), p . 59 ; see
also idem, Untersuchungen zu Joseph und Asenath ( 1 9 6 5 ) , p p . 9 9 - 1 0 7 for a
d e t a i l e d refutation of e a r l i e r a r g u m e n t s f o r C h r i s t i a n a u t h o r s h i p .
T h e G r e e k text is p r e s e r v e d in a n u m b e r of m a n u s c r i p t s , of w h i c h the
earliest d a t e s from t h e t e n t h c e n t u r y A . D . , cf list in C. B u r c h a r d ,
Untersuchungen, p p . 4 - 7 . T h e s e m a n u s c r i p t s fall i n t o four g r o u p s
( B u r c h a r d , op. cit., p p . 1 8 - 2 3 ) , w h o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e still n o t c l e a r , so
t h a t n o c o m p l e t e c r i t i c a l e d i t i o n o f the t e x t h a s y e t b e e n p r o d u c e d . I n
t h e p r o d u c t i o n of such a t e x t the a n c i e n t v e r s i o n s will b e o f p r i m a r y
i m p o r t a n c e . F o r t h e S l a v i c v e r s i o n , w h i c h s e e m s to h a v e k e p t close t o its
G r e e k o r i g i n a l , s e e V . M . I s t r i n , ' A p o k r i f o b Josifye i A s e n e f y e ' ,
Trudy Slavianskoy komissii pri Imperat. Moskovskom Archeologicheskom
Obschestvye (1898), p p . 1 8 9 - 9 9 . F o r t h e S y r i a c v e r s i o n of t h e s i x t h
c e n t u r y A . D . , w h i c h s u r v i v e s i n t w o m a n u s c r i p t s i n t h e British
66. Cf. Collins, BAAJ, p. 218. F o r an Essene origin, see P. Riessler, 'Joseph und
Asenath. Eine altjiidische E r z a h l u n g ' , ThQ_ 103 (1922), p p . 4-8 ; for a n attribution t o the
T h e r a p e u t a e , see K. G. K u h n , ' T h e Lord's S u p p e r and the C o m m u n a l M e a l at
Q u m r a n ' , in K. Stendahl, The Scrolls and the JVew Testament (1958), p. 7 6 ; M. Delcor, 'Un
r o m a n d ' a m o u r d'origine t h e r a p e u t e : Le Livre de J o s e p h et Aseneth', Bulletin de
L i t t e r a t u r e Ecclesiasdque 63 (1962), pp. 3 - 2 7 ; for attribuUon t o an otherwise unknown
Jewish sect, cf Philonenko, op. cit., p. 105.
67. C. Burchard, Untersuchungen zu Joseph und Aseneth (1965), p. 146, favours a d a t e in
the first century B.C. because of the lack of reference to proselyte baptism, b u t the history
of this pracdce is too obscure for its use as a d a d n g criterion, cf the conflicdng views in J.
Jeremias, Die Kindertaufe in den ersten vier Jahrhunderten (1958), p p . 29-34, ^"^^ ^ - fuelling.
Die Taufe im Neuen Testament (1963), pp. 30—8. G. D. Kilpatrick, 'The Last S u p p e r ' , ET
64 (1952), p. 5, asserts a date in the first century B.C. because o f lack of references t o the
R o m a n s , but t h e literary conventions of t h e romance account for this fact sufficiently.
Philonenko, op. cit., p. 109, dates t h e work to the early second century A.D., primarily
because of similarides to other Greek romances, b u t the d a d n g of all the works of this
genre is itself very difficult a n d quite uncertain, cf B. E. Perry, The Ancient Romances
(1967), p p . 96-8, 173; T . H a g g , The Novel in Antiquity (1983), p. 5.
550 §33A- Jewish Literature Composed in Greek
M u s e u m , see J . P . N . L a n d , Anecdota Syriaca I I I ( 1 8 7 0 ) , p p . 1 8 - 4 6 ; E .

W . Brooks, Historia ecclesiastica Z^chariae Rhetori vulgo adscripta 1 1 1 . 5
( 1 9 1 9 ) , p p . 2 1 - 5 5 ; cf. P h i l o n e n k o , op. cit., p p . 12—13 for the d a t e . F o r
t h e o t h e r versions, especially t h e A r m e n i a n a n d the Latin, w h i c h ,
t h o u g h l a t e , m a y often p r e s e r v e b e t t e r r e a d i n g s t h a n t h e G r e e k
m a n u s c r i p t s , see B u r c h a r d , Untersuchungen, p p . 2 4 - 4 5 '•> idem, ' J o s e p h u n d
A s e n e t h 2 5 - 2 9 , A r m e n i s c h ' , J S J 1 0 (1980), p p . i—10; P h i l o n e n k o , op.
cit., p p . 1 3 - 1 6 .
T h e present e d i d o n s are not sadsfactory. T h e text given in P.
B a t d f o l , ' L e L i v r e de la P r i e r e d ' A s e n e t h ' , in Studia Patristica I - I I
( 1 8 8 9 - 9 0 ) , p p . I - I 15 is t h a t o f t h e e l e v e n t h to twelfth c e n t u r y
m a n u s c r i p t i n t h e V a t i c a n , V a t . G r . 803, fol. i33r—147V, w i t h v a r i a n t s
n o t e d f r o m t h r e e o t h e r m a n u s c r i p t s a n d t h e S y r i a c . V . M . I s t r i n , op.
cit., r e c o g n i z e d t h e existence of t w o s e p a r a t e r e c e n s i o n s , one l o n g a n d
t h e o t h e r s h o r t , a n d gives t h e text of t h e s h o r t r e c e n s i o n from V a t i c a n
m a n u s c r i p t . P a l . G r . 1 7 , f i i 8 v — 1 3 4 V , with v a r i a n t s f r o m o n e o t h e r
G r e e k m a n u s c r i p t a n d t h e v e r s i o n s . M . P h i l o n e n k o , Joseph et Aseneth
(1968), p p . 1 2 8 - 2 2 1 , gives a c a r e f u l critical e d i t i o n of t h i s s a m e s h o r t
r e c e n s i o n f r o m a g r e a t e r n u m b e r of G r e e k m a n u s c r i p t s a n d g i v i n g
c o n s i d e r a b l e w e i g h t t o t h e o l d e r v e r s i o n s , cf p p . 2 3 - 7 for his
j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f this p r o c e d u r e . P h i l o n e n k o ' s t e x t a s s u m e s , h o w e v e r , t h a t
t h e s h o r t r e c e n s i o n of t h e text is t h e oldest o n e e x t a n t . T h i s is d i s p u t e d
b y C. B u r c h a r d , ' Z u m T e x t v o n J o s e p h u n d A s e n e t h ' , J S J i (1970), p p .
3 - 3 4 , w h o believes t h a t t h e s h o r t r e c e n s i o n is a n a b r i d g e m e n t a n d t h a t
t h e best a n d o l d e s t text is p r e s e r v e d in t h e m a n u s c r i p t g r o u p d e s c r i b e d
b y P h i l o n e n k o as t h e first l o n g r e c e n s i o n , a n d w h o a r g u e s f u r t h e r t h a t
a n e v e n b e t t e r text b a s e d on this m a n u s c r i p t g r o u p can be
r e c o n s t r u c t e d by t a k i n g r e a d i n g s w h e n n e c e s s a r y f r o m t h e o t h e r t h r e e
g r o u p s since t h e y d e v e l o p e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y f r o m t h e p r i m a r y g r o u p .
See his p r e l i m i n a r y e d i t i o n p r o d u c e d o n this basis i n D i e l h e i m e r B l a t t e r
14 ( 1 9 7 9 ) . PP- 1 - 5 3 -
Brooks, E. W., Joseph and Asenath (1918) (English translation of t h e text in Batdfol, with
occasional readings from t h e versions).
Riessler, P . , Altjudisches Schrifttum ausserhalb der Bibel (1928), p p . 497-538 (German
translation based o n Batdfol's text).
Philonenko, M., Joseph et Aseneth (1968) (text of short recension, French translation, a n d
good introduction).
Burchard, C , 'Joseph a n d Asenath', in Chariesworth, O T P I I (forthcoming) (English
translation).
Bibliography
For a full list of works see the edition b y M. Philonenko.
Massebieau, L., Annales de Bibliographie Theologique 11 (1899), p p . 161-72.
Perles, J., ' L a legende d'Asnath, fille d e D i n a et femme d e Joseph', R E J 22 (1891), p p .
87-92.
K r u m b a c h e r , K., Byzantinische Zeitschrift8 (1899), p p . 228-9.

Kohler, K., ' A s e n a t h ' . J E II (1902), col. 172.
Riessler, P . , 'Joseph u n d Asenath. Eine altjiidische Erzahlung', Theologische Q u a r t a l -
schrift 103 (1922), p p . 1-22, 145-83.
Aptowitzer, V., 'Asenath, the Wife ofJ o s e p h ' , H U C A i (1924), p p . 239-306.
Jeremias, J . , 'The Last S u p p e r ' , E T 64 (1952), pp. 4—8.
Joly, R., ' N o t e sur/Licrdvoia', R H R 160 (1961), pp. 149-56.
Delcor, M . , 'Un R o m a n d ' a m o u r d'origine t h e r a p e u t e : L e Livre de Joseph et Asenath',
Bulletin de L i t t e r a t u r e Ecclesiastique 63 (1962), pp. 3—27.
Burchard, C , Untersuchungen zu Joseph und Asenath (1965).
Philonenko, M., 'Initiation et mystere dans J o s e p h et A s e n e t h ' , in C. J . Bleeker, ed..
Initiation (Suppl. to N u m e n , 10) (1965), p p . 147—53.
Jeremias, J . , Abba. Studien zur neutestamentlichen Theologie und êitgeschichte (1966), p p .
292-8.
Holtz, T., 'Christliche I n t e r p o l a t i o n e n in "Joseph u n d A s e n e t h ' " , N T S 14 (1967/8), p p .
482-97.
Burchard, C , Der dreizehnte Zûge (1970), pp. 59-88.
Burchard, C , ' Z u m T e x t von "Joseph und A s e n a t h ' " , J S J i (1970), pp. 3-34.
Denis, I P G A T , p p . 4 0 - 8 .
Burchard, C , 'Joseph e t A s e n e t h : Questions Actuelles', in W. C. v a n U n n i k , ed.. La
Litterature juive entre Tenach et Mischna (1974), p p . 77-100.
West, S., 'Joseph a n d A s e n a t h : A Neglected Greek R o m a n c e ' , C Q , 2 4 (1974), p p . 7 0 - 8 1 .
Pines, S., ' F r o m Darkness into G r e a t Light', I m m a n u e l 4 (1974), p p . 4 7 - 5 1 .
Smith, E. W . , J n r . , Joseph and Asenath and Early Christian Literature: A Contribution to the
Corpus Hellenisticum JVovi Testamenti (Claremont P h . D . , 1974).
Smith, E. W . , J n r . , 'Joseph Material i n J o s e p h and A s e n a t h and Josephus relating to the
Testament of J o s e p h ' , in G . W. E . Nickelsburg, ed.. Studies on the Testament of Joseph
(1975). PP- 133-7-
Philonenko, M., ' U n mystere j u i f , E H R 2 (1975), p p . 6 5 - 7 0 .
Stehly, R . , 'Une C i t a d o n des U p h a n i s h a d s dans J o s e p h e t Aseneth', R H P R 55 (1975),
pp. 209-13.
Berger, K . , 'Jiidisch-Hellenistische Missionsliteratur u n d a p o k r y p h e Apostelakten',
Kairos 17 (1975), p p . 232-48.
Pervo, R. I., 'Joseph a n d Asenath a n d the Greek Novel', Soc. Bib. Lit. Abstracts and Seminar
Papers (1976), pp. 171-81.
K e e , H. C , ' T h e Socio-Rehgious Setting a n d Aims of "Joseph and A s e n e t h " ' , Soc. Bib.
Lit. Abstracts and Seminar Papers (1976), p p . 183—92.
K a n , G. V . , 'Illustrated Manuscripts of the R o m a n c e of J o s e p h and A s e n a t h ' , Soc. Bib.
Lit. Abstracts and Seminar Papers (1976), p p . 193—208.
Burchard, C., 'Joseph u n d Aseneth Neugriechisch', N T S 2 4 (1977), pp. 68-84.
Fischer, U . , Eschatologie und Jenseitserwartung im Hellenistischen Diasporajudentum (1978), pp.
115-23-
Delling, G . , 'Einwirkungen d e r Septuaginta im "Joseph u n d Asenath'", J S J 9 (1978), pp.
29-56.
Sanger, D . , 'Bekehrung und Exodus. Zum jiidische Traditionshintergrund v o n "Joseph
und A s e n e t h ' " , J S J 10 (1979), p p . 11-36.
Sanger, D . , Antikes Judentum und die Mysterien. Religiongeschichtliche Untersuchungen zu Joseph
und Aseneth (1980).
Burchard, C , 'Joseph u n d Aseneth 25-29, Armenisch', J S J 10 (1980), p p . i - i o .
Nickelsburg, J L B B M p p . 258-63.
Collins, BAAJ, p p . 8 9 - 9 1 , 211—18.
K e e , H . C . , ' T h e socio-cultural setting of Joseph and Aseneth', N T S t 29 (1983), pp.
394-413-
Delling, G., 'Die Kunst des Gestaltens in "Joseph und Aseneth'", N T 26 (1984), pp.
1-42.
14. Testament of Job

M u c h like t h e retelling o f t h e story of J o s e p h i n J o s e p h a n d A s e n a t h is
t h e m i d r a s h i c d e v e l o p m e n t o f the story of J o b w h i c h is f o u n d in t h e
T e s t a m e n t of J o b . It is d i s t i n g u i s h e d from m o s t o t h e r e x t a n t J e w i s h
G r e e k n a r r a t i v e s a b o u t biblical h i s t o r y b y b e i n g c o u c h e d in t h e
e x t e r n a l form of a t e s t a m e n t s i m i l a r to t h e T e s t a m e n t s of t h e T w e l v e
P a t r i a r c h s . T h e d y i n g f a t h e r e x h o r t s his c h i l d r e n b y telling t h e m a b o u t
his life. T h e g e n r e p r o v i d e s h o w e v e r little m o r e t h a n t h e f r a m e w o r k to
t h e n a r r a t i v e , w h i c h p r e d o m i n a t e s ( 1 6 - 4 4 ) a l m o s t to t h e exclusion of
t h e o t h e r sections, s u c h a s the e x h o r t a t i o n a n d a p o c a l y p s e , w h i c h c o m e
to t h e fore in t h e o t h e r J e w i s h t e s t a m e n t a r y l i t e r a t u r e .
J o b , p o r t r a y e d a s J o b a b , a d e s c e n d a n t of E s a u ( 1 : 1 ) , b u t also as a n
E g y p d a n k i n g (28:8), g a t h e r s his c h i l d r e n a r o u n d h i s d e a t h - b e d to teU
t h e m t h e e v e n t s of his life a n d to e x h o r t t h e m to follow his e x a m p l e
( 1 : 1 - 5 ) . H e n a r r a t e s in d e t a i l his c o n v e r s i o n from p a g a n i s m t h r o u g h
insight g r a n t e d by a n a n g e l after h e h a d a l r e a d y b e g u n to d o u b t t h e
p o w e r o f idols, his d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e i d o l a t r o u s t e m p l e of S a t a n a n d , in
a l o n g e l a b o r a t i o n of J o b 1 : 1 3 — 2 1 ; 2 : 7 - 1 0 , his p a d e n c e , e n d u r a n c e a n d
c h a r i t a b l e p i e t y in his successful a n d d e l i b e r a t e l y self-inflicted a t h l e t i c
contest w i t h S a t a n , the p r i n c e of evil ( 1 : 6 - 2 7 : 1 0 ) . J o b ' s d e b a t e w i t h his
friends is similarly amplified i n 28—43. T h e friends a r e p o r t r a y e d as
fellow m o n a r c h s w h o s e sorrowful o p p o s i d o n , like t h a t of J o b ' s wife
Sitidos ( 3 9 - 4 0 ) , is p u t d o w n t o t h e i r i g n o r a n c e of r e a h t y , w h i c h hes in
h e a v e n a n d n o t in the i n s t a b i l i t y o f e a r t h l y life, a s o p p o s e d t o J o b ' s
r e v e a l e d k n o w l e d g e , cf 3 5 - 3 8 , 40. T h e w i s d o m of J o b ' s l o y a l t y to G o d
is c o n f i r m e d b y d i v i n e i n t e r v e n t i o n a n d his friends are reconciled to
G o d t h r o u g h his m e d i a t i o n (42), e x c e p t for E l i h u , w h o is filled w i t h
S a t a n , a n d c o n d e m n e d (43). J o b ' s fortunes a n d h e a l t h are r e s t o r e d
(44). A brief e x h o r t a t i o n to follow his l o y a l t y a n d p i e t y ( w h i c h h e r e
includes also a v o i d a n c e o f i n t e r - m a r r i a g e w i t h f o r e i g n wives) ( 4 5 : 1 - 4 ) is
followed by h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n of his i n h e r i t a n c e , w h i c h is r e m a r k a b l e for
t h e g r a n t of h e a v e n l y gifts in t h e f o r m of m a g i c a l p h y l a e t e r i c sashes to
his t h r e e d a u g h t e r s , w h o i m m e d i a t e l y j o i n in t h e h e a v e n l y c h o r u s in t h e
l a n g u a g e of t h e a n g e l s ( 4 5 : 5 - 5 1 : 3 ) . T h e w o r k c o n c l u d e s ( 5 1 : 4 - 5 3 ) w i t h
J o b ' s d e a t h , t h e a s c e n s i o n of h i s spirit to h e a v e n o n a c h a r i o t , a n d t h e
b u r i a l of his b o d y .
T h e s t o r y as a w h o l e seems c a l c u l a t e d t o a p p e a l t o gentiles in
d e s c r i b i n g t h e a d v a n t a g e s of l o y a l t y to G o d a n d the l i m i t a t i o n s ef
i d o l a t r y . It c a n t h e r e f o r e b e r e s e r v e d l y d e s c r i b e d a s m i s s i o n a r y
h t e r a t u r e ( R a h n e n f i i h r e r ) . T h e n o n - J e w i s h a u d i e n c e is h o w e v e r
f o r g o t t e n in t h e s u m m a r y e x h o r t a t i o n a t 45:1—4, w h e r e J o b ' s s o n s a r e
warned against inter-marriage with strangers. F o r the Jewish reader, the
T e s t a m e n t urges a n eclectic piety, e m p h a s i z i n g charity a n d t h e b u r i a l
of t h e d e a d ( 3 9 : 1 - 1 0 ; 4 0 : 6 - 1 4 ; 5 3 : 5 - 7 ) a s w e l l as t h e p r i m e v i r t u e of
endurance.
T h e p l a c e a n d d a t e of t h e w o r k c a n n o t be fixed w i t h c e r t a i n t y . I t is
clear t h a t the w o r k was c o m p o s e d in G r e e k . I n f a v o u r of E g y p t i a n
o r i g i n is o n l y t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f J o b as k i n g o f all E g y p t (28:8), w h i c h
should not be taken as decisive. There is nothing indisputably
Christian in any of the work, and its J e w i s h origin should be
a c c e p t e d . I f t h e w o r k is d e p e n d e n t on t h e L X X o f J o b , it m u s t d a t e
after c. 100 B.C., when that translation was made, but such
d e p e n d e n c e is n o t c e r t a i n . I t is u n l i k e l y t o h a v e b e e n w r i t t e n after c.
A . D . 200, b u t e v e n t h a t w o u l d b e p o s s i b l e . ^ " D e s p i t e s i m i l a r i t i e s to t h e
T h e r a p e u t a e , t h e r e a r e a l s o d i f f e r e n c e s , a n d t h e r e is insufficient reason
to p o s t u l a t e a s e c t a r i a n o r i g i n for t h e b o o k . ^ ' T h e m y s t i c a l t e n d e n c i e s
68. A Hebrew original was suggested by M . R. J a m e s , Apocrypha Anecdota (1897), p p .

Ixxii-cii, because of alleged semiticisms in the hymnic portions of t h e text, and a n
Aramaic original was alleged b y C. C. T o r r e y , The Apocryphal Literature (1945), p . 145, on
similar grounds. However, no manuscript evidence of a S e m i t i c origin survives a n d a
Greek original is confirmed by t h e close relationship of the Testament to the L X X of J o b ,
cf B . Schaller, Das Testament Hiobs ( J S H R Z , I I I . 3 ) (1979), p. 307; R . P. Spittler, in
Chariesworth, O T P I, p p . 830-83. I t remains q u i t e possible that t h e midrash was
developed orally i n one o r o t h e r of t h e Semitic languages before being written down in
Greek.
69. Contra M. R . J a m e s , Apocrypha Anecdota (1897), pp. xciii-xciv, who saw it as a work
of a J e w i s h Christian', cf Schaller, op. cit., p. 3 1 1 . I n favour of t h e more complex
hypothesis p u t forward b y R. P . Spittler, T h e Testament of J o b ' (Diss. H a r v a r d , 1971),
pp. 53-83 (cf idem in Chariesworth, O T P I , p. 8 3 4 ) , t h a t an originally Jewish text has
been reworked by a Montanist Christian in t h e second century A.D., is the fact that the
sections which he regards as later (46—53) a r e indeed tacked on rather awkwardly to the
main body of the Testament. Nonetheless, t h e hypothesis is unnecessary. Spittler suggests
it only to explain t h e p r o m i n e n c e of ecstatic w o m e n i n T e s t a m e n t ofJ o b 46-53, which he
regards (correctly) as implausible for T h e r a p e u t a e and therefore (incorrectly) as a late
addition. B u t if t h e Jewish b u t n o n - T h e r a p e u t a n origin of t h e whole T e s t a m e n t is
accepted, this last passage can q u i t e well be Jewish also.
70. T h e suggestion by M . Delcor, ' L e T e s t a m e n t de J o b , la priere d e Nabonide et les
traditions targoumiques', in S. W a g n e r , cd., Bible et Qumran (1968), pp. 7 2 - 3 , t h a t Satan's
guise as t h e king o f the Persians in 17:1 refers to the P a r t h i a n K i n g Pacorus a n d therefore
dates the work to c. 40 B.C., should n o t be taken seriously. There is no reason t o suspect
any historical allusion. A date i n the first century B.C. or A.D. is commonly given, cf R.
Spittler, in Chariesworth, O T P I, p. 833, b u t this d e p e n d s only o n the existence of o t h e r
similar literature p r o b a b l y from that d a t e , such as J o s e p h a n d Asenath o r the T e s t a m e n t
of A b r a h a m . For a date after A.D. 200, see J . - B . Frey, DB suppl. 1 (1928), col. 455.
71. Contra M. Philonenko, ' L e T e s t a m e n t de J o b et les Therapeutes', Semitica 8
(1958), p p . 41-53 ; 'Le T e s t a m e n t de J o b ' , Semitica 18 (1968), p p . 9-24, who suggests an
origin a m o n g the Egyptian T h e r a p e u t a e because of the use of hymns a n d the inclusion of
women in rehgious choirs. Neither criterion is very strong, b u t the similarity of the
Testament of J o b ' s cosmological dualism (cf 33:3) and t h e h y m n of Elihu (43:4-17) to
s u c h as t h e c h a r i o t a r e p a r a l l e l e d in t h e H e k h a l o t h t e r a t u r e . ^ ^
T h e T e s t a m e n t was virtually ignored both by early Christians a n d

by J e w s . T h e suggestion t h a t it w a s u s e d a n d r e d a c t e d b y M o n t a n i s t
C h r i s t i a n s in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y A . D . is v e r y h y p o t h e t i c a l (see a b o v e ,
n o t e 69). It is possible t h a t T e r t u l l i a n , De Patientia 1 4 : 2 - 7 (ed. J .
Borleffs, p p . 4 2 f.) uses a form of Test. Job 20:8 f, b u t he d o e s n o t q u o t e
t h e e x t a n t t e x t directly, cf. S p i t t l e r i n C h a r l e s w o r t h , O T P I , p. 847.
T h e G r e e k t e x t s u r v i v e s in f o u r m a n u s c r i p t s of w h i c h t h e best, despite
s o m e C h r i s t i a n i n t r u s i o n , is P a r i s F o n d s g r e c 2658 of the e l e v e n t h
c e n t u r y A . D . , e d i t e d by M . R . J a m e s , Apocrypha Anecdota (1887), a n d
(best) S. P. B r o c k , Testamentum lobi ( P V T G 2) ( 1 9 6 7 ) . Brock gives all
significant v a r i a t i o n s in t h e o t h e r G r e e k m a n u s c r i p t s a n d the S l a v o n i c .
P a r i s fonds g r e c 9 3 8 is a s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y c o p y o f the s a m e text. A
s e p a r a t e t e x t u a l t r a d i t i o n is r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e early f o u r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y
m a n u s c r i p t M e s s i n a , S a n S a l v a t o r e 29, e d i t e d by A . M a n c i n i , T e r la
critica d e l " T e s t a m e n t u m J o b ' " , R e n d i c o n t i d e l l a R e a l e A c c a d e m i a d e i
Lincei, Classe di Scienzi M o r a l i , S t o r i c h e e F i l o l o g i c h e Serie Q u i n t a 20
( 1 9 1 1 ) , p p . 4 7 9 - 5 0 2 . T h e s a m e t r a d i t i o n is p r o b a b l y t h a t f o u n d in t h e
t w e l f t h - c e n t u r y m a n u s c r i p t V a t i c a n u s G r . 1 2 3 8 , p u b l i s h e d by A. M a i ,
Scriptorum veterum nova collectio ( 1 8 3 3 ) , v o l . V I I , cols. 180—91. T h e t w o
l a t t e r m a n u s c r i p t s a r e e d i t e d t o g e t h e r in R. A . K r a f t , The Testament of
Job According to the S. V. Text ( 1 9 7 4 ) .
O n t h e m a n u s c r i p t s in g e n e r a l , cf. Brock, op. cit., p p . 3 - 1 6 . I t is likely
t h a t t h e h i s t o r y of t h e t e x t is associated w i t h t h a t o f the L X X book of
J o b , b u t the r e l a t i o n s h i p has n o t y e t b e e n clarified, cf D e n i s , I P G A T ,
p. 102.
Ancient Versions
(1) A n i n c o m p l e t e C o p t i c v e r s i o n is p r e s e r v e d , r a t h e r u n e v e n l y , in
P a p y r u s C o l o g n e 3221 of t h e fifth c e n t u r y A . D . O f c o n s i d e r a b l e
i m p o r t a n c e for t h e p r o d u c t i o n of a critical t e x t , t h i s p a p y r u s is as y e t
u n p u b l i s h e d . I t is b e i n g e d i t e d b y M . W e b e r of t h e I n s t i t u t fiir
A l t e r t u m s k u n d e a t the U n i v e r s i t y of K o l n . C f M . P h i l o n e n k o , ' L e
T e s t a m e n t d e J o b ' , S e m i t i c a 18 (1968), p p . 9, 6 1 - 3 o n differences
b e t w e e n this v e r s i o n a n d the G r e e k .
(2) O l d C h u r c h Slavonic s u r v i v e s in t w o c o m p l e t e m a n u s c r i p t s a n d
o n e p a r t i a l o n e . I t is p u b l i s h e d by G . Polivka, ' A p o k r i f n a p r i c a o J o v u ' ,
S t a r i n e 24 ( 1 8 9 1 ) , 1 3 5 - 5 5 . I t is close t o t h e G r e e k b u t often
p a r a p h r a s e s it.
the material at Q u m r a n should be noted.

72. H. C. K e e , 'Satan, Magic a n d Salvation in the T e s t a m e n t of J o b ' , Soc. Bibl. Lit.
igj4 Seminar Papers I, p p . 53-76.
IIL Prose Literature about the Past 555
Translations and C o m m e n t a r i e s
French:
Philonenko, M . , ' L e Testament d e J o b . I n t r o d u c t i o n , traduction e t notes', Semidca 18
(1968), p p . 1-75.
German:
Riessler, P., Altjiid. Sclirift. (1928), p p . 1104-34 (1333-4).
Schaller, B., Das Testament Hiobs ( J S H R Z III.3) (1979), pp. 3 0 3 - 7 4 .
Enghsh:
Kraft, R. A., ed.. The Testament of Job According to the S.V. Text {igj 4.).
Spittler, R. P . , in Chariesworth, O T P I, p p . 829-68.
Bibliography
Conybeare, F . C , ' T h e T e s t a m e n t of J o b a n d the T e s t a m e n t s of the X I I P a t r i a r c h s ' ,
J Q R 13 (1900-01), p p . I I 1 - 2 7 .
Spitta, F., ' D a s Testament Hiobs und d a s Neue T e s t a m e n t ' , ûr Geschichte und Literatur des
Urchristentums I I I . 2 (1907), p p . 139-206.
Mancini, A., 'Per l a cridca del " T e s t a m e n t u m J o b ' " , Rendiconti della R e a l e A c c a d e m i a
dei Lincei 20 (1911), p p . 479—502.
Torrey, C. C , The Apocryphal Literature (1945), p p . 140-5.
Philonenko, M . , ' L e Testament d e J o b e t les T h e r a p e u t e s ' , Semitica 8 (1958), p p . 4 1 - 5 3 .
Meyer, R., ' H i o b t e s t a m e n t ' , R G G (^1959), vol. I l l , col. 361.
Delcor, M., ' L e T e s t a m e n t de J o b , la priere d e Nabonide et les traditions t a r g o u m i q u e s ' ,
i n S. Wagner, ed., Bibel urui Qumran (1968), pp. 57—74.
J a c o b s , I., 'Literary Motifs in the Testament of J o b ' , J J S 21 (1970), p p . i - i o .
Denis, I P G A T , pp. 100-4.
Rahnenfiihrer, D., 'Das T e s t a m e n t des H i o b u n d d a s Neue T e s t a m e n t ' , Z N W 6 2 (1971),
pp. 68-93.
Spittler, R. P . , ' T h e Testament o f J o b ' ( H a r v a r d P h . D . , 1971).
Collins, J . J . , 'Structure a n d M e a n i n g i n the T e s t a m e n t ofJ o b ' , in G . M a c R a e , e d . . Society
of Biblical Literature: igy4 Seminar Papers I (1974), p p . 3 5 - 5 2 .
Kee, H . C., 'Satan, Magic, and Salvation in t h e Testament o f J o b ' , ibid., p p . 5 3 - 7 6 .
Glatzer, N . N., 'Jiidische T J o b - D e u t u n g e n i n den ersten christlichen J a h r h u n d e r t e n ' ,
Freiburger R u n d b r i e f 26 (1974), p p . 31-4-
Nickelsburg, J L B B M pp. 241-8.
Collins, BAAJ, pp. 220-4.
Schaller, B., 'Das T e s t a m e n t Hiobs u n d die S e p t u a g i n t a U b e r s e t z u n g des Buches H i o b s ' ,
Bibl. 61 (1980), pp. 3 7 7 - 4 0 6 .
Nordheim, E . von. Die Lehre der Alten I (1980), p p . 119-35.
NichoUs, P. H . , ' T h e Structure a n d Purpose of t h e T e s t a m e n t of J o b ' (Ph.D. diss. J e r u s a l e m ,
1982).
/ J . Philo the Elder
A h i s t o r i a n P h i l o is q u o t e d b y C l e m e n t o f A l e x a n d r i a , Stromata i 21,
1 4 1 , b e t w e e n D e m e t r i u s a n d E u p o l e m u s , a s a l s o b y J o s e p h u s i n C. Ap. i
23 ( 2 1 8 ) . A c c o r d i n g t o C l e m e n t this P h i l o w r o t e a b o u t t h e k i n g s of t h e
J e w s . J o s e p h u s took h i m for a g e n t i l e , s i n c e h e g a v e h i m a s o n e of t h e
authorities t h a t showed some gentiles to h a v e h a d a fairly accurate
k n o w l e d g e o f j e w i s h h i s t o r y . H o w e v e r , t h e fact t h a t b o t h C l e m e n t a n d
Josephus n a m e d this Philo together with D e m e t r i u s a n d Eupolemus
shows t h a t b o t h d r e w from t h e s a m e source, w h i c h was p r o b a b l y but
n o t necessarily A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r . Association w i t h D e m e t r i u s a n d
E u p o l e m u s i n t h a t s o u r c e m a k e s it likely t h a t P h i l o w a s J e w i s h since
t h o s e t w o w r i t e r s c e r t a i n l y w e r e . I t is possible t h a t t h i s P h i l o w a s
i d e n t i c a l w i t h P h i l o the epic p o e t (see b e l o w , p . 5 5 9 ) b u t t h i s P h i l o ,
w h o s e e x a c t c h r o n o l o g i c a l k i n g lists w e r e q u o t e d b y s o m e s o u r c e in t h e
mid-first c e n t u r y B . C . , is r a t h e r unlikely t o h a v e w r i t t e n s u c h lists in t h e
e p i c h e x a m e t e r s f a v o u r e d by t h e e p i c p o e t , t h o u g h of c o u r s e h e c o u l d
h a v e c o m p o s e d in t w o different g e n r e s . I f a s e p a r a t e h i s t o r i a n existed h e
c o u l d h a v e w r i t t e n a t a n y t i m e before t h e c o m p i l a t i o n w a s m a d e f r o m
w h i c h J o s e p h u s a n d C l e m e n t d r e w , i.e. before t h e mid-first c e n t u r y
A . D . at t h e latest. I t has b e e n a r g u e d t h a t the c i t a t i o n of P h i l o b e t w e e n
D e m e t r i u s a n d E u p o l e m u s m a k e s it likely t h a t h e w r o t e a t a t i m e
b e t w e e n those two a u t h o r s , i.e the s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C . ( D a l b e r t ) , b u t it
is p r e f e r a b l e t o l e a v e the d a t e u n d e c i d e d .
Bibliography
Laqueur, R., 'Philon (46)', R E X X (1941), p p . 51 f.
Dalbert, P . , Die Theologie der hell.-jiid. Missionsliteratur (1954), pp. 33-5.
Jacoby, F G r H 729, T 1 - 2 , H I C2, p. 6 8 9 (assuming the identity of the t w o Philos).
Walter, N . , 'Zur Uberlieferung einiger Reste friiher jiidisch-hellenistischer Literatur bei
Josephus, Clemens und Euseb', Studia Patristica V H (1966), p p . 314-20.
Walter, N . , 'Untersuchungen z u den Fragmenten der jiidisch-hellenistischen Historiker'
(Habitationsschrift, Halle) (1967-8), p p . 108-11,234.
Denis, I P G A T , p p . 270 ff.
Walter, N . , Die Fragmente jiidisch-hellenistischer Historiker ( J S H R Z 1.2) (1976), pp. 112-14.
16. Theophilus
A single s h o r t f r a g m e n t of this a u t h o r is cited b y A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r
as a witness t o c o r r o b o r a t e t h e s t a t e m e n t in E u p o l e m u s t h a t S o l o m o n
s e n t a g o l d e n p i l l a r to b e e x h i b i t e d i n the t e m p l e of Zeus in T y r e
( E u s e b . , Praep. ev. i x 34, 19). A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r gives n o i n d i c a t i o n
a b o u t h i s o r i g i n . H e m a y , h o w e v e r , b e the s a m e T h e o p h i l u s w h o is
listed b y J o s e p h u s i n C. Ap. i 2 3 (216) a s a m o n g t h o s e w h o testified to
t h e a n t i q u i t y of t h e J e w s . J o s e p h u s states explicitly t h a t t h e a u t h o r i t i e s
h e cites a r e g e n t i l e (C. Ap. i 2 3 ( 2 1 5 ) ) , b u t it is n o t o r i o u s t h a t i n C. Ap. i
23 (218) he i n c l u d e s a m o n g t h o s e a u t h o r i t i e s t h e e l d e r P h i l o a n d
E u p o l e m u s , w h o w e r e q u i t e c e r t a i n l y J e w i s h , a n d it is t h e r e f o r e at least
possible t h a t T h e o p h i l u s too w a s a J e w . T h i s is r e n d e r e d t h e m o r e likely
if h e is i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e a u t h o r c i t e d b y A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r b e c a u s e
of his e v i d e n t i n t e r e s t in J e w i s h history. T h e n a m e is f r e q u e n t l y a t t e s t e d
a m o n g J e w s . I n f a v o u r of the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f T h e o p h i l u s as a
hellenistic J e w i s h h i s t o r i a n is N . W a l t e r , Die Fragmente der jiid.-hell.
Historiker Q S H R Z 1.2) ( 1 9 7 6 ) , p p . 1 0 9 - 1 0 . H i s case, h o w e v e r , is v e r y
h y p o t h e t i c a l , as c a n be seen. I t is significant t h a t all t h e o t h e r h i s t o r i a n s
q u o t e d i n C. Ap. i 23 ( 2 1 5 ) ( a s o p p o s e d to 2 1 8 ) a r e definitely gentile.
M o s t w o u l d a c c e p t the m o r e sceptical v i e w t h a t he w a s a g e n t i l e
h i s t o r i a n w h o p r e c e d e d A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r , cf. S t e r n , G L A J J I, p p .
r2d-7.73
Editions
j . u oby, F G r H , 733, H I C , pp. 6 9 4 - 5 .
Sicrn, G L A J J I, p p . 126-7.
Translations
English:
Stern, loc. cit.
Holladay, loc. cit.
(Jerman:
Walter, N . , Die Fragmente der jud.-hell. Historiker ( J S H R Z 1.2) (1976), p. 111.
Bibliography
Freudenthal, Alex. Polyh., p p . 11 7-18.
Laqueur, R . , T h e o p h i l u s ' , R E V A (1934), cols. 2137-8.
Walter, N., 'Untersuchungen zu den F r a g m e n t e n d e r jiid.-hell. Historiker' ( H a b i h t a d o n s -
schrift, Halle) (1967-8), p p . 93-6, 222-3.
//. Lost Greek Histories Written bj Jews

S o m e histories w r i t t e n i n G r e e k by J e w s a r e s o c o m p l e t e l y lost t h a t n o
m o r e is k n o w n a b o u t t h e m t h a n t h a t t h e y existed. F o r a full p i c t u r e of
Hellenistic Jewish w r i t i n g a b o u t t h e past they should, however, be
included here.
( I ) The Memoirs of Herod. T h e s e a r e m e n t i o n e d o n c e by J o s e p h u s , Ant.
XV 6, 3 ( 1 7 4 ) (see v o l . I, p p . 26—7).
{2) A History of the visit to Jerusalem of Alexander the Great. P r e s e r v e d in
J o s . Ant. xi 8, i ( 3 0 4 - 5 ) ; 8, 3—7 ( 3 1 3 - 4 7 ) , is a r o m a n t i c a c c o u n t o f a
fictional visit t o J e r u s a l e m b y A l e x a n d e r t h e G r e a t . T h e i n t e r e s t in
A l e x a n d e r m a k e s i t p r o b a b l e t h a t it w a s w r i t t e n in G r e e k . I t w a s
w r i t t e n after t h e a c c e s s i o n of S i m o n to t h e h i g h - p r i e s t h o o d in 1 4 3 B . C . ,
b u t before t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e S a m a r i t a n s h r i n e b y J o h n H y r c a n u s in
129 B . C .
Bibliography
Biichler, A . , 'La relation de J o s e p h e c o n c e r n a n t Alexandre le G r a n d ' , R E J 34 (1898), p p .
1-26.
Marcus, R . , in L o e b , ed., vol. V I , pp. 512-32.
73. Some scholars h a v e also suggested t h a t the M e n a n d e r of Ephesus (or, a c c o r d i n g to

Clement of Alexandria, Strom, i 21, 114, P e r g a m u m ) , to w h o m J o s e p h u s refers in C. Ap. i
18 (116-26) (which is loosely r e p e a t e d by T h e o p h i l u s of A n d o c h , Ad Autolycum 22-3) was
a Jewish author, b u t there is n o good reason to believe this. Cf J . H. Chariesworth, The
Pseudepigrapha and Modern Research (1976), p. 159.
Motzo, B., ' U n a fonte sacerdotale a n d s a m a r i t a n a di Giuseppe', in Saggi di storia e

letterature giudeo-ellenistica (1924).
Wacholder, B. Z . , E S J L , pp. 293-5.
Momigliano, A. D., 'Flavius J o s e p h u s and Alexander's Visit to Jerusalem', A t h e n a e u m
57 ( i 9 7 9 ) > P P - 4 4 2 - 8 .
(3) The Saga of the Tobiads. P r e s e r v e d i n J o s . Ant. xii 4, i - i i

( 1 5 4 - 2 3 6 ) is a s a g a r e c o u n t i n g t h e a d v e n t u r e s of J o s e p h u s t h e s o n o f
T o b i a s a n d J o s e p h ' s son H y r c a n u s in t h e P t o l e m a i c c o u r t . T h e s t o r y is
e n t e r t a i n i n g fiction a b o u t h i s t o r i c a l p e r s o n a g e s w h o w e r e figures o f
g r e a t p o w e r in T r a n s j o r d a n d u r i n g the l a t t e r half of t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y
B . C . T h e i n t e r e s t in, a n d f a v o u r a b l e a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s , the P t o l e m a i c
c o u r t m a k e s it likely t h a t this w a s w r i t t e n in G r e e k . T h e e n t i r e l y
f a v o u r a b l e p i c t u r e g i v e n of J o s e p h a n d H y r c a n u s m a k e s it likely t h a t
t h e w o r k w a s w r i t t e n b y a T o b i a d d e s c e n d a n t in T r a n s j o r d a n , w h i c h
suggests a d a t e in t h e m i d d l e o r l a t e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C .
O n t h e h i s t o r i c a l c o r e t o the story, see M . H e n g e l , Judaism and
Hellenism I ( E T 1974), p p . 2 7 0 - 7 .
Bibliography
Willrich, H., Juden und Griechen (1892), pp. 91-106.
Tcherikover, V . A., Hellenistic Civilization and the Jews (1959), p p . 127-42.
Stern, M . , 'Notes on t h e Story ofjoseph the T o b i a d ' , Tarbiz 32 (1962), pp. 35-47 ( H e b . ) .
Hengel, M . , Judaism and Hellenism ( E T 1974), vol. I , pp. 269-70.
Goldstein, J. A., ' T h e Tales of the T o b i a d s ' , in J . Neusner, ed., Christianity, Judaism and
other Greco-Roman Cults: Studies for Morton Smith at 60 111 (1975), p p . 85-123.
Wacholder, B. Z . , E S J L , pp. 295-6.
(4) Saga of the Oniads (?). T h e a c d v i t i e s of t h e H i g h P r i e s t l y family o f

t h e O n i a d s before the M a c c a b a e a n revolt a r e so fully r e c o u n t e d i n J o s .
Ant. xii 6, i (265)-xiii 10, 7 (300) a n d in 2 M a c c a b e e s t h a t G o l d s t e i n
h a s t r i e d to r e c o n s t r u c t a p r o p a g a n d i s t i c history allegedly w r i t t e n b y
O n i a s I V from these accounts. His a t t e m p t must, h o w e v e r , be reckoned
a failure a n d t h e r e is n o t sufficient r e a s o n t o believe t h a t s u c h a w o r k
e v e r existed.
Bibliography
Goldstein, J. A . , ' T h e Tales of the T o b i a d s ' , in J . Neusner, ed., Christianity, Judaism and
other Greco-Roman Cults H I (1975),. p p . 85-123.
Goldstein, J. A., I Maccabees (1976), p p . 5 5 - 6 1 , 90-103.
Doran, R., Temple Propaganda : The Purpose and Character of 2 Maccabees (1981), p p . 17—19.
ColHns, BAAJ, pp. 73, 76.
Goldstein,J. A., HMaccabees (1983), pp. 3 5 - 7 .
IV. EPIC POETRY A N D DRAMA
/. Philo the Epic Poet

T h e a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f G r e e k forms o f h t e r a t u r e by HeUenistic J e w s d i d
n o t stop w i t h p r o s e . E x p e r i m e n t w a s m a d e w i t h the G r e e k forms of e p i c
p o e t r y a n d d r a m a , i n t h a t b i b l i c a l h i s t o r y w a s c o m p o s e d i n t h e f o r m of
t h e G r e e k e p o s a n d e v e n p r e s e n t e d in t h e f o r m of G r e e k d r a m a . F o r
w h a t h a s b e e n p r e s e r v e d of t h i s r e m a r k a b l e l i t e r a t u r e , w e are i n d e b t e d
to t h e e x c e r p t s of A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r i n c l u d e d b y E u s e b i u s in his
Praeparatio evangelica (cf a b o v e , p p . 5 1 0 ff.).
F r o m t h e G r e e k p o e m of a c e r t a i n P h i l o , ' A b o u t J e r u s a l e m ' (flepl ra
'hpoaoXvfxa), t h r e e s m a l l f r a g m e n t s a r e i m p a r t e d b y E u s e b i u s ( E u s e b . ,
Praep. ev. ix 20 ; 2 4 ; 3 7 ) . T h e first f r a g m e n t is c o n c e r n e d w i t h A b r a h a m ,
t h e s e c o n d w i t h J o s e p h , a n d t h e t h i r d w i t h t h e springs a n d t h e w a t e r
c o n d u i t s of J e r u s a l e m , w h o s e a b u n d a n c e is p r a i s e d . T h e first a n d t h e
t h i r d a r e t a k e n from the first b o o k o f the w o r k cited (ix 20 : 0iXojv iv rw
TTpoiTcp Tcjv riepl TO, 'l€poa6Xvp.a; i x 37 : 0L\O)V iv TOIS Tlepl
'hpoaoXvfiojv. . . iv rfj irpairrj); t h e s e c o n d o s t e n s i b l y from t h e f o u r t e e n t h
b o o k (ix 2 4 : îXojv iv rfj iS' TCOV Plepl 'l€poa6Xvp,a). I t is t o o
i m p r o b a b l e , h o w e v e r , t h a t , if P h i l o d e a l t w i t h e v e n t s in c h r o n o l o g i c a l
o r d e r , i t s h o u l d h a v e t a k e n h i m f o u r t e e n b o o k s t o get as f a r as t h e
h i s t o r y o f J o s e p h . I t c a n therefore b e a s s u m e d w i t h F r e u d e n t h a l [Alex.
Polyh., p . 100, n o t e ) t h a t iv TTJ 8' (the f o u r t h b o o k ) s h o u l d be r e a d
i n s t e a d of €v rfj 18', or e v e n iv Trj [i]a' ( t h e first b o o k ) , cf J a c o b y ad
loc, t e n t a t i v e l y , o r t h a t t h e p o e m followed s o m e s t r u c t u r e o t h e r t h a n
c h r o n o l o g y , cf. N i c k e l s b u r g in J W S T P , p . 1 2 0 . If t h e p o e t P h i l o is t o be
i d e n t i f i e d w i t h the h i s t o r i a n P h i l o t h e e l d e r (see b e l o w ) , t h e r e f e r e n c e to
t h e l a t t e r in C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a , q u o t e d b y E u s e b i u s , Hist. eccl. vi 1 3 ,
7, suggests t h a t P h i l o m a y h a v e r e a c h e d as far a s M o s e s i n this or
a n o t h e r w o r k . T h e l a n g u a g e is t h a t o f G r e e k e p i c p o e t r y . P h i l o ' s
74. A reference which survives a p a r t from the Polyhistor tradition in the Excerpta Latina
Rarbari (in Chronica Minora, ed. Frick (1892), p. 278), mentions a certain Sosates, w h o is
described as 'Ebraicus O m i r u s ' , the 'Jewish H o m e r ' , and as flourishing in Alexandria in
the reign of Ptolemy X I I Auletes, i.e. the mid-first c e n t u r y B.C. Unfortunately the d a t i n g
of the chronicle entry is confused, since Sosates is also said to have coincided with the high
priesthoods of Simon a n d J o h n , i.e. t h e second half of the second century B.c. Either date
is possible, or it m a y be that t h e chronographer has moved the entry from somewhere else
entirely since he apparently d i d so i n other cases. At a n y rate, nothing at all is known
about the content of his poetry, and it is not unlikely that it contained nothing specifically
Jewish, like the rhetorical theory of Caecihus of Calacte (see below, p. 701). O n Sosates,
see Fraser, PA I I , pp. 9 8 6 - 7 ; S . J . D . Cohen, 'Sosates, the Jewish H o m e r ' , H T h R 74
(1981), p p . 391-6.
h e x a m e t e r s a r e h o w e v e r w r i t t e n w i t h o u t full c o n t r o l of G r e e k p r o s o d y ,
a l t h o u g h t h e fact t h a t h i s d i c t i o n is p o m p o u s a n d stilted to t h e p o i n t of
b e i n g u n i n t e l l i g i b l e is i n k e e p i n g w i t h t h e p u r p o s e f u l o b s c u r i t y of o t h e r
H e l l e n i s t i c epics. T h e title ' A b o u t J e r u s a l e m ' is also t y p i c a l of s u c h e p i c s
since m a n y o t h e r p o e m s a b o u t cities a r e k n o w n . A t t e m p t s t o t r a c e in
P h i l o p a r a l l e l s w i t h o t h e r G r e e k genres, e.g. t h e O r p h i c h y m n s
( G u t m a n ) , a r e h o w e v e r too s p e c u l a t i v e t o be useful.
T h e P h i l o m e n t i o n e d by C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a {Strom, i 2 1 , 1 4 1 )
a n d b y J o s e p h u s {€. Ap. i 2 3 (218) = E u s e b . , Praep. ev. ix 4 2 ) , w h o m
J o s e p h u s d e s i g n a t e s ' t h e o l d e r P h i l o ' (0iAajv 0 npea^vTepos) in
distinction from the y o u n g e r philosopher, m a y possibly be identical
w i t h t h e a u t h o r o f the e p i c o n J e r u s a l e m , t h o u g h t h i s i d e n t i t y has b e e n
d e n i e d b y W a l t e r (see a b o v e , p . 5 5 6 ) . I n favour o f i d e n t i t y is the fact
t h a t , if a s e p a r a t e h i s t o r i a n c a l l e d P h i l o existed, A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r
m i g h t h a v e b e e n e x p e c t e d t o q u o t e from h i m , b u t t h a t , so far a s is
k n o w n in t h e e x t a n t q u o t a t i o n s o f P o l y h i s t o r , he d i d n o t d o so. I f t h e
t w o Philos a r e in fact i d e n t i c a l , P h i l o m u s t h a v e c e l e b r a t e d J e r u s a l e m i n
verse i n a w a y t h a t p r o v i d e d at t h e s a m e t i m e a h i s t o r y of t h e J e w i s h
kings, as w e m a y s u p p o s e from t h e f r a g m e n t s of E u s e b i u s . T h e
h y p o t h e s i s o f two P h i l o s r e m a i n s h o w e v e r m o s t p r o b a b l e .
I n r e g a r d to t h e d a t e of P h i l o , i t c a n only b e s a i d t h a t he w a s e a r l i e r
t h a n A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r . A l t h o u g h t h e r e is no d i r e c t e v i d e n c e for it,
from t h e c o n t e n t s of t h e p o e m he w a s a l m o s t w i t h o u t d o u b t a J e w .
It is likely t h a t the e u l o g y of J e r u s a l e m i n d i c a t e s t h a t the w o r k w a s
written there ( F r e u d e n t h a l ) . An Egyptian origin has been asserted
( H e n g e l ) o n no v e r y g o o d g r o u n d s , b u t in fact a p o e m in p r a i s e o f
J e r u s a l e m c o u l d h a v e b e e n w r i t t e n a n y w h e r e in t h e D i a s p o r a .
Editions
Ludwich, A., De Philonis carmine graeco-judaico (1900).
Jacoby, F G r H 7 2 9 , I I I C, p p . 6 8 9 - 9 1 .
Denis, F P G , p p . 2 0 3 - 4 .
(Emendations proposed by Y. G u t m a n in Script. Hier. i ( 1 9 5 4 ) , p. 4 0 , should be
rejected.)
Translations
English:
Attridge, H. W . , in Charlesworth, O T P I I (forthcoming).
German:
Ludwich, loc. cit.
Riessler, P., Altjiid. Schrift. ( 1 9 2 8 ) , p p . 7 3 3 f., 1 3 1 5 .
Walter, N., Fragmente jiidisch-hellenistischer Epik J S H R Z I V . 3 ) ( 1 9 8 3 ) , p p . 148—53.
Bibliography
(See works under Philo t h e Elder, above, p. 5 5 6 . )
G u t m a n , Y., 'Philo t h e Epic Poet', Script. Hier. i ( 1 9 5 4 ) , pp. 3 6 - 6 3 .
G u t m a n , Y., The Beginnings of Jewish-Hellenistic Literature 1 ( 1 9 5 8 ) , pp. 2 2 1 - 4 4 (Heb.).
IV. Epic Poetry and Drama 561
H a d a s , M . , Hellenistic Culture (1959), p p . 99-100.

Denis, I P G A T , p p . 270 f.
Wacholder, B. Z . , 'Philo (The E l d e r ) ' , EJ X I I I (1971), cols. 407-8.
Wacholder, B. Z . , ESJL, pp. 2 8 2 - 3 .
C'oUins, BAAJ, p p . 4 3 - 6 .
2. Theodotus
S i m i l a r i n k i n d to P h i l o ' s p o e m on J e r u s a l e m a p p e a r s to h a v e b e e n t h a t
of T h e o d o t u s o n S h e c h e m , from w h i c h E u s e b i u s i m p a r t s a l o n g
f r a g m e n t in Praep. ev. ix 2 2 , p a r t l y i n a l i t e r a l q u o t a t i o n a n d p a r t l y i n a
d e s c r i p t i o n o f its c o n t e n t s . T h e w h o l e p i e c e r e l a t e s to t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e
t o w n o f S h e c h e m . Its s i t u a t i o n is first d e s c r i b e d , t h e n t h e s t o r y o f its
c a p t u r e b y t h e H e b r e w s following G e n . 3 4 . I t tells h o w J a c o b first l i v e d
in M e s o p o t a m i a , m a r r i e d t h e r e a n d h a d c h i l d r e n , t h e n m o v e d w i t h
t h e m t o the n e i g h b o u r h o o d of S h e c h e m a n d o b t a i n e d a p l o t of l a n d
f r o m H a m o r , K i n g of S h e c h e m ; h o w S h e c h e m t h e son o f H a m o r r a p e d
D i n a h , J a c o b ' s d a u g h t e r , a n d subsequently h o w J a c o b d e c l a r e d himself
r e a d y t o give D i n a h as wife t o S h e c h e m on t h e c o n d i t i o n t h a t all t h e
S h e c h e m i t e s w e r e c i r c u m c i z e d ; a n d finally h o w S i m e o n a n d L e v i , t w o
of t h e s o n s of J a c o b , m u r d e r e d H a m o r a n d S h e c h e m , a n d t o g e t h e r w i t h
their b r o t h e r s destroyed the t o w n o f the S h e c h e m i t e s .
S i n c e J a c o b ' s s o j o u r n in M e s o p o t a m i a is n o t m e n d o n e d u n t i l after
t h e d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e t o w n o f S h e c h e m a n d o n l y a s an i n t r o d u c t i o n to
t h e s u b s e q u e n t s t o r y of t h e c a p t u r e of S h e c h e m b y t h e H e b r e w s , the
h i s t o r y of t h e t o w n m a y h a v e c o n s t i t u t e d t h e t h e m e p r o p e r of the
p o e m ; a n d since, i n a d d i t i o n , S h e c h e m is d e s i g n a t e d ' h o l y c i t y ' (tepov
aarv), i t is p o s s i b l e t h a t T h e o d o t u s w a s a S a m a r i t a n . I n t h a t case, the
title w h i c h E u s e b i u s g a v e to t h e p o e m , i . e . Ilepl 'lovSaiwv, w o u l d h a r d l y
b e c o r r e c t . T h e p o s s i b l e a l t e r n a t i v e title UiKifxwv KTIOLS is a c c o r d i n g l y
p r o p o s e d by J a c o b y , F G r H 7 3 2 , I I I C, p . 6 9 2 . I t w o u l d n o t b e s u r p r i s
i n g if A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r a n d after h i m E u s e b i u s p r o v e d to h a v e m i s
t a k e n a S a m a r i t a n for a J e w .
T h e s e a r g u m e n t s for a S a m a r i t a n o r i g i n a r e n o t h o w e v e r d e c i s i v e .
T h e p h r a s e Upov darv c o u l d b e a H e b r a i s m m e a n i n g ' s p l e n d i d c i t y ' , cf
Y . G u t m a n , The Beginnings of Jewish-Hellenistic Literature \ ( 1 9 5 8 ) , p . 248
( H e b . ) , or c o u l d refer t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l holiness o f t h e site i n b i b l i c a l
75. A. Ludwich already held that the descripdon of Shechem as Upov aarv is not decis
ive (note 8), and emphasized, against the S a m a r i t a n character of the secdon, t h a t J a c o b ' s
wish to J u d a i z e t h e Shechemites, a n d the atrocity c o m m i t t e d against t h e m by his sons, are
lold 'with objective c a l m ' (therefore with a p p r o v a l ) (note 22).
history. I t is possible t h a t t h e rest of t h e p o e m w a s a b o u t s o m e t o p i c

o t h e r t h a n S h e c h e m . T h e s u r v i v i n g f r a g m e n t c o n c e n t r a t e s on t h e t o w n
o n l y b e c a u s e it w a s t h e o r i g i n of t h e city's n a m e t h a t E u s e b i u s w a s
c o n c e r n e d to e l u c i d a t e ( E u s e b i u s , Praep. ev. ix 22). S o m e h a v e t h e r e f o r e
a r g u e d t h a t the J e w i s h i d e n t i t y of T h e o d o t u s s h o u l d be r e t a i n e d
( L u d w i c h , G u t m a n , C o l l i n s ) . I n f a v o u r of this is the title g i v e n b y
E u s e b i u s . F u r t h e r m o r e , the t h o r o u g h l y positive light in w h i c h is
p o r t r a y e d t h e a t r o c i t y of J a c o b ' s sons i n killing t h e ' i m p i o u s '
i n h a b i t a n t s o f S h e c h e m seems s t r a n g e in a S a m a r i t a n w o r k , e v e n
t h o u g h S a m a r i t a n s by t h e H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d d o u b t l e s s identified as
m u c h w i t h t h e d e s c e n d a n t s o f J a c o b as w i t h t h e a n c i e n t i n h a b i t a n t s of
t h e t o w n . If t h e w o r k is J e w i s h , t h e a s s u m p t i o n m a d e b y J a c o b t h a t it
w a s d e s i r a b l e t h a t g e n t i l e s s h o u l d b e J u d a i z e d b y c i r c u m c i s i o n p o i n t s to
a H a s m o n a e a n d a t e , p e r h a p s t h e t i m e of J o h n H y r c a n u s .
A t t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e e x c e r p t it is said t h a t t h e t o w n of S h e c h e m
r e c e i v e d its n a m e from Sikimios, t h e s o n of H e r m e s [diro UiKifiiov TOV
'Epixov). If t h i s r e a d i n g is c o r r e c t , T h e o d o t u s m u s t h a v e e m b e l l i s h e d
J e w i s h h i s t o r y w i t h d e t a i l s from G r e e k m y t h o l o g y , following o t h e r
Hellenistic writers.
T h e l i n g u i s t i c f o r m , q u i t e d i f f e r e n t from P h i l o ' s , is s i m p l e , lively a n d
c l e a r ; t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e h e x a m e t e r s is H o m e r i c . W h e t h e r t h e
w r i t e r w a s J e w i s h o r S a m a r i t a n , it c a n b e c e r t a i n t h a t h e w o r k e d before
A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r . I d e n t i f i c a t i o n of this a u t h o r w i t h t h e T h e o d o t u s
c i t e d b y J o s e p h u s in C. Ap. i 2 3 (216) as a g e n t i l e w i t n e s s to t h e
a n t i q u i t y of t h e J e w s is very i m p l a u s i b l e . T h e s a m e a r g u m e n t s a p p l y
a g a i n s t such a n identification as in t h e case of T h e o p h i l u s (see a b o v e , p .
556). T h e r e is no i n d i c a t i o n of t h e p l a c e of o r i g i n a n d J e r u s a l e m is as
possible as A l e x a n d r i a o r o t h e r p l a c e s in t h e G r e e k - s p e a k i n g d i a s p o r a .
Editions
Ludwich, A., De Theodoti carmine graeco-judaico (1899).
Jacoby, F G r H 732, I I I C, p p . 6 9 2 - 4 (with emendations proposed by Y. G u t m a n , The
Beginnings of Jewish-Hellenistic Literatur I (1958), pp. 247-58).
Denis, F P G , p p . 204-7.
76. T h e transmitted reading 'Epfjcov is accepted by J a c o b y , F G r H , 723, I I I C, p. 692.

T h e emendation to 'E(xn.u)p at the beginning of the fragment in its place (Ludwich,
followed by Gifford, M r a s , CoUins) is unnecessary. It is characterisdc of such euhemerisdc
literature to project biblical figures back i n t o an even more remote past as part of the
mythological legend of a city's foundation. 'Efinwp, i.e. H a m o r , is given as the father of a
m a n called Shechem later in T h e o d o t u s ' account, where it is said that H a m o r was ruler of
the city (Jacoby, F G r H , III G, p. 692, Hne 26). This follows Genesis 34. The IJiKLfiios w h o
is said to have given his name to the city as its founder (lines 14-16) must be a different
m a n whose father could well have been n a m e d b y Theodotus as Hermes. T h e proof of
this is t h a t it is highly improbable t h a t UiKifuos in line 15 and Shechem in hne 26 are
identical because, if they were, H a m o r would b e portrayed as ruler of t h e town of
Shechem after it had been founded b y his o w n son.
Translations
ilnglish:
Fallon, F. T . , in Chariesworth, O T P I I (forthcoming).
(Jt-rman:
Ludwich, loc. cit.
Riessler, P., Altjiid. Schrift. (1928), p p . 1263-5, 1339.
Walter, N . , Die Fragmente jiidisch-hellenistischer Epik ( J S H R Z IV.3) (1983), pp. 164-71.
Bibliography
Freudenthal, Alex. Polyh. (1875), pp. 99 ff.
Susemihl, F., Gesch. d. griech. Litt. i. d. Alexandrinerzeit II (1892), p . 655.
I-aqueur, R., ' T h e o d o t u s (21)', R E V A 2 (1934), cols. 1958-9.
CJutman, Y., The Beginnings of Jewish-Hellenistic Literature I (1958), pp. 245-61 ( H e b . ) .
Bull, R. J . , 'A N o t e on T h e o d o t u s ' Description of S h e c h e m ' , H T h R 60 (1967), pp. 221-8.
Wacholder, B. Z . , ' T h e o d o t u s ' , EJ x v , 1102 ff.
Wacholder, B. Z . , E S J L , p. 285.
Collins, J . J . , ' T h e Epic of T h e o d o t u s and t h e Hellenism of the H a s m o n a e a n s ' , H T h R 73
(1980), p p . 91-104.
C o l l i n s , J . J . , B A A J , p p . 47-8.
Walter, N . , Die Fragmente jiidisch-hellenistischen Epik ( J S H R Z IV.3) (1983), p p . 154-63 (a
full discussion).
P u m m e r , R., a n d M. Roussel, 'A note o n Theodotus a n d Homer', J S J 13 (1982), pp.
177-82.
P u m m e r , R., 'Genesis 34 in Jewish writings of the Hellenistic a n d R o m a n periods',
H T h R 75 (1982), pp. 177-88.
3. Ezekiel the Tragic Poet

T h e m o s t r e m a r k a b l e p h e n o m e n o n i n t h e field of J e w i s h - H e l l e n i s t i c
p o e t r y is t h e c o n v e r s i o n of b i b l i c a l m a t e r i a l i n t o G r e e k d r a m a s . W e
k n o w o f c o u r s e o f o n l y o n e s u c h J e w i s h d r a m a t i s t , E z e k i e l , a n d it
r e m a i n s u n c e r t a i n w h e t h e r he h a d p r e d e c e s s o r s or successors. His
m a s t e r y of t h e f o r m h a s s u g g e s t e d to s o m e t h a t h e was w o r k i n g w i t h i n
a n e s t a b l i s h e d t r a d i t i o n , b u t t h e r e is n o e x p l i c i t e v i d e n c e of o t h e r s u c h
w r i t e r s . (A d r a m a a b o u t S u s a n n a b y 6 AaîaaK-qvos s h o u l d p r o b a b l y be
a t t r i b u t e d n o t t o N i c o l a u s of D a m a s c u s b u t t o t h e f o u r t h - c e n t u r y
C'hristian w r i t e r J o h n of D a m a s c u s , cf. J a c o b y , F G r H I I C , p . 290,
K o m m . on 90, F x 3 2 . ) I t is likely in a n y c a s e t h a t he c o m p o s e d o t h e r
d r a m a s besides t h e o n e k n o w n to u s in e x c e r p t s , for he w a s n a m e d 'the
p o e t o f j e w i s h t r a g e d i e s ' , in t h e p l u r a l ( C l e m e n t o f A l e x a n d r i a , Strom, i
'-^3' 1 5 5 j E u s e b . , Praep. ev. ix 28). S i n c e t h e E u s e b i u s c i t a t i o n w a s t a k e n
from A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r i t is likely t o be a c c u r a t e , contra F r a s e r , P A
II, p . 987. O n e o f t h e s e d r a m a s , e n t i t l e d ' T h e E x o d u s ' , 'Eâywyrj, and
c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e h i s t o r y o f the e x o d u s of t h e J e w s f r o m E g y p t , is well
k n o w n t h r o u g h e x t e n s i v e e x c e r p t s i n E u s e b i u s (after A l e x a n d e r
P o l y h i s t o r ) a n d C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a ( C l e m e n t o f A l e x a n d r i a , Strom, i
2 3 , 1 5 5 ; E u s e b . , Praep. ev. ix 29, 1 4 ) .
T h e m o m e n t c h o s e n as t h e p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e seems to h a v e b e e n
t h a t in w h i c h M o s e s fled to M i d i a n on a c c o u n t of t h e m u r d e r of t h e
E g y p t i a n ( E x o d . 2), for t h i s is t h e t i m e in w h i c h the first e x c e r p t places
us ( E u s e b . , Praep. ev. ix 28 = C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a , Strom, i 2 3 ,
155—6). I t consists i n a l o n g m o n o l o g u e b y M o s e s , in w h i c h he r e c o u n t s
his life s t o r y u n t i l t h a t p o i n t , a n d c o n c l u d e s b y s a y i n g t h a t he m u s t i n
c o n s e q u e n c e n o w w a n d e r in a foreign l a n d . H e t h e n sees t h e seven
d a u g h t e r s of R e u e l a p p r o a c h i n g ( E x o d . 2:16 ff.) a n d asks t h e m w h o
t h e y a r e ; w h e r e a t Z i p p o r a h i n f o r m s h i m . T h e f u r t h e r c o u r s e of t h e
story is o n l y i n d i c a t e d in t h e e x c e r p t i n t h a t t h e r e is t h e n q u e s t i o n of t h e
w a t e r i n g of t h e flocks, a n d o f the m a r r i a g e o f Z i p p o r a h a n d M o s e s
(Exod. 2:i6ff.).
I n t h e s e c o n d e x c e r p t ( E u s e b . ix 29, 4-6), M o s e s tells h i s
f a t h e r - i n - l a w of a d r e a m , w h i c h t h e l a t t e r i n t e r p r e t s t o m e a n t h a t
M o s e s will a t t a i n t o a r u l i n g p o s i t i o n a n d will k n o w t h i n g s p r e s e n t ,
past, and future.
A f u r t h e r s c e n e ( E u s e b . ix 29, 7 - 1 1 ) r e p r e s e n t s , on the basis of
E x o d u s 3 - 4 , h o w G o d s p o k e w i t h M o s e s from a b u r n i n g b u s h a n d
c h a r g e d h i m w i t h t h e m i s s i o n of freeing t h e p e o p l e o f I s r a e l from
E g y p t i a n slavery. S i n c e G o d s p e a k s invisibly from t h e b u s h , he d o e s n o t
himself a p p e a r on t h e s t a g e ; o n l y h i s voice is h e a r d . T h e details a r e
m o r e or less in a g r e e m e n t w i t h E x o d u s 3 - 4 .
I n t h e following e x c e r p t ( E u s e b . ix 29, 1 2 - 1 3 ) , G o d gives e x a c t
i n s t r u c t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e e x o d u s a n d t h e c e l e b r a t i o n of the P a s s o v e r
a c c o r d i n g to E x o d u s 1 1 - 1 2 . I t is likely t h a t t h e first h a l f o f this e x c e r p t
still belongs t o t h e scene of t h e b u r n i n g b u s h ( u p to line 1 7 4 , e d .
J a c o b s o n = E u s e b . ix 29, 12 Jin.), w h i l e t h e s e c o n d h a l f b e l o n g s to t h e
conference b e t w e e n M o s e s a n d t h e e l d e r s o f the p e o p l e .
I n a f u r t h e r scene ( E u s e b . i x 29, 14), a n E g y p t i a n w h o has e s c a p e d
t h e c a t a s t r o p h e in t h e R e d S e a a p p e a r s a n d r e l a t e s h o w t h e I s r a e l i t e s
successfully passed t h r o u g h , w h e r e a s t h e E g y p t i a n a r m y p e r i s h e d t h e r e .
F i n a l l y in t h e l a s t f r a g m e n t ( E u s e b . ix 29, 1 5 - 1 6 ) , a m e s s e n g e r ,
c o n c e i v e d as a s c o u t sent on a h e a d of t h e Israelite c o l u m n , r e p o r t s to
M o s e s t h e d i s c o v e r y of a n e x c e l l e n t c a m p i n g p l a c e n e a r E l i m , w i t h
twelve s p r i n g s a n d seventy p a l m t r e e s ( E x o d . 1 5 : 2 7 = N u m . 33:9)
N e a r b y , says t h e m e s s e n g e r , t h e r e a p p e a r e d a w o n d r o u s l y m i g h t y b i r d ,
a l m o s t t w i c e a s l a r g e as a n e a g l e , w h i c h all t h e o t h e r b i r d s followed as
t h e i r k i n g . T h e d e s c r i p t i o n of t h i s b i r d , d e s c r i b e d explicitly as a p h o e n i x
b u t w i t h o u t t h e m e n t i o n of E z e k i e l ' s n a m e , also o c c u r s i n E u s t a t h i u s ,
Comm. in Hexaemeron 25 ff. ( P G X V I I I , 729).
I t is c l e a r f r o m these f r a g m e n t s t h a t t h e story stays fairly close to t h e
biblical n a r r a t i v e , b u t m a n y m i d r a s h i c e m b e U i s h m e n t s h a v e b e e n
a d d e d . M a n y of these c a n b e p a r a l l e l e d in o t h e r m i d r a s h i m of l a t e r
d a t e , cf. H . J a c o b s o n , The E x a g o g e oJ Ezekiel ( 1 9 8 3 ) , p p . 20—3,
i n c l u d i n g e l e m e n t s o f M e r k a b a h s p e c u l a t i o n in M o s e s ' d r e a m - v i s i o n , c f
P. W . v a n d e r H o r s t , ' M o s e s ' T h r o n e V i s i o n i n Ezekiel t h e D r a m a t i s t ' ,

J J S 34 ( 1 9 8 3 ) , p p . 2 1 - 9 . T h e a u t h o r ' s p o e t r y is q u i t e p r o s a i c . O n t h e
o t h e r h a n d , it is i m p o s s i b l e to d e n y a c e r t a i n skill i n i m a g e r y a n d in t h e
d r a m a t i z a t i o n of t h e m a t e r i a l . T h e d i c t i o n a n d versification a r e
t o l e r a b l y fluent. H i s l a n g u a g e has m a n y affinities w i t h E u r i p i d e s a n d ,
to a lesser e x t e n t , w i t h s o m e o t h e r fifth c e n t u r y t r a g e d i a n s . I t is likely
t h a t t h e d r a m a w a s i n t e n d e d for p e r f o r m a n c e like t h e M e d i e v a l p a s s i o n
p l a y s , for t h e e d u c a t i o n of a J e w i s h a u d i e n c e a n d as a l t e r n a t i v e
e n t e r t a i n m e n t to p a g a n G r e e k d r a m a . T h e f a i l u r e to o b s e r v e u n i t y of
s c e n e b e t w e e n the five e p i s o d e s h a s s u g g e s t e d t o s o m e t h a t t h e p l a y w a s
r e a d as p a m p h l e t s , as w a s n o t u n c o m m o n in A l e x a n d r i a in t h i s p e r i o d
( M . H a d a s , Hellenistic Culture ( 1 9 5 9 ) , p . 100). H o w e v e r , t o o little is
k n o w n a b o u t n o n - J e w i s h H e l l e n i s t i c t r a g e d y for a n y c e r t a i n t y a b o u t
s u c h d r a m a t i c c o n v e n t i o n s . I n e i t h e r case, a g e n t i l e a u d i e n c e w a s
p r o b a b l y expected alongside the J e w s w h o w e r e t h e tragedian's m a i n
o b j e c t i v e . I n this c o n n e c t i o n , t h e c h o i c e o f t h e E x o d u s t h e m e of
redemption was doubtless deliberate.
Ezekiel w a s c l e a r l y J e w i s h or S a m a r i t a n , as h i s n a m e i m p l i e s . A
S a m a r i t a n o r i g i n w a s s u g g e s t e d b y K . K u i p e r , ' L e p o e t e juif E z e c h i e l ' ,
R E J 46 (1903), p p . 174 ff. a n d s h o u l d n o t b e e n t i r e l y d i s c o u n t e d g i v e n
t h e conspicuous p a r a l l e l between Ezekiel a n d t h e S a m a r i t a n P e n t a
t e u c h , c f v a n der H o r s t , art. cit. p . 28, n . 47. A J e w i s h o r i g i n is h o w e v e r
m o r e likely since n o t h i n g forbids it. H i s p l a c e of w r i t i n g is u n c e r t a i n .
T h e c o m m o n o p i n i o n is t h a t h e w r o t e in A l e x a n d r i a (Fraser,
J a c o b s o n ) , b u t t h i s is b a s e d o n n o t h i n g s t r o n g e r t h a n t h e s u i t a b i l i t y of
t h e A l e x a n d r i a n J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y for s u c h w r i t i n g s . T h e E x o d u s
t h e m e w a s i m p o r t a n t e n o u g h for all J e w s for its use to i n d i c a t e n o
special r e l a t i o n to E g y p t in t h e a u t h o r . T h e r e f e r e n c e to ' L i b y a , h e l d by
d i v e r s e tribes of d a r k - s k i n n e d E t h i o p i a n s ' (lines 60—62, e d . J a c o b s o n , =
E u s e b . ix 2 8 , 4 ) , m a y possibly i n d i c a t e a n o n - E g y p t i a n , p e r h a p s
C^yrenaican, e n v i r o n m e n t ( G u t m a n ) ; n o r is i t i m p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e p l a y
w a s c o m p o s e d in P a l e s t i n e ( H a d a s ) . T h e d a t e o f w r i t i n g w a s before
A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r . S i n c e h e k n e w t h e L X X a n d possibly D e m e t r i u s ,
( f W a c h o l d e r , E S J L , p . 2 4 3 , he m u s t h a v e w r i t t e n after the m i d - t h i r d
( e n t u r y B . C , b u t n o m o r e precise d a t e c a n b e fixed.
T e n t r i m e t e r s i n E p i p h a n i u s , Panarion, 64.29.6, w e r e a s c r i b e d to
Fvzekiel by J . J . S c a U g e r a n d , f o l l o w i n g h i m , m a n y o t h e r s i n c l u d i n g
A . - M . D e n i s , cf F P G , p . 2 1 6 , b u t this a s c r i p t i o n is p r o b a b l y i n c o r r e c t
since t h e t e n o r of t h e p a s s a g e is C h r i s t i a n , cf. H . J a c o b s o n , ' E z e k i e l the
I r a g e d i a n a n d t h e primeval serpent', A J P h 102 (1981), p p . 3 1 6 - 2 0 .
Editions
Kuscbius, Praep. ev. ix 28 (ed. Mras, G C S Eusebius V I I I . i , pp. 5 2 4 - 3 8 ) .
l)<-nis, F P G , p p . 207-16.
566 §33''^- Jewish Literature Composed in Greek
Snell, B., Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta I (1971), no. 128.

Jacobson, H., The Exagoge of Ezekiel (1983).
Translations
English:
Jacobson, loc. cit.
Robertson, J . , in Charlesworth, O T P II (forthcoming).
German:
Riessler, P., Altjud. Schrift. (1928), 337 ff.
Vogt, E., TragikerEzechiel ( J S H R Z IV.3) (1983), pp. 121-33.
Bibliography
DeHtzsch, Z^r Gesch. derjiidischen Poesie (1836), p p . 28, 209, 211-19.
Susemihl, F., Gesch. d. griech. Litt. i. d. Alexandrinerzeit I I (1892), pp. 6 5 3 ff.
Kuiper, K., 'Le poete juif Ezechiel', REJ 46 (1903), p p . 48-73, 161-77 (includes
reconstructed text).
Kuiper, K., 'Ad Ezcchielem poetam j u d a e u m curac secundae', Rivista di storia andca 8
(1904), pp. 62-94.
Dieterich, 'Ezechiel', RE V I . 2 (1909), cols. 1701 ff.
Christ, W. v., O. StahUn a n d W. Schmidt, Gesch. der griech. Lit. II. i (^1920), pp. 607 ff.
Wienecke, J . , Ezechielis Judaeipoetae Alexandrinifabulae, quae inscribitur ESAFQFHfragmenta
(Phil. Diss. Miinster, 1931).
Wienecke, J . , EJ V I , cols. 885 ff.
Dalbert, P., Die Theologie derjiid.-hell. Missionsliteratur (1954), p p . 52-65.
Strugnell, J . , 'Notes on the T e x t a n d M e t r e of Ezekiel the Tragedian's Exagoge',
H T h R 60 (1957), p p . 449-57-
Hadas, M., Hellenistic Culture (1959), pp. 9 9 - 1 0 1 .
G u t m a n , Y., The Beginnings of Jewish-Hellenistic Literature II (1964), p p . 9-69 (Heb.).
Snell, B., 'Die J a m b e n in Ezechiels Moses-Drama', Glotta 44 (1966), pp. 25-32.
Zwierlein, O . , Die Rezitationsdrama Senecas (1966), pp. 138-46.
Kraus, C , 'Ezechiele Poeta tragico', Rivista di Filologia 96 (1968), p p . 164-75.
Denis, I P G A T , pp. 273-7.
Fraser, PA I, pp. 707 ff.; vol. II, p . 987.
Starobinski-Safran, E., ' U n poete judeo-hellenistique: Ezechiel le tragique'. M u s e u m
Helveticum 31 (1974), pp. 216-24.
HoUaday, C. R., ' T h e Portrait of Moses in Ezekiel t h e Tragedian', Soc. Bib. Lit. Seminar
Papers {ig-j6), p p . 447-52.
Jacobson, H . , 'Two studies on Ezekiel t h e Tragedian', GRBS 22 (1981), p p . 167-78.
Jacobson, H . , 'Mysticism a n d apocalyptic in Ezekiel's Exagoge', Illinois Classical Studies 6
(1981), p p . 272-93.
Jacobson, H . , The Exagoge of Ezekiel (1983) (with extensive citations of previous
scholarship).
van d e r Horst, P. W . , 'Moses' T h r o n e Vision in Ezekiel the Dramatist', J J S 34 (1983),
p p . 21-9.
Vogt, E., Tragiker Ezechiel ( J S H R Z , IV.3) (1983), pp. 115-20.
V. PHILOSOPHY
W h e r e a s in t h e d o m a i n s of h i s t o r i o g r a p h y a n d p o e t r y , it w a s m a i n l y the
e x t e r n a l form only t h a t w a s b o r r o w e d f r o m t h e G r e e k s , it is d e b a t a b l e
w h e t h e r this is also t r u e in t h e field of p h i l o s o p h y , or w h e t h e r a r e a l ,
i n t e r n a l b l e n d i n g o f j e w i s h a n d G r e e k t h o u g h t , a s t r o n g i n f l u e n c e on
t h e c o n t e n t o f the J e w i s h faith by G r e e k p h i l o s o p h y , took p l a c e . If s u c h
a fusion of J u d a i s m a n d G r e e k p h i l o s o p h y is t o be f o u n d , it will be seen
m o s t clearly i n t h e extensive w o r k s of P h i l o . E v e n i n his case, h o w e v e r ,
t h e e x t e n t to w h i c h his t h o u g h t is H e l l e n i z e d c a n n o t be r e a d i l y d e c i d e d ,
a n d a r g u m e n t c o n t i n u e s , cf § 34. N o r is it c l e a r w h e t h e r he s h o u l d be
t a k e n a s an i s o l a t e d p h e n o m e n o n in t h e h i s t o r y o f his p e o p l e in this
p e r i o d . S o m e h a v e c o n t e n d e d t h a t h e is a classic e x a m p l e o f a n
i n t e l l e c t u a l i n f l u e n c e w h i c h w a s felt t h r o u g h o u t t h e p e r i o d , a n d w a s a n
e s s e n t i a l p a r t of t h e n a t u r e of H e l l e n i s t i c J u d a i s m . A c c o r d i n g to this
v i e w , it was also p a r t of G r e e k c u l t u r e t o k n o w t h e g r e a t t h i n k e r s o f the
G r e e k p e o p l e , a n d w h e n the HeUenistic J e w s a c c e p t e d t h e f o r m e r , t h e y
also s u b j e c t e d t h e m s e l v e s to the i n f l u e n c e o f G r e e k p h i l o s o p h y . O n e
w o u l d t h e r e f o r e e x p e c t t o find e v i d e n c e o f s u c h a n i m p a c t f r o m the v e r y
b e g i n n i n g of J e w i s h c o n t a c t w i t h G r e e c e . A r i s t o t l e , t h e n , s h o u l d be
t a k e n seriously w h e n h e c l a i m s t h a t t h e J e w w h o m h e m e t in Asia
M i n o r w a s a l r e a d y 'EXXrjVLKOs ov rfj SiaXcKTcp pLovov dXXd Kal TTJ ifivxH (cf.
above, p . 17).
However, the J e w i s h features of m u c h Hellenistic Jewish philosophy
r e m a i n so p a t e n t t h a t i t is a l s o possible to a r g u e t h a t s u c h fusion was
v e r y r a r e i n d e e d a n d t h a t , like J e w i s h h i s t o r y a n d p o e t r y , t h e u s e of
G r e e k h a d o n l y a m a r g i n a l effect o n t h e c o n t e n t of w h a t w a s w r i t t e n .
J e w i s h G r e e k p h i l o s o p h y p u r s u e d essentially p r a c t i c a l g o a l s i n the s a m e
w a y as the P a l e s t i n i a n hkmh. Its m a i n c o n t e n t w a s not logic o r physics,
b u t ethics. T h i s e t h i c s w a s , of c o u r s e , often b a s e d on t h e t h e o r e t i c a l
philosophy of the Greeks, b u t the latter was only a m e a n s t o an end.
T h e real purpose o f j e w i s h philosophers was a practical o n e : t o educate
p e o p l e in t r u e m o r a l i t y a n d p i e t y .
T h i s J e w i s h f o u n d a t i o n c a n also still b e r e c o g n i z e d i n t h e c h o i c e of
l i t e r a r y forms. A l t h o u g h m u c h i n f l u e n c e d by t h e g e n r e s of G r e e k
l i t e r a t u r e , t h e b a s i c l i t e r a r y form of t h e s e p h i l o s o p h i c a l w o r k s d e r i v e s
from t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t a n d the l a t e r t r a d i t i o n s o f P a l e s t i n i a n J u d a i s m .
T h e a u t h o r of t h e W i s d o m o f S o l o m o n c h o s e the form of t h e p r o v e r b ;
P h i l o gives h i s d e b a t e s i n t h e form of t h e m i d r a s h , i.e. i n p r o l i x , l e a r n e d
c o m m e n t a r i e s o n t h e t e x t o f t h e P e n t a t e u c h , f r o m w h i c h the m o s t
h e t e r o g e n e o u s p h i l o s o p h i c a l i d e a s a r e d e v e l o p e d w i t h t h e a i d of
allegorical exegesis. H e o p t e d i n o n l y a few s h o r t e r c o m p o s i t i o n s t o

choose t h e form of e n q u i r y a n d d i a l o g u e following G r e e k e x a m p l e s . O n
the o t h e r h a n d , t h e r e is n o o b v i o u s J e w i s h g e n r e i n t o w h i c h
A r i s t o b u l u s ' w o r k c a n b e fitted, a n d e v e n W i s d o m , P h i l o a n d 4
M a c c a b e e s c a n o n l y be p r o p e r l y u n d e r s t o o d as e x a m p l e s of G r e e k
literary f o r m as well a s J e w i s h .
W h a t e v e r t h e g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n , i t is c l e a r t h a t i n these writers t h e
m i x t u r e o f j e w i s h a n d G r e e k i d e a s t a k e s a v a r i e t y of forms. I n s o m e t h e
effect of G r e e k ideas is s t r o n g e r t h a n in o t h e r s . B u t e v e n those m o s t
d e e p l y p e n e t r a t e d b y t h e m a r e essentially still r o o t e d in J u d a i s m , for
they insist not o n l y o n the u n i t y a n d t r a n s c e n d e n c e of G o d , a n d o n t h e
rule of d i v i n e p r o v i d e n c e w h i c h chastises t h e w i c k e d a n d r e w a r d s t h e
g o o d ; t h e y also firmly m a i n t a i n t h a t i n t h e M o s a i c r e v e l a t i o n w a s g i v e n
the most perfect k n o w l e d g e o f d i v i n e a n d h u m a n m a t t e r s , s o t h a t
J u d a i s m is the w a y t o true w i s d o m a n d t r u e v i r t u e .
M o r e o v e r , n o t o n l y the d e g r e e of G r e e k i n f l u e n c e v a r i e s , b u t different
G r e e k systems a r e p r e f e r r e d b y different a u t h o r s . P l a t o , A r i s t o t l e , t h e
Stoics, a n d t h e P y t h a g o r e a n s furnished the ideas for these J e w i s h
p h i l o s o p h e r s . I n P l a t o n i c - P y t h a g o r e a n a n d Stoic t e a c h i n g s , in p a r t i c u
lar, J e w i s h t h i n k e r s found m a n y e l e m e n t s w h i c h c o u l d be u s e d t o
s u p p o r t c e r t a i n t e n e t s of t h e J e w i s h faith. T h a t this a p p r o p r i a d o n w a s
a l w a y s eclectic is self-evident. I n t h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , h o w e v e r , J e w i s h
p h i l o s o p h y m e r e l y s h a r e d the p r e d o m i n a n t c h a r a c t e r of later G r e e k
p h i l o s o p h y in g e n e r a l .
/. The Wisdom of Solomon

T h e relationship between Jewish a n d Greek t h o u g h t in Hellenistic
J e w i s h p h i l o s o p h y is well exemplified i n t h e so-called W i s d o m o f
S o l o m o n . Its s u r f a c e f o r m r e s e m b l e s t h a t of t h e a n c i e n t P a l e s t i n i a n
p r o v e r b i a l w i s d o m . Like J e s u s b e n S i r a , t h e a u t h o r p r a i s e d t r u e
w i s d o m , w h i c h c a n o n l y b e f o u n d w i t h G o d a n d c a n only be r e c e i v e d
by m e n from G o d ; b u t t h e e x e c u t i o n is q u i t e different from t h a t o f J e s u s
ben Sira. T h e l a t t e r d e m o n s t r a t e s h o w t h e t r u l y wise m a n c o n d u c t s
himself i n the v a r i o u s c i r c u m s t a n c e s of p r a c t i c a l life; t h e W i s d o m o f
S o l o m o n , h o w e v e r , is r a t h e r a w a r n i n g a g a i n s t t h e foolishness o f
godlessness, p a r t i c u l a r l y o f i d o l a t r y . T h e c o n t e n t s o f the w h o l e b o o k
revolve a r o u n d this o n e t h e m e , w h i c h is w h y t h e p r o v e r b i a l form is n o t
a l w a y s m a i n t a i n e d , b u t often passes i n t o t h a t of p h i l o s o p h i c a l r h e t o r i c .
T h e a u t h o r h a s s y n t h e s i z e d H e b r a i c a n d G r e e k t r a d i t i o n s in a q u i t e
original f a s h i o n .
A c c o r d i n g t o c h a p t e r s 7 - 9 , t h e k i n g himself is to b e r e g a r d e d as t h e
speaker, a n d t h o s e h e a d d r e s s e s are t h e j u d g e s a n d kings of t h e e a r t h
(1:1 ; 6 : 1 ) . It is t h e r e f o r e r e a l l y a h o r t a t o r y a d d r e s s o f t h e k i n g
V. Philosophy 569
( p r e s u m a b l y S o l o m o n , cf. 9:8, t h o u g h h e is n e v e r n a m e d ) to h i s r o y a l
c o l l e a g u e s , t h e g e n t i l e r u l e r s . H e , t h e wisest o f all k i n g s , h o l d s u p to
( h e m t h e foolishness of g o d l e s s n e s s a n d t h e v a l u e of t r u e w i s d o m .
T h e c o n t e n t s fall i n t o t h r e e p a r t s w h i c h , d e s p i t e v a r y i n g a i m s , are
demonstrably a unity, although some scholars have argued that they
a r e t h e w o r k o f different a u t h o r s or t h e s a m e a u t h o r a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s .
It is first s h o w n (chapters 1—5) t h a t t h e u n g o d l y and the evildoer,
a l t h o u g h t h e y m a y a p p e a r t o b e h a p p y for a t i m e , will n o t e s c a p e t h e
j u d g e m e n t of G o d , b u t t h e p i o u s a n d r i g h t e o u s , after t h e y h a v e b e e n
t r i e d b y suffering f o r a t i m e , w i l l o b t a i n h a p p i n e s s a n d e t e r n a l life . I n
t h e s e c o n d s e c t i o n , t h e b o o k o f W i s d o m p r o p e r ( c h a p t e r s 6-9), t h e k i n g ,
w r i t i n g i n t h e first p e r s o n , d i r e c t s t h e a t t e n t i o n of h i s r o y a l c o l l e a g u e s to
his o w n e x a m p l e . I t is b e c a u s e he h a s l o v e d h i g h , d i v i n e w i s d o m and
t a k e n h e r to b e his b r i d e , t h a t he h a s a c h i e v e d g l o r y a n d h o n o u r . For
t h a t r e a s o n h e still p r a y s for s u c h w i s d o m . T h e t h i r d s e c t i o n (chapters
10—19) sees i n the h i s t o r y of I s r a e l , p a r t i c u l a r l y f r o m t h e d i f f e r e n t f a t e s
of t h e I s r a e l i t e s a n d t h e E g y p t i a n s , t h e b l e s s i n g o f g o d l i n e s s a n d the
c u r s e of u n g o d l i n e s s . A l e n g t h y d i a t r i b e o n t h e foolishness of i d o l a t r y is
inserted here ( c h a p t e r s 1 3 - 1 5 ) . ^ ^
77. M a n y different a r g u m e n t s have been p u t forward i n favour of multiple authorship,

all of them based on t h e clear differences between different parts of the work a s described
here. Earlier arguments were effectively ended by a demonstration of the unity of style,
expression and thought of t h e whole book by C. L. W . Grimm, Das Buch der Weisheit
erkldrt (i860). I n this century however L. Lincke, Samaria und seine Propheten (1903), pp.
19—44, argued t h a t 1:1—12:8 w a s written b y a S a m a r i t a n , whereas 12:19-19:22 w a s the
work of a n Alexandrian J e w . W. Weber, 'Die Komposition der Weisheit Salomos',
Z W T h 47 (1904), pp. 145-69, proposed four authors. F. Focke, Die Enstehung der Weisheit
Salomos (1913), suggested that the first part of the book (1-5) w a s translated into Greek
f r o m the H e b r e w by t h e a u t h o r of the second part ( 6 - 1 9 ) . It is indisputable t h a t the parts
of the book could have been written by different authors, but there a r e sufficiau
repetitions of y p c a l M l 3 J : y M n i a k e it unlikely Fichtner, Weisheit Salomos (1938). Since
the book can b e understood without difficulty a s a s t r u c t u r a l unity (see below), the
simpler assumption of a single a u t h o r is t o be preferred, cf D . Winston, The Wisdom of
Solomon (1979), p p . 12—14. N o t e should however b e taken of the view of C. C. T o r r e y , The
Apocryphal Literature (1948), p p . 100 fF., that Wisdom of Solomon i - i o is a translation of a
Hebrew original, particularly since this opinion is in accord with t h e syntax of these
chapters compared to t h e rest of the book, cf. R. A . M a r t i n , 'Some Syntactical Criteria of
Translation Greek', V T 10 ( i 9 6 0 ) , p. 307. T h e possibility of multiple a u t h o r s h i p is
g r e a t e r if all or some o f the book h a s been translated from a Semitic original as T o r r e y
argued. C f also C. E. P u r i n t o n , 'Translation Greek in t h e Wisdom of Solomon', J B L 47
(1928), p p . 276-304, suggesting a H e b r e w original; F . Z i m m e r m a n n , ' T h e Book of
W i s d o m : Its language and character', J Q R 5 7 (1966), p p . 1-27, 101-35, positing
Aramaic. Composition in Greek is, however, most p r o b a b l e .
78. T h i s analysis of t h e structure of the Wisdom of Solomon has been questioned by a
number of scholars, b u t all attempts to divine the subdivisions of such a work are
necessarily speculative. T h e m a i n alternative suggestion is that t h e first part, o n Wisdom's
gift of immortality, e n d s at 6:21, a n d the second part, on t h e n a t u r e of W i s d o m and
Solomon's quest for it, ends a t 10:21. For alternative analyses, cf A . G. W r i g h t , 'The
T h e e s s e n t i a l c o n t e n t s of t h e b o o k a r e a w a r n i n g a g a i n s t t h e
foolishness of godlessness. It w a s i n t e n d e d for J e w i s h r e a d e r s to t h e
e x t e n t t h a t godlessness o r a t e n d e n c y t o w a r d s godlessness c o u l d b e
f o u n d a m o n g t h e m , b u t i t is s u r e l y c o r r e c t to s u p p o s e t h a t the a u t h o r
a d d r e s s e d his a t t a c k on i d o l a t r y to g e n t i l e r e a d e r s also. H o w e v e r , t h e
n u m e r o u s p a r d d l y _ veiled a l l u s i o n s t o b i b l i c d J i i s t o r y s e e m t o
p r e s u p p o s e J e w i s h r e a d e r s or g e n t i l e s k n o w l e d g e a b l e a b o u t J u d a i s m .
T h e f r a m e w o r k of a n a d d r e s s to t h e kings a n d r u l e r s of t h e e a r t h
suggests t h e H ell en i s ti r^ p;eri re^ of t h e e t h i c a l k i n g s h i p t r a c t , especially
since the a u t h o r o c c a s i o n a l l y forgets thg^litefjax^Lfe^ and applies
his a d v i c e ^ t o a l l m e n (e.g. 9 : 1 3 ) . T h e c o m p l e x i t y of t h e b o o k p l a c e s it
also in t h e Hellejiistic c ^ ^ ^ a f o r m ofjelabos
r a t e , r h e t o r i c a l ^ d i d a c t i c e x h o r t a t i o n in w h i c h a t e a c h e r o f phJiQôphy
was e x p e c t e d tC) a d o p t a firm s t a n d on a p a r t i c u l a r topic a n d a t t r a c t
s t u d e n t s t o his position b y t h e d e l i b e r a t e d i s p l a y o f a w i d e r a n g e of
knowledge, or perhaps the e q u a l l y c o m m o n genre of e n c o m i u m
( B e a u c h a m p ) . T h e skilful use o f H e l l e n i s t i c r h e t o r i c a l d e v i c e T T ^ f l a t n l ) ^
s j n c r i ^ ^ _ j i £ o r i a ^ p a r a d e i ^ m a ) p r e s u p p o s e d a n a u d i e n c e Jivith G r e e k
e d u c a t i o n . O n l y J e w ^ h intef[ectiwils c o u l d h a v e a p p r e c i a t e d KbSiâTT
the b i b l i c a l a l l u s i o n s an3^ all t h e G r e e k science a n d p h d o s o p h j . T h e
w o r k w a s p r e s u m a b l y i n t e n d e d to r e a s s u r e sucli i n t e l l e c t u a l s of t h e
value ofjewish wisdom in contrast t o that provided b y p a g a n competi
tors. D o u b t l e s s h o w e v e r o t h e r J e w s a n d g e n t i l e s w e r e e x p e c t e d t o r e a d
it, w i t h benefit even if o n l y p a r t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g . F o r s u c h r e a d e r s t h e
d e l i b e r a t e o b s c u r i t y of s o m e o f the allusions will h a v e b e e n a l i t e r a r y
a t t r a c t i o n , for this d e v i c e is often t o b e f o u n d in o t h e r , n o n - J e w i s h
w o r k s of t h e H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d .
T h e a u t h o r ' s t h e o l o g i c a l p o i n t of v i e w a g r e e s w i t h t h a t o f P a l e s t i n i a n
p r o v e r b i a l w i s d o m a s we k n o w it f r o m P r o v e r b s a n d Ecclesiastes. F o r
h i m , too, d i v i n e w i s d o m is t h e s u p r e m e gooHT t h e s o u r c e of all t r u t h ,
v i r t u e , a n d h a p p i n e s s . B u t w h e r e a s , like t h e a u t h o r of P r o v e r b s
( c h a p t e r s 8-9) a n d J e s u s b e n S i r a , h e s t a r t s from t h e assertion t h a t t h i s
w i s d o m is first of all p r e s e n t in G o d , i n his c o n c e p t i o n it a l m o s t , b u t n o t
entirely, b e c o m e s a n i n d e p e n d e n t h y p o s t a s i s side^Jby^sjde w i t h G o d .
A l t h o u g h his s t a t e m e n t s d o n o t a p p e a r to go b e y o n d those in P r o v e r b s
8-9, a p o e t i c a l personification p r o v i d e s , i n his case, t h e r u d i m e n t s of a
p h i l o s o p h i c a l t h e o r y . W i s d o m is for h i m a b r e a t h o f G o d ' s p o w e r , a
p u r e e m a n a t i o n of t h e g l o r y of t h e A l m i g h t y , a reflection o f t h e e t e r n a l
l i g h t ( 7 : 2 5 - 6 ) . I t is given t o h e r to live w i t h G o d . S h e has b e e n i n i d a t e d
Structure of the Book of Wisdom', Bibl. 48 (1967), p p . 165-84; J . M. Reese, 'Plan a n d

Structure in the Book of W i s d o m ' , C&Q^2'] (1965), p p . 3 9 1 - 9 ; D. W i n s t o n , The Wisdom of
Solomon (1979), p p . 8 - 1 2 ; G. W . E. Nickelsburg, J L B B M , p p . 175-84; a n d further
Hterature cited by J . J . ColHns, 'Cosmos and S a l v a t i o n : Jewish Wisdom a n d Apocalyptic
in t h e Hellenisdc Age', History of Religions 17 (1977), pp. 123-4.
V. Philosophy 571
i n t o the k n o w l e d g e t h a t b e l o n g s t o G o d . S h e is a r b i t e r o f h i s w o r k s ,
i.e. she c h o o s e s from a m o n g t h e w o r k s w h o s e i d e a G o d h a s c o n c e i v e d
t h o s e w h i c h a r e t o b e e x e c u t e d ( 8 : 3 - 4 ) . '^ê is t h e associate o n t h e
t h r o n e o f G o d (9:4); s h e u n d e r s t a n d s G o d ' s w o r k s a n d w a s p r e s e n t
w h e n h e c r e a t e d t h e w o r l d ; s h e k n o w s w h a t is p l e a s i n g i n his eyes a n d
w h a t is r i g h t a c c o r d i n g to h i s c o m m a n d m e n t s (9:9). A c c o r d i n g l y ,
w i s d o m is r e p r e s e n t e d n o t o n l y as G o d ' s o w n possession, b u t also as
Cjod s h e l p e r , s p r u n g i r o m h i s o w n b e i n g . M o r e o v e r , t h e a l m i g h t y
w o r d of G o d ' is also p e r s o n i f i e d in a w a y t h a t is close to h y p o s t a s i z a t i o n
(18:15 f ) . T h u s we already h a v e h e r e i n an u n w o r k e d form t h e s a m e
e l e m e n t s from w h i c h P h i l o f o r m e d his d o c t r i n e of t h e logos ( = r e a s o n
a n d w o r d of G o d ) as a h j A g o s t a s i ^ ^ e d i a t i n ^ ^ and the
w o r l d ; for o u r a u t h o r , w i s d o m h a s a r e l a t i o n to t h e w o r l d s i m i l a r to
t h a t of P h i l o ' s logos. S h e h a s a spirit w h i c h m o v e s easily, s u p e r i n t e n d i n g
e v e r y t h i n g , p e n e t r a t i n g e v e r y t h i n g (7:22—4). S h e effects a l l t h i n g s (8:5),
o r d e r s a l l t h i n g s (8:1), a n d r e n e w s a l l t h i n g s (7:27). ' I n e v e r y
g e n e r a t i o n s h e passes i n t o h o l y souls, a n d m a k e s t h e m friends of G o d
a n d p r o p h e t s ' (7:27). I t is also w i s d o m t h a t r e v e a l s itself in t h e h i s t o r y
of I s r a e l , e.g. in t h e p i l l a r o f c l o u d a n d fire w h i c h led t h e I s r a e l i t e s
t h r o u g h t h e w i l d e r n e s s ( 1 0 : 1 7 , ^^'^ c h a p t e r 10 i n g e n e r a l ) . I n s u m ,
w i s d o m is t h e m e d i u m t h r o u g h w h i c h G o d w o r k s i n t h e w o r l d . T h e
t r e n d o f this w h o l e s p e c u l a t i o n is a p p a r e n t l y t h e s a m e as i n P h i l o ,
n a m e l y t o secure, t h r o u g h t h e i n s e r t i o n of s u c h a n i n t e r m e d i a r y , t h e
a b s o l u t e „ J x a n s c e n d e n c ^ o f G o d , w h o c a n n o t b e t h o u g h t of as^ b e i n g in
d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h a sinful jvypjjjd. I t s h o u l d n o t , n e v e r t h e l e s s , be
f o r g o t t e n t h a t it is n o t o u r a u t h o r ' s p u r p o s e t o e m p h a s i z e this t h o u g h t ;
he is n o t a t h e o l o g i a n o r a p h i l o s o p h e r i n t e n t on m a k i n g a s y s t e m a t i c
s t a t e m e n t of f u n d a m e n t a l J e w i s h beliefs. I t is m u c h m o r e h i s a i m to
c o n c e n t r a t e o n t h e figure of d i v i n e w i s d o m a n d t o e x h i b i t i t as t h e
s u p r e m e gg9j4 t h r o u g h w h i c h a l o n e m a n m a y a c h i e v e r e a l i t n i n o r t a J i t y .
H e does n o t w i s h t o s h o w t h a t this w i s d o m is d i f f e r e n t from G o d , b u t on
t h e c o n t r a r y , h o w n e a r it isJtfi^jiitti- I t is p o s s i b l e t h a t this v i e w of
w i s d o m reflects t r a d i t i o n s w h i c h a r e also f o u n d e l s e w h e r e .
T h e i n f l u e n c e of G r e e k p h i l o s o p h y is c l e a r i n t h e d e t a i l s of e x e c u t i o n .
T h e f o r m u l a e in w h i c h t h e r u l e o f w i s d o m i n t h e w o r l d is d e s c r i b e d
(7:24: St^/cei b k K a l x^P^^\ 8:1 : Sioc/cei) r e c a l l t h e S^toic d o c t r i n e of t h e
w o r l d - s p i r i t , o f G o d as t h e w o r l d - r e a s o n , i m m a n e n t in aind pervading
the^ worid.^" E v e n t h e e n u m e r a t i o n of t h e f o u r c a r d i n a l v i r t u e s (8:7:
self-control, p r u d e n c e , j u s t i c e , c o u r a g e ) c a n b e t r a c e d b a c k to S t o i c
i n f l u e n c e . T h e a u t h o r ' s anthropolDgy, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , is b o t h
S ^ e m i t i c a u d j Q T e e k , a n d t h e G r e e k e l e m e n t is e c l e c t i c e i t h e r t h r o u g h his
o w n efforts o r the i n f l u e n c e o f M i d d l e P l a t o n i s m , i n w h i c h m a n y S t o i c
79. Cf. o n this doctrine of Wisdom in general the literature referred t o above, pp. 198 f
80. E. Zeller, Die Philosophie der Griechen II1.2 (^1881; repr. 1963), p. 271.
notions w e r e i n c o r p o r a t e d . M a n is s a i d to consist of b o t h b o d y a n d soul,

b o t h of w h i c h h a v e a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e , b u t the soul is the d e t e r m i n i n g
e l e m e n t . A t t i m e s ( t h o u g h n o t a l w a y s , cf. 1 5 : 1 1 ) t h e a u t h o r seems t o
subscribe to t h e n o t i o n t h a t t h e soul is p r e - e x i s t e n t (8:20), b u t his r e a l
m e a n i n g h e r e seems to b e t h a t t h e g o o d m a n possesses a fine soul w h i c h
e n t e r s a n u n b l e m i s h e d b o d y w h o s e p u r p o s e is to serve a s a n ' e a r t h l y
t e n t ' for t h e vovg (9:15). H e m a y at a n y t i m e h a v e to r e t u r n the soul like
a l o a n a n d t h e n b e c o m e d u s t ( 1 5 : 8 ) . I n t h i s a n t h r o p o l o g y the H e b r e w
view, t h o u g h n o t a b a n d o n e d , is s u b o r d i n a t e d t o t h e G r e e k : instead of
the h o p e for a r e s u r r e c t i o n of t h e b o d y , w e h a v e h e r e t h e G r e e k j j d e w ^
the possible inimOTtalJly,QfjJie_so^^^ F a r from b e i n g a d u a l i s t i c view of
the soul7~However, this is a m o r a l i z i n g i m a g e t h a t insists t h a t m o r a l
b e h a v i o u r c o m e s a b o u t t h r o u g h t h e soul, a n d t h a t e t e r n a l h a p p i n e s s of
the soul is G o d ' s gift t h r o u g h w i s d o m . T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of t h e j u s t m a n
to w i s d o m h a s c h a n g e d from t h a t in t h e H e b r e w w i s d o m texts. W h e r e a s
t h e r e , t h e m a n is t h e p u p i l of w i s d o m , w h o personifies t h e T o r a h
t h r o u g h w h i c h d i v i n e r e w a r d s m a y be a c h i e v e d i n this life, in t h e
p r e s e n t w o r k w i s d o m is t h e o b j e c t of a n i n t i m a t e , p e r s o n a l religious
e x p e r i e n c e t h a t blossoms into t h e s t a t e o f b e i n g _ n e a r j G Q d in e t e r n a l
h a p p i n e s s . T h i s n e w e m p h a s i s l a r g e l y results f r o m t h e use of t h e
l a n g u a g e of c o n t e m p o r a r y Isis l i t e r a t u r e . T h e b o r r o w i n g of s u c h
l a n g u a g e m a y be p a r t o f a d e h b e r a t e c h a l l e n g e t o s u c h n o n - J e w i s h
cults.'^
W i t h r e g a r d to t h e d a t e of t h e a u t h o r , o r a u t h o r s if it is a c o m p o s i t e
w o r k , t h e b o o k provides n o firm i n d i c a t i o n in e i t h e r its l a n g u a g e or its
c o n t e n t , nor a r e t h e r e c l e a r allusions to c o n t e m p o r a r y p o l i t i c a l
c o h d i d o n s . T h e a u t h o r u s e d s o m e b o o k s o f the L X X a n d t h e r e f o r e m u s t
have w r i t t e n after c. 200 B . C . T h e terminus arite"quem m a y be as late as
t h e mid-first c e n t u r y A . D . , a d a t e d u r i n g t h e r u l e of C a l i g u l a ( A . D .
37—41 J"'blerrig"favoured B y s o m e s c h o l a r s on t h e g r o u n d s t h a t , if t h e
w o r k is A l e x a n d r i a n , t h e vicious a t t a c k o n w i c k e d i d o l a t e r s ( 5 : 1 6 - 2 3 )
a n d c o m m e n t s o n r u l e r c u l t ( 1 4 : 1 6 - 2 0 ) fit well i n t o t h a t p e r i o d
8 1 . Cf. W . Weber, 'Die Unsterblichkeit d e r Weisheit Salomos', Z W T h 48 (1905), p p .

409—44; F . C. Porter, ' T h e Pre-existence of the Soul in t h e Book of Wisdom and in the
Rabbinical Writings', Otd Testament and Semitic Studies in Memory of W. R. Harper 1 (1908),
pp. 205-69 ( = A m . J o u r n . Theol. (1908), pp. 53—115); Weber, 'Die Seelenlehre der
Weisheit Salomos', Z W T h (1909), p p . 3 1 4 - 3 2 ; idem, 'Der Auferstehungsglaube der
Weisheit Salomos', Z W T h (1912), p p . 2 0 5 - 3 9 ; Biickers, Die Unsterblichkeitslehre des
Weisheitsbuches (1938); M . Delcor, 'L'immortalite d e l'ame dans le Livre de la Sagesse et
dans les documents de Q u m r a n ' , N R T h 77 (1955), pp. 6 1 4 - 3 0 ; G. W . E. Nickelsburg,
Resurrection, Immortality and Eternal Life in Intertestamental Judaism (1972), pp. 48—92 ; J . J.
Collins, ' T h e R o o t of I m m o r t a l i t y : D e a t h in the Context ofjewish Wisdom', H T h R 71
(1978), p p . 177—92; D. Winston, The Wisdom of Solomon (1979), p p . 25—32, emphasizing
the coherence of the attitude in Wisdom with that in Middle Platonism.
8 2 . For pagan parallels to the attitude of Wisdom here, cf D . Winston, op. cit., p p .
159—218, a n d literature cited there.
V. Philosophy 573
( W i n s t o n ) . T h e h y p o t h e s i s p u t s t o o m u c h w e i g h t o n t o this p o l e m i c ,
w h i c h is i n fact s u b o r d i n a t e to t h e m a i n t h e m e s of t h e b o o k , b u t it h a s
the m e r i t of d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h a t so l a t e a d a t e is n o t i m p o s s i b l e . G e n e r a l
h n g u i s t i c e v i d e n c e is n o t decisive for d a t i n g g i v e n t h e p a u c i t y of
( o m p a r a t i v e m a t e r i a l , a l t h o u g h it s h o u l d b e s a i d t h a t s u c h e v i d e n c e a s
t h e r e is suggests t h e R o m a n p e r i o d r a t h e r t h a n e a r l i e r t i m e s , cf L .
R o b e r t , Etudes epigraphiques et philologiques ( 1 9 3 8 ) , p p . 2 2 6 - 3 5 o n t h e
w o r d dprjoKela, a n d n o t e o t h e r w o r d s in W i s d o m w h i c h d o n o t a p p e a r
in s e c u l a r G r e e k l i t e r a t u r e before the first c e n t u r y A . D . , listed b y
W i n s t o n , p . 2 2 , n o t e 3 3 . N o r a r e h t e r a r y c o m p a r i s o n s helpful. D e s p i t e
d e a r hterary connections with Ben Sira, Posidonius a n d Philo, n o
reliance o f W i s d o m ^ j g o n ^ t h e m or v i c e v e r s a c a n be d e m o n s t r a t e d , n o r
can tFe f a i l u r e ^ W i s d o m to u s e i d e a s p u t f o r w a r d i n the o t h e r a u t h o r s
be t a k e n to i n d i c a t e its p r i o r i t y ( D . G e o r g i , Weisheit Salomos ( J S H R Z
I I I . 4 ) (1980), p p . 3 9 6 - 7 ) since such omissions m a y b e d u e solely to t h e
different p u r p o s e s o f t h e a u t h o r s . S i n c e t h e G r e e k u s e d b y t h e a u t h o r
contains m a n y more Hebraisrns t h a n are found i n PMlo (E. G . Clark,
The Wisdom of Solomon ( 1 9 7 3 ) , p p . 7 - 8 ) , a n d since h i s p u r p o s e is
different from P h i l o ' s , so t h a t , for i n s t a n c e , h e a l t o g e t h e r ignoreg^^bfijj.;^
of a l l e g o r y as f o u n d in P h i l o . a n d A r i s t o b u l u s , t h e r e is n o n e e d t o p o s i t
t h a t he c a m e from t h e s a m e m i l i e u d e s p i t e t h e l i n g u i s d c a n d t h e m a t i c ^ ,
parallels w i t h P h i l o t h a t c a n be p o i n t e d o u t (cf D . WinsTon, The
Wisdom of Solomon ( 1 9 7 9 ) , p p . 5 9 - 6 3 ) . H e c o u l d h a v e p r o d u c e d h i s
1 el a tively u ^ s o p h i s ^ c a t e d _wis^^ _ ^ h i l p s p p h y e i t h e r Jbie£^
Philo h a d w r i t t e n .
F o r t h e p l a c e of o r i g i n , it is u s u a l l y a s s u m e d t h a t t h e a u t h o r w r o t e in
A l e x a n d r i a b e c a u s e o f t h e p r o m i n e n c e of r e f e r e n c e s t o Ej;y|3djan matt<^^^
a n d the i n t e n s i t y o f t h e a t t a c k s on t h e E g y p t i a n s f o r t h e i r w i c k e d n e s s .
The t r a d i t i o n s of t h e E x o d u s w e r e h o w e v e r a n i m p o r t a n t s u b j e c t for all
j e w s a n d an o r i g i n e l s e w h e r e is q u i t e p o s s i b l e (cf G e o r g i , op. cit., p p .
395—6, w h o s e o w n s u g g e s t i o n of a S y r i a n o r i g i n b e c a u s e of W i s d o m ' s
a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h P a l e s t i n i a n a p o c a l y p t i c is h o w e v e r n o t c o n v i n c i n g ) .
It is certainly w r o n g t o a s s u m e t h a t P h i l o h i m s e l f w a s the a u t h o r , w h i c h
Jerome, Praef. in vers. libr. Salom. ( P L X X V I I I , col. 1 3 0 8 ) , m e n t i o n s as
the view of s o m e o f his c o n t e m p o r a r i e s a n d w h i c h w a s followed b y a
n u m b e r of later authors i n c l u d i n g L u t h e r .
' The b o o k w a s u s e d f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g b y C h r i s t i a n s , cf. C. L a r c h e r ,

Etudes sur le Livre de la Sagesse (1969), p p . 1 1 - 8 4 . I t is p r o b a b l e t h a t P a u l
was a c q u a i n t e d w i t h it b e c a u s e t h e r e a r e e c h o e s of i t iiLEsuliftS.iett!&rv
(1. L a r c h e r , op. cit., p p . 1 4 - 2 0 , w h o p o i n t s o u t h o w e v e r t h a t t h e s e
(•(hoes m a y also b e e x p l a i n e d b y a c o m m o n t r a i n i n g of P a u l a n d t h e
.uithor of Wisdom.
It is fairly c e r t a i n t h a t it w a s k n o w n b y C l e m e n t of R o m e ( C l e m e n t
of R o m e 27, 5 = W i s d o m < i 2 i i £ ; i a h d < I x i 2 J ^ also C l e m e n t 60, i =

Wisdom 7:17).
T a t i a n , Oratio ad Graecos 7 init., s a y s t h e s a m e of C h r i s t as t h e a u t h o r
of W i s d o m 2:23 says of G o d . E c h o e s of W i s d o m w h i c h m a y , b u t n e e d
n o t , reflect d i r e c t b o r r o w i n g c a n b e f o u n d in o t h e r p a t r i s t i c w r i t e r s of
t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y , c f L a r c h e r , op. cit., p p . 3 6 - 8 .
I r e n a e u s d o e s n o t q u o t e W i s d o m i n his l a r g e w o r k on h e r e s y , b u t a t
iv 3 8 , 3~EF b o r r o w s the p h r a s e d<f>dapaia 8c iyyvs cTvai noici deov f r o m
Wisdom(6: ig.Jîth'Telei-eh E u s e b i u s , Hist. eccl. v 8, 8 says of
I r e n a e u s : Kat prjTois 8e noiv e/c rrjs UoXofxcbvos ao(f>ias Kcxp'^Tai, povov-
ovxl <j>daKO)v "Opaais 8k deov nepnroirjTiK'q d(f>dapalas, d(f>dapala 8k iyyvs

€*vai TTOL€L deov. A c c o r d i n g to E u s e b i u s , I r e n a e u s e x p l i c i t l y q u o t e s from
W i s d o m i n î^Xlov StaAeêcuv 8ia(f>6pcov w h i c h h a s n o t c o m e d o w n to us
{Hist. eccl. V 2 6 ) .
T h e M u r a t o r i C a n o n , lines 68—70, r e a d s : ' S a p i e n t i a a b a m i c i s
S a l o m o n i s i n h o n o r e m ipsius s c r i p t a . ' Cf. T . Z a h n , Gesch. des
neutestamentl. Kanons I I , p p . 9 5 - 1 0 5 ; E . H e n n e c k e a n d W . S c h n e e -
m e l c h e r , eds., New Testament Apocrypha, t r a n s . R . M c L . W i l s o n , I
(1963), p p . 4 4 - 5 . T h e suggestion t h a t ' a b amicis' represents a
m i s t r a n s l a t i o n of VTTO îXwvos, i.e. ' b y P h i l o ' , is q u i t e p r o b a b l e since
t h a t w o u l d e x p l a i n the listing of W i s d o m in a N e w T e s t a m e n t c a n o n ,
cf L a r c h e r , op. cit., p . 40.
Tertullian^^rfz;. Valentinianos 2, refers t o W i s d o m ^ T ^ n t h e w o r d s : ' u t
d o c e f i p s a S o p h i a , n o n q u i d e m V a l e n t i n i sed S a l o m o n i s . '
C l e m e n t o^ AlexandjijS q u o t e s a n d uses it f r e q u e n t l y , t r e a t i n g it as
S c r i p t u r e , cf O . S t a h l i n , Clemens Alexandrinus und die Septuaginta ( 1 9 0 1 ) ,
p p . 45 ff. T h e explicit q u o t a t i o n s a r e i n t r o d u c e d e i t h e r as sayings of
S o l o m o n ( t h u s ^'irom. vi 1 1 , 9 2 ; 14, n o ; 14, 1 1 4 ; 1 5 , 120—i), o r of t h e
ao<f>ia {Paedag. ii i, 7 ; Strom, ii 2, 5 ; iv, 1 6 , 1 0 3 - 4 ; ^5 H ' ^9)' especially
of t h e dela ao<f>Ca {Strom, i v 16, 1 0 3 - 4 ) , a s w o r d s of t h e ypa<f)'q {Paedag.
ii 1 0 , 99 Jin.; Strom, v 14, 1 0 8 ; vi, 1 1 , 9 2 ) , or w i t h t h e f o r m u l a ctp-qrm
{Strom, v i 14, 1 1 3 ) o r ^-qai, âai {Strom, vi 1 1 , 9 2 - 3 ) . H e m a y also h a v e
u s e d W i s d o m 7:25 i n a f r a g m e n t ( F r . 23) of his lost Hypotyposes, w h e r e ,
a c c o r d i n g to P h o t i u s , Bibl. 109, he s u p p o r t s his use o f t h e w o r d aTToppoia
in his C h r i s t o l o g i c a l s p e c u l a t i o n s b y q u o d n g ' s o m e expression of
S c r i p t u r e ' , cf W i n s t o n , op. cit., p . 68.
I n t h e p s e u d o - H i p p o l y t a n Remonstratio adversus Judaeos, the b o o k is
r e p e a t e d l y q u o t e d a s a g e n u i n e TTpo<f>T]T€ia UoAopcov T r e p i Xpiarov {Adv.
Judaeos 9, 10, P G X , col. 7 9 3 ) , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e p a s s a g e 2 : 1 2 : 2 0 , w h i c h
is also f r e q u e n t l y i n t e r p r e t e d m e s s i a n i c a l l y by l a t e r a u t h o r s (cf a b o v e ,
vol. I I , p . 500).
After t h e a u t h o r of t h e M u r a t o r i C a n o n , O r i g e n w a s t h e first t o
i n t i m a t e d o u b t a b o u t S o l o m o n i c a u t h o r s h i p . H e cites it w i t h s u c h
sceptical f o r m u l a s a s rj kmyeypappivT) TOV UoXopLcovTos ao<j)ia {Comment, in
V. Philosophy 575
Joann. x x 4 = G C S , O r i g e n I V , p . 3 3 1 ) , 17 Eo(f>Ca -q i7ny€ypaixp.€vrj EoX-

opidivros {In Jerem. homil. viii i = G C S , O r i g e n I I I , p . 5 6 ; ed. N a u t i n ,
SC 2 3 2 , p . 3 5 4 ) , o T r e p t TTjs ao*f>ias eirrcov {Selecta in Jerem. c. 29 = P G
X I I I , col. 5 7 7 ) , iv rfj imyeypayLpiivrj UOXO^WVTOS I!o(f>iq. {Contra Cels. v 29
= G C S , O r i g e n I I , p. 30), 'in S a p i e n d a , q u a e dicitur Salomonis, q u i
u t i q u e l i b e r n o n a b o m n i b u s in a u c t o r i t a t e h a b e t u r ' {De principiis iv 4, 6
(33) = G C S , O r i g e n V , p . 3 5 7 ; ed. C r o u z e l a n d S i m o n e t t i , S C 268, p .
4 1 4 ) . B u t he cites it a l m o s t as often s i m p l y as t h e w o r k of S o l o m o n ; a n d
t h a t he r e g a r d e d it a s a c a n o n i c a l b o o k is s h o w n i n p a r t i c u l a r by t h e
w h o l e section De principiis i 2, 5—13, w h e r e h e u s e s W i s d o m 7:25—6 t o g
e t h e r w i t h Col. 1 : 1 5 a n d H e b . 1:3 as f u n d a m e n t a l p a s s a g e s f r o m w h i c h
he d e v e l o p e d h i s C h r i s t o l o g y . T h e w h o l e s e c t i o n De principiis i 2, 9 - 1 3 is
n o t h i n g o t h e r t h a n a n e x e g e t i c a l d i s c u s s i o n of t h e C h r i s t o l o g i c a l m e a n
ing of W i s d o m 7:25—6. T h e r e a r e i n all a b o u t forty c i t a t i o n s f r o m t h i s
b o o k in O r i g e n .
Cyprian used W i s d o m a s c a n o n i c a l in t h e fullest sense. H e q u o t e s it as
' S a p i e n t i a S a l o m o n i s ' {Testim. ii 1 4 ; iii 1 6 , 5 3 , 5 8 , 59, 66; Ad Fortunatum
i ) , ' s c r i p t u r a d i v i n a ' {De habitu virginum 1 0 ; Epist. vi 2 ) , ' s c r i p t u r a
s a n c t a ' {Ad Demetrianum 2 4 ) , o r w i t h f o r m u l a s s u c h a s ' s c r i p t u m est' {De
zelo et livore 4 ; Epist. iv i ; l v 2 2 ) , ' p e r S a l o m o n e m d o c e t s p i r i t u s
s a n c t u s ' , a n d t h e like {De mortalitate 2 3 ; Ad Fortunatum 12).
H e q u o t e s p a s s a g e s a few t i m e s f r o m P r o v e r b s w i t h t h e f o r m u l a ' i n
S a p i e n t i a S a l o m o n i s ' {Testim. iii 1 , 6 , 16, 5 6 ) ; a n d o n c e , a p a s s a g e f r o m
W i s d o m w i t h t h e f o r m u l a ' i n E c c l e s i a s t i c o ' {Testim. iii 1 1 2 ) ; b o t h
c e r t a i n l y as a n o v e r s i g h t a s e l s e w h e r e he d i s t i n g u i s h e s carefully b e t w e e n
Proverbs, Ecclus., a n d W i s d o m .
I n the Teachings of Silvanus 1 1 3 , a n o n - G n o s t i c d o c u m e n t f r o m N a g
H a m m a d i d a t e d to t h e l a t e s e c o n d o r e a r l y t h i r d c e n t u r y , t h e r e is a n
explicit a l l u s i o n to W i s d o m 7 : 2 5 - 6 , cf J . M . R o b i n s o n , e d . . The Nag
Hammadi Library ( 1 9 7 7 ) , p . 359.
T h e G r e e k m a n u s c r i p t s , editions, a n d a n c i e n t t r a n s l a t i o n s ( t o g e t h e r
w i t h t h e i r editions) a r e m a i n l y t h e s a m e for W i s d o m as for E c c l u s . (cf.
a b o v e , p p . 203 ff.). Cf. e s p e c i a l l y LXX, VT Graecum Auct. ...
Gottingensis ed. X I I . i : Sapientia Salomonis, e d . J . Z i e g l e r (^1980), for t h e
critical t e x t as well a s a full a n d careful l i s t i n g of t h e G r e e k w i t n e s s e s .
A f r a g m e n t of t h e G r e e k text of W i s d o m h a s b e e n f o u n d in K h i r b e t
M i r d , b u t has n o t y e t b e e n p u b l i s h e d ( Z i e g l e r , op. cit., p . 1 1 ) . F u r t h e r
p a p y r u s f r a g m e n t s a r e i n P a p . A n t . 8 ( t h i r d c e n t u r y A . D . ) , cf. C. H .
R o b e r t s , The Antinoopolis Papyri P a r t I ( 1 9 5 0 ) , p p . 1 2 ff.; P a p . W i e n .
R a i n e r , L i t t . t h e o l . 5 (fourth-fifth c e n t u r y A . D . ) , cf C . W e s s e l y ,
Studien zur Paldographie und Papyruskunde I X (1909), p . 4, n o . 4. S e e a l s o
I. A . S p a r k s , ' A F r a g m e n t of S a p i e n t i a S a l o m o n i s f r o m O x y r h y n c h u s ' ,
J S J 32 ( 1 9 7 2 ) , p p . 1 4 9 - 5 2 . N o t e also F . F e l d m a n n , Textkritische
Materialen zum Buch der Weisheit, gesammelt aus der sahidischen.
syrohexaplarischen und armenischen Obersetzung (1902).
Cf. further on the editions:

Dahse, J . , 'Zur Herkunft des alttestamentlichen Textes d e r Aldina', Z A W 29 (1909), p p .
177-86.
Rahlfs, A . , 'Die Abhangigkeit der sixtinischen Septuaginta-Ausgabe v o n der aldinischen',
Z A W 33 (i9i3)> PP- 30-46-
Ziegler, J . , 'Der griechische Dodekapropheton-Text der Complutenser Polyglotte', Bibl.
25 (1944), PP- 297-310.
Idem, ' D e r Text der Aldina im Dodekapropheton', Bibl. 26 (1945), pp. 37-51.
O n t h e v e r s i o n s , see J . Ziegler, e d . , Sapienta Salomonis, p p . 1 5 - 3 5 . S e e

also o n the P e s h i t t a , J . A . E m e r t o n , The Peshitta of the Wisdom of Solomon
( S t u d . P o s t b i b l . 2) (1959). O n t h e O l d L a t i n , w h i c h d a t e s to t h e s e c o n d
h a l f of t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y A . D . a n d t h e r e f o r e r e p r e s e n t s the r e a d i n g o f
v e r y e a r l y G r e e k m a n u s c r i p t s , see O . d e B r u y n e , ' E t u d e s s u r le t e x t e
l a t i n d e la S a g e s s e ' , Rev. Benedict. 41 ( 1 9 2 9 ) , p p . 2 3 0 - 4 3 ; J . Z i e g l e r ,
' Z u r g r i e c h i s c h e n V o r l a g e d e r V e t u s L a t i n a in d e r Sapienda
S a l o m o n i s ' , Junker Festschrift ( 1 9 6 1 ) , p p . 2 7 5 - 9 1 ; W . B a a r s , ' A
L i t t l e - K n o w n L a t i n F r a g m e n t o f the W i s d o m o f S o l o m o n ' , V T 20
( 1 9 7 0 ) , p p . 2 3 0 - 3 ; W . T h i e l e , e d . , Sapientia Salomonis, i n P. S a b a t i e r ,
e d . , Vetus Latina X I ( 1 9 7 7 - ) . A b o u t t h e B o h a i r i c , E t h i o p i c , a n d A r a b
t r a n s l a t i o n s , cf LXX, VT Graecum Auct. . . . Gottingensis ed. X I I . i ,
Sapientia Salomonis, e d . J . Ziegler (^1980), p p . 2 7 - 3 2 .
For t h e e x e g e t i c a l w o r k s i n g e n e r a l , cf a b o v e , p p . 000 f, a n d t h e
e x t e n s i v e b i b l i o g r a p h y g i v e n in G . D e l l i n g , Bibliographie zur jiidisch-
hellenistischen und intertestamentarischen Literatur (^1975), p p . 1 2 5 - 3 1 ; D .
W i n s t o n , The Wisdom of Solomon ( 1 9 7 9 ) , p p . 70-96.
Commentaries
Grimm, C. L. W . , Das Buch der Weisheit, erkldrt {Exegetisches Handbuch zu den Apokryphen,
p a r t 6, i860).
Siegfried, K., in E. Kautzsch, A P A T I (1900; reprinted 1921), p p . 476-507.
Gregg, J . A. F., The Wisdom of Solomon (1909).
Heinisch, Y., Exegetisches Handbuch zum A.T. (1912).
Holmes, S., ' T h e Wisdom of Solomon', in Charles, A P O T I, pp. 518-68.
Goodrick, A. T . S., The Book of Wisdom. With Introduction andMotes (1913).
F e l d m a n n , F., Das Buch der Weisheit (1926).
Fichtner, J . , Weisheit Salomos (1938).
Fischer, J . , in Die Heilige Schrift in deutscher Obersetzung (Echter-Verlag, 1950).
Stein, M . ( = E . ) , i n A . K a h a n a , D-llS-nn DnDOn'' (1956).
R e i d e r , J . , The Book of Wisdom (1957)-
Clarke, E . G., The Wisdom of Solomon (1973).
Winston, D., The Wisdom of Solomon (1979) (with detailed commentary a n d introduction).
Georgi, D . , Weisheit Salomos i^SHKZ, III.4) (1980).
Larcher, C , Le Livre de la Sagesse (1983).
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Kohler, K., 'Wisdom o f Solomon, Book of t h e ' , J E X I I , cols. 538-40.
Lincke, Samaria und seine Propheten (1903), p p . 119—44.
V. Philosophy 577
\S ( h e r , W., 'Die Komposition d e r Weisheit Salomos', Z W T h 47 (1904), pp. 145-69.

Wrhcr, W., 'Die Unsterblichkeit, die Seelenlehre, H e i m a t u n d Zeitalter, den
.Aufcrstehungsglauben d e r Weisheit Salomos', Z W T h 48 (1905), pp. 4 0 9 - 4 4 ; 51
('9"9)>PP- 3 1 4 - 3 2 ; 53 ( 1 9 1 0> PP- 3 2 2 - 4 5 ; 54 ( i 9 i 2 ) , p p . 205-39.
1 I icdlander, M., Griechische Philosophie imA.T. (1904), pp. 182-208.
l . i g r a n g e , 'Le livre de l a Sagesse, sa doctrine des fins dernieres', R B (1907), p p . 8 5 - 1 0 4 .
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licinisch, V., Die griechische Philosophie imBucheder Weisheit (1908).
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Writings', American Journal of Theology 1 2 (1908), p p . 5 3 - 1 1 8 .
I Vldmann, F., ' Z u r Einheit des Buches der Weisheit', BZ (1909), pp. 140-50.
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Poseidonios metaphysischeSchriften I ( i 9 2 1 ) , pp. 1 3 6 - 5 3 .
Spciser, E . A., ' T h e H e b r e w O r i g i n of the First P a r t of the Book of W i s d o m ' , J Q R 14
(1923/4), p p . 455-82.
.Viotzo, B. R., 'L'eta e I'autore della Sapienza', Ricerche Religiose 2 (1926), pp. 39-44.
I'urinton, C. E., 'Translation Greek in t h e Wisdom of Solomon', J B L 47 (1928), pp.
276-304.
K u h n , K . G., 'Beitrage zur E r k l a r u n g des Buches der Weisheit', Z N W 28 (1929), pp.
334-41-
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( 1 9 3 1 ) , pp. 4 4 5 - 5 2 .
Stein, M. ( = E . ) , 'Ein jiidisch-hellenistischer Midrasch uber d e n Auszug aus Agypten',
M G W J 42 (1934), p p . 5 5 8 - 7 5 .
Dupont-Sommer, A., 'Les "impies" d e Livre de la sagesse sont-ils des Epicuriens?', R H R
3 (1935)3 P P - 9 0 - 1 0 9 .
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Lange, S., 'The Wisdom of Solomon a n d Plato', J B L 55 (1936), p p . 293—302.
Blakeney, E. H., The Praises of Wisdom; being Part I of the Book of Wisdom (1937).
Fichtner, J., 'Die Stellung d e r Sapientia Salomonis i n der Literatur- u n d Geistes
geschichte ihrer Zeit', Z N W 36 (1937), p p . 1 1 3 - 3 2 .
Biickers, H . , Die Unsterblichkeitslehre des Weisheitsbuches (1938).
Robert, L . , Etudes epigraphiques et philologiques (1938), pp. 2 2 6 - 3 5 .
Fichtner, J . , 'Der A.T.-Text d e r Sapientia Salomonis', Z A W 57 (1939), pp. 1 5 5 - 9 2 .
Skehan, P . W., 'Notes o n the L a t i n T e x t of t h e Book of Wisdom', C B Q 4 (1942), p p . 230-43.
Torrey, C . G., The Apocryphal Literature etc. (1945), p p . 9 8 - 1 0 3 .
H e i n e m a n n , I., 'Synkrisis o d e r aussere Analogic in d e r "Weisheit Salomos'", T h Z 4
(1948), pp. 2 4 1 - 5 1 .
Pfeiffer, R . H., History of N. T. Times with an Introduction to the Apocrypha {1949).
Weisengoff, J.P., 'The I m p i o u s in Wisdom 2 ' , CBQ_ 11 (1949), p p . 40-65.
Eising, H . , 'Die theol. Geschichtsbetrachtung des Weisheitsbuches', in Festschrift M.
Meinertz (1950), p p . 24-80.
Colombo, D., ' P n e u m a Sophia eiusque actio in m u n d o in Libro Sapientiae', SBFLA i
( 1 9 5 0 - 1 ) , p p . 107-60.
Eising, H . , 'Die Theologische Geschichtsbetrachtung im Weisheitsbuch', Neutestamentliche
Abhandlungen, suppl. vol. I ( 1 9 5 1 ) , pp. 28-40.
Dubarle, A.-M., 'Une source d u hvre de la Sagesse', R S P h T h 37 (1953), pp. 4 2 5 - 4 3 .
Dalbert, P., Die Theol. der hellenist.-jiid. Missionslit. (1954), p p . 70—92.
Delcor, M . , 'L'immortalite de Tame dans le livre d e la Sagesse et dans les documents de

Q u m r a n ' , N R T h 77 (1955), pp. 6 1 4 - 3 0 .
Williams, C. S. C , ' A r m e n i a n Variants in the Book of Wisdom', J T h S t 7 (1956), pp.
243-6.
Ziener, G., Die theologische Begriffssprache im Buche der Weisheit (BBB 11, 1956).
Suggs, M . J., 'Wisdom of Solomon 2:io-ch. 5: A Homily Based on t h e Fourth Servant
Song', J B L 76 (1957), p p . 26-33.
Ziener, G., 'Die Verwendung der Schrift i m Buche der Weisheit', Trierer Theologische
Zeitschrift 6 6 (1957), pp. 138-51.
Philonenko, M., 'Le Maitre d e justice et l a Sagesse de Salomon', T h Z 14 (1958), pp.
81-8.
des Places, E., ' U n e m p r u n t d e la "Sagesse" aux "Lois" d e Platon?', Bibl. 40 (1959), pp.
1016 f
Duliere, W . L., ' A n d n o i i s et le Livre d e la Sagesse', Z R G G 11 (1959), p p . 201-27.
Finan, T h . , 'Hellenisdc Humanism i n the Book of Wisdom', Irish Theological Quarterly 27
(i960), pp. 30-48.
Siebeneck, R. T . , 'The Midrash ofWisdom x-xix', CBQ,22 (i960), pp. 176-82.
Vellas, B. M., / / emSpaaiS TTJS EXXTJVIKTJS <l>i\oao(j>ias fin TOV jSijSAtou rrjs ao<j>ia^ SOXOÔJVTOS
(1961).
Grelot, P., 'L'eschatologie de la Sagesse et les apocalypses juives', Memorial Albert Gelin
(1961), pp. 165-80.
/if/em,'Sagesse X 21 etle T a r g u m de I'Exode', Bibl. 4 2 ( i 9 6 1 ) , pp. 49-60.
Brockington, L. H . , A Critical Introduction to the Apocrypha (1961), p p . 67 ff.
H a d a s , M . , 'Wisdom of Solomon', in I D B I V , cols. 861-3.
J a u b e r t , A . , La notion d'alliance dans le Judaisme aux abords de I'ere chretienne (1963).
M u r p h y , R . E., ' " T o K n o w y o u r Might is t h e R o o t of I m m o r t a l i t y " (Wis. xv, 3)', C B Q
25 (1963), P P - 8 8 - 9 3 -
B e a u c h a m p , P., ' L e salut corporel des justes et la conclusion du livre de la Sagesse', Bibl.
45 (1964). PP- 491-526.
Wright, A. G., ' T h e Structure o f W i s d o m 11-19', C B Q 2 7 (1965), pp. 28-34.
des Places, E., De Libro Sapientiae (1965).
Reese, J . M . , ' P l a n and Structure in t h e Book ofWisdom', C B Q 2 7 (1965), pp. 391-9.
Emerton, J . A., 'Commentaries on the Wisdom of Solomon', Theology 68 (1965), pp.
376-9-
Taylor, R., 'The Eschatological Meaning of Life a n d D e a t h in t h e Book ofWisdom 1—5',
E T h L 4 2 (1966), p p . 72-137.
Z i m m e r m a n n , F . , 'The Book o f W i s d o m : I t s language a n d character', J Q R 57 (1966),
pp. 1-27, 101-35.
Wright, A. G., ' T h e Structure of the Book o f W i s d o m ' , Bibl. 48 (1967), p p . 165-84.
Wright, A. G., 'Numerical Patterns in the Book ofWisdom', C B Q 2 9 (1967), p p . 524-38.
des Places, E., ' L e Livre de la Sagesse et les influences grecques', Bibl. 50 (1969), p p .
536-42-,
Larcher, C , Etudes sur le Livre de la Sagesse (1969) (a very full study).
Gilbert, M . , 'La structure de la priere d e Salomon (Sg. 9)', Bibl. 51 (1970), pp. 301-33.
Reese, J . M . , Hellenistic Influence on the Book of Wisdom and its Consequences (1970).
Beaucamp, E., trans. J. Clarke, Man's Destiny in the Books of Wisdom (1970).
Winston, D . , ' T h e Book of Wisdom's T h e o r y of Cosmogony', History of Religions 11
(1971), pp. 185-202.
Gilbert, M . , Za critique des dieux dans le Livre de la Sagesse (1973).
Mack, B. L., Logos und Sophia. Untersuchungen zur Weisheitstheologie im hellenistischen Judentum
(1973)-
Perrenchio, F., ' S t r u t t u r a e analisi letteraria di Sapienzia 1,1-15 q u a d r o del suo
contesto letterario immediato', Salesianum 37 (1975), pp. 289-325.
V. Philosophy 579
Jacobson, H . , 'Wisdom X V I I I 9', J S J 7.2 (1976), p . 204.

(its Places, £., ' £ p i t h e t e s et attributs d e la "Sagesse" (Sg. 7,22-33 et SVF I 557 A r n i m ) ' ,
Bibl. 57 (1976), p p . 414-19-
Schmitt, A . , 'Struktur, Herkunft u n d Bedeutung d e r Beispielreihe in Welsh 10', B Z 21
(1977), pp. 1-22.
Amir, Y., ' T h e Wisdom of Solomon a n d the literature of Q u m r a n ' , Proceedings of the Sixth
World Congress ofjewish Studies I I I (1977), pp. 3 2 9 - 3 5 .
Collins, J . J . , 'Cosmos a n d Salvation : Jewish Wisdom a n d Apocalyptic in the Hellenisdc
Age', History of Religions 17 (1977), pp. 121-42.
Collins, J . J . , ' T h e Root of I m m o r t a l i t y : D e a t h in t h e Context ofjewish Wisdom', H T h R
71 (1978), p p . 177-92.
B e a u c h a m p , P., 'Epouser la Sagesse—ou n'epouser q u ' e l l e ? U n e enigme du Livre d e la
Sagesse', in M . Gilbert, e d . . La Sagesse de I'Ancien Testament (1979), p p . 347-69-
Pelletier, A., 'Ce n'est p a s la Sagesse mais le Dieu s a u v e u r qui aime I ' h u m a n i t e ' , R B 87
(1980), pp. 397-403.
Offerhaus, U., Composition und Intention der Sapientia Salomonis (1981).
Perrenchio, F., ' S t r u t t u r a e analisi letteraria di Sapienzia 1,16-2,24 ^ 5>i-23'> Salesianum
43 ( i 9 8 i ) , P P - 3-43-
Schaberg, J., 'Major m i d r a s h i c traditions in Wisdom 1,1-6, 25', J S J 13 (1982), pp.
75-101.
Gilbert, M . , 'La figure d e Salomon e n Sg 7-9', in Etudes sur lejudaisme hellenistique, ed. R.
K u n t z m a n n and J . Schlosser, p p . 225-49.
Kloppenborg, J . S., 'Isis and Sophia in t h e Book of W i s d o m ' , H T h R 75 (1982), pp.
57-84-
Gilbert, M . , 'Wisdom l i t e r a t u r e ' , in J W S T P , pp. 301-13.
C f also O . Eissfeldt, The O.T., An Introduction etc. ( E T 1965), p p . 6 0 0 - 3 .
2. Aristobulus
T h e v i e w s of t h e a u t h o r of t h e W i s d o m o f S o l o m o n are p r e d o m i n a n t l y
t h o s e of P a l e s t i n i a n p r o v e r b i a l w i s d o m , w h i c h h e p a r t i a l l y m o d i f i e d
u n d e r t h e influence of G r e e k p h i l o s o p h y . T h e A l e x a n d r i a n A r i s t o b u l u s ,
by contrast, a l t h o u g h also i n t o u c h w i t h c o n t e m p o r a r y Palestinian
w i s d o m l i t e r a t u r e , w a s a H e l l e n i s t i c s c h o l a r in t h e r e a l sense of t h e w o r d
a n d possibly e v e n a m e m b e r o f the A l e x a n d r i a n M u s e u m . H e k n e w a n d
specifically q u o t e d t h e G r e e k p h i l o s o p h e r s P y t h a g o r a s , S o c r a t e s , a n d
P l a t o , a n d w a s a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t h e i r v i e w s as a professional
philosopher.
A n c i e n t a u t h o r s a r e , i t is t r u e , n o t w h o l l y i n a g r e e m e n t r e g a r d i n g his
d a t e , b u t it m a y still b e a c c e p t e d a s p r o b a b l e t h a t h e lived d u r i n g t h e
t i m e of P t o l e m y V I P h i l o m e t o r , i.e. t o w a r d s t h e m i d d l e of t h e s e c o n d
c e n t u r y B . C . ( a b o u t 1 8 0 - 1 4 5 B . C . ) . H e h i m s e l f states in his w o r k
a d d r e s s e d to a P t o l e m y t h a t t h e G r e e k t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e P e n t a t e u c h
w a s m a d e ' u n d e r K i n g P h i l a d e l p h u s , y o u r a n c e s t o r ' ( E u s e b . , Praep. ev. xiii
1 2 , 2). H e therefore w r o t e u n d e r a d e s c e n d a n t o f P t o l e m y I I
P h i l a d e l p h u s . H o w e v e r , C l e m e n t o f A l e x a n d r i a a n d E u s e b i u s (in t h e
Chronicle) d e f i n i t e l y m e n t i o n P h i l o m e t o r ^ ^ a n d t h e i r t e s t i m o n y s h o u l d be
accepted, not least because the same chronology was also assumed
w h e n C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a a n d E u s e b i u s i d e n t i f i e d t h i s A r i s t o b u l u s
with the one mentioned at the beginning of 2 Maccabees (2 Mac.
1 : 1 0 ) . ^ * T h e s e witnesses s h o u l d b e followed rather than Anatolius, a
C h r i s d a n a u t h o r of the third century A . D . who, p r o b a b l y under the
i n f l u e n c e of l a t e l e g e n d s a b o u t t h e f o r m a t i o n of t h e S e p t u a g i n t , p l a c e s
Aristobulus u n d e r P t o l e m y I I Philadelphus,^^ a n d also against the o n l y
m a n u s c r i p t o f t h e Stromata of C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a , w h i c h i n c o r r e c t l y
r e a d s P h i l a d e l p h u s i n s t e a d of P h i l o m e t o r i n o n e passage.^^
83. Clement o f Alexandria, Strom, i 22, 150: 'AptaroôvXos iv TOP rrpuirw TU)V npos TOV
^tXofiriTopa. T h e reading is certain here since i n all manuscripts Eusebius also, w h o
quotes this passage in Praep. ev. ix 6 from Clement, has îXoprJTopa. N o t e also Eusebius,
Chron. ad Olymp., 151 (ed. Schoene, I I , p p . 124 ff.). T h e Greek text, which has been
preserved in Chronicon paschale, ed. Dindorf, I, p . 337, r e a d s : ApiaToôvXos 'lovSatos
T T t p i i r a T i j T i K o y <l>i.X6ao(j>os iyvcDpi^fro, os nroXefiaiio TW 0tAo/XTjTopt e^rjyriaeis TTJS Mwvaews
•ypa<f>rjg dvedrjKfv. So also the A r m e n i a n a n d J e r o m e (ed. Helm, G C S Eusebius V I I , 2 n d
ed., p. 139). T h e 151st O l y m p i a d , with regard to which Eusebius included this
information a b o u t Aristobulus'7?orMi7, lasted from 176-172 B.C., which has suggested to
E . J . Bickermann, ' T h e Septuagint as a translation', P A A J R 28 (1959), p . 3, n. 2, that the
years 176-170 B.C. are the most a p p r o p r i a t e for Aristobulus' dedication to Ptolemy by
himself, since at all other stages of his reign h e ruled in conjunction with others. However,
there is n o reason to expect every m o n a r c h in power in Egypt a t a particular time t o be
included i n every dedication of this sort, a n d a powerful Jewish figure would be m o r e
likely in Philometor's court towards the e n d of his reign after the M a c c a b a e a n revolt
(Fraser, P A II, p . 965).
84. Clement o f Alexandria, Strom, v 14, 97. Eusebius, Praep. ev. viii gjin. I t is possible
t h a t the dating of the fragments by Clement and Eusebius was done by them only in
order to agree with 2 M a c . 1:10 (Walter), b u t more Hkely that the letter in 2 Mac. was
attributed by its a u t h o r to a well known Alexandrian of the a p p r o p r i a t e period, i.e. the
rule of Ptolemy Philometor, cf. E . J . Bickermann, Z N W 32 (1933), pp. 233-54.
85. Anatolius i n Eusebius, Hist. eccl. vii 32, 16.
86. Clement, Strom, v 14, 97. Codex Laurentianus, t h e only manuscript in which
Clement's Stromata are preserved (for Parisinus, saec. 15, is only a copy of it), reads here
<PiXd8fX(f>ov. However, m o d e r n editors have correctly replaced it by <PiXop.-qTopa, cf. Le
Boulluec, SC 278, ad loc. Further arguments about date have centred o n the relationship
of Aristobulus t o the Letter of Pscudo-Aristeas. Both authors refer to a n alleged role of
Demetrius of P h a l e r u m in t h e translation of the T o r a h . It h a s been argued that the
concentrated account i n Aristobulus compared t o the scattered references i n Pseudo-
Aristeas makes Aristobulus likely to be prior (N. Walter, Der Thoraausleger Aristobulus
(1964), p p . 9 2 - 1 0 0 ; cf. A. MomigHano, Aegyptus 12 (1932), p p . 164—5), b u t it is also
arguable that t h e m u c h greater detail in Pseudo-Aristeas, a n d the fact t h a t all later
authors a t t r i b u t e to h i m the story a b o u t Demetrius of Phalerum, makes Pseudo-Aristeas
likely to have written first (Fraser, P A I, p . 6 9 4 ; I I , p. 964). It is of course also possible
t h a t both authors used a common oral tradition. Arguments for d a t i n g based on the
comparative unsophistication of the allegorical exegesis in Aristobulus compared to
Pseudo-Aristeas (e.g. Walter, op. cit., pp. 146-7) a r e invalid, given b o t h the possibility
t h a t Aristobulus' work survives only in too fragmentary a form to be judged by w h a t it
lacks, and the possibility that a less sophisticated author could nonetheless be later t h a n a
more sophisticated one. The whole question of priority is rendered less important by
V. Philosophy 581
A c c o r d i n g t o C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a , Strom, v 1 4 , 97, t h i s A r i s t o b u l u s
w r o t e jStjSAia iVava. P r e s u m a b l y C l e m e n t d o e s n o t m e a n b y this t h a t
Aristobulus wrote several works, b u t t h a t the one work w h i c h Clement
k n e w w a s an extensive o n e i n n u m e r o u s volumes. F u r t h e r information
c o n c e r n i n g it is to b e f o u n d i n C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a {Strom, i 1 5 , 7 2 ;
2 2 , 1 5 0 ; V 1 4 , 9 7 ; vi 3 , 3 2 ) , A n a t o l i u s (in E u s e b . , Hist. eccl. vii 32,
1 6 - 1 9 ; A n a t o h u s w a s a n o l d e r c o n t e m p o r a r y of E u s e b i u s ) , a n d
E u s e b i u s {Praep. ev. vii 1 4 ; viii 1 0 ; xiii 1 2 ) . O r i g e n also briefly m e n t i o n s
A r i s t o b u l u s {Contra Cels. iv 5 1 ) . T h e o n l y t w o passages p r e s e r v e d
l i t e r a l l y are i n E u s e b . , Praep. ev. vii 32, 1 6 - 1 8 (from A n a t o h u s ) ; viii 10
a n d xiii 12. W h a t e v e r else t h e r e is of h t e r a l c i t a t i o n (e.g. C l e m e n t ,
Strom, i 22, 1 5 0 = Praep. ev. ix 6; C l e m e n t , Strom, vi 3 , 32 = E u s e b . ,
Praep. ev. vii 14) is to b e f o u n d a n y w a y i n the text of t h e s e l a r g e r
fragments.^^ T h e p a s s a g e a s c r i b e d b y C y r i l of A l e x a n d r i a to A r i s t o b u l u s
{Contra Julian. 1 3 4 , ed. S p a n h . ) is n o t r e l e v a n t since it a c t u a l l y d e r i v e s
f r o m t h e t h i r d b o o k o f t h e Indica of M e g a s t h e n e s a n d is a s s i g n e d to
A r i s t o b u l u s b y C y r i l o n l y o n a c c o u n t of his c a r e l e s s r e a d i n g o f C l e m e n t
of A l e x a n d r i a , Strom, i 1 5 , 72.
T h e w o r k w h i c h lay b e f o r e t h e s e C h u r c h F a t h e r s w a s c h a r a c t e r i z e d
88
as a n e l u c i d a t i o n o f t h e B o o k of M o s e s . F r o m the p r e s e r v e d f r a g m e n t s ,
h o w e v e r , it is not t o be c o n s i d e r e d a s a p r o p e r c o m m e n t a r y b u t as a free
r e p r o d u c t i o n of t h e c o n t e n t s of t h e P e n t a t e u c h , i n w h i c h i t is a t the
s a m e t i m e p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y e x p l a i n e d . I t is t h u s n o t a n a l o g o u s t o P h i l o ' s
a l l e g o r i c a l c o m m e n t a r i e s o n p a r t i c u l a r p a s s a g e s , b u t r a t h e r t o his
systematic discussion of the M o s a i c legislation described a b o v e o n p p .
5 4 2 ff. I n t h e s a m e w a y as P h i l o , A r i s t o b u l u s gives a c o h e r e n t
d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e c o n t e n t s of t h e P e n t a t e u c h i n o r d e r to s h o w t h e
cultivated world t h a t t h e Mosaic Law, correctly understood, contains
a l r e a d y everything t h a t t h e best G r e e k philosophers learned sub
s e q u e n t l y . T h e w o r k is d e d i c a t e d t o K i n g P t o l e m y P h i l o m e t o r , ^ ^ w h o is
t h u s a l s o a d d r e s s e d in t h e t e x t ( E u s e b . , Praep. ev. viii 10, i ff.; x i u 1 2 , 2).
doubts a b o u t t h e correct d a t e of Pseudo-Aristeas, see below, p . 679. T h e r e is a n y w a y no
reason t o doubt a date for Aristobulus d u r i n g the rule of Ptolemy Philometor.
87. I . e . : (i) Clement, Strom, i 2 2 , 1 5 0 = Eusebius, Praep. ev. ix 6 = Eusebius, Praep. ev.
xiii 1 2 , I . (2) C l e m e n t , Strom, vi 3 , 3 2 = Eusebius, Praep. ev. viii 1 0 , 14. ( 3 ) Eusebius,
Praep. ev. vii 1 4 = Eusebius, Praep. ev. xiii 1 2 , l o - i i . O n t h e Praeparatio evangelica of
Eusebius, cf above, p p . 5 1 0 - 1 , u n d e r A l e x a n d e r Polyhistor. See t h e collection of the
fragments by Denis, F P G , p p . 2 1 7 - 2 8 .
88. Eusebius, Praep. ev. vii 1 3 , 7 : TTJV rwv Upcov voftcov kpyirjviiav. Eusebius, Chron. ad
Olymp., 1 5 1 (ed. Schoene, I I , pp. 1 2 4 ff.) : e'l^jyijaei? TTJ? Aftouaeco? ypa^yjs (this Greek
reading, preserved by Chron. paschale, ed. Dindorf, I, 3 3 7 , is confirmed by t h e A r m e n i a n
[enarrationem librorum Moysis) and b y J e r o m e [explanationum in Moysen commentarios) (ed.
Helm, G C S Eusebius V I I , 2 n d ed., p. 1 3 9 ) ) . Anatolius in Eusebius, Hist. eccl. vii 3 2 , i 6 :
PipXovs i^TjyrjTiKas rov MuiiJaeios vo/xov.
89. Clement, Strom, i 2 2 , 1 5 0 = Eusebius, Praep. ev. ix 6, 6. Eusebius, Praep. ev. vii 1 3
Jin. Anatohus in Eusebius, Hist. eccl. vii 3 2 , 1 6 .
It is likely, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t it w a s d i r e c t e d a t least p a r t l y to g e n t i l e
r e a d e r s a n d s o u g h t to a p p e a l t o t h e m t h r o u g h the use o f Helleni;stic
l i t e r a r y c a t e g o r i e s ; b u t it w o u l d also h a v e s e r v e d a d i d a c t i c p u r p o s e " i b r
c o n s e r v a t i v e J e w s b y s h o w i n g the s o p h i s t i c a t e d i d e a s t h a t c o u l d b e
culled from t h e T o r a h , cf. E u s e b i u s , Praep. ev. viii 10, 5. Its m a i n object,
a c c o r d i n g to C l e m e n t , w a s to d e m o n s t r a t e ' t h a t p e r i p a t e t i c p h i l o s o p h y
was d e p e n d e n t on t h e L a w of M o s e s a n d t h e o t h e r p r o p h e t s ' {Strom, v
14, 97). T h e p r e s e r v e d f r a g m e n t s essentially c o n f i r m this, e x c e p t t h a t
i n s t e a d o f p e r i p a t e t i c p h i l o s o p h y G r e e k p h i l o s o p h y in g e n e r a l s h o u l d
h a v e b e e n m e n t i o n e d . A r i s t o b u l u s is n o t c o n t e n t to p o i n t o u t t h e
essential a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n t h e L a w of M o s e s a n d G r e e k p h i l o s o p h y ,
b u t asserts p l a i n l y t h a t the G r e e k p h i l o s o p h e r s , e.g. P y t h a g o r a s ,
Socrates, P l a t o , d e r i v e d t h e i r d o c t r i n e s from M o s e s , a n d e v e n t h a t p o e t s
such as H o m e r a n d H e s i o d b o r r o w e d m u c h from h i m , since t h e
essential c o n t e n t s of the P e n t a t e u c h h a d a l r e a d y b e e n t r a n s l a t e d i n t o
G r e e k l o n g before the G r e e k t r a n s l a t i o n m a d e u n d e r P t o l e m y
P h i l a d e l p h u s . ^ ^ T h i s bold assertion t h a t M o s e s w a s t h e f a t h e r o f G r e e k
p h i l o s o p h y a n d c u l t u r e w a s also m a i n t a i n e d b y l a t e r J e w i s h H e l l e n i s t s .
It is r e - e n c o u n t e r e d , in p a r t i c u l a r , in P h i l o {Vita Mosis ii 2 - 3 ) a n d
J o s e p h u s , C.Ap. ii 16 (168) .9'
T h e p r e s e r v e d f r a g m e n t s g i v e a t least a n a p p r o x i m a t e i d e a of its
c h a r a c t e r . A m a j o r i t y of the p a s s a g e s a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h d e t e r m i n
ing t h e t r u e m e a n i n g of the b i b h c a l a n t h r o p o m o r p h i s m s . T h u s t h e
l o n g piece in E u s e b . , Praep. ev. xiii 1 2 , 1 - 8 , w h i c h , a c c o r d i n g to t h e
parallel i n C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a , Strom, i 22, 150 = E u s e b . , Praep.
ev. i x 6, is t a k e n from the first b o o k of A r i s t o b u l u s ' w o r k , a n d
e v i d e n t l y b e l o n g e d t o a n e l u c i d a t i o n of t h e c r e a t i o n s t o r y , shows t h a t
the w o r d s , ' G o d said, a n d it w a s s o ' , m e a n s n o m o r e t h a n t h a t a l l
was m a d e by G o d ' s p o w e r {Svvdpei), w h i c h w a s also t a u g h t b y t h e
Greek philosophers O r p h e u s a n d Aratus.
T h e n e x t p a s s a g e {Praep. ev. xiii 1 2 , 9 - 1 6 ) , w h i c h still b e l o n g s
to t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the c r e a t i o n story, discusses t h e s e v e n t h
d a y as a d a y of rest, a n d e x p l a i n s its significance b y a p p e a l i n g ,
a m o n g s t o t h e r s , t o alleged verses from H e s i o d , H o m e r , and
Linus.^''
A f u r t h e r p a s s a g e ( E u s e b . Praep. ev. viii 1 0 ) i n d i c a t e s h o w allusions t o
90. Cf especially Eusebius, Praep. ev. xiii 12, i = Clement, Strom, i 22, 150 = Eusebius,
Praep. ev. ix 6, 6-8. Pythagoras, Socrates, and P l a t o : Eusebius, Praep. ev. xiii 12, 4. H o m e r
and Hesiod: Eusebius, Praep. ev. xiii 12, 13.
91. Cf G. Vermes, 'Bible and Midrash', Camb. Hist, of the Bible I (1970), pp. 199-231,
532 = PBJS, pp. 5 9 - 9 1 ; T . Rajak, 'Moses in Ethiopia: Legend a n d Literature', J J S 29
(1978), pp. 111-22.
92. A small fragment of this (Eusebius, Praep. ev. xiii 12, l o - i i ) is also found in Praep.
ev. vii 14.
V. Philosophy 583
G o d ' s h a n d s , a r m s , face, a n d feet s h o u l d be u n d e r s t o o d in t h e M o s a i c

Law.93
F i n a l l y , t h e e x c e r p t g i v e n by A n a t o l i u s ( E u s e b . Hist. eccl. vii 3 2 ,
17—18) deals w i t h t h e P a s s o v e r , c e l e b r a t e d w h e n b o t h t h e s u n a n d t h e
m o o n a r e in t h e e q u i n o x , t h a t is, w h e n t h e s u n is i n the v e r n a l e q u i n o x
a n d t h e m o o n o p p o s i t e i t in t h e a u t u m n a l e q u i n o x . I t is this f r a g m e n t
t h a t reveals t h a t A r i s t o b u l u s b y n o m e a n s c o n f i n e d h i m s e l f to
r e i n t e r p r e t i n g the text o f t h e P e n t a t e u c h p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y , b u t r e a l l y
p r o v i d e d a d e s c r i p t i o n a n d e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e M o s a i c L a w . N e v e r
theless, w h i l e a t t e m p t i n g to d e t e r m i n e its sense h e often e n t e r s t h e
d o m a i n of a l l e g o r i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , as O r i g e n in p a r t i c u l a r i n d i c a t e s
{Contra Cels. i v 5 1 ) .
W i t h r e g a r d to A r i s t o b u l u s ' p h i l o s o p h i c a l v i e w p o i n t , t h e f r a g m e n t s
g i v e n o specific i n f o r m a t i o n . H e w a s u n d o u b t e d l y a n eclectic. T h e
f r a g m e n t on t h e m e a n i n g of the S a b b a t h discusses t h e p o w e r of t h e
n u m e r a l seven by m e a n s of a P y t h a g o r e a n - l i k e exposition.^'^ E l s e w h e r e ,
A r i s t o b u l u s a p p e a l s in g e n e r a l to P y t h a g o r a s , S o c r a t e s , a n d P l a t o , as
w e l l as m o r e specifically in p a r t i c u l a r cases t o p e r i p a t e t i c d o c t r i n e . ^ ^
D e s p i t e t h e u n a n i m o u s w i t n e s s of t h e C h u r c h F a t h e r s i n c a l l i n g h i m a
p e r i p a t e t i c , t h e r e is n o r e a s o n from the e x t a n t w r i t i n g s t o s u p p o s e t h a t
h e h a d p a r t i c u l a r l y close affinities w i t h t h a t p h i l o s o p h y . ^ ^
I t is difficult to u n d e r s t a n d w h y m a n y s c h o l a r s h a v e d i s p u t e d the
a u t h e n t i c i t y o f the w h o l e of A r i s t o b u l u s ' w o r k , e.g. W i U r i c h , W e n d l a n d ,
Bousset a n d especially E l t e r . ^ ' T h e p i c t u r e w h i c h w e o b t a i n from the
p r e s e r v e d f r a g m e n t s of t h i s w r i t i n g is p e r f e c t l y possible for a J e w i n the
H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d , cf in p a r d c u l a r N . W a l t e r , Der Thoraausleger
Aristobulus ( T U , 86) (1964), especially p p . 3 5 - 1 2 3 .
A series of a r g u m e n t s h a v e b e e n f o r m u l a t e d a g a i n s t its g e n u i n e n e s s ,
b u t t h e y are n o t c o m p e l l i n g .
First, A r i s t o b u l u s m a k e s g o o d use o f f o r g e d verses o f G r e e k p o e t s
w h i c h h e c o u l d h a r d l y e x p e c t a P t o l e m a i c k i n g to a c c e p t as a u t h e n t i c if
h e h a d i n v e n t e d t h e m h i m s e l f for his a p o l o g e t i c . I t is h o w e v e r likely
t h a t t h e s e verses w e r e t a k e n b y A r i s t o b u l u s f r o m florilegia i n t o w h i c h
J e w i s h forgeries h a d a l r e a d y b e e n i n s e r t e d , a n d w h i c h A r i s t o b u l u s
h i m s e l f w o u l d h a v e h a d n e i t h e r r e a s o n n o r i n c e n t i v e to d o u b t . T h e r e is
93. A small sentence from it (Eusebius, Praep. ev. viii 1 0 , 14) is also found in Clement of
Alexandria, Strom, vi 3, 32.
94. N. Walter, Der Thoraausleger Aristobulus (1964), pp. 73, 166—71.
95. Eusebius, Praep. ev. xiii 12, l o - i i = vii 14.
96. Fraser, PA I, p. 695. T h e r e was no formal peripatetic school in Alexandria a t this
d a t e and Aristobulus uses Platonic, Pythagorean a n d Stoic as well as Aristotelian ideas.
97. De gnomologiorum graecorum historia atque origine, p a r t V I I I (Bonn, Universitdts-Progr.,
1895), col. 2 2 6 : 'etenim Aristobulum J u d a e u m A l e x a n d r i n u m ecquis h o m o sanus
e t i a m n u n c Philonem J u d a e u m Alexandrinum antecessisse et t a m q u a m huic prae-
cursorem fuisse judicabit?'
n o t h i n g i m p l a u s i b l e in s u c h florilegia h a v i n g b e e n p r o d u c e d in t h e
e a r l y H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d (see b e l o w , p . 659) a n d A r i s t o b u l u s ' use of t h e m
is t h e r e f o r e n o a r g u m e n t for a l a t e (i.e. R o m a n ) d a t e for his w o r k ( c f
Bousset) a n y m o r e t h a n it a r g u e s a g a i n s t h i s J e w i s h i d e n t i t y . T h e
p r a c t i c e of q u o t i n g such verses is a n a t u r a l o n e for a p o l o g e t i c of a n y
p e r i o d , a n d it is u n d u l y s c e p t i c a l t o a s s u m e t h a t e i t h e r A r i s t o b u l u s o r
his a u d i e n c e ( J e w i s h or g e n t i l e ) was a w a r e of t h e s p u r i o u s o r i g i n s of t h e
p r o o f texts u s e d (see b e l o w , section V n . 3 ) .
S e c o n d l y , A r i s t o b u l u s is not m e n t i o n e d b y a n y w r i t e r before C l e m e n t
of A l e x a n d r i a in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y A . D . A g a i n , this is n o t really
s u r p r i s i n g . T h e failure o f J o s e p h u s to m e n t i o n A r i s t o b u l u s is only a
reflection of J o s e p h u s ' o w n i n t e r e s t s . J o s e p h u s o n l y m e n t i o n s o t h e r
a u t h o r s w h e n t h e y e i t h e r s u p p o r t h i s case for t h e a n t i q u i t y of t h e J e w s
b e c a u s e t h e y a r e , o r h e believes t h e m to b e , i n d e p e n d e n t gentile
witnesses to t h a t a n t i q u i t y , o r w h e n t h e y t a k e p a r t , as d i d P h i l o , in
s o m e historical e v e n t w h i c h J o s e p h u s wishes to d e s c r i b e . I t is s a l u t a r y t o
recall h o w m u c h i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t J e w i s h l i t e r a t u r e in G r e e k is o n l y
p r e s e r v e d t h r o u g h t h e lists of a u t h o r s in C l e m e n t a n d E u s e b i u s , a n d
A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r before t h e m . W i t h so s c a n t y a t r a d i t i o n , specific
a r g u m e n t s f r o m the omission of a p a r t i c u l a r w o r k a r e p e r i l o u s .
T h i r d l y , t h e r e c e n s i o n of the forged O r p h i c p o e m s u s e d b y
A r i s t o b u l u s is, in its p r e s e n t f o r m i n the text o f E u s e b i u s , less o r i g i n a l
t h a n t h e r e c e n s i o n used by P s . - J u s t i n , De monarchia, a n d e v e n t h e
different recension used b y C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a . I t h a s t h e r e f o r e
b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t the O r p h i c forgery i n A r i s t o b u l u s d a t e s t h e w h o l e
of A r i s t o b u l u s ' w o r k to t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y A . D . (Elter).^^ A c o m p l e x
series of recensions b o t h of A r i s t o b u l u s ' text a n d t h a t o f the O r p h i c
p o e m s , a s well as a n i m p l a u s i b l y l a t e d a t e in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y A . D .
for P s . - H e c a t e u s w h o q u o t e d o t h e r forged verses of G r e e k p o e t s , has t o
be s t i p u l a t e d for this t h e o r y to s t a n d , b u t i t is a n y w a y u n n e c e s s a r y . T h e
original a u t h o r s h i p of t h e O r p h i c p o e m m a y q u i t e w e l l b e assigned to
the early H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d . I t is p e r v e r s e t o a s s u m e t h a t its first
r e c o r d e d use, i n t h e late s e c o n d to e a r l y t h i r d c e n t u r y A . D . , c o i n c i d e d
w i t h its c r e a t i o n . T h e h a z a r d s of t e x t u a l t r a n s m i s s i o n a c c o u n t for t h e
preservation of a m o r e correct text in a later a u t h o r (Ps.-Jusdn) than a n
earlier o n e ( A r i s t o b u l u s ) . See b e l o w , s e c t i o n V I 1 . 3 .
F o u r t h , a g e n e r a l a r g u m e n t a g a i n s t t h e g e n u i n e n e s s of t h e
A r i s t o b u l u s f r a g m e n t s is t h a t t h e i r c o n t e n t is u n t h i n k a b l e for a J e w
before P h i l o . T h e assertion t h a t t h e G r e e k p h i l o s o p h e r s a n d p o e t s
d e p e n d e d on M o s e s is p a r t i c u l a r l y singled o u t (Elter).^^ T h i s is a
curiously c i r c u l a r a r g u m e n t : A r i s t o b u l u s ' w o r k w o u l d b e p a r t of t h e
98. Elter, A., parts V - V I (1894), cols. 152—87, with a s u m m a r y of t h e results, p. vi,
cols. 177-87 ; p. vii (1895), col. 206: 'Theophili fere aetate.'
99. Elter, A., parts V I I I - I X (1895), cols. 219-39. C f part V I (1894), c o L i 8 6 .
V. Philosophy 585
e v i d e n c e for sucii t h o u g h t b e f o r e P h i l o . S i m i l a r i t i e s t o P h i l o a r e e v i d e n t ,
b u t n e i t h e r c a n d i r e c t d e p e n d e n c e b e s h o w n n o r c a n i t be d e m o n s t r a t e d
that any idea found in Aristobulus is based solely on Philo's
philosophy.Similarly, A r i s t o b u l u s ' use of G r e e k p h i l o s o p h i c a l terms
otherwise first attested in Posidonius in the early first century B . C .
( P o h l e n z ) does n o t p r o v e a p o s t - P o s i d o n i a n d a t e s i n c e e a c h w r i t e r m a y
be g i v i n g his o w n s p e c i a l m e a n i n g t o t e r m s a l r e a d y i n c o m m o n u s e .
F i f t h , t h e p i c t u r e of A r i s t o b u l u s a s t r e a t i n g t h e k i n g P t o l e m y as h i s
s t u d e n t h a s s t r u c k s o m e s c h o l a r s as i m p l a u s i b l e ( B o u s s e t ) . ' " ' I t is t r u e
e n o u g h t h a t C l e m e n t a n d E u s e b i u s p r o b a b l y i n f e r r e d this d e s c r i p t i o n of
Aristobulus with n o better w a r r a n t than the l e t t e r in 2 M a c . 1 : 1 0 ,
w h e r e t h e c l a i m is m a d e d i r e c t l y i n this f o r m , e v e n t h o u g h it is q u i t e
possible t h a t A r i s t o b u l u s o n l y figured in t h e t e s t i m o n i a l i n 2 M a c . in
t h e first p l a c e b e c a u s e h e w a s w e l l - k n o w n t o t h e f o r g e r of t h e l e t t e r a s a
prominent Alexandrian Jew of the reign of Philometor (Walter).
Nonetheless, A r i s t o b u l u s ' teachings a d d r e s s e d t o the king involve q u i t e
u n e x c e p t i o n a l r e m a r k s a b o u t t h e w a y to u n d e r s t a n d anthropomorphic
expressions in the Pentateuch, and would be quite possible as
a p o l o g e t i c a d d r e s s e d to p a g a n s to d e f e n d t h e J e w i s h v i e w of G o d . ' ° ^
100. T h e notion that Greek philosophy stemmed from Jewish sources is certainly
pre-Philonic. On t h e Jewish side, the Jewish Sibyl, w h o w r o t e u n d e r Ptolemy V I I I a b o u t
140 B.C., also accused H o m e r o f stealing her verses [Sib. iii 419—32). F u r t h e r m o r e , there
is a tendency in some Greek a u t h o r s to believe s o m e t h i n g similar a long time before
Aristobulus, cf A. Momigliano, Alien Wisdom : The Limits of Hellenization (1975), p p . 83—7.
Megasthenes, w h o hved about 300 B.C. (at t h e d m e of Seleucus I ) , admittedly does n o t
assert Greek dependence, but affirms a relationship between Greek philosophy and t h a t
of t h e Brahmans a n d the Jews (fragment from the third book of his hhiKo. in C l e m e n t of
Alexandria, Strom, i 15, 7 2 : airavTa fjcevroi TO. irept <f>va€u>s elpr)fj.eva napa rots apxaiois
Xeyerai Kat -napa TOIS f^co TTJS 'EXXdbos <f>iXoao(f>o{jai, r d fxev Trap' 'IvBois VTTO rdov BpaxpLavcuv,
TO Se €v rfi Zvpia VTTO TCOV KaXovfi.€va)v 'lovSaicov. In explanation of these words, it m a y be
noted that Aristotle, according t o the report of his s t u d e n t Clearchus, already designated
the 'lovSaioi as t h e (l)iX6ao<f>oi napa Zvpots: J o s . C. Ap. i 22 ( 1 7 9 ) ; c f on this Stern, G L A J J
I, p p . 45-52). H e r m i p p u s Callimachius, w h o lived d u r i n g the second half of the third
century B.C. (under Ptolemy I I I a n d IV), already believed t h a t Pythagoras borrowed
from the J e w s a n d the T h r a c i a n s the summons not to pass by a place where a n ass h a d
sunk to its knees, to abstain from thirst-producing water, and to avoid all blasphemy
(Josephus, C. Ap. i 22 (164-5) ' Stern, G L A J J I , pp. 9 3 - 6 a n d further details below,
§33A.VII.8, in t h e section o n H e r m i p p u s ) . T h e claims of a Pseudo-Hecataeus a n d
Aristobulus are comprehensible after such precedents.
101. Die Religion des Judentums (^1906), p. 3 2 .
102. T h e passage reads (Eusebius, Praep. ev. viii 10, 1—2): 'When, however, we h a d
said enough in answer t o the questions p u t before us, y o u also, O King, d i d further
d e m a n d , w h y by our l a w there are intimations given of hands, a n d a r m , a n d face, a n d
feet, and walking, in the case of the divine p o w e r : which things shall receive a becoming
explanation, and will n o t at all contradict the opinions which we have previously
expressed. But I would e n t r e a t y o u to t a k e t h e interpretations in a n a t u r a l w a y
(<ûai(ctDy), and to hold fast the fitdng conception of God, a n d n o t to fall off i n t o the idea
of a fabulous anthropomorphic constitudon.' It is clear t h a t Aristobulus does n o t wish to
T h i s s o r t of p o r t r a y a l o f w r i t e r a n d m o n a r c h as t e a c h e r a n d p u p i l is a
c o m m o n H e l l e n i s t i c l i t e r a r y fiction, b u t i t is also q u i t e possible t h a t t h e
J e w i s h p h i l o s o p h e r h a d a p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the king g i v e n all
t h a t w e k n o w of P h i l o m e t o r ' s r e l a t i o n s to t h e J e w s . W h e n t h e k i n g
permitted O n i a s to found a J e w i s h temple in Egypt, and even h a d
J e w i s h c o m m a n d e r s in h i s a r m y (cf. a b o v e , p p . 4 7 - 8 ) , it is not i m p o s s i b l e
t h a t a J e w i s h p h i l o s o p h e r m i g h t h a v e a t t e m p t e d to t r a n s m i t t o the k i n g
a c o r r e c t u n d e r s t a n d i n g (i.e. c o r r e c t f r o m t h e p o i n t o f view of t h e
p h i l o s o p h e r s ) of t h e J e w i s h r e l i g i o n .
T h e o p p o n e n t s o f a u t h e n t i c i t y h a v e n e v e r g i v e n a satisfactory a n s w e r
to the q u e s t i o n of t h e m o d v e s a n d p u r p o s e of t h e forgery. T h i s w o u l d in
fact o n l y h a v e h a d m e a n i n g if A r i s t o b u l u s h a d b e e n a d i s t i n g u i s h e d
p e r s o n from t h e k i n g ' s g e n t i l e circle, u p o n w h o m a l a t e r p e r s o n foisted
this a p o l o g y for J e w i s h o p i n i o n s . B u t t h e a u t h o r d e s c r i b e s himself q u i t e
h o n e s t l y a n d u n m i s t a k e a b l y as a J e w ( E u s e b . Praep. ev. xiii 1 2 , i :
KaTrjKoXovdrjaev 6 nXdrcov T17 Kad' rjfids vo(io6eaia', cf. 1 2 , 8; 11 ; 13 ; viii
10, i ; 3 ; 8). S u c h a f o r g e r y w o u l d h a v e b e e n w i t h o u t m e a n i n g o r
p u r p o s e , for if t h e forger h a d w i s h e d t o a c c o m p l i s h s o m e t h i n g for t h e
benefit of t h e J e w s , he w o u l d h a v e p u t on a g e n t i l e m a s k , as o t h e r s
f r e q u e n t l y d i d (cf section V I I ) . T h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t t h e a u t h o r w r o t e
u n d e r a d i s t i n g u i s h e d J e w i s h n a m e for his fellow-believers is
c o n t r a d i c t e d b o t h by t h e d e d i c a t i o n to K i n g P t o l e m y , a n d b y the fact
t h a t t h e w h o l e w o r k a p p a r e n t l y seeks to justify J u d a i s m i n the f o r u m of
Greek philosophy.
Aristobulus was, then, a distinguished Alexandrian J e w w h o
c o m b i n e d his o w n J e w i s h t r a d i t i o n w i t h the i d e a s o f G r e e k p h i l o s o p h y
in o r d e r to d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t t h e J e w s w e r e b a s i c a l l y a n a t i o n of
p h i l o s o p h e r s . T h e allegorical i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of m y t h , as p r a c d s e d b y t h e
S t o a a n d t h e A l e x a n d r i a n p h i l o l o g i s t s , a n d t h e a t t r i b u t i o n of G r e e k
p h i l o s o p h i c a l c o n c e p t s t o M o s e s a n d t h e T o r a h , a r e similar to t h e i d e a s
of P h i l o b u t m u c h less s o p h i s t i c a t e d .
Editions
Denis, F P G , p p . 217-28.
Translations
English:
Collins, A . Yarbro, in Charlesworth, O T P I I (forthcoming).
German:
Riessler, P., Altjud. &Ari//. (T928), p p . 179-85, 1275 f
impart a philosophical doctrine about the nature of God to the king a t all. H e asks him
only to take the symbolical l a n g u a g e of t h e Bible as an expression of the true spiritual
contemplation of God. He begins with this general request before going on to explain the
individual metaphorical expressions.
V. Philosophy 587
Walter, N., Fragmente jiidisch-hellenistischer Exegeten ( J S H R Z n i . 2 ) ( 1 9 7 5 ) , p p . 2 6 1 - 7 9 .
Bibliography
Valckenaer, L., Diatribe de Aristobulo Judaeo,philosophoperipatetico Alexandrine ( 1 8 0 6 ) .
Lobeck, C. A., Aglaophamus I ( 1 8 2 9 ) , p. 448.
Zeller, E., Die Philosophie der Griechen I I I . 2 ( * i 9 0 3 ) , p p . 2 7 7 - 8 5 .
Binde, R., Aristobulische Studien, 2 parts {Gymnasialprogr., 1 8 6 9 - 7 0 ) .
Freudenthal, J., Alexander Polyhistor ( 1 8 7 5 ) , p p . 1 6 6 - 9 .
El ter. A., De gnomologiorum graecorum historia atque origine, p a r t s v-ix [Universitdtsprogramme,
1894-5)-
Willrich, H . , Juden und Griechen vor der makk. Erhebung ( 1 8 9 5 ) , p p . 1 6 2 - 8 .
Gercke, A., 'Aristobulus' ( 1 5 ) , R E II.i ( 1 8 9 5 ) , cols. 9 1 8 - 2 0 .
Schlatter, A . , Das neu gefundene hebraische Stuck des Sirach etc. ( 1 8 9 7 ) , p p . 163—89.
Wendland, P., 'Aristobulus', J E II ( 1 9 0 2 ) , cols. 97 f. (Aristobulus is here wrongly called
Aristobulus o f Paneas). ^
V. Christ, W . , O . StahUn a n d W . Schmidt, Gesch. der griech. Lit. I I . 1 ( 1 9 2 0 ) , p p . 6 0 3 ff.
Schlatter, A . , Gesch. Israels ( ^ 1 9 2 5 ) , pp. 8 1 - 9 0 .
Bousset, W . , and H . Gressmann, Die Religion des Judentums ( ^ 1 9 2 6 ) , pp. 2 8 - 9 .
H e i n e m a n n , I., 'Hellenistica', M G W J 7 3 ( 1 9 2 9 ) , pp. 4 2 5 - 4 3 .
Bauer, L., 'Aristobulus', L T h K I ( 1 9 3 0 ) , pp. 6 4 6 - 7 .
Bickermann, E., ' Z u r D a t i e r u n g des Pseudo-Aristeas', Z N W 29 ( 1 9 3 0 ) , p p . 280—95.
H e i n e m a n n , I., Philons griechische und jiidische Bildung ( 1 9 3 2 ) .
Goodenough, E. R . , By Light, Light! ( 1 9 3 5 ) , p p . 2 7 7 - 8 2 .
Keller, R., De Aristobulo Judaeo (Diss., Bonn, 1 9 4 8 ) .
Dalbert, P . , Die Theologie der jiid.-hell. Missionsliteratur ( 1 9 5 4 ) , pp. 1 0 2 - 6 .
K a h a n a , A . , D^nS-nn C I D D n I ( " 1 9 5 6 ) , pp. 1 7 6 f
Tcherikover, V. A., 'Jewish Apologetic Literature reconsidered', Eos 4 8 , 3 ( 1 9 5 6 ) , p p .
•69-93-
G u t m a n , Y . , The Beginnings of Jewish-Hellenistic Literature I ( 1 9 5 8 ) , pp. 1 8 6 - 2 2 0 , 2 7 6 - 8 6
(Heb.).
Lohse, E., 'Aristobul', R G G I ( ^ 1 9 5 7 ) , 5 9 7 .
Bickerman(n), E., 'The Septuagint a s a T r a n s l a t i o n ' , P A A J R 2 8 ( 1 9 5 9 ) , p p . 2 ff. =
Studies in Jewish and Christian History 1 ( 1 9 7 6 ) , p p . 1 6 7 - 2 0 0 .
Walter, N . , 'Anfange alexandrinisch-judischen Bibelauslegung bei Aristobulus', Helikon 3
( 1 9 6 3 ) , pp. 3 5 3 - 7 2 .
Walter, N . , Der Thoraausleger Aristobulus, T U 8 6 ( 1 9 6 4 ) (a full discussion with
bibliography).
Denis, I P G A T , p p . 2 7 7 - 8 3 .
Fraser, PA I, pp. 6 9 4 - 6 ; I I , p p . 9 6 3 - 9 .
Hengel, M.., Judaism and Hellenism I ( E T 1 9 7 4 ) , pp. 1 6 3 - 9 .
SandeHn, K.-G., 'Zwei K u r z e Studien z u m alexandrinischen J u d e n t u m ' , Studia
Theologica 3 1 ( 1 9 7 7 ) , p p . 1 4 7 - 5 2 .
Sabugal, S., 'La exegesis biblica d e Aristobulo y del seudo-Aristeas', Revista A g u s t i n i a n a de
Espiritualidad 20 ( 1 9 7 9 ) , p p . 1 9 5 - 2 0 2 .
3. Philo
T h e s a m e p o h c y a s t h a t of A r i s t o b u l u s w a s followed b y a fellow-
c o u n t r y m a n w h o lived t w o c e n t u r i e s l a t e r t h a n h i m , P h i l o . I t w a s his
m a i n endeavour, also, t o prove t h a t t h e views derived from G r e e k
philosophy were genuinely J e w i s h ; w h i c h he d i d , possibly occasionally
for g e n t i l e b u t c e r t a i n l y u s u a l l y for J e w i s h r e a d e r s . H i s i n t e n t i o n w a s to
instil r e s p e c t for J u d a i s m in t h e f o r m e r a u d i e n c e , a n d t o e d u c a t e t h e
l a t t e r i n t h e J u d a i s m t h a t h e himself p r e f e r r e d . I t c a n n o t safely b e
a s s u m e d t h a t t h e r e w e r e o t h e r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h i s t e n d e n c y b e t w e e n
A r i s t o b u l u s a n d P h i l o . I n f a v o u r o f t h e e x i s t e n c e of s u c h p h i l o s o p h e r s is
t h e fact t h a t this p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o s i t i o n is p r e s e n t e d w i t h such c e r t a i n t y
a n d in s u c h a d e v e l o p e d f o r m in P h i l o t h a t m a n y s c h o l a r s h a v e f o u n d
his a c h i e v e m e n t u n t h i n k a b l e w i t h o u t a n t e c e d e n t s . B u t n o t h i n g h a s
b e e n p r e s e r v e d of t h e p o s s i b l e l i t e r a r y p r o d u c t i o n s of t h e s e m e n , a n d
t h e r e a r e sufficient differences b e t w e e n P h i l o , A r i s t o b u l u s a n d t h e
W i s d o m of S o l o m o n to m a k e it u n w i s e t o a s s u m e w i t h o u t e v i d e n c e t h a t
t h e y all b e l o n g e d t o a single, d e v e l o p i n g t r a d i t i o n o f w h i c h P h i l o is t h e
peak.'°3
S i n c e P h i l o , b e c a u s e of h i s g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e a n d t h e e x t e n t of his
p r e s e r v e d w o r k s , d e m a n d s a s e p a r a t e p r e s e n t a t i o n (§34), we g i v e
h e r e n o m o r e t h a n a b r i e f n o t e of t h o s e o f his w o r k s w h i c h d e a l m a i n l y
w i t h p h i l o s o p h i c a l i n s t r u c t i o n a n d discussion. T h e s e i n c l u d e firsdy t w o
of his p r i n c i p a l w o r k s o n t h e P e n t a t e u c h : ( i ) Quaestiones et solutiones, a
s h o r t e x p l a n a t i o n o f Genesis a n d E x o d u s in q u e s t i o n a n d a n s w e r f o r m ,
a n d (2) De Legum allegoria, t h e e x t e n s i v e a l l e g o r i c a l c o m m e n t a r i e s o n
selected passages o f Genesis i n t h e form of r a b b i n i c a l m i d r a s h . Also t o
b e n o t e d h e r e a r e (3) Quod omnis probus liber; (4) De Providentia; (5)
Alexander. T h e last two of t h e s e a r e also of i n t e r e s t o n a c c o u n t of t h e i r
l i t e r a r y f o r m , viz. t h e G r e e k d i a l o g u e .
4. The Fourth Book of Maccabees

T h e so-called F o u r t h B o o k o f M a c c a b e e s also b e l o n g s w i t h i n t h e g e n r e
of p h i l o s o p h i c a l h t e r a t u r e to t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e J u d a i s m r e c o m m e n d e d
b y its a u t h o r is expressed e n t i r e l y w i t h i n t h e f r a m e w o r k of G r e e k
philosophy.
I n f o r m t h i s d o c u m e n t is a discourse, i.e. a diatribe, a l t h o u g h at t i m e s
it also v e r g e s i n t o p a n e g y r i c . T h e a u t h o r a d d r e s s e s his r e a d e r s o r
103. A m o n g the more recent attempts to depict a 'Philosophical J u d a i s m ' on the

assumption of a condnuous t r a d i d o n , see Collins, BAAJ, p p . 175-94. See also many o f the
works on Philo cited below, § 34. Contrast the m o r e reserved c o m m e n t s of Fraser, P A I,
p. 696, who warns against assuming connections for which there is n o evidence.
Anatolius, in Eusebius, Hist. eccl. vii 32, 16, mentions three Jewish authors in a d d i d o n to
Aristobulus, after he h a s mentioned Philo a n d Josephus. These a r e Musaeus a n d two m e n
called Agathobulus. These writers a r e cited as authorities for t h e calendrical fixing of the
Passover and a p p a r e n t l y wrote a b o u t the exodus (vii 32, 17: rd t,T)Tovp.eva Kara TTJV
'Eôhov irrMovTes. •.). O f Musaeus n o t h i n g more can b e said, but t h e two Agathobuli
were a p p a r e n t l y surnamed the Teachers of Aristobulus the Great (vii 32, 16, ed.
Schwartz, G C S Eusebius I I , p . 7 2 4 : ap,(f>oTepcov 'AyadoôvXwv, TU)V irrUh^v bihaoKaXatv
'ApiaTofiovXov TOV irdvv). They presumably wrote biblical commentaries of some sort, but
this testimony does not show that they were philosophers or indulged in allegory since
they could have t a u g h t Aristobulus m a n y other things.
V. Philosophy 589
h e a r e r s d i r e c t l y ( 1 : 1 ; 1 8 : 1 ) . S i n c e the a i m of t h e b o o k is religious
edification, s o m e h a v e w i s h e d to c a l l it a s e r m o n , b u t t h e occasion for
siu h a n a d d r e s s b a s e d o n a p h i l o s o p h i c a l p r o p o s i t i o n r a t h e r t h a n a
s ( r i p t u r a l text is h a r d t o find i n J e w i s h s y n a g o g a i l i t u r g y so f a r as i t is
kiu)wn a t this p e r i o d . I t is h o w e v e r q u i t e possible t h a t t h e w o r k w a s
d e l i v e r e d o r a l l y a t s o m e c o m m e m o r a t i v e festival in h o n o u r of t h e
m a r t y r s , e v e n t h o u g h n o d i r e c t r e c o r d of such a festival survives
( H a d a s ) . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e r e is n o w a y t o d e c i d e t h e p r e l i m i n a r y
(luestion of w h e t h e r t h e w o r k w a s i n t e n d e d to b e s p o k e n , o r w a s a
h c t i v e d i s c o u r s e t h a t carefully i m i t a t e d s u c h s p e e c h e s b u t was i n t e n d e d
to b e r e a d . E i t h e r m o d e of c o m p o s i t i o n w o u l d be fully c o m p r e h e n s i b l e
in Hellenistic l i t e r a t u r e .
A s r e a d e r s o r listeners, t h e a u t h o r h a d i n v i e w exclusively J e w s ( 1 8 : 1 :
' ( ) Israelites, c h i l d r e n b o r n o f t h e seed of A b r a h a m ' ) . H e w i s h e d to
s h o w t h e m t h a t it was n o t difficult to l e a d a p i o u s life if t h e y o n l y
followed the p r e c e p t s of 'religious r e a s o n ' . F o r ' t h e inspired r e a s o n is
s u p r e m e r u l e r over the p a s s i o n s ' ( 1 : 1 ) . T h i s p r o p o s i t i o n is t h e t h e m e
p r o p e r o f the d i s c o u r s e a n d m a y w e l l h a v e p r o v i d e d the o r i g i n a l title of
t h e b o o k , ' O n the S o v e r e i g n t y of R e a s o n ' ( E u s e b . Hist. eccl. in 1 0 , 6). Its
m e a n i n g is e x p o u n d e d , a n d its t r u t h t h e n s u b s t a n t i a t e d f r o m J e w i s h
history, especially t h r o u g h t h e a d m i r a b l e m a r t y r d o m o f E l e a z a r a n d
t h e seven M a c c a b a e a n b r o t h e r s . T h e a u t h o r therefore d e v o t e s a l a r g e
p a r t of t h e c o n t e n t s to t h e r e w r i t i n g of t h e m a r t y r d o m of these h e r o e s of
t h e faith, w i t h d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l t o r t u r e s , a n d r h e t o r i c a l
c o m m e n t a r y , to e m p h a s i z e t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l c o u r a g e of t h e sufferers. 2
M a c . w a s a p p a r e n t l y his s o u r c e . It is possible t h a t h e h a d d i r e c t c o n t a c t
w i t h t h e l a r g e r w o r k of J a s o n of C y r e n e from w h i c h 2 M a c . itself w a s
epitomized ( F r e u d e n t h a l , pp. 72-90), b u t discrepancies between 2 a n d
4 M a c c a b e e s c a n b e fully e x p l a i n e d b y t h e i r different p u r p o s e s in
r e c o u n t i n g t h e s a m e e v e n t s , s o t h a t the h y p o t h e s i s of s e p a r a t e r e c o u r s e
to J a s o n ' s w o r k is u n n e c e s s a r y .
T h e a u t h o r ' s o w n s t a n d p o i n t w a s i n f l u e n c e d b y a v a r i e t y of G r e e k
|)hilosophical schools, e s p e c i a l l y M i d d l e P l a t o n i s m a n d Stoicism (cf
Breitenstein, p p . 1 3 2 - 3 ) . I t is possible t h a t this eclecticism was t h e w o r k
of the s o u r c e of t h e a u t h o r ' s p h i l o s o p h y r a t h e r t h a n of t h e a u t h o r
himself, since m u c h P l a t o n i c p h i l o s o p h y of t h e l a t e H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d
w a s eclectic i n this w a y . T h e f u n d a m e n t a l i d e a of t h e w h o l e d i s c o u r s e is
t h a t of Stoic ethics : t h e r u l e o f r e a s o n o v e r t h e passions. T h e list of t h e
l o u r c a r d i n a l v i r t u e s ( 1 : 1 8 : p r u d e n c e , j u s t i c e , c o u r a g e , self-control)
c o u l d h a v e b e e n d e r i v e d f r o m S t o i c i s m or P l a t o or b o t h . B u t this
i n f l u e n c e of G r e e k p h i l o s o p h y h a s not in a n y w a y p e n e t r a t e d m o r e
d e e p l y t h a n this. E v e n t h e b a s i c i d e a is a J e w i s h one r e c a s t , for t h e
r e a s o n t o w h i c h h e ascribes c o m m a n d o v e r t h e passions is not r e a s o n in
t b e sense used by t h e G r e e k p h i l o s o p h e r s b u t r e l i g i o u s r e a s o n , o eyaejSi)?
XoyiaiMos ( i : i ; 7 : 1 6 ; 1 3 : 1 ; 1 5 : 2 0 ; i6:i ; 18:2), i.e. r e a s o n t h a t follows

t h e n o r m of t h e d i v i n e l a w (cf. also 1:15—17). H e also goes his o w n w a y
i n d e s c r i b i n g a n d d i v i d i n g t h e e m o d o n s (cf. 1 : 1 8 ff.). I t w o u l d b e
m i s l e a d i n g , h o w e v e r , t o d e s i g n a t e h i m a n e c l e c t i c p h i l o s o p h e r i n his
o w n r i g h t . W h e t h e r or n o t h e w o r k e d w i t h i n a n e x i s t i n g p h i l o s o p h i c a l
school, h e w a s o n l y a d i l e t t a n t e in philosophicis, s o m e w h a t like J o s e p h u s ,
w h o also k n e w h o w t o give his J u d a i s m a p h i l o s o p h i c a l v e n e e r . T h e
p h i l o s o p h y o f t h e b o o k is b y n o m e a n s c o n s i s t e n t a n d it is q u i t e
p r o b a b l e t h a t t h e a u t h o r s i m p l y used ideas from all s o u r c e s , in t h e
fashion of c o n t e m p o r a r y r h e t o r i c , t o s u p p o r t his case w h e r e v e r
a p p r o p r i a t e . O f a l l the k n o w n J e w i s h p h i l o s o p h e r s , h e is r e m a r k a b l e for
his u n c o m p r o m i s i n g assertion t h a t distinctively Jewish rehgious
p r a c t i c e s c o u l d , a n d s h o u l d , be c o n s i d e r e d b y t h e G r e e k s as w i s d o m .
F o r in t h e M a c c a b a e a n m a r t y r s , i t is p r e c i s e l y t h e i r r i g i d a d h e r e n c e t o
t h e T o r a h t h a t he praises.
T w o of his J e w i s h views i n p a r t i c u l a r a r e n o t e w o r t h y . T h e first is his
belief i n i m m o r t a l i t y , w h i c h does n o t refer t o the P h a r i s a i c d o c t r i n e o f
b o d i l y r e s u r r e c t i o n b u t a s s u m e s f a i t h i n a n e t e r n a l a n d blessed life i n
h e a v e n for t h e p i o u s i m m e d i a t e l y after d e a t h ( 1 3 : 1 7 ; 1 5 : 3 ; 1 7 : 5 , 1 8 ;
18:23) ; it is striking, h o w e v e r , t h a t t h i s d o c t r i n e does not d o m i n a t e 4
M a c c a b e e s , i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e a u t h o r ' s p r o b a b l e s o u r c e i n 2 M a c . 7, b u t
is i n c l u d e d only toj justify the r e a s o n a b l e n e s s of t h e m a r t y r s b y
i n t r o d u c i n g t h e d o c t r i n e of r e t r i b u t i o n . T h e s e c o n d is his belief t h a t t h e
m a r t y r d o m of t h e r i g h t e o u s s e r v e d as a t o n e m e n t a n d p u r i f i c a t i o n for
t h e sins of t h e p e o p l e ( 1 : 1 1 ; 6:29 : ' M a k e m y b l o o d t h e i r p u r i f i c a t i o n ,
a n d t a k e m y s o u l to r a n s o m t h e i r s o u l s ' ; 1 7 : 2 1 : ' h a v i n g b e c o m e a
r a n s o m for o u r n a t i o n ' s sin').'*'''^
E u s e b i u s a n d o t h e r C h u r c h w r i t e r s n a m e J o s e p h u s as the a u t h o r b u t
t h e b o o k is a n o n y m o u s i n m a n y m a n u s c r i p t s , a n d was t h e r e f o r e
c e r t a i n l y first issued as s u c h . A g a i n s t J o s e p h u s is t h e e n t i r e l y different
style, a s w e l l as t h e fact t h a t h e does n o t u s e 2 M a c c a b e e s at a l l i n
Antiquities, a n d t h u s a p p a r e n t l y d i d not k n o w it, w h e r e a s 4 M a c c a b e e s is
c o m p l e t e l y b a s e d o n it.
T h e r e a r e n o c e r t a i n i n d i c a t i o n s of t h e p l a c e w h e r e the b o o k w a s
w r i t t e n . L a t e r C h u r c h t r a d i t i o n p u t the g r a v e s of t h e m a r t y r s a t
A n t i o c h , cf. U . K e l l e r m a n n , Auferstanden in dem HimmeL 2 Makkabder 7
und die Auferstehung der Mdrtyrer ( 1 9 7 9 ) , p . 17. I n f a v o u r o f a c c e p t i n g this
t r a d i t i o n is t h e fact t h a t A n t i o c h u s , t h e Seleucid k i n g , is p o r t r a y e d a s
b e i n g p r e s e n t a t the t o r t u r e s , w h i c h w o u l d be m o s t n a t u r a l i n t h e
S e l e u c i d c a p i t a l ( 5 : 1 ; c f H a d a s , p p . 1 1 0 - 1 3 ) ; b u t this m a y b e o n l y a
d r a m a t i c c o n v e n t i o n . N o t h i n g specifically s u g g e s t s Alexandrian
104. Cf. R. B. Townshend in Charles, A P O T I I , p p . 663 f.; A. D u p o n t - S o m m e r , Le

Quatrieme Livre des Machabees (1939), pp. 4 1 - 3 ; M . H a d a s , The Third and Fourth Books of
Maccabees (1953), pp. 121-2 ; G. Vermes, S T J , p. 198.
V. Philosophy 591
a u t h o r s h i p . A g a i n s t P a l e s t i n i a n p r o v e n a n c e is t h e a u t h o r ' s t o p o
graphical mistake (4:20) a b o u t the p o s i t i o n o f t h e J e r u s a l e m
gymnasium.
A d a t e in t h e m i d - f i r s t c e n t u r y A . D . is t h e m o s t likely. L i n g u i s t i c
( o n s i d e r a t i o n s p o i n t to a t i m e after t h e e n d of t h e first c e n t u r y B . C . , c f
I'.. B i c k e r m a n n , ' T h e D a t e of F o u r t h M a c c a b e e s ' , in Studies in Jewish and
Christian History vol. I ( 1 9 7 6 ) , p p . 2 7 6 - 7 . C o m p o s i t i o n before A . D . 70 is
likely, g i v e n t h e a d o p t i o n of t h e w o r k b y t h e C h r i s d a n C h u r c h , a n d
a p p e a r s t o be c o n f i r m e d b y t h e title g i v e n to A p o l l o n i u s i n 4 M a c . 4:9,
w h e r e h e is called strategos of S y r i a , P h o e n i c i a a n d Cilicia, a n a r e a p u t
u n d e r o n e g o v e r n o r o n l y for a b r i e f p e r i o d b e t w e e n A . D . 20 a n d 54
( B i c k e r m a n n , art. cit., p p . 279—80). S u g g e s t i o n s of a d a t e in t h e e a r l y
second-century A . D . ( D u p o n t - S o m m e r ; Breitenstein) should be
dismissed. L a c k of r e f e r e n c e s t o the T e m p l e c u l t is d u e to t h e i n t e r e s t s of
the a u t h o r , n o t to t h e n o n - e x i s t e n c e o f t h e T e m p l e . Similarities b e t w e e n
the A s i a n i c style of 4 M a c c a b e e s a n d t h a t in t h e e a r l y s e c o n d - c e n t u r y
a u t h o r , D i o C h r y s o s t o m , s i m p l y d e m o n s t r a t e t h e l o n g s u r v i v a l of t h a t
style of r h e t o r i c .
W h e n E u s e b i u s s p e a k s of t h e w r i t i n g s o f J o s e p h u s , he says of t h e t i t l e
a n d a u t h o r {Hist. eccl. iii 10, 6) : ' [ J o s e p h u s ] h a s also p r o d u c e d a n o t h e r
w o r k of lofty c h a r a c t e r o n the s u p r e m a c y of r e a s o n d e s i g n a t e d b y s o m e
as M a c c a b a e a n , e t c '
J e r o m e , De viris illustr. 13 ( P L X X I I I , col. 662) : ' A n o t h e r b o o k of
his, e n t i t l e d " O n t h e S u p r e m a c y of R e a s o n " , is a n e x t r e m e l y p o l i s h e d
w o r k ; it also deals w i t h t h e m a r t y r d o m of t h e M a c c a b e e s ' ; c f idem,
Contra Pelagianos ii 6 ( P L X X I I I , c o l . 5 6 7 ) : ' U n d e et J o s e p h u s
. M a c h a b a e o r u m s c r i p t o r h i s t o r i a e frangi et regi posse dixit p e r t u r -
b a t i o n e s a n i m i n o n e r a d i c a r i ' ( = 4 M a c . 3 : 5 ) . All later a u t h o r s w h o
ascribe t h e w o r k to J o s e p h u s d o so solely on t h e a u t h o r i t y of E u s e b i u s
and Jerome.
T h e d e s i g n a t i o n of t h e b o o k a s the F o u r t h B o o k o f M a c c a b e e s
[MaKKaâiojv 8'), w i t h o u t m e n t i o n of J o s e p h u s as its a u t h o r , is f o u n d
in t h e f o u r t h - c e n t u r y C o d e x S i n a i t i c u s (X o r S ) , the fifth-century
.Alexandrinus (A) a n d e i g h t h - n i n t h - c e n t u r y V e n e t u s (V).
O n t h e use of t h e b o o k in C h r i s t i a n a s c e t i c l i t e r a t u r e , cf a b o v e , p .
",35, on 2 M a c c a b e e s .
F o r r a b b i n i c t r a d i t i o n a b o u t t h e d e a t h of a m o t h e r a n d h e r s e v e n
sons in t h e t i m e of H a d r i a n , cf H a d a s , p p . 127—35.
The m a n u s c r i p t s in w h i c h this b o o k h a s b e e n p r e s e r v e d a r e p a r t l y
biblical m a n u s c r i p t s a n d p a r t l y m a n u s c r i p t s o f J o s e p h u s . T h e first a r e
n o t very n u m e r o u s , since as a r u l e o n l y t h r e e b o o k s of M a c c a b e e s w e r e
!('(rived as c a n o n i c a l . T h e t h r e e m o s t i m p o r t a n t witnesses a r e t h e
.11 r e a d y q u o t e d biblical m a n u s c r i p t s A, X a n d V . Cf. a b o v e , p . 489, o n
t h e e d i t i o n s of A a n d X ( S ) . T h e s e b i b l i c a l m a n u s c r i p t s are m o r e
v a l u a b l e t h a n t h e versions g i v e n i n the J o s e p h u s m a n u s c r i p t s . M o r e c a n
b e f o u n d a b o u t t h e m a n u s c r i p t s from t h e a p p a r a t u s in A. R a h l f s , e d . ,
Septuaginta I ( i 9 3 5 ) > P P - 1 1 5 7 - 8 4 -
Editions
Swete, H . B., The 0. T. in Greek according to the LXX III 1907).
Rahlfs, A., Septuaginta I (1935), pp- 1157-B4.
Fritzschc, O. F . , Libri Apocryphi Veteris Testamenti Graeci (1971).
T here are also independent comments o n the text in t h e commentaries of A . Deissmann
(1900) a n d A. D u p o n t - S o m m e r (1939) (see below).
Versions
For t h e fourth century Latin p a r a p h r a s e used by Erasmus in his own paraphrase, see
H . Dorrie, Passio SS. Machabaeorum. Die antike lateinische Vbers. des IV. Makkabderbuches
{Abhandlungen der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Gottingen I I I , 22, 1938).
Syriac transladon : facsimile in A. Ceriani, Translatio SyraPescitto ... photolithographice
edita I I (1876-83). Translation a n d i n t r o d u c d o n in R . L. Bensly, The Fourth Book oj
Maccabees and Kindred Documents in Syriac, First Editkd on Manuscripts Authority by the Late R.
L. Bensly, with an Introduction and Translations by Barnes (1895).
On a Slavonic text, cf Bonwetsch in H a r n a c k , Gesch. der altchristl. Literatur I p. 917.
Commentaries
G r i m m , C. L. W., Viertes Buch der Maccabder (Exeg. H a n d b u c h zu d e n Apocryphen), 4
parts (1857).
Deissmann, A., in E. Kautzsch, Die Apocryphen undPseudepigraphen der A.T. I I (1900), p p .
149-77-
Townshend, R . B., ' T h e Fourth Book of Maccabees', in Charles, A P O T II, p p . 653-85.
E m m e t , C. W . , The Fourth Book of Maccabees (1918).
Riessler, Altjiidisches Schrifttum ausserhalb der Bibel (igaS), pp. 700-28, 1313-14.
Dupont-Sommer, A., Le quatrieme livre des Machabees (1939).
G u t m a n , J., ' T h e mother a n d her seven sons in a g g a d a h and i n II a n d IV Maccabees', in
M . Schwabe a n d J. G u t m a n , eds., Commentationes ludaico-Hellenisticae in Memoriam
lohannis Lewy (1949), p p . 25-37 (Heb.).
Hadas, M., ' T h e T h i r d and Fourth Books of Maccabees', in S. Zeitlin, Jewish Apocryphal
Literature (1953).
Schur, A., in A . K a h a n a , D " ' n m n DnDOH (^1956).
Bibliography
Freudenthal, J . , Die Flavius Josephus beigelegte Schrift ueber die Herrschaft der Vernunft (IV
Makkabderbuch), eine Predigt aus dem ersten nachchristlichen Jahrhundert, untersucht (1869).
Bacon, B. W., 'The Festival of Lives Given for t h e Nation in Jewish a n d Christian F a i t h ' ,
The Hibbert Journal 15 (1916—i 7), p p . 256-78.
Stahlin, O., 'Die Hellenistisch-Jiidische Literatur'^ in W. v. Christ, O. Stahlin a n d W .
Schmidt, Geschichte der Griechischen Litteratur etc. I I . i (1920), pp. 570 ff.
Harris, J . R., 'Some Notes o n IV Maccabees', E T 2 (1920/1), p p . 183-5.
Heinemann, I., Poseidonios metaphysische Schriften I (1921), pp. 154-9.
Norden, E., Die antike Kunstprosa (^1923), p p . 416-20.
Heinemann, I., R E X I V . i (1928), cols. 800-5.
V. Philosophy 593
(Juiithcr, E., Mdprvs. Die Geschichte eines Wortes (1941), p p . 90-4.

l o i r r y , C . C , The Apocryphal Literature etc. (1945), p p . 103-6.
liii kcrmann, E. J., ' T h e D a t e of Fourth Maccabees', Louis Ginzberg Jubilee Volume I
(1945), pp. 105-112 ( = Studies in Jewish and Christian History I (1976), p p . 276-81).
/ f i i l i n , S., ' T h e Legend of the T e n Martyrs a n d its Apocalyptic Origin', J Q R 36
(1945/6), 1-16.
I'crler, O . , 'Das Vierten M a k k a b a e r b u c h , Ignatius v o n Antiochen und die altesten
Martyrerberichte', Rivista di Archeologia Cristiana 25 (1949), p p . 47-72.
Bammel, E., ' Z u m jiidischen M a r t y r e r k u l t ' , T h L Z 78 (1953), p p . 119-26.
l . a u e r , S . , 'Eusebes Logismos i n IV M a c e . ' , J J S 6 (1955), p p . 170-1.
V'ilar Huesoi, V., 'La r e c o m p e n s a d e los justos i m m e d i a t a a su muerte en IV M a c a b e o s y
en las parabolas d e E n o c ' , Anthologica A n n u a 3 (1955), p p . 521-49.
I h y e n , H . , Der Stil der jiidisch-hellenistischer Homilie (1955), p p . 6-48.
(iunther, E., ' Z e u g e u n d M a r t y r e r ' , Z N W 4 7 (1956), pp. 145-61.
(Jelin, A., 'Les origines bibUques de I'idee de m a r t y r e ' , Lumiere et V i e 36 (1958), pp.
123-9.
Brownlee, W. H . , 'IV M a c c a b e e s ' , I D B I I I (1962), cols. 212-15.
Rcnehan, R., ' T h e Greek Philosophic Background of Fourth Maccabees', R h M 115
(1972), pp. 223-38.
O ' H a g a n , A., ' T h e M a r t y r i n the F o u r t h Book of Maccabees', SBFLA 24 (1974), pp.
94-120.
Verme, M . del, 'L'apocrifo giudaico IV M a c c a b e i e gli atti dei martiri cristiani d e l II
secolo', Revista de scienze teologiche 2 3 (1976), pp. 287-302.
Lebram, J . H. C , ' D i e Hterarische F o r m des vierten M a k k a b a e r b u c h e s ' , Vigihae
Christianae 28 (1974), p p . 81-96.
Williams, S. K., Jesus' Death as Saving Event. The Background arui Origin of a Concept (1975).
Breitenstein, U., Beobachtungen zu Sprache, Stil und Gedankengut des Vierten Makkabderbuchs
(1976).
I'ischer, U . , Eschatologie und Jenseitserwartung im hellenistischen Diasporajudentum (1978), pp.
85-9.
CoUins, BAAJ, p p . 187-91.
Redditt, P . L., ' T h e concept of jVomoj in Fourth M a c c a b e e s ' , C B Q 4 5 (1983), p p . 249-70.
VI. APOLOGETICS
T h e J e w s , m o r e t h a n o t h e r O r i e n t a l p e o p l e s , w e r e a n a n o m a l y in t h e
f r a m e w o r k o f t h e G r e c o - R o m a n w o r l d b e c a u s e of t h e e x c e p t i o n a l
n u m b e r of their co-religionists w h o lived o u t s i d e their o r i g i n a l
h o m e l a n d , a n d b e c a u s e t h e y d e n i e d a l l a u t h o r i t y to o t h e r religions.
T h e y w e r e a t t i m e s p a i d b a c k i n the s a m e coin, a n d t h e i r r i g h t o f
e x i s t e n c e o n the soil o f H e l l e n i s t i c c u l t u r e w a s a c c o r d i n g l y d i s p u t e d .
Cities s o m e t i m e s a t t e m p t e d t o get r i d of these t r o u b l e s o m e i n h a b i t a n t s ;
t h e m o b w a s a l w a y s r e a d y in times of crisis t o lift i t s h a n d a g a i n s t t h e m
a n d s o m e of t h e e d u c a t e d p e o p l e d e s p i s e d a n d d e r i d e d t h e m ( c f a b o v e ,
p p . 144 f, 1 5 0 flf.). H e l l e n i s t i c J e w s t h u s lived in a c o n t i n u a l s t a t e o f
p o t e n t i a l tension w i t h t h e rest of t h e H e l l e n i s t i c w o r l d , a n d often h a d t o
t a k e m e a s u r e s in their o w n defence. A l a r g e p a r t of the w h o l e o f
H e l l e n i s t i c - J e w i s h l i t e r a t u r e t h e r e f o r e serves a p o l o g e t i c a i m s i n d e f e n c e
a g a i n s t gentile a t t a c k s , even w h e n t h e p r i m e p u r p o s e of a p a r t i c u l a r
w o r k lies i n t h e edification of a J e w i s h a u d i e n c e . H i s t o r i c a l a n d
p h i l o s o p h i c a l l i t e r a t u r e , in p a r t i c u l a r , tried to s h o w t h a t t h e J e w i s h
n a t i o n w a s a t least e q u a l to o t h e r p e o p l e s , if n o t s u p e r i o r , b e c a u s e o f t h e
l e n g t h of its history a n d t h e p u r i t y of its t e a c h i n g . T h e s e w o r k s a r e
i n d i r e c t l y a p o l o g e t i c a l ; b u t t h e r e a r e also s o m e w h i c h a t t e m p t to r e f u t e
systematically the reproaches m a d e against t h e j e w s . T h e y were evoked
b y t h e s o m e t i m e s a b s u r d fables p r o p a g a t e d by c e r t a i n G r e e k w r i t e r s
concerning the Jews, a n d in general b y the direct accusations m a d e
a g a i n s t t h e m in G r e e k a n d R o m a n l i t e r a t u r e . T h e s e a c c u s a t i o n s
o r i g i n a t e d i n E g y p t (Jos. C. Ap. i 2 5 ( 2 2 3 - 6 ) ) , a n d A l e x a n d r i a n a u t h o r s
w e r e t h e first to w r i t e a g a i n s t t h e J e w s . N o n - E g y p t i a n w r i t e r s i n t h e
H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d , s u c h as A p o U o n i o s M o l o n , a d d e d f u r t h e r libels o f
t h e i r o w n . T h e precise r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n such l i t e r a r y a n t i s e m i t i s m
a n d t h e social, e c o n o m i c a n d c u l t u r a l s t a t u s o f D i a s p o r a n J e w s is
c o m p l e x a n d n o t a l w a y s fully c l e a r . F r o m these t u r b i d w a t e r s l a t e r
w r i t e r s t h e n d r e w , p a r t i c u l a r l y T a c i t u s . I n w h a t follows, t h e l i t e r a r y
o p p o n e n t s o f J u d a i s m will first b e discussed a n d t h e n the a p o l o g e t i c
works themselves.
105. See M . Radin, The Jews among the Greeks and Romans (1915); I. H e i n e m a n n ,
'Antisemitismus', R E suppl. V (1931), cols. 3 - 4 3 ; J. N . Sevenster, The Roots of Pagan
Anti-Semitism in the Ancient World ( N T suppl. 41) (1975) ; J. L. Daniel, 'Anti-Semitism i n
the Hellenistic-Roman Period', J B L 98 (1979), p p . 45-65. See also above, p p . 144-55.
VI. Apologetics 595
/. The Literary Opponents"^

I. Manetho (cf. Jos. C. Ap. i 26-31 (22'j-8y)).
D u r i n g t h e r u l e of P t o l e m y I I P h i l a d e l p h u s ( 2 8 3 - 2 4 6 B . C . ) , t h e E g y p t i a n
priest M a n e t h o c o m p o s e d a l e a r n e d w o r k in G r e e k o n E g y p t i a n h i s t o r y ,
l)asing h i s a c c o u n t o n t h e E g y p t i a n p r i e s t l y r e c o r d s t h e m s e l v e s {C. Ap.'i
' 7 3 ) ; ibid, i 2 6 (228)). F r o m t h e s e ^ l y w T r T t a K a o f M a n e t h o , J o s e p h u s gives
ill two p l a c e s {C.Ap.'i 1 4 - 1 6 ( 7 3 - 1 0 5 ) ; i 2 6 - 7 ( 2 2 7 - 2 5 3 ) ) l o n g f r a g m e n t s ,
<iuite d i f f e r e n t in c h a r a c t e r , w i t h e x p l i c i t a t t r i b u t i o n t o M a n e t h o . T h e
p a s s a g e s in i 1 4 - 1 6 (73—105) d e a l w i t h t h e r u l e of t h e H y k s o s in E g y p t
I'rom t h e second b o o k o f t h e History of Egypt). U n i q u e l y a m o n g a n c i e n t
a u t h o r s , t h e y assert t h a t the J e w s a n d t h e H y k s o s w e r e i d e n t i c a l . T h e s e
p a s s a g e s a r e b o t h i n f o r m a t i v e a n d concise, a n d t h e r e is n o r e a s o n to
d o u b t t h a t t h e i r c o n t e n t s d o in fact d e p e n d o n t h e a n c i e n t r e c o r d s
a l t h o u g h , g i v e n t h e h k e l i h o o d t h a t J o s e p h u s f o u n d t h e s e f r a g m e n t s of
M a n e t h o in a n a b r i d g e m e n t m a d e b y a n e a r l i e r J e w i s h a p o l o g i s t , it is
()uite likely t h a t s o m e e l e m e n t s h a v e b e e n i n t e r p o l a t e d . T h e passages
ill i 26—27 ( 2 2 7 - 5 3 ) of q u i t e a n o t h e r k i n d . T h e y d o n o t set o u t t o be
a u t h e n t i c h i s t o r y b u t , a c c o r d i n g to M a n e t h o himself, g i v e c u r r e n t
l e g e n d s c o n c e r n i n g t h e J e w s (i 1 6 ( 1 0 5 ) : ' T h e a d d i t i o n a l s t a t e m e n t s
w h i c h M a n e t h o d e r i v e d n o t f r o m t h e E g y p t i a n r e c o r d s b u t , a s he
himself a d m i t s , f r o m fables o f u n k n o w n a u t h o r s h i p [IK TCDV ahcaTroTOis
livdoXoyoviievcov) . . . ' ; i 26 ( 2 2 8 - 9 ) : ' S o far h e followed t h e c h r o n i c l e s .
Kut a t this p o i n t , u n d e r t h e p r e t e x t o f r e c o r d i n g fables a n d c u r r e n t
reports a b o u t t h e J e w s , h e took t h e liberty of introducing some
i n c r e d i b l e tales {Xoyovg aTTiddvovs) . . . ' ) . H e tells t h e s t o r y h e r e of h o w
K i n g A m e n o p h i s o f E g y p t c a u s e d all t h e l e p e r s f r o m t h e w h o l e c o u n t r y ,
a total of 80,000 p e r s o n s , t o assemble i n o n e p l a c e , a n d s e n t t h e m to
w o r k i n t h e s t o n e q u a r r i e s east o f t h e N i l e . After t h e y h a d l a b o u r e d
t h e r e for a l o n g t i m e , t h e y p e t i t i o n e d t h e k i n g to assign t o t h e m A v a r i s ,
w h e r e t h e H y k s o s h a d f o r m e r l y lived, a s a p l a c e o f r e s i d e n c e . T h e king
u; r a n t e d t h e i r r e q u e s t . H o w e v e r , w h e n t h e y h a d possession o f t h e t o w n ,
t h e y d e s e r t e d t h e k i n g a n d chose as t h e i r l e a d e r the p r i e s t O s a r s i p h
f r o m Hehopolis, w h o g a v e t h e m n e w laws w h i c h especially c o m m a n d e d
106. F o r a general introduction t o Greek and Latin a u t h o r s on J e w s a n d J u d a i s m see

M . Stern, ' T h e Jews in Greek a n d L a t i n L i t e r a t u r e ' , J P F C L2, p p . 1 1 0 1 - 5 9 ; ^<'^'">
( n.AJJ I - I I L Cf. also I . H e i n e m a n n , 'Antisemitismus', R E suppl. V (1931), cols. 2 5 - 3 7 ; J .
( i . (Jager, Moses in Greco-Roman Paganism (1972); A. Momigliano, Alien Wisdom: The
I imttsof Hellenization (1975), p p . 74—122.
107. Precisely which of t h e lines quoted by J o s e p h u s contain t h e genuine views of
M a n e t h o is very difficult to decide. It w a s suggested b y Ed. Meyer that C. Ap. i 14-15
H.) 97), on the meaning of t h e word 'Hyksos', w a s largely spurious. See discussion in Ed.
Meyer, Aegyptische Chronologie (1904), pp. 71 ff.; Fraser, PA I I , pp. 7 3 0 - 2 ; Sevenster, op.
I It , |)[). 184-8.
t h e m t o w o r s h i p n o g o d s a n d to kill t h e a n i m a l s s a c r e d to E g y p t i a n s .
O s a r s i p h also s u m m o n e d the H y k s o s from J e r u s a l e m as allies, a n d w i t h
t h e i r h e l p t h e lepers d r o v e o u t K i n g A m e n o p h i s a n d r u l e d E g y p t for
t h i r t e e n y e a r s . T h e priest O s a r s i p h t h e n a d o p t e d t h e n a m e o f M o s e s .
After t h i r t e e n y e a r s , K i n g A m e n o p h i s d r o v e t h e H y k s o s a n d t h e l e p e r s
o u t of E g y p t .
E i t h e r Josephus or an i n t e r m e d i a r y source evidently r e a d this history
of t h e o r i g i n o f t h e J e w s in his text o f M a n e t h o . It h a s b e e n q u e s t i o n e d ,
h o w e v e r , w h e t h e r it o r i g i n a t e d w i t h M a n e t h o . Bousset, a m o n g o t h e r s ,
r e g a r d e d the w h o l e passage as a l a t e r i n s e r t i o n . O t h e r s h a v e a c c e p t e d
t h e m a i n s t o r y as M a n e t h o ' s b u t h a v e assigned t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of
O s a r s i p h w i t h M o s e s ( C . Ap. i 2 6 (250)) t o a n a n t i s e m i t i c i n t e r p o
l a t o r . N e i t h e r v i e w is i m p o s s i b l e , since it is likely t h a t J o s e p h u s posse
ssed diflferent recensions of M a n e t h o o r the i n t e r v e n i n g s o u r c e f r o m
w h i c h h e w o r k e d . " ° N e i t h e r , h o w e v e r , is p r o b a b l e . A n e n e m y of t h e
J e w s w h o i n t e r p o l a t e d t h e p a s s a g e l a t e r w o u l d surely n o t h a v e b e e n so
t r u t h f u l as t o i n d i c a t e e x p l i c i t l y t h a t he w a s n o t g i v ^ g a u t h e n t i c h i s t o r y
b u t o n l y ra ixvOevo/xeva Kat Xeyopeva trepl rcjv '/ouSatcov. T h e s e are t h e
w o r d s o f a r i g o r o u s s c h o l a r w h o , a s a n e n e m y of t h e J e w s , c a n n o t r e
frain f r o m g i v i n g t h e stories b u t e x p r e s s l y distinguishes t h e m a s l e g e n d s
from a u t h e n t i c history. J o s e p h u s o r his s o u r c e m u s t in a n y case h a v e
r e a d this section i n all t h e copies o f M a n e t h o k n o w n t o h i m , since h e
does not mention a n y variant v e r s i o n . ' "
Editions
Muller, C , F H G I I , p p . 512-616.
Jacoby, F G r H 609, I I I C, pp. 5-112.
Waddell, W. G . , Loeb ed. published with Ptolemy, Tetrabibtos (1940) (with English
translation).
Stern, GLAJJ I, pp. 62—86 (fragments in Josephus only, with English translation).
108. W . Bousset and H . Gressmann, Die Religion des Judentums (^1926), pp. 9 1 , 493.
109. R . Laqueur, ' M a n e t h o n ' , R E X I V (1928), col. 1071. T h i s compromise, though
not impossible since t h e sentence which contains the identification does seem ardficially
connected to the rest of the account, would not alter the intention of M a n e t h o in the rest
of the passage t o identify t h e j e w s with the lepers.
110. T h i s is suggested by t h e passage i 14 (82 ff.), where Josephus gives a long section
from M a n e t h o in which the name Hyksos is explained as 'Shepherd Kings'. Josephus
remarks about this t h a t 'in another copy' (tv dAAco avriypd.ûi) another e x p l a n a d o n
was given. A similar note (evpedrj ev erepw a.vTiypd<f>w OVTWS) is found i n a marginal gloss
in Codex Laurentianus of Josephus, i 15 (98), which m a y suggest that the phrase in i 14
(83) should similarly be ignored as the work of a copyist. However, w h e n Josephus
proffers i n i 14 (91) a n explanadon of t h e Hyksos identical to that given in the first
passage a n d introduces his statement in this latter place as being found kv OXXTJ 8e nvi
j3t)3Aa), this phrase cannot also be understood to mean ' i n another copy', which in t u r n
casts some d o u b t on the earher phrase, cf Stern GLAJJ I, p. 72.
111. I n favour of genuineness, cf Stern, G L A J J I , p. 64.
VI. Apologetics 597
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Bockh, A . , Manetho und die Hundssternperiode, ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Pharaonen (1845).
Krall, J . , 'Die Composition u n d d i e Schicksale des M a n e t h o n i s c h e n Gcschichtswerkes',
S A W 95 (1879), p p . 123-226, esp. 152-69.
Susemihl, F., Gesch. der griech. Litteratur in der Alexandrinerzeit \ (1891), p p . 608 ff.
W a c h s m u t h , C , Einleitung in das Studium der alien Geschichte (1895), pp. 333-40.
Meyer, Ed., Aegyptische Chronologie (1904; N a c h t r a g e 1907).
Weill, R . , Lflfindu moyen empire Egyptien (1918).
L a q u e u r , R., ' M a n e t h o n ' , R E X I V . i (1928), cols. 1060-1101.
Heinemann, I . , 'Antisemitismus', R E suppl. V (1931), cols. 26 ff.
Momigliano, A . , ' I n t o r n o al Contra Apione\ Rivista di Filologia n.s. 9.4 (1931), pp- 4 9 0 ff =
Quinto Contributo (1975), p p . 770 ff.
Schwartz, J., ' L e "Cycle d e Petoubastis" et les commentaires egypdens de I'Exode',
Bulledn d e I'Institut fran9ais d'Archeologie orientale 49 (1950), p p . 73 fF.
Helek, W . , Untersuchungen zu Manetho und den dgyptischen Konigslisten (1956), p p . 38 fF.
\. Yoyotte, 'L'figypte ancienne et les origines d e Pantijudaisme', R H R 163 (1963), p p .
133-43-
van Seters,J., The Hyksos (1966), p p . 121 ff.
Fraser, P A I, p p . 505-10.
On the fragments in Josephus, cf :
Miiller, J . G., Des Flavius Josephus Schrift gegen den Apion (1877), p p . 120 ff., 185 ff., 214 ff.
Krall, loc. cit.
v. Gutschmid, A., KleiruSchrijten I V (1893), pp. 4 1 9 - 6 2 .
Willrich, H., Juden und Griechen vor der makkabdischen Erhebung (1895), p p . 53—6.
Reinach, Th., Textes d'auteurs grecs et romains relatifs au Judaisme (1895) j PP- 2 0 - 3 4 .
Meyer, EA., Aegyptische Chronologie (1904), p p . 71 ff.
.Stahelin, F., Der Antisemitismus des Altertums (1905), pp. 9 ff.
l.aqueur, R., Der jud. Historiker Flavius Josephus (1920), p p . 1-6.
Laqueur, R., ' M a n e t h o n ' , R E X I V . i (1928), cols. 1064-80.
Hospers-Jansen, A. M . A., Tacitus over de Joden (1949), p . 119.
(«ager, J . G., Moses in Greco-Roman Paganism (1972), pp. 113 ff.
Stern, G L A J J I , pp. 6 2 - 5 .
Kasher, A., ' T h e p r o p a g a n d a purposes of M a n e t h o ' s libellous story about t h e base origin
of the J e w s ' , in B . O d e d et al.. Studies in the History of the Jewish People and the Land of
Israel (1974), p p . 69-84 (Heb.).
Iroiani, L., ' S u i frammenti di M a n e t o n e nel p r i m o libro del Contra Apionem d i Flavio
Giuseppe', Studi Classici e OrientaU 24 (1975), p p . 97-126.
Iroiani, L., Commento storico al 'Contro Apione' di Giuseppe (1977).
Mnaseas.
A c c o r d i n g t o J o s e p h u s , C. Ap. ii 9 (i 1 2 - 1 5 ) , A p i o n , t h e e n e m y o f t h e
jews w h o is to b e f u r t h e r d i s c u s s e d b e l o w (no. 6), took t h e following
fit t i o n from a n o l d e r author. During a w a r of the J e w s a g a i n s t t h e
hhimeans (emending the reading ' l u d a e i contra ludaeos' to T u d a e i
(ontra Idumaeos') a certain Zabidos from t h e t o w n of D o r a , where
.Apollo w a s w o r s h i p p e d , c a m e t o t h e J e w s a n d p r o m i s e d t o d e l i v e r t h e
nod t o t h e m , saying t h a t h e would c o m e t o the J e w i s h T e m p l e if they
would all s t a y a w a y . Z a b i d o s t h e n m a d e a w o o d e n s t r u c t u r e w i t h t h r e e
lows of l a m p s , a n d e n t e r e d i n s i d e it s o t h a t it l o o k e d as i f s t a r s w e r e
travelling over t h e e a r t h . The Jews in a m a z e m e n t k e p t well away.
w h e r e a t Z a b i d o s w e n t i n t o t h e T e m p l e u n h i n d e r e d a n d was able t o
t a k e a w a y t h e g o l d e n asses h e a d a n d r e t u r n w i t h it to D o r a .
D o r a is c e r t a i n l y not, a s J o s e p h u s thinks, t h e far d i s t a n t P h o e n i c i a n
D o r a , b u t t h e I d u m e a n A d o r a . I t is n o w k n o w n f r o m a G r e e k
inscription found in Egypt ( O G I S , n o . 737) t h a t t h e I d u m e a n s
w o r s h i p p e d A p o l l o i n H e l l e n i s t i c t i m e s (cf. a b o v e , vol. I I , p . 6).
T h e n a m e of t h e a u t h o r from w h o m A p i o n t o o k this story is
c o r r u p t e d in t h e L a t i n t e x t o f J o s e p h u s (theônly o n e i n w h i c h t h e
b e g i n n i n g of t h e p a s s a g e has b e e n p r e s e r v e d ) . T h e best t r a d i t i o n is
M n a f e a m , w h i c h Niese c o r r e c t l y e m e n d e d to M n a s e a s . J o s e p h u s
m e n t i o n s h i m also e l s e w h e r e a s a w r i t e r o n J e w i s h m a t t e r s (C. Ap. i 2 3
( 2 1 6 ) ) ; h e n a m e s h i m , t o o , a m o n g a u t h o r s w h o refer t o t h e flood {Ant. i
3, 6 (94)). A s s u m i n g t h a t the s a m e m a n c a n b e identified in a l l t h r e e
m e n t i o n s w i t h the M n a s e a s to w h o m t h e S u d a refers, s.v. Êparoadevrjs,
he w o u l d s e e m to h a v e c o m e from L y c i a n P a t a r a ( P . O x y . 1 6 1 1 , F 2 ,
col. I , h n e s 1 2 7 ff.) a n d , as a s t u d e n t of E r a t o s t h e n e s , will h a v e lived a t
t h e end of t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y B . C . o r t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g o f t h e s e c o n d .
H e w r o t e a m o n g s t o t h e r t h i n g s a g e o g r a p h y , i n w h i c h he d e a l t w i t h t h e
curiosities a n d objects of i n t e r e s t of i n d i v i d u a l r e g i o n s a n d places. T h e
story w h i c h A p i o n q u o t e s was p r o b a b l y p a r t of this w o r k .
Editions
Miiller, C , F H G I I I , p p . 149-58.
Stern, G L A J J I, p p . 99-100 (texts a b o u t Jews only, with Enghsh translation).
Bibliography
Willrich, H . , Juden und Griechen (1895), pp. 52 ff.

Stahelin, O . , Der Antisemitismus des Altertums (1905), p p . 14 f.
Halevy, J . , 'La visite d'Apollon au temple j u i f , R e v u e semitique 1 8 (1910), pp. 2 1 8 ff.
R a d i n , M . , The Jews among the Greeks and Romans (1915), p p . 168 ff.
H e i n e m a n n , I., 'Antisemitismus', RE suppl. v (1931), cols. 28 ff.
Gutman, Y., in Zijyunim-Simhoni Memorial Book (1929), pp. 181 ff.
Hopfner, T . , Die Judenfrage bei Griechen undRomem (1943), p p . 58 ff.
Bickermann, E., 'Ritualmord u n d Eselskult', M G W J 71 (1927), p p . 1 7 1 - 8 7 ; 255-64 =
Studies in Jewish and Christian History (1980), pp. 2 2 5 - 5 5 .
K r a p p e , A . H., "AnoXXujv'Ovos', CPh 42 (1947), p. 232.
Hospers-Jansen, A . M. A . , Tacitus over de Joden (1949), pp. 122 ff.
Tcherikover, V. A . , Hellenistic Civilization and thejews (1959), pp. 365 ff.
Neher-Bernheim, R., ' T h e hbel ofjewish ass-worship', Zion 28 (1963), p p . 106 ff. (Heb.).
Stern, G L A J J I, p p . 97-8.
J . Apollonius Molon (or Molonis).

A m o n g t h e h t e r a r y o p p o n e n t s of J u d a i s m , J o s e p h u s f r e q u e n t l y refers to
ArroXXiovios 6 MoXwv {C. Ap. h 1 4 ( 1 4 5 ) ; ii 36 (255)) or o MdAcov
ArroXXoivios (ii 36 ( 2 5 8 ) ; cf h 7 (79) : ' A p o l l o n i u m M o l o n i s ' ) w h o s e full
n a m e h e also s h o r t e n s to 'ATTOXXOJVIOS (ii 1 4 ( 1 4 5 ) ; u 3 7 (262), t w i c e ) , or
VI. Apologetics 599
o n l y MoXcov (ii 2 ( 1 6 ) ; cf. ii 3 3 (236) a n d ii 41 ( 2 9 5 ) : MoXojvcs). T h i s

a u t h o r is u n d o u b t e d l y i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e M o l o n f r o m w h o m A l e x a n d e r
P o l y h i s t o r q u o t e s a p a s s a g e (in E u s e b . Praep. ev. ix 1 9 ) . E l s e w h e r e ,
l i e q u e n t m e n t i o n is m a d e o f a n o r a t o r of t h e s a m e n a m e ( A p o l l o n i u s
M o l o n ) as t h e t e a c h e r of C i c e r o a n d C a e s a r a n d a s a w r i t e r o n
r h e t o r i c . " ^ H e is t o b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d c a r e f u l l y f r o m his o l d e r
c o n t e m p o r a r y A p o l l o n i u s w h o a l s o c a m e f r o m A l a b a n d a in C a r i a a n d
also t a u g h t r h e t o r i c a t R h o d e s , cf R E H (1896), cols. 1 4 0 - 1 , s.v.
A p o U o n i o s ' (84). I t s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n c o m m o n t h o u g h n o t u n i v e r s a l
li)r R o m a n w r i t e r s to m a k e t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b y r e f e r r i n g t o J o s e p h u s '
a u t h o r by t h e n a m e ' M o l o n ' a l o n e , S t r a b o , xiv 2 , 13 (655) ; 26 ( 6 6 1 ) .
.Molon c a m e to R o m e as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e R h o d i a n s d u r i n g t h e
d i c t a t o r s h i p of S u l l a ( 8 2 - 8 1 B . C ) , a n d C i c e r o h e a r d h i m t h e r e ; l a t e r
C i c e r o visited h i m in R h o d e s . H e w a s n o t o n l y a t e a c h e r of r h e t o r i c a n d
a r h e t o r i c a l w r i t e r , b u t , as w a s c o m m o n f o r r h e t o r i c a l e x p e r t s i n t h e
R o m a n e m p i r e , a l s o a p r a c t i c a l p o h t i c i a n a n d p l e a d e r . " ^ H i s full n a m e
w a s ATTOXXCOVIOS 6 TOV MOXCOVOS ( P l u t a r c h , Cicero 4, Caesar 3 ; J o s . C. Ap.
" 7 ( 7 9 ) - ' A p o l l o n i u m M o l o n i s ' ) , o r also 'AnoXXcovtos 6 MoXutv, in
w h i c h , in i m i t a t i o n of L a t i n n o m e n c l a t u r e , h e p l a c e d h i s f a t h e r ' s n a m e
n e x t t o his o w n , f o l l o w i n g a c u s t o m of w h i c h o t h e r e x a m p l e s h a v e b e e n
found. " 4
For a n o r a t o r l i v i n g i n C a r i a o r R h o d e s a t t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e first
< e n t u r y B . C . t h e r e w a s a m p l e r e a s o n for w r i t i n g a p o l e m i c a l w o r k a g a i n s t
the Jews. T h e r e were already m a n y J e w s there during the second
I e n t u r y B . C . " ^ T h e w r i t i n g of A p o l l o n i u s w a s a avoKev^ Kara 'lovSalcov
a c c o r d i n g t o E u s e b i u s , Praep. ev. i x 1 9 . I t is likely t h a t t h e d e s c r i p t i o n
reflects E u s e b i u s ' u s a g e r a t h e r t h a n t h a t of h i s s o u r c e , A l e x a n d e r
Polyhistor. T h e w o r d avaKevq u s u a l l y m e a n s ' s n a r e ' , c f E u s e b . Hist,
fccl. vi 9, 4 ; X 8, 5 a n d 7, b u t is h e r e t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e field o f l i t e r a t u r e
to m e a n ' a t t a c k ' or 'polemics'. T h u s the work did n o t m e r e l y deal
o c c a s i o n a l l y w i t h t h e J e w s , like M a n e t h o ' s History of Egypt, b u t
exclusively. A c c o r d i n g t o J o s e p h u s , A p o l l o n i u s , ' u n l i k e A p i o n , h a s n o t
w'i. Quintilian, Inst, xii 6, 7. Suetonius, Caesar 4. Quintilian, Inst, iii i , 16.
I'liocbammon in Rhetores graeci, e d . Walz, V I I I , p . 4 9 4 ( h e r e : 'ATTOXXWVIOS 6 eTri/cArjfleis
MoXujv). In Plutarch, Cicero 4, Caesar 3, t h e same teacher of Cicero a n d Caesar is called
'AnoXXcovios o TOV MoXwvos, for Josephus also h a s Apollonius Molonis in o n e passage (C.
•^P ii 7 (79))-
113. Cicero, Brutus, 87, 312, 3 1 6 ; cf 245, Ad Atticum ii i, 9. Cicero refers t h r o u g h o u t t o
lus teacher as ' M o l o n ' . I n contrast Quintilian, i n describing Cicero's visit t o R h o d e s , calls
biiii 'Apollonius M o l o n ' {Inst, xii 6, 7).
114. H . Diels, Doxographi Graeci (^ 1929), p . 86.
115. Cf I M a c . 15:16-24, a n d on this, above, p. 4. i M a c . 15:16-24 assumes that
Jews lived in the C a r i a n towns of Myndos, HaHcarnassus, and C n i d u s , and o n the
luighbouring islands of Cos and R h o d e s . O n HaHcarnassus, cf also above, pp. 25, 117
Jos. Ant. xiv 10, 23 (256) ; J . J u s t e r , Les Juifs dans I'Empire romain I (1914), p . 191).
6oo §33A. Jewish Literature Composed in Greek
g r o u p e d h i s a c c u s a t i o n s t o g e t h e r b u t s c a t t e r e d t h e m h e r e a n d t h e r e all
over his w o r k ' (C. Ap. ii 1 4 (148)). P r e s u m a b l y , t h e r e f o r e , this w r i t i n g
was not e n t i r e l y p o l e m i c a l , b u t o n l y c o m b i n e d its p o l e m i c a l i n v e c t i v e
w i t h o t h e r s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t t h e J e w s . T h i s is c o n f i r m e d b y t h e fact t h a t
the f r a g m e n t i n A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r (in E u s e b . Praep. ev. ix 19) gives
objectively t h e g e n e a l o g y of t h e J e w s from the flood u n t i l M o s e s . F r o m
J o s e p h u s ' i n d i c a t i o n s it e m e r g e s t h a t t h e history of the e x o d u s from
E g y p t w a s a l s o discussed (C. Ap. ii 2 (8 ff.)) a n d t h a t t h e w o r k
c o n t a i n e d ' u n j u s t a n d u n t r u e r e p o r t s a b o u t o u r L a w g i v e r M o s e s ' (ii 1 4
( 1 4 5 ) ) . I t a p p e a r s , t o o , t h a t A p o l l o n i u s r e p r o a c h e d t h e J e w s for ' n o t
w o r s h i p p i n g t h e s a m e g o d s as o t h e r p e o p l e ' (ii 7 (79)), for refusing
fellowship w i t h persons h a v i n g d i f f e r e n t i d e a s a b o u t G o d (ii 36 (258)),
for t h e r e f o r e b e i n g atheists a n d m i s a n t h r o p e s , besides b e i n g c o w a r d l y a t
s o m e t i m e s a n d reckless a t o t h e r s . H e accused t h e m of b e i n g t h e m o s t
i n c o m p e t e n t a m o n g the b a r b a r i a n s , w h o a c c o m p l i s h e d n o t h i n g for t h e
g e n e r a l c u l t u r e (ii 14 (148)).
J o s e p h u s for his p a r t r e p a y s A p o l l o n i u s i n k i n d , r e p r o a c h i n g h i m for
a gross l a c k of u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a r r o g a n c e , a n d i m m o r a l c o n d u c t (ii 3 6
( 2 5 5 ) ; 37 ( 2 7 0 ) -
Editions
Miiller, C , F H G I I I , pp. 208 ff.
Jacoby, F G r H 728, I I I C, pp. 687-9.
Stern, G L A J J I, p p . 150-6 (with English translation).
Bibliography
Reinach, T h . , Textes d'auteurs grecs et romains relatifs au Judaisme (1895), pp. 60-4.
Brzoska,J., 'ApoUonios (85)', R E II. i (1896), cols. 141-4.
Radin, M., The Jews among the Greeks and Romans (igi^), pp. 198 ff.
Portalupi, F . , Sulla corrente rodiese (1957), p p . 16 ff.
Kennedy, G. A., The Art of Persuasion in Greece (1963), p p . 326 ff.
Davies, J. C., 'Melon's influence on Cicero', CQ,n.s. 18 (1968), pp. 3 0 3 - 1 4 .
Kennedy, G. A., The Art of Rhetoric in the Roman World (1972), pp. 104-5, '55> 285.
Stern, G L A J J I, p p . 148-9.
4. Lysimachus (cf. Josephus, C. Ap. i34-3j (304-20)).

T h e f r a g m e n t q u o t e d b y J o s e p h u s from the w r i t i n g o f a c e r t a i n
L y s i m a c h u s relates t o the e x o d u s of t h e J e w s from E g y p t a n d r e c o u n t s
fables similar t o , b u t n o t a p p a r e n t l y d e r i v e d from, t h o s e of M a n e t h o . A
few o t h e r i n c i d e n t a l notices f r o m L y s i m a c h u s i n J o s e p h u s also refer t o
the s a m e fact ( C Ap. ii 2 ( 1 6 ) , ( 2 0 ) ; 1 4 (145)). H e w a s p r o b a b l y e a r l i e r
t h a n A p i o n since t h e l a t t e r is s t a t e d by J o s e p h u s , C. Ap. ii 2 (20), t o
h a v e guessed t h e s a m e figure o f exiles f r o m E g y p t as L y s i m a c h u s h a d
d o n e ; b u t otherwise the fragments i n Josephus do n o t give a n y clear
i n d i c a t i o n of d a t e . D e s p i t e the i d i o s y n c r a s i e s of L y s i m a c h u s ' version o f
VI. Apologetics 601
t h e e x o d u s , his ideas a r e sufficiently close t o t h o s e of M a n e t h o for t h e

a s s u m p t i o n to b e r e a s o n a b l e t h a t he w a s a n E g y p t i a n , a n d t h e r e is
explicit, though not entirely trustworthy evidence t h a t the fragments
w e r e t a k e n from a w o r k w h i c h w a s p r o b a b l y a ' H i s t o r y o f E g y p t ' .
T w o w o r k s b y an a u t h o r n a m e d L y s i m a c h u s a r e f r e q u e n t l y cited
e l s e w h e r e i n a n c i e n t l i t e r a t u r e : Theban Paradoxes a n d NOOTOI ('Return
J o u r n e y s ' , i.e. of t h e G r e e k h e r o e s from T r o y ) . S i n c e t h e a u t h o r o f t h e
NooToi was a n A l e x a n d r i a n , a n d lived a t s o m e t i m e b e t w e e n c. 175 B . C .
a n d t h e e a r l y i m p e r i a l p e r i o d , he m a y b e i d e n t i c a l w i t h this
L y s i m a c h u s , b u t c e r t a i n t y is n o t p o s s i b l e . " ^
Editions
Miiller, C , F H G I I I , pp. 334-42 (Fragments from J o s e p h u s , T h e b a n P a r a d o x e s and
Nooroi).
J a c o b y , F G r H 382 ( T h e b a n Paradoxes and NOOTOI); F G r H 621 ( F r a g m e n t s from
Josephus).
Stern, GLAJJ I, pp. 383-8 (Fragments from Josephus, w i t h English translation).
Bibliography
G u d e m a n n , 'Lysimachus (20)', R E X I V . i (1928), cols. 3 2 - 9 .
Fraser, P A II, p p . 1092-3.
5 . Chaeremon (cf. Josephus, C. Ap. i 32-33 (288-303) ).

T h e f r a g m e n t from C h a e r e m o n also r e l a t e s t o t h e e x o d u s o f t h e J e w s
f r o m E g y p t a n d a s far a s its c o n t e n t s is c o n c e r n e d is closer to M a n e t h o ' s
a c c o u n t t h a n t o t h a t of L y s i m a c h u s , t h o u g h it also is p a r t l y
i n d e p e n d e n t . S u c h stories p r o b a b l y c i r c u l a t e d g e n e r a l l y in E g y p t , as
t h e a p p e a r a n c e of a similar a n t i s e m i t i c a c c o u n t in a n u n d a t e d p r o p h e c y
a b o u t E g y p t preserved in a p a p y r u s of t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y A . D . s e e m s to
i n d i c a t e ( C P J H I , n o . 5 2 0 ; cf. S t e r n , G L A J J I , p . 4 2 0 ) . It m a y e v e n b e t h a t
a n o l d e r E g y p t i a n t r a d i t i o n a b o u t the e x p u l s i o n o f a defiled p e o p l e was
o n l y t r a n s f e r r e d t o the J e w s a t a l a t e r s t a g e , c f t h e c o m m e n t s of H . - R .
S c h w y z e r , Chaeremon ( 1 9 3 2 ) , p p . 5 7 ff., a b o u t t h e a p p a r e n t i n t r o d u c t i o n
o f M o s e s a n d J o s e p h i n t o C h a e r e m o n ' s t e x t o n l y a s glosses o n t h e E g y p
t i a n n a m e s of t h e l e a d e r s of the e x o d u s . A t a n y r a t e , i n t h i s c a s e J o s
e p h u s says explicitly t h a t t h e f r a g m e n t w a s t a k e n f r o m t h e Egyptian His
tory of C h a e r e m o n (C. Ap. i 3 2 (288)).
T h i s C h a e r e m o n is also k n o w n e l s e w h e r e as a w r i t e r o n E g y p t i a n
116. Cosmas Indicopleustes, Topograph, christ., lib. xii 4, p . 327 (Winstedt) (ed. W.
Wolska-Conus, SC 197, 1973); but Cosmas is n o t rehable h e r e since he includes a m o n g
authors of Egypdan histories not only Lysimachus b u t also, implausibly, Apollonius
Molon, for whom no connection with Egypt can b e traced.
117. I n favour of t h e identity of the two authors, see A . G u d e m a n , 'Lysimachus (20)',
R E X I V (1928), cols. 3 2 - 9 ; Fraser, P A II, p p . 1092-3. Against identity cf J a c o b y ,
F G r H 382 and 621.
6o2 § 3 3 ^ . Jewish Literature Composed in Greek
m a t t e r s , p r i m a r i l y t h r o u g h t h e w r i t i n g s of P o r p h y r y . I n P o r p h y r y ' s
l e t t e r to t h e E g y p t i a n A n e b o n , from w h i c h E u s e b i u s , Praep. ev. iii 4 a n d
V 1 0 , i n c l u d e s t w o e x t r a c t s ( P o r p h y r y , Epist. ad Anebonem ii 1 2 - 1 3 a n d
8-9, ed. S o d a n o ) , t w o p a s s a g e s are cited from C h a e r e m o n r e l a t i n g t o
E g y p d a n m y t h o l o g y a n d t h e o l o g y , e x p l a i n i n g E g y p d a n divinities a s
referring t o p h y s i c a l t h i n g s s u c h as t h e s u n a n d m o o n . I n the s e c o n d
p a s s a g e ( E u s e b . v 1 0 , 5 ) , P o r p h y r y describes C h a e r e m o n as a s a c r e d
scribe {lepoypafifiarevs). I n t h e s u r v i v i n g w r i t i n g s of P o r p h y r y {De
abstinentia iv 6 - 8 ) , a d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n of the life of E g y p t i a n priests is
d e r i v e d f r o m C h a e r e m o n , i n t r o d u c e d w i t h the w o r d s : ' C h a e r e m o n t h e
S t o i c m e n t i o n s in his d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e E g y p t i a n priests, w h o , h e says,
w e r e c o n s i d e r e d also as p h i l o s o p h e r s a m o n g t h e E g y p t i a n s , t h a t t h e y
chose t h e s a n c t u a r i e s as t h e p l a c e t o p h i l o s o p h i z e . . . T h e y d e s p i s e d
e v e r y o t h e r o c c u p a t i o n a n d h u m a n p u r s u i t a n d d e v o t e d t h e i r w h o l e life
to t h e c o n t e m p l a t i o n of d i v i n e t h i n g s e t c . ' " ^ At t h e e n d of this a c c o u n t .
P o r p h y r y defines C h a e r e m o n as a t r u t h - l o v i n g , t r u s t w o r t h y , a n d
i n t e l l i g e n t Stoic p h i l o s o p h e r (iv 8Jin.). All these p a s s a g e s m a y well h a v e
b e e n p a r t of a n ' E g y p t i a n H i s t o r y ' a l t h o u g h , g i v e n the l a c k o f b o o k
title, a n o t h e r w o r k by C h a e r e m o n is p o s s i b l e . I n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e
E g y p t i a n a t t i t u d e t o a s t r o l o g y d e r i v e d from C h a e r e m o n by PseUus
{noaa yevrj, p p . 4 4 3 - 4 , K u r t z a n d D r e x l = J a c o b y , F G r H 6 1 8 , F 7 )
p r e s u m a b l y c a m e from the same source.
However, t h e s a m e C h a e r e m o n also wrote a work dealing with t h e
m e a n i n g of h i e r o g l y p h i c s {8i8dyp,aTa TCOV lepwv ypappLdnov). This
b e c a m e v e r y i n f l u e n t i a l in late a n t i q u i t y . T h e B y z a n t i n e w r i t e r T z e t z e s
cites s o m e t h i n g of i t in h i s h i s t o r i c a l w o r k {Chil., 5 , 395 = J a c o b y ,
F G r H 6 1 8 , F 3 ) a n d i n his c o m m e n t a r y o n the Iliad {Exeg. Iliad, p . 1 4 6
( H e r m a n n ) = F G r H 618, T6). Tzetzes, too, designates C h a e r e m o n a
s a c r e d scribe {Upoypap,p,aT€vs) a n d says t h a t i n C h a e r e m o n ' s o p i n i o n
the h i e r o g l y p h i c s e x h i b i t a l l e g o r i c a l l y t h e ^vaiKos Xoyos of t h e g o d s ,
t h e i r physical m e a n i n g . T h i s a l s o c h a r a c t e r i z e s C h a e r e m o n as a S t o i c .
T h e r e c a n t h u s b e n o d o u b t t h a t this Upoypap,p,ar€vs was identical with
the C h a e r e m o n called s i m p l y SroyiKos in a few o t h e r c i t a t i o n s (e.g. i n
O r i g e n , Contra Cels. i 59, w h e r e a b o o k o n c o m e t s is a t t r i b u t e d t o h i m ;
A p o l l o n i u s D y s c o l u s , De coniunctionibus 6, w h e r e g r a m m a t i c a l t e c h n i c a l
ities are q u o t e d i n his n a m e , p r e s u m a b l y f r o m a n u n k n o w n
g r a m m a t i c a l t r e a t i s e ; P o r p h y r y , q u o t e d in E u s e b i u s , Hist. eccl. vi 19, 8 ) .
118. T h e description does not refer t o all E g y p d a n priests but, as indicated in iv, 8,
only to the elite a m o n g them, t h e Trpo^^rai, iepoaroXiarai, lepoypafXnaTeis and <LpoX6yoi.
Cf discussion in P . W. van d e r Horst, Chaeremon: Egyptian Priest and Stoic Philosopher
(1984), pp. 6 0 - 1 . J e r o m e , Adv. Jovinian ii 13 (ed. E. Bickel, Diatribe in Senecae philosophi
fragmenta I (1915), p p . 415-16), is an epitome of this passage in Porphyry except when h e
quotes v e r b a d m Chaeremon's statement, which does not a p p e a r in Porphyry, t h a t
Egyptian priests regard eggs as liquid m e a t , cf van d e r Horst, op. cit., p. 61.
VI. Apologetics 603
He was for this r e a s o n a figure c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of his a g e , a n

E g y p t i a n priest a n d a t t h e s a m e t i m e a S t o i c p h i l o s o p h e r .
S i n c e h e w a s t h e t e a c h e r of N e r o , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e S u d a (s.v.
AXcâvSpos Aiyaios), a n d a l s o t h e t e a c h e r a n d p r e d e c e s s o r of
Dionysius of A l e x a n d r i a , w h o l i v e d f r o m N e r o u n t i l T r a j a n (s.v.
Aiovvaios 'AXeâvSpevs), h e m u s t b e p l a c e d t o w a r d s the m i d d l e of t h e
first c e n t u r y A . D . H e m a y well b e i d e n t i c a l w i t h the C h a e r e m o n son of
L e o n i d a s w h o a p p e a r e d b e f o r e the E m p e r o r C l a u d i u s , p r e s u m a b l y i n
the s a m e sort o f q u a r r e l w i t h t h e J e w s t h a t A p i o n h a d c o n d u c t e d in t h e
t i m e of C a l i g u l a ( C P J II, n o . 1 5 3 ) . " ^ A c c o r d i n g t o the S u d a , h e w a s
D i o n y s i u s ' p r e d e c e s s o r i n t h e office of l i b r a r i a n i n A l e x a n d r i a a n d
p e r h a p s also k e e p e r of t h e A l e x a n d r i a n M u s e u m . A t a n y r a t e , h e
( a n n o t b e i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e C h a e r e m o n m e n t i o n e d by S t r a b o (xvii i ,
•2[), p . 806) a s the c o n t e m p o r a r y o f A e l i u s G a l l u s u n d e r A u g u s t u s .
Besides, t h e l a t t e r is d e s c r i b e d a s s o m e o n e w h o m a d e himself r i d i c u l o u s
by h i s o s t e n t a t i o n a n d i g n o r a n c e , w h i c h d o e s n o t fit the d e s c r i p t i o n of
tbe p h i l o s o p h e r . T h i s e a r l i e r C h a e r e m o n m a y w e l l h a v e b e e n h i s
g r a n d f a t h e r . T h e n a m e C h a e r e m o n is v e r y f r e q u e n t in E g y p t i a n
• 121
papyri.
Editions
.\luller, C , F H G I I I , pp. 4 9 5 - 9 (lacking the material in Tzetzes a n d Psellus).
S( hwyzer, H.-R., Chairemon (1932) (with c o m m e n t a r y ) .
|a( oby, F G r H 618, III C, pp. 145-53.
Sicrn, G L A J J I, p p . 419-21 (the fragments from Josephus only).
\.in d e r Horst, P. W., Chaeremon : Egyptian Priest and Stoic Philosopher (1984) (with English
translation, a n d detailed c o m m e n t a r y ) .
Bibliography
8ii( h , S., ' O n the Lost Book of C h a e r e m o n o n Hieroglyphics', Transactions of t h e R o y a l
Society of Literature, 2nd series, vol. 3 (1850), p p . 385—96.
licrriays,J., Theophrastos Schrift Uber Frommigkeit (1866), pp. 21 ff, i5off.
/(•Her, E., 'Die Hieroglyphiker C h a r e m o n und HorapoUo', H e r m e s 11 (1876), p p . 430—3.
Muller, J . G., Das Flavius Josephus Schrift gegen den Apion (1877), PP- 203-5.
S< hwartz, E . , 'Chaeremon'(7)', R E I I L 2 (1899), cols. 2025-7.
\N (-ill, R., La fin du moyen empire igyptien (1918), p p . 104—11.
I h n i c m a n n , I., 'Antisemitismus', R E suppl. V (1931), col. 27.
11<). H. I . Bell, Jews and Christians in Egypt (1924), p. 2 3 ; H. Stuart-Jones, ' C l a u d i u s

.111(1 the Jewish Question at Alexandria', J R S 16 (1926), p. 18; J . Vergote, ' C l e m e n t
il AU'xandrie et I'ecriture e g y d e n n e ' , Le M u s e o n 52 (1939), p . 220. Cf. Hterature cited in C P J
II, p p . 36 f
120. For succession to the directorship of the M o u s e i o n as t h e import of the S u d a
p.issage, sec E. Schwartz, R E I I I (1899), 2025 f.; contra, W. O t t o , Priester und Tempel
I'll hellenistischen Agypten I (1905; repr. 1971), p. 199. Cf. H . - R . Schwyzer, Chaeremon
11)32), p. I I .
121. Cf F . Preisigke, Namenbuch (1922), col. 4 7 0 ; D. Foraboschi, Onomasticon Alterum
I'lipwologicum (1967-71), p . 338.
6o4 §33A- Jewish Literature Composed in Greek
Schwyzer, H.-R., Chairemon (1932).

Wendel, C , ' Z u m Hieroglyphen-Buche Chairemons', Hermes 75 (1940), pp. 227-9.
de Liagre Bohl, C . M. T . , Opera Minora (1953), p. i n .
S t r a t h m a n n , H., 'Chairemon', R A C I I (1959), cols. 990-2.
Stern, M., 'An Egyptian-Greek Prophecy a n d the Tradition a b o u t the Expulsion of the
Jews from Egypt in the History of C h a e r e m o n ' , Zion 28 (1963), pp. 223-8 (Heb.).
R o t h , L, ' C h a e r e m o n ' , E n c . J u d . V (1971), cols. 317-8.
Gager, J . G., Moses in Greco-Roman Paganism (1972), p p . 120 ff.
Fraser, P A II, p p . 1107-8.
van der Horst, P . W., ' C h a e r e m o n , Egyptisch priester en antisemitisch Stoicijn uit de tijd
v a n h e t N i e u w e T e s t a m e n t ' , Nederlands TheologischTijdschrift 35 (1981), p p . 265-72.
van der Horst, P . W., ' T h e W a y of Life of t h e Egyptian Priests According to C h a e r e m o n ' ,
in M . H e e r m a van Voss et al., eds.. Studies in Egyptian Religion Dedicated to Prof. Jan
Zandee (1982), pp. 61-71.
van der Horst, P. W., Chaeremon : Egyptian Priest and Stoic Philosopher (1984).
6. Apion (cf. Josephus, C. Ap. ii 1-13 (1-144) )•

The grammarian Apion was an older contemporary and countryman of
Chaeremon who disdnguished himself among all the opponents of the
Jews by the depth of his hatred, and was therefore treated with
pardcular bitterness by Josephus. His nickname was VlmW o
nX€iaToviKr)s or /JAcioTovei/oys'.'^^ The Suda claims that flXeioToviKTjs
was the name of his father (s.v. 'ATTLOJV 6 FIXeiaroviKov), which he
accordingly used as surname, but Julius Africanus (in Euseb. Praep. ev.
X 10, 1 6 ; and in Syncellus, ed. Dindorf, I, pp. 120 and 2 8 1 ) , and after
him Ps.-Justin, Cohortatio ad Graecos 9, give the father's name as

rioaeihdivi.o's. This may be a corruption from nXeiarovLKTjs, but
otherwise it must be assumed that the Suda is incorrect and that
nXeioToviKris ('victor in many contests'), or some similar word, was a
nickname.'^^
According to Josephus, C. Ap. h 3 (29), Apion, born in the Egyptian
oasis—in Upper Egypt, west of Thebes—was not the Alexandrian he
122. Clement of Alexandria, Strom, i 21, l o i ( = Eusebius, Praep. ev. x 12, 2 ) : 'Arriwv
Tolvw 6 YpoLfifiaTiKos 6 nXfiaToviKTfs iTriKXrjdeis. Cf Clement of R o m e , Homil. iv 6 ; Pliny,
Hist. Mat. xxxvii 5, 75; Gellius, Mod. Att. v 1 4 ; vi 8. The adjective •nXuaToviKr]s is attested
on inscriptions, see e.g. L. Moretti, Iscrizioni agonistiche greche (1953), p. 285. H . Jacobson,
'Apion's n i c k n a m e ' , A J P h 98 (1977), pp. 413-15, suggests t h a t the original nickname
was TrXfiaTovfiKrjs, 'quarrelsome', a n d was therefore a pejorative p u n on the m o r e
common description irAciaroviVrj?. T h e r e is not in fact any evidence that Apion was
'victor in m a n y contests'.
123. T h e inscription on the M e m n o n statue near T h e b e s : Awicuv HXeiarov (...) ijKovaa
Tpi's (Dittenberger, O G I S , no. 662 = A. a n d E. Bernand, Les inscriptions grecques et latines
du Colosse de Memnon (i960), p. 165) m a y refer to o u r Apion. T h e missing letters
unfortunately m a k e it uncertain whether nXeiarov (...) refers to Apion's father or his
nickname, but completion of the word as vXeiaTovLKrjs is certainly possible, cf
Dittenberger, ad loc. Even so, however, t h e inscription may refer to a different, less
illustrious Apion since the graffiti o n the Colossus mostly date after A . D . 65, by which
time Apion was dead, cf. Jacobson, art. cit., p . 413.
VI. Apologetics 605
(I a i m e d t o be. O n l y a f t e r w a r d s did h e receive t h e r i g h t s of A l e x a n d r i a n

c i t i z e n s h i p a n d m a k e a n a m e for h i m s e l f in A l e x a n d r i a as a
g r a m m a r i a n . ' ^ " ^ H e also t a u g h t for a w h i l e in R o m e d u r i n g t h e t i m e of
Tiberius a n d C l a u d i u s ( S u d a , s.v. 'ATTIWV). D u r i n g t h e t i m e of
C a l i g u l a he t r a v e l l e d t h r o u g h o u t G r e e c e a s a n i t i n e r a n t o r a t o r ,
l e c t u r i n g o n H o m e r ( S e n e c a , Epist., 8 8 ) . I t w a s e q u a l l y u n d e r C a l i g u l a
t h a t he c a m e t o R o m e a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e A l e x a n d r i a n s on t h e
occasion of t h e i r b l o o d y conflict w i t h t h e J e w s (Jos. Ant. xviii 8
( 2 5 7 - 9 ) ) . J o s e p h u s w r i t e s t h a t h e d i e d of g a n g r e n e w h i c h set i n after a
t h e r a p e u t i c c i r c u m c i s i o n m a d e necessary b y u l c e r s o n t h e g e n i t a l s ( C
/I/), i i i 3 ( 1 4 3 ) ) .
A p i o n w a s a p o p u l a r w r i t e r ( A u l u s G e l l i u s , Nodes Atticae V 1 4 , 2 :
'libri n o n i n c e l e b r e s ' ) , b u t is d e s c r i b e d a s r i d i c u l o u s l y v a i n . H e s t a t e d
without e m b a r r a s s m e n t t h a t those to w h o m he d i r e c t e d a w r i t i n g would
become immortal ( P l i n y , N.H., praef. 2 5 ) , a n d congratulated
A l e x a n d r i a on h a v i n g a citizen like h i m s e l f (C. Ap. ii 1 2 ( 1 3 5 ) ) .
A p i o n w a s t h e a u t h o r o f a v a r i e t y of w o r k s . His s t u d i e s o n H o m e r
( c o m m e n t a r i e s a n d a d i c t i o n a r y ) a p p e a r to h a v e b e e n best k n o w n .
H e r e we a r e o n l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h his Egyptian history {AlyvirrLaKo),
w h i c h c o m p r i s e d five b o o k s a c c o r d i n g t o T a t i a n , o f w h i c h J o s e p h u s
q u o t e s t h e t h i r d , T a t i a n a n d h i s successors t h e f o u r t h , a n d Gellius t h e
fifth.'^^ T h i s E g y p t i a n h i s t o r y e v i d e n t l y c o n t a i n e d all t h e p o l e m i c a l
invective a g a i n s t t h e J e w s to w h i c h J o s e p h u s replies (C. Ap. ii 1 - 1 3
( 1 - 1 4 4 ) ) . J o s e p h u s a s s e r t s a t t h e o u t s e t of his d i s c u s s i o n t h a t it w a s n o t
easy to s u m m a r i z e A p i o n ' s a r g u m e n t b e c a u s e h e h a d a d v a n c e d
e v e r y t h i n g in t h e g r e a t e s t d i s o r d e r . T h r e e p o i n t s c o u l d n o n e t h e l e s s b e
d i s t i n g u i s h e d : ( i ) t h e f a n t a s t i c stories c o n c e r n i n g t h e e x o d u s of t h e
j e w s f r o m E g y p t ; (2) t h e m a l i c i o u s a s s e r t i o n s i n r e g a r d to t h e
A l e x a n d r i a n J e w s ; a n d (3) the a c c u s a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g w o r s h i p a n d l e g a l
c u s t o m s . J o s e p h u s s a y s of t h e l a t t e r t h a t t h e y a p p e a r m i x e d u p w i t h t h e
first t w o c a t e g o r i e s (ii i (7)). I t is c l e a r t h e r e f o r e t h a t t h e r e w a s o n l y
one a r g u m e n t {Xoyos) of A p i o n w h i c h c o n t a i n e d all these c h a r g e s , a n d
124. There is no reason to d o u b t Josephus' references to Apion's origin a n d to take h i m

for a native Alexandrian; contra H. Willrich, Juden und Griechen vor der Makkabdischen
Erhebung (1895), p p . 172-6; idem, Klio 3 (1903), p. 413, n. 2. T h e r e is n o contradiction
between him and A t h e n a e u s i 29, p. 16 F = J a c o b y , F G r H 616, T 4b, where Apion is
called 'AXeâvSpevs. This is entirely explicable as a reference to t h e fact that h e lived in
Alexandria, cf I. Levy, R E J 41 (1900), p p . 188 ff.
125. Reference t o the third book is i n Josephus, C. Ap. ii 2 (10). T h e r e are n u m e r o u s
specific references t o the fourth book in other authors besides T a d a n , Or. ad Graecos 38 =
Eusebius, Praep. ev. x 11, 14 ( = J a c o b y , F G r H , 616, T i i a ) ; cf Clement of Alexandria,
.Strom, i l o i , 3 (Jacoby, F G r H , 616, T i ib) = Eusebius, Praep. ev. x 12, 2 (Jacoby, F 2b) ;
Julius Africanus in Eusebius, Praep. ev. x 10, 16 = Pseudo-Justin, Cohortatio ad Graecos 9
J a c o b y , T i ic). Reference to t h e fifth book is found in Aulus Gellius, Jôctes Atticae vi
(vii) 8 (Jacoby, F 6).
6o6 §33 A. Jewish Literature Composed in Greek
t h a t J o s e p h u s d i v i d e d it into t h r e e classes s i m p l y for the sake of o r d e r .

H a v i n g t h e n d e a l t successively w i t h t h e s e t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s — ( C . Ap. ii
2 - 3 ( 8 - 3 2 ) relates t o t h e first; ii 4 - 6 (33—78) t o the s e c o n d ; a n d ii 7—13
( 7 9 - 1 4 4 ) to t h e t h i r d ) — h e leaves A p i o n a n d b e g i n s the positive
p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e M o s a i c L a w . A t t h e start, he i n c i d e n t a l l y t o u c h e s
once m o r e on Apion, saying of h i m that he h a d h e a p e d his accusations
t o g e t h e r (ii 1 4 (148)), i n c o n t r a s t t o A p o l l o n i u s M o l o n , w h o s e p o l e m i c s
p e r v a d e d his w h o l e w o r k . T h e r e c a n b e h t t l e d o u b t , therefore, t h a t
J o s e p h u s ' a r g u m e n t refers to o n l y o n e o f A p i o n ' s w r i t i n g s , a n d i n d e e d
o n l y to o n e s e c t i o n ' o f o n e o f his l a r g e r w o r k s . T h i s , as J o s e p h u s s a y s
e x p h c i t l y (ii 2 , (10)), w a s t h e E g y p t i a n h i s t o r y . I n i t A p i o n a p p e a r s to
h a v e t a k e n t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o give a hostile a c c o u n t of the e x o d u s of
t h e j e w s from E g y p t , as T a c i t u s d i d l a t e r in his Histories {Hist, v 1 - 1 2 ) .
A c c o r d i n g l y , m e n d o n by C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a a n d l a t e r C h r i s t i a n
w r i t e r s of a s p e c i a l w o r k of A p i o n , KOTO. 'lovSaiojv, rests solely on a n
i n c o r r e c t c o n c l u s i o n d r a w n from J o s e p h u s . T h e v e r y fact t h a t h e is
silent a b o u t i t suggests t h a t s u c h a w o r k n e v e r existed, a n d i t is c l e a r
t h a t t h e s e C h u r c h w r i t e r s h a d n o d i r e c t k n o w l e d g e of it. I n t h e p a s s a g e
w h e r e h e a l l u d e s t o it {Strom, i 2 1 , l o i ) , C l e m e n t o f A l e x a n d r i a m e r e l y
copies T a t i a n {Oratio ad Graecos 3 8 ) , a n d T a t i a n in t u r n m e r e l y q u o t e s
A p i o n ' s E g y p t i a n h i s t o r y . All s u b s e q u e n t w r i t e r s w h o p u r p o r t to k n o w
s o m e t h i n g a b o u t a w o r k of A p i o n entitled ' A g a i n s t t h e J e w s ' , a g a i n
d r e w o n l y o n C l e m e n t o r on J o s e p h u s .
T h e m e n t i o n of A p i o n ' s alleged w o r k Kara VouSaitov w a s i n t r o d u c e d
s i m p l y a s a r e f e r e n c e by C l e m e n t , Strom, i 2 1 , l o i , w h i l e for t h e rest h e
m e r e l y q u o t e s , like T a t i a n , A p i o n ' s E g y p t i a n h i s t o r y as s o u r c e for t h e
s t a t e m e n t t h a t Amosis r e i g n e d d u r i n g t h e t i m e of I n a c h o s {ibid.).]\x\hi%
A f r i c a n u s , h o w e v e r , in E u s e b . Praep. ev. ix 1 0 , 16 a n d Syncellus, e d .
D i n d o r f , I, p p . 1 2 0 , 2 8 1 , v e n t u r e s to assert o n t h e basis of C l e m e n t ' s
p a s s a g e t h a t this s t a t e m e n t w a s f o u n d in b o t h of t h e alleged w r i t i n g s of
A p i o n . A t t h e s a m e t i m e h e d r a w s i n M o s e s a s well, w h o is n o t
m e n d o n e d a t all i n t h e p a s s a g e c i t e d f r o m A p i o n . F i n a l l y the a u t h o r of
P s . - J u s t i n , Cohortatio ad Graecos 9, o n c e m o r e m e r e l y copies from J u l i u s
Africanus.
E u s e b i u s , Hist. eccl. iii 9, 4, asserts, in e n u m e r a t i n g the w o r k s of
J o s e p h u s , t h a t ' O n the a n t i q u i t y o f the J e w s ' (i.e. Contra Apionem) w a s
written 'against the g r a m m a r i a n Apion, w h o h a d at t h a t time
c o m p o s e d a Xoyos a g a i n s t t h e J e w s ' ; b u t this w a s e v i d e n t l y o n l y
126. T h e concentration of comments a b o u t the Jews i n the fourth book led J a c o b y ,

F G r H , I I I C, p . 127, t o suggest that the book was entided Kara 'lovhaicov. T h e fact t h a t
Josephus assigns Apion's comments o n the exodus to the third book ( C Ap. ii 2 (10)),
even though J u l i u s Africanus in Eusebius, Praep. ev. x 10, 16, assigns them to the fourth
book, suggests either t h a t Josephus was mistaken or t h a t Apion discussed the m a t t e r
twice.
VI. Apologetics 607
inferred from Josephus. The same is true of Jerome, De viris illustr. 1 3

(PL, XXIII, 662). Jerome copied, as was his custom, the account of
Kusebius, adding to it from Jos. Ant. xviii 8, i (257—60) the statement
that Apion's book was directed against Philo. The statements in the
Suda, s.v. 'IwarjTTos, in turn depend on the Greek translation of Jerome
(Sophronius).
When, finally, the Ps.-Clementine Homilies assert that Apion wrote
77-oAAa jSijSAta against thejews (Homil. v 2 ) , this is of course not to be
taken seriously.
Editions
Muller, C , F H G H I , pp. 5 0 6 - 1 6 .
J i u o b y , F G r H , 6 1 6 , I I I C, p p . 1 2 2 - 4 4 .
!• ragments a b o u t t h e j e w s only in :
Reinach, T h . , Textes d'auteurs grecs et romains relatif au Judaisme ( 1 8 9 5 ) , p p . 1 2 3 - 4 .
Siern, G L A J J I, p p . 3 8 9 - 4 1 6 (with translation a n d c o m m e n t a r y ) .
Bibliography
.Miiller, J . G., Des Ft. Josephus' Schrift gegen den Apion ( 1 8 7 7 ) , p p . 1 4 - 1 7 .
Sperling, A., Apion der Grammatiker und sein Verhdltnis zum Judentum ( 1 8 8 6 ) .
von Gutschmid, A., Kleine Schriften I V ( 1 8 9 3 ) , p p . 3 5 6 - 7 1 .
Cohn, L., 'Apion', R E 1.2 ( 1 8 9 4 ) , cols. 2 8 0 3 - 6 .
Willrich, H . , Juden und Griechen vor der makkabdischen Erhebung ( 1 8 9 5 ) , pp, 1 7 2 - 6 .
Wellmann, M . , 'Aegyptisches', Hermes 3 1 ( 1 8 9 6 ) , p p . 2 2 1 - 5 3 .
Levy, I., 'Apion etait-il Alexandrin?', R E J 41 ( 1 9 0 0 ) , p p . 1 8 8 ff.
.\lotzo, B., ' I I KOTO. TovhaCuiv di A p i o n e ' , Atd d e l l ' A c c a d e m i a delle Scienze di T o r i n o 4 8
( I 9 i 2 - i 3 ) , p p . 4 5 9 ff.
]\Kitr,Les Juifs dans I'Empire romainl ( 1 9 1 4 ) , p . 3 3 .
R ad i n , M., The Jews under the Greeks and the Romans ( 1 9 1 5 ) , p p . 199 ff.
(le Liagre Bohl, F. M . T., Opera Minora ( 1 9 5 3 ) , p p . 1 1 8 f
Levy, I., 'Tacite et l'origine du peuple j u i f , Latomus 5 ( 1 9 4 6 ) , pp. 3 3 9 f
(iager, J . G., Moses in Greco-Roman Paganism ( 1 9 7 2 ) , p p . 1 2 2 - 4 .
Sevenster, J . N., The Roots of Pagan Antisemitism ( 1 9 7 5 ) , esp. p p . 127—8, 1 3 3 , 1 3 8 .
Diiiiiel, J . L., 'Anti-semitism in t h e Hellenistic-Roman period', J B L 98 ( 1 9 7 9 ) , p p . 4 5 - 6 5 ,
esp. p. 5 6 .
7. The literary opponents of the Jews named thus far have been
(hscussed more thoroughly because Josephus' polemics were directed
mainly against them. An exhaustive enumeration of all the Greek and
Roman writers who until the beginning of the second century A . D .
expressed unfriendly sentiments in regard to the Jews would result in
.mother impressive list of names, cf Stern, GLAJJ. Most pagan authors
w h o spoke about the Jews at all after c. 3 0 0 B . C . did so in a polemical
sense. Hostility was almost universal after the first century B . C . It is
hard to establish the extent of literary antisemitism among the earher
.iiithors because of the possibility of interpolations into their work by
l.iicr antisemites of the early Roman period. It is likely that relations
between Jews and gentiles varied from place to place, and it may
t h e r e f o r e be m i s l e a d i n g to l o o k for g e n e r a l t r e n d s t h r o u g h o u t G r e e k
a n d R o m a n l i t e r a t u r e , e s p e c i a l l y since i n d i v i d u a l c o m m e n t s b y
p a r t i c u l a r a u t h o r s m a y n o t reflect a w i d e r p o l e m i c at a l l b u t s i m p l y a
specific n e e d for a h t e r a r y effect (e.g. C i c e r o , Pro Flacco 6 6 - 9 ; H o r a c e ,
Sat. i 9, 67—72).'^^ A m o n g p r e - C h r i s t i a n G r e e k a u t h o r s , J o s e p h u s
m e n t i o n s i n p a r t i c u l a r as a d v e r s a r y of t h e J e w s t h e d i s t i n g u i s h e d
h i s t o r i a n a n d p h i l o s o p h e r P o s i d o n i u s ( C Ap. ii 7 (79)). I n his g r e a t
h i s t o r i c a l w o r k (cf. a b o v e , v o l . I, p p . 2 0 - 2 ) h e m a y h a v e m a n a g e d t o
i n s e r t a p o l e m i c a l e x c u r s u s a g a i n s t the J e w s , a l t h o u g h , since t h e c h a r g e
is d e r i v e d from J o s e p h u s , w h o was n o t d i r e c t l y a c q u a i n t e d w i t h
P o s i d o n i u s ' w r i t i n g s a n d t h e r e f o r e p r e s u m a b l y relied o n A p i o n ' s
a t t r i b u t i o n o f a n t i s e m i t i c beliefs t o his illustrious p r e d e c e s s o r , it m a y b e
t h a t P o s i d o n i u s w a s less hostile. I f J o s e p h u s is c o r r e c t , P o s i d o n i u s will
h a v e b e e n a powerful influence, since m a n y l a t e r a u t h o r s d e p e n d e d
d i r e c t l y or i n d i r e c t l y o n his m u c h - r e a d works.'^^ Also p o l e m i c a l w e r e
t h e w o r k s of N i c a r c h u s ( J a c o b y , F G r H 7 3 1 , F i = S t e r n , G L A J J I , p p .
3 2 2 - 3 ) a n d D a m o c r i t u s J a c o b y , F G r H 730, F i = S t e r n , G L A J J I , p p .
5 3 0 - 1 ) , of w h i c h we h a r d l y k n o w m o r e t h a n t h e titles.'^^ M e n t i o n
s h o u l d in a d d i t i o n be m a d e h e r e of t h e l i t e r a r y g e n r e of a n o n y m o u s
stories w h i c h survive i n p a p y r i a b o u t t h e m a r t y r d o m s of A l e x a n d r i a n
p a g a n s d u r i n g t h e struggle a g a i n s t the J e w s a t t h e h a n d s of t h e R o m a n
a u t h o r i t i e s , c f H . A. M u s u r i l l o , The Acts of the Pagan Martyrs ( 1 9 5 4 ) . O f
t h e R o m a n historians, Trogus Pompeius and Tacitus should b e
127. For p a g a n literary views of Moses, cf J. G . Gager, Moses in Greco-Roman Paganism

(1972), who distinguishes between the favourable view of him i n early Hellenistic writers
outside Egypt, the hostile accounts t o be found in Egypt and i n R o m a n authors after t h e
J u d a e a n revolts, and the picture of Moses as a powerful magician which was widespread
t h r o u g h o u t the Greco-Roman world. A similar variety can be found in other c o m m e n t s
o n Jews by p a g a n authors.
128. C f Stern, GLAJJ I , pp. 141-7, esp. 141-3, where the remarks of Diodorus
Siculus, xxxiv i , 1-5, about events in Palesdne in 134-132 B . C , usually believed to b e
derived from Posidonius' history, a r e discussed. Although the passage contains expressions
hostile t o the Jews, it does not show sympathy with t h e characters who express t h e m .
Diodorus was anyway sufficiently independent of Posidonius t o quote from Hecataeus a
description favourable to t h e Jews, cf below, V I I . 4 . Justin, xxxvi 2-3 (excerpt from
Pompeius Trogus), is unhkely to have used Posidonius; T i m a g e n e s is a much m o r e
p r o b a b l e source for his comments, cf Stern, G L A J J I, pp. 223, 3 3 3 ; above, vol. I, p p .
2 2 - 3 , o n Timagenes.
129. Nicarchus is cited in a n a n o n y m o u s Byzandne lexicon as an authority in his book
On the Jews for the slander t h a t Moses was called 'Alpha' because of the leprous spots o n
his body, cf J a c o b y , F G r H , I I I C, p a r t 2, p p . 691 ff. No date is known for Nicarchus. T h e
same information is found in the works of Ptolemy Chennos of Alexandria, fi. c. A.D. 100
(Phodus, Bibl., 279 (ed. Bekker, p . 529b)), but it is likely t h a t the latter authors, w h o
were compilers rather than original writers, used Nicarchus, or t h a t all these writers
rehed o n a common t r a d i d o n dependent o n the andsemidc account of the exodus e x t a n t
i n other Egyptian writers (sec below, p . 611). Cf J . G. Gager, Moses in Greco-Roman
Paganism (1972), pp. 129-32.
VI. Apologetics 609
s p e c i a l l y i n d i c a t e d . T a c i t u s d e s c r i b e s t h e J e w s {Hist, v 2 fF.) w i t h the

g r e a t e s t c o n t e m p t . M o r e o v e r , the R o m a n satirists H o r a c e , J u v e n a l , a n d
M a r t i a l m a d e Jewish customs the target of their jokes.
2. Jewish Apologetics'^^
J e w i s h a p o l o g e t i c s a d o p t e d a twofold c o u r s e of d e f e n c e a g a i n s t the
m a n i f o l d a t t a c k s w h i c h J u d a i s m h a d to e n d u r e : a d i r e c t a n d an
i n d i r e c t one. S o m e of t h e h i s t o r i c a l a n d p h i l o s o p h i c a l l i t e r a t u r e of
H e l l e n i s t i c J u d a i s m is i n d i r e c t l y a p o l o g e t i c , a i m i n g to s h o w t h a t the
J e w s h a d n o r e a s o n a t all t o fear a c o m p a r i s o n w i t h o t h e r n a t i o n s .
M u c h of t h i s a p o l o g e t i c , t h o u g h n o t a l l , w a s d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s
s t r e n g t h e n i n g t h e c o n f i d e n c e of a J e w i s h a u d i e n c e in t h e i r o w n
h e r i t a g e , a n d it is d o u b t f u l w h e t h e r a g e n t i l e a u d i e n c e w a s ever
i n t e n d e d to r e a d it.'-^^ B u t this w a s n o t c o n s i d e r e d sufficient to
c o u n t e r a c t g e n t i l e p r e j u d i c e s , a n d t h e a t t e m p t w a s s o m e t i m e s m a d e to
refute t h e a c c u s a t i o n s s y s t e m a t i c a l l y , p o i n t a f t e r p o i n t , a n d i n o r d e r to
t r y to s t o p t h e s l a n d e r s a t t h e i r s o u r c e , t o p r e s e n t t h e m in a w a y t h a t
might not prove rebarbative t o a gentile audience. T w o such
s y s t e m a t i c a l l y a p o l o g e t i c w o r k s a r e k n o w n , o n e b y P h i l o in o n l y a s h o r t
f r a g m e n t , t h e o t h e r b y J o s e p h u s in a c o m p l e t e text, ( i ) E u s e b i u s , Praep.
ev. viii 1 1 , gives t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f the E s s e n e s f r o m P h i l o ' s aTroXoyla
vTT€p Uovhaioiv. It is i m p o s s i b l e to form a n i d e a of the s t r u c t u r e o f the
w h o l e w o r k from this. I t is p r o b a b l y i d e n t i c a l w i t h P h i l o ' s rrepl
'lovbaiiov, m e n t i o n e d b y E u s e b i u s , Hist. eccl. ii 1 8 , 6. T h e c o n t e n t of
Philo's 'YTToderiKa, of w h i c h E u s e b i u s , Praep. ev. viii 6 - 7 , p r o v i d e s a few
130. Cf. the collected texts in T h . Reinach, Textes d'auteurs grecs et romains relatifs au
'judaisme (1895) a n d (much superior) Stern, G L A J J , I - I I L O n t h e remarks of T a c i t u s , see
H. Heubner, P. Cornelius Tacitus, Die Historien. Kommentar, vol. V , by H . H e u b n e r a n d W.
i a u t h (1982); F . F. Bruce, 'Tacitus o n Jewish h i s t o r y ' , J S S 29 (1984), p p . 33-44.
131. T h e general works o n Jewish apologetics in the Hellenistic a n d R o m a n period
(over a much wider field t h a n that discussed in this secdon since they discuss all the
Hellenistic Jewish hterature of which any p a r t m a y possibly play an apologetic role when
directed towards either a gentile or a Jewish audience. See M. Friedlander, Geschichte der
liidischen Apologetik als Vorgeschichte des Christenthums (1903); P. D a l b e r t , Die Theologie der
Ilellenistisch-Jiidischen Missionsliteratur unter Ausschluss von Philo und Josephus (1954); H.
Conzelmann, Heiden-Juden-Christen (1981), p p . 121-218. Although t h e extent to which
such apologetics was deliberate varies in each case, it is noticeable t h a t the s a m e themes
IK cur in many o f these more general works as c a n be found in the explicit apologetics of
Josephus, C. Ap.
132. V . A. Tcherikover, 'Jewish Apologetic Literature Reconsidered', Eos 48 (1956),
|)|). 169-93. The widest net for literature aimed at gentiles is cast by Dalbert, Die Theologie
ilrr hell.-jiid. Missionsliteratur (1954). H e includes in his list of'Missionshteratur' Demetrius,
I'hilo the Elder, Eupolemus, Artapanus, Ezekiel the Tragedian, Pseudo-Hecataeus,
Atisteas, the Wisdom of Solomon, Pseudo-Aristeas, Aristobulus, a n d t h e Sibylline
Oracles. Since Tcherikover's article, most scholars would argue that few of these works
were primarily aimed a t a non-Jewish audience.
61 o §3 3 A . Jewish Literature Composed in Greek
fragments, is also apologetic. Since Eusebius himself characterizes the

work as apologetic {Praep. ev. viii 5 Jin.: evda vnep Tov8aio)v cos npos
TOV
Karr^yopovs avTcbv TToiovpevos Xoyov T a O r a <f)T)aiv) it is presumably

identical with the oLTToXoyia (cf. below, §34). (2) The work of Josephus
belonging to this category is known as Contra Apionem. This title does
not, however, stem from Josephus himself, and gives a wrong
impression of the contents in that it is not only concerned with Apion,
but attempts to offer a comprehensive and systematic defence of the
Jewish people against all the accusations raised against them (cf
further particulars above, vol. I, pp. 5 4 - 5 ) .
In outlining now the main points of the accusations and the defence,
it is necessary to keep essentially to the material in Josephus, his being
the only extant work which both reviews the accusations and affords an
insight into the methods of apologetic argumentation. The disposition
of the Greco-Roman world towards the Jews has been described
already (pp. 150 ff). Here, the concern is only with the accusations
proper and the Jewish answer to them.'^^
1. In the first section of his work (i 1 - 2 3 (i—218)), Josephus presents
extensive evidence to prove that the Jews are not inferior in regard to
antiquity to other civilized nations. He says that the contention that
they are of late origin because Greek historians did not mention them
them is foolish, even if this assumption were correct. The silence of all
the Greek historians would not disprove the early existence of the
nation, since the Jews, living inland, could easily have remained
unknown to the Greeks. The truth however is that the Jewish people
was noted already in very ancient times by the best historians of Egypt,
Phoenicia and Chaldea (Manetho, Dios, Menander, Berossus, and
others), indeed even by Greek historians themselves.
Josephus' zeal, and the great amount of material that he devotes to
this point, indicates how important the matter was to him. To maintain
a late origin was the same as to maintain historical insignificance. A
nation which only recently stepped onto the stage of history has of
course also no importance in history. It received its culture from the
more ancient nations. But this was to strike at the root of Jewish
honour. The Jewish apologist therefore regarded it as his primary task
to strike out at this fundamental affront.'^^
2. While the Greeks generally were satisfied to deny the antiquity of
133. F o r a complete list of specific charges m a d e against the J e w s in andquity, citing

b o t h p a g a n and Christian sources, see J . Juster, Les Juifs dans I'Empire romain I (1914), p p .
45-8.
134. O n the proof of antiquity, cf. C. Ap. ii 15 (151-6). Christian apologists also lay
great stress on this. Cf. T a t i a n 31, 3 6 - 4 1 ; Theophilus, Ad Autol. iii 2 0 ff.; Clement of
Alexandria, Strom, i 21, 101-47 ! TertulHan, Apolog. 19; Pseudo-Justin, Cohortatio ad Graecos
9 ; Eusebius, Praep. ev. x 9 ff.
VI. Apologetics 611
t h e J e w s , E g y p t i a n a u t h o r s also w r o t e v e r y u n k i n d l y a b o u t J e w i s h
origins. A c c o r d i n g t o t h e s e w r i t e r s , t h e J e w s w e r e E g y p t i a n l e p e r s w h o
h a d m a n a g e d , v e r y d i s h o n o u r a b l y , to f o r m t h e m s e l v e s i n t o a n a t i o n ,
h a d left E g y p t a n d settled i n P a l e s t i n e . ' ^ ^ F a c e d w i t h t h i s s t o r y ,
J o s e p h u s feels himself e q u a l to t h e s i t u a t i o n , a n d w i t h dignified
s u p e r i o r i t y , p r o v e s to t h e A l e x a n d r i a n s b o t h t h e a b s u r d i t y a n d t h e
intrinsic c o n t r a d i c t i o n s o f t h e i r a s s e r t i o n s (i 2 4 - 3 5 ( 2 1 9 - 3 2 0 ) ; h 1 - 3
(1-32)).
3 . T o t h e a l l e g a t i o n of t h e J e w s ' l a t e o r i g i n is c o n n e c t e d also t h e o t h e r
o n e , n a m e l y t h a t t h e y , t h e J e w s , h a d m a d e n o c o n t r i b u t i o n to
civilization. A p o l l o n i u s M o l o n says of t h e m t h a t t h e y w e r e t h e m o s t
i n c o m p e t e n t o f t h e b a r b a r i a n s , a n d h a d t h e r e f o r e c o n t r i b u t e d n o useful
i n v e n t i o n to t h e g e n e r a l c u l t u r e ( C Ap. ii 14 ( 1 4 8 ) ) . A p i o n w a s of t h e
o p i n i o n t h a t t h e y h a d p r o d u c e d n o e m i n e n t figures, s u c h as i n v e n t o r s of
a r t s or m e n d i s t i n g u i s h e d for t h e i r w i s d o m (C. Ap. ii 12 ( 1 3 5 ) ) . T h e s e
r e p r o a c h e s w e r e m e t by J e w i s h a p o l o g i s t s a p p e a l i n g in t h e i r t u r n to the
old J e w i s h l e g e n d t h a t t h e o p p o s i t e w a s r a t h e r t h e case, i.e. t h a t the
J e w s w e r e t h e o r i g i n a t o r s of all c i v i l i z a t i o n . A c c o r d i n g t o E u p o l e m u s ,
Moses w a s t h e first sage a n d t h e i n v e n t o r of t h e a l p h a b e t (cf a b o v e , p .
5 1 8 ) ; a c c o r d i n g t o A r t a p a n u s , A b r a h a m i n s t r u c t e d t h e E g y p t i a n s in
a s t r o l o g y , J o s e p h i m p r o v e d t h e c u l t i v a t i o n of t h e l a n d , a n d M o s e s
i n t r o d u c e d a l l c u l t u r e ( p p . 521 f ) . T h e p h i l o s o p h e r A r i s t o b u l u s
declares that Moses w a s the father of Greek w i s d o m ; P y t h a g o r a s ,
S o c r a t e s , P l a t o , a n d t h e o t h e r s d e r i v e d t h e i r p h i l o s o p h y from h i m (p.
5 8 2 ) . P h i l o r e p e a t s the a s s e r t i o n . J o s e p h u s in his a p o l o g y d o e s n o t use
these o l d e r J e w i s h v e r s i o n s of e a r l y J e w i s h h i s t o r y d i r e c t l y , b u t he d o e s
a s s u m e t h e s a m e g e n e r a l t r a d i t i o n in a s s e r t i n g , like t h e m , t h a t G r e e k
p h i l o s o p h y d e r i v e d f r o m t h e J e w s ( C Ap. ii 16 ( 1 6 8 ) ; 36 ( 2 5 7 ) ; 39
( 2 8 1 - 2 ) ) . T h i s is n o t h o w e v e r the m a i n t h r u s t of h i s a r g u m e n t , w h i c h
c o n c e n t r a t e s n o t j u s t o n the a n t i q u i t y o f t h e M o s a i c L a w b u t o n its
wisdom and excellence.
4. Specific a c c u s a t i o n s a g a i n s t t h e J e w s c o n c e r n e d a b o v e all t h e i r
w o r s h i p , w h i c h w a s e v e r y w h e r e b o u n d u p w i t h a refusal to r e c o g n i z e
a n y o t h e r cults as l e g i t i m a t e . I n t h e a g e of H e l l e n i s m s u c h a n a t t i t u d e
w a s s c a n d a l o u s . ' L i v e a n d l e t l i v e ' w a s the p a s s w o r d i n t h e field of
religion. P e o p l e w e r e r e a d y to t o l e r a t e t h e m o s t d i v e r s e w a y s of
w o r s h i p p i n g G o d p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e a d h e r e n t s o f o n e c u l t did not
interfere w i t h t h o s e of a n o t h e r . I n p a r t i c u l a r , it w a s t a k e n for g r a n t e d
t h a t , side by side w i t h a n y p o s s i b l e p r i v a t e w o r s h i p , t h e citizens of a
town would take p a r t i n the worship o f the town's gods. T h e Jewish
r e j e c t i o n of a l l a l i e n w o r s h i p , a n d refusal to p a r t i c i p a t e in it, was not
135. T h u s with m u c h variation in d e t a i l : M a n e t h o (C. Ap. i 26, 229 ff. a n d 233 ff.),
Lysimachus (i 34, 304 ff.), C h a e r e m o n (i 32, 288 ff.), Apion (ii 2, 15). Similar stories are
iiLso found in Justin xxxvi 2, a n d Tacitus, Hist, v 3. C f also above, pp. 151 f
6i 2 §33-^.. Jewish Literature Composed in Greek
only abnormal from a Hellenistic point of view, but synonymous with

atheism. If they were citizens, why did they not worship the gods of the
city? This accusation of d^coTTj?, of contempt for the gods, recurs in
nearly all the opponents of Judaism, from Apollonius Molon and
possibly Posidonius, to Pliny and T a c i t u s ; a n d from it, certainly in
large part, arose the conflicts between the Jews and cities, particularly
in those where they had established r i g h t s / A g a i n s t these accusations,
defence was theoretically easy, but in practice difficult. It was not too
hard to demonstrate to an educated reader the advantages of a
monotheistic and spiritual understanding of the nature of God, the
more so that Greek philosophy offered abundant material to help the
Jewish apologist on this point. It is in this sense that Josephus proceeds,
simply demonstrating the superiority of the Jewish understanding of
God (C Ap. ii 22 (192)). In practice, however, it was not possible to
influence the masses with such considerations. The reproach remained
that the Jews rejected outright what others regarded as the worship of
God. On this point, therefore, the main weapon of Jewish apologists
was vigorous attack. If the Jews were rebuked for despising the gods,
they for their part showed what kind of gods the others worshipped:
impotent images of wood, stone, silver or gold made by man, or all
kinds of animals, or at best beings who were burdened with various
human weaknesses. Compared with the worshippers of such gods the
Jews could certainly feel themselves superior (cf. e.g. Pseudo-Aristeas par.
134-9; î^' 13-15; Ep. Jer,; frequently Philo ; C. A p , ii 33-5 (236-54);
and particularly S i b , iii 29 ff., and the parallels mentioned there in J.
Geffcken's edition).
Of less practical meaning than the charge of atheism were some
136. Apion in C. Ap. ii 6 (65) : 'quomodo ergo, inquit, si sunt cives, eosdem deos, quos
Alexandrini, non colunt?' Posidonius and Apollonius Molon, ibid,y ii 7 (79) : âccusant
quidem nos, quare nos eosdem deos cum aliis non colimus.' (On the possible mistake in
this attribution to Posidonius, see Stern, GLAJJ I, pp. 141-4.) Apollonius Molon, ibid, ii
14 (148): (iff a6€ovs ... AoiSopct. Pliny, N.H, xiii 4, 46: *gens contumeHa numinum
insignis.' Tacitus, Hist, v 5: 'contemnere deos.' The same reproach was also made to
Christians, cf. A. Harnack, Der Vorwurf des Atheismus in den drei ersten Jahrhunderten (TU
XIII.4, 1905).
137. Josephus, Ant, xii 3, 2 (126): the Ionian cities of Asia Minor asked of M, Agrippa
that 'if the Jews were to be their fellows, they should worship their [the lonians'] gods'.
See above, pp. 129-32.
138. Philo's De vita contemplativa also begins (par. i) with a diatribe on the foolishness of
idol worship. In explanatory remarks on this, F. C. Conybeare (Philo, About the
Contemplative Life, 1895) ^- Wendland (Jahrbb. fur class. Philologie, suppl. vol. 22,
1896, pp. 707 ff.) collected a great deal of material from parallel passages in Philo, and
also from the Sibyllines and other writings. Wendland also pointed out (708 ff.) that
Jewish and Christian apologetic only continues here the criticism which was already
engaged in by gentile philosophy, particularly academic scepticism.' On the other hand it
is known that the Old Testament prophets also already paved the way.
VL Apologetics 613
absurd stories concerning Jewish worship: that they paid divine

honours to an ass^s head^ and, foreshadowing the medieval blood libels,
that they annually sacrificed a Greek and ate his intestines (cf. above,
pp. 150 ff., notes 85 9, 19). These fables occur quite frequently, but it
can be taken as evidence that they were not totally believed by many
gentiles that Josephus reckons to have counteracted them sufficiently
once he has shown their silliness (C Ap. ii 7-9 (79-120))/^^
5. Of greater importance, on the other hand, was another point
related to the Jews' CLOeorr^s^ namely their refusal to worship the
emperor. From Augustus' time onwards the provinces competed with
one another in the practice of this cult (cf above, vol. II, p. 34). Zeal
for it was a yardstick of loyalty to Rome; its complete rejection was
equivalent to a refusal to show the respect due to the authorities. This
at least was the view of the Greek population, which, according to the
customs of the age, freely offered this worship to the emperor. T h e j e w s
were however in a favourable position as the emperors of the first
centuries, with the temporary exception of Caligula, did not directly
demand this worship. Apart from the short episode under Caligula it
was never demanded of them since, from Caesar onwards, their cult
was legally protected as part of the legal recognition of their
communities (cf above, pp. 115 f ) . It was, however, always a welcome
point of attack for the Jews' opponents that they proved themselves to
be bad citizens by their refusal to worship the emperor.
Against this accusation, Jewish apologists could appeal to the fact
that a daily sacrifice for the emperor was offered in the Temple in
Jerusalem (C. Ap, ii 6 (76-7) ; B,J. ii 10, 4 (197); cf above, vol. II, pp.
311-12), and that on special occasions even hecatombs were offered up
for the Roman emperor (Philo, Legal,^ 356)- This in fact furnished a
certain equivalent for the worship of the emperor, which was impossible
to thejews. In addition, Josephus took advantage of every opportunity
to point to the favour which the Jews enjoyed both from the Ptolemies
and from the Caesars (C. Ap. ii 4-5 (33—64) ; Ant. xiv 10, 1-26
185-267); xvi 6, 1-7 (161—73)) on the grounds that this certainly
would not have been possible if they had not been loyal citizens!
6. A certain degree of social isolation went hand in hand with the
139. Cf. E. Bickermann, 'Ritualmord und Eselskult*, MGWJ 71 (1927), pp. 1 7 1 - 8 7 ;

255-64 = Studies in Jewish and Christian History I I (1980), pp. 2 2 3 - 5 5 ; ^- J a c o b y , 'Der
angebliche Eselskult der J u d e n und Christen', A R W 25 (1927), pp. 2 6 5 - 8 2 ; D. Flusser,
'Blood Libels against Jev^s', Commentationes ludaico-Hellenisticae in Memoriam lohannis Lewy
(^949)>PP- 104-24 (Heb.).
140. Apion in Josephus, C. Ap. ii 6 (73) : 'derogare nobis Apion voluit, quia
imperatorum n o n statuainus imagines.' Tacitus, Hist v 5 : *non regibus haec adulatio, non
Câesaribus honor.' For a discussion of the emperor cult in relation to the Jews, cf J.
Juster, Les Juifs dans I'Empire romain etc, I (1914), pp. 339—54; J. N. Sevenster, The Roots of
Pagan Anti-Semitism (1975), p p . 149-52.
614 §33A. Jewish Literature Composed in Greek
religious s e g r e g a t i o n . M a i n s t r e a m J u d a i s m e x p l i c i t l y rejected t h e i d e a
w h i c h g a i n e d m o r e a n d m o r e g r o u n d d u r i n g t h e H e l l e n i s t i c e r a t h a t all
m e n a r e b r o t h e r s a n d t h e r e f o r e e q u a l before G o d . I t saw in t h e
u n b e l i e v e r o n l y t h e s i n n e r fallen subject t o t h e j u d g e m e n t of G o d , a n d
a s s o c i a t e d t h e fatherly l o v e of G o d o n l y w i t h t h e seed of A b r a h a m a n d
r i g h t e o u s p r o s e l y t e s . T h i s p a r t i c u l a r i s m w a s n o t m a i n t a i n e d i n its full
r i g o u r i n all J e w i s h a u t h o r s o f this p e r i o d , a n d was often m i t i g a t e d in
t h e m o r e p h i l o s o p h i c a l t e x t s b y the d e s i r e to d e m o n s t r a t e t h e s i m i l a r i t y
a n d i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e of G r e e k a n d J e w i s h i d e a s a b o u t G o d a n d t h e
world. I t was however s u p p o r t e d b y the almost universal Jewish view
t h a t a g e n t i l e as s u c h is u n c l e a n ; t h a t d e a l i n g s w i t h h i m s h o u l d b e
a v o i d e d as far as possible in t h e i n t e r e s t o f Levitical p u r i t y ; a n d also b y
t h e s c r u p u l o u s n e s s w i t h w h i c h c o n t a c t w i t h a n y t h i n g r e l a t e d to i d o l a t r y
w a s a b h o r r e d (cf a b o v e , vol. I I , p p . 81—4). S i n c e , therefore, t h e J e w
w h o w i s h e d t o k e e p the L a w r e g a r d e d t h e n o n - J e w as ' a l i e n ' , i t was in
p r a c t i c a l t e r m s v e r y h a r d for h i m t o live i n a n y close social r e l a t i o n s h i p
w i t h gentiles. T h i s t h e o r e t i c a l a n d p r a c t i c a l d/xt^ta, w h i c h r a n c o u n t e r
to the w h o l e t e n d e n c y of H e l l e n i s t i c times, w a s a c o n s t a n t a n d
particular reproach against t h e J e w s . T o the Greeks and R o m a n s , w h o
d i d not k n o w the real m o t i v e s , i t c o u l d o n l y a p p e a r as a lack of
h u m a n i t y a n d r e a l l o v e o f m a n , i n d e e d a c r i m i n a l h a t r e d of
mankind.'*'
T h e m e t h o d a d o p t e d b y t h e apologists was o n t h e o n e h a n d m a i n l y
to stress t h e h u m a n e r e g u l a d o n s of t h e L a w , p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h r e g a r d to
foreigners [C. Ap. ii 2 8 - 2 9 ( 2 0 9 - 1 4 ) ; P h i l o , De Virtutibus, 12 ( 7 6 ) - i 5
(88)), a n d o n t h e o t h e r t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e a n c i e n t s y s t e m s of civil l a w
w e n t m u c h f u r t h e r t h a n t h e M o s a i c L a w i n e x c l u d i n g foreigners (C. Ap.
1136-37 (255-75)).
7. T h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e J e w s m e n t i o n e d so far, t h e i r ' a t h e i s m '
a n d u n s o c i a b l e n e s s , are those w h i c h w e r e m o s t r e l e v a n t to c o m m u n a l
141. Hecataeus (the genuine Hecataeus, about 300 B.C.) emphasizes in his generally
sympathetic description of the Jews that Moses 'established a form of life contrary to
humanity and hospitality' (Diodorus xl 3, 4 ; also in C. Muller, F H G I I , p. 392 ; J a c o b y ,
F G r H 264, F6; Stern, GLAJJ I , pp. 26-35). T h e advisors of Antiochus Sidetes pointed to
the afuîa of the Jews {Ant. xiii 8, 3 (245, 247) and Diodorus xxxiv i , possibly after
Posidonius). Cf J u s t i n xxxvi 2, 15 : 'caverunt, ne c u m peregrinis conviverent.' Apollonius
Molon in C. Ap. ii 14 (148): 'he reviles us as . . . misanthropes.' Ibid, ii 36 (258):
'Apollonius Molon condemned us for . . . declining to associate with those who have
chosen to adopt a different mode of life.' Lysimachus asserted (C. Ap. i 34 (309)) t h a t
Moses directed t h e Jews 'to show goodwill t o no-one' etc. According to Apion (C. Ap. ii 8
(95)), the Jews used to swear at their a n n u a l sacrifice of a Greek 'ut inimicitias contra
Graecos h a b e r e n t ' , or, as it is said i n ii 10 (121) : 'to show n o goodwill to an alien,
especially to Greeks.' Tacitus, Hist, v 5 : 'adversus omnes alios hostile o d i u m : separati
epulis, discreti cubihbus . . . alienarum concubitu a b s t i n e n t . ' J u v e n a l , Sat. xiv 103-4 (cf
above, p. 153). T h e sharp opposition in which the Christians stood to t h e world was also
explained as ^.taavOpcvnia, cf Tacitus, Annal. xv 44.
VI. Apologetics 615
life. Because of them, Jews appeared as enemies of pubUc order and the
institutions of the time, indeed as opponents of the whole of human
society. The most serious attacks were therefore directed at these points.
Other peculiarities lent themselves more to derision and contempt than
lo actual accusation. Among these were circumcision, abstinence from
pork, and the observance of the sabbath.''** Not even the most
malicious of their opponents dared to accuse the Jews of sexual
immorality, except Tacitus.'*^
Apologetics countered the mockery of these characteristics with an
ideal picture of the whole of the Law of Moses. Thus Josephus, in
particular, attempts to show in a well argued and positive discussion
that the stipulations of the Mosaic Law are in every respect the purest
and most ideal (C. Ap. ii 2 2 - 3 0 ( 1 8 8 - 2 1 9 ) ; cf also Ant. iv 8 1—49
( 1 7 6 - 3 3 1 ) ) . He does not discuss the criticized points, but is content to
remind his Egypdan opponent, Apion, of the fact that Egyptian priests
are also circumcized and refrain from eating pork (C. Ap. h 1 3 ( 1 4 1 ) ) .
He refers in general, to demonstrate the value and the excellence of the
Law, to its great antiquity (ii 15 ( 1 5 4 and 1 5 6 ) ) , and to the blameless
character of the Lawgiver Moses (ii 16 (158—61)) ; and he emphasizes
further that this Law really fulfils its purpose through being known and
obeyed by all, which remarkable result follows from its not only being
taught but also practised (h 1 6 - 1 9 ( 1 5 7 - 1 8 1 ) ) . Finally Josephus stresses
that no Jew ever became unfaithful to his Law, which was another
proof of its excellence (ii 3 1 - 2 (220—35) ; 38 ( 2 7 8 ) ) . To what is missing
here, i.e. a more detailed discussion of those points to which the gentiles
objected, Josephus had earlier intended to devote a four-volume work
which would have dealt with 'the opinions which we Jews hold
concerning God and his nature as well as concerning the laws, that is,
why according to them we are permitted to do certain things and
forbidden others' {Ant. xx 1 2 , i (268)). Among other things, he
intended to give here the grounds for circumcision {Ant. i 10, 5 ( 1 9 2 ) ) ,
and the reasons why Moses permitted certain animals to be eaten and
others not {Ant. in 1 1 , 2 ( 2 5 9 ) ) . This proposed work, to which Josephus
often refers {Ant., Preface 4 ( 2 5 ) ; i i, i ( 2 9 ) ; iii 5, 6 (94) ; 6, 6 ( 1 4 3 ) ; 8,
10 (223) ; iv 8, 4 (198) ; 44 (302)) was apparently never written, but
1 4 2 . Circumcision: Apion i n C. Ap. ii 1 3 ( 1 3 7 ) ; H o r a c e , Sat. i 9, 69 ff. P o r k : Apion in

(',. Ap. ibid.; Juvenal, Sat. vi 1 6 0 ; xiv 98. O b s e r v a n c e of the S a b b a t h : J u v e n a l , Sat. xiv
1 0 5 - 6 ; Tacitus, Hist, v 4 ; cf. R . Goldenberg, ' T h e Jewish Sabbath in t h e R o m a n World
up to the T i m e of Constantine the Great', A N R W II. 19.1 ( 1 9 7 9 ) , pp. 4 3 0 - 4 2 .
1 4 3 . Hist, v 5 : 'proiectissima ad libidinem gens . . . inter se nihil illicitum.' T h e remark
was presumably elicited either by t h e alleged prolific n a t u r e of the J e w s or a s part of a
general prejudice about all Eastern b a r b a r i a n s , cf Stern, G L A J J I I , p. 4 0 .
616 §33A. Jewish Literature Composed in Greek
t h e r e a r e in h i s p r e s e r v e d w r i t i n g s m a n y i n t i m a t i o n s o f the d e e p e r
m e a n i n g of t h e r i t u a l laws."'^''^
P h i l o likewise sets o u t i n the first p l a c e t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h e excellence,
h u m a n i t y , a n d m o r a l strictness of t h e L a w i n g e n e r a l (not only i n
Hypothetica in Praep. ev. viii 7, 1—9, b u t also in h i s l a r g e s y s t e m a t i c w o r k
on t h e M o s a i c legislation, cf a b o v e , p . 5 4 2 ) . H e is h o w e v e r at t h e s a m e
t i m e c o n c e r n e d to p r o v e t h a t t h e special c u s t o m s w h i c h a p p e a r e d
s t r a n g e t o t h e gentiles, like c i r c u m c i s i o n , t h e p r o h i b i t i o n of u n c l e a n
a n i m a l s , a n d the k e e p i n g o f t h e s a b b a t h , w e r e r e a s o n a b l e a n d
p u r p o s e f u l . I n this, h e w a s n o t w r i t i n g s i m p l y to refute p a g a n a t t a c k s
b u t also t o c o n f i r m J e w s in t h e i r beliefs b y s h o w i n g their b e h a v i o u r t o
be justifiable i n G r e e k a s w e l l as in J e w i s h t e r m s . P s . - A r i s t e ^ a n d
A r i s t o b u l u s before h i m h a d d o n e m u c h t h e same.'*^
144. For a full account of Josephus' outlook on J u d a i s m , see A . Schlatter, Die Theologie
des Judentums nach dem Bericht des Josef os (1932); cf. also G . Vermes, ' A summary of the
L a w by Flavius Josephus', N T 24 (1982), p p . 289—303. O n the proposed work, see D.
Altshulcr, 'The treatise " O n Customs and Causes" by Flavius J o s e p h u s ' , J Q R 69 (1979),
pp. 226-32.
145. O n circumcision, cf Philo, Spec. Leg. i 2-7. O n the prohibition of unclean animals,
cf Pseudo-Aristeas, 128 ff., 142-69; Philo, De Specialibus Legibus iw 17 ( i o o ) - 2 4 (125). O n
the observance of the S a b b a t h , cf Aristobulus in Praep. ev. xiii 12, 9-16; Philo, Hypothetica
in Praep. ev. viii 7, 10-20. Cf in general also P. Kriiger, Philo und Josephus als Apologeten des
Judentums (1906), 54 ff. ; J . Juster, Les Juifs dans I'Empire romain \ (1914), p p . 243—390.
VII. J E W I S H WRITINGS U N D E R GENTILE PSEUDONYMS''^^
Approaching the close of this survey, a class of literary productions

remains to be discussed which is highly characteristic of Hellenistic
Judaism, namely Jewish writings which masquerade as gentile. The
works in this category differ greatly in literary form, but all have in
(ommon the characteristic of appearing under the name of some gentile
authority, be it a mythological authority such as the Sibyl, or a
distinguished historian such as Hecataeus or Aristeas. This sort of
pretence is also to be found within confessedly Jewish works in the
frequent attribution to gentiles of statements or writings which strongly
favour Jews or the Jewish view of God.'*^ The choice of these
pseudonymous forms served a double purpose for their Jewish authors,
firstly, gentiles might be expected to read such writings and accept
Jewish ideas more readily to the extent that the names were standard
authorities among them, and some of these works, in particular the
Sibylline Oracles, certainly were intended for a non-Jewish audience.
Hut, secondly, among hellenized Jews also, the ascription of Jewish
ideas to prestigious gentile authors might be expected to confirm them
ill their Judaism and to prevent apostasy.
It is necessary to distinguish within the hterature aimed at gentiles
between missionary hterature intended to attract converts, and
apologetic and general propaganda Hterature about Jewish ethics and
theology. Missionary literature would be unlikely to succeed in a gentile
Huise. The works examined here therefore offered a more general
encouragement towards the acceptance of Jewish attitudes, though in
practice the purpose of each writer differed from case to case. Parts of
die Sibylline oracles written by Jews certainly set out to exert religious
jx-rsuasion, trying to make adherents to the Jewish understanding of
(iod in the midst of a heathen world by directly pointing out the
l<)()lishness of its idolatry and the depravity of its moral conduct, by
tlneatening punishment and destruction in the case of impenitence, and
liy promising reward and eternal happiness in the case of conversion. In
t O n this whole genre, see W. Speyer, Die literarische Falschung im Altertum ( 1 9 7 1 ) , pp.
I ,0 68, with emphasis b o t h o n the established tradition of pseudepigraphy i n J u d a i s m
.111(1 on t h e classical b a c k g r o u n d ; M . Hengel, 'Anonymitat, Pseudepigraphie u n d
L i t e r a r i s c h e Falschung" in d e r jiidisch-hellenistischen L i t e r a t u r ' , in K . von Fritz, ed.,
l\eu<hptgrapha I (Entretiens H a r d t , X V H I ) (1972), p p . 229-308, esp. 2 8 5 - 3 0 3 ; N.
W.iltcr, PseudepigraphischejUdisch-hellenistischeDichtung ( J S H R Z I V . 3 ) (1983), p p . 1 7 5 - 8 1 .
1.47. Cf Speyer, op. cit., p. 1 6 4 , for a list of literary works falsely attributed t o non-Jews
111 iion-biblical texts. O n the motives behind such false attributions, see G. W. E . Nickels-
l . u r g , j L B B M , p p . 24-5.
c o n t r a s t , o t h e r w r i t i n g s of t h i s c a t e g o r y a i m a t a different, a p o l o g e t i c
effect, t o d r a w a t t e n t i o n not so m u c h t o t h e faith a s to t h e h o n o u r a n d
esteem of t h e J e w i s h n a m e . P s e u d o - A r i s t e a s , for i n s t a n c e , tries to s h o w
in his w h o l e a c c o u n t of the t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e J e w i s h L a w i n t o G r e e k
w h a t a h i g h o p i n i o n P t o l e m y I I P h i l a d e l p h u s h a d of t h e J e w i s h L a w
a n d of J e w i s h w i s d o m in g e n e r a l , a n d t h a t h e t r e a t e d t h e J e w i s h
scholars with great honour. T h i s a u t h o r had no directly missionary or
p r o p a g a n d i s t i c p u r p o s e as r e g a r d s g e n t i l e s . H i s p r i m e i n t e n d e d
a u d i e n c e w a s a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y J e w i s h , b u t for g e n t i l e s too h e m i g h t
e x p e c t his a c c o u n t to c r e a t e a f a v o u r a b l e d i s p o s i t i o n t o w a r d s J u d a i s m
a n d t h e J e w i s h L a w . D e s p i t e the v a r i a t i o n i n the a i m s of t h e s e w o r k s ,
h o w e v e r , all of t h e m i n s o m e w a y w e r e i n t e n d e d to p r o m o t e J e w i s h
i n f l u e n c e , t h o u g h it m a y be u n w i s e to t a k e t h i s c o m m o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
a s p a r t i c u l a r l y significant s i n c e it is, after all, solely b e c a u s e this is t h e
case t h a t t h e y c a n all b e identified as Jewish p s e u d e p i g r a p h a . T h e y a r e
all t r e a t e d h e r e in o n e c a t e g o r y b e c a u s e of t h e i r c h o i c e o f a gentile m a s k
for the p u r p o s e , t h o u g h they a r e q u i t e different in f o r m a n d c o n t e n t .
T h e discussion b e g i n s w i t h the S i b y l l i n e o r a c l e s , n o t b e c a u s e t h e y a r e
t h e oldest w r i d n g s in this g r o u p , b u t b e c a u s e t h e y are t h e m o s t
i m p o r t a n t i n e x t e n t a n d historical effect.
/. The Sibylline Oracles

T h e Sibyls b e l o n g to t h e c a t e g o r y of s e m i - m y t h i c a l a n d s e m i - h i s t o r i c a l
figures in t h e e v o l u t i o n of G r e e k religion.''*^ T h e e t y m o l o g y of the w o r d
is o b s c u r e . ' * ^ S i n c e t h e i n d i v i d u a l Sibyls a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d from e a c h
o t h e r b y p a r t i c u l a r n a m e s , e.g. H e r o p h i l e , D e m o , S a b b e , S a m b e t h e , i t
c a n be a r g u e d t h a t 'Sibyl' eventually b e c a m e a c o m m o n n o u n , b u t the
v i e w t h a t t h e original c o n c e p t referred to a single figure has also b e e n
a d v a n c e d b e c a u s e of t h e use of t h e t e r m in t h i s w a y by t h e e a r l y w r i t e r
H e r a c l i t u s (see b e l o w , p . 620).'^° B y n a t u r e t h e Sibyls w e r e w o m e n w h o
p r o p h e s i e d , a n d w h o s e e c s t a t i c oracles d e p e n d e d n o t o n a n y k i n d of artifice
148. T h e most important material on t h e Sibyls is collected in C. Alexandre, XPVI^'^^

UifivXXiKoi, Oracula Sibyllina, ed. i, vol. I I (1856), pp. i - i o i ; J . Geffcken, Die Oracula
Sibyllina (1902) ; W. Bousset, 'Sibyllen und Sibyllinische Biicher', H H R E X V I I I (1906),
cols. 265 ff.; A . Rzach, 'Sibyllen', R E I I A (1923), cols. 2073-2103; idem, 'Sibyllinische
Orakel', ibid., cols. 2103-83.
149. V a r r o (in Lactantius, Inst. div. i 6) derives it from Doric aids = deos, and AeoHc
jSovAAa = jSouAij, hence OeoôvXi}, which is clearly only a p o p u l a r etymology. O t h e r
ancient suggestions a r e however even less plausible (see references in V. Nikiprowetzky,
La Troisiime Sibylle (1971), p . 2, n. 5). M o d e r n linguists have done no better, despite
etymologies suggested from Semitic a n d Italian languages as w e l l as Greek. I t can a t least
b e said that a Greek origin is most likely, c f Rzach, RE I I A (1923), cols. 2 0 7 4 - 5 ;
Nikiprowetzky, loc. cit.
150. A . Kurfess in E. Hennecke a n d W . Schneemelcher, N.T. Apocrypha, e d . R. M . L .
Wilson ( E T 1965), I I , p. 704.
VII. Jewish Writings under Gentile Pseudonyms 619
hut on d i v i n e i n s p i r a t i o n ( m a d n e s s , /xavia).'^' T h e y h v e d in g r o t t o e s
hut also w a n d e r e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d . I n D e l p h i , t h e Sibyls w e r e
t o n n e c t e d w i t h the p r i e s t h o o d . ' ^ ^ U s u a l l y , h o w e v e r , they r e p r e s e n t e d a
In'e, n o n - p r i e s t l y p r o p h e t i c g u i l d . T h e y p r o v e d t h e i r s e m i - d i v i n i t y
p a r t l y b y t h e i r o r i g i n ( H e r o p h i l e o f E r y t h r a e w a s the d a u g h t e r o f a
s h e p h e r d a n d a n y m p h ) a n d p a r t l y b y t h e i r l o n g life ( t h e y r e a c h e d t h e
age of n e a r l y o n e t h o u s a n d years).'^'^^ A l t h o u g h in t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of
a later time they thus towered over t h e h u m a n dimension, being
d e p i c t e d as d i v i n e o n o n e c o i n , ' ^ ^ t h e a p p e a r a n c e of p r o p h e t e s s e s
n a m e d Sibyls s h o u l d b e r e g a r d e d as a h i s t o r i c a l fact. T h e i r l a t e r
influence in h i s t o r y c o n s i s t e d i n p a r t in t h e w r i t t e n o r a c l e s a t t r i b u t e d to
t h e m , a n d in p a r t i n t h e p l a c e s w h e r e t h e o r a c l e s w e r e still u t t e r e d in
t h e i r n a m e . P s e u d o - J u s t i n , Cohortatio ad Graecos 37, w r i t i n g in t h e e a r l y
t h i r d c e n t u r y A . D . , gives a v e r y p i c t u r e s q u e d e s c r i p t i o n o f the S i b y l l i n e
grotto at Cumae.'^ It w a s a basilica h e w n from n a t u r a l stone. In the
m i d d l e w e r e t h r e e c i s t e r n s i n w h i c h t h e S i b y l u s e d t o b a t h e . After
b a t h i n g , she p a s s e d to t h e b a c k p a r t of t h e basilica w h e r e a c h a i r s t o o d
on a raised a r e a . S e a t e d on t h i s c h a i r , s h e c o m m u n i c a t e d h e r o r a c l e ,
f h e a u t h o r o f Cohortatio h a d b e e n told this b y t h e local g u i d e s . T h e
S i b y l herself h a d d i e d l o n g a g o . O n l y a b r o n z e flask c o n t a i n i n g h e r
r e m a i n s w a s still s h o w n . I t is h o w e v e r v e r y p r o b a b l e t h a t t h e s e t h i n g s
o n c e h a p p e n e d as t h e g u i d e s s a i d .
T h e oldest a u t h o r t o m e n t i o n a S i b y l is H e r a c l i t u s {Fragmente der
151. E. R o h d e , Psyclie ( E T 1925), p p . 2 9 2 - 3 , 596; Rzach, R E I I A (1923), col. 2077.

152. Pausanias, Descr. Graeciae x 12, 6; also the inscription of E r y t h r a e , verse 10, cited
below in n. 170.
153. Pausanias x 12, i .
154. Phlegon, Macrob. 5 ( = J a c o b y , F G r H , 257, F 37) : Zi^vXXa ^ 'Epvdpaia ifiitoaev
(TTf oXiyov diToSeovra rutv x»AiW. In the inscription from E r y t h r a e , cited below, n . 170, the
Sibyl says in verse 9 that she has lived nine h u n d r e d years. I n Petronius' Cena
Trimalchionis 48 fin., it is written that the Sibyl of G u m a e hung in a bottle ('in ampulla
pendere'), and w h e n the children asked, 'Sibyl, w h a t do y o u wish?', she used t o reply : 'I
wish to die.' Because of h e r g r e a t age she h a d shrunk to a diminutive size but w a s u n a b l e
to die. (Petronius' description goes back to a b o u t t h e middle of t h e first century A.D.) Cf
other references to the Sibyl's age given by A. - Kurfess, in E. H e n n e c k e and W.
Schneemelcher, JV.T. Apocrypha, ed. R . McL. Wilson (ET 1965), I I , p. 704.
155. B. V . H e a d , Historia nummorum (^^1911), p. 579.
156. Cf. on this, A. Chiapelli, ' L ' a n t r o della Sibilla di G u m a descritto nel I V secolo d.
Cr.', Nuove pagine sul cristianesimo antico (1902), p p . 315 ff. F o r the excavation of this
SibyUine grotto in 1932, cf A. M a i u r i , The Phlegrean Fields (1947), p p . 110-19.
Identification of the nearby R o m a n crypt w i t h this grotto, cf A. Vogliano, ' A u s g r a b u n g
der Grotta della Sibilla', G n o m o n 2 (1926), p. 366, was incorrect, cf M a i u r i , op. cit., p.
121. For t h e influence of this c a v e on Vergil's description of the Sibyl i n Aeneid vi 42—50,
77-82, cf H . W. Parke, Greek Oracles (1967), p p . 5 2 - 3 .
157. â*cov riva €K XOXKOV KanaKtvaoiiivov, ev a» ra Xeupava avT'^s a<oi,€adai tXeyov.
(f>aK6s (oil or water flasks in t h e L X X ) a p p a r e n t l y is the 'ampulla' of Petronius. B u t a
voice no longer sounded from it. Cf also Pausanias x 12, 8 : (Kvixatoi) XlOov 8e vSptav tv
'ATTOXXCDVOS Upo) beiKvvovaiv ov ^jt.€ydXr)v, r-qs Ut^vXXrjs ivravda KtlaOai <f>dfjLevoi ra oard.
620 §33^- Jewish Literature Composed in Greek
Vorsokratiker, ed. Diels a n d K r a n z , 92 ; the fragment is t a k e n f r o m

P l u t a r c h , De Pythiae Oraculis 6 {Mor. 3 9 7 A) ; C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a .
Strom, i 1 5 , 70), followed b y E u r i p i d e s , A r i s t o p h a n e s , a n d P l a t o .
T h e y s p e a k o f the Sibyl, e i t h e r b e c a u s e t h e y k n e w o f o n l y o n e , or u s e d
t h e w o r d as a g e n e r i c c o n c e p t or a p r o p e r n o u n . H e r a c l i d e s P o n d c u s is
t h e first to m e n t i o n several Sibyls.'^^ L a t e r c o u n t s v a r y b e t w e e n t w o
a n d t e n . ' ^ ° T h e b e s t - k n o w n i n a n t i q u i t y was V a r r o ' s c a t a l o g u e , w h i c h
m e n t i o n e d t e n Sibyls, n o t i n c l u d i n g a J e w i s h o n e . ' ^ ' U n i q u e a n d
n o t e w o r t h y is also the discussion i n P a u s a n i a s , w h o m e n t i o n s f o u r : ( i )
t h e L i b y a n Sibyl, (2) t h e H e r o p h i l e of M a r p e s s o s o r E r y t h r a e , i.e. f r o m
A s i a M i n o r , w h o also p r o p h e s i e d i n D e l p h i , (3) t h e D e m o i n C u m a e
a n d (4) the S a b b e of t h e H e b r e w s i n P a l e s t i n e , w h o was also called t h e
B a b y l o n i a n o r E g y p t i a n , i.e. the O r i e n t a l . I t seems t h a t P a u s a n i a s
h a s n o t e d t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n s r e l a t i n g to t h e Sibyls s u g g e s t four different
c a t e g o r i e s of p r o p h e c y , a n d t h a t h e has s i m p l y assigned a g e o g r a p h i c a l
l o c a t i o n to e a c h .
T h e Sibyl from E r y t h r a e w a s t h e m o s t f a m o u s . F o r this r e a s o n t h e
p r o p h e t e s s i n the oldest e x t a n t J e w i s h S i b y l l i n e o r a c l e is m a d e to a s s e r t
t h a t , a l t h o u g h s h e c o m e s f r o m B a b y l o n i a , s h e is i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e
E r y t h r a e a n seer.'^^ I t is n e c e s s a r y t o c o m m e n t f u r t h e r on t h e
E r y t h r a e a n a n d t h e B a b y l o n i a n Sibyls a n d t h e i r r e l a t i o n to t h e J e w i s h
Sibyl.
T h e Sibyl of E r y t h r a e ( o n t h e I o n i c c o a s t o p p o s i t e the island of
Chios) w a s n a m e d by H e r a c l i d e s P o n t i c u s a n d b y m o s t l a t e r a u t h o r s
158. Rzach, R E IIA (1923), cols. 2075 ff.

159. Heraclides Ponticus is quoted in Clement of Alexandria, Strom, i 2 1 , 108, and
V a r r o in Lactantius, Inst. 16, 12. A combination of both passages results in three of the
Sibyls mentioned by Heraclides: the Phrygian, n a m e d Artemis, who also prophesied in
Delphi; t h e 'EpvOpaia 'Hpo<l>iX7) KaXovpiivr}; and t h e 'Hellespontia in agro Troiano n a t a
vico Marmesso circa o p p i d u m Gergithium.' Heraclides lived i n the second half of the
fourth century B.C. For the fragments of his historical writings, cf C. Miiller, F H G I I ,
pp. 197 ff.; for t h e other fragments, including those referring to the Sibyls, see F. Wehrli,
Herakleides Pontikos (1953), especially pp. 4 0 - 1 , a n d H. B. Gottschalk, Heraclides of Pontus
(1980), p . 130.
160. Cf. the catalogue in Alexandre, Orac. Sibyll., first ed., I I , p p . 92—101 a n d 421—33;
Rzach, R E I I A (1923), cols. 2 0 7 5 - 6 ; Nikiprowetzky, op. cit., pp. i - i o ; A . Kurfess,
Sibyllinische Weissagungen (1951), pp. 9-16.
161. V a r r o in Lactantius, Div. instil, i 6 = V a r r o , Ant. ser. div. (ed. B. Cardauns, 1976),
F 5 6 a : ' p r i m a m fuisse d e Persis . . . s e c u n d a m Libyssam . . . tertiam Delphida . . . q u a r t a m
C i m m e r i a m in Italia . . . q u i n t a m Erythraeam . . . sextam Samiam . . . septimam
C u m a n a m nomine A m a l t h e a m , q u a e ab ahis Herophile vel Demophile nominetur . . .
octavam Hellespontiam in agro T r o i a n o n a t a m vico Marmesso circa o p p i d u m
Gergithium . . . n o n a m Phrygiam decimam T i b u r t e m nomine A l b u n e a m . '
162. Pausanias, Descript. Graeciae x 12.
163. Sib. iii 808 ff.
•Hpo(f>lXri.'^^ H e r father w a s a shepherd, T h e o d o r u s , and her m o t h e r a

nymph.'^^ But whereas the Erythraeans pointed o u t a cave near the
t iiy as h e r b i r t h p l a c e , t h e i n h a b i t a n t s of T r o y m a i n t a i n e d t h a t s h e
( a m e f r o m M a r p e s s o s i n the r e g i o n of T r o y a n d r e c e i v e d h e r n a m e ,
'Kpvdpaia, f r o m t h e r e d soil n e a r M a r p e s s o s . As p r o o f of t h i s t h e y
I c i c r r e d t o f o u r verses of t h e S i b y l , w h i c h e n d w i t h t h e w o r d s : irarpls Se
fioi loTiv cpvdpr] MapTTTjaoos, firjrpos lep'q, TTOTapôg T' *A'i8a)V€vs. The
Erythraeans d i d n o t a c k n o w l e d g e t h e e n d of these verses (from
MapTTtjaaos o n ) as g e n u i n e , b u t , since t h e t r a d i t i o n o f t h e S i b y l of
M a r p e s s o s is a n c i e n t a n d w a s well e s t a b l i s h e d e v e n d o w n t o t h e t i m e of
l i b u l l u s , it is likely t h a t t h e y w e r e w r o n g , a n d t h a t t h e r e w e r e in fact
t w o c o m p e t i n g Sibyls, o f w h o m t h e S i b y l of M a r p e s s o s w a s p r o b a b l y
o l d e r t h a n h e r c o m p e t i t o r in E r y t h r a e . ' ^ ' I t is i m p l a u s i b l e b u t possible
t h a t t h e Sibyl's n a m e d i d n o t d e r i v e f r o m e i t h e r of t h e s e p l a c e s in
( i r e e c e b u t o r i g i n a l l y referred t o t h e R e d S e a . ' ^ ^
W h a t e v e r t h e o r i g i n o f this S i b y l , it is c l e a r t h a t P a u s a n i a s w a s r i g h t
to d e s c r i b e t h e p r o p h e t e s s a s w o r k i n g i n E r y t h r a e a t s o m e t i m e in
a n t i q u i t y , for his a c c o u n t w a s r e m a r k a b l y c o n f i r m e d by t h e d i s c o v e r y of
t h e Sibyl's c a v e n e a r E r y t h r a e in 1 8 9 1 . ' ^ I n a d d i t i o n t o s o m e s m a l l e r
i n s c r i p t i o n s , a l a r g e a n d w e l l - p r e s e r v e d i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m t h e t i m e of t h e
A n t o n i n e s (second c e n t u r y A . D . ) h a s c o m e t o l i g h t t h e r e . I n it, t h e
Sibyl d e s c r i b e s herself as t h e p r i m e v a l d a u g h t e r of a w a t e r - n y m p h a n d
164. Heraclides Ponticus, cf. above, n. 159. Nicolaus of Damascus, J a c o b y , F G r H 9 0 , F

()•]. Bocchus in Solinus, ii 18, e d . M o m m s e n (1895), p. 36 (where Herophile Erythraea is to
he read a n d not Herophiles, as t h e manuscripts have it; Bocchus wrote d u r i n g t h e time of
Claudius). Pausanias, x 12, 1-7. Plutarch, De Pythiae oraculis 14.. Isidorus, Hisp. Etymolog.
viii 8, Opp., ed. Arevalo, I I I , p. 368 (based on Bocchus). S u d a , Lex., s.v. 'Hpo<f>iXa.
libullus ii 5, 68. M a r t i a n u s Gapella ii 159 (both n a m e the Trojan Sibyl of Marpessos
Herophile; cf on this t h e detailed comments of Pausanias, loc. cit.). V a r r o in Lactantius,
Inst, i 6, 10 (cf above, n. 161). Eusebius, Chron., e d . Schoene, I I , pp. 84, 85 (following
J e r o m e a n d Syncellus) : Ei.^vXXr] Zafxia XprjaixwSos TJ Kal 'HpoîXa (Helm ed., G C S ,
Kusebius V I I , 2nd ed., p p . 91b, 94b).
165. Pausanias x 12, 7.
166. Pausanias x 12.
167. E. Maass, Hermes 18 (1883), p p . 327-39 a n d C. R o b e r t , Hermes 22 (1887), pp.
454-9, suggested that t h e removal of the E r y t h r a e a n Sibyl's birthplace from E r y t h r a e to
Marpessos originated w i t h a local patriotic a u t h o r from Troy, but A. R z a c h , R E I I A
(1923), cols. 2081—4, a n d A. Kurfess, W i i r z b . J b . 2 (1948), pp. 402 ff., prefer t o accept the
evidence t h a t such a Sibyl actually existed (Heraclides Ponticus, /7ept Xprânjp., frg. 97;
libullus ii 5, 6 7 ; P a u s a n i a s x 12, 3 - 6 ) .
168. See K. M r a s , '"Babylonische" u n d "erythraische" Sibylle', Wiener Stud. 29
(•907), pp- 48 ff-
169. Cf. on this and o n the inscriptions found there, K . Buresch, ' D i e Grabschrift der
Erythraischen Sibylle', Wochenschr. fiir klass. Philologie (1891), pp. 1040—7, 1245 ff.;
idem, 'Die sibyllinische Q u e l l g r o t t c in Erythrae', M i t t , deutsch. arch. Inst., A t h . A b t . 17
(1892), p p . 16-36; S. R e i n a c h , 'La sanctuaire de la Sibylle d ' E r y t h r e e ' , R E G 4 (1891),
pp. 276-86. See P . Corssen, 'Die erythraeische Sibylle', Mitt, deutsch. arch. Inst., A t h . A b t . 38
(1913)'PP- 1-22.
says t h a t her n a t i v e t o w n is E r y t h r a e a n d n o o t h e r , a n d t h a t T h e o d o r u s
is h e r m o r t a l f a t h e r . T h e Kissotas ( p r o b a b l y t h e m o u n t a i n s t r e a m n e a r
E r y t h r a e ) w i t n e s s e d ( a c t u a l l y : b o r e ) h e r b i r t h . I m m e d i a t e l y after b i r t h
she u t t e r e d o r a c l e s to p e o p l e t h e r e . S e a t e d o n this r o c k (i.e. w h e r e t h e
statue with t h e inscription n o w stands) she sang prophecies to mortals
a b o u t f u t u r e suffering. L i v i n g for n i n e h u n d r e d y e a r s , she w a n d e r e d
t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d a s a n u n t o u c h e d v i r g i n . B u t n o w she sits h e r e ,
etc.'^° T h e e m p h a s i s o n E r y t h r a e a s h e r p l a c e of b i r t h w a s c l e a r l y to
p a r r y t h e c l a i m s o f the p e o p l e of t h e r e g i o n of T r o y . T h e s a m e c a v e
yielded a n o t h e r l a t e r i n s c r i p t i o n i n w h i c h a c e r t a i n E u t y c h i a n o s s a y s
t h a t h e a n d his son E u t y c h i a n o s d e c o r a t e d t h e c a v e w i t h i m a g e s
(ypa<âts).'^' A s t a t u e of t h e E r y t h r a e a n Sibyl h a s b e e n f o u n d i n R o m e .
I t m a y well b e a r e p l i c a o f t h e cult s t a t u e in Erythrae.'^'^
L i t e r a r y a l l u s i o n s to t h e H e b r e w Sibyl, as f a r as t h e y really d e a l w i t h
t h e J e w i s h o n e , p r o b a b l y reflect the existence o f J e w i s h S i b y l l i n e
p o e t r y . P a u s a n i a s m e n t i o n s her last a s the m o s t r e c e n t , a n d t h e r e is
n o n o t i c e a b o u t h e r t h a t goes b a c k f u r t h e r t h a n t h e first c e n t u r y B . C . ;
w h e r e a s the oldest J e w i s h S i b y l l i n e o r a c l e w a s p r o b a b l y c o m p o s e d
a l r e a d y in t h e second c e n t u r y E.G.'^"^ I t seems, h o w e v e r , t h a t in t h e
a c c o u n t s of t h e s e a u t h o r s the J e w i s h Sibyl is m e r g e d w i t h a n o n - J e w i s h
o r h a l f - J e w i s h C h a l d e a n or E g y p t i a n Sibyl called S a b b e , cf P a u s a n i a s ,
X 1 2 , 9, w i t h c o m m e n t a r y i n S t e r n , G L A J J I I , p p . 198-200. T h e
a s s i m i l a t i o n w i t h t h e B a b y l o n i a n a n d E g y p t i a n Sibyls, a n d a b o v e all
t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f S a b b e as a d a u g h t e r of the B a b y l o n i a n a u t h o r
170. F o r further discussion on the text of this inscription, see Rzach, RE I I A (1923),
col. 2085; A. Kurfess, Sibyllinisctu Weissagungen (1951), pp. 11-12. The text is now
re-edited by H. Engelmann a n d R. Merkelbach as IK Erythrai I I (1973), no. 224, with
translation and commentary.
171. L e Bas, Inscriptions, Asie mineure, no. 5 8 = Buresch, Mitt, deutsch. arch. Inst., A t h .
A b t . 17 (1892), p p . 33 ff. = I G R I V , no. 1541 = I K Erythrai I I , no. 228. C f introd. to
nos. 224—8, and note t h a t the Sibyl is referred to in a calendar of sacrifices of the first half
of the second century B.C., no. 207,1. 73.
172. R . Herbig, 'SEA ZIBYAAA', J a h r b . d. Deutsch. Arch. Inst. 59/60, 1944/5
(1949), p p . 141-7.
173. Cf. on t h e Hebrew-Chaldean Sibyl: C. Alexandre, Orac. Sibyll., first ed., I I , p p .
8 2 - 7 ; A. Bouche-Leclercq, Histoire de la divination dans I'antiquiti I I , p p . 192 ff.; Rzach in
R E IIA.2 (1923), cols. 2097—102; A. Peretti, La Sibilla babilonese nellapropaganda ellenistica
(1943); V . Nikiprowetzky, La Troisikme Sibylle (1970), pp. 9-53.
174. Pausanias x 12, 9. T h e Jewish Sibyl (TJ 7ou8aia) is also mentioned in AeHan, Varia
hist, xii 35, a n d at the end. T h e oldest a u t h o r t o know the Jewish Sibyl was almost
certainly Alexander Polyhistor in t h e first century B.C. (in Eusebius, Arm. Chron., ed.
Karst, G C S 20 (1911), p . 12 = J a c o b y , F G r H 273, F 79), but h e manifestly d e p e n d e d on
Book iii o f the oracle, for his is the Sibyl w h o prophesied a b o u t t h e tower of Babel a n d the
confusion of languages. It is not necessary to suggest, as h a s been done, that both
Alexander and the Jewish Sibyl derived their material from a common Babylonian
source, cf. below, pp. 632 ff. W h e n C l e m e n t of Alexandria spoke of the TTpo<l>rJTts 'E^paio)v
(Protrept. vi 7 0 - 1 ) , he referred to the Jewish oracle.
Berossus a n d E r y m a n t h e , s h o w t h a t t h i s t r a d i t i o n is n o t p u r e l y
Jewish.'^^ It is a m i x t u r e o f different k i n d s of m a t e r i a l , c o r r e s p o n d i n g to
the taste of t h e H e l l e n i s t i c era.
L a t e r c a t a l o g u e s h a v e the n a m e S a m b e t h e in p l a c e of S a b b e .
T h e s e all go b a c k t o V a r r o , w h o s a y s of t h e P e r s i a n Sibyl ( L a c t a n t i u s ,
Div. Inst. 1 6 , 8 ) : ' p r i m a m fuisse d e Persis, c u i u s m e n t i o n e m fecerit
N i c a n o r , qui r e s gestas A l e x a n d r i M a c e d o n i s s c r i p s i t . ' I n t h e P r o l o g u e
w h i c h t h e u n k n o w n e d i t o r h a s prefixed t o t h e e x t a n t c o l l e c t i o n of t h e
Sibylline oracles {Oracula Sibyllina, e d . G e f f c k e n , p . 2) t h e C h a l d e a n
Sibyl, S a m b e t h e , is said to b e a d a u g h t e r of N o a h , a n d is c o m b i n e d
w i t h t h e P e r s i a n S i b y l of V a r r o . S i n c e in t h e o l d e s t e x t a n t Jewish
f r a g m e n t , also, the Sibyl d e s i g n a t e s h e r s e l f a d a u g h t e r of N o a h (iii 8 2 7 )
a n d mentions t h a t she c a m e from B a b y l o n a n d that t h e Greeks wrongly
h e l d h e r for a n E r y t h r a e a n (iii 809 ff.), t h e a s s e r t i o n s of t h e a n o n y m o u s
a u t h o r o f the P r o l o g u e a r e p a r t i a l l y c o n f i r m e d b y t h e text of t h e J e w i s h
oracles, even t h o u g h t h e J e w i s h S i b y l is n e v e r g i v e n a p r o p e r n a m e in
t h e oracles themselves.'^^
T h e s o u r c e for t h e n a m e S a m b e t h e c a n n o t b e e s t a b l i s h e d ' ^ ^ b u t
c o m m e n t s o n the n a m e in P a u s a n i a s p r o v e t h a t i t d e r i v e s from a n
ancient tradition.
T h e w r i t e r of t h e P r o l o g u e m o s t h k e l y t o o k his i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m a
s o m e w h a t o l d e r w o r k . H i s c o m p l e t e hst o f Sibyls, a n d all t h a t follows,
exists in n e a r l y i d e n t i c a l form in a ' T h e o s o p h y ' w r i t t e n i n t h e t i m e of
175. Pseudo-Justin, Cohortatio ad Graecos 37 ( = J a c o b y , F G r H 680, T 7c) also describes

the Sibyl a s a daughter of Berossus : Tavrrfv Sc €(c /xcv Ba^vXwvos opfirjadai <f)aai, Brjpoiaaoi)
TOV rifv XaASoiWiyv laropiav ypaifiavros dvyarepa oDaav. C f the same c o m m e n t in the
Suda, s.v. ZiôXXa AeXîs. T h i s idea may have originated in t h e fact that Berossus, as
astrologer, was also famous o n account of his prophecies (Pliny, Hist. Nat. vii 3 7 / 1 2 3 :
' V a r i a r u m artium scientia innummerabiles enituere . . . astrologia Berosus, cui ob divinas
praedictiones Athenienses publice i n gymnasio s t a t u a m inaurate lingua s t a t u e r e ' ) . It
m a y however simply originate in the possibility t h a t this particular Sibyl w a s cited by
Berossus a s an a u t h o r i t y for some of his stories, o r from some other confusion, cf. W.
Bousset, Z N W 3 (1902), p. 25. H . N. Bate, The Sibylline Oracles (1918), p . 19, suggests that
Berossus invented Sambethe, hence h e r designation as his d a u g h t e r .
176. O n the n a m e of the Jewish Sibyl, see the material in C. Alexandre's first ed., vol.
II, p p . 4 2 1 - 3 3 ; R z a c h , R E I I A (1923), col. 2098; Stern, G L A J J I I , p. 199.
177. Despite assertions by some m o d e r n scholars, there is n o reason to postulate a
Babylonian Sibyl separate from the Jewish one at any period, c f Nikiprowetzky, op. cit.,
pp. 1 1 - 1 6 . See contra e.g. S. K . Eddy, The King is Dead: Studies in the Near Eastern Resistance
lo Hellenism (1961), p. 127, w h o attributes Sib. iii 381—7 to a Babylonian Sibyl solely
because t h e passage mentions t h e destruction of Babylon.
178. F o r a list of speculative suggestions made by earlier scholars, see Beer, R E II. i
(1920), cols. 2 1 2 0 - 1 ; Nikiprowetzky, op. cit., pp. 1 2 - 1 4 ; below, p. 626. A. Peretti, La
Sibilla babilonese (1943), p. 79, preferred a derivation from a Babylonian divinity called
Sabitu.
E m p e r o r Z e n o ( A . D . 474—91), t o be discussed b e l o w (cf. p p . 628 f f . ) . ' ' ^

T h e c o n t e n t s of t h e piece a r e set o u t m u c h m o r e c l e a r l y in t h e
' T h e o s o p h y ' t h a n i n the P r o l o g u e , s o t h a t it c a n n o t b e d o u b t e d t h a t t h e
l a t t e r d e p e n d s on the f o r m e r a n d n o t vice v e r s a . A l l l a t e r lists
m e n t i o n i n g S a m b e t h e d e p e n d o n one of t h e s e s o u r c e s a n d h a v e
therefore n o i n d e p e n d e n t v a l u e ; b u t it is n o t e w o r t h y t h a t they a d d t h e
d e s i g n a t i o n ' H e b r e w ' to ' C h a l d e a n ' . ' ^ "
I t a p p e a r s a l m o s t c e r t a i n t h a t S a m b e t h e was w o r s h i p p e d as a
d i v i n i t y i n t h e s a m e w a y a s t h e E r y t h r a e a n S i b y l (see a b o v e , n o t e 1 7 2 ) .
A list of d i v i n i t i e s e x t a n t o n a n o s t r a c o n o f the l a t e t h i r d o r e a r l y f o u r t h
c e n t u r y A . D . i n c l u d e s the n a m e ' S a m b a t h i s ' , w h o is p l a u s i b l y identified
w i t h the Sibyl S a m b e t h e . ' ^ ' I t h a s b e e n a r g u e d t h a t t h e s a m e d e i t y w a s
also w o r s h i p p e d in t h e Hafj-âdeiov, w h i c h is m e n d o n e d in a n i n s c r i p t i o n
on a t o m b in T h y a t i r a from t h e t i m e of T r a j a n ( I G R I V , no. 1281 =
C I J I I , n o . 7 5 2 , see p . 19 a b o v e ) . T h e b e g i n n i n g of t h i s i n s c r i p t i o n
r e a d s : ^dîos Zcoaifios KaraaKcvaaas aopov edero €TTI TOTTOV KaOapov,
ovTos TTpo TTJs TToXeois TTpog TO) Uapôidciw iv T(p XaXSaiov irepiôXco. T h e
e x p r e s s i o n aafxfiadelov c o u l d of itself well d e s i g n a t e a J e w i s h s y n a g o g u e ,
aa^Pareiov (Jos. Ant. xvi 6, 2 ( 1 6 4 ) ) , b e c a u s e /xj8 d e v e l o p e d f r o m j8j3, as
will be s h o w n . T h e fact t h a t t h e g e n t i l e F a b i u s Z o s i m u s d e s c r i b e d t h e
p l a c e of his t o m b b y its p r o x i m i t y to a p a r t i c u l a r b u i l d i n g d o e s n o t
necessarily i n d i c a t e his p a r t i c i p a t i o n in w o r s h i p t h e r e , a n d , a l t h o u g h it
is t r u e t h a t ' C h a l d a e u s ' i n i m p e r i a l R o m a n t i m e s m e a n t the s a m e as
' a s t r o l o g e r ' o r ' s o o t h s a y e r ' , t h e r e is no r e a s o n to b e l i e v e t h a t such a
p e r s o n is c o n c e r n e d here.'^^ It is h o w e v e r also possible t h a t t h e
aafjLâdeiov h o u s e d a s h r i n e of S a m b e t h e , for t h e r e a r e no explicit J e w i s h
references in t h e i n s c r i p t i o n t o d e n y t h i s . I n t h a t case the similar
e x p r e s s i o n u s e d to d e s c r i b e b o t h s u c h a t e m p l e a n d a s y n a g o g u e m a y b e
best u n d e r s t o o d if b o t h J e w s a n d t h e w o r s h i p p e r s of S a m b e t h e c l a i m e d
a special r e l a t i o n s h i p to t h e S a b b a t h for t h e i r p l a c e s of w o r s h i p (see
b e l o w , n . 1 8 3 ) . E v i d e n c e of a c u l t o f S a m b a t h i s or S a m b e t h e c a n a l s o
be f o u n d in t h e avvoSos UapâdiKri w h i c h w a s c e l e b r a t e d in N a u c r a t i s i n
1 7 9 . O n the small n u m b e r o f textual variants in the passage about S a m b e t h e in the

Theosophy and t h e Prologue, see K. M r a s , Wiener Studien 2 8 ( 1 9 0 6 ) , p. 4 4 .
1 8 0 . This is not yet the case i n the T h e o s o p h y a n d the Prologue but see e.g. the Suda,
s.v. Si^vWa : Ei^vXXa XaXSaia 77 KUI trpos TIVCOV 'E^paia 6vofiaôp.€vr], ^ Kal Ilfpais, •q Kvpiw
ovofj-ari KaXovfievrj Zafi^-qBrj. O t h e r texts in Alexandre, loc. cit. (n. 1 7 6 ) . T h e impression
that the n a m e Sambethe was originally applied to t h e Babylonian Sibyl, a n d only later to
the others, is also t o be found in Scholia Platonica ad Phaedrum, 244 B , which was copied by
Photius ( P G C I , 8 i i ff.).
1 8 1 . H. G. Youtie, 'Sambathis', H T h R 3 7 ( 1 9 4 4 ) , p. 2 1 3 ( = Scriptimculae I ( 1 9 7 3 ) , p.
470-
1 8 2 . O n Chaldaei, cf e.g. Tacitus, Annal. ii 2 7 ; iii 2 2 ; xii 2 2 ; 5 2 ; 6 8 ; xiv 9 ; xvi 1 4 .
Suetonius, VitelL, 14; Domitian, 14. F u r t h e r material in A. Baumstark, 'Chaldaioi', R E
i n ( 1 8 9 9 ) , col. 2 0 5 9 . O n the significance of t h e term here, see CPJ I I I , p . 49.
K g y p t ( I G R I , n o . 1 1 0 6 = S B , n o . 1 2 ) . S u c h a ovvoSos s e e m s t o i m p l y
a Haixâdeiov a s t h e s e a t of i t s a c t i v i t i e s . T h e s a m e d i v i n i t y m a y b e
m e n t i o n e d in a L y d i a n inscription which mentions a v o w m a d e to
Ha^âdiKos (Keil a n d von Premerstein, D e n k s c h r . A k a d . W i e n 54 ( 1 9 1 1 ) ,
pp. ii7fr.).'«3
'Sabbe' in P a u s a n i a s , and 'Sambethe' in the other sources, are
(crtainly two different forms of t h e s a m e name. An original
Ireciuently b e c o m e s /xj8.'^* T h i s c h a n g e c a n b e p r o v e d e s p e c i a l l y for t h e
J e w i s h n a m e Sabb'tay ( E z r . 1 0 : 1 5 ; N e h . 8:7; 1 1 : 1 6 ) , w h i c h is f o u n d for
i n s t a n c e i n t h e list of t h e s e v e n t y - t w o B i b l e t r a n s l a t o r s , t w i c e in t h e
f o r m Sa^âratos, o t h e r w i s e as Ea^^drios, b u t also in the different forms
w i t h /xj3 a n d vjS.'^^ T h u s a l t h o u g h Eap-^rjO-q w a s o r i g i n a l l y Ua^^-qdr} o r
183. O n the Sambethe cuh, see V. A . Tcherikover in C P J I I I , p p . 4 7 - 8 . Tcherikover,

ihid., pp. 47-50, shows a salutary scepticism about t h e claim b y W . Schulze, 'Samstag',
/(•ilsch. fur vgl. Sprachforschung 33 (1895), p p . 366-86 ( = Kleine Schriften (1934), p p .
jiU ff.), t h a t Sambethe w a s a n ancient goddess of Asia M i n o r with w h o m the Sibyl w a s
Hilly later identified. T h e hypothesis is unnecessary and lacks evidence. It is likely t h a t
some relationship to t h e cult o f Sambethe should be seen in t h e worship o f d deos 6
ZapâriaTTJs attested in a n inscription from Elaeusa in western Cilicia (Dittenberger,
( ) ( ; I S , no. 573) a n d in a smaller fragment of a separate inscription from the s a m e place
K. L . Hicks, J H S 12 (1891), p . 236; cf H e b e r d e y and Wilhelm, 'Reisen in Kilikien',
Denkschriften der Wiener Akademie 4 4 (1896), p. 6 7 . It is p r o b a b l e that the Ea^ânaTai
were a p a g a n fellowship of those who celebrated t h e Sabbath, cf Gressmann,
Sabbatistai', R E I I . i (1920), cols. 1560-6, w h o also gives other possibilities. I f so, m a n y
of t h e proper names such as Eafxâris. Eafiârels, EafiâOovs (fern.) a n d Eap.paTlwv or
Etip.â6lo)v ( m a s c ) , which may derive from t h e n a m e of t h e Sibyl Sambethe (so Schulze,
art. cit., pp. 378 ff.), may also stem directly from the S a b b a t h , even if the bearers of such
names arc n o t Jewish. It is not possible to distinguish, as Schulze tried to do, between t h e
names from one source a n d those from the other (V. A . Tcherikover, Script. Hier. I
1954), p. 8 1 , n. 11). T h e names cannot therefore be safely used as evidence for t h e spread
ol t h e Sambethe cult, since t h e y m a y r a t h e r bear witness to t h e influence, direct o r
ituiirect, of the S a b b a t h . O n t h e evidence for p a g a n reverence for t h e S a b b a t h , see
Irherikover in C P J I I I , p p . 43—56. T h e m a i n testimony lies in names derived from t h e
Sal)bath, particularly w h e n they are found in connection w i t h the worship of deos "Yilnaros
.IS at Tanais on the north-eastern corner of the Sea of Azov, cf Latyschev, l O S P E I I , n o s .
.M(>-8, 451. Sec p p . 38, 161-2, 169 above. N o t e also t h e inscription about the Ea^âTiaral
disc ussed above. I t seems likely from this that S a m b e t h e m a y have sometimes been worsh
ipped simply as t h e goddess of S a b b a t h , with no connection with the Sibyl of the same
name (CPJ I I I , p . 51).
184. Cf t h e a b u n d a n t examples in W . Schulze, art. cit., p p . 3 6 6 - 8 6 ; C P J I I I , p. 44, n.
V
185. EaPfiaraios occurs twice in Pseudo-Aristeas, 4 8 - 9 . I n the Syriac text of
l^piphanius, De Mensuris et Ponderibus 3, this is rendered as Zafiparatos (Lagarde, Symmicta
Ii (1880), p . 161). Examples o f both Za^^dnos a n d Eafiânos, Eavfidrios e t c . can b e
lound in Schulze, op. cit., p p . 3 7 8 - 8 4 ; F. Preisigke, Namenworterbuch (1922), p p . 355-6,
(59 6 0 ; D. Foraboschi, Onomasticon Alterum Papyrologicum (1967-71), p p . 276, 2 7 8 ; G P J
III, p p . 43-87. T h e n a m e Shabbethai [Sbty) is n o t infrequent also i n later J u d a i s m . Eleven
persons with this n a m e a r e recorded in J E X I (1905), cols. 216 ff. ; nineteen in E n c . J u d .
I, eol. 751. Strictly speaking, i t denotes someone born o n the Sabbath, as Numenios
designates someone born a t the n e w moon.
Ua^^ddrj, Hd^^T) s h o u l d p r o b a b l y b e t a k e n as a n a b b r e v i a t i o n of i t / ^ ^
T h e e t y m o l o g y of t h e n a m e S a m b e t h e for t h e S i b y l r e m a i n s h o w e v e r
o b s c u r e . I t is p o s s i b l e t h a t t h i s w a s o r i g i n a l l y t h e n a m e o f a n
i n d e p e n d e n t Babylonian Sibyl a n d w a s only later taken over by t h e
J e w i s h p r o p h e t e s s . ' ^ ^ I n t h a t case, the n a m e from w h i c h S a m b e t h e w a s
d e r i v e d s h o u l d also be B a b y l o n i a n , b u t those d e r i v a t i o n s t h a t h a v e b e e n
s u g g e s t e d a r e not p l a u s i b l e . ' ^ ^ A J e w i s h o r i g i n is r a t h e r m o r e likely. I t is
p o s s i b l e t h a t the n a m e refers d i r e c t l y t o the J e w i s h S a b b a t h . S h e is t h e
Sibyl w h o p r o c l a i m e d t h e S a b b a t h , or t h e Sibyl o f t h o s e w h o o b s e r v e d
t h e S a b b a t h . I t is h o w e v e r a l s o possible t h a t t h e n a m e d e r i v e s from t h e
S a b b a t h only through the i n t e r m e d i a r y goddess S a m b e t h e whose cult
h a s b e e n d e s c r i b e d a b o v e , a n d t h a t t h e Sibyl S a m b e t h e w a s n a m e d
after t h i s p a g a n g o d d e s s a n d only s u b s e q u e n t l y i d e n t i f i e d w i t h the r e a l
H e b r e w a u t h o r of the J e w i s h oracles. I n f a v o u r of this l a t t e r v i e w is t h e
fact t h a t t h e oracles of S a m b e t h e p r o v e d m o r e a c c e p t a b l e in t h e p a g a n
world t h a n m i g h t have been expected if they were generally treated as
purely Jewish.
W r i t t e n r e c o r d s of a l l e g e d Sibylline o r a c l e s w e r e in c i r c u l a t i o n h e r e
a n d there, b u t the remains that have come d o w n through occasional
q u o t a t i o n s i n a u t h o r s s u c h a s P l u t a r c h , P a u s a n i a s a n d o t h e r s , are b r i e f
a n d s c a n t y a n d d o n o t p r o v i d e a sufficient i d e a o f the c o n t e n t s o f t h e
o r i g i n a l oracles.'^^ W h a t survives is h o w e v e r sufficient t o s h o w t h a t t h e
o r a c l e s often c a r r i e d a poUtical m e s s a g e w h i c h w a s u s u a l l y dire, a n d
t h a t t h e y w e r e g r o u p e d i n t o collections in a m o s t d i s o r g a n i z e d f a s h i o n
r a t h e r t h a n b e i n g s u b j e c t e d t o careful l i t e r a r y e d i t i n g . ' ^ " I n A s i a M i n o r
a n d G r e e c e these passages m o v e d a r o u n d i n privâte possession o n l y ,
w i t h o u t p u b h c s u p e r v i s i o n or official use, b u t t h e i r prestige a n d
186. O n the relation between the two names, see Tcherikover in C P J I I I , pp. 44, 55.
N o examples of one m a n being called both Sambathion and Sambas are known, b u t the
principle behind such a hypokoristikon is well established i n the case of other names. O f the
other Sibyls, D e m o too (Pausanias x 12, 8) is a n abbreviation of Demophile (Varro i n
Lactantius i 6, 10), cf Diels, Sibyllinische Blatter {i8go), p. 53.
187. W . Bousset, 'Sibyllen u n d Sibyllinische Bucher', H H R E X V I I I (1906), col. 272.
188. T h e suggestions that the n a m e refers to the Q u e e n of Sheba or to the goddess
Siduri-Sabitu a r e no more than guesses, cf Rzach, R E I I A (1923), cols. 2097-9. A
connection with Aramaic saba', sab^ta, 'old m a n ' , 'old w o m a n ' (Lewy, Philologus 57
(1898), p p . 350 f) is ruled o u t by t h e duplication of the b. Cf also J . M . Rosenstiehl a n d
J . G. Heintz, ' D e Sibtu, la reine de M a r i , a Sambethe', R H P R 5 2 (1972), pp. 13-15.
189. Cf. the collection in C . Alexandre's first ed. of Sib. iii 1 1 8 - 1 2 9 . A d d a xPV'^f'-^^
Ei^vXXr]s of which the text m a y be found in K. Buresch, Klaros (1889), p . 78, a n d a
fragment published b y G. Cronert, ' O r a c u l o r u m Sibyllinorum fragmentum Osloense',
Symbolae Osloenses 6 (1928), pp. 5 7 - 9 . C f R zach , RE I I A (1923), cols. 2103-5.
190. J . J. Collins, The Sibylline Oracles of Egyptian Judaism (1974), pp. 2-19. Collins
points o u t that similar oracle collections wer e to b e found not only elsewhere i n the G r e e k
a n d R o m a n world but also in Egypt and Persia.
influence s h o u l d n o t b e u n d e r e s t i m a t e d o n t h a t a c c o u n t . ' ^ '

I n R o m e , to w h i c h t h e y c a m e from C u m a e , t h e y a c q u i r e d a n e n t i r e l y
(lifFerent i m p o r t a n c e . ' ^ * K i n g T a r q u i n i u s S u p e r b u s is said t o h a v e
o b t a i n e d a c o l l e c t i o n of Sibylline o r a c l e s f r o m C u m a e , w h i c h w e r e
p r e s e r v e d in t h e t e m p l e o f t h e C a p i t o l i n e J u p i t e r . ' ^ ^ After t h e s e w e r e
d e s t r o y e d in t h e b u r n i n g of t h e C a p i t o l i n 83 B . C . , t h e S e n a t e , on t h e
s u g g e s t i o n of t h e C o n s u l C . C u r i o , s e n t a d e l e g a t i o n t o Asia M i n o r in 76
H.c. to b r i n g b a c k f r o m E r y t h r a e a n d o t h e r p l a c e s a n o t h e r collection of
a b o u t o n e t h o u s a n d (?) verses w h i c h w a s o n c e a g a i n d e p o s i t e d in t h e
Capitol.'^* T h e collection was later occasionally enlarged a n d sorted
out a n d still existed in t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y A . D . J u l i a n h a d t h e S i b y l l i n e
l)ooks c o n s u l t e d in A . D . 363.'^^ I t w a s n o t u n t i l a b o u t A . D . 404—8 t h a t
Stilicho b u r n t t h e m . ' ^ ^ Besides t h e official c o l l e c t i o n . Sibylline verses in
p r i v a t e possession w e r e a l s o passed a r o u n d , b u t b e c a u s e of t h e i m p r o p e r
use m a d e of t h e m t h e y w e r e often c o n f i s c a t e d o r d e s t r o y e d by t h e
a u t h o r i t i e s . T h e official c o l l e c t i o n w a s k e p t s e c r e t a n d o n l y c o n s u l t e d o n
i m p o r t a n t occasions, m a i n l y to a s c e r t a i n w h a t e x p i a t i o n s w e r e r e q u i r e d
o n t h e o u t b r e a k of p u b l i c m i s f o r t u n e s . T h e a l l e g e d ' c o n s u l t a t i o n ' w a s
h o w e v e r s o m e t i m e s n o t h i n g o t h e r t h a n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of a n e w
passage c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e i m m e d i a t e s i t u a -
tion.'97
T h i s S i b y l l i s m w a s by n a t u r e especially h a b l e to e x p l o i t a t i o n in t h e
interest o f rehgious p r o p a g a n d a . T h e o r a c l e s , o f a p o c r y p h a l o r i g i n a n d
( i r c u l a t i n g w i t h o u t c o n t r o l i n p r i v a t e possession, c o u l d be c o m p l e
m e n t e d o r i n c r e a s e d at p l e a s u r e . W h a t G r e e k s h a d d o n e i n this r e s p e c t
( o u l d j u s t as easily b e u n d e r t a k e n b y the J e w s . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e o r a c l e s
w e r e h i g h l y e s t e e m e d a m o n g r e l i g i o u s m i n d s , n o t least b e c a u s e of t h e
1 9 1 . Cf. o n the Sibylline oracles a m o n g the Greeks, Alexandre, op. cit., I I , p p . 1 0 2 - 4 7 ;

Rzach, R E I I A ( 1 9 2 3 ) , cols. 2 1 0 4 - 5 .
1 9 2 . Cf C. Alexandre in his first ed., II, p p . 1 4 8 — 2 5 3 ; A . Bouche-Leclercq, Histoire de
la divination dans I'antiquite I V ( 1 8 8 2 ) , p p . 2 8 6 - 3 1 7 ; H . Diels, Sibyllinische Bldtter (1890) ; E.
Hoffmann, 'Die tarquinischen Sibyllen-Biicher', R h M 50 ( 1 8 9 5 ) , pp. 9 0 - 1 1 3 ; Schultess,
Dif sibyllinischen Biicher in Rom ( 1 8 9 5 ) ; K. Stiitzle, Die Sibyllen und Sibyllinen I ( 1 9 0 4 ) , p p .
15 5 1 ; Rzach, R E IIA ( 1 9 2 3 ) , cols. 2 0 9 1 - 5 , 2 1 0 5 ff.; W. Hoffmann, Wandel und Herkunft
drr Sibyllinische Biicher in Rom (Diss. Leipzig, 1 9 3 3 ) ; R. Bloch, 'L'origine des Livres
Sil)yllins a R o m e : M e t h o d e d e recherche et critique du recit des annalistes anciens', in
\eue Beitrdge zur Geschichte der Alten Welt II ( 1 9 6 5 ) , p p . 2 8 1 - 9 2 ; H . Parke, Greek Oracles
|'>^7).PP-5175-
1 9 3 . Dionysius of HaHcarnassus iv 6 2 .
1 9 4 . Lactantius i 6, 1 4 (cf i 6 , 1 1 ) . Tacitus, Anruil. vi 1 2 . Dionysius of HaHcarnassus iv
Ui. The n u m b e r circa mitte m u s t be accepted w i t h c a u t i o n ; it is attested only in
I.at tantius, who refers thereby t o the third book of t h e Jewish-Christian collection.
1 9 5 . Ammianus Marcellinus xxiii i, 7.
1 9 6 . Schultess, Die sibyllinischen Biicher in Rom ( 1 9 0 4 ) , p. 4 5 .
1 9 7 . So, for example, the t w o pieces preserved in Phlegon, Mirab. 1 0 (Jacoby, F G r H
J 5 7 , F 36) were p r o b a b l y written in t h e years 207 B.C. and 200 E.G., cf Diels, Sibyllinische
matter (i8go); J a c o b y , F G r H , K o m m . I I BD, p . 846.
m y s t e r y s u r r o u n d i n g t h e m . T h u s it was h o p e d t h a t w i d e s p r e a d
a t t e n t i o n c o u l d b e g a i n e d b y t h e use of t h i s l i t e r a r y f o r m . W h e n
t h e r e f o r e J e w i s h w r i t e r s b e g a n to use it to express their o w n religious
i d e a s it can b e a s s u m e d t h a t religious p r o p a g a n d a w a s t h e a u t h o r s '
o r i g i n a l i n t e n t i o n . As f a r as c a n b e a s c e r t a i n e d , a n extensive S i b y l l i n e
o r a c l e o f J e w i s h origin w a s first issued i n the s e c o n d c e n t u r y B.C. f r o m
Alexandria. T h e o u t c o m e w a s a p p a r e n t l y considered desirable by the
J e w s c o n c e r n e d , for f u r t h e r o r a c l e s w e r e c o m p o s e d i n the following
c e n t u r i e s . C h r i s t i a n s also l a t e r r e s p e c t e d t h e v a l u e of t h e forged o r a c l e s
as a p r o p for their o w n a p o l o g e t i c . N o t o n l y d i d t h e y willingly use a n d
highly esteem t h e Jewish Sibylline oracles; they themselves richly
increased those t h a t they h a d , a production continuing into later
i m p e r i a l t i m e s . I t is precisely to t h i s t r a d i t i o n of t h e C h r i s t i a n C h u r c h
t h a t w e a r e i n d e b t e d for t h e possession of t h e o l d e r J e w i s h S i b y l l i n e
o r a c l e s as w e l l .
T h e form of these J e w i s h - C h r i s t i a n S i b y l l i n e o r a c l e s is t h e s a m e as
t h a t of t h e o l d gentile o n e s . ' ^ ^ T h e J e w i s h or C h r i s t i a n a u t h o r s a l l o w e d
t h e a n c i e n t Sibyl to s p e a k t o the g e n t i l e p e o p l e s i n G r e e k h e x a m e t e r s
a n d in t h e l a n g u a g e of H o m e r . T h e c o n t e n t s serve t h r o u g h o u t to c a r r y
a r e h g i o u s m e s s a g e . T h e Sibyl p r o p h e s i e s the fate o f the w o r l d from t h e
b e g i n n i n g t o the a u t h o r ' s o w n t i m e in o r d e r to l i n k it to t h r e a t s a n d
p r o m i s e s for t h e n e a r f u t u r e . S h e r e p r o a c h e s t h e g e n t i l e s w i t h t h e sin o f
their i d o l a t r y a n d w i t h their wickedness, a n d exhorts t h e m to d o
p e n a n c e w h i l s t t h e r e is t i m e , for fearful c h a s t i s e m e n t s will o v e r t a k e t h e
u n r e p e n t a n t . '^^
T h e first e d i t i o n o f t h e e x t a n t J e w i s h - C h r i s t i a n Sibyllines w a s
p r e p a r e d b y X y s t u s Betulejus from a n A u g s b u r g ( n o w M u n i c h )
m a n u s c r i p t (Basel, 1 5 4 5 ) . T h e b e s t critical e d i t i o n s a r e t h o s e b y A .
R z a c h , Oracula Sibyllina ( 1 8 9 1 ) (still v a l u a b l e ) , a n d J . Geffcken, Oracula
Sibyllina (1902) ( t h e b e s t ) . T h e s e are n o t s u p e r s e d e d b y A . Kurfess,
Sibyllinische Weissagungen. Urtext und Obersetzung ( 1 9 5 1 ) . All t h r e e
e d i t i o n s a r e m a r r e d b y t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n of d u b i o u s h y p o t h e t i c a l
r e a d i n g s i n t o the text.
O f p a r t i c u l a r i m p o r t a n c e for t h e history o f the t r a n s m i s s i o n of t h e s e
o r a c l e s , a p a r t from q u o t a t i o n s in t h e C h u r c h F a t h e r s (cf b e l o w ) , is a
w o r k e n t i t l e d ©eoaoîa, w r i t t e n t o w a r d t h e e n d of t h e fifth c e n t u r y
198. Because the extant p a g a n oracles a r e so fragmentary, M . J. Wolff, 'Sibyllen u n d

SibyUinen', Archiv fur Kulturgeschichte 24 (1934), p p - 312—25, preferred to see the
prototype of t h e Jewish Sibyls in t h e ex eventu prophecy enshrined, in the second c e n t u r y
A.D., in a long poem called the Alexandra, which is attributed to the early third c e n t u r y
B.C. author, Lycophron. It is however m o r e likely that [Lycophron] modelled his p o e m
o n the Sibyllines than vice versa.
199. O n the Jewish Sibyllines as apologetic, c f P. Dalbert, Die Theologie der hell.-jiid.
Missionsliteratur (1954), pp. 106-23.
A.I). It w a s a c o m p i l a t i o n of g e n t i l e t e s t i m o n i e s in s u p p o r t of C h r i s t i a n
ita< h i n g s . T h e o r i g i n a l h a s b e e n lost, b u t a n u m b e r of e x c e r p t s a n d
I r a g m e n t s h a v e b e e n p r e s e r v e d . T h e m o s t c o m p r e h e n s i v e e x c e r p t is
niv<'n in a T i i b i n g e n manuscript.^"** After t h e i n t r o d u c t o r y c o m m e n t s ,
w h i c h a r e e x t a n t i n t h e e x c e r p t ( B u r e s c h , p . 95), the a u t h o r of t h e
D r i g i n a l w o r k w r o t e first e-ma /SijSAia -n-epi rrfs 6p6-^s nCareois, followed b y
l o u r further b o o k s . I n t h e s e h e first s h o w s (i.e. in b o o k s 1 - 3 ) t h a t ' t h e
oracles o f the H e l l e n i c g o d s , t h e t h e o l o g i c a l t e a c h i n g s o f the H e l l e n i c
.uid E g y p t i a n sages, a n d finally t h e o r a c l e s of t h e Sibyls' w e r e in
agreement with H o l y Scripture. T h e fourth (or eleventh) book
( o n t a i n e d the p r o p h e c i e s of H y s t a s p e s w i t h a t t h e e n d a s h o r t c h r o n i c l e
l i o m A d a m u n t i l t h e E m p e r o r Z e n o . It m a y b e c o n c l u d e d f r o m the last
n o t e t h a t the o r i g i n a l w o r k w a s w r i t t e n u n d e r E m p e r o r Z e n o ( 4 7 4 - 9 1 ) .
It c a n h a v e b e e n w r i t t e n at t h e m o s t o n l y a few y e a r s l a t e r s i n c e , a s is
likewise n o t e d , the a u t h o r e x p e c t s t h e e n d of all t h i n g s i n t h e y e a r six
t h o u s a n d of t h e w o r l d , b u t p l a c e s t h e b i r t h o f C h r i s t i n the y e a r five
thou.sand five h u n d r e d . N o t a l l of this w o r k is g i v e n in t h e T u b i n g e n
e x t r a c t . T h e r e is n o t r a c e o f t h e f o u r t h b o o k ( H y s t a s p e s a n d t h e
t h r o n i c l e ) , b u t the S i b y l l i n e o r a c l e s a r e c e r t a i n l y q u o t e d .
A n i m p o r t a n t f r a g m e n t of t h e o r i g i n a l T h e o s o p h y has p r o b a b l y b e e n
p r e s e r v e d in C o d e x O t t o b o n i a n u s , G r . 378.^°^ T h e p i e c e b e g i n s w i t h
I h e list o f the t e n Sibyls, k n o w n f r o m t h e P r o l o g u e o f the Sibyllines, a n d
s u b s e q u e n t l y gives a n e x t e n s i v e c o l l e c t i o n of p a s s a g e s f r o m t h e S i b y l l i n e
oracles t a k e n , to a l a r g e e x t e n t , b u t n o t c o m p l e t e l y , f r o m L a c t a n t i u s ,
l i o m w h i c h t h e list of t h e ten Sibyls also d e r i v e s . T h e t e x t is p a r a l l e l
to the s e c t i o n of t h e T u b i n g e n e x c e r p t r e l a t i n g to t h e S i b y l s , b u t i t is
n u i c h fuller, so t h a t t h e T u b i n g e n t e x t a p p e a r s t o b e o n l y a p o o r
e x c e r p t from Ottobonianus.
This m a t e r i a l n o w p r o v i d e s u s w i t h a c l u e t o t h e a g e of this
j o o . K.. Buresch, ' U n t e r s u c h u n g e n zum Orakelwesen des spateren Altertums', Klaros

iHH()), appendix, pp. 8 7 - 1 2 6 ; cf. K. von Fritz, 'Theosophia', R E V (1934), cols. 2 2 5 0 - 1 ;
II Krbse, Fragmente griechischer Theosophien (1941), p p . 1-52.
7 0 1 . A. Brinkrnann a t t e m p t e d to prove t h a t the original work was written b y a certain
Aiistokritos, of w h o m n o t h i n g further is known ( R h M 51 (1896), pp. 273-80) except that
ilir Stoaotf>ia which he wrote attempted to show t h a t J u d a i s m , Hellenism, Christianity
.11x1 Manichaeism were one and the same. T h i s work cannot be identical t o the
riifDsophy of T u b i n g e n , since the extant version makes n o mention of Manichaeism. The
rxisirnce of Aristokritos' Theosophia m a y however suggest that h e and the a u t h o r of our
/ hrowphia both had recourse to the same Christian florilegium, cf S. N. C . Lieu, 'An
l.ii ly Byzandne F o r m u l a for t h e R e n u n c i a t i o n of M a n i c h a e i s m ' , J A C 26 (1983), p. 213.
7 0 2 . K. Mras, 'Eine neuentdeckte Sibyllen-Theosophie', Wiener Studien 28 (1906),
I'P 83 ; Erbse, op. cit., pp. 28 ff.
J O } . O f the thirty-five Sibylline quotations of t h e Theosophy, eighteen are to be found
III rxai tly the same length in Lactantius, i n ten either L a c t a n t i u s or the T h e o s o p h y has
lilt II r, a n d seven do not a p p e a r at all in Lactantius. In t h e readings, too, there are m a n y
• liflricnces (Mras, 69 f ) .
c o l l e c t i o n . T h e m a n u s c r i p t s o f these Sibyllines fall i n t o t h r e e classes.

T h e first class, d e s i g n a t e d w i t h Q by R z a c h a n d Geffcken, gives t h e
Books i n a c o m p l e t e l y different a r r a n g e m e n t f r o m t h e o t h e r s . T h e
w h o l e c o l l e c t i o n b e g i n s w i t h Books d e s i g n a t e d a s ix a n d , in s o m e
m a n u s c r i p t s , x. T h e s e d o n o t c o r r e s p o n d to t h e Books w i t h t h e s a m e
n u m b e r in t h e s e c o n d class a n d in t h e e d i t i o n s . T h u s Books vi, vii, i a n d
viii, 2 1 8 - 4 2 8 (in t h e n o r m a l n u m b e r i n g ) a r e i n c l u d e d i n this class b u t
d e s i g n a t e d a s B o o k ix, a n d t h e n o r m a l B o o k iv is d e s i g n a t e d in t h e
g r o u p , w h e n it is i n c l u d e d , a s B o o k x . T h e m o r e c o m p l e t e
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of this class h a v e in a d d i t i o n r e t a i n e d Books xi-xiv,
which have only been preserved owing to them.
T h e s e c o n d class ( 0 ) p r e s e r v e s v e r y v a r i e d r e a d i n g s b u t is
c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a prefixed p r o l o g u e , u n i q u e to it. T h e m a n u s c r i p t s of
this class c o n t a i n Books i-viii i n t h e o r d e r of t h e p r i n t e d e d i t i o n s .
T h e t h i r d class ( ¥ ^ is m o r e unified. I t c o n t a i n s t h e s a m e Books as t h e
second class e x c e p t t h a t Book viii s t a n d s a t t h e b e g i n n i n g , h e n c e in t h e
o r d e r viii, i-vii ( a l t h o u g h s o m e m a n u s c r i p t s o m i t vi a n d vii a l t o g e t h e r ) ,
w i t h o u t the P r o l o g u e .
T h e m a n u s c r i p t s of classes <P a n d !P, c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o o u r e d i t i o n s ,
a g r e e i n the e n u m e r a t i o n of B o o k s iv-vii. Books i a n d ii of t h e e d i t i o n s
form o n l y o n e B o o k i n t h e m a n u s c r i p t s . C o n c e r n i n g t h e o r i g i n a l
division of Books i-iii of t h e e d i t i o n s , t h e following m a y b e c o n j e c t u r e d
from t h e s u p e r s c r i p t i o n s a n d s u b s c r i p t i o n s w h i c h h a v e b e e n p r e
served.^*** I m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g Book iii i , t h e following n o t e is
f o u n d i n class <J>: TrdXiv iv TO) rpiTO) avTrjs ropu} rdSe <f>r}alv iK TOV
Sevripov Xoyov, as also i n class W, e x c e p t t h a t h e r e t h e following n o t e is

f o u n d i n t h e m a r g i n : e/c TOV Sevrepov Xoyov. T h e n W h a s , after iii 92,
t h e n o t e : ivTavda ^lyrei r d XeiirovTa OLTTO TOV SevTepov Xoyov Kal TTJV
dpxr]v TOV TpiTov. 0 , t o o , n o t e s t h a t s o m e t h i n g is m i s s i n g . A c c o r d i n g to

this, t h e r e is a l a r g e l a c u n a after iii 9 2 in this t r a d i t i o n , a s is also
i n d i c a t e d by t h e c o n t e n t s . T h e p r e c e d i n g p a r t f o r m e d t w o Books (Xoyoi)
w h i c h w e r e d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e ropoi; w h a t follows e q u a l s B o o k iii, b u t
w i t h o u t a b e g i n n i n g . I t c a n t h e r e f o r e b e a s s u m e d t h a t iii 1 - 9 2 e i t h e r
f o r m e d t h e e n d of Book ii, as these m a n u s c r i p t n o t e s suggest, o r t h a t iii
1 - 9 6 c o n s t i t u t e d a s e p a r a t e n e w i n t r o d u c t i o n to B o o k iii, inserted a t a
l a t e s t a t e i n t o the m a n u s c r i p t s to b e a l i n k w i t h the p r e s e n t B o o k ii after
t h e o r i g i n a l i n t r o d u c t o r y m a t e r i a l a n d t h e o r i g i n a l B o o k ii h a d b e e n
204. Cf. on this the introduction in J . Geffcken's ed., p p . 1-hi, and especially P. Lieger,
Quaestiones Sibyllinae, I , De collectionibus oraculorum Sibyllinorum {Gymnasialprogr., 1904).
These arguments based on the manuscript notes need to b e backed by the contents of the
relevant sections of the text. T h e manuscripts claim elsewhere that Book iii contained
1034 verses, which no computation of extant lines c a n achieve, cf. Nikiprowetzky, op. cit.,
p. 65.
lost.'"'^ I t will be s h o w n b e l o w t h a t this has b e e n p r e s e r v e d t h r o u g h

Iheophilus.
The p l a c i n g of B o o k viii in class W a n d the t h o r o u g h r e a r r a n g e m e n t
111 (lass Q are p r o b a b l y s e c o n d a r y (so Geffcken a n d L i e g e r ) .
I n class <P, in w h i c h t h e o r i g i n a l a r r a n g e m e n t of t h e c o l l e c t i o n is
p r o b a b l y best p r e s e r v e d , the e d i t o r s a y s in a P r o l o g u e t h a t h e h a s
a s s e m b l e d t h e s c a t t e r e d Sibylline o r a c l e s . T h u s t h e w r i t e r of t h e
P r o l o g u e was p r e s u m a b l y also t h e c o m p i l e r of t h e e x t a n t c o l l e c t i o n ,
w h e t h e r of o n l y t h e e i g h t Books p r e s e r v e d in 0 or o f m o r e . U n t i l t h a t
M i n e , single o r a c l e s (Adyoi) h a d b e e n i n s e p a r a t e c i r c u l a t i o n , w h i c h
agrees w i t h L a c t a n t i u s ' c o m m e n t s (cf b e l o w . I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t
(his m a k e s it p e r f e c t l y possible t h a t t h e o t h e r classes of m a n u s c r i p t m a y
preserve b e t t e r r e a d i n g s i n p a r t i c u l a r cases). H o w e v e r , t h e l a r g e s t p a r t
ol t h e P r o l o g u e , n o t o n l y t h e list o f the t e n Sibyls b u t a l l t h a t follows
II, a p p e a r s a l m o s t literally in t h e f r a g m e n t o f t h e T h e o s o p h y '
p u b l i s h e d by M r a s , a n d it is h i g h l y likely t h a t t h e T h e o s o p h y ' t a k e s
p r e c e d e n c e ; m a n y of its s t a t e m e n t s a r e v e r y well a r g u e d (especially
lines 7 5 ff.), w h e r e a s this is n o t t r u e of t h e P r o l o g u e . T h e
. m t h o r o f the P r o l o g u e t h e r e f o r e d e p e n d e d o n t h e T h e o s o p h y ' , f r o m
w h i c h it follows t h a t t h e collection in class <P w a s first p r e p a r e d in t h e
sixth c e n t u r y A . D .
T h e c o l l e c t i o n a s it is n o w is c h a o t i c , a n d e v e n t h e m o s t a s t u t e
analysis will p r o b a b l y n e v e r s u c c e e d in s o r t i n g it o u t a n d a r r a n g i n g it.
It is u n f o r t u n a t e l y n o t t h e c a s e t h a t e a c h B o o k f o r m e d a n o r i g i n a l
w h o l e ; i n d i v i d u a l B o o k s also in p a r t c o m p r i s e d a n a r b i t r a r y n u m b e r
of i n d i v i d u a l p a s s a g e s . T h e c u r s e of p s e u d o n y m o u s a u t h o r s h i p s e e m s
to h a v e g o v e r n e d t h e s e o r a c l e s in a q u i t e especial w a y . E a c h r e a d e r or
w r i t e r p e r m i t t e d h i m s e l f t o c o m p l e t e w h a t existed at his o w n
d i s c r e t i o n a n d to a r r a n g e t h e s c a t t e r e d leaves t h u s o r o t h e r w i s e .
O b v i o u s l y , m u c h w a s a t first in c i r c u l a t i o n a s isolated pieces a n d t h e
205. O n the place a n d function of iii 1-96 see J . J. CoUins, The Sibylline Oracles of
l-.gyplian Judaism (1974), pp. 24-5. T h e contents of this section lend credence to the
manuscript indications t h a t it should be separated from t h e rest of the book. Verses 4 6 - 9 6
.lie probably later t h a n the main corpus of Sib. iii, belonging either to t h e t i m e of
(Ih'opatra or to a still later d a t e (Collins, op. cit., p p . 6 4 - 7 1 ) . Since J . Geffcken, Komposition
und Entstehungszeit der Oracula Sibyllina (1902), p p . 4 7 - 5 3 , argued convincingly that the
present Book ii w a s originally p a r t of Book i, it is possible that iii 1-96 m a y comprise part
lit the lost second book of t h e collection, cf A. Kurfess, in E. H e n n e c k e and W.
S( hiicemelcher, J^.T. Apocrypha, ed. R. M c L . Wilson (ET 1965), II, p . 707. This
hypothesis has t h e advantage that iii 63-96 would make a good conclusion for a Book,
.ill hough the function of the last four lines (93-6) is obscure u n d e r a n y hypothesis. V.
Nikiprowetzky, La Troisiime Sibylle (1970), p p . 6 0 - 6 , 217-22, tries to show t h a t iii 1-96
Kiuld have belonged originally to Book iii in addition to the alternative introduction
|ii<-srrved in Theophilus (see below). The repetitivcness that would ensue is not o u t of
keeping with the nature of these oracles, b u t Nikiprowetzky's hypothesis fails to account
s.iiisfactorily for the m a n u s c r i p t indications discussed h e r e . See below, p p . 6 3 9 - 4 1 .
c o l l e c t i o n in w h i c h they s u b s e q u e n t l y f o u n d a p l a c e is f o r t u i t o u s . M a n y
p a s s a g e s are therefore d u p l i c a t e d i n v a r i o u s places.^°
T h i s b e i n g the c h a r a c t e r o f the w h o l e , it is n o t p o s s i b l e to d i s t i n g u i s h
between Jewish a n d Christian material everywhere with certainty. T h e
oldest p o r t i o n s a r e at a n y r a t e J e w i s h , p e r h a p s w i t h s o m e e l a b o r a t i o n s
o f g e n t i l e oracles. T h e b u l k o f the l a t e r b o o k s is c e r t a i n l y C h r i s t i a n . B u t
it is o n l y o c c a s i o n a l l y t h a t t h e o n e or t h e o t h e r e l e m e n t a p p e a r s i n a
l a r g e c o h e r e n t u n i t , a n d t h e style of t h e S i b y l l i n e h e x a m e t e r s is t o o
h o m o g e n e o u s to p e r m i t differentiation o n stylistic g r o u n d s . A s a r u l e ,
t h e y a r e m a d e u p of s m a l l e r p a s s a g e s w h i c h h a v e b e e n s t r u n g t o g e t h e r
q u i t e loosely, often w i t h o u t a n y c o n n e c t i o n . I t is t h e r e f o r e p o s s i b l e t o
assess w i t h c e r t a i n t y o n l y w h e t h e r a few c o m p a r a t i v e l y s m a l l pieces a r e
J e w i s h o r C h r i s t i a n . T h e c o n t e n t o f m u c h is so n e u t r a l t h a t it c a n j u s t as
well h a v e o r i g i n a t e d from o n e side as t h e o t h e r . E a c h s t a t e m e n t of t h e
Sibyl m u s t b e subjected to s e p a r a t e scrutiny. T h e following pieces m a y
b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d w i t h s o m e d e g r e e of p r o b a b i l i t y as J e w i s h .
I . I n the o p i n i o n of all t h e critics, t h e oldest a n d c e r t a i n l y J e w i s h
p o r t i o n s a r e a t all e v e n t s c o n t a i n e d in Book iii. I t is g e n e r a l l y a g r e e d
t h a t t h e B o o k as a w h o l e w a s r e d a c t e d b y J e w s , b u t the e x t e n t o f
C h r i s t i a n i n t e r p o l a t i o n s a n d r e m a i n i n g f r a g m e n t s of p a g a n o r a c l e s is
still d e b a t e d . V i e w s h a v e a l s o differed w i d e l y c o n c e r n i n g t h e d a t e of
c o m p o s i t i o n a n d t h e e x t e n t o f the J e w i s h sections. A c c o r d i n g t o Bleek i n
1 8 1 9 , B o o k iii 97—808 is the w o r k o f a n A l e x a n d r i a n J e w from the t i m e
o f the M a c c a b e e s ( 1 7 0 - 1 6 0 B . C ) , w i t h i n s e r t i o n s o f o l d e r gentile p o e m s
(verses 9 7 - 1 6 1 a n d 4 3 3 - 8 8 ) a n d l a t e r C h r i s t i a n i n t e r p o l a t i o n s (verses
3 5 0 - 8 0 ) . A l e x a n d r e in 1 8 4 1 - 5 6 a s c r i b e d o n l y p a s s a g e s iii 97—294,
4 8 9 - 8 1 8 to a n A l e x a n d r i a n J e w o f a b o u t 168 B . C . , a n d t h e i n t e r v e n i n g
section iii 2 9 5 - 4 8 8 by c o n t r a s t t o a C h r i s t i a n a u t h o r . Geffcken, p p .
9 7 - 1 5 4 , h e l d t h a t the first o r a c l e of t h e b u i l d i n g of t h e t o w e r w a s
g e n d l e . A c c e p t i n g this e a r l i e r w o r k from a n o r a c l e of t h e B a b y l o n i a n
Sibyl, a J e w i n a r o u n d t h e m i d d l e of t h e second c e n t u r y B . C . c o m p o s e d
t h e o l d e r p a s s a g e s w h i c h r u n t h r o u g h t h e w h o l e Book. A second g r o u p
is likewise f o u n d t h r o u g h o u t t h e Book c o n t a i n i n g n u m e r o u s g e n t i l e
oracles of t h e E r y t h r a e a n S i b y l w h i c h w e r e revised a n d c o m p l e t e d b y a
J e w s h o r t l y after the M i t h r i d a t i c w a r (88-84 B . C . ) . D e s p i t e t h e
confusion a n d d i s o r d e r , Geffcken v e n t u r e d clearly t o s e p a r a t e o n e
p a s s a g e from a n o t h e r . Bousset's v i e w w a s s i m i l a r , b u t he a s s i g n e d a
g r e a t e r role to a r e d a c t o r of the mid-first c e n t u r y B . c . w h o
i n c o r p o r a t e d earlier o r a c l e s , as w e l l a s a d d i n g verses 211—336 a n d
206. A greater degree of literary unity has been asserted for Sibyllines i and ii b y J .
Geffcken, Komposition und Entstehungszeit (1902), p p . 47-53, since he beheves they were
originally part o f a single Book (see preceding note). Nikiprowetzky argues t h a t Book iii is
a deliberate unity (see below, p. 633). T h e general judgement about the incoherence of
the collection still however stands.
')'2()-829. A c c o r d i n g to h i m , t h e t h i r d S i b y l is ' a w o r k f r o m t h e t i m e of
A l e x a n d r a , in w h i c h o l d e r J e w i s h S i b y l l i n e f r a g m e n t s f r o m t h e t i m e of
i ' t o l e m y V I I , a p a s s a g e of t h e o l d B a b y l o n i a n S i b y l , p o r t i o n s of t h e
I ' . r y t h r a e a n S i b y l a n d o t h e r H e l l e n i s t i c S i b y l l i n e o r a c l e s h a d b e e n in
s e r t e d ' ( c f H H R E , 3rd e d . , X V I I I , col. 2 7 2 ) . L i e g e r in 1906 s e p a r a t e d
t w o layers, t h e o l d e r o n e ( i n c l u d i n g iii 9 7 - 1 6 5 , 213—94, 5 7 3 - 6 1 5 ,
<)52-724, 741—808, 819—29) w r i t t e n 'in o r i m m e d i a t e l y after t h e y e a r
I 70', a n d the m o r e r e c e n t o n e ( i n c l u d i n g all t h e r e m a i n i n g m a t e r i a l ) in
a b o u t 140 B . C . S c h i i r e r in 1909 a c c e p t e d the m a i n e l e m e n t s of
(leffcken's analysis b u t w a s s c e p t i c a l a b o u t t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h g e n t i l e
oracles h a d b e e n i n c l u d e d . H e b e l i e v e d t h e w h o l e w o r k to h a v e b e e n
p r o d u c e d by a J e w in t h e m i d - s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C . , w i t h o n l y verses
4()4-70 to b e c o n s i d e r e d a l a t e r i n s e r t i o n . S i n c e t h e n , P. S c h n a b e l ,
lierossus und die babylonisch-hellenistische Literatur ( 1 9 2 3 ) , p p . 69—93,
a r g u e d t h a t verses 9 7 - 3 4 9 c a n n o t be a f r a g m e n t of a n i n d e p e n d e n t
p r i o r B a b y l o n i a n S i b y l s i n c e 9 7 - 1 5 5 are h o s t i l e to t h e B a b y l o n i a n s , a n d
t h a t this section s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e b e a s s i g n e d to t h e J e w i s h a u t h o r s of
t h e rest of t h e o r a c l e . A d r a s t i c a l l y different a t d t u d e is p u t f o r w a r d by
V . N i k i p r o w e t z k y , La Troisieme Sibylle ( 1 9 7 0 ) , w h o d a t e s t h e e n t i r e b o o k
to the mid-first c e n t u r y E . G . , a r g u i n g t h a t it is a u n i f i e d c o m p o s i t i o n
i r o m t h e t i m e of C l e o p a t r a V I I a n d t h e s e c o n d t r i u m v i r a t e {op. cit., p .
2 1 6 ) . O n l y verse 7 3 6 ( o n C a m a r i n a ) a n d verses 63—74 ( w h i c h d e s c r i b e
S a m a r i a as ' S e b a s t e ' a n d t h e r e f o r e d a t e after 2 5 B . C . ) a r e l a t e r a d
d i t i o n s . J . J . Collins, The Sibylline Oracles of Egyptian Judaism ( 1 9 7 4 ) ,
tlirows d o u b t on t h e o r i g i n s of verses 3 8 1 - 7 in t h e w o r k of a P e r s i a n
Sibyl, a s asserted b y G e f f c k e n . F o r the r e s t , h e asserts t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l
( o r p u s of t h e Book consisted in verses 9 7 - 3 4 9 a n d 4 8 9 - e n d , w r i t t e n in
t h e m i d - s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C . , w i t h verses 3 5 0 - 4 8 8 a d d e d a t s o m e t i m e in
t h e first c e n t u r y B . C . {ibid., p p . 2 7 - 8 ) .
In o r d e r t o clarify t h e issue, t h e c o n t e n t s will first b e surveyed,"^"^
o m i t t i n g in, 1-96 w h i c h a c c o r d i n g to t h e m a n u s c r i p t t r a d i t i o n b e l o n g s
to Book u ( c f a b o v e , p . 630). T h e r e m a i n d e r c a n b e a s s i g n e d for
convenience into three g r o u p s (97-294, 295-488, a n d 489-829) w h i c h
sliow a c e r t a i n c o h e r e n c e b e c a u s e of t h e fresh s t a r t s m a d e a t v e r s e s 295
a n d 489. T h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e first g r o u p is m i s s i n g . I t o p e n s a b r u p t l y
w i t h a r e c o l l e c t i o n of t h e b u i l d i n g o f the t o w e r of B a b e l a n d the
I o n f u s i o n of l a n g u a g e s as t h e c a u s e of t h e d i s p e r s i o n of m a n k i n d
9 7 - 1 0 9 ) . W h e n t h e w h o l e e a r t h w a s p o p u l a t e d , r u l e o v e r it was
d i v i d e d b e t w e e n t h r e e : C h r o n o s , T i t a n , a n d l a p e t u s . A t first, t h e y
r u l e d p e a c e a b l y a l o n g s i d e o n e a n o t h e r ; b u t C h r o n o s a n d T i t a n fell i n t o
a conflict w h i c h , s e t t l e d for only a s h o r t t i m e b y a n a s s e m b l y o f the
.^07. Cf. also the survey of contents by Lanchester in Charles, A P O T I I , p p . 371—2 ; J .

I Collins, The Sibylline Oractes of Egyptian Judaism (1974), pp. 24-8. C f also R z a c h , RE
I I A (1923), cols. 2122-30.
jSaaiAet's-, e v e n t u a l l y resulted in a b a t t l e b e t w e e n t h e sons of C h r o n o s

a n d t h e T i t a n s a n d t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of b o t h r a c e s . After t h e i r
a n n i h i l a t i o n t h e r e c a m e i n t o b e i n g one after a n o t h e r t h e k i n g d o m s of
t h e E g y p t i a n s , the P e r s i a n s , t h e M e d i a n s , the E t h i o p i a n s , the A s s y r i a n s ,
the Babylonians, the M a c e d o n i a n s , once again the Egyptians, a n d
finally t h e R o m a n s (verses 1 1 0 - 6 1 ) . T h e Sibyl t h e n b e g i n s to p r o p h e s y ,
first t h e g o l d e n a g e o f t h e S o l o m o n i c k i n g d o m , followed by t h e
H e l l e n i s t i c - M a c e d o n i a n k i n g d o m , a n d finally t h e m a n y - h e a d e d (176)
k i n g d o m of t h e R o m a n s . After the s e v e n t h k i n g of E g y p t o f t h e H e l l e n i c
r a c e , t h e p e o p l e of G o d will r u l e a g a i n a n d l e a d all m o r t a l s t o w a r d s life
( 1 6 2 - 9 5 ) . T h e j u d g e m e n t of G o d will fall u p o n all t h e k i n g d o m s of t h e
w o r l d , from t h e T i t a n s a n d sons of C h r o n o s o n w a r d s . E v e n the p i o u s f r o m
S o l o m o n ' s k i n g d o m will b e afflicted w i t h m i s f o r t u n e . T h e a u t h o r m a k e s
u s e of t h i s o c c a s i o n to p r e s e n t a s k e t c h o f the J e w i s h n a t i o n , its w o r s h i p ,
a n d its m a i n fortunes, f r o m t h e e x o d u s from E g y p t u n t i l C y r u s
(196-294).
T h e s e c o n d g r o u p is a l m o s t e n t i r e l y t a k e n u p w i t h p r e d i c t i o n s of
j u d g e m e n t s a n d calamities, against Babylon ( 2 9 5 - 3 1 3 ) , against Egypt
( 3 1 4 - 1 8 ) , against G o g a n d M a g o g (319-22), against Libya (323-33). A
b r i e f s t a t e m e n t of t h e signs a u g u r i n g t h e c a l a m i t y ( 3 3 4 - 4 0 ) is followed
b y p r o c l a m a t i o n s o f w o e on i n d i v i d u a l cities a n d l a n d s , a n d c o n c l u d e s
w i t h t h e p r o m i s e of a g e n e r a l c o n d i t i o n of M e s s i a n i c p r o s p e r i t y a n d
p e a c e i n A s i a a n d E u r o p e ( 3 4 1 - 8 0 ) . A d d e d t o this a r e oracles
c o n c e r n i n g A l e x a n d e r t h e G r e a t , a d a p t e d to refer t o A n d o c h u s
E p i p h a n e s a n d his successors ( 3 8 1 - 4 0 0 ) , a n d c o n c e r n i n g P h r y g i a , T r o y
(interspersed with polemic against H o m e r ) , Lycia, C y p r u s , Italy, a n d
o t h e r l a n d s , t o w n s a n d i s l a n d s (401—88).
T h e t h i r d g r o u p begins w i t h oracles o n P h o e n i c i a , C r e t e , T h r a c i a ,
G o g a n d M a g o g , a n d t h e H e l l e n e s ( 4 8 9 - 5 7 2 ) . It t h e n p o i n t s to t h e
p e o p l e o f I s r a e l , w h o k e e p t h e L a w of G o d a n d d o n o t t a k e to i d o l a t r y
a n d u n n a t u r a l vices like the o t h e r n a t i o n s ( 5 7 3 - 6 0 0 ) . T h i s is followed
b y a r e i t e r a t e d p r o p h e c y of j u d g e m e n t o n t h e sinful w o r l d , e n d i n g in
promises (601-23) and a n exhortation t o conversion, together with a
d e s c r i p t i o n o f the r u i n w h i c h will fall o n the u n g o d l y w o r l d , especially
on H e l l a s ( 6 2 4 - 5 1 ) . T h e c o n c l u s i o n consists in t h e p r o m i s e of t h e
M e s s i a n i c K i n g , t h e p r o p h e c y of j u d g e m e n t , a n d a d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n
of t h e M e s s i a n i c s a l v a t i o n , i n t e r s p e r s e d w i t h e x h o r t a t i o n s to H e l l a s to
a b a n d o n its a r r o g a n c e , a n d references to t h e o m e n s of t h e final
j u d g e m e n t ( 6 5 2 - 8 0 8 ) . I n t h e E p i l o g u e t h e Sibyl says t h a t s h e c o m e s
from B a b y l o n , is w r o n g l y r e g a r d e d b y the G r e e k s a s a n a t i v e of
E r y t h r a e ( 8 0 9 - 1 8 ) , is t h e d a u g h t e r of N o a h a n d w a s in the a r k w i t h
h i m at t h e d m e of t h e flood (819-29).*°^
208. T h e r e are no grounds for separating the Epilogue (809—29) from the rest of the
T h i s s u r v e y of t h e c o n t e n t s d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t , d e s p i t e t h e a r g u m e n t s
ol Niiciprowetzky, i t is u n h k e l y t h a t w e h a v e h e r e a unified c o m p o s i t i o n .
In t h e s e c o n d g r o u p , i n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e r e is f r e q u e n t l y n o c o n t i n u i t y
b e t w e e n t h e p a s s a g e s . I t is t h e r e f o r e in a n y c a s e a c o l l e c t i o n of s e p a r a t e
oracles. N e v e r t h e l e s s , it is at least p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e b u l k d e r i v e s f r o m
o n e a u t h o r , for j u s t as t h e r e is little u n i f o r m i t y in t h e w h o l e , so t h e r e is
little c e r t a i n t y in t h e t r a c e s of different h a n d s t h a t h a v e b e e n f o u n d in
it. T h e c i r c u m s t a n c e w h i c h s p e a k s p a r t i c u l a r l y for t h e essential
h o m o g e n e i t y o f t h e w h o l e is t h a t in all t h r e e g r o u p s t h e r e is r e f e r e n c e to
t h e t i m e of t h e s e v e n t h P t o l e m y ( 1 9 1 - 3 , 3 1 6 - 1 8 , 608—10). B u t this
a s s u m p t i o n also n e e d s t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t the p o s s i b i h t y t h a t t h e
a u t h o r i n s e r t e d o l d e r , g e n t i l e o r a c l e s i n t o his o w n w o r k , a n d t h a t on t h e
o t h e r h a n d l a t e r w r i t e r s e x p a n d e d the o r i g i n a l l e n g t h w i t h l a r g e r or
smaller i n t e r p o l a t i o n s . T h e g e n t i l e o r a c l e s i n c l u d e d c a n s c a r c e l y h a v e
b e e n so n u m e r o u s or e x t e n s i v e , for in t h a t case c l e a r e r signs o f a
n o n - J e w i s h o u t l o o k w o u l d c e r t a i n l y be expected.'^"^ T h e m y t h o l o g i c a l
passage a t t h e b e g i n n i n g , w h i c h i n a e u h e m e r i s t i c m a n n e r m a k e s t h e
gentile g o d s i n t o guiltless h u m a n k i n g s o f a n t i q u i t y , m a y also v e r y w e l l
h a v e b e e n w r i t t e n b y a J e w . I n d e e d , this k i n d of m i x t u r e of G r e e k a n d
J e w i s h m y t h s a c c o r d s p r e c i s e l y w i t h the c h a r a c t e r o f H e l l e n i s t i c J e w i s h
w r i t i n g s . O n l y o n e line (776) m a y b e a C h r i s d a n i n t e r p o l a t i o n , in
w h i c h c a s e it s h o u l d b e e x c i s e d , b u t it is m o r e likely t h a t vlov Ocolo t h e r e
s h o u l d b e r e a d as vrjov deoio (cf. a b o v e , v o l . I I , p . 501).^'°
T h e following t e r m i n i c a n b e p r o v i d e d for t h e d a t e of c o m p o s i t i o n of
specific o r a c l e s w i t h i n iii, 96-829. V e r s e 176 p r e s u p p o s e s t h a t R o m e is
still a r e p u b l i c [TroXvKpavos). Verses 1 9 1 - 3 , 3 1 6 - 1 8 , and 6 0 8 - 1 0 assume
a d a t e before the e n d o f t h e rule of a ' s e v e n t h k i n g o f E g y p t of t h e
H e l l e n i c r a c e ' , since, a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s e p a s s a g e s , t h a t r e i g n w a s to
m a r k t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l e n d o f the w o r l d . I t is h a r d to believe t h a t s u c h
.m assertion c o u l d b e m a d e after t h e last k i n g w h o c o u l d b e d e s c r i b e d in
this w a y h a d d i e d . T h e d e s c r i p t i o n fits a n u m b e r of P t o l e m i e s , t h e
e i m m e r a t i o n d e p e n d i n g on w h e t h e r A l e x a n d e r t h e G r e a t s h o u l d be
( o u n t e d as a k i n g of E g y p t , a n d on t h e w e i g h t to b e a s s i g n e d to
wt)rk. T h e polemic h e r e against the Erythraean Sibyl a n d the claim to a Babylonian

origin are entirely in keeping wdth the claims of the Jewish Sibyl elsewhere in t h e book, cf
Nikiprowetzky, op. cit., p p . 3 7 - 4 1 .
209. O n l y one passage can b e attributed t o a p a g a n oracle with certainty. T h a t is verse
73b, which urges that C a m a r i n a should not be aroused. T h i s oracle was originally
l)<-iphic a n d h a d become proverbial by t h e late first century B.C., cf. Vergil, Aeneid iii
Hoo-i. C f H. W . Parke and D . E. W. Wormell, Tfie Delphic Oracle I (1956), p. 3 9 1 ;
Nikiprowetzky, op. cit., p p . 207, 353.
•210. T h i s emendation, conjectured by A l e x a n d r e , is m u c h closer t o the context than
liu- hypothesis that it is a Christian interpolation, cf Geffcken, Komposition und
l-.ntstehungszeit (1902), p . 13; Collins in Chariesworth, O T P I, p . 3 7 9 ; cf t h e complete
(Xi ision of the line by A . Kurfess, Sibytlinische Weissagungen (1951), p. 108.
o v e r l a p p i n g r e i g n s . T h e m o s t likely i d e n t i f i c a t i o n is w i t h P t o l e m y VI
Philometor (180-145 B.C.), but, since Ptolemy VIII Physcon and
P t o l e m y V I I P h i l o p a t o r a r e a l s o p o s s i b l e , o n l y a m o r e g e n e r a l d a t e in
the mid-second century B . C . can be affirmed for these pardcular
oracles.^" T h e t e r m veos (608) is as likely to refer to the king in
question as a new k i n g , or t o b e p a r t o f his d d e , as i n t h e case of
P h i l o p a t o r , a s to refer t o h i s y o u t h , a n d is t h e r e f o r e of n o h e l p in
dating."'^
V e r s e s 350—80, w h i c h consist of a s h a r p p o l e m i c a g a i n s t R o m e and
refer t o a g r e a t R o m a n disaster i n Asia, m a y be associated with the
m a s s a c r e s of R o m a n s i n Asia u n d e r M i t h r i d a t e s (88 B . C . ) ^ ' ^ o r to t h e
c a m p a i g n of C l e o p a t r a a g a i n s t Rome.^'"* V e r s e s 3 8 8 - 4 0 0 , w h i c h g i v e a
c o m p l e x a c c o u n t o f t h e fate o f t h e w a r r i o r w h o is t o c o n q u e r Asia a n d
of his d e s c e n d a n t s , m a y refer i n s o m e d e t a i l t o A n t i o c h u s E p i p h a n e s , in
211. N u m e r o u s attempts have been m a d e to establish more accurately t h e Egyptian

king in question and therefore the d a t e of the prophecies. T h e criteria adopted are the
following, which are listed with the objections m a d e to t h e m by their critics. ( i ) The king
in question is likely t o have been friendly towards t h e Jews, therefore Ptolemy V I
Philometor is probable (Fraser, PA I I , p. 992). Against this, t h e reference t o the king
seems to be an indicator of the date of t h e messianic a g e , n o t the agent of it, cf. A.
Momigliano, ' L a portata storica dei vaticini sul settimo re nel terzo libro degli Oracoli
Sibillini', Forma Futuri {Studi in Onore di Cardinale Michele Pellegrino) (1975), p p . 1077-84.
(2) The king m a y be identified with the 'king from the s u n ' of verse 652, who will relieve
the entire earth from evil war. Such a n identification is possible given the role of the sun
in Ptolemaic royal titulature a n d would require t h e Ptolemy in question to have been a t
least a partial contributor to the messianic age, making his friendship towards the J e w s
Hkely. Ptolemy Philometor would again seem p r o b a b l e (Collins, BAAJ, p p . 6 8 - 7 0 ) .
Against this, t h e identification of t h e kings in t h e two passages is not inevitable, cf.
Momigliano, art. cit., p . 1081. T h e king from the sun could be a Jewish messiah (though
the phrase would be unique i n this form, c f Collins, BAAJ, p. 68), or it could belong t o
a n entirely separate prophecy. (3) T h e prophecy i n verses 175-92 is extremely hostile t o
R o m e a n d ends by dating t h e end o f R o m a n power to t h e rule of the seventh king. T h i s
would b e very odd for an E g y p t i a n or J u d a e a n J e w between 170 a n d 160 since both
Egypt a n d J u d a e a h a d friendly relations with R o m e in this period (Momigliano, art. cit.,
p . 1082). Either the passage dates t h e king to a later period (cf. Nikiprowetzky, op. cit.,
p p . 208-16, w h o refers the oracle to Cleopatra (!) V I I ) o r it is a late addition (A. Peretti,
La Sibilla Babilonese (1943), p . 190; c f Nikiprowetzky, op. cit., p p . 210-12, for arguments
in favour of the unity of the text). (4) T h e reference to t h e seventh king in lines 6 0 8 - 9
followed (611-15) by mention of a great king w h o will come to Egypt from Asia a n d
depart i n triumph. If the king is to be identified with Antiochus Epiphanes, the d a t e of
t h e prophecy must b e precisely between 170 a n d 168 B.C., when Antiochus' second
invasion of Egypt was threatened b y the R o m a n s (Momigliano, art. cit., p. 1081). Against
this, the prophecy m a y be genuine rather than ex eventu, and it is odd that n o mention o f
t h e M a c c a b a e a n revolt should be m a d e if the p r o p h e c y referred direcdy t o Antiochus
(Collins, BAAJ, pp. 6 5 - 6 ) . If, as is eminently Hkely, Jewish oracles of the second c e n t u r y
B.C. have been reshaped for a n e w literary context i n the first century B.C. or A . D . ,
precise dating of the original oracles by such means may be impossible.
212. See J. J . Collins, The Sibylline Oracles of Egyptian Judaism (1974), p . 30.
213. W . Bousset, 'Sibyllen u n d Sibyllinische Bucher', H H R E X V I I I (1906), col. 271.
214. Peretti, op. cit., p p . 330 ff., 441 ff.; ColHns, Sibylline Oracles, pp. 57-64.
w h i c h c a s e t h e ' p a r a s i t e h o r n ' (400) m u s t refer t o Z a b i n a s , a n d a t l e a s t

the section 396-400 of t h e o r a c l e m u s t b e p l a c e d after 1 2 9 B . C . , w h e n
Z a b i n a s w a s p r o c l a i m e d k i n g , b u t before 1 2 2 B . C . , w h e n h e p e r i s h e d .
Verses 4 6 4 - 9 refer t o a d i s a s t r o u s civil w a r i n I t a l y , w h i c h w o u l d b e
unlikely before the S o c i a l W a r of 9 0 - 8 8 B . C . V e r s e s 484 a n d 4 8 7 s e e m
to refer t o t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f C o r i n t h a n d C a r t h a g e i n 1 4 6 B . C . ^ ' ^
Verses 6 1 1 - 1 5 , w h i c h d e s c r i b e h o w a m i g h t y k i n g from Asia will c a s t
d o w n t h e k i n g d o m o f E g y p t a n d b r i n g a b o u t m a s s c o n v e r s i o n to G o d ,
m a y refer to A n t i o c h u s E p i p h a n e s , i n w h i c h c a s e t h e y m u s t h a v e b e e n
w r i t t e n i n t h e t i m e b e t w e e n h i s successful c a m p a i g n a g a i n s t E g y p t in
170 B . C . a n d h i s failure i n 1 6 8 B . C . T h e s e verses m a y , h o w e v e r , b e a
m u c h m o r e general p r o p h e c y a b o u t the c o n t i n u a l t h r e a t of Asian kings
to E g y p t , in w h i c h c a s e n o precise h i s t o r i c a l r e f e r e n c e is t o b e s o u g h t . ^
F o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e p r e c i s e d a t e of c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e w h o l e B o o k ,
n o n e of those p a s s a g e s is decisive. T h e fact t h a t t h e references to t h e
s e v e n t h king a p p e a r i n t h r e e different sections o f t h e w o r k m a k e
a t t r a c t i v e t h e h y p o t h e s i s of a n i n i t i a l r e d a c t i o n at t h a t d a t e (i.e.
jirobably mid-second c e n t u r y B . C ) ; i n t h a t case, n u m e r o u s later
i n s e r t i o n s m u s t be p o s t u l a t e d . T h e d a t e s a s c r i b e d t o t h e s e passages d o ,
h o w e v e r , p r o v i d e a terminus post quem o f t h e m i d - f i r s t c e n t u r y B . C . for
the insertion o f t h o s e e x t r a p a s s a g e s o r t h e c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e w h o l e
Book. T h e terminus ante quem is t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e T e m p l e i n A . D . 70.
( ^ i m p o s i t i o n after t h a t d a t e w o u l d b e u n l i k e l y , g i v e n t h e e m p h a s i s p u t
on t h e T e m p l e c u l t w i t h i n t h e Book. T h i s u n c e r t a i n t y a b o u t t h e d a t e of
c o m p i l a t i o n is c l e a r l y n o t a p r o b l e m for t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f specific
passages if, as a r g u e d a b o v e , t h e w o r k is n o t a l i t e r a r y u n i t y .
E x t e r n a l t e s t i m o n y p r o v e s a n e a r l y d a t e o n l y for verses 9 7 - 1 5 5 . T h e
Sibyl's p r o p h e c y o f t h e b u i l d i n g o f t h e t o w e r o f B a b e l a n d of t h e
s u b s e q u e n t w a r b e t w e e n t h e sons of C h r o n o s a n d t h e T i t a n s w a s
a l r e a d y q u o t e d e x p l i c i t l y u n d e r t h e n a m e of t h e S i b y l [SifioXXa 84 (f>r)oiv
etc.) b y A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r , h e n c e i n t h e first c e n t u r y B . C , i n his
.XaXSa'iKa, cf E u s e b i u s , Chron., ed. S c h o e n e , I , p . 2 3 = S y n c e l l u s , ed.
Dindorf, I, p . 81 = C y r i l l . , Adv. Julian., e d . S p a n h . , p . 9.^' Q u o t a t i o n s
215. Identification w i t h Antiochus Epiphanes w a s originally proposed by Hilgenfeld,

'jud. Apok., pp. 6 8 ff. T h e m o r e precise identification of t h e parasite h o r n with Zabinas is
li)und in H . H. Rowley, ' T h e I n t e r p r e t a t i o n and D a t e of Sibylline Oracles I I I 388-400',
/ A W 44 (1926), p p . 324-7.
216. I t is not justified to emend verse 484 so that Ghalcedon (XaA/fijSaii') be read
uistcad of Carthage {Xapxr)8a)v) as does A . Kurfess, Sibytlinische Weissagungen (1951), ad
Inc., following a conjecture by Meineke.
217. Collins, Sibylline Oracles, pp. 29-30.
218. It will b e shown below, p p . 6 4 6 ff., t h a t A l e x a n d e r Polyhistor h a d before h i m not
.1 Babylonian b u t our Jewish Sibyl. T h e quotation was t a k e n by Josephus from Alexander
I'olyhistor without mentioning his n a m e {Ant. i 4, 3 (i 15-18) = Eusebius, Praep. ev. ix 15
.iiul Onomast., e d . K l o s t e r m a n n (1904), 4 0 ) . Cf F r e u d e n t h a l , Alexander Polyhistor, p . 25,
from d i v e r s e p a r t s of Book iii a r e f o u n d a m o n g t h e oldest p a t r i s t i c

writings.^
T h e p l a c e of origin o f B o o k iii is n o r m a l l y g i v e n as E g y p t b e c a u s e o f
t h e n u m e r o u s references to t h a t l a n d , n o t a l l of w h i c h c a n easily b e
e x p l a i n e d i n t e r m s of its p r o m i n e n c e in t h e Bible ( c f 1 5 9 - 6 1 o n E g y p t
as a w o r l d e m p i r e ) . Specific o r a c l e s m a y h o w e v e r r e a s o n a b l y b e
a s s i g n e d a different p r o v e n a n c e (e.g. verses 400—88, w h i c h m a y b e
a s c r i b e d to t h e E r y t h r a e a n S i b y l i n A s i a M i n o r ) . T h e r e a r e m a n y
similarities b e t w e e n t h e T h i r d S i b y l h n e s a n d J e w i s h a p o c r y p h a l w o r k s
s u c h as E n o c h a n d J u b i l e e s , w h i c h suggests t h a t a J u d a e a n o r i g i n for
p a r t of t h e w o r k is possible. Within Egypt, Leontopolis provides a
milieu a s p l a u s i b l e as A l e x a n d r i a . ^ ' ^ As w i t h t h e d a t i n g o f the b o o k , i t is
b e s t to assign a p r o v e n a n c e s e p a r a t e l y to e a c h s e c t i o n of t h e t e x t .
2. B o t h t h e extensive f r a g m e n t s (eighty-four verses i n all) g i v e n b y
T h e o p h i l u s , Ad Autol. ii 36 ( e d . G r a n t , p p . 8 6 - 9 , 9 0 - 3 ) also b e l o n g
e i t h e r t o t h e o r i g i n a l Book iii or t o t h e lost o r i g i n a l B o o k ii.'*'^^ V e r s e s
from t h e s a m e f r a g m e n t s a r e also cited by o t h e r C h u r c h Fathers.^**
T h e s e p a s s a g e s a r e missing f r o m t h e e x t a n t m a n u s c r i p t s b e c a u s e of t h e
b r e a k b e t w e e n t h e p r e s e n t Books ii a n d iii ( c f a b o v e , p . 630). I n t h e
e a r l y e d i t i o n s t h e y w e r e p l a c e d a t t h e h e a d of t h e w h o l e c o l l e c t i o n
b e c a u s e T h e o p h i l u s states t h a t t h e y stood at t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e Sibyl's
p r o p h e c y (ev dpxH rrjs Trpotfy^reias avrrjs). B e c a u s e t h e p r e s e n t B o o k i a n d
B o o k ii w e r e a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y c o m p o s e d after T h e o p h i l u s w r o t e (at t h e
e n d of t h e first c e n t u r y A . D . ) , a n d i t was t h e r e f o r e o n l y m u c h l a t e r t h a t
note, and t h e discussion below.

219. Athenagoras, Leg. 30. Theophilus, Ad Autol. ii 3 1 . Tertullian, Ad nationes ii 12.
Clement of Alexandria, Protrept. vi 7 0 ; vii 74. Pseudo-Justin, Cohortatio ad Graecos 16.
220. J . Geffcken, Komposition und Entstehungszdt (1902), p. 13, followed b y Collins,
Sibylline Oracles, p p . 2 7 - 8 . T h e attribution is plausible b o t h because t h e content of these
verses is t h e same as t h a t attributed t o the E r y t h r a e a n Sibyl by V a r r o (in Lactantius, Div.
Inst, i 6) a n d by Pausanias x 2 , 2, a n d because of the prominence of Asia M i n o r place
names.
221. A. J a u b e r t , La Nation de I'Alliance dans le Judaisme (1963), p . 331 ; Nikiprowetzky,
op. cit., p p . 70, 128, 132, 137; F . Millar, review of Nikiprowetzky, J T h S t n.s. 23 (1972),
pp. 223-4.
222. Collins, Sibylline Oracles, p p . 47—53.
223. A further fragment of t w o lines (Theophilus, Ad Autolycum ii 3, 2, ed. Grant, p . 24
= Sib. O r . , ed. Geffcken, fragm. 2) is also assigned to t h e Prologue b y Lanchester in
Charles, A P O T I I , p. 377, where a translation of all three fragments into English is given.
(See also ColUns in Charlesworth, O T P I , pp. 470-1.) A further three very small
fragments from Lactantius a n d one fragment from Constantine are too brief to be
assigned a clear place in the Sibylline corpus, cf A. Kurfess, 'Wie sind d i e Fragmenta d e r
Oracula Sibyllina einzuordnen?', Aevum 26 (1952), p p . 228—35.
224. Gnostic fragments in Hippolytus, Philosophum. v 16. C l e m e n t of Alexandria,
Protrept. ii 2 7 ; Protrept. vi 71 = Strom, v 14, 108; Protrept. viii 77 = Strom, v 14, 115; Strom.
iii 3, 14. Pseudo-Justin, Cohortatio ad Graecos 16. Lactantius i 6, 15—16; 7, 1 3 ; 8, 3 ; ii 11, 18
(?); 12, 19; iv 6, 5. Idem, De ira dei 22, 7.
t h e y w e r e set a t t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e p r e s e n t c o l l e c t i o n , B o o k iii is
(ertainly the oldest p a r t a n d those passages m a y h a v e c o n s t i t u t e d the
o r i g i n a l i n t r o d u c t i o n t o i t . T h i s s u r m i s e is c o n f i r m e d b y t h e f a c t that
among his numerous quotations, Lactantius only describes such
p a s s a g e s a s a p p e a r i n T h e o p h i l u s ' f r a g m e n t s a n d B o o k iii, a s p r o p h e c i e s
of t h e E r y t h r a e a n S i b y l , i n d e e d cites t h e m a s b e l o n g i n g t o o n e book.'^^^
T h e c o n t e n t s of t h e s e v e r s e s m a y b e d e s i g n a t e d as the programme
p r o p e r o f all J e w i s h S i b y l l i s m : t h e y c o n t a i n a n e n e r g e t i c proclamation
of t h e o n e t r u e G o d a n d a n e q u a l l y e n e r g e t i c p o l e m i c a g a i n s t i d o l a t r y .
T h e trend ofjewish S i b y l l i s m is to b e s e e n n o w h e r e b e t t e r t h a n in t h i s
226
proem.
3 . T h e p a s s a g e g i v e n b y t h e e d i t i o n s a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f B o o k iii (iii
1-92) belongs according to t h e e v i d e n c e of t h e m a n u s c r i p t s to the
o r i g i n a l B o o k ii (cf a b o v e , p . 6 3 0 ) . T h e o r i g i n a l B o o k h a p p e a r s t o h a v e
been a composition separate from the extant Book ii, which was
o r i g i n a l l y a t t a c h e d t o B o o k i, cf. G e f f c k e n , Komposition, p p . 4 7 - 5 3 . If so,
the original Book ii p r o b a b l y survives only here, although Kurfess
argued t h a t the T h e o p h i l u s fragments discussed above should also be
225. Cf. Charles, A P O T I I , p p . 3 7 1 , 3 7 7 - 8 . L a c t a n t i u s distinguishes t h e different
Books as different Sibyls. W h e n after q u o t i n g from o n e Book he quotes from a n o t h e r , he
says: 'alia Sibylla dicit.' A m o n g the approximately fifty quotations which he gives,
extending from Book iii to Book viii of t h e collection, only those from t h e Prologue
preserved i n Theophilus a n d from Book iii a r e designated a s prophecies o f the E r y t h r a e a n
Sibyl. From the P r o l o g u e : Lactantius i 6, 13—16; i 3 ; ii 12, 19; iv 6, 5. F r o m Book i i i :
Lactantius ii i6, i (approximately e q u i v a l e n t to Sib. iii 228-9, ed. Geffcken); iv 6 , 5
(approximately Sib. iii 7 7 5 ) ; iv 15, 29 ( = Sib. iii 8 1 5 - 1 8 ) ; vii,19, 9 (first half of Sib. iii
6 1 8 ) ; vii 20, 1-2 ( = Sib. iii 7 4 1 - 3 ) ; vii 2 4 , 12 ( = Sib. iii 7 8 8 - 9 1 , 794). T h e most
instructive, however, is t h e passage in Lactantius iv 6, 5 : 'Sibylla Erythraea i n carminis
sui principio, q u o d a s u m m o D e o exorsa est, filium Dei d u c e m e t i m p e r a t o r e m o m n i u m
his versibus p r a e d i c a t : TTavTOTp6<f>ov KTIOTIJV, OOTIS yXvKV irveip.a a-naaiv Kardero,
xriy7)TTJpa deov TTOLVTWV enoirjoev (Geffcken, fragm. i , verses 5-6). ' E t rursus in fine: oAAov
f8wK€ dfos TTioTois avSpcaoi yepaipeiv' ( = a p p r o x i m a t e l y Sib. iii 775). 'Et alia Sibylla
praecipit h u n c oportere c o g n o s c i : avrov aov yivwoKe 0e6v, deov vlov eovra' ( = Sib. viii 329).
T h u s it is said quite plainly here that t h e p r o e m belongs to Book iii.
226. Geffcken {Komposition und Enstehungszeit, p p . 6 9 - 7 5 ) considered this passage t o be
'spurious', i.e. one that w a s never part of a Sibylline manuscript b u t was fabricated ad hoc
by a Christian a u t h o r t o serve as a p r o l o g u e to t h e oracles. However, n o t h i n g in these
fragments is necessarily Christian. O n the c o n t r a r y , their content is very similar t o iii
1-45 (Collins, BAAJ, p . 153), which Geffcken, op. cit., p p . 15 ff., t h o u g h t should be
retained a t the start of Book iii i n place of t h e fragments. I t was precisely because of this
similarity t h a t Nikiprowetzky, op. cit., p p . 6 c ^ , wished t o retain both t h e fragments and
verses 1-96 in Book iii, and that Kurfess, in H e n n e c k e a n d Schneemelcher, N.T.
Apocrypha, ed. R. M c L . Wilson ( E T 1965), I I , p . 707, proposed t h a t the fragments a n d iii
1-92 together should be treated as t h e missing original Jewish Book ii of the collection.
Whether o r not t h e fragments a r e an integral part o f Book iii, there is n o reason to d o u b t
their Jewish origin from before t h e e n d of t h e first c e n t u r y A.D., w h e n T h e o p h i l u s quoted
them. It remains most likely t h a t , if t h e a r g u m e n t given above, p . 630, that iii 1-96 did
not belong t o the original Book iii, is accepted, these fragments should be assigned to Book
iii as the missing introduction t o that Book.
a s s i g n e d t o the o r i g i n a l B o o k ii.^^^ A t a n y r a t e , t h e c o n t e n t s also

c o n f i r m t h a t verses iii 1-92 a r e n o t p a r t of B o o k iii .^^^ I t is difficult t o
p r o n o u n c e o n t h e i r o r i g i n . A t l e a s t four p a s s a g e s , w h i c h m a y n o t b e
c o n n e c t e d , c a n b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d (in 1 - 4 5 ; 46—62; 6 3 - 7 4 ; 7 5 ~ 9 2 ) -
N o t h i n g c a n be said a b o u t t h e d a t e o f o r i g i n of iii 1 - 4 5 e x c e p t t h a t i t
s h o w s similarities to t h e T h e o p h i l u s f r a g m e n t s , b u t a l s o to t h e J e w i s h
P s e u d o - O r p h i c f r a g m e n t s (see b e l o w , p . 6 6 1 ) a n d to Philo.^^^ iii 4 6 - 6 2
r e a d s : ' w h e n R o m e rules a l s o o v e r E g y p t , t h e g r e a t k i n g d o m o f t h e
i m m o r t a l k i n g shall a p p e a r a m o n g m e n ; a holy k i n g shall c o m e w h o
shall possess the s c e p t r e o v e r t h e w h o l e e a r t h e t e r n a l l y . T h e n shall t h e r e
b e pitiless a n g e r of L a t i n m e n ; t h r e e shall d e s t r o y R o m e w i t h a
w r e t c h e d f a t e ' (iii 46—52). M o s t critics h a v e i n t e r p r e t e d this to m e a n
t h a t t h e a u t h o r e x p e c t e d t h e c o m i n g o f the M e s s i a h d u r i n g t h e s e c o n d
t r i u m v i r a t e (42-32 B . C . ) , a n d this remains p r o b a b l e even t h o u g h t h e
d e l i b e r a t e o b s c u r i t y of t h e l a n g u a g e leaves o p e n m a n y other
possibilities.'^"
T h e p a s s a g e t h a t follows (iii 63—74) c e r t a i n l y not c o n n e c t e d w i t h
w h a t p r e c e d e s it. It b e g i n s b y s a y i n g t h a t B e l i a r will c o m e 'from t h e
S e b a s t e n e s ' {IK ZePaaTTjvcjv) a n d will c a u s e a n u p r o a r in n a t u r e w i t h
m a r v e l l o u s p o w e r , will raise the d e a d a n d p e r f o r m m a n y signs. H e will
d e l u d e the H e b r e w s , b o t h t h e c h o s e n a n d t h o s e w i t h o u t t h e law w h o
h a v e n o t y e t h e a r d the w o r d of G o d .
'Beliar' is clearly A n t i c h r i s t . Eeâarrjvwv m o s t p r o b a b l y refers t o t h e
i n h a b i t a n t s of S a m a r i a , w h i c h w a s r e n a m e d ' S e b a s t e ' i n 25 E . G . ,
a l t h o u g h a u n i q u e use of t h e w o r d to m e a n 'from t h e S e b a s t o i ' , i.e. f r o m
t h e h n e of A u g u s t u s , c a n n o t b e r u l e d o u t . If t h e r e f e r e n c e to S a m a r i a is
c o r r e c t , t h e p r o p h e c y is e v i d e n c e o f J e w i s h e x p e c t a t i o n of t h e
e m e r g e n c e o f a n A n t i c h r i s t figure from t h a t p l a c e , after 2 5 B . C . b u t
before the rise o f a C h r i s t i a n t r a d i t i o n a b o u t S i m o n M a g u s as a
s u p e r h u m a n figure. T h e r e is n o r e a s o n to believe t h a t t h e p a s s a g e is o f
C h r i s t i a n o r i g i n . ' ^ ' If t h e r e f e r e n c e is t o the line o f A u g u s t u s , Beliar is
227. A . Kurfess in Hennecke and Schneemelcher, N. T. Apocrypha, ed. R. M c L . Wilson

( E T 1965), I I , p . 707. See above, n. 226.
228. See, contra, Nikiprowetzky, op. cit., p p . 6 0 - 6 .
229. J . J. Collins, Sibylline Oracles, p . 64.
230. Reference to t h e triumvirs is accepted by Geffcken, J e a n m a i r e , Kurfess, Volz a n d
GoUins. The chief other p>ossibilities a r e : (i) this is a later Christian interpolation
referring to t h e birth of Christ u n d e r Augustus (Bousset, 'Sibyllen', H H R E X V I I I , p .
2 7 3 ) — n o t very likely; (2) the three R o m a n s a r e a different triad from those of 4 2 - 3 2
B.C., either the Gracchi (?!) or M a r i u s , Sulla and Ginna (Lanchester), or P o m p e y ,
Gaesar a n d Crassus (Volz); (3) the reference to three R o m a n rulers as bringers of r u i n o n
R o m e is simply a traditional motif in Jewish apocalyptic which reappears in many later
texts a n d therefore has no particular historical referent (Nikiprowetzky).
231. I n favour of a Christian origin a n d a direct reference to Simon Magus a r e
Jiilicher, T h L Z (1896), p. 379, and Geffcken, Komposition und Entstehungszdt, p . 15. Against
this, see Nikiprowetzky, op. cit., p p . 140-1, 2 2 3 - 5 ; c f p p . 224-5 t h e not very
m o s t likely to b e i d e n t i f i e d w i t h N e r o as i n Ascension of Isaiah iii i .'^^'^ I n

t h a t case t h e p a s s a g e m u s t b e d a t e d after A . D . 7 0 .
T h e final s e c t i o n , iii 7 5 - 9 2 , is as i t s t a n d s closely c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e
p r e c e d i n g p r o p h e c y , b u t m a y w e l l b e c o n s i d e r a b l y e a r l i e r in o r i g i n , in
which case the present c o n n e c t i o n w a s b r o u g h t a b o u t simply b y the fact
that it, t o o , d e s c r i b e s t h e signs o f t h e e n d - t i m e . According to this
section, a w o m a n w h o is a w i d o w will r u l e t h e w h o l e w o r l d . S h e w i l l
sink g o l d , silver, b r a s s a n d i r o n i n t o t h e s e a , b u t G o d will d e s t r o y e a r t h ,
sea a n d h e a v e n by fire. T h e i d e n t i t y of t h e w i d o w is m u c h d e b a t e d . T h e
most plausible hypothesis—and it is n o more than that, for the
supposed parallels put forward by Tarn and Jeanmaire are very
w e a k — i s t h a t t h e w i d o w is t o b e i d e n t i f i e d w i t h C l e o p a t r a , i n w h i c h
( a s e the p r o p h e c y b e l o n g s to t h e s a m e p e r i o d a s t h e s e c o n d s e c t i o n , iii
46—52, i . e . t h e p e r i o d of t h e s e c o n d t r i u m v i r a t e . ^ ^ ^ B u t i t m a y also b e
t h a t the w i d o w w a s a m y t h o l o g i c a l figure of t h e e n d o f t i m e w h o c a n n o t
he f u r t h e r described.'^^'^
4. W i t h r e s p e c t t o B o o k iv^^^ a f a r - r e a c h i n g c o n s e n s u s h a s d e v e l o p e d
. u n o n g s c h o l a r s c o n c e r n i n g its J e w i s h a u t h o r s h i p a n d a d a t e o f a b o u t
A . D . 80 (e.g. Blass, G e f f c k e n , Bousset, L a n c h e s t e r ) . T h i s is p r o b a b l y
the correct view, for there is n o t h i n g specifically Christian in the
Book. T h e S i b y l ' s t o n e is m o r e m i h t a n t t h a n in t h e p r e v i o u s B o o k .
I onsiderable early Jewish evidence outside t h e Sibyllines for such a n expectation.

•232. R. H . Charles, transl.. The Ascension of Isaiah (igoo), p. Ixviii. See also W . Bousset,
the Anti-Christ Legend, transl. A . H . K e a n e (1896); CoUins, Sibylline Oracles, pp. 8 6 - 7 .
233. No other connections between the t w o sections can be discovered. In favour of the
C.Uopatra identification, see W . W. T a r n , 'Alexander Helios a n d the Golden Age', J R S
a (1932), p. 142 ; H . J e a n m a i r e , La Sibylle et la Retour de t'Age d'Or (1939), p . 210, with
the cridcisms of Nikiprowetzky, op. cit., p . 146. T h e r e is n o strong objection to
identification with Cleopatra, a n d t h e hypothesis is strengthened by h e r association with
Isis, who underwent an a n n u a l ritual bereavement (Collins, Sibylline Oracles, p p . 69—70).
O t h e r less plausible theories a r e : ( i ) the widow is to be identified with R o m e (C.
Alexandre, Excursus ad Sibyllina (1856), p. 517 ; Lanchester in Charles, A P O T I I , p. 371).
Against this, it would b e odd t o describe t h e t r i u m p h a n t city as bereaved even w h e n at
I lie height of her power, and it seems forced to take the description as either anticipatory
111 descriptive of R o m a n sufferings in t h e Civil W a r s . (2) T h e widow is a representative of
ilie collective Messiah o r the n e w Jerusalem (Nikiprowetzky, op. cit., pp. 86, 149). Against
illis, it again seems strange to describe the city thus at a m o m e n t of glory, though it m a y
pel haps refer to t h e belief that Israel will rule although afflicted. (3) T h e widow is t o be
uieiuified with Zenobia. T h i s is hardly possible unless the passage is taken t o be
(:iiristian, as by Bousset, H H R E X V I I I (1906), p. 275.
234. This was Schiirer's conclusion in 1909, which was foUowed by A . R z a c h , R E I I A
i<>23), col. 2131.
235. For the content a n d EngHsh translation, see Lanchester i n Charles, A P O T I I , pp.
(72 f,, 3 9 3 - 7 ; J . J . CoUins in Chariesworth, O T P I , pp. 381-9. C f also R z a c h in R E I I A
i<)23), cols. 2 1 3 1 - 4 ; J . J . Collins, ' T h e Place of t h e F o u r t h Sibyl in t h e Development of
ilu- Jewish Sibyllina', J J S 25 (1974), pp. 3 6 5 - 8 0 ; V. Nikiprowetzky, 'Reflexions sur
(jîiel()ues Problemes d u Q u a t r i e m e e t du C i n q u i e m e Livre des Oracles Sibyllins', H U C A
I i ( 1972), pp. 29-58.
C a l l i n g h e r s e l f a t t h e s t a r t t h e p r o p h e t e s s of t h e t r u e G o d , s h e p r o c l a i m s
o n his i n s t r u c t i o n all k i n d s o f c a l a m i t i e s t h r o u g h w a r , e a r t h q u a k e , a n d
o t h e r n a t u r a l p h e n o m e n a t o t h e cities, l a n d s a n d p e o p l e s o f Asia and
E u r o p e . U n l e s s t h e y r e p e n t , G o d will d e s t r o y t h e w h o l e w o r l d b y fire,
a n d w i l l t h e n r a i s e m e n f r o m t h e d e a d a n d sit in j u d g e m e n t , banishing
t h e u n g o d l y t o T a r t a r u s a n d g r a n t i n g n e w life on e a r t h t o t h e p i o u s .
N o t h i n g i n t h e s e w o r d s is specifically r e m i n i s c e n t o f t h e Christian
s p h e r e of t h o u g h t , w h e r e a s it w o u l d h a r d l y h a v e b e e n possible for a
C h r i s t i a n a u t h o r to a v o i d m e n t i o n i n g t h e n a m e o f C h r i s t in a w o r k o n
e s c h a t o l o g y . N o r is t h e r e sufficient b a s i s for a s s u m i n g t h a t t h e a u t h o r
w a s a n Essene^^^ for t h e p o l e m i c a g a i n s t a n i m a l sacrifice in verse 29 is
p r o b a b l y o n l y d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t g e n t i l e sacrifice,*^^ a n d the b a p t i s m to
w h i c h t h e g e n t i l e s a r e s u m m o n e d in v e r s e 1 6 5 is e i t h e r J e w i s h p r o s e l y t e
b a p t i s m (cf. a b o v e , p . 174) o r , m o r e p r o b a b l y , a b a p t i s m of r e p e n t a n c e
like t h a t p r o v i d e d b y J o h n t h e Baptist.^^^ M a n y critics, particularly
Geffcken, have supposed that, as in Book iii, the author has
a c c o m m o d a t e d g e n t i l e o r a c l e s o n a l a r g e s c a l e . I t is n o t p r o b a b l e that
t h i s o c c u r r e d to s u c h a n e x t e n t o n t h e s a m e g r o u n d s a s t h e r e . T h e f a c t
itself, t h a t g e n t i l e o r a c l e s h a v e b e e n used h e r e , is o f c o u r s e beyond
d o u b t . T w o verses o f t h e B o o k ( 9 7 - 8 ) a r e t w i c e m e n t i o n e d already
b y S t r a b o (i 3 , 7 a n d x i i 2, 4) as o r a c l e s .
236. A n Essene origin w a s posited b y Ewald and Hiigenfield a n d is accepted b y

Lanchester. A. Peretti, 'Ecchi di dottrine esseniche negli O r a c o h Sibillini giudaici', L a
Parola del Passato 17 (1962), p p . 247-95, a t t e m p t e d to confirm the hypothesis b y
pointing to similarities between t h e Q u m r a n documents anji^the Sibyllines, particularly
Sib. iv. T h e similarities are however not sufficient to demonstrate a n y direct connection,
cf. B. Noack, ' A r e the Essenes Referred to i n the Sibylline Oracles?', Studia Theologica 17
(1963), p p . 9 0 - 1 0 2 ; V . Nikiprowetzky, art. cit., p p . 35-58.
237. C f Nikiprowetzky, art. cit., p p . 34—5; idem. La TroisUme Sibylle (1970), pp. 2 3 3 - 5 ,
based o n the parallel attacks on heathen cults to be found in Sib. iii 3 0 - 2 ; 5 6 4 - 5 ; 6 0 5 - 6 .
I t has been argued strongly by J . J . Collins, ' T h e Place of the Fourth Sibyl i n t h e
Development o f the Jewish Sibyllina', J J S 25 (1974), p p . 366-9, that Sib. iv 24-30 shows
a radically different attitude to the Jewish Temple to t h a t found in the other Sibylline
Books. H e argues t h a t the rest o f the Book, particularly verse 116, does not seem
concerned a b o u t the sack of the T e m p l e i n A.D. 70 and t h a t it is therefore significant t h a t
t h e a u t h o r failed to distinguish t h e Jewish Temple from others when launching his
general attack on bloody sacrifices. If Collins is correct. Sib. iv is unique a m o n g
Hellenistic Jewish writings in this respect. I t is however only possible to demonstrate t h e
author's lack of concern with the J e r u s a l e m Temple a n d it remains most probable t h a t
verse 29 is an attack u p o n p a g a n temples a n d sacrifices only.
238. C f J . T h o m a s , Le mouvement baptiste en Palestine et Syrie (1935), p p . 4 6 - 5 2 ; A .
J a u b e r t , La notion de I'alliance (1963), p . 331; Peretti, art. cit. (n. 236), p p . 2 5 6 - 9 5 ;
Nikiprowetzky, art. cit., pp. 4 6 - 7 .
239. T h e use in verses 49-102 a n d 173—92 of a n early Hellenistic oracle about t h e ten
generations since the flood a n d the four empires of the world is suggested b y Geffcken,
Komposition und Entstehungszeit, pp. 18-19. C f D. Flusser, ' T h e F o u r Empires in the F o u r t h
Sibyl a n d in t h e Book of Daniel', Israel Oriental Studies 2 (1972), p p . 148-75; Collins,
art. cit. (n. 235), p p . 370-6.
D e c i s i v e for t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e d a t e o f c o m p o s i t i o n is t h e fact
t h a t t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f J e r u s a l e m (i 1 5 - 2 7 ) a n d t h e e r u p t i o n of V e s u v i u s
of A . D . 79 ( 1 3 0 - 6 ) a r e p r e s u p p o s e d . ^ * " T h e a u t h o r also b e l i e v e d w i t h
m a n y of his c o n t e m p o r a r i e s in N e r o ' s flight a c r o s s t h e E u p h r a t e s a n d
his i m p e n d i n g r e t u r n ( 1 1 7 - 2 4 , 137—9). A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e o r a c l e m u s t
h a v e b e e n c o m p o s e d a b o u t A . D . 80 or n o t m u c h l a t e r . N o t h i n g is
k n o w n of its p l a c e of origin.^*'
P a t r i s t i c c i t a t i o n o f this b o o k b e g i n s a l r e a d y w i t h Justin.'^'^^
5. B o o k v h a s e v o k e d t h e s a m e sort o f d i v e r g e n t o p i n i o n s a m o n g
scholars i n a s s i g n i n g a d a t e t o the J e w i s h sections a s d i d B o o k iii.^''^^
F r i e d l i e b a s c r i b e d t h e w h o l e o f Book v t o a J e w f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g of
H a d r i a n ' s r e i g n ; s i m i l a r l y B a d t , to a J e w of a b o u t A . D . 1 3 0 . G e f f c k e n ,
Komposition und Entstehungszeit, p p . 2 2 ff., r e g a r d e d Book v 52—531, a t
k-ast, to b e t h e w o r k of a J e w a b o u t A . D . 80 or a few y e a r s e a r l i e r . Z a h n
t h o u g h t t h a t h e c o u l d d i s t i n g u i s h t h e w o r k of t w o J e w i s h a u t h o r s , o n e
of w h o m w r o t e in a b o u t A . D . 7 1 , a n d t h e o t h e r i n a b o u t A . D . 1 2 0 ,
w h e r e a s t h e w h o l e w a s e d i t e d b y a C h r i s t i a n i n a b o u t 150. Bousset a l s o
d i s t i n g u i s h e d t w o l a y e r s o f t r a d i t i o n . S c h i i r e r i n 1909 j u d g e d t h a t t h e
b o o k is n o t a u n i f i e d w h o l e b u t a loose c o n g l o m e r a t e of d i f f e r e n t k i n d s
of pieces w h i c h t h e r e f o r e c a n n o t b e assigned a n o r i g i n o r d a t e in a n y
d e t a i l . T h i s o p i n i o n w a s followed b y S. S z e k e l y , Bibliotheca Apocrypha
240. O n the eruption of Vesuvius, c f S. H e r r h c h , 'Die antike UberHeferung iiber d e n

Vcsuv-Ausbruch i m J a h r e 79', KHo 4 (1904), pp. 2 0 9 - 2 6 ; E. T . Merrill, 'Notes on the
eruption of Vesuvius in 79 A . D . ' , AJA 22 (1918), p p . 304 ff.; A J A 24 (1920), p p . 2 6 2 - 8 ;
(;. B. Alfano a n d J . Friedlaender, Die Geschichte des Vesuves (1929), pp. 11 ff.; H .
Sigurdsson, S. CashdoUar and S. R. J . Sparks, ' T h e e r u p d o n o f Vesuvius in A.D. 79',
.'\JA 86 (1982), p p . 3 9 - 5 1 . T h e main source is PUny, Epist. vi 16 and 20. T h e eruption
began on t h e 24th of August. T h e year is determined by D i o Cass, Ixvi 21, i : ' i n the first
year of the reign o f T i t u s ' . Eusebius, Chron., ed. Schoene, I I , pp. 158 ff. (2095), cf H e l m ,
ed., GCS, Eusebius V I I , 2nd ed., p. 189. P l u t a r c h also mentions that the e r u p t i o n of
Vesuvius, like m a n y similar misfortunes, h a d been foretold by t h e Sibyl {De sera numinis
rindicta, p. 566E, De Pythiae oraculis, p . 398E). H o w e v e r , a connection between these
(gentile oracles a n d the Jewish Sibyl u n d e r discussion c a n n o t be proved.
241. T h e book is more militant t h a n Sib. iii a n d v, cf. P. Dalbert, Die Theologie der
hell.-jiid. Missionstiteratur (1954), p. 109. This may suggest a different place of origin b u t
might just be due to a different compiler or date. I n favour of a n origin in t h e J o r d a n
valley or i n Syria is t h e emphasis o n baptism, cf. T h o m a s , op. cit., p . 223. No good
.iiguments can be put forward for a n y other place of origin, despite suggestions of Asia
Minor (J. B . Frey, DB suppl. I (1928), col. 427).
242. Justin, Apot. i 20 (refers to Sib. iv 172-7). C l e m e n t of Alexandria, Protrept. iv 50
.iiid 62. Paedag. ii 10, 9 9 ; iii 3, 15. Constit. Apostol. v 7. Pseudo-Jusdn, Cohort. 16.
l.actanUus vii 23, 4. Idem, De ira dei 23 (three passages).
243. Cf. the s u m m a r y of t h e contents a n d the English translation b y Lanchester, in
(:harles, A P O T I I , pp. 373, 3 9 7 - 4 0 6 ; Collins, in Chariesworth, O T P I, pp. 393-405. See
also Geffcken, Komposition und Entstehungszeit, pp. 2 2 - 3 0 ; R z a c h , RE I I A (1923), cols.
.(134-40; A . Kurfess, ' Z u m 5. Buch d e r O r a c u l a Sibyllina', R h M 29 (1956), p p . 2 2 5 - 4 1 ;
V. Nikiprowetzky, art. cit., p p . 3 0 - 3 ; Collins, Sibylline Oracles, p p . 7 3 - 9 5 ; idem, BAAJ,
pp. 122-8.
( 1 9 1 3 ) , p . 145. R z a c h , R E I I A 2 ( 1 9 2 3 ) , cols. 2 1 3 4 - 4 0 , a s s i g n e d
v a r i o u s sections t o o l d e r p r o p h e c i e s b u t o p i n e d t h a t m o s t o f t h e b o o k
was p r o d u c e d u n d e r D o m i t i a n , while v 1-50 w a s produced u n d e r M .
A n t o n i n u s a n d verse 51 d o e s n o t b e l o n g to t h e c o l l e c t i o n a t a l l .
V a r i a n t s of these views h a v e b e e n a d o p t e d b y all m o r e r e c e n t s c h o l a r s .
T h e d a t i n g o f the w o r k d e p e n d s m o s t o n w h e t h e r the b o o k as it
s t a n d s s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d a u n i t y . I t is likely t h a t t h e a n s w e r h e r e ,
u n l i k e the case o f B o o k iii, s h o u l d be aflfirmative (Geffcken, L a n c h e s t e r ,
C o l h n s ) . B o o k v m a y b e d i v i d e d into t h e f o l l o w i n g six s e c t i o n s : 1 - 5 1 ,
5 2 - 1 1 0 , 1 1 1 - 1 7 8 , 1 7 9 - 2 8 5 , 286—434, 4 3 5 - 5 3 0 . O f these, t h e m i d d l e
four ( 5 2 - 4 3 4 ) consist of f o u r o r a c l e s a g a i n s t t h e n a t i o n s , a l l of w h i c h
c o n c e r n t h e r e t u r n of N e r o a s a n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l figure, h i s c o n f r o n t a t i o n
w i t h a s a v i o u r figure, a n d a t e r r i b l e d e s t r u c t i o n ( C o l l i n s ) . T h e o p e n i n g
s e c t i o n h a s less o b v i o u s l y in c o m m o n w i t h t h e s e o r a c l e s ( 1 - 5 1 ) , t r e a d n g
N e r o , for i n s t a n c e , as a p u r e l y h i s t o r i c a l p e r s o n . I t m a y therefore h a v e
b e e n a d d e d a t a different t i m e . T h e b o o k is c e r t a i n l y of J e w i s h o r i g i n
b e c a u s e t h e sections i n w h i c h J e w i s h i n t e r e s t s a n d views c o m e m o r e o r
less c l e a r l y to t h e f o r e g r o u n d a r e f o u n d t h r o u g h o u t t h e b o o k ( c f
especially verses 260-85, 3 2 8 - 3 2 , 344—60, 3 9 7 - 4 1 3 , 4 I 4 - 3 3 ) - E x p l i c i t
p r a i s e of J e w s a n d J u d a i s m is i n fact m a r k e d l y m o r e o b v i o u s i n t h i s
b o o k t h a n i n Books iii a n d iv, w h e r e t h e g e n d l e guise of t h e a u t h o r is
rarely shed. O n l y one Christian interpolation, t h e r e m a r k a b l e passage
( 2 5 6 - 9 ) in w h i c h ' a n e x c e l l e n t m a n c o m i n g f r o m h e a v e n w h o s p r e a d
o u t h i s h a n d s o n the f r u i t - b e a r i n g t r e e ' , i.e. J e s u s , w a s identified w i t h
J o s h u a J e s u s t h e son o f N a v e ) is p r o b a b l y Christian.'^**
T h e following c r i t e r i a c a n be p r o v i d e d for d a t i n g t h e w o r k . T h e m a i n
p r o p h e c i e s m u s t h a v e b e e n w r i t t e n after A . D . 70, b o t h b e c a u s e t h e
d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e T e m p l e in J e r u s a l e m is l a m e n t e d (150, 397—413)
a n d b e c a u s e of t h e p o r t r a y a l of N e r o ' s i m m i n e n t r e t u r n . N o terminus
ante quem c a n b e g i v e n , a l t h o u g h a d a t e before the e n d o f t h e first
c e n t u r y A . D . is likely. T h e i n t r o d u c t o r y section ( 1 - 5 1 ) w a s c o m p o s e d
e i t h e r after the r e i g n o f M . A u r e l i u s o r , if v e r s e 5 1 is a l a t e r a d d i t i o n .
244. 5:256-9. Cf. P. Volz, Eschatologie der jiidischen Gemeinde (1934), p. 5 7 ; B. N o a c k ,

'Der hervorragende M a n n und d e r beste der H e b r a e r (Bemerkungen zu Or. Sib. v,
256-259)', A S T I 3 (1964), pp. 122-46. See, contra, Nikiprowetzky, art. cit., pp. 5 8 - 6 5 ,
with t h e identification of the m a n in question as a n entirely Jewish Messiah w h o
amalgamated the attributes of Moses with those of Joshua. According to this hypothesis,
this passage also will be Jewish. I n verse 258 the future a-rqaei, conjectured by GeflTcken,
Komposition und Entstehungszeit, p. 29, in place of t h e manuscript arrjaev, should perhaps b e
read (so Nikiprowetzky, art. cit., p. 65, n. 116, against A. Kurfess, Sibyllinische Weissagungen
(1951), ad loc, and J . J . Collins i n Charlesworth, O T P I, p . 399). Also taken by some
scholars as C h r i s d a n passages a r e verses 62-72 (Bousset, basing the hypothesis o n
Oeoxpiarovs in verse 68, which is however quite possible for a Jewish a u t h o r ) , and verses
228-46 (Geffcken). I n contrast, Str.-B. I, p p . 12-13, take only verse 257 as Christian.
i l i i m i g t h e r e i g n of H a d r i a n b u t b e f o r e A . D . 130.'^'^^
. \ n K g y p d a n o r i g i n is u s u a l l y p r o p o s e d for t h e B o o k o n t h e g r o u n d s
UL t h e p r o m i n e n c e o f E g y p t a n d i t s t o w n s ( 6 0 - 1 1 4 , 179—99, 4:5^^9^
511) a n d t h e c l a i m ( 5 3 ) t h a t t h e S i b y l is a f r i e n d of Isis. T w o of t h e
main oracles however lack any Egyptian reference (111-178 and
jHit 4 3 4 ) . I t is likely e n o u g h t h a t t h e B o o k i n c o r p o r a t e s o r a c l e s f r o m a n
• iiigin d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t of t h e r e d a c t o r , a n d t h a t e i t h e r a n E g y p t i a n
i r ( l a < i o r used o r a c l e s c u l l e d f r o m e l s e w h e r e o r E g y p t i a n o r a c l e s w e r e
lined by a n o n - E g y p t i a n c o m p i l e r . ^ * ^ Q u o t a t i o n s f r o m this b o o k a r e first
f o u n d in C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a .
h . O f t h e r e m a i n i n g B o o k s , v i , vii a n d viii h a v e b e e n g e n e r a l l y a n d
« o r r t ' c t l y t a k e n as Christian.^''^^ B o o k s i a n d ii, w h i c h o r i g i n a l l y f o r m e d a
single Book, are considered by many to contain Jewish sections
I r - w o r k e d by a C h r i s t i a n . A g a i n s t t h i s , t h e c o m p l e t e lack of a t t e s t a t i o n
OL t h e J e w i s h ' s e c t i o n s i n t h e C h u r c h F a t h e r s o f t h e first t h r e e c e n t u r i e s
npf-aks r a t h e r for a l a t e o r i g i n , in w h i c h c a s e it is m o r e Ukely t h a t t h e y
.ir«- C h r i s t i a n .
i . | 5 . Verse 5 1 refers to M . Aurelius, while verses 46—50 allude i n optimistic a n d

Inrndly terms to H a d r i a n , which would be unlikely after t h e Bar K o c h b a revolt.
J4»). In the final section ( 4 3 5 - 5 3 0 ) , which refers unambiguously to Egypt, some
inirrprcters have seen a reference to t h e building a n d d e s t r u c d o n of t h e O n i a s T e m p l e
(<)2 5 1 1 ) . T h e idealized picture, based on Isaiah 1 9 : 1 9 , is however t h a t of a temple of
ilir most high god built b y priests of Serapis i n the past a n d destroyed b y the Ethiopians
Liihrr than the R o m a n s (Geffcken). T h e passage m a y nonetheless also h a v e found a point
III d e p a r t u r e in t h e history of t h e Leontopolis temple (Collins, Sibylline Oracles, p p . 93—4,
Important for t h e textual history of this section is the fourth-century papyrus
li.ixment published in G . Vitelli, Papiri Greco-Egizii ( P . F C o r . ) I l l ( 1 9 1 5 ) , no. 3 8 9 .
V47. Clement of Alexandria, Protrept. iv 5 0 ; Paedag. ii 1 0 , 99.
So A. Kurfess i n Hennecke a n d Schneemelcher, JV.7". Apocrypha, ed. R. M c L .
\NiImoii ( E T 1 9 6 5 ) , I I , p . 707. Book viii (217—50) contains the famous acrostic also given
III C '.oiistantine's Oratio ad sanctorum coetum 18 : 'IrfooOs Xpiaros deov vlos acoT-qp aravpos. C f
K/.K h, R E IIA.2 ( 1 9 2 3 ) , cols. 2 1 4 0 - 6 . It is likely t h a t viii 1 - 2 1 6 preserves a Jewish oracle
il.»tr<i to t h e reign of M. AureHus in t h e mid-second c e n t u r y A.D. (CoUins, BAAJ, p. 1 2 8 ) .
The oldest witness is Constantine's Oratio ad sanctorum coetum 1%: TJ TOIVVV Epvdpala
lijivAXa <l>daKovaa tavr^v cktij yeved, fifra TOV KaTaKXvap,6v, yeveaOai. Cf. Sib. i 2 8 3 ff. If
SiA xi is a first-century A.D. w o r k (see below, n. 2 5 1 ) this argument from silence a b o u t
'îh i iuid ii becomes less compelling. T h e most persistent advocate o f Jewish sections
w i t h i n .Sib. i and ii has been A . Kurfess, ' O r a c u l a Sibyllina I / I I ' , Z N W 40 ( 1 9 4 1 ) , p p .
1 , 1 <i5; idem, in Hennecke a n d Schneemelcher, N.T. Apocrypha I I , p . 707. I n Book i,
Kiutess holds verses 1—323 as a Jewish composition from the early first century A . D . ,
.1p.111 from a C h r i s d a n interpolation in verses 1 3 7 - 4 6 . Geffcken, Komposition und
lni\lehungszeit, p. 5 0 , suggested a Phrygian origin for this Jewish section because of verses
II»«> H a n d 261 f In Book ii, aU of verses 6 - 3 3 , 3 4 - 4 4 , 5 6 - 1 7 6 , 1 8 4 - 2 3 7 , 2 5 2 - 6 3 a n d
jtf, j i o may be Jewish, b u t it is scarcely possible t o separate t h e Christian a n d Jewish
i l r m e n t s . C f Kurfess, Z N W 3 8 ( 1 9 3 9 ) , pp. 1 7 1 - 8 1 , on Sib. ii 3 4 - 1 5 3 , a n d especially the
I' iiKtliy insert from Pseudo-Phocylides in verses 56—148. O n Books i a n d ii in general, see
\ K/.Aih, RE I I A ( 1 9 2 3 ) , cols. 2 1 4 6 - 5 2 ; J . J . Collins in Chariesworth, O T P I, p p .
lt'> t Translation in H e n n e c k e a n d Schneemelcher, op. cit., I I , p p . 709—19 {Sib. i
w \ ) o o ; ii 3 4 - 3 4 7 only) and J . J . Collins in Chariesworth, ^ T P I , pp. 3 3 5 - 5 3 .
Books xi-xiv differ from t h e o t h e r s in t h a t their c o n t e n t s a r e n o t

rehgious b u t p o l i t i c a l . T h e lists o f e m p e r o r s w e r e a p p a r e n t l y c o n s t a n t l y
u p d a t e d o v e r t h e c e n t u r i e s . B o o k xi offers a m i x e d series of h i s t o r i c a l
r e m i n i s c e n c e s p a r t i c u l a r l y from the h i s t o r y of E g y p t to t h e t i m e of
C l e o p a t r a . Book xii goes as far as t h e p e r i o d of Severus A l e x a n d e r ;
Book xiii deals w i t h o n l y a s h o r t t i m e - s p a n , a p p r o x i m a t e l y A . D .
241—65. B o o k x i v is fairly worthless. T h e a u t h o r ' k n o w s n o t h i n g b u t
n a m e s of p e o p l e s , c o u n t r i e s a n d cities, a n d m i x e s these u p a s he w i s h e s '
(Geffcken). It is i m p o s s i b l e to d i s p r o v e t h e h y p o t h e s i s p u t f o r w a r d b y
Kurfess t h a t all Books xi-xiv a r e basically J e w i s h , b u t in t h a t c a s e t h e
l o y a l t y of the a u t h o r to R o m e is s t r i k i n g l y m o r e p r o m i n e n t t h a n his
J u d a i s m . ^ ^ ° T h i s a t t i t u d e t o R o m e m a k e s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of a n e a r l y ,
i.e. first c e n t u r y A . D . , d a t e for B o o k xi r a t h e r r e m o t e a n d it is b e t t e r to
a s c r i b e it t o t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y A . D . a l o n g w i t h B o o k xii, to w h i c h it is
closely linked."^^^ A f u r t h e r t r e a t m e n t of t h e l a t e r e v o l u t i o n of S i b y l l i s m
is n o t p a r t of this w o r k .
T h e m o s t a n c i e n t a u t h o r to h a v e q u o t e d a J e w i s h Sibylline B o o k
(and i n d e e d t h e story of t h e b u i l d i n g of t h e t o w e r of B a b e l , Sib. iii, 97
ff.) a p p e a r s to h a v e b e e n A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r i n a b o u t 80—40 B . C . C f
the p a s s a g e from his XaXhaiKo. i n E u s e b i u s , Chron., e d . S c h o e n e , I , c o l .
23 = Syncellus, e d . Dindorf, I, p . 81 = C y r i l , Adv. Julian., ed. S p a n h . , 9.
T h e a l m o s t i d e n t i c a l q u o t a t i o n in J o s e p h u s , Ant. i 4, 3 (i 1 5 - 1 8 ) , ( =
E u s e b . , Praep. ev. ix 1 5 , a n d Onomast., ed. K l o s t e r m a n n , G C S E u s e b i u s
I I I , p . 40), h a s b e e n c o p i e d f r o m A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r w i t h o u t t h e
m e n t i o n o f his n a m e . C f a b o v e , p . 637 a n d n o t e 1 7 4 .
It is possible t h a t A l e x a n d e r d i d n o t o b t a i n t h i s q u o t a t i o n f r o m t h e
J e w i s h S i b y l b u t from B a b y l o n i a n - G r e e k S i b y U i n e p o e t r y , c f Geffcken
( N G G W (1900), p p . 8 8 - 1 0 2 ) , Bousset ( Z N W 3 ( 1 9 0 2 ) , p p . 26-9) a n d
A . P e r e t t i , La Sibilla Babilonese ( 1 9 4 2 ) , p p . 2 8 9 - 9 2 a n d p a s s i m . If s o , t h e
B a b y l o n i a n Sibyl will h a v e b e e n m e d i a t e d t o A l e x a n d e r t h r o u g h
Berossus, c f J a c o b y ; F G r H 2 7 3 , F 8 1 , w i t h K o m m . , p . 289. H o w e v e r
t h e r e a r e g o o d a r g u m e n t s t o suggest t h a t t h e s o u r c e u s e d b y A l e x a n d e r
was a J e w i s h a n d n o t a B a b y l o n i a n Sibyl. I n t h e first p l a c e , n o t h i n g is
250. Cf. Rzach in RE I I A (1923), cols. 2152-65; A. Kurfess, ' O r a c u l a Sibyllina X I

( I X ) - X I V ( X I I ) nicht christlich, sondern jiidisch', Z R G G 7 (1955), p p . 2 7 0 - 2 ; idem,
Sibyllinische Weissagungen (1951)) PP- 3 3 3 ~ 4 i ; H . Dechent, Ober das erste, zuieite und elfte
Buch der sibyllinische Weissagungen (1873), PP- 49-88. Cf introduction and English
translation by ColHns in Charlesworth, O T P I, pp. 430-68. O n Book xii, see especially
Geffcken, 'Romische Kaiser im Volksmunde', N G G W (1901), pp. 183-95; idem,
Komposition und Entstehungszeit, pp. 5 6 - 8 ; Bousset, 'Sibyllen', H H R E X V I I I (1906), p . 278.
251. A first-century A.D. date was favoured by Dechent, op. cit., pp. 49-88, followed
by Bousset, Kurfess and Collins. A second- or third-century A.D. d a t e is supported by t h e
reference in verse 161 to the faU of the Parthians in Mesopotamia, which is more likely to
be a prophecy ex eventu after the c a m p a i g n s of Septimius Severus, or at least Trajan, t h a n
a genuine prophecy about the future. Cf Rzach, R E I I A (1923), col. 2154.
i i i l w T w i s e k n o w n o f a B a b y l o n i a n l e g e n d of t h e b u i l d i n g of t h e t o w e r
A. j e r e m i a s , Das A.T. im Lichte des alten Orients CîgoG), p . 1 7 8 ) . I t is
unlikely t h a t such a l e g e n d w a s p a r t of Berossus, for A l e x a n d e r
l'(»lyhistor d o e s n o t a s c r i b e it t o h i m in t h e e x t e n s i v e passages i n w h i c h
he r e p r o d u c e s Berossus ( g i v e n in E u s e b . , Chron., e d . S c h o e n e , I , cols. 7
11). A l t h o u g h such a n a r g u m e n t f r o m silence is n a t u r a l l y h a z a r d o u s , it
IS m o r e likely t h a t A l e x a n d e r i n s e r t e d t h e l e g e n d of t h e b u i l d i n g of t h e
l o w e r a c c o r d i n g to t h e S i b y l i n t o t h e m a t e r i a l of B e r o s s u s . T h e p a g a n
w r i t e r o f the s e c o n d or e a r l y t h i r d c e n t u r y A . D . , A b y d e n u s , is n o t a n
i n d e p e n d e n t w i t n e s s for a B a b y l o n i a n t r a d i t i o n of t h e b u i l d i n g of t h e
l o w e r , for in t h e p a s s a g e in q u e s t i o n ( E u s e b . , Chron., e d . S c h o e n e , I,
( o l s . 3 3 - 4 = E u s e b . , Praep. ev. ix 1 4 , 2), as e l s e w h e r e , h e fully d e p e n d s
o n A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r . S e c o n d l y , in h i s S i b y l l i n e q u o t a t i o n
AU-xander P o l y h i s t o r gives all t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c features oi^Sib. in 97 ff.
I'-useb. : 6fio<f>(i)vojv OVTCOV... orraig elg TOV ovpavov dvajScoat..., t h e
( o l l a p s e of t h e t o w e r c a u s e d b y w i n d s (this is a J e w i s h t r a d i t i o n , cf t h e
l i o o k o f j u b i l e e s 10:26), . . . t h e n a m i n g of t h e c i t y of B a b y l o n ) . T h e
d e p e n d e n c e o f A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r on t h e J e w i s h S i b y l is s u g g e s t e d by
die fact t h a t i n b o t h ( A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r i n E u s e b i u s , following t h e
A r m e n i a n ) , t h e s t o r y of t h e b a t t l e b e t w e e n t h e T i t a n s a n d t h e sons of
(Chronos follows t h e t r a d i t i o n o f t h e b u i l d i n g o f the t o w e r , a l t h o u g h i t is
.liso possible t o c l a i m this r e l a t i o n s h i p for t h e C h a l d e a n S i b y l . B u t if this
w a s the case, o n e S i b y l w o u l d b e c o m e a s i m p l e d o u b l e of t h e o t h e r , a n d
II w o u l d h a v e to b e a s s u m e d t h a t the J e w i s h Sibyllist c o p i e d f r o m a
gentile s o u r c e , n a m e l y t h e B a b y l o n i a n S i b y l . T h i s w o u l d m e a n t h a t t h e
J e w i s h a u t h o r has r e p r o d u c e d f r o m a g e n t i l e s o u r c e t h e s t o r y of t h e
l)uilding of t h e t o w e r w e l l k n o w n t o h i m from J e w i s h t r a d i t i o n , w h i c h is
unlikely. T h i r d l y , t h e fact t h a t i n A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r ' s q u o t a t i o n
l()llowing w h a t is p r o b a b l y the b e t t e r t e x t of J o s e p h u s , w h i c h is
l o n h r m e d by A b y d e n u s as c i t e d b y E u s e b i u s ) , ' t h e g o d s ' s e n t t h e w i n d s
01 8e deol d,v€fxovs kmirep-ijiavTes dverpeipav rov irvpyov), points to a
u r n tile s o u r c e . B u t since A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r freely r e p r o d u c e d o n l y
I h e c o n t e n t s of t h e S i b y l l i n e p r o p h e c y , h e m i g h t r e a s o n a b l y h a v e
I h a n g e d the i m m o r t a l G o d of t h e S i b y l t o g o d s , j u s t as E u s e b i u s d i d t h e
o p p o s i t e in g i v i n g A l e x a n d e r ' s text a n d c h a n g i n g t h e g o d s t o the o n e
( i o d . If E u s e b i u s , w h o w i s h e d to g i v e t h e t e x t of A l e x a n d e r , p e r m i t t e d
himself such f r e e d o m , t h e s a m e p r a c t i c e of A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r , w h o
i n t e n d e d to r e p r o d u c e o n l y t h e c o n t e n t s , is n o t at a l l s u r p r i s i n g . See K .
.Mras, ' " B a b y l o n i s c h e " u n d " e r y t h r a i s c h e " S i b y l l e ' , W i e n e r S t u d i e n 29
i<)07), p p . 2 5 - 4 9 ; P. S c h n a b e l , Berossus und die babylonisch-hellenistische
literatur ( 1 9 2 3 ) , p p . 6 9 - 9 3 ; V- N i k i p r o w e t z k y , La Troisieme Sibylle
i()7o), p p . 1 7 - 3 6 .
1 he q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r V e r g i l was i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e J e w i s h S i b y l i n his
l o u r t h E c l o g u e is a t least w o r t h y o f c o n s i d e r a t i o n . A c c o r d i n g to verses
1 1 - 1 2 , the p o e m was w r i t t e n d u r i n g t h e c o n s u l a t e of G . Asinius P o l U o ,

h e n c e in 40 B . C , a p p a r e n t l y after p e a c e h a d b e e n c o n c l u d e d b e t w e e n
A n t o n i u s a n d O c t a v i a n at B r u n d i s i u m . T h e p o e t sees t h e b e g i n n i n g of a
t i m e o f p e a c e following the confusion o f the civil w a r s , e v e n o f a g o l d e n
a g e . ' T h e l a s t e r a of t h e C u m a e a n p o e m has a l r e a d y c o m e ' (verse 4 ) . ' O
p u r e L u c i n a , look k i n d l y o n the b o y a s he is b o r n , h e with w h o m t h e
i r o n r a c e e n d s a n d t h e g o l d e n r a c e b e g i n s for t h e w h o l e w o r l d ' (verses
8 - 1 0 ) . ' A l r e a d y u n d e r y o u r c o n s u l a t e , O Pollio, will t h i s glorious t i m e
b e g i n ' (verses 1 1 — 1 2 ) . ' U n d e r y o u r l e a d e r s h i p all l i n g e r i n g traces o f o u r
offences will d i s a p p e a r ' (verses 1 3 - 1 4 ) . ' H e [i.e. t h e b o y ] wiU r e c e i v e
t h e life of t h e g o d s ' (verse 1 5 : 'ille d e u m v i t a m a c c i p i e t ' ) ' a n d will r u l e
t h e c a l m e d w o r l d w i t h a n c e s t r a l v i r t u e s ' (verse 1 7 ) . T h e r e follows a
d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e g o l d e n e r a , in w h i c h n a t u r e , in p a r t i c u l a r , b e s t o w s i t s
gifts i n a m a r v e l l o u s w a y . C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y identified ' t h e boy' w i t h
C h r i s t from e a r l y t i m e s a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y e s t e e m e d V e r g i l h i g h l y as a
t h e o l o g i a n . ( T h e first c e r t a i n a p p e a r a n c e o f this i d e n d f i c a t i o n is b y
C o n s t a n t i n e , Oratio ad coetum sanctorum 1 9 - 2 0 , a n d t h e n b y S t .
A u g u s t i n e , Epist. ad Rom. inc. expos. 3, c f Epist. 1 3 7 , 1 2 , w h o a t t r i b u t e s
t h e p r o p h e c y n o t to V e r g i l h i m s e l f b u t to h i s Sibylline s o u r c e . Cf. also
E u s e b . , Vit. Const, v 1 9 ; L a c t a n t . , Inst. div. v i i 2 4 ; A u g u s t i n e , Civ. Dei x
27.) T h e r e a h t y is clearly d i f f e r e n t b u t n o n e t h e l e s s v e r y difficult t o p i n
d o w n . M o s t scholars a g r e e t h a t V e r g i l did h a v e i n m i n d a real c h i l d ,
b u t his identity remains m u c h disputed. T h e b o y m a y have been a
child o f Pollio, g r a n t e d by V e r g i l a l e a d i n g p o s i t i o n i n the n e w a g e i n
h o n o u r of h i s father, cf. Servius i n Servii in Vergilii carmina Commentarii,
rec. Thilo et Hagen H I . i ( 1 8 8 7 ) , p . 46. If so, he m a y b e identified w i t h
A s i n i u s G a l l u s , c o n s u l in 8 B . C , o r w i t h a s o n o f Pollio c a l l e d
S a l o n i n u s , for w h o s e e x i s t e n c e t h e o n l y e v i d e n c e is t h e r e f e r e n c e b y
S e r v i u s . O t h e r p l a u s i b l e s u g g e s t i o n s h a v e b e e n a n e x p e c t e d child o f t h e
m a r r i a g e o f A n t o n i u s a n d O c t a v i a , o r of O c t a v i a n a n d S c r i b o n i a ; i n
f a v o u r of s u c h eulogy o f a n o f f s p r i n g t h a t m i g h t n o t , a n d in fact d i d n o t ,
a p p e a r are t r a c e s of t h e style of t h e epithalamium in t h e p o e m . N u m e r o u s
less p l a u s i b l e references h a v e a l s o b e e n p u t f o r w a r d : to a c h i l d o f
A n t o n i u s a n d C l e o p a t r a ( h a r d l y s u i t a b l e for a R o m a n a u d i e n c e ) , t o t h e
offspring o f O c t a v i a b y h e r first h u s b a n d M a r c e l l u s ( a l t h o u g h t h e
younger Marcellus h a d probably already been born a n d the evidence
t h a t s h e w a s p r e g n a n t w i t h a n o t h e r c h i l d b y h e r first h u s b a n d a t t h e
t i m e of h e r m a r r i a g e to A n t o n i u s is n o t s t r o n g ) , or t o C a e s a r
O c t a v i a n u s himself, c f Aeneid v i 7 9 2 - 5 ( e v e n t h o u g h p o r t r a y a l o f
O c t a v i a n a s a b a b y w o u l d be o d d a n d t h i s i d e n t i f i c a d o n s m a c k s o f
h i n d s i g h t e n g e n d e r e d b y h i s l a t e r c a r e e r as A u g u s t u s ) . O t h e r s c h o l a r s
prefer to p o s i t a less specific reference. V e r g i l m a y refer to a n u n k n o w n
b o y t o be f a v o u r e d by fate, o r to a p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n of t h e g o l d e n a g e , o r
e v e n t o his n e w l y - b o r n l i t e r a r y h o p e s as he p o n d e r e d w r i t i n g t h e
A e n e i d . (Cf. R . C o l e m a n , e d . , Vergil Eclogues ( 1 9 7 7 ) , p p . 1 5 0 - 2 , a n d

i m r n e r o u s w o r k s c i t e d in t h e b i b l i o g r a p h y g i v e n below.) H o w e v e r , e v e n
il a m e a n i n g from c o n t e m p o r a r y h i s t o r y c o u l d b e firmly e s t a b l i s h e d , t h e
( | u e s d o n w o u l d n o t b e s e t t l e d w h e t h e r o r n o t V e r g i l ' s d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e
n o l d e n e r a rested exclusively o n g e n t i l e s o u r c e s . H e h i m s e l f says t h a t this
a g e h a d b e e n p r o m i s e d b y a Sibylline s o n g (for t h e l a t t e r is w i t h o u t
d o u b t t h e ' C u m a e u m c a r m e n ' ) . I t is r e a s o n a b l e t h e r e f o r e to t h i n k of t h e
Jewish Sibyl. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i t m u s t b e a d m i t t e d t h a t all V e r g i l ' s
d e s c r i p t i o n c a n b e e x p l a i n e d o n t h e basis of p a g a n t r a d i t i o n s , a n d t h a t
it) the case of d i r e c t d e p e n d e n c e o n the e x t a n t J e w i s h S i b y l , l i n e s m o r e
in a c c o r d w i t h Sib. iii 7 8 7 - 9 4 ( = I s a . 1 1 ) w o u l d h a v e b e e n e x p e c t e d . O f
p a r t i c u l a r i m p o r t a n c e is the fact t h a t it is n o t the i n a u g u r a t i o n of the
g o l d e n a g e t h a t is a s c r i b e d t o t h e e x p e c t e d c h i l d , b u t o n l y a l e a d i n g
position in it. If t h e r e f o r e v e r s e 4, w h i c h refers u n e q u i v o c a l l y to the
C u m a e a n Sibyl, w a s g e n u i n e l y b a s e d o n a S i b y l h n e o r a c l e , i t w a s n o t
o n e of t h o s e still e x t a n t , a n d t h e r e f o r e n o t n e c e s s a r i l y J e w i s h r a t h e r t h a n
p a g a n . T h e r e is n o t h i n g in t h e p o e m t h a t c o u l d n o t possibly h a v e c o m e
from t h e R o m a n S i b y l l i n e t r a d i t i o n s . H o w e v e r , a g e n e r a l i n f l u e n c e f r o m
J e w i s h p r o p h e t i c l i t e r a t u r e s h o u l d n o t b e r u l e d out. I t w a s q u i t e possible
for V e r g i l to h a v e r e a d t h e L X X of I s a i a h , t h o u g h t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s w h i c h
c a n be n o t e d a r e t o o v a g u e for it to b e s h o w n t h a t h e did so. F o r a
d e p e n d e n c e o n I s a i a h , c f J . B . M a y o r , W . W a r d e F o w l e r a n d R . S.
C o n w a y , Virgil's Messianic Eclogue (1907) ; T . F . R o y d s , Virgil and Isaiah
( 1 9 1 8 ) . I t is a t a n y r a t e p r o b a b l e t h a t t h e allusiveness of h i s r e f e r e n c e s to
t h e g o l d e n a g e s h o w V e r g i l to h a v e b e e n r e l y i n g on his a u d i e n c e ' s
k n o w l e d g e o f a c u r r e n t p r o p h e c y , in w h i c h c a s e it w a s p r o b a b l y
c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n t h e S i b y l l i n e c o r p u s , s i n c e stylistic s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n
V e r g i l ' s p r o p h e c y a n d t h o s e o f the Sibyl s e e m t o b e d e h b e r a t e . T h e r e is
n o r e a s o n to d o u b t t h a t Sib. iii in a n e a r l y f o r m (i.e. at l e a s t w i t h o u t iii
()3-74, w h i c h was c o m p o s e d after V e r g i l w r o t e ) w a s a l r e a d y t o b e f o u n d
in t h a t c o r p u s by 40 B . C . a l o n g w i t h o t h e r J e w i s h m a t e r i a l .
Cf. on Vergil's Eclogues in g e n e r a l : Coleman, R . , Vergil Eclogues (1977); Williams, R.

1)., Virgil, The Eclogues and Georgics (1979); a n d further works cited in t h e bibliographies of
R. D. Williams, Virgil (1967) a n d Proceedings of the Virgil Society (1976-7).
O n the fourth eclogue, s e e :

Jeanmaire, H., ' L e Politique Rehgieuse d'Antoine et de C l e o p a t r e ' , Revue Archeologique 5th
ser. 19 (1924), pp. 2 4 1 - 6 1 .
Norden, E., Die Geburt des Kindes (1924) (with bibliography).
Ausun, R . G.,'Virgil a n d the Sibyl', CQ,21 (1927), pp. 100-05.
VVagenvoort, H . , Virgils vierte Ekloge und das Sidus lulium (Mededeelingen der Kon.
Akademie) (1929; E T 1956).
Carcopino, J., Virgile et la Mysthe de la iV Eglogue (1930) (emphasizing the P y t h a g o r e a n
background ; cf p p . 69-72 on t h e Sibyllines).
Rose, H. J . , The Eclogues of Vergil (1942).
Kurfess, A., 'Vergil und die Sibyllinen', Z R G G 3 (1951), p p . 253-7.
Kurfess, A., 'Vergils vierte E k l o g e u n d die O r a c u l a Sibyllina', H J 73 (1954), p p . 120-7.

Kurfess, A., 'Vergils 4. Ekloge u n d Chrisdiche Sibyllen', G y m n a s i u m 62 (1955), p p .
110-12.
D u Q u e s n a y , I. M. le M., 'Vergil's F o u r t h Eclogue', Papers of the Liverpool L a d n
Seminar (1976), p p . 25-99.
Nisbet, R . G . M . , 'Virgil's Fourth Eclogue: Easterners a n d Westerners', Bull. Inst. Class.
Stud., London 25 (1978), pp. 59-78.
For further bibliography o n the fourth eclogue, see N o r d e n , op. cit., a n d , for works
between 1940 a n d 1973, The Classical World Bibliography of Vergil (1978), pp. 7-8, 3 8 - 4 0 ,
85-6.
O n t h e u s e of t h e Sibyllines by t h e C h u r c h F a t h e r s , cf. the t e s t i m o n i a

c o l l e c t e d in A l e x a n d r e ' s first e d . , vol. I I ( 1 8 5 6 ) , p p . 2 5 4 — 3 1 1 ; O .
S t a h l i n in W . v. C h r i s t a n d W . S c h m i d , Gesch. der Griech. Lit. I I . i ( 1 9 2 0 ;
r e p r . 1 9 5 9 ) , p p . 616—17; P. D a l b e r t , Die Theologie der hell.-jUd.
Missionsliteratur ( 1 9 5 4 ) , p p . 110—23; ^"^^ especially B . T h o m p s o n ,
' P a t r i s t i c U s e of t h e SibyUine O r a c l e s ' , The Review of Religion 6 ( 1 9 5 2 ) ,
p p . 1 1 5 - 3 6 , w i t h lists of p a t r i s t i c references o n p p . 1 3 0 - 6 .
It is d o u b t f u l w h e t h e r C l e m e n t o f R o m e q u o t e d t h e S i b y l h n e s , d e s p i t e
P s . - J u s t i n , Quaest. et respons. ad orthodoxos, quaest. 7 4 [Corp. apolog., e d .
O t t o , e d . 3, v o l . V , p . 108). C f J . B . L i g h t f o o t , The Apostolic Fathers, Part
I: S. Clement of Rome I ( 1 8 9 0 ) , p p . 1 7 8 - 8 0 .
H e r m a s , Vis. ii 4, m e n t i o n s o n l y t h e Sibyl, n o t t h e S i b y l l i n e B o o k s ,
a n d is e x c e p t i o n a l a m o n g t h e p a t r i s t i c w r i t e r s in n o t t a k i n g t h e Sibyl a s
a n inspired p a g a n witness for C h r i s t i a n d o c t r i n e b u t r a t h e r i d e n t i f y i n g
w i t h t h e C h u r c h t h e o l d w o m a n w h o is d e s c r i b e d a s a p p e a r i n g to b e t h e
Sibyl.
O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , q u o t a t i o n s from the Sibyllines themselves a r e
given in t h e a p o c r y p h a l P a u l i n e remarks q u o t e d in C l e m e n t of
A l e x a n d r i a , Strom, vi 5 , 42—3 ( o n the w r i t i n g w h i c h C l e m e n t q u o t e s
h e r e , cf. b e l o w , p . 654, for t h e r e m a r k s o n H y s t a s p e s ) .
G n o s t i c u s e of t h e Sibyllines is r e c o r d e d in H i p p o l y t . , Philosophum. i v 6.
C f f u r t h e r : J u s t i n , Apol. i 2 0 ; A t h e n a g o r a s , Leg. 3 0 ; T h e o p h i l u s , Ad
Autol. ii 3 ; 3 1 ; 36 ; T e r t u U i a n , Ad nationes ii 1 2 , 3 6 ; P s e u d o - M e l i t o , Apol.
4 (in O t t o , Corp. apolog. I X , p p . 4 2 5 , 463 ff".); P s e u d o - J u s t i n , Cohortat. ad
Graec. 1 6 ; 37—8; Const, apost. v 7. C o n s t a n t i n e , Oratio ad sand. coet. 18—19,
q u o t e d a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s t h e acrostic o f J e s u s C h r i s t , Sib. viii 2 1 7 - 5 0 .
Q u o t a t i o n s a r e m o s t f r e q u e n t in C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a a n d
Lactantius.
C l e m e n t o f A l e x a n d r i a q u o t e s : ( i ) T h e p r o e m : Protr. v i 71 = Strom, v
1 4 , 1 0 8 ; Protr. viii 37 = Strom, v 14, 1 1 6 ; Strom, iii 3, 1 4 . (2) Book i i i :
Protr. v i 7 0 ; vii 74. (3) Book i v : Protr. iv 50 a n d 62 ; Paedag. ii 10, 9 9 ; iii
3 , 15. (4) B o o k V : Protr. iv 50 ; Paedag. ii 10, 99. C f also Strom, i 2 1 , 108 ;
132.
It will b e seen from t h e s e statistics t h a t , a p a r t from t h e p r o e m ,
(llcriu'iit k n e w o n l y t h e t h r e e Books w h i c h a r e c o n s i d e r e d h e r e o n
lutcriuil g r o u n d s t o b e J e w i s h . O t h e r p a t r i s t i c q u o t a t i o n s u n t i l C l e m e n t
• i l s o refer only to t h e s e b o o k s . T h e y t h e r e f o r e c l e a r l y f o r m t h e oldest
Jewish c o r p u s of S i b y l l i n e oracles.
L a c t a n t i u s q u o t e s a b o u t fifty p a s s a g e s f r o m t h e Sibyllines, m o s t l y
l n t n i Book v h i , n e x t from Book in, o n l y o c c a s i o n a l l y from B o o k s i, h , iv,
\ . \ i, a n d vii, a n d n o t a t all f r o m t h e o t h e r s . Cf. t h e m a t e r i a l i n S t r u v e ,
hiagmenta librorum Sibyllinorum quae apud Lactantium reperiuntur ( 1 8 1 7 ) ;
AU-xandre's first e d . ; T h o m p s o n , art. cit., p p . 1 3 4 - 6 . I t t h e r e f o r e s e e m s
d i a t he k n e w Books iii a n d viii o f t h e p r e s e n t c o l l e c t i o n . H e m u s t
c r t h e l e s s also h a v e h a d s o m e of t h e m a t e r i a l l a c k i n g in o u r
i n a i m s c r i p t s f o r a p a r t f r o m t h e p a s s a g e s f r o m t h e p r o e m , w h i c h in
< \ t e n d e d q u o t a t i o n is i n d e e d a l s o k n o w n only from T h e o p h i l u s ,
I..i( t a n t i u s h a s o t h e r q u o t a t i o n s w h i c h a r e n o t a t t e s t e d i n o u r t e x t s , e.g.
I..H t., vii 19, 2 ; vii 24, 2. Also, the verses q u o t e d in L a c t a n t i u s i i 1 1 , 1 8 ,
svhich m o s t p r o b a b l y b e l o n g e d t o t h e p r o e m , a r e n o t f o u n d in
I hcophilus.
L a c t a n d u s c o m m e n t s i n g e n e r a l o n t h e b o o k s k n o w n t o h i m {Inst, i 6,
\-\\ (after a n e n u m e r a t i o n of t h e ten S i b y l s ) : ' H a r u m o m n i u m
Sihyllarum c a r m i n a et feruntur et h a b e n t u r p r a e t e r q u a m C y m a e a e ,
( i n n s libri a R o m a n i s o c c u l t a n t u r n e c eos a b u l l o nisi a q u i n d e c i m v i r i s
iiis|>ici fas h a b e n t . E t s u n t s i n g u l a r u m s i n g u l a r i h b r i , q u o s , q u i a
Sil)yllae n o m i n e i n s c r i b u n t u r , u n i u s esse c r e d u n t ; s u n t q u e confusi, n e c
tlis( erni a c s u u m c u i q u e a d s i g n a r i p o t e s t , nisi E r y t h r a e a e q u a e et
iiDinen suum v e r u m c a r m i n i inseruit, e t E r y t h r a e a m s e n o m i n a t u i r i
pi a e l o c u t a est, c u m esset o r t a B a b y l o n e . '
( k'lsus also testifies t o t h e e s t e e m i n w h i c h t h e S i b y l l i n e s w e r e h e l d
. u n o n g C h r i s t i a n s ( O r i g e n , C. Cels. v 6 1 ; vii 5 3 ; 56). H e a l r e a d y accuses
tlic ( i h r i s t i a n s of h a v i n g forged t h e o r a c l e s , a n d t h e s e c h a r g e s d o n o t
l ) C ( o m e silent later. C f o n t h i s t h e aUusions i n C o n s t a n t i n e ' s Oratio ad
uitK I. coet. 19, I ; L a c t . Inst, iv 1 5 , 26 ; A u g u s t i n e , De civ. dei xviii 46.
On t h e Sibylhne prophecies in t h e M i d d l e Ages, cf. t h e following:
( Alexandre's first ed., I I , p p . 287-311.
I,in ken, Die sibyllinischen Weissagungen, ihr Ursprung und ihr ûsammenhang mit den after-
tniiphetischen Darstellungen christlicher êit (Katholische Studien, v ) (1875).
s.ii kur, E., Sibyllinische Texte und Forschungen. Pseudomethodius, Adso und die tiburtinische Sibylle
1H98; repr. 1963).
K.ini|)ers, F., 'Die Sibylla von T i b u r u n d Vergil', H J 29 (1908), p p . 1-29, 241—63.
K/.ii h, A., 'Sibyllinische O r a k e l (spaterer Zeit)', R E IIA (1923), cols. 2 1 6 9 - 8 3 .
I'l iiimii, K., 'Das P r o p h e t e n a m t der Sibyllen in kirchlicher Literatur', Scholastik 4 (1929),
pp. 54-77, 221-46, 498-533-
Kill less, A., Sibyllinische Weissagungen (1951), p p . 344-8.
I i c i i K i i i g e o t , E. S., 'Jerome, les oracles sibyllins et Stilichon', R E A 54 (1952), p p . 8 3 - 9 2 .
MiM lidir, B., ' D i e lateinischen Ubersetzungen u n d Bearbeitungen a u s d e n O r a c u l a
Sihyllina' in Melanges Joseph de Ghellinck (1951), pp. 121-47.
\l( \.iiider, P. J., The Oracle of Baalbek. The Tiburtine Sibyl in Greek Dress (1967).
M c G i n n , B., 'Joachim and the Sibyl', Citeaux 24 (1973), pp. 97-138.

On t h e representations of the Sibyls in Christian art (pardcularly of the late M i d d l e
Ages), cf Rzach, RE I I A (1923), cols. 2181 ff.
O n the manuscripts, c f : Alexandre's first ed., I , pp. xliii ff.; Rzach's ed., pp. vii-xvi;
Geffcken's ed., p p . xxi-liii; Rzach, R E I I A (1923), cols. 2 1 1 9 - 2 2 ; V. Nikiprowetzky, La
Troisiime Sibylle (1970), pp. 281-3.
EdiUons
Alexandre, C., Oracula Sibyllina, curante C. Alexandre, 2 vols. (1841-56) ; second ed.: Editio
altera ex priore ampliore contracta, Integra tamen et passim aucta, multisque locis retractata
(1869) (the excursuses of the first edition, which give all t h e material o n the history
of Sibyllism more completely than anywhere else, were omitted in the second
edition).
Friedlieb, J . H . , Die sibyllinischen Weissagungen vollstdndig gesammelt, nach neuer Handschriften-
Vergleichung, mit kritischem Commentare und metrischer deutscher Obersetzung (1852).
Rzach, A., Oracula Sibyllina recensuit (1891).
Geffcken, J., Die Oracula Sibyllina ( G C S 8) (1902).
Lieger, P., Die jiidische Sibylle, griechisch und deutsch, mit erkldr. Anmerk. {Jahresber. d.
Obergymn. zu den Schotten in Wien, 1908); Christus im Munde der Sibylle, griechisch und
deutsch, mit erkldr. Anmerk. {Progr. Schottengymn., Wien, 1911). Both of these deal with
Book iii.
Kurfess, A., Sibyllinische Weissagungen. Urtext und Obersetzung (1951) (with only a simplified
critical a p p a r a t u s ) .
Translations
English:
Terry, M . S., The Sibylline Orac/« (1899).
Lanchester, H . , in Gharies, A P O T I I , pp. 368-406 (Books iii-v and Theophilus
fragments, with commentary).
Bate, H. N., The Sibylline Oracles, books III-V (1918).
Kurfess, A., in E. Hennecke and W . Schneemelcher, N.T. Apocrypha (ET b y R. M c L .
Wilson, 1965), I I , pp. 709-45 ( C h r i s d a n Sibyllines only).
Colhns, J . J., in Chadesworth, O T P I, pp. 327-472 (with c o m m e n t a r y ) .
German:
T h e editions of Friedheb, Lieger and Kurfess are accompanied b y transladons.
Blassin Kautzsch, A P A T II (1900), p p . 177-217 (Books iii-v only) (with commentary).
Riessler, ¥., Altjiidisch. Schrift. (1928), pp. 1014-45 (with c o m m e n t a r y ) .
Merkel i n J S H R Z (forthcoming).
French:
Bouche-Leclercq, A., i n R H R 7 (1883), p p . 236-48; 8 (1883), p p . 6 1 9 - 3 4 ; 9 (1884), p p .
220-33 (Books 1-3).
Hebrew:
Reider, J . , in A. K a h a n a , O m - n n DnDOn (^956).
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Judaisme, Christianisme ( M . Simon Festschrift) (1978), pp. 153-83.
NoUand, J . , 'Sib. Or. I l l 2 6 5 - 9 4 : A n Early M a c c a b e a n Messianic Oracle', J T h S t 30
(i979)>PP- 158-67-
Stern, M . , G L A J J I I , p p . 198-200.
Collins, J . J., ' T h e Sibylline Oracles', in J W S T P , p p . 357-81.
2. [Hystaspes]
A m m i a n u s M a r c e l l i n u s r e l a t e s (xxiii 6, 32—3) t h a t d u r i n g his s t a y
a m o n g the I n d i a n B r a h m i n s , H y s t a s p e s , t h e f a t h e r of K i n g D a r i u s ,
l e a r n e d from t h e m ' t h e laws of t h e m o v e m e n t of t h e w o r l d a n d p u r e
religious c u s t o m s (purosque sacrorum ritusy a n d t h e n c o m m u n i c a t e d s o m e
o f this to t h e n a t i v e M a g i , w h o h a n d e d it d o w n to posterity. T h e
C h u r c h F a t h e r s also k n e w a G r e e k w o r k u n d e r t h e n a m e of t h i s
H y s t a s p e s , w h o w a s t h u s r e g a r d e d b y a n t i q u i t y as a n a u t h o r i t y i n
religious m a t t e r s ; t h e y give the following i n d i c a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e
w o r k . A c c o r d i n g t o Justin, i t p r o p h e s i e d t h e f u t u r e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e
w o r l d b y fire. I n t h e Apocryphum Pauli q u o t e d b y Clement of Alexandria, i t
is asserted t h a t H y s t a s p e s referred clearly to t h e S o n of G o d a n d to t h e
conflict b e t w e e n t h e M e s s i a h a n d h i s p e o p l e w i t h m a n y kings a n d t o his
p e r s e v e r a n c e a n d glorious p a r o u s i a . A c c o r d i n g to Lactantius, t h e fall o f
t h e R o m a n E m p i r e w a s p r o p h e s i e d in i t , a n d also t h a t i n t h e affliction
o f the last d a y s t h e p i o u s a n d faithful w o u l d i m p l o r e Z e u s for h e l p a n d
t h a t Z e u s w o u l d h e a r t h e m a n d d e s t r o y the u n g o d l y . L a c t a n t i u s f i n d s
fault h e r e o n l y w i t h t h e fact t h a t w h a t G o d will d o is a s c r i b e d to Z e u s ,
a n d h e r e g r e t s a t the s a m e t i m e t h a t a s a result of d e c e p t i o n b y t h e
d e m o n s , n o t h i n g is s a i d o f t h e mission o f t h e S o n of G o d . T h e
a n o n y m o u s a u t h o r of t h e fifth c e n t u r y A . D . T h e o s o p h i a says t h a t t h e
r e v e l a t i o n s o f H y s t a s p e s d e a l t w i t h the i n c a r n a t i o n of t h e S a v i o u r .
F r o m t h e s e i n d i c a t i o n s it b e c o m e s e v i d e n t t h a t the c o n t e n t s of t h i s
w r i d n g w e r e a p o c a l y p t i c o - e s c h a t o l o g i c a l . S i n c e L a c t a n t i u s says e x p r e s s
l y t h a t it c o n t a i n s n o m e n t i o n of t h e s e n d i n g of t h e Son of G o d to j u d g e
t h e w o r l d , i t s h o u l d b e clear t h a t t h e w o r k is not C h r i s t i a n , d e s p i t e t h e
r e m a r k s of t h e Apocryphum Pauli a n d t h e fifth c e n t u r y a u t h o r of t h e
T h e o s o p h y . E i t h e r t h e y h a d a c o p y of t h e t e x t revised b y a C h r i s t i a n ,
o r , a n d this is also possible, t h e y r e a d s o m e t h i n g i n t o H y s t a s p e s b y
m e a n s of C h r i s t i a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w h i c h a c c o r d i n g to L a c t a n t i u s w a s
n o t t h e r e . I f C h r i s t i a n a u t h o r s h i p of t h e o r i g i n a l t e x t is t h u s r u l e d o u t , i t
is possible t h a t t h e w o r k is a J e w i s h forgery. I f so, t h e d a t e , before J u s t i n
M a r t y r in t h e second c e n t u r y A . D . , w o u l d m a k e this a p r o d u c t o f t h e
s a m e J e w i s h circles w h i c h p r o d u c e d t h e p s e u d e p i g r a p h i c Sibyls. F o r
t h e m , u n l i k e C h r i s t i a n s , t h e c h o i c e o f Z e u s as t h e n a m e o f G o d w a s n o t
entirely u n n a t u r a l . H o w e v e r , J e w i s h a u t h o r s h i p is also m o s t u n l i k e l y .
The w o r k s h o u l d b e a s c r i b e d t o H e l l e n i z e d a d h e r e n t s of I r a n i a n
religions w h o s e o p p o s i t i o n to t h e R o m a n E m p i r e i n this p e r i o d is also
well d o c u m e n t e d . S i m i l a r i t i e s to D a n i e l w o u l d t h e n b e e x p l a i n e d by
reliance o n a c o m m o n I r a n i a n t r a d i t i o n . W h e t h e r P e r s i a n o r J e w i s h ,
the d a t i n g limits o f c o m p o s i t i o n a r e , on t h e o n e h a n d , t h e a p p e a r a n c e
of t h e R o m a n E m p i r e a s a g r e a t p o w e r a n d , o n the o t h e r , J u s t i n ' s
k n o w l e d g e of this b o o k , i . e . b e t w e e n 100 B . C a n d A . D . 150.
J u s t i n , Apol. i 2 0 : »<at Ui^vXXa Se Kal 'Yarda'Trrjs yevrfaeadai TCOV
<f>9apT(Ji)v avdXcoaiv 8ta rrvpos €(f>aaav. C f a l s o 44.

A n a p o c r y p h a l s t a t e m e n t of St. P a u l q u o t e d i n C l e m e n t of
.Alexandria, Strom, vi 5 , 42—3: Ad^cTe Kal r a ? 'EXXr^vLKa^ jSijSAous,
tiriyvojTe Si^vXXav, (hs STJXOI iva deov Kal TO. fxeXovra eaeadai, Kal TOV
'YardoTT'qv Aa/Sovre? avdyvcoTe, Kal evprjaere TTOXXIO TTjXavyeaTepov Kal
aa<f>€aT€pov yeypapLfxivov TOV viov TOV deov, Kal Kad<i)s rrapdraxiv nofqaovai
TO) XpiaTOi voXXol PaoiXeis p-iaoivTcs avTOv Kal TOVS <f>opovvTas TO ovofxa
avTov Kal TOVS maTovs avTov Kal TTfv virofxovrjv rrjv vapovalav
Kal avrov.
S i n c e C l e m e n t i m m e d i a t e l y p r i o r t o this [Strom, vi 5 , 39—41) q u o t e s the
( i o s p e l of P e t e r , it h a s b e e n a s s u m e d t h a t t h i s p a s s a g e w a s a l s o t a k e n
from i t (A. H i l g e n f e l d , Z W T h 35 ( 1 8 9 3 ) , PP- 5 2 5 - 3 1 ) - he
i n t r o d u c e s t h i s p a s s a g e w i t h t h e w o r d s : SrjXwaei npos ru> Ilerpov
Krjpvyp,aTi 6 drroaToXos Aeycov FlaOXos. T o t h e w i t n e s s o f the G o s p e l of
P e t e r h e t h u s a d d s w o r d s f r o m P a u l , a l t h o u g h t h e y c a n n o t b e assigned
10 a n y of t h e o t h e r e x t a n t c o l l e c t i o n s of a p o c r y p h a l P a u l i n e s a y i n g s a n d
a r e a c c o r d i n g l y n o t i n c l u d e d in E . H e n n e c k e a n d W . S c h n e e m e l c h e r ,
S'.T. Apocrypha, t r a n s l . R . M c L . W i l s o n ( 1 9 6 5 ) . C f t h e c o m m e n t s of
I l a r n a c k , Gesch. der altchr. Litt. I, p p . 26, 1 2 9 ; I I . i , p p . 4 9 1 - 3 , 589.
L a c t a n t i u s , Inst, v h 1 5 , 1 9 , ed. B r a n d t : ' H y s t a s p e s q u o q u e , q u i fuit
M e d o r u m rex antiquissimus . . . , aditiirabile somnium sub interpreta
il* jne v a t i c i n a n t i s p u e r i a d m e m o r i a m p o s t e r i s t r a d i d i t , s u b l a t u i r i ex
(itl)e i m p e r i u m n o m e n q u e R o m a n u m m u l t o a n t e p r a e f a t u s est q u a m
ilia T r o i a n a gens c o n d e r e t u r . ' Ibid., vii 1 8 , 2—3: ' H y s t a s p e s e n i m , q u e m
s u p e r i u s n o m i n a v i , d e s c r i p t a i n i q u i t a t e s a e c u h h u i u s e x t r e m i , p i o s ac
luleles a n o c e n t i b u s s e g r e g a t e s a i t c u m fletu et g e m i t u e x t e n t u r o s esse
.1(1 c o e l u m m a n u s et i m p l o r a t u r o s fidem J o v i s ; J o v e m r e s p e c t u r u m a d
i i r r a m et a u d i t u r u m v o c e s h o m i n u m a t q u e i m p i o s e x t i n c t u r u m . Q u a e
o m n i a vera s u n t , p r a e t e r u n u m , q u o d J o v e m d i x i t iUa f a c t u r u m , q u a e
1 )cus faciet. Sed e t i l l u d n o n sine d a e m o n u m f r a u d e s u b t r a c t u m , missu
iri a p a t r e t u n c filium D e i , q u i deletis o m n i b u s m a l i s p i o s h b e r e t . '
In t h e T h e o s o p h y w r i t t e n t o w a r d t h e e n d o f the fifth c e n t u r y , in
w h i c h are a s s e m b l e d p a g a n witnesses for t h e C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n , t h e
656 §33"'^- Jewish Literature Composed in Greek
f o u r t h b o o k w a s a p p a r e n t l y d e v o t e d to t h e p r o p h e c i e s of H y s t a s p e s ( c f
on this, a b o v e , p p . 628 f.; H . E r b s e , Fragmente griechischer Theosophien
(1941)), but unfortunately t h e excerpts preserved d o not include this
book.
Bibliography
Windisch, H . , Die Orakel des Hystaspes (Verhandelingen d e r Koninklijke Akademie v a n
Wetenschappen, Amsterdam) (1929).
Cumont, F . , 'La fin du monde selon les Mages occidentaux', R H R 103 (1931), p p . 29-96,
esp. 6 4 ff.
Bidez, J., a n d F. C u m o n t , Les Mages hellenisis (1938) I, pp. 203-28 ; II, p p . 359 ff.
Perette, A., La Sibilla Babilonese nella Propaganda Ellenistica (1943), p . 375.
Altheim, F . , Weltgeschichte Asiens im griechischen êitalter II ( 1 9 4 8 ) , p p . 174 f, 179—84.
van Unnik, W. C , 'Hystaspes', R G G , 3rd ed., I l l (1959), p p . 507 ff.
Eddy, S. K . , The King is Dead (1961), p p . 16, 59.
Widengren, G., DieReligionen Irans (1965), p p . 199-207.
Denis, I P G A T , p p . 268-9.
MomigHano, A., Alien Wisdom (1975), p . 146.
Ogilvie, R . M . The Library of Lactantius (1978), pp. 5 4 - 5 .
3. Forged Verses of Greek Poets

Jewish a n d Christian apologists repeatedly appealed to t h e most
e m i n e n t of t h e G r e e k p o e t s t o p r o v e t h a t t h e m o r e j u d i c i o u s G r e e k s
h e l d t h e c o r r e c t views c o n c e r n i n g t h e n a t u r e o f G o d , his u n i t y ,
spirituality, a n d s u p r a m u n d a n e c h a r a c t e r . M a n y of these quotations,
p a r t i c u l a r l y i n C l e m e n t o f A l e x a n d r i a , a c t u a l l y c o m e from the g e n u i n e
w r i t i n g s of t h o s e p o e t s a n d h a v e b e e n skilfully s e l e c t e d a n d i n t e r p r e t e d
by t h e a p o l o g i s t s . ' ' ^ ' But i n t e r s p e r s e d w i t h the a u t h e n t i c q u o t a t i o n s a r e
n o t a few t h a t a r e c l e a r l y forgeries i n the i n t e r e s t of J e w i s h or C h r i s t i a n
a p o l o g e t i c s . T h e y w e r e n o t v e r y successful a m o n g p a g a n s i n p a s s i n g off
t h e ideas of t h e forger a s t h o s e of the o r i g i n a l p o e t s , since t h e y a r e
a l m o s t n e v e r q u o t e d by p a g a n w r i t e r s , w h o e v i d e n t l y r e c o g n i z e d t h e m
as s p u r i o u s , ' ^ ^ so it is likely t h a t h e r e a t least J e w i s h a p o l o g e t i c s w a s
o r i g i n a l l y i n t e n d e d p r i m a r i l y for a J e w i s h a u d i e n c e . T h e s e forged verses
a r e m a i n l y to b e f o u n d i n ( i ) A r i s t o b u l u s q u o t e d in E u s e b i u s , Praep. ev.
xiii 12. (2) C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a , Strom, v 14, also g i v e n in E u s e b i u s ,
Praep. ev. xiii 1 3 ; cf. also Protrept. vii 74. (3) P s e u d o - J u s t i n , Cohortatio ad
Graecos 1 5 a n d 18. (4) P s e u d o - J u s t i n , De monarchia 2-4. T h e p o e t s t o
w h o m t h e s e verses a r e a s c r i b e d a r e the g r e a t t r a g i c p o e t s A e s c h y l u s ,
S o p h o c l e s , a n d E u r i p i d e s ; the w r i t e r s of c o m e d y , P h i l e m o n , M e n a n d e r ,
a n d D i p h i l u s ; O r p h e u s , to w h o m a l o n g p a s s a g e is a s c r i b e d ; a n d
252. So e.g. the famous beginning of the Phaenomena of Aratus (third century B.C.) : 'EK
^los dpx<jDtx€aOa, TOV ovSenor' av8pes iutaiv apprjTov etc., from which the saying quoted in
Ac. 17:28 also derives: rov yap Kal ytvos iafiev. Already t h e Jewish philosopher
Aristobulus quotes these verses (Eusebius, Praep. ev. xiii 12, 6 ) ; further Theophilus, Ad
Autol. ii 8 ; Clement of Alexandria, Strom, v 14, loi = Eusebius, Praep. ev. xiu 13, 26.
253. Cf Walter in J S H R Z I V . 3 (1983), p p . 251-2.
H e s i o d , H o m e r , a n d L i n u s (or C a l l i m a c h u s ) , t o w h o m a r e a t t r i b u t e d
s o m e verses on t h e S a b b a t h .
F o r a n assessment of t h e o r i g i n o f these p a s s a g e s , t h e f o l l o w i n g is of
i m p o r t a n c e . N e a r l y all t h e pieces u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n a p p e a r b o t h in
C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a , Strom, v 14, 1 1 3 - 3 3 ( = E u s e b i u s , Praep. ev. xiii
13, 4 0 - 6 2 ) a n d in P s e u d o - J u s t i n , De monarchia 2—4. A r i s t o b u l u s as
q u o t e d b y E u s e b i u s , a n d the Cohortatio ad Graecos, h a v e o n l y i s o l a t e d
pieces, all of w h i c h c a n also b e f o u n d i n the o t h e r w r i t i n g s a l t h o u g h
t h e i r versions o f s o m e p a s s a g e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h a t a s c r i b e d to O r p h e u s ,
are significantly d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e m . B u t i n b o t h C l e m e n t a n d De
monarchia t h e s u s p e c t p a s s a g e s a r e p l a c e d t o g e t h e r , in De monarchia r e a l l y
a l m o s t w i t h o u t a n y o t h e r i n g r e d i e n t s . I t is t h e r e f o r e c l e a r e i t h e r t h a t
o n e m a d e use of t h e o t h e r , or t h a t b o t h g o b a c k to a c o m m o n s o u r c e .
Closer c o n s i d e r a t i o n s h o w s , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e first a l t e r n a t i v e is n o t
a c c e p t a b l e . F o r a l t h o u g h t h e q u o t e d f r a g m e n t s are n e a r l y all i d e n t i c a l ,
t h e y a r e g i v e n m o r e fully a n d m o r e e x a c t l y s o m e t i m e s by o n e a n d
s o m e t i m e s by the o t h e r . W i t h o u t a n y d o u b t , t h e r e f o r e , t h e y b o t h
d r e w e i t h e r f r o m o n e c o m m o n s o u r c e i n w h i c h all t h e p r e s u m a b l y
suspect pieces w e r e f o u n d t o g e t h e r or, m o r e h k e l y , from a series of
s e p a r a t e collections of s u c h pieces.
W h a t o n e o f t h e s e sources w a s is said p l a i n l y b y C l e m e n t : n a m e l y ,
P s e u d o - H e c a t a e u s ' b o o k o n A b r a h a m a n d t h e E g y p t i a n s (see b e l o w , p .
674), w h i c h C l e m e n t , Strom, v 14, 1 1 3 = E u s e b i u s , Praep. ev. xiii 1 3 , 40,
gives as t h e o r i g i n o f a q u o t a t i o n f r o m S o p h o c l e s . T h e r e is n o r e a s o n to
s u p p o s e t h a t all t h e q u o t a t i o n s from the t r a g i c a n d c o m i c p o e t s s h o u l d
be a s c r i b e d to this a u t h o r , b u t it c a n at t h e v e r y least b e asserted t h a t
this a s c r i p t i o n m a k e s it likely t h a t such florilegia o f p a g a n t e s t i m o n i a
w e r e collected by J e w s i n the last t h r e e c e n t u r i e s B . C . a n d t h a t t h e r e is
therefore no prima facie r e a s o n to s u s p e c t t h e p o e t i c forgeries of b e i n g
C h r i s d a n . It is p o s s i b l e b u t u n n e c e s s a r y t o a s s u m e t h a t a l l t h o s e
q u o t a d o n s n o t a s c r i b e d t o A r i s t o b u l u s (see b e l o w ) w e r e i n fact f o u n d in
t h e w o r k of P s e u d o - H e c a t a e u s , b u t it c a n n o t b e p r o v e d t h a t t h e r e w e r e
254. Instructive for e x a m p l e is De monarcfiia 3, compared t o Clement, Strom, v 14,

121—2 ( = Eusebius, Praep. ev. xiii 13, 47—8). De monarchia first gives a passage from
Sophocles here (ecrrai y a p , earai etc.). Clement has the s a m e passage b u t in two halves,
the second of which is introduced with the f o r m u l a : Kal /uer* oXiya avdis eTn<f>epei. Here
Clement is undoubtedly more original; the a u t h o r of De monarchia has b r o u g h t together
the two passages which are n o t directly related. T h e reverse is true in the following, in
Clement the preceding, passage, oUi av TOVS Bavovras, all of which Clement ascribes to
Diphilus. T h e a u t h o r of De monarchia assigns the first longer half to Philemon, and the
second shorter half to Euripides, the latter correctly, because it includes a few genuine
verses from Euripides which a r e supplemented by spurious ones (cf Le Boulluec, Comm. to
Clem., Strom., V (SC 279), p p . 345-6). T h u s De monarchia has preserved t h e original;
Clement has erroneously ascribed to one a u t h o r t h e two passages, which do not belong
together.
n o t many such w o r k s from w h i c h C l e m e n t a n d l a t e r a u t h o r s d r e w freely.

P r o b a b l y a q u i t e s e p a r a t e c o l l e c t i o n o r collections from t h a t of t h e
d r a m a w r i t e r s is r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e l a r g e f r a g m e n t s of O r p h e u s a n d b y
t h e verses of H e s i o d , H o m e r a n d L i n u s a b o u t t h e S a b b a t h , w h i c h ,
a c c o r d i n g to E u s e b i u s , xiii 1 2 , w e r e q u o t e d by A r i s t o b u l u s in t h e second
c e n t u r y B.C. T h e O r p h e a n p i e c e , in r a t h e r different recensions, is f o u n d
b o t h in C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a , Strom, v 1 4 , 1 2 3 ff ( = E u s e b i u s , xiii 1 3 ,
50 ff.) a n d i n De monarchia 2, in t h e m i d s t of the forged verses of t h e
t r a g i c a n d c o m i c p o e t s . T h e t e s t i m o n i e s of H e s i o d and H o m e r
c o n c e r n i n g t h e S a b b a t h a r e a t least n e a r b y in C l e m e n t [Strom- v 14, 107
= E u s e b i u s , x i h 1 3 , 3 4 ) , a n d in A r i s t o b u l u s a r e q u o t e d t o g e t h e r w i t h
the O r p h e a n piece.
I t is h o w e v e r q u i t e u n n e c e s s a r y t o a s s u m e t h a t this i n d i c a t e s
a u t h o r s h i p o f all t h e pieces b y a single a u t h o r . A r i s t o b u l u s m a y w e l l
h a v e f o u n d t h e O r p h i c verses a n d t h o s e o n t h e S a b b a t h i n q u i t e
s e p a r a t e collections w h i c h h e p l a c e d t o g e t h e r for his o w n p o l e m i c a l
p u r p o s e s . T h e r e is no e v i d e n c e t h a t P s e u d o - H e c a t a e u s w a s e v e n
a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t h e verses c i t e d b y A r i s t o b u l u s . I t is m o s t likely t h a t
t h e c i t a t i o n o f all these verses in close p r o x i m i t y is d u e t o the i d e n t i c a l
use m a d e b y the l a t e r J e w i s h a n d C h r i s t i a n a u t h o r s of a n u m b e r of
c o l l e c d o n s of s u c h t e s t i m o n i a .
F o r t h e d a t i n g o f these forgeries o n l y v e r y v a g u e i n d i c a d o n s can b e
f o u n d i n the g e n e r a l s i m i l a r i t y of t h e i r ideas to t h o s e in Sib. iii 1 - 4 5 ,
Pseudo-Phocylides, and Ezekiel the T r a g e d i a n . M o r e accurate d a t i n g
d e p e n d s o n t h e e v i d e n c e for t h e first a t t e s t e d u s e of t h e verses.
F o r t h e q u o t a t i o n o r q u o t a t i o n s t h a t a r e t o b e ascribed to
P s e u d o - H e c a t a e u s , the o n l y fixed d a t e is a t i m e before t h e c o m p o s i t i o n
of t h e w o r k On Abraham and the Egyptians i n w h i c h t h e P s e u d o - S o p h o c l e s
verse is q u o t e d . T h i s is n o t h o w e v e r v e r y helpful since t h a t w o r k c a n
o n l y be Jirmly d a t e d to before J o s e p h u s , t h o u g h if, as is possible, it is
referred t o b y P s e u d o - A r i s t e a s , 3 1 , i t m a y b e a s s i g n e d to a n earlier d a t e ,
before c. 170 B.C. (see b e l o w , s e c t i o n 4). A n y p e r i o d b e t w e e n t h e t h i r d
c e n t u r y E.G. a n d t h e e a r l y first c e n t u r y A . D . is t h e r e f o r e possible for t h e
forgeries. If t h e u n p r o v a b l e h y p o t h e s i s is c o r r e c t t h a t all t h e e x t a n t
forged verses not explicitly a s s i g n e d t o A r i s t o b u l u s w e r e o r i g i n a l l y
q u o t e d b y P s e u d o - H e c a t a e u s (see a b o v e ) , it is likely t h a t t h e a u t h o r
collected passages from G r e e k p o e t s , as witnesses for true belief in G o d ,
a n d t h a t , w h i l e m a n y o f t h e s e passages w e r e c e r t a i n l y g e n u i n e , t h e y
w e r e a p p a r e n t l y still not s t r o n g e n o u g h for the a u t h o r , so t h a t h e e i t h e r
s t r e n g t h e n e d a n d c o m p l e t e d t h e m b y verses of his o w n c o m p o s i t i o n , o r
t o o k verses from a J e w i s h c o m p e n d i u m w h i c h h a d a l r e a d y b e e n m a d e
for the s a m e p o l e m i c a l p u r p o s e . T h a t h e w o u l d h a v e liked to h a v e
p r o v e d t h e a c q u a i n t a n c e of t h e G r e e k -noiriTal w i t h M o s e s , or w i s h e d to
p r o v e t h i s , may b e s h o w n b y t h e q u o t a t i o n f r o m H e c a t a e u s in
P s e u d o - A r i s t e a s , 3 1 , in w h i c h H e c a t a e u s is a l l e g e d t o h a v e asserted t h a t
t h e G r e e k p o e t s o n l y failed to discuss the J e w i s h L a w b e c a u s e i t was too
h o l y for such discussion. I t is n o t h o w e v e r c e r t a i n w h e t h e r P s e u d o -
Aristeas referred t o this, p s e u d o n y m o u s , w o r k on A b r a h a m o r to t h e
g e n u i n e w r i t i n g s of H e c a t a e u s (see b e l o w , p . 6 7 4 ) . I t is h o w e v e r e n t i r e l y
in k e e p i n g w i t h o t h e r gnomologia of this k i n d t h a t , i f P s e u d o - H e c a t a e u s
f o u n d t h a t t h e G r e e k p o e t s d i d not m e n t i o n M o s e s e x p l i c i t l y , h e s h o u l d
t r y all t h e m o r e d i l i g e n t l y to s h o w t h a t the c o n t e n t s of t h e i r w r i t i n g s
a g r e e d w i t h t h e M o s a i c L a w . H o w e v e r , i t c a n n o t , a s a l r e a d y n o t e d , be
p r o v e d t h a t t h e w o r k s o f P s e u d o - H e c a t a e u s c o n t a i n e d a n y m o r e forged
verses t h a n t h e single q u o t a t i o n of S o p h o c l e s e x p h c i t l y a s s i g n e d to h i m
b y C l e m e n t . T h e rest of t h e verses m a y t h e r e f o r e c o m e from an
u n k n o w n J e w i s h s o u r c e o f a n y p e r i o d before C l e m e n t .
A d a t e for t h e forged O r p h i c verses a n d t h e verses a b o u t t h e S a b b a t h
is e v e n m o r e difficult to d e t e r m i n e since t h e O r p h i c verses at l e a s t h a v e
c e r t a i n l y u n d e r g o n e a n u m b e r of r e c e n s i o n s for different p o l e m i c a l
p u r p o s e s (see b e l o w , p . 664). T h e r e is h o w e v e r n o r e a s o n to d e n y t h e
e x i s t e n c e of some c o m p i l a t i o n of s u c h verses before A r i s t o b u l u s q u o t e d
f r o m t h e m , i.e. p r o b a b l y before t h e m i d - s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C . S i n c e i t is
r a t h e r u n l i k e l y t h a t A r i s t o b u l u s w o u l d h a v e t r i e d to forge t h e v e r y
verses t h a t h e used as p r i m e e v i d e n c e for his a s s e r t i o n s a b o u t J u d a i s m ,
it is v e r y likely t h a t he t o o u s e d a n a l r e a d y e x t a n t J e w i s h florilegium of
p a g a n t e s t i m o n i a t o J u d a i s m , w h i c h m a y therefore h a v e b e e n c o m p o s e d
as early as t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y B . C . ^ ^ ^ A few f u r t h e r verses p o s s i b l y forged
b y J e w s can b e i d e n t i f i e d s c a t t e r e d in t h e w r i t i n g s of P s e u d o - J u s t i n ,
C l e m e n t , a n d E u s e b i u s (see b e l o w , p . 670). T h e s e h o w e v e r c a n n o t be
associated w i t h the o t h e r k n o w n collections a n d are therefore
255. O n gnomologia in general, see K. H o r n a and K . von Fritz, 'Gnome,

G n o m e n d i c h t u n g , Gnomologien', R E suppl. VI (1935), cols. 7 4 - 9 ; W. Spoerri, Der
Kleine Pauly II (1967), cols. 8 2 3 - 9 ; Walter, J S H R Z I V . 3 (1983), pp. 248-9. In regard
to the hypothesis concerning t h e high a n d q u i t y of these forgeries, a related p h e n o m e n o n
should be noted. After showing toward the end of the fifth book of the Stromata that the
Greeks drew m u c h from the writings of the O l d Testament, Clement of Alexandria
proceeds a t the beginning of t h e sixth book t o a r g u e that they often also 'stole' from each
other, meaning thereby to strengthen his m a i n thesis. I t is very probable, j u d g i n g from
his whole method of working, that h e depended here too on previous studies. T h e a g e of
his (direct or indirect) source was however indicated by Kaibel on t h e basis of papyrus
discoveries (Hermes 28 (1893), pp. 6 2 - 4 ) . I n the same w a y , t h a t is, t h a t Epicharmus and
Euripides are m e t with in C l e m e n t , Strom, vi 2, 8, so there is a quite analogous
juxtaposition of verses from E p i c h a r m u s a n d Euripides n o t only already in Philo {Quaest.
in Genes, iv 203) b u t even in a p a p y r u s fragment from the third c e n t u r y B.C. (The Flinders
Petrie Papyri, ed. Mahaffy = Royal Irish Academy, Cunningham Memoirs, V I I I (1891), table
iii, i ) . It is possible t h a t this p a p y r u s fragment c a m e from the s a m e florilegium of Greek
poets used by Clement. Cf N . Zeegers-van der Vorst, Les Citations des Poetes grecs chez les
apologistes chritiens du i f siecle (Recueil de t r a v a u x d'histoire e t de philologie, I V , 47)
(1972), p p . 27-9.
66o § 3 3 A . Jewish Literature Composed in Greek
i m p o s s i b l e to d a t e . I t is p r o b a b l y s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t o n l y C h r i s t i a n
a u t h o r s , w h o w e r e n a t u r a l l y p r o n e t o b e l i e v e t h e i r witness t o
J u d a e o - C h r i s t i a n v a l u e s , a r e k n o w n to h a v e a c c e p t e d t h e s e verses a s
g e n u i n e , a n d t h a t t h e y a r e n o t i n c l u d e d i n the florilegium of a n y p a g a n
writer.
Edition
Denis, F P G , pp. 161-74.
Translations
German:
Riessler, P . , Altjud. Schrift. (1928), pp. 192, 246, 731-2, 1046.
Walter, N . , Pseudepigraphische jiidisch-hellenistische Dichtung ( J S H R Z iv.3) (1983), p p .
235-43, 261—76 (with extensive c o m m e n t a r y ) .
English:
Attridge, H , W., i n Charlesworth, O T P II (forthcoming).
Bibliography
Valckenaer, L. C . , Diatribe de Aristobulo Judaeo (1806), pp. 1-16, 73-125.
Freudenthal, J., Alexander Polyhistor (1875), p p . 166-9.
Susemihl, F . , Gesch. der griech. Litteratur in der Alexandrinerzeit I I (1892), p p . 632-5.
Elter, A,, De gnomologiorum graecorum historia atque origine, parts v-vi (Bonn, Universitdts-
Programme, 1894), cols. 149-206.
Bousset, W . , and H . Gressmann, Die Religion des Judentums (^1926), pp. 2 5 , 73. v.
Christ, W. v . , 0 . Stahlin a n d W . ^c\\m.\A\.,Gesch. der griech. Lit. etc^ ll.i (1920), p p . 603 ff
Riessler, P . , EJ 111,321 ff.
Pohlenz, M . , 'Klemens v. Alexandria u. seih hellenisches Christentum', N A W G (1943),
P-3- /
Dalbert, P . , Die Theologie der jiid.-hell. Missionsliteratur (1954), pp. 102-6.
Cerfaux, L . , 'Le hieros logos j u i f in Recueil/L. Cerfaux I (1954), p p . 71-81.
Walter, N . , Der Thoraausleger Aristobulus (1964), pp. 150-201.
Denis, I P G A T , p p . 223-38.
Zeegers-Vander Vorst, N., 'Les Citations Poetiques chez Theophile d'Antioche', Studia
Patristica 10 (1970), pp. 168-74.
Speyer, W . , Die literarische Falschung im heidnischen und christlichen Altertum (1971), p p .
161-3.
Hengel, M . , 'Anonymitat, Pseudepigraphie u n d "Literarische Falschung" in der
jiidisch-hellenisdsche Literatur', in K . von Fritz, ed., Pseudepigrapha I (Entretiens
H a r d t , X V I I I ) (1972), p p . 229-329, esp. 294-6.
Zeegers-Vander Vorst, N., Les Citations des PoHes grecs chez les apologistes chritiens du if siecle
(Recueil d e travaux d'histoire et d e philologie I V , 47) (1972).
I n De monarchia, i n d i v i d u a l p a s s a g e s of t h e t r a g i c p o e t s a n d t h e
P s e u d o - O r p h i c verses a r e a r r a n g e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r essential p o i n t s o f
v i e w ( t h e n a t u r e of G o d , f u t u r e r e t r i b u t i o n , t h e necessity o f e t h i c a l
c o n d u c t ) . S i n c e i t is p r o b a b l e t h a t , a p a r t f r o m t h e i n s e r t i o n of t h e
P s e u d o - O r p h i c verses a n d t h e t w o f r a g m e n t s w h i c h q u o t e ( s p u r i o u s l y )
Pythagoras a n d (genuinely) Plato, the order preserved by Pseudo-
J u s t i n is t h a t of t h e o r i g i n a l J e w i s h c o l l e c t i o n o r c o l l e c t i o n s of s u c h
i c s t i m o n i a f r o m t h e d r a m a t i c w r i t e r s , w e h a v e used it as a basis for t h e

Ibllowing survey.
1. T w e l v e verses oi Aeschylus ( D e n i s , F P G , p p . 1 6 1 - 2 ) o n t h e e x a l t e d
n a t u r e of G o d a b o v e all c r e a t u r e s , De monarchia 2 ( O t t o , Corpus
apologetarum^ I I I , p . 1 3 0 ) ; C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a , Strom, v 1 4 , 1 3 1 =
Kusebius, Praep. ev. xiii 1 3 , 60 ( N a u c k , Tragicorum Graec. fragm^ F 4 6 4 ;
H . - J . M e t t e , Die Fragmente der Tragddien des Aischylos (1959), p . 223, n o .
627).
2. N i n e verses of Sophocles ( D e n i s , F P G , 1 6 2 - 3 ) o n t h e u n i t y of G o d
w h o m a d e h e a v e n a n d e a r t h , a n d o n t h e foohshness o f i d o l a t r y , De
monarchia 2 ( O t t o , Corpus apolog.^ I l l , p . 132) ; C l e m e n t o f A l e x a n d r i a ,
Strom. V 14, 1 1 3 = E u s e b i u s , Praep. ev. xiii 1 3 , 4 0 ; C l e m e n t , Protrept. vii
74 ; P s e u d o - J u s t i n , Cohort, ad Graec. 18. T h e s e verses w e r e p o p u l a r w i t h
hiter p a t r i s t i c w r i t e r s , cf C y r i l of A l e x a n d r i a , Adv. Julian., ed.
S p a n h e i m , 3 2 a ; T h e o d o r e t , Graecarum affectionum curatio vii 46 (ed.
C a n i v e t , I, p p . 3 0 8 - 9 ) , M a l a l a s , Chron. I I , p p . 40 ff. ( P G X C V I I , 1 1 2 ) ;
C e d r e n u s , B o n n e d . , I , p . 8 2 . T h e first t w o verses a p p e a r also in
A t h e n a g o r a s , Leg. 5 ( N a u c k , Trag. Graec. fragm., F 1 0 2 5 ) . S i n c e this
e x c e r p t is so w i d e l y q u o t e d b y itself a n d is the section of P s e u d o -
S o p h o c l e s a t t r i b u t e d to H e c a t a e u s b y C l e m e n t , Strom, v 14, 1 1 3 , i t is
possible t h a t it f o r m e d p a r t of a s e p a r a t e c o l l e c t i o n o n l y l a t e r
i n c o r p o r a t e d w i t h i n t h e m a i n collection o f p o e t i c t e s t i m o n i a , e s p e c i a l l y
since t h e f u r t h e r f r a g m e n t assigned b y De monarchia to S o p h o c l e s ( n o . 5
below) is a t y p i c a l l y a n o n y m o u s in t h e p a r a l l e l c i t a t i o n b y C l e m e n t . C f
Walter, J S H R Z I V . 3 (1983), p p . 247-8.
3. T w o verses ( D e n i s , F P G , p . 1 6 3 ) , a s c r i b e d to t h e c o m i c p o e t
Philemon in De monarchia 2, b u t to Euripides i n C l e m e n t o f A l e x a n d r i a ,
Protrept. vi 68, discuss G o d as o n e w h o sees all b u t is himself u n s e e n . O n
t h e i r spuriousness, c f N a u c k , Trag. Graec. fragm.F 1 1 2 9 ; K o c k , Comm.
att. fragm., F 2 4 7 ; E d m o n d s , Fragm. Att. Comedy, F 2 4 7 ; O t t o , Corpus
(ipologetarum^ I I I , p . 1 3 2 , n. 2 1 . T h e a s c r i p t i o n t o E u r i p i d e s , as by
C l e m e n t , m a y be m o r e o r i g i n a l a c c o r d i n g to W a l t e r , Der Thoraausleger
Aristobulus (1964), p . 1 8 7 , n, i, w h o s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e a u t h o r of De
monarchia s u b s t i t u t e d t h e n a m e ' P h i l e m o n ' b e c a u s e a f o r g e r y of a n
. l u t h o r a s well k n o w n a s E u r i p i d e s w a s t o o easily d e t e c t e d , cf also
W a l t e r , J S H R Z I V . 3 ( 1 9 8 3 ) , p . 249, n. 2 6 ; p . 2 5 1 .
4. A l o n g p a s s a g e a t t r i b u t e d to Orpheus ( D e n i s , F P G , p p . 1 6 3 - 7 ) is
e x t a n t i n t h r e e essentially differing r e c e n s i o n s , (a) T h e s h o r t e s t is t h a t in
Di' monarchia 2 ( O t t o , Corpus apologetarum^ I I I , p p . 1 3 2 ff.) a n d Cohortatio
.fî). See Walter, J S H R Z I V . 3 (1983), p. 245. F o r the O r p h i c fragments as a separate

. nlicdion, see below, p . 665; for the Pythagorean verse as separate, note t h e fact that
I lenient does not refer t o it, unlike t h e other citations. It is noteworthy that De monarchia
I. tlx only one of the collections of this material in which t h e forged verses are not
nniii;led with genuine q u o t a t i o n s of t h e poets.
ad Graecos 15. T h e t e x t is i d e n t i c a l i n b o t h e x c e p t for t h e o m i s s i o n of t h e

t w o i n t r o d u c t o r y verses i n De monarchia. T h e t e x t of t h e Cohortatio is a l s o
give n, w i t h a n a b b r e v i a t i o n i n t h e m i d d l e , by Cyril of A l e x a n d r i a , Adv.
Julian., I , ed. S p a n h e i m , p . 26. T h e p a s s a g e ( t w e n t y - o n e verses in t h e
Cohortatio ad Graecos) d e a l s , i n the form of a t e s t a m e n t , as so often in
J e w i s h p s e u d e p i g r a p h y , w i t h t h e i d e a t h a t t h e r e is b u t o n e G o d w h o
c r e a t e d e v e r y t h i n g a n d still r u l e s , a n d w h o is e n t h r o n e d i n t r a n s c e n d e n t
g l o r y in h e a v e n , invisible a n d yet e v e r y w h e r e p r e s e n t . T h i s t h e m e is
closely p a r a l l e l e d i n Sib. iii 1—45, b u t , if f u r t h e r p r o o f is n e e d e d for t h e
J e w i s h o r i g i n of these verses, i t is clearly f o u n d in t h e n o t i o n t a k e n f r o m
I s a . 66: i t h a t the h e a v e n s a r e G o d ' s t h r o n e a n d t h e e a r t h his footstool
(cf M t . 5 : 3 4 - 5 ; A c . 7:49):
O^TOs yap XO-XKCLOV is' ovpavov iar-qpiKTai
Xpvaio) €ivi dpovcp, yair)s 8' cm voaal jSejSi^Ke.^^^
It is n o t e w o r t h y t h a t the a u t h o r e m p h a s i z e s t h a t evil is also sent b y G o d :
OSTOS 8' i^dyadolo KaKov dvrjToiai SiScDot
Kat TToXepov Kpvoevra Kat dXyea SaKpvoevra.
T h e w h o l e i n s t r u c t i o n is, a c c o r d i n g t o Cohortatio ad Graecos 1 5 , a d d r e s s e d
to M u s a e u s t h e s o n of O r p h e u s . A c c o r d i n g to De monarchia 2, i t is
c o n t a i n e d in t h e ' T e s t a m e n t o f O r p h e u s ' , in w h i c h t h e l a t t e r , r e p e n t i n g
of his f o r m e r t e a c h i n g o f the e x i s t e n c e of 360 g o d s , p r o c l a i m e d the o n e
t r u e G o d . Cf. also Cohortatio ad Graecos 15 a n d 36, a n d especially
T h e o p h i l u s , Ad Autol. iii 2 (365 g o d s ! ) .
(b) A l o n g e r r e c e n s i o n of t h e s a m e O r p h e a n p i e c e is assigned to
A r i s t o b u l u s i n E u s e b i u s , Praep. ev. xiii 12, 4 - 5 . T h e b e g i n n i n g is
essentially t h e s a m e as i n t h e a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d r e c e n s i o n , b u t t o w a r d
t h e e n d it h a s c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e , in p a r t i c u l a r a r e f e r e n c e t o a
C h a l d e a n a s t r o l o g e r , p r o b a b l y A b r a h a m , w h o a l o n e saw G o d a n d
a t t a i n e d true k n o w l e d g e of h i m , a n d the a t t r i b u t i o n t o M o s e s of a role of
p r i m e i m p o r t a n c e (Denis, F P G , p . 16, lines 25, 4 1 - 2 ) . T h e p a s s a g e
a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h G o d also inflicts evil is c o r r e c t e d h e r e i n t o t h e
opposite:
AvTos 8' i^ ayadu)v dvrjTOis KaKOV OVK iniTeXXei
257. These same verses read, according t o Clement of Alexandria, Strom, v 14, 124 =
Eusebius, Praep. ev. xiii 13, 51 (and almost t h e same, according to Aristobulus i n Eusebius
xiii 12, 5) :
AvTOi 8' aS fj-eyav aSr^s in' ovpavov iarrjpiKTat.
Xpvaecfi elvi Opovcp, yairj 8' VTTO iroaal PeprjKev.
Clement observes the agreement with Isa. 66: i.
258. I n the margin of the Tiibingen Theosophy, where the same material is included
(Buresch, p . 114 = Erbse, p. 181, lines 18—19), t h e scholiast identifies the C h a l d a e a n as
Moses, which Philo, De Vita Mosis i 5, show to b e a possible identification. However,
Clement, Strom, v 14, 123, referring to the same passage, explicitly identifies him with
A b r a h a m or his son Isaac.
AvdpdiTTois' avTO) Se X^P*-^ fj-iaos ovrjSet,

Kal TToXepos K a l XOI/JLOS 18' dXyea SaKpvoevTO.
Aristobulus names as source the poems of Orpheus Kara rov lepov
Xoyov (Eusebius, Praep. ev. xiii 1 2 , 4 ) .
Predominantly in agreement with the Aristobulus-Eusebius text is
that given in the excerpt from the Theosophia of Tubingen, the work of
an author of the fifth century A . D . published by Buresch (Buresch,
Klaros ( 1 8 8 9 ) , the Orphean fragment on pp. 112—15, and, better, H .
Krbse, Fragmente griechischen Theosophien ( 1 9 4 1 ) , pp. 167—201, with the
Orphean fragment on pp. 1 8 0 - 2 ; cf above, pp. 6 2 8 f). However, this
text also includes at particular points lines found in the Pseudo-Justin
work but not in Eusebius. It preserves a patently Christian reworking of
two Hnes of the Eusebius text (Buresch, p. 1 1 3 , 9 - 1 1 4 ; Erbse, p. 181,
.18-19).
(c) A third recension is represented by the quotations in Clement of
Alexandria, Protrept. vii 74, Strom, v 12, 78, and especially Strom, v 14,
' 2 3 - 3 7 ~ Eusebius, Praep. ev. xiii 13, 5 0 - 4 . Theodoret, Graecarum
affectionum curatio ii 3 0 - 1 (ed. Canivet, I, pp. 1 4 6 - 7 ) , in turn probably
drew from Clement.Clement gives the text only piecemeal, broken
up into separate quotations. But if all of these are taken together, it
becomes quite clear, especially from Strom, v 1 2 3 - 4 , that he had some of
the verses preserved in Eusebius under the name of Aristobulus, but not
all. Although he agrees with Aristobulus in including the passage on the
Chaldean, he lacks any of Aristobulus' material about the role of Moses.
It is very unlikely that he deliberately passed over such testimony to
Moses if it was known to him. For the rest, Clement, Strom, v 12, 78,
contains two lines not to be found in Aristobulus, one of which does not
appear in any other recension except for the Theosophia, while the
other is attested in Pseudo-Justin. There are also agreements in many
details with Pseudo-Justin's writings. In particular, Clement has the
passage about the infliction of evil by God {Strom, v 14, 126 = Eusebius,
Praep. ev. xih 13, 5 3 ) . On Orpheus' writing, from which the passage is
taken, Clement says, in agreement with the others, that Orpheus, 'after
his preaching of orgies and the theology of idols, introduced a pahnode
of truth and, though late, sang the teachings which were genuinely
sacred {rov lepov 6vra>s.. .Xoyov)' {Protrept. vii 7 4 ) .
About the relation of the versions to each other there is still no
259. Theodoret cites only thirteen lines, of which eleven are to be found in Aristobulus
as quoted by Eusebius. H o w e v e r , two lines quoted b y Theodoret are found in C l e m e n t but
not in Aristobulus. Therefore, a l t h o u g h the first three verses quoted by T h e o d o r e t agree in
part more with Aristobulus t h a n Clement, t h e fact t h a t t h e lines in Theodoret are divided
into two sections which coincide with those in Clement, Strom, v 12, 78 and v 14, 124,
makes it most likely that T h e o d o r e t took his quotations directly from there.
c e r t a i n t y . It seems c l e a r t h a t t h e h i s t o r y o f t r a n s m i s s i o n w a s c o m p l e x .
If t h e versions w e r e d e v e l o p e d i n a d i r e c t line f r o m e a c h o t h e r , t h e n t h e
prima facie d a t e s of the a l l e g e d c i t a t i o n w o u l d r e q u i r e A r i s t o b u l u s (as
q u o t e d i n E u s e b i u s ) to b e p r i o r , followed b y C l e m e n t in t h e l a t e s e c o n d
c e n t u r y A . D . a n d b y P s e u d o - J u s t i n in t h e e a r l y t h i r d c e n t u r y A . D . I n
t h a t case, however, Clement a n d Pseudo-Justin m u s t h a v e suppressed
m a n y lines of A r i s t o b u l u s , g r a d u a l l y simplifying t h e q u o t a t i o n to o n l y
h a l f its o r i g i n a l size. T h i s is n o t likely. P s e u d o - J u s t i n u s u a l l y i n c l u d e s
w h a t e v e r is i n his s o u r c e u n c r i t i c a l l y ; t h e r e is n o r e a s o n for C l e m e n t to
h a v e p r e s e r v e d the verses w h i c h m e n t i o n A b r a h a m b u t n o t t h o s e w h i c h
refer to M o s e s ; a n d , a b o v e a l l , b o t h a u t h o r s p r e s e r v e s o m e m a t e r i a l
w h i c h is n o t f o u n d in A r i s t o b u l u s . A s i m p l e r e d u c t i o n of t h e t e x t
t h r o u g h these versions is therefore i m p o s s i b l e . S u c h c h a n g e s c o u l d o n l y
b e e x p l a i n e d by the w o r k of n u m e r o u s i n t e r m e d i a r i e s b e t w e e n
A r i s t o b u l u s a n d C l e m e n t a n d t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t they h a d a l r e a d y
d r a s t i c a l l y c h a n g e d A r i s t o b u l u s ' t e x t before C l e m e n t a l t e r e d it still
f u r t h e r ; t h e n E u s e b i u s will h a v e f o u n d t h e g e n u i n e A r i s t o b u l u s text b y
c h a n c e . T h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e for t h i s c o m p l e x series of r e c e n s i o n s a n d
t h e s o m e w h a t d i s j o i n t e d n a t u r e of A r i s t o b u l u s ' text as E u s e b i u s
p r e s e r v e s it tells s t r o n g l y a g a i n s t t h e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t it w a s the o r i g i n a l
version.
I t is p o s s i b l e t h a t all t h r e e C h r i s t i a n a u t h o r s s i m p l y selected different
m a t e r i a l from a l a r g e p o o l of P s e u d o - O r p h i c verses collected b y earlier
J e w i s h apologists. H o w e v e r , t h e e x t a n t f r a g m e n t s a r e m u c h t h e b e s t
e x p l a i n e d if i t is a s s u m e d t h a t the P s e u d o - J u s t i n t e x t is t h e oldest a n d
t h a t t h e o t h e r versions a r e t h e r e s u l t o f a series o f r e c e n s i o n s w h i c h
a d d e d e x t r a m a t e r i a l t o it. I n f a v o u r o f P s e u d o - J u s t i n ' s as t h e oldest
r e c e n s i o n is t h e l a c k of o b v i o u s l a t e r a d d i t i o n s to t h e t e x t . T h i s is t h e
o n l y version w h i c h is i n t e r n a l l y c o h e r e n t a n d h o m o g e n e o u s . F u r t h e r
m o r e , it is i m p o s s i b l e to see h o w t h e e x t r a m a t e r i a l i n C l e m e n t c o u l d b e
fitted i n t o P s e u d o - J u s t i n ' s v e r s i o n w i t h o u t a w k w a r d n e s s . T h e n e x t
r e c e n s i o n w a s t h a t u s e d b y C l e m e n t a l o n g s i d e the original (i.e.
P s e u d o - J u s t i n ' s ) t e x t . T h i s s e c o n d r e c e n s i o n i n c l u d e d the m a t e r i a l
a b o u t t h e C h a l d e a n a n d also lines a b o u t the p r e s e n c e of t h e d i v i n i t y in
t h e forces of n a t u r e (Denis, F P G , p . 165, lines 1 7 - 2 0 ) . It is possible b u t
n o t necessary to see in these l a t e r lines a Stoic r e c e n s i o n o f the t e x t q u i t e
s e p a r a t e from the A b r a h a m i c o n e (so N . W a l t e r , J S H R Z I V . 3 ( 1 9 8 3 ) ,
p p . 223 f, 2 3 8 ) . T h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f the A b r a h a m i c recension w i t h t h a t
260. T h e n u m b e r of recensions t h r o u g h which the work went before reaching its

present stage h a s been much debated. A . Eher, Gnomologia V I (1894), p p , 178—87,
succeeds i n distinguishing sixteen stages in the evolution of the work from Pseudo-Justin
to Eusebius. Denis, F P G , p. 164, by contrast distinguishes only t w o recensions. N . Walter,
Der Thoraausleger Aristobulus (1964), pp. 202-61, distinguishes four main stages. His
account is mostly but n o t entirely followed here.
of P s e u d o - J u s t i n m a y h a v e b e e n t h e w o r k of C l e m e n t himself o r , m o r e
likely since C l e m e n t w a s o n l y c o n c e r n e d t o cite the w o r k in s h o r t
f r a g m e n t s , it w a s a c h i e v e d , r a t h e r c l u m s i l y , b y a c o m p i l e r before h i m .
Based o n the r e c e n s i o n used b y C l e m e n t w a s t h a t f o u n d in E u s e b i u s
u n d e r t h e n a m e of A r i s t o b u l u s , b u t w i t h t h e a d d i t i o n b y a J e w i s h a u t h o r of
four verses a b o u t M o s e s a s p u r v e y o r of t h e Xoyos ( F P G , p p . 1 6 5 - 6 , lines
21, 25, 4 1 - 2 ) r a t h e r u n c o m f o r t a b l y t a c k e d o n t o it. T h i s r e c e n s i o n w a s
n o t k n o w n b y P s e u d o - J u s t i n since it is i n c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t h e w o u l d
h a v e i g n o r e d the verses o n A b r a h a m a n d M o s e s w h i c h w o u l d h a v e
b e e n c o n g e n i a l to h i m , p a r t i c u l a r l y w h e n h e i n c l u d e d o t h e r m a t e r i a l of
d u b i o u s o r t h o d o x y a b o u t G o d ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h evil in t h e w o r l d . I t is
also unlikely t h a t C l e m e n t k n e w t h e r e c e n s i o n , b u t his silence is less
significant since a n y w a y he o n l y q u o t e d s m a l l sections of t h e w o r k .
Finally, the T i i b i n g e n T h e o s o p h y p r e s e r v e s a clearly C h r i s t i a n
recension.
T h e d a t e s of t h e s e r e c e n s i o n s a r e n o t firmly e s t a b l i s h e d by this
analysis of t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s . T h e r e are n o c l e a r i n d i c a t i o n s of t h e d a t e
of t h e o r i g i n a l text p r e s e r v e d in P s e u d o - J u s t i n . I t m a y q u i t e well go
b a c k to before A r i s t o b u l u s in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C . since t h e r e is no
r e a s o n t o d e n y his use of some c o l l e c t i o n of O r p h i c verses,^^' n o r to
a s s u m e t h a t t h e p o e m q u o t e d in h i s n a m e b y E u s e b i u s w a s n e c e s s a r i l y
t h e version w h i c h h e o r i g i n a l l y c i t e d . It is e v e n possible t h a t h e was t h e
first to a s s o c i a t e t h e O r p h i c verses w i t h t h e forged verses of H o m e r a n d
Hesiod, as E u s e b i u s q u o t e s h i m as h a v i n g d o n e .
T h e A b r a h a m i c r e c e n s i o n used first b y C l e m e n t can o n l y b e d a t e d
b e t w e e n the c o m p o s i t i o n of the o r i g i n a l v e r s i o n a n d the t i m e of
C l e m e n t (late s e c o n d c e n t u r y A . D . ) . T h e i d e a s p u t f o r w a r d s o m e w h a t
r e s e m b l e t h o s e in E z e k i e l t h e T r a g e d i a n (Collins, B A A J , p . 2 0 6 ) , b u t
this is o f h t t l e h e l p in d a t i n g . T h e r e is n o r e a s o n t o s u p p o s e t h a t this
version was t h e w o r k of P s e u d o - H e c a t a e u s j u s t b e c a u s e P s e u d o -
H e c a t a e u s w r o t e a b o u t A b r a h a m a n d q u o t e d o n e o f the forged verses of
S o p h o c l e s — t h e r e is n o c e r t a i n t y t h a t t h e P s e u d o - O r p h i c f r a g m e n t s
w e r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e forged verses o f t h e t r a g i c a n d c o m i c p o e t s
u n t i l t h e i r use by C l e m e n t , a l t h o u g h it is q u i t e h k e l y t h a t C l e m e n t t o o k
his o w n q u o t a t i o n s f r o m a p r e v i o u s H e l l e n i s t i c or e a r l y R o m a n
gnomologion.
Finally, the Mosaic recension found in 'Aristobulus' in Eusebius has
261. This is only hypothesis. According t o Eusebius, Praep. ev. xiii 2, 3-4, Aristobulus
iriiended t o show how O r p h e u s and other Greeks spoke about G o d as creator. This can
oidy be taken in a very vague sense a s the subject of the extant Jewish secdons in a n y of
I lie recensions. Aristobulus m a y have quoted a genuine O r p h i c verse, o r a Jewish forgery
which is n o w lost, rather than t h e recension preserved in Pseudo-Justin. At a n y rate, even
if Aristobulus quoted some forged verses, it is most unlikely that he had t h e nerve to compose
i l i c m himself before quoting t h e m as evidence for his thesis. See above, p . 584.
b e e n d a t e d b y m a n y to the t h i r d c e n t u r y A . D . o n the g r o u n d s t h a t
P s e u d o - J u s t i n was u n a w a r e o f its existence. L o b e c k p r o p o s e d t h a t
A r i s t o b u l u s h i m s e l f be c o n s i d e r e d a n a u t h o r o f the t h i r d c e n t u r y A . D .
b u t this c a n n o t be t r u e since C l e m e n t cites h i m at Strom, i 150, i ; vi 3 2 ,
3. E l t e r s u g g e s t e d a C h r i s t i a n forger of t h e s a m e p e r i o d , t o be k n o w n as
P s e u d o - A r i s t o b u l u s . I n fact, h o w e v e r , t h e recension is clearly t h a t o f a
J e w , a n d it is i m p l a u s i b l e t h a t a J e w i s h forgery of the t h i r d c e n t u r y
A . D . w o u l d h a v e b e e n a c c e p t e d by C h r i s t i a n w r i t e r s at s o late a d a t e .
T h e p r o b l e m c a n b e s u r m o u n t e d if it is r e c o g n i z e d t h a t the fact t h a t
C l e m e n t u s e d a later r e c e n s i o n of t h e t e x t t h a n t h a t used b y
P s e u d o - J u s t i n , w h o p r o b a b l y w r o t e after h i m , s h o w s t h a t the different
recensions circulated concurrently a n d t h a t Pseudo-Justin's ignorance
of t h e M o s a i c recension t h e r e f o r e d o e s not d a t e t h a t recension to after
his t i m e . T h e M o s a i c r e c e n s i o n m a y t h e r e f o r e be d a t e d to a n y t i m e
after t h e A b r a h a m i c recension a n d before E u s e b i u s ; a g a i n , a H e l l e n i s t i c
d a t e is n o t r u l e d o u t by its c o n t e n t .
I n a n y c a s e , this O r p h e a n f r a g m e n t is o n e of t h e boldest forgeries
w h i c h h a s e v e r b e e n a t t e m p t e d . It is a n alleged t e s t a m e n t of O r p h e u s to
his son M u s a e u s i n w h i c h , h a v i n g a r r i v e d a t the e n d of his life, h e
e x p h c i t l y revokes all his o t h e r p o e m s d e d i c a t e d to p o l y t h e i s d c t e a c h i n g s
a n d p r o c l a i m s the o n e t r u e G o d . A c c o r d i n g t o the S u d a (s.v. 'Opcêw?)
t h e r e w e r e lepovs Xoyovs iv pai/jcoSlais K8' of O r p h e u s w h i c h will h a v e
b e e n i n t e n d e d , as w a s n o r m a l w i t h such w o r k s , to e x p l a i n the o r i g i n of
O r p h i c c u l t i c practices. T h i s t e s t a m e n t m u s t h a v e b e e n , as C l e m e n t
says, his t r u e iep6? Xoyog.^^^
F o r t h e t e x t of t h i s J e w i s h s e c t i o n , see O . K e r n , Orphicorum fragmenta
( 1 9 2 2 ) , F 2 4 5 - 7 ( t h e texts in P s e u d o - J u s t i n , C l e m e n t a n d A r i s t o b u l u s
quoted by Eusebius); Denis, F P G , pp. 163-7 c o m p o s i t e text of
forty-six lines d e r i v e d from all t h e f r a g m e n t s ) . F o r t r a n s l a t i o n a n d
c o m m e n t a r y , see P . Riessler, Altjud. Schrift. ( 1 9 2 8 ) , p p . 182 f, 729 f
( n o t all t h e r e c e n s i o n s ) ; Y . G u t m a n , The Beginnings of Jewish-Hellenistic
Literature I ( 1 9 5 8 ) , p p . 1 4 8 - 7 0 ( H e b . ) ; E. R . G o o d e n o u g h , Jewish
262. T h e role of Orpheus a m o n g Greek-speaking J e w s has been shown to be of

considerable importance by the finds of illustrations of his figure at Dura-Europus (third
century A.D.) a n d G a z a (early sixth century A.D.), which show t h a t Orpheus was
identified with David (E. R. Goodenough, Jewish Symbols in the Greco-Roman Period, I X - X I
(1964); H . Stern, ' T h e Orpheus in the Synagogue of D u r a - E u r o p u s ' , J o u r n a l of the
W a r b u r g Institute 21 (1958), p p . 1 - 6 ; M. Philonenko, 'David-Orphee sur une mosaique
de Gaza', R H P R 47 (1967), p p . 3 5 5 - 7 ) . Note also the O r p h i c connotations in the version
of Psalm 1 5 1 discovered at Q u m r a n , cf J. A . Sanders, The Dead Sea Psalms Scroll (1967),
pp. 9 8 - 1 0 2 , 1 1 6 , and above, p . 189. See Walter, J S H R Z iv.3 (^Q^s), PP- 230-2, with
literature cited t h e r e ; M . Hengel, in K . von Fritz, ed., Pseudepigrapha I (1972), p. 293, n.
[. M . L. West, The Orphic Poems (1983), p. 35, suggests t h a t Or p h e u s Frag. 299 (Kern),
in O r p h i c oath in which appears a divine father who created heaven and the whole
vorld by his word, is probably Jewish, though he admits that it may be Hermetic, as
sserted b y Malalas, Chronogr. ed. Dindorff, I I , p. 27.
Symbols in the Greco-Roman World IX (1964), p p . 96-7 (Pseudo-Justin

and Aristobulus only); and especially N. Walter, Pseudepigraphische
jiidisch-hellenistische Dichtung (JSHRZ IV.3) (1983), pp. 217—43; M.
L a f a r g u e , in C h a r i e s w o r t h , O T P I I (forthcoming).
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( | u o t e d i n De monarchia 3 ( O t t o , Corpus apologetarum I I I , p . 1 3 6 ) , is e l e v e n
\'erses f r o m S o p h o c l e s o n t h e f u t u r e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e w o r l d b y fire a n d
t h e twofold f a t e of t h e r i g h t e o u s a n d t h e u n r i g h t e o u s . (It is p o s s i b l e t h a t
t h e q u o t a t i o n from P y t h a g o r a s w h i c h i n t e r v e n e s in t h e De monarchia t e x t
is a l s o a J e w i s h f o r g e r y b u t , if s o , it c a m e f r o m a s e p a r a t e c o l l e c t i o n , see
.ibove, p . 660; b e l o w , p . 670.) I n C l e m e n t o f A l e x a n d r i a , Strom, v 14,
12 1 - 2 = E u s e b i u s , Praep. ev. x i h 1 3 , 48, t h e s e s a m e verses a r e quoted
w i t h o u t m e n t i o n i n g S o p h o c l e s , o n l y as t h e w o r d s o f t h e rpaycpSla. I t is
possible that this indicates that this Sophocles fragment, like the
preceding one (no. 2 above), belonged originally to a different
668 §33-^- J^îsh Literature Composed in Greek
c o m p e n d i u m from t h e m a i n c o l l e c t i o n of d r a m a t i c p o e t s (see a b o v e , p .
6 6 i ) . It h a s e v e n b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e d i s t i n c t i v e t h e o l o g y f o u n d
h e r e of a w o r l d c o n f l a g r a t i o n m a y h a v e o r i g i n a t e d w i t h a Stoic r a t h e r
t h a n a J e w i s h w r i t e r , cf A . C . P e a r s o n , The Fragments of Sophocles I I I
( 1 9 1 7 ) , p p . 1 7 6 - 9 . S u c h Stoic i d e a s w o u l d h o w e v e r be q u i t e n a t u r a l
also in a J e w i s h e n v i r o n m e n t , as is s h o w n by Sib. iii 8 3 - 9 2 . I t is e v e n
possible t h a t t h e forger w a s i n f l u e n c e d b y Sib. iii 8 3 - 9 2 , cf W a l t e r ,
J S H R Z I V . 3 ( 1 9 8 3 ) , p p . 253—4, t h o u g h this p o s s i b i h t y is n o t s t r o n g
e n o u g h for it t o p r o v i d e a firm d a t e for t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f these verses.
In C l e m e n t t h e y h a v e also b e e n d i v i d e d i n t o t w o , w h e r e a s P s e u d o -
J u s t i n h a s u n i t e d t h e two h a l v e s . T h e two verses r e l a t i n g t o the different
destinies of t h e r i g h t e o u s a n d t h e u n r i g h t e o u s a r e n o t given by C l e m e n t
in t h i s c o n t e x t , b u t i n his p r e c e d i n g f r a g m e n t f r o m D i p h i l u s , w h e r e t h e y
fit b e t t e r {Strom, v 14, 1 2 1 = E u s e b i u s , Praep. ev. xiii 1 3 , 47) ( N a u c k ,
Tragicorum Graec. fragm.^, F 1 0 2 7 ) .
6. N e x t ( D e n i s , F P G , p p . 1 6 8 - 9 ) t h e r e a r e t e n verses from t h e c o m i c
p o e t P h i l e m o n c o n c e r n i n g the c e r t a i n p u n i s h m e n t e v e n o f h i d d e n sins
by t h e a l l - k n o w i n g a n d j u s t G o d , a n d ten verses, only six o f t h e m
s p u r i o u s , from E u r i p i d e s on t h e s a m e t h e m e , De monarchia 3 ( O t t o ,
Corpus apologetarum I I I , p p . 136—40). I n C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a , Strom, v
14, 121 = E u s e b i u s , Praep. ev. xih 1 3 , 47, b o t h passages a r e a t t r i b u t e d
to t h e c o m i c p o e t D i p h i l u s . T h e text of C l e m e n t is g i v e n in e x c e r p t also
by T h e o d o r e t , Graec. affect, curatio vi 2 3 (ed. C a n i v e t , vol. I , p p . 2 6 1 - 2 ) .
D e n i s , I P G A T , p . 229, is i n c h n e d to a c c e p t the a t t r i b u d o n of t h e verses
to D i p h i l u s e x c e p t for t h e four verses in C l e m e n t , Strom, v 14, 1 2 1 , 2 ,
w h i c h a r e c i t e d b y S t o b a e u s 1 3 , 1 5 as an e x t r a c t from a g e n u i n e
tragedy of Euripides.
I t is c e r t a i n l y difficult t o d i v i d e t h e t e x t m e a n i n g f u l l y i n t o sections,
b u t W a l t e r , J S H R Z I V . 3 ( 1 9 8 3 ) , p . 246, a r g u e s t h a t the a t t r i b u t i o n o f
the f r a g m e n t s t o P h i l e m o n b y De monarchia s h o u l d b e a c c e p t e d , since
the s e p a r a t i o n of t h e E u r i p i d e s verses can be e x p l a i n e d b y t h e
i n c o r p o r a t i o n i n t o t h e t e x t of a l e a r n e d s c h o l i u m b y a c o m m e n t a t o r
w h o o b s e r v e d the p r e s e n c e o f the four g e n u i n e verses. ( P h i l e m o n :
K o c k , Com. att. fragm., F 246 = E d m o n d s , Fragm. Att. Comedy, F 2 4 6 ;
E u r i p i d e s : N a u c k , Tragic. Graec. fragm.^, F 8 3 5 ( g e n u i n e ) , F 1 1 3 1
(spurious).)
7. T w e n t y - f o u r verses ( D e n i s , F P G , p p . 1 6 9 - 7 0 ) a r e ascribed t o
P h i l e m o n by P s e u d o - J u s t i n on t h e t h e m e t h a t m o r a l c o n d u c t is m o r e
necessary a n d v a l u a b l e t h a n sacrifice, De monarchia 4 ( O t t o , Corpus
apologetarum I I I , p p . 140 ff.). I n C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a , Strom, v 1 4 ,
I I 9 - 2 0 = E u s e b i u s , Praep. ev. xiii 1 3 , 4 5 - 6 , the s a m e verses a r e a s c r i b e d
to M e n a n d e r . I t is likely t h a t C l e m e n t ' s a s c r i p t i o n reflects t h e wishes o f
the o r i g i n a l forger since P s e u d o - J u s t i n m a y h a v e h a d a m o t i v e in n o t
referring these verses on t h e c u l t to M e n a n d e r , since his n e x t c h a p t e r ,
De monar^^hia 5 , is devoted by him instead to Menander's comments on

the natuM-e of God, cf Walter, JSHRZ IV.3 ( 1 9 8 3 ) , pp. 2 4 6 - 7 . (Kock,
Com. att.^ragm., F 1 1 3 0 ; Koerte, Menander, quae supersunt, F 683.)
8. A M C D N G the remaining passages from the dramatic poets quoted in
De monarchia and by Clement are a few more suspect verses (Denis,
FPG, p. 3 7 1 ) , which in De monarchia 5 (Otto, Corpus apologetarum III, pp.
150 ff.) a.re introduced with the formula MevavSpos iv ZLIÎAO). Clement,
Strom. V 14, 1 3 3 = Eusebius, Praep. ev. xhi 1 3 , 62, attributes them to
Diphilus. Clement is certainly correct, since no play of Menander by
this nam_e is known. Walter, JSHRZ IV.3 ( 1 9 8 3 ) , pp. 245, 2 4 9 - 5 0 ,
argues thiat Pseudo-Justin has tried in De monarchia 5 to combine the
original collection with aflorilegiumof quotations from Menander and
Euripides by inserting there all material relevant to his subject, i.e. a
summons to the worship of the one true God. If so, this would explain
the false attribudon of these verses to Menander and it is likely that
they belong instead with the main compilation of Jewish forgeries
preservec3 in De monarchia 2—4.*^^ The collection of Menander and
Euripides quotations apparently used by Pseudo-Justin seems to have
been unlcnown to Clement. The majority of the citations are genuine.
The collection may have been made by a Jew or a Christian and could
date to any time before Pseudo-Justin in the third century A . D .
(Diphilus: Kock, Com. att.fragm., F 1 3 8 ; Edmonds, Fragm. Att. Comedy,
F 138). The verses from Sophocles (Denis, FPG, p. 173) in Clement,
Strom. V 14, I I I = Eusebius, Praep. ev. xiii 1 3 , 3 8 , in which Zeus is
pictured in a rather unflattering light, are probably also spurious and
may conne from the main collection of Jewish forgeries of dramatic
poets (Nauck, Tragic. Graec. fragm.^, Fr. Jub. 1026). One further Jewish
verse ma^ also be contained under the name of Sophocles in Clement,
Strom. V 128, 2 (= Eusebius, Praep. ev. xiii 1 3 , 5 5 = Nauck, Tragic.
Graec. fra^m.^, F 1 0 2 8 ) , and another two forged verses of Menander may
be F O U N D in Pseudo-Justin, De monarchia 5 (Koerte, Menander quae
supersunt, F 64, F 7 4 9 ) . Their Jewish origin remains however uncertain,
cf Walter, JSHRZ IV.3 ( 1 9 8 3 ) , p. 2 5 4 .
9. Finally, in this context also belong the verses (Denis, FPG, pp.
171—2) on the number seven and the Sabbath to which Aristobulus
[Praep. ev. xiii 1 2 , 1 3 - 1 6 ) and Clement of Alexandria [Strom, v 1 4 , 107
== Eusebius, Praep. ev. xiii 13, 3 4 ) , but not Pseudo-Justin, appeal. There
are (a) t'ô verses from Hesiod, (b) three verses from Homer, (c) five
verses fro m Linus, for whom Clement has Callimachus. The attribution
to Linus ds more plausible, since Callimachus, of the third century B . C . ,
263. N. VAâlter, Der Thoraausleger Aristobulus (1964), p. 184, suggests t h a t t h e p r o b a b l e
Jewish forg«ry of Euripides in Clement, Strom, v 75, i ( = Denis, F P G , p. 171 ; N a u c k ,
Trag. Graec - Frag., F 1130), should also be ascribed to this collection even t h o u g h it is
omitted m K>e monarchia. C f W a l t e r in J S H R Z IV.3 (1983), pp. 246-7, 250.
w a s too r e c e n t a n d u n s e r i o u s a n a u t h o r t o b e w o r t h forging. L i n u s , a
l e g e n d a r y p o e t in w h o s e n a m e v e r s e s w e r e p r o b a b l y b e i n g c o m p o s e d
f r o m b e f o r e t h e e n d of t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y B . C . w h e n h e was already
listed as a s a g e (cf D i o g e n e s L a e r t i u s i 4 2 ) is h o w e v e r a l s o r a t h e r m o r e
obscure a figure t h a n a J e w i s h forger m i g h t have been expected to
choose. T h e a t t r i b u t i o n to L i n u s h a s suggested to W a l t e r t h a t these
verses r e p r e s e n t a P y t h a g o r e a n c o l l e c t i o n of n u m b e r s p e c u l a t i o n that
h a d b e e n w o r k e d o v e r b y a J e w b e f o r e A r i s t o b u l u s . S o m e of t h e verses
m a y therefore not b e J e w i s h forgeries, either b e c a u s e t h e y are g e n u i n e
or b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e f a b r i c a t e d b y a P y t h a g o r e a n . O n L i n u s , cf M.
L. W e s t , The Orphic Poems ( 1 9 8 3 ) , p p . 56—67. A t a n y r a t e , t h e verses a r e
a m i x t u r e of g e n u i n e a n d i n v e n t e d m a t e r i a l . T h e d i f f e r e n c e s between
t h e texts g i v e n by A r i s t o b u l u s a n d b y C l e m e n t a r e r a t h e r unimportant.
T h e r e a r e n o g r o u n d s for c o n n e c t i n g the textual tradition of these
forgeries w i t h t h a t o f t h e rest o f t h e f o r g e d p o e t r y i n this s e c t i o n . T h e s e
verses h a v e d i f f e r e n t p r e o c c u p a t i o n s in t h e i r c o n c e r n for the u n i q u e l y
Jewish institution of t h e Sabbath, and it is likely t h a t they were
invented and q u o t e d as a s e p a r a t e coUecdon.^^^ C f Valckenaer, De
264. Walter, Der Thoraausleger Aristobulus (1964), pp. 150-71, 177-8. Walter, J S H R Z
I V . 3 (1983), pp. 255-6, suggests that the function of the Jewish reviser was minimal. M .
L. West, op. cit., p . 59, denies t h e Jewish origin even of the one verse considered Jewish by
Walter, preferring to postulate a Stoic author. It should however be noted t h a t there is
no certain evidence of Pythagorean interest in t h e number seven until comparatively
late, cf H . Thesleff, in K . von Fritz, ed., Pseudepigrapha I (1972), p. 323. T h e r e are no
grounds for associating t h e book by t h e Pythagorean Prorus nepi rrjs 'EpSofidSos ( = H .
Thesleff, e d . . The Pythagorean Texts of the Hellenistic Period (Acta Acad. Aboensis, ser. A.,
vol. 30) (1968), p p . 154-5), which w a s probably a genuine Pythagorean work of t h e
fourth century B . C , with these Jewish forgeries, contra W. Speyer, Die literarische Fdlschung
(1971), p. 162. F o r the date of Prorus, see H . Thesleff, An Introduction to the Pythagorean
Writings of the Hellenistic Period (Acta Acad. Abeonsis, vol. 24) (1961), p p . 112, 114. T h e
four hexameters cited u n d e r the name of Pythagoras in De monarchia 2 ( = Denis, FPG, p.
167), and a Pseudo-Pythagorean prose fragment cited b y Pseudo-Justin, Contra Gentiles
19b, and b y Clement of Alexandria, Protrept. 72, 4 b (cf G e r m a n transladon b y Walter,
J S H R Z I V . 3 (1983), p . 274), are probably the product of the same Jewish interest in
Pythagorean writings. I t is n o t possible to be certain whether these arc forgeries by
Pythagoreans, Christians, or Jews, c f Walter, J S H R Z I V . 3 (1983), p p . 257-8. Note
should also be taken of t h e possibility t h a t Pseudo-Ekphantos, wepi jSaaiAeias ( = Thesleff,
Pythagorean Texts, p p . 78—84; L . Delatte, ed., Les traitis de la royauti d'Ecphante, Diotogene et
Sthinidas (1942)), was a Jewish forgery. This work h a s m a n y points of contact with Philo,
which, with other considerations, led Delatte to d a t e it to the early imperial period.
Against this, see Thesleff, Introduction to Pythagorean Writings, pp. 6 5 - 7 1 , with a Hellenistic
date. In favour of Jewish authorship because of the Philonic and biblical parallels is W .
Burkert, in K. v o n Fritz, ed., Pseudepigrapha I (1972), pp. 4 8 - 5 3 , although he suggests, p p .
53—5, that t h e d a t e of the work m a y be as late as the early third century A.D.
265. T h e n u m b e r ofjewish forgeries of such p a g a n verses m a y be m u c h greater t h a n
indicated here since forgeries a r e not always easy t o detect and most scholarship on t h e
texts has concentrated o n determining whether or n o t a verse is genuine rather than o n
the i d e n d t y of t h e forger. Walter, J S H R Z I V . 3 (1983), p . 258, suggests the following as
probable Jewish forgeries: (i) four lines of Pindar in Clement, Strom, iv 167, 3 ( = Pindar
Aristobulo, pp. 8-10, 89-125; Walter, J S H R Z IV.3 (1983), p p . 2 7 1 - 3 ,

277-9-
^. Pseudo-Hecataeus
H e c a t a e u s of Abdera,^^^ n o t t o be c o n f u s e d w i t h t h e m u c h m o r e a n c i e n t
g e o g r a p h e r H e c a t a e u s o f M i l e t u s o f a b o u t 500 B . C . , w a s a c c o r d i n g to
J o s e p h u s a c o n t e m p o r a r y of A l e x a n d e r t h e G r e a t a n d of P t o l e m y I son
of L a g u s (C. Ap. i 2 2 ( 1 8 3 ) ) . T h i s s t a t e m e n t is also c o n f i r m e d b y o t h e r
witnesses, cf J a c o b y , F G r H , 264. A c c o r d i n g t o D i o g e n e s L a e r t i u s ix 69,
H e c a t a e u s h e a r d t h e p h i l o s o p h e r P y r r h o , a c o n t e m p o r a r y of A l e x a n d e r
t h e G r e a t . A c c o r d i n g to D i o d o r o s S i c u l u s i 46, he t r a v e l l e d t o T h e b e s
d u r i n g t h e t i m e of P t o l e m y I S o t e r . H e w a s a p h i l o s o p h e r a n d h i s t o r i a n
a n d a p p a r e n t l y lived m a i n l y at t h e c o u r t o f P t o l e m y I S o t e r . T h e
following a r e m e n t i o n e d as his w r i t i n g s : a book a b o u t the
H y p e r b o r e a n s J a c o b y , F G r H , 264, F F 7 - 1 4 ) , a h i s t o r y o f E g y p t
J a c o b y , F G r H , 264, F F 1 - 6 ) , a n d , in t h e S u d a , s.v. 'EKaraios, also a
w o r k 776/01 rrjs TToi-qaecos 'Ofiripov Kal 'HaioSov, o f w h i c h n o o t h e r t r a c e h a s
b e e n f o u n d . H e c a t a e u s r e f e r r e d in s o m e d e t a i l to t h e J e w s in t h e c o u r s e
of his E g y p t i a n history. M u c h of h i s d e s c r i p t i o n s u r v i v e s in D i o d o r u s
Siculus, xl 3 ( = J a c o b y , F G r H , 264, F 6 = S t e r n , G L A J J I, p p .
26—35). D e s p i t e t h e g e n e r a l l y friendly a t t i t u d e o f t h e s e c o m m e n t s
t o w a r d s the J e w s , t h e r e is n o r e a s o n to d o u b t t h e i r g e n u i n e n e s s , n o r
t h a t D i o d o r u s ' a s c r i p t i o n of t h e m t o H e c a t a e u s of M i l e t u s a c c o r d i n g to
t h e m a n u s c r i p t s s h o u l d b e a m e n d e d to H e c a t a e u s of Abdera.'^^^
U n d e r the n a m e of t h i s H e c a t a e u s of A b d e r a t w o f u r t h e r b o o k s a r e
q u o t e d , o n e e n t i t l e d ' O n t h e J e w s ' , a n d t h e o t h e r ' O n A b r a h a m ' . It c a n
F 130, translated by Walter, op. cit., p . 275) ; (2) t w o lines of Hesiod in Clement, Strom, v
112, 3b a n d Clement, Protrept. 73, 3 ( = R. M e r k e l b a c h a n d M. L. West, F 362,
translated by Walter, ibid.); (3) two lines of an oracle o f Apollo cited by P o r p h y r y in
Eusebius, Praep. ev. ix 10, 4b, translated by Walter, op. cit., p . 276.
266. According to S t r a b o 644, Hecataeus came from Teos, the mother-city of Abdera.
Strabo is probably confused, cf. Fraser, PA I I , pp. 718-19.
267. T h e passage is preserved in Photius, Biblioth. cod., 244. Cf. J a c o b y , F G r H , 264, F
6; Stern GLAJJ I , pp. 26-35, ^sp. 3 4 - 5 . O n l y F. Dornseiff, Z A W 56 (1938), p . 76, n . i,
has maintained that t h e text genuinely belongs to H e c a t a e u s of Miletus, but his
arguments are n o t convincing, cf J a c o b y , F G r H I I I A, K o m m . , pp. 46-52. M u c h of
Diodorus Siculus Book i is probably d e p e n d e n t on H e c a t a e u s for t h e descripdon of Egypt,
(f O . Murray, ' H e c a t a e u s of A b d e r a and Pharaonic K i n g s h i p ' , J E A 56 (1970), pp.
144-5. Doubts about the extent of this dependence were raised by W . Spoerri,
Spdthellenistische Berichte uber Welt, Kultur und Goiter (1961), but Hecataeus must still be
(onsidered as the most likely source for this book, cf. A. Burton, Diodorus Siculus Book I: A
Commentary (1972), pp. 1—34, esp. 2-10. It c a n therefore b e assumed t h a t the description
of the Jews in Diodorus Siculus i 28 and i 55 also derived from Hecataeus, cf Stern,
(JLAJJ I, pp. 167-70. T h e attitude of Hecataeus towards Jews in Diodorus Siculus Ix
may be d u e to his use of a Jewish patriotic source, cf D. Mendels, Z A W 95 (1983), p p .
<)()-i 10.
be p r o v e d t h a t t h e s e c o n d of these was a p s e u d o n y m o u s w o r k w r i t t e n
by a J e w (see b e l o w ) ; it h a s a l s o b e e n a r g u e d t h a t t h e f o r m e r w o r k , ' O n
t h e J e w s ' , w a s the w o r k o f a J e w i s h forger, but t h a t is m o r e d u b i o u s .
T h e b o o k ' O n t h e J e w s ' is c i t e d u n d e r this n a m e b y J o s e p h u s (C. Ap. i
22 ( 1 8 3 ) , a n d , implicitly, i 2 3 (214)) a n d by O r i g e n (C. Celsum i 1 5 ) .
J o s e p h u s gives in C. Ap. i 22 (183—204) l a r g e e x t r a c t s from this b o o k
d e a l i n g w i t h t h e r e l a d o n s b e t w e e n t h e J e w s a n d P t o l e m y I Soter, t h e i r
faithfulness t o the L a w , the o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e p r i e s t h o o d , a n d t h e
a r r a n g e m e n t of t h e i r t e m p l e . F i n a l l y h e gives a p a s s a g e i n w h i c h
H e c a t a e u s relates a n a n e c d o t e o f s o m e t h i n g he h a d himself o n c e
e x p e r i e n c e d d u r i n g a n e x p e d i t i o n a t the R e d S e a . A J e w i s h c a v a l r y m a n
a n d a r c h e r b y the n a m e of M o s o U a m u s ( M e s h u l l a m ) w h o b e l o n g e d to
t h e e x p e d i t i o n a r y corps killed a bird w h o s e flight w a s a n x i o u s l y
o b s e r v e d by a s o o t h s a y e r , a n d r i d i c u l e d those w h o w e r e a n g r y a b o u t
this for t h e i r c a r e for t h e b i r d w h i c h d i d not even k n o w its o w n f a t e
b e f o r e h a n d . E u s e b i u s , Praep. ev. ix 4, also gives pieces b a s e d o n t h e s e
e x c e r p t s from J o s e p h u s . J o s e p h u s f u r t h e r m e n t i o n s (C. Ap. ii 4 (43))
p r o b a b l y from the s a m e b o o k ( t h o u g h t h i s is n o t e x p l i c i t l y s t a t e d ) , t h a t
A l e x a n d e r t h e G r e a t h a d g i v e n to t h e J e w s t h e district of S a m a r i a a s a
district free o f tax i n r e w a r d for t h e i r l o y a l t y . T h e r e is n o prima facie
r e a s o n t o d o u b t t h a t these f r a g m e n t s c a m e f r o m a g e n u i n e b o o k b y
H e c a t a e u s a b o u t t h e J e w s . T h e l o n g e x c e r p t s a b o u t J e w s cited b y
D i o d o r u s from his E g y p t i a n h i s t o r y s h o w t h a t h e h a d a n i n t e r e s t in t h e
subject, a n d t h e s o m e w h a t m o r e p a n e g y r i c a l t o n e o f the verse d e v o t e d
to t h e j e w s m a y b e e x p l a i n e d by t h e u s e o f j e w i s h sources h e r e a n d
E g y p t i a n sources t h e r e . T h e e a r l i e s t s u g g e s t i o n t h a t this b o o k was a
J e w i s h f o r g e r y was m a d e by H e r e n n i u s Philo'^^^ i n t h e early second
c e n t u r y A . D . A c c o r d i n g t o O r i g e n , C. Celsum i 15 ( = J a c o b y , F G r H ,
790, F 9), H e c a t a e u s took sides w i t h t h e J e w i s h p e o p l e to s u c h a n e x t e n t
in his b o o k ' O n t h e J e w s ' t h a t H e r e n n i u s P h i l o first d o u b t e d t h a t t h e
book h a d been written b y the historian Hecataeus, but subsequently
said t h a t if it h a d b e e n w r i t t e n b y h i m , H e c a t a e u s h a d b e e n c a r r i e d
268. Some scholars have also seen C. Ap. ii 4 (42), which deals with the settlement of
Jews in Alexandria under Alexander, as p a r t of t h e q u o t a d o n from H e c a t a e u s (Denis,
I P G A T , p . 264), but it is probably better to regard ii 4 (43) as a single excerpt of
Hecataeus inserted within an Alexandrian Jewish work which c o n d n u e s at ii 4 (44-7)
(Jacoby, F G r H I I I A, K o m m . , p. 74). Cf also Wacholder, ESJL, pp. 262-73, ^ ^ o sees
the passage C. Ap. ii 4 (43-7) with Ant. xii i, i (3-8) as the product of a separate author
later than the (pseudonymous) a u t h o r of C. Ap. i 22-23 (183-205, 213-14) a n d
Pseudo-Aristeas, Ep. 83-120, who in turn could b e a J e w writing in the late fourth
century B.C. See below, n. 272.
269. O n Herennius Philo of Byblos, cf J a c o b y , F G r H , 790; Stern, GLAJJ II, p p .
138-45, with hterature cited there. See above, vol. I, p p . 41-2, and note now H. W .
Attridge a n d R. A. O d e n , Pliilo of Byblos: The Phoenician History (1981); A. I.
Baumgarten, The Phoenician History of Philo of Byblos, a Commentary (1981).
a w a y b y J e w i s h p o w e r s of p e r s u a s i o n a n d h a d a c c e p t e d J e w i s h
teachings. T h e doubts of Herennius Philo, however, show only h o w
r a r e s u c h p h i l o - s e m i t i c p a g a n w r i t i n g s w e r e b y his t i m e . S u c h v i e w s
w e r e far m o r e c o m m o n in t h e l a t e f o u r t h c e n t u r y B . C . (cf. S t e r n ,
G L A J J I , p . 2 4 ) . A r g u m e n t s a g a i n s t t h i s b o o k as a g e n u i n e w o r k of
H e c a t a e u s t h e r e f o r e rest e n t i r e l y o n d e t a i l s alleged t o b e e i t h e r
a n a c h r o n i s t i c o r o u t of p l a c e w h e n u t t e r e d b y a n o n - J e w . A n a c h r o n i s m s
h a v e b e e n seen in t h e e m p h a s i s on J e w i s h r e a d i n e s s for m a r t y r d o m in
defence o f the L a w (C. Ap. i 22 ( 1 9 1 ) ) , in t h e r e f e r e n c e t o a h i g h p r i e s t
by t h e n a m e o f E z e k i a s ( C . Ap. i 22 ( 1 8 7 ) ) , a n d in t h e a t t r i b u t i o n to t h e
priests r a t h e r t h a n the levites of t h e t i t h e s (188).^^° A g a i n s t t h e s e
passages as a n a c h r o n i s m s is the possibility, g i v e n t h e s c a r c i t y of
e v i d e n c e , t h a t J e w s m a y o n o c c a s i o n h a v e i n d e e d faced d e a t h u n d e r
P e r s i a n r u l e , even if n o t t o the e x t e n t suffered u n d e r A n t i o c h u s
E p i p h a n e s ; t h e r e c e n t d i s c o v e r y of a l a t e P e r s i a n o r e a r l y H e l l e n i s t i c
coin at B e t h - Z u r bearing the n a m e H e z e k i a h in H e b r e w , w h i c h suggests
t h a t this n a m e w a s f o u n d i n t h e h i g h - p r i e s t l y f a m i l y ; a n d o u r i g n o r a n c e
of t h e precise d a t e w h e n t i t h e s b e g a n to b e p a i d t o the p r i e s t s r a t h e r
t h a n the l e v i t e s . O f s t a t e m e n t s w h i c h s e e m i m p l a u s i b l e i n t h e m o u t h
of a n o n - J e w , the t w o p r i m e p a s s a g e s a r e C. Ap. i 22 ( 1 9 3 ) , i n w h i c h
J e w s a r e said t o h a v e b e e n p r a i s e d b y H e c a t a e u s for d e s t r o y i n g p a g a n
t e m p l e s set u p in t h e i r c o u n t r y b y i n v a d e r s , a n d C. Ap. ii 4 (43), in
w h i c h it is s t a t e d t h a t t h e J e w s w e r e g i v e n t h e w h o l e o f S a m a r i a b y
A l e x a n d e r the G r e a t free o f t r i b u t e . A l t h o u g h it is n o t t o t a l l y i m p o s s i b l e
t h a t b o t h these passages c a m e from the g e n u i n e H e c a t a e u s , it m a y b e
b e s t to a s s u m e t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l g e n u i n e t e x t h a s b e e n s l i g h t l y a l t e r e d
by a l a t e r J e w i s h reviser.^^^
2 70. T h e case for these as anachronisms ?is put most strongly b y B. Schaller, Z N W 54
(1963), pp. 15-31. It is suggested that martyrdom is only relevant after the Maccabees,
that no high priest called Ezekias is attested in t h e literary sources (cf originally H .
Willrich, Juden und Griechen (1895), p. 31), a n d that the tithe was not given to t h e priests
until the second century B.C.
271. For the coin, see O . R. Sellers, The Citadel of Beth-Zur (1933), p. 73, n. 9, and 74,
fig. 9 ; note also t h a t dpx'ep«"? may well refer to a m e m b e r of t h e high priestly family
rather than the high priest (see vol. I I , pp. 233-6). O n the tithes, see vol. II, p p . 257-70.
See also Stern, GLAJJ I, p p . 40—2.
272. So Stern, GLAJJ I, p. 24. T h e extent to which such a reviser has changed the
original is much disputed. Neither of these t w o last-quoted passages is given by Josephus
verbatim, so it is possible that h e has himself misunderstood or exaggerated his source (cf
Collins, BAAJ, p p . 139-41), which was therefore the uncontaminated work of H e c a t a e u s .
In favour of the book as authentic a r e H. Lewy, 'Hekataios von Abdera Peri loudaion',
Z N W 31 (i932),pp. 117-32, a n d J . G. Gager, 'Pseudo-Hecataeus Again', Z N W 60
(1969), p p . 130—9. In favour of almost t h e entire work as spurious is B. Schaller,
'Hekataios von Abdera iiber die J u d e n ' , Z N W 54 (1963), p p . 15-31. He is followed by N.
Walter, Der Thoraausleger Aristobulus (1964), pp. 189-94, ^^'^ accordingly denotes the
author of this quite extensive fragment as Pseudo-Hecataeus I, t o be distinguished from
the Pseudo-Hecataeus I I to w h o m t h e book on A b r a h a m is assigned (see N . Walter,
W h e t h e r t h e b o o k ' O n t h e J e w s ' w a s a J e w i s h f o r g e r y or n o t , it c a n
b e t a k e n as c e r t a i n t h a t t h e b o o k on A b r a h a m a n d t h e E g y p t i a n s ,
r e f e r r e d to b y J o s e p h u s , Ant. i 7, 2 ( 1 5 9 ) , a n d C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a ,
Strom. V 14, 1 1 3 = E u s e b i u s , Praep. ev. xxii 1 3 , 40, w a s w r i t t e n b y a J e w .
T h e r e is n o r e a s o n to s u p p o s e t h a t t h e t w o b o o k s w e r e i d e n d c a l or t h a t
t h e b o o k on A b r a h a m w a s o n l y a s m a l l s e c t i o n of t h e o t h e r o n e , or t h a t
its existence was i n v e n t e d t o e x p l a i n the q u o t a t i o n of S o p h o c l e s
a t t r i b u t e d t o it. O f the c o n t e n t s o f this b o o k i t c a n only be s a i d t h a t it
discussed t h e p a t r i a r c h in s o m e d e t a i l , b u t t h a t i t also i n c l u d e d t h e
m i l i t a n t l y m o n o t h e i s t i c v e r s i o n o f P s e u d o - S o p h o c l e s discussed in t h e
p r e v i o u s section ( a b o v e , p . 6 6 1 ) , a n d therefore p r e s u m a b l y tried t o
p r o v e t h a t t h e m o r e n o b l e G r e e k s a g r e e d w i t h the views of J u d a i s m . I t
is possible t h a t J o s e p h u s w a s d e p e n d e n t on t h i s w o r k i n p a r t s or a l l o f
Ant. i 7, 1 - 8 , 2 ( 1 5 4 - 6 8 ) , as well a s s i m p l y m e n t i o n i n g its e x i s t e n c e a t
Ant. i 7, 2 (159) ( W a l t e r ) , b u t this is u n c e r t a i n . It c a n be a s s u m e d t h a t a
J e w w a s m o r e h k e l y to a d o p t the guise of H e c a t a e u s precisely b e c a u s e
of the e x i s t e n c e of g e n u i n e c o m m e n t s by H e c a t a e u s o n t h e j e w s .
For t h e d a t e of this b o o k o n A b r a h a m , it c a n o n l y b e c e r t a i n t h a t it
w a s w r i t t e n before the r e f e r e n c e to it by J o s e p h u s . H o w e v e r , it m a y a l s o
b e r e l e v a n t for t h e d a t e t h a t P s e u d o - A r i s t e a s , 3 1 , q u o t e s H e c a t a e u s as
a u t h o r i t y for the o p i n i o n t h a t s e c u l a r G r e e k a u t h o r s d i d n o t m e n t i o n
t h e J e w i s h L a w o n l y b e c a u s e t h e t e a c h i n g s c o n t a i n e d in it w e r e t o o
h o l y . T h e p a s s a g e is also f o u n d in E u s e b i u s , Praep. ev. viii 3, 3, a n d , i n a
freer r e n d e r i n g , i n J o s e p h u s , Ant. xh 2 , 4 (38). T h e q u o t a t i o n f r o m
H e c a t a e u s m a y b e t a k e n t o e x t e n d t o the whole s t a t e m e n t t h a t t h e
G r e e k p o e t s a n d t h e m a s s of h i s t o r i a n s d i d n o t m e n t i o n t h e h o l y b o o k s
o f the J e w s for the specific reason t h a t t h e t e a c h i n g s c o n t a i n e d in t h e m
w e r e h o l y , for t h i s is h o w J o s e p h u s u n d e r s t o o d t h e words.^^^ If t h e
q u o t a t i o n w a s t a k e n from o n e of t h e e x t a n t w r i t i n g s o f H e c a t a e u s o r
P s e u d o - H e c a t a e u s , it is u n l i k e l y t o h a v e b e e n t h e E g y p t i a n h i s t o r y o r
t h e w o r k ' O n the J e w s ' , since not o n l y is s u c h a n a t t i t u d e n o t e x p l i c i t l y
Fragmente jiidisch-hellenistische Historiker, J S H R Z 1.2 (1976), p p . 144-60). Wacholder,

E S J L , p p . 262-73, asserts t h a t the two passages i n Contra Apionem should not be treated
together because they reflect different authorial perspectives, thematic interests a n d
attitudes to the Ptolemaic kings. H e accordingly posits two pseudonymous authors, of
w h o m t h e first, author of C. Ap. i 2 2 - 2 3 (183-205, 213-14), reflected in Pseudo-Aristeas
3 1 , should be d a t e d to c. 300 B.C. T h i s early author would then, according to Wacholder,
be a well-informed priestly Palestinian J e w who joined t h e a r m y of Ptolemy Soter, h e n c e
his eye-witness account of Mosollamus. (See below, n. 276, for arguments against this.)
W a c h o l d e r is certainly right a t least when he affirms t h a t neither of these t w o authors is
identical with t h e writer of the book on A b r a h a m .
273. See e.g. Willrich, Judaica (1900), p. 9 8 , contra J . Geffcken, Z'^'êi griechische
Apologeten (1907), p. xii, n. 6, who tries t o argue that the only element quoted from
H e c a t a e u s is praise for the holy dfcopia of t h e holy books, and t h a t it w a s Pseudo-Aristeas,
n o t Hecataeus himself, who used this fact t o explain the lack of references in other p a g a n
writers.
. i K c s i e d t h e r e , b u t b o t h w r i t i n g s d o in fact c o n t a i n s e c t i o n s a b o u t t h e
L a w , a h h o u g h it is p o s s i b l e t h a t H e c a t a e u s m a d e his o b s e r v a t i o n a b o u t
die r e t i c e n c e of o t h e r n o n - J e w i s h a u t h o r s p r e c i s e l y i n o r d e r to e s t a b l i s h
his o w n v e r a c i t y in h i s c o n t r a s t i n g o p e n n e s s a b o u t J e w i s h c u s t o m s . T h e
r a t h e r t e n d e n t i o u s s t a t e m e n t w o u l d b e m o r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of P s e u d o -
1 l e c a t a e u s on A b r a h a m , a n d , if A r i s t e a s d o e s i n d e e d refer t o t h a t w o r k ,
it m u s t h a v e b e e n w r i t t e n before A r i s t e a s , i.e. b e f o r e t h e first c e n t u r y
u.c. at t h e latest a n d p r o b a b l y before c. 170 B . C . H o w e v e r , it c a n b e
seen t h a t this r e l a t i o n s h i p is v e r y h y p o t h e t i c a l , a n d it is possible t h a t t h e
reference in P s e u d o - A r i s t e a s , 3 1 , w a s e i t h e r a free fiction o f t h e a u t h o r
O f a reference t o yet a n o t h e r , o t h e r w i s e u n a t t e s t e d , w o r k a t t r i b u t e d t o
Hecataeus.^^* T h e o n l y terminus post quem is the d a t e o f t h e i n v e n t i o n of
the P s e u d o - S o p h o c l e s v e r s e q u o t e d h e r e b y P s e u d o - H e c a t a e u s (see
a b o v e , section 3 ) . T h e failure o f A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r to m e n t i o n t h i s
hook does not s h o w t h a t t h e w o r k w a s w r i t t e n after his t i m e since t o o
httle survives from P o l y h i s t o r ' s w r i t i n g s for s u c h a n a r g u m e n t f r o m
silence.*^^ T h e title of t h e b o o k g i v e n b y C l e m e n t , i.e. ' O n A b r a h a m
a n d the E g y p t i a n s ' , suggests t h a t the a u t h o r m a y h a v e b e e n a n
K g y p t i a n J e w , unless it w a s s u g g e s t e d by H e c a t a e u s ' g e n u i n e E g y p t i a n
history. I f J o s e p h u s , Ant. i 7, 1—8, 2 ( 1 5 4 - 6 8 ) , w a s i n d e e d d e p e n d e n t o n
this w o r k , the a t t e n t i o n g i v e n t o t h e P t o l e m i e s t h e r e w o u l d a l s o m a k e
an E g y p t i a n o r i g i n likely, t h o u g h n o t n e c e s s a r y .
T h e J e w i s h reviser, if t h e r e w a s o n e , o f t h e p r o b a b l y g e n u i n e w o r k
' O n the J e w s ' m a y h a v e w r i t t e n a t a n y t i m e b e t w e e n H e c a t a e u s a n d
J o s e p h u s . T h e r e is n o r e a s o n to identify h i m w i t h the a u t h o r of t h e b o o k
a b o u t Abraham.'^^^
274. Cf. Walter, J S H R Z I.2 (1976), p . 146. Pseudo-Aristeas is nonetheless used to d a t e

I'studo-Hecataeus by J a c o b y , F G r H I I I A, K o m m . , pp. 62, 6 5 - 6 ; Fraser, P A II, p p .
c)()8-9. The possible rehance of Pseudo-Aristeas 12-13 on H e c a t a e u s , On the Jews, as cited
in C. Ap. i 22 (186) (cf H o U a d a y , F H J A I, p p . 289, 297, n. 61), is irrelevant to the d a t i n g
of Pseudo-Hecataeus if the writing On the Jews is seen as the work of the genuine
Hecataeus.
275. On possible relations of the a u t h o r of 'On A b r a h a m ' to t h e forged verses of the
(Jreek poets, see Walter, Der Thoraausleger Aristobulus (1964), pp. 173-7, 187-9, 195-201.
Walter, pp. 200-1, suggests a d a t e i n the first century B.C. at the earliest because of
similarities in the image of the world conflagration in the quoted text of Pseudo-Sophocles
to t h a t in Sib. iii 83—92, b u t such a d a t e is only possible if t h e reference in Pseudo-Aristeas
is considered irrelevant (so Walter) o r Pseudo-Aristeas is assigned an implausible late
date. For use as a dating criterion of t h e silence of A l e x a n d e r Polyhistor and Philo a b o u t
Pseudo-Hecataeus see J a c o b y , R E V I I . 2 (1912), col. 2767.
276. For those w h o j u d g e the work of this reviser to h a v e been very considerable, or
the whole work to have been a Jewish forgery, further considerations c a n be b r o u g h t for
establishing the d a t e . It is unlikely t h a t such a forgery on a large scale originated before
the second century B.C., and emphasis on t h e destruction of p a g a n temples a n d Jewish
readiness for m a r t y r d o m would be m o r e likely subjects for a Jewish writer after the
Maccabees. Similarly, t h e assertion t h a t Samaria w a s given free of tribute to the J e w s
may reflect the concession by Demetrius II t o the H a s m o n a e a n s in c. 145 B.C. (i M a c .
676 § 3 3 ^ - J^îsh Literature Composed in Greek
Editions
T h e fragments of both t h e genuine H e c a t a e u s of Abdera a n d the forged Hecataeus c a n be
found in Miiller, F H G H , pp. 384-96 ; J a c o b y , F G r H , 264, H I A, pp. 11-64.
F o r the texts referring to the J e w s :
Denis, F P G , pp. 199-202 ('On the J e w s ' , w i t h Josephus' tesdmonia for 'On A b r a h a m ' ) ;
pp. 162-3 ( ' O n A b r a h a m ' from C l e m e n t ) .
Stern, G L A J J I, p p . 2 2 - 4 , 35-44 (Egypdan history and ' O n the J e w s ' ) .
Holladay, F H J A I, pp. 277-335 C^î t h e j e w s ' and ' O n A b r a h a m ' ) .
Enghsh:
Stern, loc. cit.
Holladay, loc. cit.
Doran, R . , in Chariesworth, O T P II (forthcoming).
German:
Walter, N . , Fragmente jiidisch-hellenistische Historiker ( J S H R Z 1.2) (1976), pp. 154-60 ( ' O n
t h e j e w s ' a n d 'On A b r a h a m ' ) .
On the genuine Hecataeus, cf S c h w a r t z , Hecataeus von Teos (1885), p p . 223—62;
J a c o b y , 'Hekataios (4)', R E V I I (1912), cols. 2 7 5 0 - 6 9 ; Fraser, PA I, pp. 496-504.
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194, for a date i n the second century B.C. for 'Pseudo-Hecataeus I'. J a c o b y , F G r H , 264,
I I I A, K o m m . , p . 62, following Willrich, Juden und Griechen (1895), p. 32, sees in the H i g h
Priest Ezekias in C. Ap. i 22 (187-8) a veiled reference to Onias I V w h o fled to Egypt just
before the M a c c a b a e a n revolt, and the a u t h o r of the work as a Palestinian Jewish priest
w h o went to Egypt with him in c. 170-168 B.C., b u t the correctness of seeing Ezekias as a
pseudonym for another high priest h a s been rendered m u c h less likely by the find of the
n a m e Hezekiah on a coin at Beth-Zur, see above, p. 673. Wacholder, ESJL, p. 273,
attributes part of the work usually considered to come from On the Jews to a Jewish priest
in Jerusalem c. 300 B.C. (see above, n. 272), but the evidence h e adduces m a y be m o r e
simply explained by t h e use of a Jewish source by the genuine Hecataeus in his work On
the Jews a s well a s the Egyptian history, cf Stern, GLAJJ I, p. 21.
W.iliii, N., Der Thoraausleger Aristobulus (1964), pp. 8 6 - 8 , 172-201, esp. 187 ff.
S | i u i i I I , \V., 'Hekataios (4)', Der Kleine Pauly I I (1967), 980—2.
J. (;.,Jnr., 'Pseudo-Hecataeus again', Z N W 6 0 (1969), pp. 130-9.
I». ms, i P C A T , pp. 262-7.
S | i r \ i i , W., Die literarische Falschung im heidnischen und christlichen Altertum (1971), p p .
il)(> I.
Ilcn^cl, M . , 'Anonymitat, Pseudepigraphie und "Literarische Falschung" in d e r
)iuiis(h-hellenistischen Literatur', in K. von Fritz, Pseudepigrapha I (1972), pp. 295,
301 3, 324-5.
I . , i ^ ; r r , J . G., Moses in Greco-Roman Paganism (1972), p p . 26-37.
S i n n , M., and O . M u r r a y , ' H e c a t a e u s of A b d e r a and T h e o p h r a s t u s on J e w s a n d
Egyptians', J E A 59 (1973), p p . I59-69'
SUI n. (JLAJJ I, p p . 20-5.
Miiiilcy, R., 'L'historiographie profane et les peres', in Paganisme, Judaisme, Christianisme
( Festschrift M . Simon) (1978), p p . 315-27.
(^cin/clmann, H., Heiden, Juden, Christen (1981), pp. 164-70.
(iollins, BAAJ, pp. 42-3.
(i.iuger, J . - D . , 'Zitate in d e r jiidischen Apologetik und die Authentizitat der
Ht'kataios-Passagen bei Flavius J o s e p h u s und i m Ps. Aristeas-Brief, JSJ 13 (1982),
pp. 6—46.
Miiidcis, D . , 'Hecataeus of A b d e r a a n d a Jewish "patrios poHteia" of t h e Persian Period
(Diodorus Siculus X L , 3)', ZAW 95 (1983), p p . 96-110.
5. Pseudo-Aristeas
The famous letter (or, more accurately, Si^y-ryms, i.e. narrative'^^^) of
Aristeas to Philocrates on the translation of the Jewish Law into Greek
•ilso belongs among the group of writings under discussion here. The
legend forms only the work's outer framework. The whole is in fact a
panegyric on Jewish Law, Jewish wisdom, and the Jewish name in
general, from the mouth of a gentile. The two men Aristeas and
Philocrates are not known from history. Aristeas describes himself in the
iiarradve (40, 43) as an official of King Ptolemy II Philadelphus
.^85-246 B.C.) who was highly esteemed by the king. Philocrates is his
Ijfother (7, 120), an inquisitive and serious-minded man who wishes to
a(C]uire all the education and culture of the time. Both are obviously to
he taken as non-Jews (Aristeas says of the Jews in par. 1 6 : 'For they
worship the same God, overseer and creator of the universe, as all other
men, as we ourselves, though we call him by different names such as
/(•us and Dis.'
Aristeas, as a participant and an eye-witness, tells his brother
IMiilocrates how the translation of the Jewish Law into Greek came
about. The librarian Demetrius of Phalerum drew the attention of King
I'lolemy II Philadelphus (cf 12—13) to the fact that the Law of the Jews
was still missing from his great hbrary and that its translation into
.•77. Gf M. Hadas, Aristeas to Philocrates (1951), p p . 5 6 - 9 , who notes t h a t the work does
mil have the form of a letter and was never described as such in a n t i q u i t y ; cf also
|(lli( ()c, S M S , p. 3 0 : an 'epistle'.
G r e e k was d e s i r a b l e so t h a t it c o u l d b e i n c l u d e d i n his r o y a l c o l l e c t i o n .
T h e k i n g c o m p l i e d w i t h this s u g g e s t i o n , Aristeas t a k i n g t h e o p p o r t u n i t y
o f this r o y a l f a v o u r t o w a r d s t h e J e w s t o p u t i n a successful p l e a for t h e
e m a n c i p a t i o n o f j e w i s h slaves k e p t in E g y p t after t h e S y r i a n c a m p a i g n s
o f P t o l e m y I S o t e r ( 1 2 - 2 7 ) . T h e king sent A n d r e a s , t h e c a p t a i n o f h i s
b o d y g u a r d , a n d A r i s t e a s (40, 43) as envoys t o E l e a z a r , t h e J e w i s h h i g h
priest, to J e r u s a l e m w i t h r i c h presents a n d w i t h t h e r e q u e s t t h a t E l e a z a r
s h o u l d send h i m e x p e r i e n c e d m e n c a p a b l e o f u n d e r t a k i n g this difficult
task. E l e a z a r i m m e d i a t e l y p r e p a r e d t o d o as t h e k i n g w i s h e d . H e
d e s p a t c h e d s e v e n t y - t w o J e w i s h s c h o l a r s , six from e a c h of t h e t w e l v e
t r i b e s . I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n A r i s t e a s n o w also gives a d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n
o f the lavish presents w h i c h P t o l e m y s e n t to E l e a z a r , a n d also of t h e c i t y
of J e r u s a l e m , the Jewish T e m p l e , Jewish worship, a n d even of t h e
J e w i s h l a n d , as h e h a d seen t h e m o n t h e occasion of t h a t e m b a s s y . T h e
w h o l e d e s c r i p t i o n t e n d s to glorify the J e w i s h p e o p l e w i t h its e x c e l l e n t
i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d its s u m p t u o u s p r o s p e r i t y . W i t h the s a m e i n t e n t i o n ,
A r i s t e a s t h e n i m p a r t s t h e c o n t e n t of a c o n v e r s a t i o n w h i c h h e h a d w i t h
t h e h i g h priest E l e a z a r c o n c e r n i n g the J e w i s h L a w . O n the s t r e n g t h o f
this c o n v e r s a d o n Aristeas is so fully c o n v i n c e d of t h e s u p e r i o r i t y o f t h e
J e w i s h L a w t h a t h e c o n s i d e r s it n e c e s s a r y t o e x p o u n d 'its holiness a n d
its n a t u r a l ( r e a s o n a b l e ) m e a n i n g ' to h i s b r o t h e r P h i l o c r a t e s also ( 1 7 1 :
Tr^v aefivorrjTa Kal (fyvoiKrjv Sidvoiav rov vofiov). In particular, the
foolishness o f i d o l a t r y , especially t h a t o f t h e E g y p t i a n s ( 1 3 8 ) , a n d t h e
r e a s o n a b l e n e s s of the J e w i s h laws of p u r i t y a r e d e a l t w i t h e x h a u s t i v e l y ,
w i t h t h e use of allegorical exegesis.
W h e n t h e J e w i s h s c h o l a r s a r r i v e d in A l e x a n d r i a , t h e y w e r e r e c e i v e d
b y t h e king w i t h special h o n o u r s a n d w e r e invited t o t h e royal t a b l e d a y
after d a y for seven d a y s . D u r i n g these seven b a n q u e t s t h e k i n g d i r e c t e d
t o t h e J e w i s h s c h o l a r s in t u r n s e v e n t y - t w o q u e s t i o n s on the m o s t
i m p o r t a n t topics of politics, ethics, p h i l o s o p h y a n d w o r l d l y w i s d o m
w h i c h w e r e so excellently a n s w e r e d t h a t the k i n g w a s full of a m a z e m e n t
a t the w i s d o m of these J e w i s h m e n a n d expressed his g r a t i t u d e for t h e
lesson g i v e n h i m i n t h e a r t o f k i n g s h i p (293). A r i s t e a s , w h o t o o k t h e t e x t
o f these c o n v e r s a t i o n s from t h e official r e c o r d s ( 2 9 7 - 3 0 0 ) , w a s h i m s e l f
v e r y a s t o n i s h e d b y t h e w i s d o m of these m e n , w h o r e p l i e d e x t e m p o r e t o
t h e m o s t difficult questions w h i c h w o u l d o t h e r w i s e h a v e r e q u i r e d l o n g
consideration.
After t h e s e festivides, a s p l e n d i d r e s i d e n c e w a s a p p o i n t e d for t h e
s e v e n t y - t w o t r a n s l a t o r s on t h e island of P h a r o s far from the noise o f t h e
city, w h e r e they eagerly s e t to w o r k . E v e r y d a y , a section o f t h e
t r a n s l a t i o n w a s finished in s u c h a w a y t h a t a h a r m o n i o u s c o m m o n t e x t
w a s a r r i v e d at b y c o m p a r i n g w h a t e a c h h a d w r i t t e n i n d e p e n d e n t l y
(302; cf also 39). B y t h i s m e a n s , the w h o l e w a s c o m p l e t e d i n
s e v e n t y - t w o d a y s . W h e n it w a s finished, the t r a n s l a d o n w a s first r e a d t o
tlu' a s s e m b l e d J e w s , w h o d e c l a r e d i t so e x c e l l e n t , s a c r e d a n d a c c u r a t e
t h a t no a l t e r a t i o n s h o u l d ever b e m a d e to it ( 3 1 0 ) . I t was t h e n a l s o r e a d
to t h e k i n g , w h o ' a d m i r e d t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e of t h e L a w g i v e r v e r y m u c h
i n d e e d ' ( 3 1 2 ) , a n d c o m m a n d e d t h a t t h e b o o k s s h o u l d be c a r e f u l l y
p r e s e r v e d in h i s h b r a r y . F i n a l l y , t h e s e v e n t y - t w o i n t e r p r e t e r s w e r e set
free to r e t u r n t o J u d a e a , t a k i n g w i t h t h e m r i c h p r e s e n t s for t h e m s e l v e s
a n d the h i g h p r i e s t E l e a z a r .
T h i s o u t l i n e of t h e c o n t e n t s s h o w s t h a t t h e p u r p o s e of t h e n a r r a t i v e is
a d u a l one. First a n d foremost, t h e story teaches h o w highly even
g e n t i l e a u t h o r i t i e s s u c h as K i n g P t o l e m y a n d h i s e n v o y A r i s t e a s
r e s p e c t e d a n d p r a i s e d t h e J e w i s h L a w a n d J u d a i s m in g e n e r a l . T h e
w o r k s e e n f r o m this a n g l e w a s o b v i o u s l y i n t e n d e d p r i m a r i l y for g e n t i l e
r e a d e r s , t h o u g h J e w s m i g h t a l s o e n j o y b a s k i n g i n t h e e s t e e m of e m i n e n t
gentiles. T h e g e n t i l e s w e r e to b e s h o w n t h e i n t e r e s t e v i n c e d in t h e J e w i s h
L a w by P t o l e m y , t h e p r o m o t e r of l e a r n i n g , a n d t h e a d m i r a t i o n w i t h
w h i c h h i s h i g h - r a n k i n g official, A r i s t e a s , s p o k e o f it, a n d o f J e w i s h
m a t t e r s i n g e n e r a l , to h i s b r o t h e r P h i l o c r a t e s . S e c o n d l y , d e s p i t e t h e
r e m a r k a b l e b r e v i t y of t h e p a s s a g e w h i c h after s u c h l o n g d i g r e s s i o n s
finally d e s c r i b e s t h e a c t u a l w o r k of t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e L a w (302—7), i t is
c l e a r , f r o m t h e e m p h a t i c d e c l a r a t i o n , t h a t t h e a c c u r a c y of t h e t r a n s l a t i o n
w a s also r e c o g n i z e d b y t h e J e w s , a n d t h a t a f u r t h e r a i m o f t h e b o o k w a s
to c o m m e n d t h e G r e e k r e n d e r i n g o f t h e L a w a s a g e n u i n e e q u i v a l e n t of
t h e T o r a h to those J e w s w h o s e k n o w l e d g e of H e b r e w w a s deficient a n d
to all g e n t i l e r e a d e r s .
T h e r e is still n o c o n s e n s u s a m o n g critics a b o u t t h e date o f this b o o k . I t
is n o t possible to tell to w h a t e x t e n t t h e n a r r a t i v e h a s b e e n i n v e n t e d b y
t h e a u t h o r . S o m e d e g r e e of h i s t o r i c i t y for t h e b a s i c f r a m e w o r k is
possible since a n A l e x a n d r i a n G r e e k v e r s i o n of t h e P e n t a t e u c h w a s
c e r t a i n l y p r o d u c e d in t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y B . C . (see a b o v e , p . 4 7 6 ) . S o m e
passages in t h e p r e s e n t b o o k , h o w e v e r , a r e o n l y loosely c o n n e c t e d w i t h
t h e m a i n story, a n d it is likely t h a t t h e y o r i g i n a t e d q u i t e s e p a r a t e l y . I n
p a r t i c u l a r , t h e a c c o u n t o f t h e J e w i s h L a w g i v e n to A r i s t e a s by t h e H i g h
Priest E l e a z a r ( 1 3 0 - 7 1 ) , i n w h i c h a l l e g o r i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a r e u s e d in
a w a y q u i t e different from t h e rest o f t h e w o r k , m a y h a v e b e e n
278. W h e n reproducing t h e story of t h e translation, Philo {Vita Mosis ii 25-40)

insinuates that t h e L X X is divinely inspired and thus identical to the original Hebrew
text. P. Kahle, CG, p p . 212 f, claims t h a t t h e m a i n aim of Aristeas was Jewish
p r o p a g a n d a to ensure t h e substitution of the s t a n d a r d L X X for all earlier, more imperfect
Greek translations of t h e Law, but it is more hkely that the imperfect texts of the L a w
which, according to the words of Demetrius quoted by Aristeas (29-32), needed t o be
supplanted by the genuine version of the L X X were Hebrew texts available in Alexandria,
(f D . W. Gooding, 'Aristeas a n d Septuagint O r i g i n s : A Review of Recent Studies', V T
I'i (1963), pp. 158-80, a n d above, p. 475.
68o §33A. Jewish Literature Composed in Greek
borrowed from elsewhere,ând it is likely that the philosophical

questions asked and answered at the king's banquet ( 1 8 7 - 2 9 2 ) derived
either from an earlier non-Jewish ethical treatise or, more probably,
from the common cliches of contemporary pagan philosophy.^ ^
However, the style of the whole work as it survives now is uniform and
there are no grounds for positing that these sections are later
interpolations. For the date of the present work, a strongly argued
theory assumes that it originated at the beginning of the second century
B . C . The legend that Demetrius of Phalerum suggested the whole
undertaking to Ptolemy Philadelphus is unhistorical, not only in details
but also in its main points, for Demetrius of Phalerum almost certainly
did not live at the court of Alexandria during the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphus (cf. above, p. 475). Therefore, when the Jewish
philosopher Aristobulus in c. 180—145 B . C . also designates Demetrius of
Phalerum as the originator of the undertaking (Eusebius, Praep. ev. xiii
1 2 , 2) it is possible that he already had the book before him.^^' An early
second century date may also be supported by internal considerations.
279. T h i s section is entirely omitted by Josephus in his p a r a p h r a s e and has therefore
been claimed as an interpolation by a writer at t h e time of, a n d in t h e style of, Philo (J.
G. Fevrier, La Dale de Composition et les sources de la lettre d'Aristie d Philocrate (1925), p p . 2 4
AT., 63 AT.). Josephus, however, also omitted m u c h else and this cannot b e a decisive
a r g u m e n t , cf Fraser, P A II, p . 980.
280. G . Zuntz, 'Aristeas Studies I : " T h e Seven Banquets'", J S S 4 (1959), pp. 1 2 1 - 3 6 ,
claims t h a t Pseudo-Aristeas used a single source in which a doctrine of kingship w a s
systematically formulated, cf. also W . W. T a r n , The Greeks in Bactria and India (1938), p p .
414-36 (suggesting a hypothetical 'Questions of Ptolemy Philadelphus' written by a J e w
in the reign of Ptolemy Euergetes) ; H a d a s , op. cit., p p . 4 0 - 3 . Contra, in favour of t h e
section as the work of Pseudo-Aristeas himself using c o m m o n ideas, cf O . M u r r a y ,
'Aristeas and Ptolemaic Kingship', J T h S t 18 (1967), p p . 3 3 7 - 7 1 ; V . A. Tcherikover,
' T h e Ideology of the Letter of Aristeas', H T h R 51 (1958), p p . 5 9 - 8 5 ; Fraser, PA I I , p .
982. Cf also J . J. Lewis, ' T h e T a b l e - T a l k Section in the Letter of Aristeas', N T S t 13
(1966), p p . 5 3 - 6 .
281. T h e dependence of Aristobulus on Pseudo-Aristeas is strongly argued by, a m o n g
others, Fraser, PA I, pp. 694, 700, both on t h e grounds t h a t all later a n d q u i t y s a w
Pseudo-Aristeas and r>o other source as the origin of the story a b o u t Demetrius a n d
Ptolemy Philadelphus, and also because of an a p p a r e n t coincidence between the p l a n of
t h e two works. An inverse relationship, Pseudo-Aristeas using Aristobulus, is possible, cf.
G . Zuntz, 'Aristeas Studies I T , J J S 4 (1959), p. 125, but unlikely, given the elaboration i n
Pseudo-Aristeas of fantastic testimonia t o J u d a i s m from o t h e r gentile Hterary figures
roughly contemporary with Demetrius (e.g. M e n e d e m u s , T h e o p o m p u s of Chios,
Theodectes) c o m p a r e d to t h e casual allusion to the story in Aristobulus. However, t h e
third possibility that both writers used a c o m m o n oral tradition which each elaborated
differently is perhaps the most likely of all, cf N. Meisner, Aristeasbrief, J S H R Z I I . i
(1973), p . 39. I n that case, despite the a r g u m e n t of Walter, Der Thoraausleger Aristobulus
(1964), pp. 100, 146-7, t h a t t h e priority of Aristobulus is demonstrated b y t h e
a p p e a r a n c e of the same material i n concentrated form in Aristobulus but scattered i n
Pseudo-Aristeas, and by the differences between t h e authors in their allegorical exegesis, it
is better to admit t h a t the fragmentary survival of Aristobulus' writings prevents a n y
proper a r g u m e n t derived from his d a t e being used to fix the time of Pseudo-Aristeas.
The b a c k g r o u n d o f t h e a c c o u n t a p p e a r s to be a d m e in w h i c h the
Jewish p e o p l e , u n d e r t h e l e a d e r s h i p of its h i g h priest a n d w i t h o n l y
slight d e p e n d e n c e o n E g y p t , enjoyed a peaceful a n d h a p p y e x i s t e n c e ,
h e n c e t h e t i m e before the c o n q u e s t o f P a l e s t i n e by t h e S e l e u c i d s .
N o w h e r e is t h e r e a n y i n t i m a t i o n o f t h e c o m p l i c a t i o n s a n d difficulties
w h i c h b e g a n soon after the S e l e u c i d c o n q u e s t . Politically, t h e J e w i s h
[)eople a n d t h e i r h i g h priest seem a l m o s t i n d e p e n d e n t . I t is a n a g e of
p e a c e a n d p r o s p e r i t y . T h e w e i g h t to b e g i v e n to this g e n e r a l p i c t u r e
d e p e n d s h o w e v e r o n t h e e x t e n t to w h i c h the p i c t u r e w a s ever i n t e n d e d
to reflect c o n t e m p o r a r y reality. M a n y o f t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l d e t a i l s a r e
impossible, a n d i n s p i r e d by b i b l i c a l a c c o u n t s r a t h e r t h a n by a n y t h i n g
in the a u t h o r ' s o w n day.^^^ N o n e t h e l e s s it is r e a s o n a b l e t o a s s u m e t h a t
those d e t a i l s for w h i c h n o biblical o r E g y p t i a n sources, a n d no
a p o l o g e t i c r e a s o n for i n v e n d o n c a n be f o u n d , a r e m o r e likely t o d e r i v e
from c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n d i t i o n s t h a n t h e a u t h o r ' s i m a g i n a t i o n . I t is
t h e r e f o r e n o t e w o r t h y t h a t t h e fortress of J e r u s a l e m w a s i n the possession
of t h e J e w s ( 1 0 0 - 4 ) . T h e fortress d e s c r i b e d h e r e w a s d i r e c t l y c o n n e c t e d
w i t h t h e T e m p l e , w h i c h it w a s its p u r p o s e t o p r o t e c t , a n d l a y h i g h e r
t h a n t h e l a t t e r {ibid., especially 1 0 1 ) . T h e s e d e t a i l s c a n n o t a p p l y to t h e
fortress e r e c t e d b y A n t i o c h u s E p i p h a n e s , the seat o f a S y r i a n g a r r i s o n
u n t i l t h e H i g h Priest S i m o n c o n q u e r e d i t , a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y levelled by
a l a t e r H a s m o n e a n (i M a c . 1 : 3 3 ; 13:49—52; J o s . Ant. xii 5 , 4 ( 2 5 2 ) ; xih
7 ( 2 1 5 - 1 7 ) ; BJ- V 4, I ( 1 3 6 - 4 O ; cf a b o v e , vol. I, p p . 1 5 4 - 5 , 192)-
T h i s fortress of t h e S y r i a n s l a y on t h e s i t e of t h e f o r m e r city o f D a v i d ,
s o u t h of the T e m p l e , p r o b a b l y on t h e s o u t h e r n s p u r of t h e E a s t e r n hiU
at J e r u s a l e m , cf a b o v e , vol. I , p . 154, n . 39. By c o n t r a s t , t h e fortress
m e n t i o n e d b y Aristeas w a s e v i d e n t l y s i t u a t e d in t h e s a m e p l a c e w h e r e
t h e l a t e r A n t o n i a s t o o d , i m m e d i a t e l y to t h e n o r t h o f t h e T e m p l e . O n e
h a s h e r e to look for the T e m p l e fortress a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d by N e h . 2:8;
7:2. T h i s s a m e fortress is also m e a n t w h e n it is said t h a t the E g y p t i a n
g e n e r a l S k o p a s p l a c e d a g a r r i s o n i n the fortress of J e r u s a l e m w h i c h w a s
s u b s e q u e n t l y e x p e l l e d b y A n t i o c h u s t h e G r e a t (Jos. Ant. xii 3 , 3 ( 1 3 3
a n d 138)). I t is a l s o m e n d o n e d in 2 M a c . 4 : 1 2 , 2 7 ; 5 : 5 , w h i c h d e a l s
w i t h t h e d m e before t h e e r e c t i o n o f the S y r i a n fortress. I t c o n t i n u e d to
exist u n d e r t h e H a s m o n e a n s , w a s r e n e w e d b y t h e m , a n d w a s l a t e r
r e c o n s t r u c t e d u n d e r t h e n a m e A n t o n i a b y Herod.'^^^ S i n c e in P t o l e m a i c
282. M . Hadas, op. cit., p. 6 4 ; V . A. Tcherikover, art. cit., p p . 77—9. T h e choice of

p.irticular bibhcal passages, e.g. at 116, from J o s h u a 3:15, was sometimes dictated by the
.11 tempts of the author t o point up parallels between J u d a e a and Egypt (Tcherikover, pp.
loH I I ) .
2H3. Renewal by H y r c a n u s I {Ant. xvih 4, 3 (91)) or more generally by the
Hasmonaeans {Ant. xv 11, 4 (403)). Existence d u r i n g the time of Aristobulus I {Ant. xih
1 1 , 2 (307); B.J. i 3, 3—5 (75—80)) a n d of Alexandria {Ant. xiii 16, 5 (426); B.J. i 5, 4
" 7 >9))-
682 §33-A. Jewish Literature Composed in Greek
times t r o o p s w e r e c l e a r l y o n l y t e m p o r a r i l y p l a c e d in t h e fortress for

m i l i t a r y p u r p o s e s ( w h i c h c a n b e s e e n q u i t e p l a i n l y from Ant. xii 3 , 3
( 1 3 3 ) ) , A r i s t e a s ' a l l u s i o n s to t h e fortress are c o m p a t i b l e w i t h a d a t e
a r o u n d 200 B . C . E v e n t h e p o s i t i o n o c c u p i e d b y t h e h i g h p r i e s t is in
a g r e e m e n t w i t h this. H e s t a n d s at t h e h e a d of t h e c o m m u n i t y b u t is n o t
a w o r l d l y r u l e r in t h e style o f the H a s m o n e a n s . N e i t h e r is t h e r e a n y
c l e a r t r a c e in the b o o k o f t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f H e r o d i a n a n d R o m a n
times. I t is n o t e w o r t h y t h a t in t h e l e n g t h y c o n v e r s a t i o n s a t t a b l e
( 1 8 7 - 3 0 0 ) , in w h i c h reference is m a d e t o G o d ' s g u i d a n c e of h u m a n
destiny, t h e r e is n o w h e r e a n y expression of belief i n i m m o r t a l i t y as is
t h e case in m a n y l a t e r J e w i s h writings.'^^^ B u t g i v e n t h e v a r i e t y of
J e w i s h a t t i t u d e s to t h e afterlife in this p e r i o d , it is u n w i s e to rely t o o
m u c h o n this a s e v i d e n c e for d a t i n g t h e b o o k .
T h e s e a r g u m e n t s c a n n o t , h o w e v e r , b e a c c o u n t e d entirely decisive,
a n d o t h e r d a t e s h a v e b e e n p l a u s i b l y s u g g e s t e d . T h e latest is t h a t
p r o p o s e d by M o m i g l i a n o on t h e basis o f t h e similarity b e t w e e n t h e
p h r a s i n g of t h e official l e t t e r i n P s e u d o - A r i s t e a s 37 a n d t h a t in i M a c .
10:37. M o m i g l i a n o a r g u e s t h a t P s e u d o - A r i s t e a s relied d i r e c t l y on t h e
d o c u m e n t in i M a c c a b e e s a n d therefore w r o t e after the p u b l i c a t i o n of
t h a t b o o k in c. n o B . C . ^ ^ ^ T h e similarity is, h o w e v e r , n o t close e n o u g h
to s h o w a d i r e c t c o n n e c t i o n , a n d it is a n y w a y m o s t likely t h a t t h e
d o c u m e n t q u o t e d i n i M a c c a b e e s (a g e n u i n e l e t t e r of 1 5 1 B . C . ) w a s
a v a i l a b l e in E g y p t before t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n of t h a t w o r k . R a t h e r
s t r o n g e r g r o u n d s h a v e b e e n p r o p o s e d by B i c k e r m a n n for a d a t e
284. M. Friedlander, Die religiosen Bewegungen innerhalb des Judentums im êitalter Jesu
(1905), PP- 241 f.
285. T o be rejected as endrely implausible are all suggestions of a d a t e after 100 B.C.,
cf e.g. H. Gratz, 'Die Abfassungszeit des Pseudo-Aristeas', M G W J (1876), pp. 289-308,
337-49 (in the d m e of Tiberius because of t h e references to informers i n verse 167); L.
H e r r m a n n , Latomus 25 (1966), pp. 58-77 (in the time of Titus). The only a r g u m e n t to
be taken seriously for such a late date is that based o n verse 115, where t h e Jewish area is
said to have, in Ascalon, J o p p a , Gaza, and Ptolemais, harbours well situated to supply its
needs. If t h e geographical excursus is based on reality (see above, p. 681), a n d ij this
passage refers to Jewish political control of these ports, t h e passage must date after 96
B.C., when Gaza was captured by Alexander J a n n a e u s (P. Wendland, Aristeae ad
Philocratem Epistula (1900), p. xxv) or, even later, to the R o m a n period, after Gaza h a d
been rebuilt u n d e r Pompey (Willrich, Judaica (1900), p . 124). However, verse 115
probably does n o t refer to political control but only geographical proximity and the
passage of trade (which would not be affected by the ports being in gentile h a n d s ) , in
which case it is irrelevant for the dating of the book.
286. A. Momigliano, 'Per la d a t a e la caratteristica della lettera di Aristea', Aegyptus
12 (1932), p p . 161-73 = Quarto Contributo (1969), p p . 213-24. If the work was written so
late, it was probably still composed before 104 B.C., when the H a s m o n a e a n high priest
assumed t h e title of (SacrcAew, cf. B. Motzo, A t t . Acad. Torino 50 (1915), pp. 210-25 =
Ricerchesulla letteratura e la storiagiudaico-ellenistica (1924, repr. 1977), pp. 513-28.
l)ctween 145 and 1 2 7 B . C . ^ ^ ^ These hmits are primarily fixed by the

attested use in dated official Ptolemaic documents on papyrus of the
titles and epistolary greeting formulae which are found in Pseudo-
Aristeas. The criterion would be decisive if it could be shown that these
li;)rmulae never appeared before 1 4 5 B . C . , but in fact, although they
seem to have been regularized around that date into the form in which
they are found in Pseudo-Aristeas, sufficient earlier examples can be
l()und which go back to the third century B.c. to leave open the
possibihty of an earlier date.'^^^ There are no positive historical reasons
(or dating the work to the later second century, though neither are
there any such reasons to deny such a date.^^^ If Pseudo-Aristeas did
write as late as this, his work cannot have been read by Aristobulus, if
Aristobulus is correctly dated to the time of Philometor, but we have
aheady seen (above, p. 580) that Aristobulus' dependence on the letter
is not certain, though it is likely. No such objection can be raised
against the next, slightly earlier, period proposed for the composition of
the work, namely the reign of Philometor (180—145 B.C.).^^° In favour
of such a date is the generally peaceful picture of Jerusalem already
noted which, however unreal, is most implausible after the Seleucid
()(cupation of their fortress in the early i6os B . C . , and the high rank of
die author at the Ptolemaic court as revealed by his detailed and
accurate knowledge of court procedure and royal administration.^^'
Such royal favour towards a Jew was most likely in the second period of
IMiilometor's rule (after 164 B.c.),^^^ but would also be possible before
JH7. E. J . Bickermann, ' Z u r Datierung des Pseudo-Aristeas', Z N W 29 ( 1 9 3 0 ) , p p .

jHn <)8 = Studies in Jewish and Christian History I ( 1 9 7 6 ) , pp. 1 0 8 - 3 6 . T a k i n g Bickermann's
i M i l r i u f to permit a d a t e shortly after 1 2 7 B.C., N . Meisner, Aristeasbrief, JSHRZ II.i
M)73), p. 43, proposes t h a t t h e letter was written by A l e x a n d r i a n J e w s to distance
ihdiisclves from t h e j e w s of Leontopolis and their Bible translation d u r i n g the struggle
l . ( i \ v ( < i i Ptolemy V I I I Physcon a n d C l e o p a t r a II d u r i n g 1 2 7 - 1 1 8 B.C. T h e r e is however
nil (\ Idince of a separate Greek version of the Bible h a v i n g been p r o d u c e d at Leontopolis
.(•(• b e l o w , n. 289).
-•MM A further review of the papyrological evidence in Fraser, P A I I , p p . 9 7 0 - 1 .
jIU). Hadas, op. cit., p. 5 4 , relies mostly on the hnguistic arguments of Bickermann in
l>ii((iririg 1 3 0 B.C. Collins, BAAJ, pp. 8 3 - 4 , notes t h a t t h e account of t h e liberation of
| < w i s h slaves, the attack o n informers and o p e n disapproval of J e w s acting as soldiers
« i i u h l ill make .sense in t h e context of the u n h a p p y relations of t h e military followers of
I ) i i i . i s w i t h Ptolemy V I I I Physcon in t h e period, b u t this is pure speculadon, as is t h e
•ui.>',(sii<ui by S. Jellicoe, ' T h e Occasion a n d Purpose o f the Letter of Aristeas: A
M. f.\.iiiiiuation', N T S t 1 2 ( 1 9 6 5 / 6 ) , p p . 1 4 4 - 5 0 , t h a t the letter was composed t o endorse
I 1.1 I l k iianslation which came from J e r u s a l e m against t h e claim of a (hypothetical)
II uisl.iiioii f r o m Leontopolis. See above, n. 2 8 7 .
f r . i s r r , PA II, pp. 970-2.
.'I I / / ' u / . , I, pp. 698-700.
.•i|j l l c i K (' this period is preferred by Fraser, op. cit., I I , p . 9 7 1 . I t should be noted t h a t
1I111 i l . . ( s n o t preclude a r a t h e r later d a t e either, since a J e w in favour u n d e r Philometor
mi»,'l)i h . i v c written the letter at a later time, cf Collins, BAAJ, p. 8 2 .
170 B.c.^^^ T h e a u t h o r can therefore only b e d a t e d with certainty to

s o m e t i m e i n t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . c . ; a p o s i t i o n of s u c h a u t h o r i t y
w o u l d b e m o s t u n l i k e l y for a p i o u s J e w in t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y B . C . All
s c h o l a r s a t a n y r a t e a g r e e t h a t the a u t h o r m u s t h a v e b e e n a n E g y p t i a n ,
a n d p r o b a b l y an A l e x a n d r i a n , J e w , b e c a u s e o f this d e t a i l e d k n o w l e d g e
of P t o l e m a i c c o u r t life.*^*
T h e l e g e n d of t h i s b o o k w a s r e a d i l y t a k e n o v e r a n d w i d e l y r e p e a t e d
b y J e w s a n d C h r i s t i a n s . T h e first p e r s o n t o b e t r a y a n a c q u a i n t a n c e
w i t h t h e story, t h o u g h not necessarily the book, w a s Aristobulus
( E u s e b i u s , Praep. ev. xii 1 2 , 2 ) . T h e n e x t w a s P h i l o {Vita Mosis ii 26—40),
w h o a l s o m e n t i o n s a y e a r l y c o m m e m o r a t i o n festival a t P h a r o s (41—44)
a n d a g a i n m a y w r i t e i n d e p e n d e n t l y of P s e u d o - A r i s t e a s b u t a g a i n s t t h e
b a c k g r o u n d of t h e t r a d i t i o n , cf R . T r a m o n t a n o , La lettera di Aristeo
(1931), pp. 170 - 1 8 4 . J o s e p h u s b y contrast reproduces almost hterally
a l a r g e s e c t i o n of t h e b o o k in Ant. x i i 2, i (12 ff.). C f also Ant. i Proem 3
( l o - i i ) , C. Ap. ii 4 (45—7). I n r a b b i n i c l i t e r a t u r e t h e r e a r e a l s o s o m e ,
a d m i t t e d l y c o n f u s e d , echoes of t h i s l e g e n d {yMeg., i 7 i d ; bMeg., g a ;
Massekhet Sopherim, i 7 - 1 0 ) ; cf. H a d a s , p p . 7 9 - 8 4 .
Passages from t h e C h u r c h F a t h e r s a n d from B y z a n t i n e authors h a v e
b e e n c o l l e c t e d in W e n d l a n d ' s e d i t i o n (1900), p p . 1 2 1 - 6 6 . A few
testimonia from oriental sources n o t given by W e n d l a n d may be f o u n d
i n F r e n c h o r L a t i n t r a n s l a t i o n o r p a r a p h r a s e i n A. P e l l e t i e r , Lettre
d'Aristee d Philocrate (1962), p p . 95—6. E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n s of t h e m o r e
i m p o r t a n t p a s s a g e s a r e g i v e n in H . S t . J . T h a c k e r a y , The Letter of
Aristeas ( 1 9 1 7 ) , p p . 8 9 - 1 1 6 . C f R . H a n h a r t , V T 1 2 (1962), p p . 1 4 6 - 9 .
T h e l e g e n d is r e p r o d u c e d h e r e w i t h v a r i o u s m o d i f i c a t i o n s , in p a r t i c u l a r
t h e f o l l o w i n g t w o : ( i ) t h a t t h e t r a n s l a t o r s w o r k e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y of
each other a n d yet arrived at verbal agreement in their translations
(this is P h i l o ' s v e r s i o n ; A r i s t e a s h a s t h e e x a c t o p p o s i t e , n a m e l y t h a t
a g r e e m e n t w a s r e a c h e d b y w a y o f c o m p a r i s o n ) ; (2) t h a t n o t only t h e
L a w b u t t h e e n t i r e H o l y S c r i p t u r e s w e r e t r a n s l a t e d by t h e L X X I I (in
A r i s t e a s t h e r e is q u e s t i o n o n l y of t h e Law).^^^ C f o n t h e v a r i o u s f o r m s
293. T h i s is the view of H . M . Orhnsky, 'Review of H a d a s , Aristeas to Philocrates

(1951)', Crozer Q u a r t e r l y 29 (1952), pp. 201-5.
294. O n his use of technical language see Bickermann, Z N W 29 (1930), p p . 280-98 (n.
287 above). Cf. i n general, Fraser, P A I, p p . 698-700, 703.
295. J e r o m e already called attention to both differences, ( i ) Praef. in vers. Genes. (PL
X X V i n , 1 8 1 - 2 ) : 'nescio quis primus auctor septuaginta cellulas Alexandriae mcndacio
suo exstruxerit, quibus divisi e a d e m scriptitarent, q u u m Aristeas eiusdem Ptolemaei
im€pairmaT-i]s, et multo post t e m p o r e Josephus, nihil tale retulerint, sed in u n a basilica
congregatos, contulisse scribant, non prophetasse.' (2) Comment, in Ezech. 5:12 ff. ( C C L ,
L X X V , p . 6 0 ) : ' q u a m q u a m e t Aristaeus et losephus et omnis schola l u d a e o r u m q u i n q u e
t a n t u m libros Moysi a Septuaginta translatos asserant.' Similarly Comment, in Mich. 2:9 ff.
( C C L , L X X V I , pp. 4 4 6 - 7 ) ; Praefat. in librum quaest. hebr. (CCL, L X X I I , p. 2). J e r o m e ' s
a i m was t o call into question t h e supposed divine origin o f the S e p t u a g i n t text in o r d e r to
of t h e l e g e n d : R . T r a m o n t a n e , La lettera di Aristeo ( 1 9 3 1 ) , p p . 193 fF.;

H a d a s , op. cit., p p . 7 3 - 9 ; J e l l i c o e , S M S , p p . 4 1 - 7 . T h e fiillest list of
references m a y be f o u n d in G . O i k o n o m o s , Flepl TCJV 6 'Epp.rjvevT6iv TTJS
77-aAaid? deias rpa<f>'fjs, 4 vols. (1844—9) • T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t o f these are

t h e f o l l o w i n g : J u s t i n , Apol. i 3 1 . Dial. c. Tryph. 68. P s e u d o - J u s t i n ,
Cohortatio ad Graecos 1 3 . I r e n a e u s , Adv. haer. iii 2 1 , 2 ( G r e e k in E u s e b i u s ,
Hist. eccl. V 8, 1 1 — 1 5 ) . C l e m e n t o f A l e x a n d r i a , Strom, i 2 2 , 1 4 8 ff.
T e r t u l l i a n , Apologet. 18 ( t h e first C h r i s t i a n w r i t e r t o m e n t i o n A r i s t e a s by
n a m e ) . A n a t o l i u s i n E u s e b i u s , Hist. eccl. vii 3 2 , 16. E u s e b i u s gives l o n g
p a s s a g e s f r o m t h e b o o k of A r i s t e a s in a n u n a d o r n e d e p i t o m e i n his
Praeparatio evangelica v h i 2 - 5 a n d 9 ; cf a l s o v i i i i, 8 ; ix 3 8 . Chronic, ed.
S c h o e n e , I I , cols. 1 1 8 ff. {ad ann. Abrah., 1 7 3 6 ) . C y r i l , Hieros. cateches. iv
34. H i l a r i u s , Prolog, ad librum psalmorum 8; Idem, Tractat. in psalmum ii
a n d c x v i u . E p i p h a n i u s , De mensuris et ponderibus 3 ; 6; 9—11 ( a f a n t a s t i c
e l a b o r a t i o n t y p i c a l of t h e a u t h o r , cf H a d a s , op. cit., p p . 7 6 - 8 ; M .
S t o n e , H T h R 73 ( 1 9 8 0 ) , p p . 3 3 1 - 6 on t h e A r m e n i a n v e r s i o n ) . J e r o m e ,
Praefat. in version. Genes. ( P L X X V I I I , 1 8 1 - 2 ) . Idem, Praefat. in librum
quaestion. Hebraic. ( C C L L X X I I , 2 ) . A u g u s t i n e , De civitate dei x v i u 4 2 - 3 .
C h r y s o s t o m , Orat. I adversus ludaeos. Idem, Homil. in Matt, v 2.
O n t h e m a n u s c r i p t s of t h e b o o k o f A r i s t e a s , see W e n d l a n d ' s ed.
(1900), p p . v i i - x x i i i ; T h a c k e r a y ' s e d . i n H . B . S w e t e a n d R . R . O t t l e y ,
l O T G , p p . 5 3 3 - 5 0 ; A . Pelletier, Lettre d'Aristie d Philocrate ( 1 9 6 2 ) , p p .
8-22.
Editions
W e n d l a n d , P., Aristeae adPhitocratem epistula (1900) (still n o t entirely superseded).
Thackeray, H. St. J., i n Swete, l O T G , pp. 5 3 3 - 6 0 6 .
Pelletier, A., Lettre d'Aristee d Philocrate (1962).
Translations a n d C o m m e n t a r i e s
English:
Thackeray, H. St. J., in J Q R 15 (1903), pp. 3 3 7 - 9 1 , revised as The Letter of Aristeas
(1917)-
Andrews, H. T . , in Charles, A P O T I I , pp. 9 4 - 1 2 2 .
M e e c h a m , H. G . , The Oldest Version of the Bible (1932), p p . 12-86.
Hadas, M . , Aristeas to Philocrates (1951)-
(icrman:
W e n d l a n d , P., i n Kautzsch, A P A T I I (1900; repr. i 9 2 i ) , p p . 1-31.
Riessler, P., Altjud. Schrift. (1928), p p . 193-233 ; 1277-9.
•Vlcisner, N,, Aristeasbrief {}?>HKZ I I . i) (1973), p p . 35-87.
I'rcnch :
INIlctier, op. cit.
11ahan:
I ramontano, R . , La Lettera di Aristea a Filocrate (1931).
lusdfy his own revision based on t h e Hebrew. Cf. W. S c h w a r t z , Principles and Problems of
Hihlical Translation (1955), p p - 26-34.
686 §33-A- Jewish Literature Composed in Greek
Hebrew:
K a h a n a , A., D"'31S''nn DnOOn (^956).
Bibliography
Hody, H., Contra historiam Aristeae de LXX interpretibus dissertatio (1685).
Freudenthal,J., Alexander Polyhistor {1875), PP- ^ 10-12,124 ff., 1 4 1 - 3 , 1 4 9 f., 162-5, 203 ff.
Gratz, H . , 'Die Abfassungszeit des Pseudo-Aristeas', M G W J (1876), p p . 289 ff., 337 ff.
Kuiper, K . , 'De Aristeae ad Philocratem fratrem epistola', Mnemosyne 20 (1892), p p .
230-72.
Willrich, H . , Juden und Griechen (1895), pp. 3 3 - 6 .
Willrich, H . , Judaica (1900), p p . 118-27.
Motzo, B., 'Aristea', Atti Acad. Torino 50 (1915), p p . 202-26, 547-70.
Willrich, H . , Urkundenfdlschung in derhellenistisch-jUdischen Literatur (1924), p p . 8 6 - 9 1 .
Fevrier, J.-G., La date, la composition et les sources de la Lettre d'Aristie d Philocrate (1925).
Tracy, S., ' H I Maccabees and Pseudo-Aristeas', Y C S i (1928), p p . 241-52.
G u t t m a n n , J . , E J H I (1929), 316-20.
Bickermann, E. J , , ' Z u r Datierung des Pseudo-Aristeas', Z N W 29 (1930), p p . 280—98
(reprinted i n Studies in Jewish and Christian History I (1976), p p . 123—36).
Stahlin, G . , 'Josephus u n d der Aristeasbrief, T h S t K r 102 (1930), pp. 324-31.
Michel, O . , 'Wie spricht der Aristeasbrief iiber Gott?', T h S t K r 102 (1930), pp. 302-6.
Stein, M . , 'The Author of the Letter of Aristeas as a Jewish Apologist', Zion i (1926), p p .
129-47 (Heb.).
M a r d n , J . , Symposion. Die Geschichte einer literarischen Form (1931), p p . 266-70.
MomigHano, A., 'Per la data e la caratteristica deUa lettera d i Aristea', Aegyptus 12
(1932), 161-72 ( = Quarto contributo (1969), p p . 213-24).
M e e c h a m , H. G., The Letter of Aristeas, A Linguistic Study with Special Reference to the Greek
Bible (1935).
Dornseiff, F., Echtheitsfragen antik-griechischer Literatur (1939), pp. 6 9 ff.
Wilcken, U . , 'Urkunden-Referat (II P E R I n v . 24552 g r . ) ' . Arch, f P a p . 12 (1937), p p .
221-3.
Joiion, P., 'OxAo? au sens de "peuple, population" dans le grec d u Nouveau T e s t a m e n t et
dans la Lettre d'Aristee', R S R 27 (1937), pp. 618 ff.
Jovion, P . , 'Imparfaits d e "continuation" dans la Lettre d'Aristee et d a n s les Evangiles',
R S R 28 (1938), p p . 93-6.
Westermann, W . L., 'Enslaved Persons w h o are Free. R a i n e r Papyrus ( P E R ) Inv. 24,
552', AJPh 59 (1938), p p . 1-30.
Wilhelm, A., ' Z u dem Judenerlasse d e s Ptolemaios Philadelphos', Arch, f Pap. 14 (1941),
PP- 30-5-
Bickerman, E. J . , 'The colophon of t h e Greek Book of Esther', J B L 63 (1944), p . 343.
H a d a s , M . , 'Aristeas a n d I I I Maccabees', H T h R 4 2 (1949), pp. 175-84.
T a r n , W . W., The Greeks in Bactria and India (^1951), pp. 414-36.
Schubart, W., 'Spicilegium criticum', Aegyptus 31 (i951), pp. 148-57.
Orlinsky, H. M . , 'Review of H a d a s , Aristeas to Philocrates (1951)', Crozer Q u a r t e r l y 29
(1952), PP- 201-5.
Dalbert, P . , Die Theologie der hell.-jiid. Missionsliteratur (1954), p p . 92-102.
Strieker, B. H . , De Brief van Aristeas (Verhandelingen d e r Koninklijke Akademie v a n
Wetenschappen te Amsterdam, 62, 4, 1956).
Altheim, F., a n d R. Stiehl, 'Alexander t h e Great and the Avesta', East a n d West 8
(i957)>PP- 123-35, cf 125-7.
Tcherikover, V. A., Corpus Papyrorum Judaicarum I (1957), p p . 1-47.
Tcherikover, V. A., ' T h e Ideology of the Letter of Aristeas', H T R 51 (1958), p p . 59-85.
Zuntz, G., ' Z u m Aristeas-Text', Philologus 102 (1958), p p . 240—6.
Kahle, P . E., The Cairo Geniza (^^1959), pp. 209-14.
Tcherikover, V . A., Hellenistic Civilization and the Jews (1961), p p . 351, 527.
Zuntz, G., 'Aristeas Studies I : " T h e Seven Banquets'", J S S 4 (1959), p p . 2 1 - 3 6 .
Zuntz, G., 'Aristeas Studies I I : "Aristeas on t h e T r a n s l a t i o n of the T o r a h ' " , J S S 4
(i959)>PP. 109-26.
Jellicoe, S., 'St. Luke a n d t h e "Seventy(-Two)"', N T S t 6 (1959/60), p p . 319-21.
Jellicoe, S., 'St. Luke a n d t h e Letter of Aristeas', J B L 80 (1961), pp. 149-55.
Jellicoe, S., 'Aristeas, Philo a n d the Septuagint Vorlage', JY\)S>t 12 (1961), p p . 261-71.
Bickermann, E . J., 'Notes sur la chancellerie des Lagides', Revue I n t e r n a t i o n a l e des
Droits de I'Antiquite 9 (1962), p p . 251-67.
H a n h a r t , R., ' F r a g e n u m die Entstehung d e r L X X ' , V T 12 (1962), p p . 139—63.
Pelletier, A., Flavius Josephe adaptateur de la 'Lettre d'Aristie': une reaction atticisante contre la
KoinS {ig62) (SC 89) (1962).
Zuntz, G.,'Aristeas', I D B I (1962), pp. 219-21.
CJooding, D. W . , 'Aristeas a n d Septuagint O r i g i n s : A Review of R e c e n t Studies', V T 13
(1963), p p . 357-79.
J a u b e r t , A., La Notion de I'Alliance dans lejudaisme (1963), pp. 322-9.
Klijn, A . F. J . , ' T h e Letter of Aristeas a n d the Greek Translations of the Pentateuch in
Egypt', N T S t 11 (1965), pp. 154-8.
Jelhcoe, S., ' T h e Occasion and Purpose of the Letter of Aristeas: a R e - e x a m i n a t i o n ' ,
N T S t 12 (1965/6), pp. 144-50.
H e r r m a n n , L, 'La L e t t r e d'Aristee a Philocrate e t l'empereur Titus', L a t o m u s 25 (1966),
p p . 58-77.
Lewis, J . J., ' T h e T a b l e - T a l k Section in the Letter o f Aristeas', N T S t 13 (1966/7), p p .
53-6-
M u r r a y , O., 'Aristeas and Ptolemaic Kingship', J T h S t 18 (1967), p p . 3 3 7 - 7 1 .
Preaux, C , ' D e la Grece Classique a I'Egypte Hellenistique. T r a d u i r e ou n e pas t r a d u i r e ' ,
Chron. d'figypte 42 (1967), p p . 369-83.
V a n ' t Dack, E . , 'La d a t e de l a Lettre d'Aristee', Studia Hellenistica X V I (1968), pp. 263-78.
Jellicoe, SMS, pp. 2 9 - 5 8 .
Rost, L., ' V e r m u t u n g e n iiber d e r Anlage z u r griechischen U b e r s e t z u n g der T o r a h ' ,
A b h a n d l u n g e n z u r Theologie des Alten u n d N e u e n Testaments 59 (1970), pp. 39-44.
R a p p a p o r t , U . , Studies in the History of the Jewish People (1970), p p . 37 ff. ( H e b . ) .
Speyer, W., Die literarische Fdlschung (1971), p. 163.
H o w a r d , G. E . , ' T h e Letter of Aristeas Sind D i a s p o r a J u d a i s m ' , J T h S t 22 (1971), pp. 337-48.
Meisner, N., Untersuchungen zum Aristeasbrief [i^"]'2).
M u r r a y , O., 'Aristeas and his Sources', Studia Patristica X I I . i (1975), p p . 123-8.
Orlinsky, H. M . , ' T h e Septuagint as H o l y W r i t and t h e Philosophy of t h e Translators',
H U C A 4 6 (1975), pp. 8 9 - 1 1 4 .
Shutt, R . J . H . , 'Notes on t h e Letter of Aristeas', Bulletin of the International O r g a n i z a t i o n
for Septuagint a n d Cognate Studies 10 (1977), p p . 22-30.
Schwartz, D. R., ' T h e priests in £ p . Arist. 310', J B L 94 (1978), p p . 567-71.
Sabugal, S., ' L a exegesis biblica d e Aristobulo y del seudo-Aristeas', Revista Agustiniana
de Espiritualidad 20 (1979), p p . 195-202.
.Mendels, D., ' " O n K i n g s h i p " in the " T e m p l e Scroll" and t h e ideological Vorlage of t h e
seven banquets in the "Letter of Aristeas t o Philocrates'", Aegyptus 60 (1980), p p .
127-36.
6. Pseudo-Phocylides
The g n o m i c p o e t P h o c y l i d e s of M i l e t u s l i v e d i n the s i x t h c e n t u r y B . C .
a c c o r d i n g t o t h e S u d a (ed. A d l e r I V , p . 7 5 4 ) , a n d E u s e b i u s , Chron. ad
Olymp. 60, ed. S c h o e n e , I I , col. 98. L i t t l e has b e e n p r e s e r v e d of h i s
688 §33-'^- J^^lsh Literature Composed in Greek
g e n u i n e poems,^^^ b u t r e f e r e n c e s i n P l a t o [Republic, 407a7), I s o c r a t e s

[AdMicoclem, 42 ff.) a n d A r i s t o t l e [Politics iv 1 1 , I 2 9 5 b 3 4 ) s h o w h i m to
h a v e b e e n c o n s i d e r e d a n a u t h o r i t y in e t h i c a l m a t t e r s f r o m t h e f o u r t h
c e n t u r y B . C . A p o e m w h i c h gives m o r a l i n s t r u c t i o n s of t h e m o s t diverse
k i n d s i n 230 h e x a m e t e r s w a s c i r c u l a t e d u n d e r his n a m e in t h e
H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d . I t is v e r y likely, t h o u g h n o t yet c e r t a i n (see b e l o w ) ,
t h a t t h e a u t h o r of this w o r k w a s a H e l l e n i s t i c J e w . As t h e w o r k w a s
often u s e d a s a s c h o o l b o o k in t h e B y z a n t i n e p e r i o d , it h a s b e e n
p r e s e r v e d in n u m e r o u s m a n u s c r i p t s , a n d since t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y h a s
often b e e n p r i n t e d .
T h e c o n t e n t s of these verses a r e a l m o s t exclusively e t h i c a l . O n l y
o c c a s i o n a l l y a r e t h e r e references t o t h e o n e t r u e G o d a n d f u t u r e
r e t r i b u t i o n . T h e m o r a l t e a c h i n g s w h i c h t h e a u t h o r e n j o i n e d e x t e n d to
t h e m o s t v a r i e d a r e a s of p r a c t i c a l life in t h e m a n n e r of J e s u s b e n S i r a .
B u t in d e t a i l t h e y a r e affiliated m o s t closely w i t h t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h t h e P e n t a t e u c h , w h o s e p r e c e p t s r e l a t i n g to civil life
( p r o p e r t y , m a r r i a g e , p u b l i c w e l f a r e , etc.) r e s o u n d t h r o u g h o u t . O n e
e v e n finds h e r e s u c h special r u l e s a s t h o s e l a y i n g d o w n t h a t o n l y t h e
y o u n g birds m a y be taken from a nest, while t h e m o t h e r must be
p e r m i t t e d to fly a w a y ( 8 4 - 5 ; D t . 2 2 : 6 - 7 ) a n d t h a t the m e a t of fallen
a n i m a l s or a n i m a l s killed by b e a s t s of p r e y s h o u l d not b e e a t e n ( D t .
1 4 : 2 1 ; E x o d . 22:30 = P h o c . 1 3 9 , 1 4 7 - 8 ) .
I t is n o n e t h e l e s s still not e n t i r e l y c l e a r w h e t h e r t h e a u t h o r w a s
J e w i s h . T h e h y p o t h e s i s o f a p a g a n a u t h o r assumes e i t h e r t h a t t h e w o r k
is g e n u i n e l y o f the sixth c e n t u r y B . C ( m o s t r e c e n t l y , Dornseiff) or t h a t
a p a g a n w r i t e r o f the H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d c a m e u n d e r c o n s i d e r a b l e
J e w i s h i n f l u e n c e t h r o u g h the L X X w h e t h e r a s a g o d - f e a r e r o r in s o m e
less f o r m a l r e l a t i o n . T h e first s u g g e s t i o n is r e n d e r e d u n t e n a b l e by t h e
e x i s t e n c e of n u m e r o u s l a t e w o r d s a n d w o r d - f o r m s , d e s p i t e the o l d I o n i c
d i a l e c t i n w h i c h t h e p o e m is c o u c h e d . T h e l a t t e r i d e a is possible b u t
c a n n o t b e p r o v e d . I t is c e r t a i n l y n o m o r e p l a u s i b l e t h a n t h e h y p o t h e s i s
of a J e w i s h a u t h o r a n d it is u n l i k e l y t h a t a p a g a n a u t h o r w i s h i n g to
i n f l u e n c e o t h e r p a g a n s t o w a r d s J e w i s h ethics w o u l d be so r e t i c e n t in
a s c r i b i n g his w o r k to a p a g a n r a t h e r t h a n to a J e w i s h a u t h o r . A
C h r i s t i a n a u t h o r is r a t h e r u n l i k e l y since n e i t h e r C l e m e n t nor E u s e b i u s
q u o t e s t h e w o r k . T h e earliest references a r e i n S t o b a e u s a n d classical
scholia, t h o u g h the silence of t h e p a t r i s t i c w r i t e r s m a y be d u e t o the fact
t h a t t h e y w e r e only i n t e r e s t e d i n q u o t i n g p a g a n a u t h o r s w h o testified to
C h r i s t i a n i t y m o r e explicitly t h a n d o e s P s e u d o - P h o c y h d e s . M o r e
significantly, t h e m o r a l t e a c h i n g i n the w o r k coincides o n l y w i t h t h e
O l d T e s t a m e n t a n d ignores t h e Gospels, w h i c h w o u l d b e u n h k e l y for a
296. Collected in E. Diehl, ed. R . Beutler, Anthotogica Lyrica Graeca, 3rd ed., fasc. i
(•949)1 PP- 57-^0, a n d in B. Gentili and C. P r a t o , Poetarum Elegiacorum testimonia et
fragmenta I (1979), pp. xii, xxxviii, 130-40.
C h r i s t i a n a u t h o r discussing m o r a l s . Passages referring t o ' g o d s ' i n the

p l u r a l (98, 104) d o n o t s h o w , as w a s o n c e t h o u g h t , e i t h e r C h r i s t i a n or
p a g a n o r i g i n : line 98 is t o b e e m e n d e d , ^ ^ ^ a n d line 104, w h i c h says t h a t
t h e d e a d will b e c o m e ' g o d s ' a t t h e c o n s u m m a t i o n , is j u s t as p o s s i b l e , if
u n c o m f o r t a b l e , i n a J e w i s h c o n t e x t ( e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e t h e r e v e l a t i o n of
t h e eschatological ideas prevalent at Q u m r a n ) a s it w o u l d be i n a
C h r i s t i a n or p a g a n text.^^
T h e h y p o t h e s i s of a J e w i s h o r i g i n is f u r t h e r s u g g e s t e d b y Pseudo-
P h o c y l i d e s ' i n d e p e n d e n t use of m a t e r i a l also u s e d , p r o b a b l y l a t e r t h a n
h i m , b y t h e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n l i t e r a t u r e i n c l u d i n g t h e D i d a c h e , e.g. t h e
motif of the T w o Ways.^^^ I t is also c o n f i r m e d by his selection for
e m p h a s i s of t h e s a m e e l e m e n t s of t h e J e w i s h L a w as w e r e s e l e c t e d by
P h i l o i n t h e Hypothetica a n d b y J o s e p h u s , C. Ap. h 2 2 - 3 0 ( 1 8 8 - 2 1 9 ) . ^ ° °
T h e w o r k is m o s t likely t h e r e f o r e t o b e t h e p r o d u c t o f a H e l l e n i s t i c
J e w . I t is all t h e m o r e s t r i k i n g t h a t n o s e r i o u s a t t e m p t is m a d e to stress
specifically J e w i s h i d e a s . T h e t w o b a s i c r e l i g i o u s i d e a s o f J u d a i s m , t h e
unity of G o d and future r e t r i b u t i o n , a r e only referred to in passing, and
the author's concentration is on ethical maxims to which any
297. Verses 9 7 - 8 e x h o r t :
ju.7) fjMTqv €7rt irvp KadCaas parvdris <f>CXov Ijrop.
fifrpa 8e revxf $€Oiaf TO yap /xerpov f<rrlv dpicrrov.
I n line 9 8 , deotai is impossible to translate i n a n y way c o n s o n a n t with the context {contra
Ludwich and R a n s t o n ) . Various emendations h a v e been proposed (cf. van d e r Horst, ad.
loc). Bernays's conjecture is t h e most appealing: yooiai (lamentations) in place of flcotai.
f h e lines can t h e n be t r a n s l a t e d : 'Sit not i n vain beside t h e fire, weakening y o u r heart. Be
moderate in your grief, for m o d e r a t i o n is best' ( v a n d e r H o r s t ) . Alternatively, Y o u n g in
the T e u b n e r edition h a s td' eoiai, m e a n i n g : 'Set limits t o (the grief of) your family'.
298. Verses 103-4:
Kai TaxoL 8' CK yairjs iXTTiôpev is âos iXdeiv
Xeltfiav' dnotxofievwv oniaoi 8e Scot TeXidovrai
' For in fact we hope t h a t the remains of t h e departed will soon come t o light again out of
the earth.' Bernays w a n t e d to emend Oeol to vioi, b u t unnecessarily. T h e concept is
perfecdy possible a m o n g J e w s , cf M . Hengel, Der Sohn Gottes (1975), p p . 6 7 - 8 9 , a n d the
note ad loc. in v a n der Horst's edition.
299. This h a s been aptly shown by F u n k , Doctrine duodecim apostolorum (1887), pp.
xviii-xxii. T h e relationship between Phocylides a n d the Didache may b e explained b y the
fact that both g o back to a c o m m o n Jewish source, namely t h e presumably Jewish 'Two
Ways', of which m a n y traces are found i n early Christian literature. Cf o n the ' T w o
Ways' i n general, above, p p . 172 f, and o n its use by PhocyUdes, Alfr. Seeberg, Die beiden
Wege und das Aposteldekret (1906), p p . 2 4 ff.; idem, Die Didache des Judentums und der
thchristenheit (1908), p p . 11-15, 23-34. See also G . Klein, Der dlteste christliche Katechismus
und die jiidische Propaganda-Literatur (1909), pp. 143-53. F o r the relation of
Pseudo-Phocylides to the N e w Testament in general, see P. W . van d e r Horst, 'Pseudo-
PhocyUdes
a n d the New T e s t a m e n t ' , Z N W 69 (1978), p p . 187-202.
300. G f W e n d l a n d , J a h r b b . fur class. Philologie, suppl. vol. 22 (1896), p p . 709-12. See
also the connections i n all these texts with Jewish wisdom literature emphasized by M.
Kuchler, Friihjudische Weisheitstraditionen (1979), p p . 2 3 6 - 3 0 2 ; cf p p . 211-15 (parallels
with Josephus), pp. 2 2 3 - 6 (parallels with Philo).
w e l l - i n t e n t i o n e d c o n t e m p o r a r y , n o m a t t e r his religious affiliation,

m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d to assent. T h e w o r k w o u l d t h e r e f o r e clearly fail a s
m i s s i o n a r y l i t e r a t u r e to g e n t i l e s for J u d a i s m a n d , i f i n t e n d e d b y a J e w
for a p a g a n a u d i e n c e , c a n o n l y h a v e h o p e d to i n f l u e n c e t h e m , n o t
t o w a r d s J u d a i s m , b u t t o w a r d s a g e n e r a l m o r a l i t y as u n d e r s t o o d b y
J e w s , i.e. t h e seven N o a c h i d e l a w s , of w h i c h P s e u d o - P h o c y l i d e s
m e n t i o n s five, e x c l u d i n g (tactfully?) b l a s p h e m y a n d i d o l a t r y . If so, t h e
w o r k p r e s u m a b l y s u r v i v e s o n l y b e c a u s e t h e a s c r i p t i o n to P h o c y l i d e s w a s
b e l i e v e d g e n u i n e . A l t e r n a t i v e l y a n d m o r e likely, t h e p o e m w a s w r i t t e n
b y a J e w for J e w s . It is not n e c e s s a r y for t h i s t h a t t h e s u p e r s c r i p t i o n
a t t r i b u t i n g i t to P h o c y l i d e s b e a l a t e a d d i t i o n , w h i c h is l i n g u i s t i c a l l y
i m p l a u s i b l e , since a m o n g H e l l e n i z e d J e w s t h e a t t r i b u t i o n to a n a n c i e n t
G r e e k a u t h o r of n o t i o n s t h a t t h e y a l r e a d y a c c e p t e d as v a l i d t h r o u g h t h e
O l d T e s t a m e n t will h a v e r e i n f o r c e d t h e i r a t t a c h m e n t t o J u d a i s m a n d
t h e i r belief i n t h e possibility of r e c o n c i l i n g t h e i r religion w i t h t h e
surrounding Greek culture that they had already adopted.
F o r t h e d a t e of c o m p o s i t i o n t h e r e a r e n o o t h e r limits t h a n t h o s e g i v e n
for H e l l e n i s t i c - J e w i s h l i t e r a t u r e in g e n e r a l . I t is a r e a s o n a b l e a r g u m e n t
t h a t a t e x t o f this sort is likely to h a v e e x p a n d e d o v e r t h e centuries a n d
t h a t , b e s i d e s a n y possible l a t e r C h r i s t i a n i n t e r p o l a t i o n s (cf t h e
a t h e t i z e d verses i n t h e T e u b n e r t e x t ) , the m a n u s c r i p t s also i n c l u d e
m a t e r i a l t h a t m a y go b a c k to t h e g e n u i n e P h o c y l i d e s in t h e s i x t h
c e n t u r y B . C ( F a r i n a ) . B u t i t is r e a s o n a b l e t o e n q u i r e m o r e precisely
a b o u t t h e d a t e of t h e H e l l e n i s t i c J e w i s h c o n t r i b u t i o n to s u c h a c o r p u s o f
g n o m i c s a y i n g s . T h e l a t e r a p p e a r a n c e in o t h e r texts of s o m e w o r d - f o r m s
f o u n d i n P s e u d o - P h o c y l i d e s s u g g e s t s a d a t e after 1 0 0 B . C , as w o u l d his
k n o w l e d g e o f the L X X a n d S t o i c i s m , a n d a g r e e m e n t s b e t w e e n his i d e a s
a n d t h o s e in P h i l o a n d C y n i c - S t o i c d i a t r i b e ( v a n d e r H o r s t ) .
F o r t h e p l a c e o f c o m p o s i t i o n , t h e p o l e m i c a g a i n s t t h e dissection o f
h u m a n corpses (verse 102) w o u l d b e v e r y a p p r o p r i a t e i n A l e x a n d r i a in
t h e H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d since t h e a n a t o m i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s t h e r e w e r e
c e l e b r a t e d , c f F . K u d h e n , ' A n a t o m i e ' , R E s u p p . X I (1968), cols.
3 8 - 4 8 , b u t i t c a n n o t b e r u l e d o u t t h a t dissection of corpses o c c u r r e d
e l s e w h e r e , n o r t h a t s u c h dissection c o n t i n u e d in A l e x a n d r i a a n d o t h e r
p l a c e s i n t h e R o m a n p e r i o d . T h e reticence of l a t e r n o n - A l e x a n d r i a n
d o c t o r s a b o u t s u c h i n t e r f e r e n c e w i t h corpses m a y reflect not t h e
c e s s a t i o n of t h e p r a c t i c e b u t t h e s a m e disgust a m o n g lay p e r s o n s w h i c h
is m i r r o r e d b y P s e u d o - P h o c y l i d e s , cf J . S c a r b o r o u g h , Roman Medicine
(1969), p p . 1 6 8 - 7 0 . If so, t h e forgery n e e d n o t b e A l e x a n d r i a n , a n d
c o u l d c o n c e i v a b l y h a v e b e e n w r i t t e n q u i t e l a t e in t h e R o m a n p e r i o d ,
t h o u g h c l e a r l y before t h e first c i t a t i o n s i n the fifth c e n t u r y A . D .
A p a s s a g e from this p o e m (verses 5 - 7 9 ) h a s b e e n i n t e r p o l a t e d in t h e
t e x t of t h e S i b y l h n e O r a c l e s (ii 56—148) i n t h e !f g r o u p o f m a n u s c r i p t s .
T h e i n s e r t i o n is o l d e r t h a n t h e S u d a , s.v. ^coKvXiSrjs, w h o thought that
P h o c y l i d e s ' verses h a d b e e n ' s t o l e n ' f r o m t h e S i b y l l i n e O r a c l e s . This

h o w e v e r is c l e a r l y w r o n g s i n c e o n l y o n e m a n u s c r i p t o f t h e Sibylline
Oracles contains t h e interpolation. It h a s nonetheless been suggested
t h a t t h e Sibylline i n s e r t i o n preserves a n o l d e r a n d b e t t e r text t h a n the
extant Pseudo-Phocylides manuscripts (Sitzler, Kurfess), and certainly
the omission of v e r s e s 70-5, as in Sibylline manuscript group W,
r e m o v e s o n e of t h e m a i n r e a s o n s for s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e i d e a s o f t h e
p o e m m a y b e p o l y t h e i s t i c . O n t h e w h o l e , h o w e v e r , it is p r o b a b l e that
the Pseudo-Phocylides v e r s e s in Oracula Sibyllina were themselves
interpolated there by a Christian editor with modifications of the
P s e u d o - P h o c y l i d e s t e x t t o fit t h e S i b y l l i n e c o n t e x t . T h i s w o u l d e x p l a i n
t h e omission of v e r s e s 70-5. The main manuscript tradition should
therefore p r o b a b l y be preferred, b u t t h e q u e s t i o n is n o t v i t a l t o the
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of P s e u d o - P h o c y l i d e s a n d s h o u l d b e left o p e n a t p r e s e n t .
Editions
Diehl, E., ed. R . Bender, Anthologia Lyrica Graeca, 3rd ed., fasc.2 (1950), p p . 91-108.
Young, D . , ed., Theognis, Pseudo-Pythagoras, Pseudo-Phocylides, Chares, Anonymi Aulodia,
Fragmentum Telecambicum (^1971) (best).
Denis, F P G , pp. 149-56 (prints Young's text).
v a n der Horst, P . W., The Sentences of Pseudo-Phocylides (1978) (prints Young's text).
English:
Easton, B . S., 'Pseudo-Phocylides', A n g l T h R 14 (1932), p p . 222—8.
v a n der Horst, loc. cit.
v a n der Horst i n Charlesworth, O T P I I (forthcoming).
German:
Riessler, P., Altjud. Schrift. (1928; repr. 1966), pp. 8 6 2 - 7 0 , 1318-21.
Ebener, D . , Griechische Lyrik in einem Band (1976), p p . 440—8, 592 f.
Walter, N . , Pseudepigraphische jiidisch-hellenistische Dichtung Q S H R Z IV.3) (1983), pp.
182-216.
I talian:
Farina, A . , Silloge Pseudofocilidea (1962).
Bibliography
Bernays, J . , Ueber das phokylideische Gedicht, ein Beitrag zur hellenistischen Litteratur (1856;
reprinted i n Bernays, Gesammelte Abhandlungen, ed. Usener, I (1885), pp. 192-261).
Bernhardy, G., Grundriss der griechischen Litteratur I I . i (^1867), p p . 517-23.
(Joram, O . , 'De Pseudo-Phocylide', Philologus 14 (1859), pp. 91-112.
Hcrgk, T h . , 'Kritische Beitrage z u dem sog. Phokylides', Philologus 41 (1882), pp.
577-601.
Sitzler, J . , 'Zu den griechischen Elegikern', J a h r b b . fiir class. Philol. 129 (1884), pp.
48-53-
Bergk, T h . , Griech. Literaturgesch. I I (1883), p p . 298—302.
Dieterich, A., Nekyia. Beitrage zur Erkldrung der neuentdeckten Petrusapokalypse (1893;
reprinted 1969), p p . 173—84.
W e n d l a n d , P., 'Die T h e r a p e u t e n u n d die philonische Schrift v o m beschaulichen Leben',

J a h r b b . fur class. Philol. S u p p l e m e n t b a n d 22 (1896), p p . 693-772.
Lincke, K . F. A., Samaria und seine Propheten (1903), p p . 40-102.
Ludwich, A., Ueber das Spruchbuch des fatschen Phokylides (Konigsberger Vorlesungs-
verzeichniss, 1904).
Ludwich, A., Quaestionum Pseudophocylidearum pars altera (Konigsberger Univ.-Programm,
1904)-
Beltrami, A., ' E a quae apud Pseudo-Phocylidem Veteris et Novi Testamenti vestigia
deprehenduntur', Rivista di filologia 36 (1908), pp. 411-23.
Seeberg, A., Die beiden Wege und das Aposteldekret (1906).
Lincke, K . F. A., 'Phokylides und d i e Essener', D i e Grenzboten (Zeitschrift fiir Politik,
Literatur u n d Kunst) 68 (1909), p p . 128-38 (a pan-Zoroastrian theory).
Klein, G., Der dlteste christliche Katechismus und die jiidische Propaganda-Literatur (1909), p p .
143-50-
Rossbroich, M., De pseudo-Phocylideis (1910) (stressing the classical b a c k g r o u n d — a n
important study).
Lincke, K . F. A . , 'Phokylides, Isokrates u n d der Dekalog', Philologus 70 (1911), p p .
438-42.
Beltrami, A., 'Spirito giudaico e specialmento essenico della silloge pseudofocilidea', Riv.
d i F i l . 41 (1913), p p . 513-48.
Stahlin, O . , in W . v. Christ, O . S t a h h n a n d W. Schmidt, Geschichte der griech. Litt. I I . i
( 1920), p. 621.
Ranston, H . , Ecclesiastes arui the Early Greek Wisdom Literature (1925), c h a p . 3.
G u t t m a n n , M., Das Judentum undseine Umwelt (1927), pp. 98 ff.
Spinner, S., Herkunft, Entstehung und antike Umwelt des hebrdischen Volkes (1933), p p . 380—494
(for the poem as authentic).
Kurfess, A., 'Das Mahngedicht dessog. Phokylides', Z N W 38 (1939), p p . 171-81.
Dornseiff, F., Echtheitsfragen antik-griechischer Literatur (1939), pp. 37-51.
Kroll, W., 'Phokylides', R E X X . i (1941), cols. 505-10.
Lewis, J . J . , ' T h e Teaching of Pseudo-Phocylides', The L o n d o n Quarterly a n d H o l b o r n
Review (October 1953), p p . 295—8.
Dalbert, P., Die Theologie der jiid.-hell. Missionsliteratur {ig^^), pp. 9-11.
Alon, G., 'The H a l a k h a h in the T e a c h i n g of the Twelve Apostles', i n Studies in Jewish
History (^1967), p p . 274-94 (Heb.).
Denis, I P G A T , p p . 215-19.
Hengel, M . , 'Anonymitat, Pseudepigraphie und "hterarische Falschung'", in K. von
Fritz, ed., Pseudepigrapha I (Entretiens H a r d t , 18) (1972), p p . 296-8.
Crouch, J . , The Origin and Intention of the Colossian Haustafel (1972).
Christ, F . , 'Das Leben nach dem T o d e bei Pseudo-Phokylides', T h Z 31 (1975), p p .
140-9.
v a n der Horst, P . W., 'Pseudo-Phocylides a n d the New T e s t a m e n t ' , Z N W 69 (1978), p p .
187-202.
Fischer, U . , Eschatologie und Jenseitserwartung im hellenistischen Diasporajudentum (1978), p p .
125-43-
Kiichler, "M.., Friihjiidische Weisheitstraditionen (1979), pp. 236-302.
Derron, P . , 'Inventaire des manuscrits de Pseudo-Phocylide', R e v u e d'histoire des textes
10 (1980), p p . 237-47.
7. Pseudo-Menander
I n 1 8 6 2 , J . P . N . L a n d p u b l i s h e d a c o l l e c d o n o f a p h o r i s m s from a
s e v e n t h - c e n t u r y S y r i a c m a n u s c r i p t in t h e B r i t i s h M u s e u m e n t i t l e d ,
' T h e W i s e M e n a n d e r S a i d ' . L i t t l e a t t e n t i o n was p a i d to it until W .
F r a n k e n b e r g ( 1 8 9 5 ) a t t e m p t e d to d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t it w a s ' a p r o d u c t of
Jewish a p h o r i s t i c w i s d o m ' d e s p i t e t h e fact t h a t A . B a u m s t a r c k h a d t r i e d
to s h o w t h e p r e v i o u s y e a r t h a t the basis o f t h e collection l a y i n g e n u i n e
q u o t a t i o n s f r o m t h e c o m e d i e s of t h e A t h e n i a n f o u r t h c e n t u r y B . C .
c o m i c w r i t e r M e n a n d e r . T h e c o n t e n t s a r e i n fact e n t i r e l y c o m p a t i b l e
with the J u d a i s m of t h e Old T e s t a m e n t Proverbs and Ecclesiasticus,
a n d parallels c a n b e n o t e d w i t h J o b a n d t h e s t o r y of A h i k a r . I n b o t h
cases, v a l u e is a t t a c h e d t o t h e d u t i e s o f h u m a n i t y a s d i v i n e
c o m m a n d m e n t s , w h i c h i n b o t h cases a p p e a r i n t h e s a m e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e m o s t o b v i o u s , c o m m o n - s e n s e r u l e s o f d a i l y life. I n
b o t h cases t h e r e is i n d i f f e r e n c e t o w a r d s t h e c u l t i c e l e m e n t in r e h g i o n ,
yet w i t h o u t c o n c e a l i n g i n a n y w a y w h a t is specifically J e w i s h . I n b o t h
cases, t h e r e is t h e n o t i o n of d i v i n e r e t r i b u t i o n , o r of t h e usefulness l y i n g
at t h e basis of all e x h o r t a t i o n s a n d d i v i n e w a r n i n g s . N o t h i n g o b v i o u s l y
C h r i s t i a n is c o n t a i n e d i n t h e s e a p h o r i s m s , so a t issue is o n l y w h e t h e r
t h e y a r e J e w i s h o r p a g a n . T h e r e is n o t h i n g s u r p r i s i n g for a J e w i s h
a u t h o r t o m e n t i o n H o m e r ( A u d e t , p . 63, s e c t i o n 1 3 ) , a n d t h e p o l e m i c s
a g a i n s t priests w h o despise t h e i r o w n g o d s a n d b e h a v e g r e e d i l y w h e n
invited t o a m e a l ( A u d e t , p . 70, section 43) a r e a t least possible for a
J e w , g i v e n t h e e q u a l l y hostile a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s the J e r u s a l e m p r i e s t s at
Q u m r a n . N o n e t h e l e s s it is m o s t likely t h a t t h e collection is of b a s i c a l l y
gentile m a t e r i a l s of a g e n e r a l e t h i c a l n a t u r e w h i c h h a v e b e e n c o l l e c t e d
by a m o n o t h e i s t i c w r i t e r of J e w i s h s y m p a t h i e s a n d s o m e k n o w l e d g e of
t h e J e w i s h w i s d o m t r a d i t i o n s . I t m u s t b e a d m i t t e d t h a t t h e e t h i c of this
a u t h o r is e n t i r e l y d o w n - t o - e a r t h a n d t h a t t h e specifically r e h g i o u s
m a t t e r s r e v e r t so f a r i n t o the b a c k g r o u n d t h a t the a s s e r t i o n o f S t a h l i n
t h a t n o t h i n g specifically J e w i s h is t o b e f o u n d in t h e w o r k c a n n o t be
disproved.
I t is v e r y i m p r o b a b l e t h a t the a u t h o r is a J e w b y the n a m e of
.Menander. T h e n a m e of the famous Attic comic p o e t M e n a n d e r played
a l a r g e r o l e in the h i s t o r y of t h e U t e r a t u r e of m a x i m s ; see b e l o w , p . 695,
Ibr o t h e r c o l l e c t i o n s ; a b o v e , p . 669, for t h e P s e u d o - M e n a n d e r verses
( o l l e c t e d w i t h t h o s e of o t h e r d r a m a t i c p o e t s . B e c a u s e n u m e r o u s verses
from M e n a n d e r a r e i n c l u d e d in t h e c o l l e c t i o n s of G r e e k m a x i m s
( o l l e c t e d from the p o e t s , l a t e r copyists a n d r e v i s e r s s i m p l y a t t r i b u t e d
such collections to h i m . H i s n a m e t h u s b e c a m e t y p i c a l for t h i s k i n d of
l i t e r a t u r e . Insofar, t h e r e f o r e , a s this M e n a n d e r is c e r t a i n l y m e a n t in t h e
title of this J e w i s h o r J u d a i z i n g c o l l e c t i o n , it is p s e u d o n y m o u s . I f t h e
title o r i g i n a t e d w i t h t h e a u t h o r himself, he m u s t h a v e w r i t t e n w h e n
. M e n a n d e r ' s n a m e h a d a l r e a d y a c q u i r e d this prestige. H o w e v e r , i t is
also possible t h a t t h e t i t l e w a s n o t p r o v i d e d u n t i l l a t e r as a l a b e l for a n
o r i g i n a l l y a n o n y m o u s w o r k , for n o t e v e n o n e c e r t a i n a l l u s i o n to t h e
w o r k of t h e g e n u i n e M e n a n d e r c a n be i d e n t i f i e d i n the w o r k a s it n o w
s t a n d s ( b u t cf. A u d e t , art. cit., p . 78, for o n e possible e x c e p t i o n ) .
T h e d a t i n g o f t h e w o r k c a n o n l y b e suggested from i n t e r n a l
references. A R o m a n d a t e before C o n s t a n t i n e is likely from a p r o b a b l e
r e f e r e n c e t o crucifixion ( A u d e t , section 50) a n d to t h e g l a d i a t o r i a l
s c h o o l s , w h i c h a r e p o r t r a y e d as still in o p e r a t i o n ( A u d e t , section 6). A
t i m e after H a d r i a n is s u g g e s t e d b y t h e s t a t e m e n t t h a t a m a s t e r c a n n o t
p u t a slave to d e a t h ( A u d e t , section 2 4 ) . T h e t e r m nomos is t a k e n i n
A u d e t , section 6 5 , to refer t o a n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d i s t r i c t w h i c h , i f t h e
w o r k is i n d e e d o f the R o m a n p e r i o d , suggests E g y p t as t h e p l a c e o f
c o m p o s i t i o n . T h e a u t h o r c o u l d b e a gentile g o d - f e a r e r ( A u d e t ) , b u t h e
c o u l d j u s t a s well b e a J e w . T h e o r i g i n a l l a n g u a g e w a s c e r t a i n l y G r e e k .
Bibliography
Land, J . P. N . , Anecdota Syriaca I (1862), Syriac text p p . 6 4 - 7 3 , Latin translation p p .
156-64, notes p p . 198-205.
Baumstark, A., 'Lucubrationes syro-graecae', suppl. to J a h r b b . fur class. Philol. 21
(1894), p p . 473-90.
Frankenberg, W., 'Die Schrift des M e n a n d e r , Land, anecd. syr. I, 564 ff., ein Produkt d e r
jiidischen Spruchweisheit', Z A W 15 (1895), pp. 226-77.
Schulthess, F . , 'Die Spriiche des M e n a n d e r aus d e m Syrischen iibersetzt', Z A W 22
(1912), p p . 199-202. g
StahUn, O., in W. v. Schmid and O . Stahlin, Gesch. der griech. Lit. I I . i ( 1920), p. 623.
Riessler, P., AttjUd. Schrift. (1928), p p . 1047-57, 1328-9.
Audet, J . P., 'La sagesse d e M e n a n d r e I'Egyptien', R B 59 (1952), pp. 55-81 (the best
version of the text, in F r e n c h ) .
Treu, K., 'Aspekte M e n a n d e r s ' , Kairos 19 (1977), pp. 22-34.
Kiichler, M., Fruhjudische Weisheitstraditionen (1979), pp. 207-318.
T h e r e a r e e x t a n t o t h e r collections of g n o m i c sayings a t t r i b u t e d t o
M e n a n d e r b u t o f w h i c h t h e r e is n o r e a s o n t o suspect a J e w i s h o r i g i n , c f
in g e n e r a l , A. K o e r t e , Menandri quae supersunt H (1959), p p . viii-xiii.
T h e rvcofiai FIOVOANXOL of M e n a n d e r exist i n several r e d a c t i o n s w h i c h
differ r a d i c a l l y from e a c h o t h e r , c f G. L a n o w s k i , ' D e m o n o s t i c h i s
M e n a n d r i q u a e d i c u n t u r , q u a e s t i o n e s selectae', Eos 44.1 ( 1 9 5 0 ) , p p .
35-74-
T h e so-called Comparatio Menandri et Philistionis, of t h e f o u r t h t o s i x t h
c e n t u r i e s A . D . , h a s also b e e n p r e s e r v e d i n v a r i o u s r e d a c t i o n s w h i c h
differ r a d i c a l l y from e a c h o t h e r . C f t h e t h r e e v e r s i o n s p u b l i s h e d b y G .
S t u d e m u n d , Menandri et Philistionis Comparatio cum appendicibus edita
( 1 8 8 7 ) , p p . 3 - 4 2 ; o n a f o u r t h v e r s i o n , cf W . M e y e r , ' D i e a t h e n i s c h e
S p r u c h r e d e des M e n a n d e r u n d P h i l i s t i o n ' , A A M 19.1 ( 1 8 9 1 ) , p p .
225-95-
8. Dubious Fragments under Gentile Names for which

a Jewish Origin has been claimed
I . [ Letters of Heraclitus ]
T h e view t h a t t h e f o u r t h a n d s e v e n t h of t h e letters a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e
p r e - S o c r a t i c p h i l o s o p h e r , H e r a c l i t u s o f E p h e s u s {c. 500 B . C ) , w e r e
e d i t e d o r e v e n w r i t t e n b y a n a u t h o r , J e w i s h o r C h r i s t i a n , w h o believed
in the Bible, w a s b a s e d o n t h e p o l e m i c f o u n d t h e r e a g a i n s t t h e w o r s h i p
of i m a g e s a n d t h e t a k i n g of ' l i v e ' flesh from a n i m a l s ( B e r n a y s ) .
H o w e v e r , it is n o w g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d t h a t J e w i s h a u t h o r s h i p w o u l d
p r e s e n t m a n y difficulties a n d t h a t s u c h v i e w s c a n b e b e t t e r u n d e r s t o o d
as p a r t of t h e C y n i c - S t o i c e l e m e n t in t h e l e t t e r s . T h i s v i e w o f a C y n i c
o r i g i n is s t r o n g l y s u p p o r t e d b y t h e d i s c o v e r y of a l o n g e r v e r s i o n o f the
s e v e n t h letter in a p a p y r u s o f the s e c o n d c e n t u r y A . D . o r e a r l i e r , w h e r e
it is f o u n d i n c l u d e d i n a c o l l e c t i o n o f C y n i c d i a t r i b e s ( V . M a r t i n ,
M u s e u m H e l v e t i c u m 16 (1959), p p . 7 7 - 1 1 7 ) .
Editions
Denis, F P G , p p . 157-60 (without t h e new p a p y r u s evidence i n Museum Helveticum 16
(i959)>PP-77-II7)•
Cappelletti, A. J . , Epistolas pseudo-Heracliteas ( i 9 6 0 ) , p p . 26-31, 36-45 (also lacking the
new papyrus).
Attridge, H . W . , First-Century Cynicism in tfie Epistles of Heraclitus (1976), pp. 5 8 - 6 1 , 66-79
(with English translation).
Bibliography
Bernays, J . , Die heraklitischen Briefe, ein Beitrag zur philosopfiischen und religionsgeschichtlichen
Litteratur {i86g).
H e i n e m a n n , I, 'Herakleitos ( i 6 a ) ' , R E suppl. V (1931), cols. 228-32.
Denis, I P G A T , p p . 2 2 0 - 2 .
Strugnell, J., a n d H . Attridge, ' T h e Epistles of H e r a c h t u s and the Jewish Pseud
epigrapha : A W a r n i n g ' , H T h R 64 (1971), p p . 4 1 1 - 1 3 .
Attridge, H. W., First-Century Cynicism in the Epistles of Heraclitus (1976), p p . 3 - 3 9 .
M a l h e r b e , A. J . , 'Pseudo H e r a c h t u s , Epistle 4 : T h e divinization of the wise man',
J a h r b u c h fur Antike u n d Christentum 21 (1978), p p . 42-64.
2. [A Letter of Diogenes ]
J . B e r n a y s t h o u g h t t h a t of t h e fifty-one a l l e g e d letters o f D i o g e n e s , he
c o u l d t r a c e o n e — t h e t w e n t y - e i g h t h — t o t h e s a m e s o u r c e as t h e s e v e n t h
l e t t e r o f H e r a c h t u s . It a d m i t t e d l y c o n t a i n s a s e r m o n on m o r a l i t y w h i c h
is s i m i l a r to t h e l a t t e r , b u t c a n as easily h a v e o r i g i n a t e d w i t h a C y n i c as
with a Jew.
Edition
H e n c h e r , R., Epistolographi Graeci (1873), p p . 241—3.
Bibliography
Bernays, J., Lucian und die Kyniker (1879), p p . 9 6 - 8 .
3. [Hermippus]
H e r m i p p u s C a l l i m a c h i u s , w h o l i v e d u n d e r P t o l e m y I I I and I V , hcncr
i n the s e c o n d h a l f of t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y B . C , w r o t e a l a r g e n u m b e r <»!
s e n s a t i o n a l b i o g r a p h i e s of f a m o u s m e n . T w o o f the n o t e s p r e s e r v e d f r o m
t h e s e a r o u s e a t t e n t i o n . A c c o r d i n g t o O r i g e n {Contra Celsum i 1 5 ) , it w a s
s a i d in t h e first b o o k , ' O n t h e L a w g i v e r s ' , t h a t P y t h a g o r a s took h i s
p h i l o s o p h y from t h e J e w s . A c c o r d i n g t o J o s e p h u s {C. Ap. i 22 (164—5)),
a s i m i l a r s t a t e m e n t w a s c o n t a i n e d in t h e first b o o k , ' O n P y t h a g o r a s ' .
J o s e p h u s ' n o t e is h o w e v e r m u c h m o r e specific a n d e x a c t t h a n t h a t o f
O r i g e n . A c c o r d i n g to J o s e p h u s , t h a t is t o say, H e r m i p p u s r e p o r t e d t h a t
P y t h a g o r a s t a u g h t t h a t a p e r s o n s h o u l d ' n o t pass b y a p l a c e w h e r e a n
ass h a d s u n k to its k n e e s , s h o u l d a b s t a i n from t h i r s t - p r o d u c i n g w a t e r , ^ ° '
a n d s h o u l d a v o i d all b l a s p h e m y ' . T o w h i c h H e r m i p p u s t h e n r e m a r k e d :
' P y t h a g o r a s did a n d t a u g h t these t h i n g s , i m i t a t i n g a n d a d o p t i n g t h e
o p i n i o n s of t h e J e w s a n d T h r a c i a n s ' . T h u s H e r m i p p u s d i d n o t d e s c r i b e
t h e p h i l o s o p h y of P y t h a g o r a s in g e n e r a l as b o r r o w e d from t h e J e w s b u t
o n l y t h o s e specific t e a c h i n g s . F o r t h e w o r d s w h i c h follow in J o s e p h u s —
i n fact it is a c t u a l l y s a i d t h a t t h a t m a n , i.e. P y t h a g o r a s , i n t r o d u c e d
m a n y p o i n t s of J e w i s h l a w i n t o his o w n p h i l o s o p h y — a r e n o l o n g e r t h e
w o r d s of H e r m i p p u s b u t t h o s e of J o s e p h u s himself, a n d reflect t h e
c u r r e n t v i e w a m o n g H e l l e n i s t i c J e w s a b o u t t h e r e l a t i o n of t h e i r r e l i g i o n
t o Greek philosophy.
In t h e formulation reported by Josephus, H e r m i p p u s ' words contain
n o t h i n g t h a t he m i g h t n o t r e a l l y h a v e w r i t t e n , a n d t h e r e is n o n e e d t o
p o s t u l a t e a J e w i s h forger. O r i g e n ' s c i t a t i o n is n o t d i r e c t f r o m
H e r m i p p u s b u t derives from ' w h a t is s a i d ' , a n d h e n c e it is n o t s u r p r i s i n g
t h a t h e too a t t r i b u t e s t o H e r m i p p u s a b e h e f t h a t P y t h a g o r a s b r o u g h t
h i s o w n p h i l o s o p h y t o the G r e e k s f r o m J u d a i s m . H e cites a different
w o r k , ' O n L e g i s l a t o r s ' , a n d is therefore p r o b a b l y i n d e p e n d e n t o f
J o s e p h u s in this case, b u t i t is v e r y likely t h a t h e relied o n a n o t h e r
J e w i s h s o u r c e . I t is also possible t h a t H e r m i p p u s g e n u i n e l y m a d e t h i s
r a t h e r v a g u e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n P y t h a g o r a s a n d J u d a i s m . T h e r e is n o
r e a s o n to believe t h a t a s e p a r a t e J e w i s h f o r g e r y entitled 'On
L e g i s l a t o r s ' ever e x i s t e d .
Bibliography
R e i n a c h , T., Textes d'auteurs grecs et romains relatifs au Judaisme (1895), p p . 39 ff.
Stern, G L A J J I, pp. 9 3 - 6 , with c o m m e n t a r y .
J a c o b s o n , H., 'Hermippus, P y t h a g o r a s and the J e w s ' , R E J 135 (1976), pp. 145-9.
4. [Numenius]
T h e Pythagorean and Neo-Platonist Numenius (second h a l f o f t h e
301. 811I11WV vSarcDv should m e a n 'thirsty water'. A. v. Gutschmid, Kleine Schriften I V
(1893), p . 559, explained this as ' m a k i n g thirsty' o n the analogy of 8ii/iu)8r]s a n d SujnjTiKos.
Gf. T h a c k e r a y , Loeb ed., p p . 228—9, for other possibilities; S. Lieberman, Ha-Yerushalmi
Kiphshuto I.I (1934), p . 49, suggests 'uncovered' water.
s e c o n d c e n t u r y A . D . ) , k n e w t h e H o l y S c r i p t u r e s of t h e j e w s a n d i n d e e d
J e w i s h t r a d i t i o n ( e . g . o n J a n n e s a n d J a m b r e s , cf. b e l o w , p p . 781 ff.),
a n d m a d e u s e of t h e m i n his o w n w a y . T h e m o s t c e r t a i n e v i d e n c e o f this
c o m e s from O r i g e n , w h o says in Contra Celsum iv 5 1 t h a t h e k n o w s t h a t
N u m e n i u s ' q u o t e s s a y i n g s of M o s e s a n d the p r o p h e t s in m a n y passages
o f his w o r k s a n d e x p l a i n s t h e m a l l e g o r i c a l l y in a c o n v i n c i n g w a y as,
e.g., in the w o r k c a l l e d " E p o p s " a n d i n the b o o k s " O n N u m b e r s " a n d
i n those " C o n c e r n i n g P l a c e ' " . C f also O r i g e n , Contra Celsum i 1 5 . T h e r e
is no r e a s o n to m i s t r u s t t h i s t e s t i m o n y . I t has b e e n s u s p e c t e d t h a t
N u m e n i u s c o u l d n o t a c t u a l l y h a v e e x p r e s s e d his o p i n i o n in t h e precise
w o r d s , ' F o r w h a t is P l a t o b u t M o s e s s p e a k i n g in A t t i c ' , w h i c h C l e m e n t
o f A l e x a n d r i a a n d o t h e r s a t t r i b u t e to h i m ( C l e m e n t , Strom, i 22, 1 5 0 ;
E u s e b i u s , Praep. ev. ix 6, 9; x i 10, 1 4 ; T h e o d o r e t , Graec. Aff. Cur. ii 1 1 4
( e d . C a n i v e t I, p . 169) ; S u d a , s.v. iVou/xiyvios). It is t h e r e f o r e p r o p o s e d
t h a t t h e s t a t e m e n t in E u s e b i u s , Praep. ev. x i 10, 14, s h o u l d be t a k e n
l i t e r a l l y a n d t h a t t h e s a y i n g in q u e s t i o n s h o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d as only
attributed to N u m e n i u s , i.e. b y o r a l t r a d i t i o n , a n d n o t a c t u a l l y w r i t t e n
b y h i m . I n fact, n o t e v e n this is n e c e s s a r y . I n t h e r e l a t i v e l y p h i l o - s e m i t i c
a t m o s p h e r e of A p a m e a , s y m p a t h y w i t h J u d a i s m w a s p e r f e c t l y possible
e v e n a t so l a t e a d a t e , especially i n a n a u t h o r so respectful o f o r i e n t a l
religious beliefs i n g e n e r a l . T h e r e is n o r e a s o n therefore t o b e l i e v e e i t h e r
t h a t N u m e n i u s h i m s e l f w a s J e w i s h or t h a t t h e w o r k h a s b e e n t a m p e r e d
with b y a Jewish forger.
Editions of N u m e n i u s on t h e j e w s
des Places, E., ed., Numinius, Fragments (1973) (all the fragments, with notes).
Stern, GLAJJ I I , pp. 2 0 6 - 1 6 (with c o m m e n t a r y ) .
Bibliography
Bigg, C , Tlie Christian Platonists of Atexandria {igi^), p.'^00, n. i (Numenius a J e w ) .
Puech, H . - C , ' N u m e n i u s d ' A p a m e a ' , MetangesJ. Bidez (1934)5 PP- 745-78.
Leemans, A. E., Numenios v. Apamea (1937), pp. 159 ff.
Beutler, R., 'Numenios (9)', R E suppl. V I I (1940), cols. 663-78.
Dodds, E. R., i n Les Sources de Plotin (Entretiens H a r d t , 5) (1957), p. 6.
Schneider, C , ' N u m e n i u s ' , R G G I V (^1960), col. 1542.
M a r t a n o , G., Numenio d'Apamea (^^1960).
Gager, J . G., Moses in Greco-Roman Paganism (1972), pp. 6 3 - 9 .
5. [Hermes Trismegistus J
T h e E g y p t i a n g o d T h o t h , i d e n t i f i e d b y the G r e e k s as H e r m e s , c o u n t e d
i n a l a r g e c o r p u s o f w r i t i n g s as t h e i n v e n t o r o f w r i t i n g a n d t h e p r o t e c t o r
o f science. W o r k s o n a s t r o l o g y , m a g i c a n d a l c h e m y a r e a t t r i b u t e d to
h i m . A c c o r d i n g t o C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a , Strom, vi 4, 37, t h e r e w e r e
f o r t y - t w o b o o k s o f H e r m e s , thirty-six of w h i c h c o n t a i n e d t h e e n t i r e
p h i l o s o p h y of t h e E g y p t i a n s , t h e r e m a i n i n g six b e i n g d e v o t e d to
m e d i c i n e . T e r t u l l i a n , De anima 2 a n d 3 3 , k n e w b o o k s of M e r c u r i u s
A e g y p t i u s , w h i c h t a u g h t a P l a t o n i z i n g p s y c h o l o g y . I t is c l e a r a l r e a d y
from t h e l a t t e r fact t h a t t h e ' p h i l o s o p h y ' of t h e l a t e r G r e e k b o o k s of
H e r m e s w a s of a P l a t o n i z i n g n a t u r e . T h i s is i n d e e d also t h e case in
r e g a r d to t h e e x t a n t H e r m e t i c w o r k s , w h i c h w e r e first q u o t e d b y
L a c t a n t i u s a n d w e r e w r i t t e n b e t w e e n c. 100 B.C. a n d c. A . D . 300, m o s t
p r o b a b l y in the s e c o n d or t h i r d centuries A . D . A c o n n e c t i o n w i t h
J u d a i s m is s u g g e s t e d b y t h e clear signs of d i r e c t use o f the L X X i n
T r a c t a t e I (Poimandres), T r a c t a t e I I I ( T h e S a c r e d D i s c o u r s e ) a n d
T r a c t a t e V I I . T h e r e is also e v i d e n c e in these a n d t h e o t h e r t r a c t a t e s o f
c o n s i d e r a b l e i n d i r e c t influence from the L X X a n d of b i b l i c a l
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n similar t o P h i l o ' s . N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e r e is no r e a s o n t o
believe t h a t t h e a u t h o r of t h e s e w o r k s w a s himself a J e w . T h e t r a c t a t e s
d e l i b e r a t e l y c o m b i n e a v a r i e t y of different religious t r a d i t i o n s .
Babylonian, I r a n i a n a n d Greek religious ideas are mixed with those of
J u d a i s m . T h e r e is also a n E g y p t i a n e l e m e n t , t h o u g h t h a t a p p e a r s t o b e
c o n f i n e d to the a s t r o l o g i c a l b o o k s . T h i s is essentially t h e p a g a n
l i t e r a t u r e t h a t it p u r p o r t s to b e , b a s e d p r i m a r i l y n o t on J u d a i s m b u t o n
G r e e k p h i l o s o p h y a n d t h e G n o s t i c a t t i t u d e s p o p u l a r in t h e p e r i o d . T h i s
G n o s t i c e l e m e n t r e n d e r s it p r o b a b l e t h a t J e w i s h i n f l u e n c e h e l p e d
i n d i r e c t l y t o form s o m e of t h e i d e a s in t h e H e r m e t i c a , b u t it c a n n o t b e
p r o v e d t h a t J e w i s h h a n d s a c t u a l l y c o o p e r a t e d in t h e p r o d u c t i o n of t h i s
l i t e r a t u r e . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e i n v o l v e m e n t of a r a t h e r u n u s u a l J e w
a s a u t h o r of T r a c t a t e I I I c a n n o t b e d i s p r o v e d ( D o d d ) .
Editions
Scott, W . , and Ferguson, S. A., Hermetica I - I V (1924-36).
NtDck, A. D., a n d Festugiere, A. J., Corpus Hermeticum I - I V (1945-54) (the best text).
Translations
English:
M e a d , G . R. S., Thrice Greatest Hermes (1907).
Scott, W . , and Ferguson, A. S., loc. cit.
French:
Nock, A . D., a n d Festugiere, A. J., loc. cit.
Bibliography
Reitzenstein, R . , Poimandres. Studien zur griechisch-dgyptischen und Jrtihchristlichen Literatur
(1904).
Kroll, W . , 'HermesTrismegistos', R E V I I I . I ( i 9 i 2 ) , c o l s . 792-823.
D o d d , G. H., The Bible and the Greeks (1935), pp. 99-248.
Festugiere, A. J., La revelation d'Hermis Trismigiste I-IV (1944-54).
6. [Greek ChronographersJ
There can be n o d o u b t t h a t m o s t o f t h e f r a g m e n t s of t h e pagan
chronographers M a n e t h o , Apollodorus and Eratosthenes were trans

m i t t e d i n t h e i r o r i g i n a l f o r m . I t is h o w e v e r possible t h a t in s o m e p l a c e s
a J e w i s h w r i t e r h a s a l t e r e d t h e s e t e x t s i n o r d e r to m a k e t h e m c o n f o r m
w i t h b i b l i c a l c h r o n o l o g y . J e w i s h i n s e r t i o n s at s o m e t i m e before
J o s e p h u s i n t o the t e x t o f the E g y p t i a n M a n e t h o p r e s e r v e d in C. Ap. i 14
( 7 4 - 9 2 ) are s u g g e s t e d b y L a q u e u r , ' M a n e t h o n ' , R E X I V . i (1928),
cols. 1088 ff. ( = J a c o b y , F G r H , 609, F 8 ) , b u t the e x t e n t of s u c h
i n t e r p o l a t i o n s is n o t c l e a r (see a b o v e , p . 595, n . 1 0 7 ) . I t is a l s o possible
t h a t t h e fusion of B e r o s s u s ' B a b y l o n i a n c h r o n i c l e a n d o t h e r d o c u m e n t s
of o r i e n t a l h i s t o r y w i t h t h e G r e e k c h r o n i c l e of t h e A t h e n i a n
A p o l l o d o r u s , w h o w r o t e c. 1 5 0 b . c , w a s t h e w o r k of a J e w , since the
e x t a n t f r a g m e n t s of t h a t fused c h r o n i c l e , p r e s e r v e d by E u s e b i u s ,
S y n c e l l u s a n d C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a ( = J a c o b y , F G r H , 244, F F
8 3 - 7 ) , show s o m e k n o w l e d g e of b i b h c a l h i s t o r y . If s o , t h i s P s e u d o -
A p o U o d o r u s will h a v e w r i t t e n before A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r , w h o used
h i s w o r k . I t is e q u a l l y likely t h a t a P s e u d o - B e r o s s u s o r P s e u d o -
E r a t o s t h e n e s c o u l d h a v e b e e n r e s p o n s i b l e for the i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f this
b i b l i c a l m a t e r i a l i n t o the g e n u i n e h i s t o r y of A p o l l o d o r u s . S u c h a
forgery, or forgeries, m i g h t also be r e s p o n s i b l e for the d e h b e r a t e
a l t e r a t i o n s t o the lists o f a n c i e n t kings p r e s e r v e d i n C h r i s t i a n a u t h o r s ,
b u t it is difficult t o d i s e n t a n g l e C h r i s t i a n a l t e r a t i o n s in t h e s e lists from
J e w i s h ones, cf E . J . B i c k e r m a n n , ' O r i g i n e s G e n t i u m ' , C P h 4 7 ( 1 9 5 2 ) ,
p . 80, n . 70. I n a n y c a s e h o w e v e r , t h o u g h a n i n t e r e s t of t h i s s o r t in
r e c o n c i l i n g p a g a n a n d J e w i s h c h r o n o l o g i e s is q u i t e p l a u s i b l e a m o n g
J e w i s h w r i t e r s of t h i s p e r i o d , t h e r e is n o c e r t a i n e v i d e n c e t h a t a J e w was
r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e c h a n g e s a n d a d d i t i o n s , a n d i t is q u i t e p o s s i b l e to
a s s u m e p a g a n a u t h o r s h i p of these f r a g m e n t s .
Bibliography
J a c o b y , F G r H , 244, I I B komm., p. 752.
Wacholder, B. Z., 'Biblical Chronology in the Hellenistic W o r l d Chronicles', H T h R 61
(1968), p p . 451-81, esp. 464-5.
Speyer, W., Die literarische Falschung im Altertum (1971), p . 165.
Hengel, M., 'Anonymitat, Pseudepigraphie u n d "Literarische Falschung" i n der
jiidisch-hellenistischen L i t e r a t u r ' , Pseudepigrapha I (Entretiens H a r d t , 18) (1972), pp.
236-7.
Wacholder, E S J L , p. 113, n. 72.
g. Pseudo- Tages
A n o t e g i v e n b y the fifth- or s i x t h - c e n t u r y A . D . scholiast L a c t a n t i u s
P l a c i d u s in e x p l a n a t i o n of S t a t i n s , Thebaid i v 515, seems to rely o n the
testimony of a Jewish work, w h i c h praised Moses a n d Isaiah a l o n g with
O r p h e u s as a u t h o r i t i e s for t h e n e e d t o k e e p s e c r e t t h e n a m e of G o d .
T h i s J e w i s h w o r k a p p a r e n t l y c i r c u l a t e d u n d e r t h e v e n e r a b l e n a m e of
T a g e s , the l e g e n d a r y f o u n d e r o f E t r u s c a n d i v i n a t i o n , a n d it is also
yoo §33A. Jewish Literature Composed in Greek
p r o b a b l y t h e w o r k w h i c h is s u m m a r i z e d b y the S u d a , s.v. Tvpprjvia,

w h e r e a c o s m o g o n y similar t o t h a t in G e n e s i s is a t t r i b u t e d to a n e x p e r t
Etruscan.
Edition
Bidez, J . , and F . Cumont, Les Mages Hellinises, i vols. (1938), p p . 225—38, with discussion
of b o t h fragments.
V I I I . T H E O R A T O R CAECILIUS OF C A L A C T E
A m o n g t h e G r e e k m e n of l e t t e r s in R o m e t h e r e w e r e a n u m b e r of
f r e e d m e n w h o , b o r n i n t h e east, c a m e t o t h e w e s t as s l a v e s , a n d after
o b t a i n i n g t h e i r f r e e d o m t h r o u g h t h e i r s c h o l a r l y a c t i v i t y , w o n for
t h e m s e l v e s a c e r t a i n ^ s t e e m . O n e o f t h e s e , C a e c i h u s of C a l a c t e , m a y b e
m e n t i o n e d h e r e since h e w a s p r o b a b l y o f J e w i s h p a r e n t a g e a n d
a p p a r e n t l y d i d n o t c o m p l e t e l y d i s a v o w his o r i g i n e v e n l a t e r .
A t h e n a e u s n a m e s h i m t w i c e t o t h e s a m e effect (vi, p . 2 7 2 ff.; x i , p .
466a) -KaiKiXios 6 prJTcjp 6 OLTTO KaXrjs dK-Ti7S'. T h e town Caleacte, or
C a l a c t e , l a y o n t h e n o r t h c o a s t o f Sicily. C a e c i l i u s w a s t h e r e f o r e also
c a l l e d Zt,K€Xi.o}Tt]s. T h e t w o w r i t i n g s m e n t i o n e d b y A t h e n a e u s a r e of a
h i s t o r i c a l n a t u r e , v i , p p . 2 7 2 f : ncpl TCOV SOVXIKWV iroXepioyv (concerning
t h e slave w a r s i n Sicily) a n d xi, p . 4 6 6 a : TTC/SI laroplas. I t is h o w e v e r
likely t h a t A t h e n a e u s is confused in a t t r i b u t i n g these histories t o t h e
o r a t o r , a n d t h a t t h e y s h o u l d b e a s c r i b e d i n s t e a d to a q u i t e s e p a r a t e
m a n o f the s a m e n a m e w h o flourished m u c h e a r l i e r in t h e first c e n t u r y
B . C . (see b e l o w , p . 7 0 3 , o n t h e references b y C i c e r o to this e a r h e r
C a e c i l i u s ) . T h e l a t e r C a e c i l i u s is best k n o w n as a w r i t e r o n t h e m e s o f
rhetoric, a n d , in particular, on questions o f a u t h e n t i c i t y i n the Attic
o r a t o r s a n d o n figures o f s p e e c h . W i t h his friend D i o n y s i u s o f
H a l i c a r n a s s u s h e b e l o n g e d t o t h e first r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f A t t i c i s m ' a n d
w a s f r e q u e n t l y q u o t e d as a specialist b y l a t e r w r i t e r s , e . g . in -nepl vifjovs,
w r o n g l y a t t r i b u t e d t o L o n g i n u s , in Q u i n t i l i a n ' s Institutio, a n d i n De
decern oratoribus, w h i c h goes u n d e r t h e n a m e of P l u t a r c h . [ L o n g i n u s ' ]
77€/)i u«/rou? w a s o c c a s i o n e d b y C a e c i l i u s ' w o r k d e a h n g w i t h t h e s a m e
t h e m e , as b e c o m e s c l e a r f r o m t h e p r o l o g u e . I t w a s j u d g e d u n f a v o u r a b l y
b y [ L o n g i n u s ] b e c a u s e it d i d n o t fulfil i t s o w n p u r p o s e . C a e c i l i u s
a t t e m p t e d t o s h o w b y m e a n s of c o u n t l e s s e x a m p l e s , as for t h e i g n o r a n t ,
w h a t t h e s u b l i m e is, b u t failed to r e v e a l h o w it c o u l d b e a c h i e v e d .
F u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n r e l a t i n g t o t h e p e r s o n of C a e c i l i u s is g i v e n b y t h e
S u d a , s.v. KaiKiXios: ' A Sicilian o f C a l a c t e ( C a l a c t e is a c i t y of Sicily).
A r h e t o r w h o p r a c t i s e d in R o m e u n d e r A u g u s t u s [ a n d u n t i l t h e t i m e o f
H a d r i a n ] a n d f r o m slave stock, as s o m e s a y , a n d p r e v i o u s l y c a l l e d
A r c h a g a t h u s , b u t b y r e l i g i o n J e w i s h . ' A list of t h e b o o k s w r i t t e n b y
C a e c i l i u s follows, in w h i c h t h e S u d a , like A t h e n a g o r a s , m a y also
confuse t h e o r a t o r w i t h t h e e a r h e r C a e c i l i u s , a t t r i b u t i n g to h i m a w o r k
302. [Longinus],/Tcpt vil>ovs, ed. Russell, i , i ; 4, 2; 8, 114; 31, i ; 32, i ; 8. Q u i n d l i a n ,

Inst, iii I , 16; iii 6, 4 8 ; V 10, 7; viii 3, 3 5 ; ix i , 1 2 ; ix 3, 3 8 ; 4 6 ; 8 9 ; 91 ; 97. Cf. for t h e
passages from Pseudo-Plutarch, De decern oratoribus, Miiller, F H G I I I , p . 332.
TTcpl TCOV KaO' laropiav 17 vap' laropiav elprjêvcov rois prjropai. T h e

t r a n s m i t t e d t e x t o f the S u d a is v e r y c o r r u p t , cf a p p a r a t u s t o t e x t i n
J a c o b y , F G r H , 1 8 3 , T i , a n d it is therefore r e a s o n a b l e t o a t h e t i z e t h e
w o r d s ' u n t i l t h e t i m e of H a d r i a n ' ( J a c o b y , ad. loc.). T h e s t a t e m e n t t h a t
C a e c i l i u s l i v e d in R o m e u n d e r A u g u s t u s is c o r r e c t since it is c o n f i r m e d
n o t o n l y b y o t h e r p a s s a g e s in t h e S u d a (cf s.v. 'Epp.ay6pas and
Tijxayivris) b u t also b y the t e s t i m o n y of D i o n y s i u s of H a l i c a m a s s u s ,
w h o calls h i m his ' f r i e n d ' ( D i o n y s i u s of H a H c a r n a s s u s , Ad Cn. Pompeium
epistola 3 , 20). B u t t h e r e is n o r e a s o n t o m i s t r u s t t h e S u d a ' s s t a t e m e n t
t h a t h e w a s d e s c e n d e d from s l a v e s , was r e a l l y c a l l e d A r c h a g a t h o s , a n d
w a s a J e w b y religion. I f his f a t h e r was t a k e n t o R o m e b y P o m p e y a s a
J e w i s h slave a n d w a s sold t o Sicily, a n d if t h e s o n received his G r e e k
u p b r i n g i n g t h e r e a n d w a s freed b y a R o m a n n a m e d C a e c i l i u s , all t h e
p e r s o n a l d e t a i l s a r e a c c o u n t e d for q u i t e easily. I t is of c o u r s e a l s o
p o s s i b l e t h a t Caecilius w a s n o t a J e w b y b i r t h , b u t a p r o s e l y t e . B u t t h e
w o r d s a-no BovXojv, on t h e o n e h a n d , a n d o n t h e o t h e r the fact t h a t
C a e c i l i u s ' J u d a i s m r e t r e a t e d to t h e b a c k g r o u n d i n his l i t e r a r y w o r k s ,
s p e a k r a t h e r for t h e p r e s e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . A p r o s e l y t e w o u l d i n prolific
w r i t i n g h a v e e x h i b i t e d m o r e z e a l for his n e w l y - g a i n e d c o n v i c t i o n s .
T w o f u r t h e r reasons m a y s u p p o r t the S u d a ' s s t a t e m e n t t h a t C a e c i l i u s
w a s a J e w . ( i ) I n Trepl viftovs, in w h i c h o t h e r w i s e only e x a m p l e s f r o m
G r e e k l i t e r a t u r e a r e p r o d u c e d , a p p e a r s t h e f o l l o w i n g reference to M o s e s
(ix 9 ) : ' A similar effect w a s a c h i e v e d b y the L a w g i v e r o f the J e w s — n o
m e a n g e n i u s , for h e b o t h u n d e r s t o o d a n d g a v e e x p r e s s i o n to t h e p o w e r
o f the d i v i n i t y as it d e s e r v e d — w h e n h e w r o t e at t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g o f
h i s l a w s , I q u o t e his w o r d s : " G o d s a i d — w h a t ? ' L e t t h e r e b e h g h t . '
A n d there was. ' L e t there be e a r t h . ' A n d there w a s . ' " Since [ L o n g i n u s ]
rrepl vipovs d i d n o t o r i g i n a t e w i t h the n e o - P l a t o n i s t L o n g i n u s b u t is
c o n s i d e r a b l y o l d e r ( w r i t t e n e i t h e r in t h e t i m e o f A u g u s t u s or s o o n
after), the reference t o M o s e s is q u i t e s u r p r i s i n g . O l d e r s c h o l a r s
t h e r e f o r e t o o k it for a J e w i s h o r C h r i s t i a n i n t e r p o l a t i o n . B u t a C h r i s t i a n
w o u l d n o t h a v e m a d e t h e m i s t a k e of q u o t i n g yeveadco yij Kal eyevero,
w h i c h is n o t in t h e text of G e n e s i s a t all.^°^ T h e s a m e a r g u m e n t a p p h e s
a g a i n s t s u g g e s t i o n s t h a t [ L o n g i n u s ] m i g h t h i m s e l f h a v e b e e n a Jew.^'*'*
I t is q u i t e possible t h a t a p a g a n a u t h o r c o u l d h a v e g a i n e d t h i s a m o u n t
o f k n o w l e d g e of t h e Bible d i r e c t l y from J e w s w i t h o u t himself h a v i n g a n y
303. See the discussion a b o u t the authenticity of the passage in D. S. Russell, 'Longinus'
On the Sublime (1964), p p . 9 2 - 4 .
304. G . P. Goold, ' A Greek professorial circle at R o m e ' , T A P h A 92 (1961), p . 177:
'Longinus is in some sense a J e w . ' T h e language and some of t h e ideas in [Longinus] a r e
close to Philo. Goold also suggests t h a t the orator Theodorus of G a d a r a might have been
Jewish, b u t there is no evidence for this. C f Russell, op. cit., pp. xxix-xxx.
VIII. The Orator Caecilius of Calacte 703
i n c l i n a t i o n s t o w a r d s J u d a i s m . I t is a l s o possible t h a t t h e a u t h o r took
a l a r g e p a r t of h i s m a t e r i a l from t h e w o r k o f his p r e d e c e s s o r Caecilius,
w h i c h d e a l t w i t h t h e s a m e t h e m e , a n d t h a t t h e r e f o r e t h e biblical
e x a m p l e c a m e , s o m e w h a t m i s r e a d , from this predecessor's work.^°^ If
t h i s w e r e t h e c a s e , t h e q u o t a t i o n in [ L o n g i n u s ] w o u l d c o n f i r m the
J e w i s h o r i g i n or u p b r i n g i n g o f C a e c i l i u s .
(2) C i c e r o ' s Divinatio in Caecilium a n d P s e u d o - A s c o n i u s ' c o m m e n t a r y
t o it a l l u d e to a Q . C a e c i l i u s N i g e r w h o c l a i m e d t h e r i g h t to a c c u s e
V e r r e s in o r d e r t o free h i m from the s e r i o u s c h a r g e w h i c h C i c e r o , as
a d v o c a t e for the S i c i h a n s , h a d r a i s e d a g a i n s t h i m . H e w a s a S i c i l i a n by
b i r t h a n d h a d s e r v e d u n d e r V e r r e s a s q u a e s t o r . P l u t a r c h r e l a t e s the
f o l l o w i n g a n e c d o t e w i t h r e g a r d t o C i c e r o ' s legal suit a g a i n s t V e r r e s
( P l u t a r c h , Cicero 7) : ' T h e R o m a n s call a c a s t r a t e d p i g " V e r r e s "
{êpprjv). W h e n a f r e e d m a n s u s p e c t e d of J u d a i z i n g , b y t h e n a m e of
C a e c i l i u s , w i s h e d to t a k e o v e r f r o m t h e S i c i l i a n s t h e p r o s e c u t i o n of
V e r r e s (toiJ êppov), C i c e r o s a i d , " W h a t interest h a s a J e w in a
c a s t r a t e d p i g ? ' " V e r r e s ' a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of Sicily fell i n 7 3 - 7 1 B.c. H i s
q u a e s t o r C a e c i l i u s c o u l d n o t t h e r e f o r e b e i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e o r a t o r of
t h e s a m e n a m e if t h e l a t t e r flourished under Augustus. Clearly
P l u t a r c h , like A t h e n a e u s a n d t h e S u d a , h a s confused t h e t w o Caecilii,
a n d is s p e a k i n g h e r e of t h e e a r l i e r C a e c i l i u s t o w h o m t h e historical
w o r k s a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d s h o u l d p r o b a b l y b e a t t r i b u t e d (see a b o v e , p .
7 0 1 ) . T h e q u a e s t o r of w h o m C i c e r o s p o k e c o u l d h a r d l y b e a J e w like
t h e l a t e r C a e c i l i u s , for it is i n c o n c e i v a b l e ( i ) t h a t a f r e e d m a n w o u l d
h a v e a t t a i n e d t o the office of q u a e s t o r of Sicily, a n d (2) t h a t C i c e r o
w o u l d not h a v e r i d i c u l e d C a e c i l i u s ' J u d a i s m in h i s d i s p u t e a g a i n s t h i m
i f this h a d b e e n a fact. T h e fact t h a t b o t h m e n w e r e S i c i h a n or a t least
c o n n e c t e d w i t h Sicily wiU h a v e h e l p e d to b r i n g a b o u t t h e confusion,
a n d t h e b o n m o t ' Q u i d l u d a e o c u m V e r r e ? ' will not h a v e o r i g i n a t e d
w i t h C i c e r o b u t h a v e b e e n p u t i n his m o u t h by a l a t e r p e r s o n o n t h e
basis o f the confusion. I n t h a t case we find h e r e , t o o , c o n f i r m a t i o n of t h e
o r a t o r ' s J u d a i s m , since it m u s t h a v e b e e n w e l l e n o u g h k n o w n for a l a t e r
w i t to b e t e m p t e d to i n v e n t t h e joke.•^"^
305. Stern, G L A J J I, p. 363, w h o points to t h e likeHhood t h a t [Longinus] knew more

about Moses t h a n w h a t is contained in this q u o t a d o n . It cannot be assumed that pagan
authors never quoted the S e p t u a g i n t directly, cf. Stern, G L A J J I, p . 131, o n a probable
allusion to the Septuagint of Genesis by Ocellus Lucanus, a Pythagorean writer of the
second or first century B . C .
306. T h . Reinach, REJ 26 (1893), p p . 42 f See t h e bibliography on the passage i n
Stern, G L A J J I, p. 363.
307. T h e Jewishness of t h e quaestor m e n d o n e d by Cicero was still maintained by L.
Friedlander, Darsteltungen aus der Sittegeschichte Roms I I I (1923), p. 212, b u t it is wholly
implausible at so early a d a t e in R o m a n history.
Editions
Miiller, F H G H I , p p . 330—3 (the fragments probably to be assigned to the older
Caecilius).
J a c o b y , F G r H , 183, I I B, p p . 911—12 (only the fragments probably t o be assigned to t h e
older Caecilius).
Ofenloch, E., Caecilii Calactini fragmenta (1907; repr. 1967) (including m u c h d u b i o u s
material with all the genuine fragments).
Bibliography
Rothstein, M . , 'Caecilius v o n K a l a k t e u n d die Schrift vom Erhabenen', Hermes 2 3
(1888), p p . 1-20.
Weise, R . , Quaestiones Caecilianae (1888).
R e i n a c h , Th., 'Quid J u d a e o cum Verre?', R E J 26 (1893), pp. 36^-46.
Brzoska, 'Caecilius (2)', RE I I I . i (1897), cols. 1174-88.
R h y s Roberts, W., 'Caecilius of C a l a c t e : A Contribution to the History of Greek L i t e r a r y
Criticism', AJPh 18 (1897), p p . 302-12.
K e n n e d y , G., The Art of Rhetoric in the Roman World (1972), pp. 364-9.
[ L o n g i n u s ] rrept v<liovs.
Editions
R h y s Roberts, W., Longinus on the Sublime (1899).
Prickard, A. O . , Libellus de Sublimitate ... (^1947).
Russell, D . A., 'Longinus' On the Sublime (1964) with c o m m e n t a r y and references to e a r h e r
editions on p. li. (Text also printed separately as Libellus de Sublimitate . . . (1968).)
Translations
Prickard, A. O . , Longinus, On the Sublime (1906).
Russell, D . A., On Sublimity (1965). References to earher translations a r e given on p . Iii of
his edition (1964).
Bibliography
K e n n e d y , G., The Art of Rhetoric in the Roman World (1972), pp. 369-77, with bibliography
at p . 369, n . 91.

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THE HISTORY

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(;EZA V E R M E S FERGUS MILLAR

I ,i)iNBURGH T. & T. C L A R K L T D 5 9 GEORGE STREET

Copyright © 1986 T . & T. CLARK LTD.

SET IN MONOTYPE BASK.ERVILLE lo ON u POINT

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FIRST EDITION AND REPRINTS 1885-1924

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

L a u n c h e d i n 1964 b y Professor M a t t h e w B l a c k , t h e revised E n g l i s h

4. P r a y e r s for Festivals . . . . . . 460

Volume III, Part 2

AAAScHung Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae

CERP A . H . M . J o n e s , Cities of the Eastern Roman Provinces

IGUR Inscriptiones Graecae Urbis Romae

JWSTP M . E. S t o n e ( e d . ) , Jewish Writings of the Second Temple

SAW Sitzungsberichte der Osterreichischen Akademie der

TS Y. Y a d i n , The Temple Scroll I - I I (1983)

WUNT Wissenschaftliche U n t e r s u c h u n g e n z u m N e u e n Testa­

Hengel, M., 'Messianische Hoffnung und polidscher "Radikalismus" i n der "jiidisch-

likewise i n t o Europe, Tkessaly, Boeotia, Macedonia, Aetolia, Attica, Argus,

I n Mesopotamia, Media a n d Babylonia lived t h e d e s c e n d a n t s of

6. Philo, Legatio 36 (281-2).

a t t a c h m e n t to t h e G o d of Israel." Moreover, further dispersals are

beyond the Euphrates. As a resuk, the Jewish p o p u l a d o n there during

against t h e Parthians, t h a t he w a s t h r e a t e n e d i n the r e a r b y an u p r i s i n g

V . I . The Parchments and Papyri ( 1 9 5 9 ) , n o . 1 1 ; a f r a g m e n t a r y A r a m a i c

-an ]•'^n h t t s ? Vs? 6

[xann] naVy riTaVD "pn-iXK 5

3. S a m u e l is n a m e d a l s o in a briefer G r e e k t e x t : Eafxov^X EtSSeov

( 1 9 6 3 ) , p p . 3 0 3 - 1 4 : ' M R T Y N ' w h o [ m a d e ] t h e w o r k o f t h e Byt ' a r o n

r e p o r t s , 10,500 (in a n o t h e r p a s s a g e 18,000) J e w s w e r e m a s s a c r e d a t t h e

24. 1 0 , 5 0 0 : B.J. ii 2 0 , 2 ( 5 6 1 ) ; 1 8 , 0 0 0 : B.J. vii 8 , 7 ( 3 6 8 ) .

three H e b r e w inscriptions survive, from w h a t m a y be the door of a

t h e r e from, a t t h e latest, t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y A.D. o n w a r d s . T h e m o s t

It is accepted however by I. Ben-Zvi, 'The Origins of the Settlement of Jewish Tribes in

F r o m the southernmost p a r t of the N a b a t a e a n k i n g d o m , t h e ancient

republished, with an EngHsh translation, b y N. Lewis, Illinois Classical Studies 3 (1978),

p . 126) a n d also i n a festal c a l e n d a r f r o m t h e r e {Ins. v. Pergamon, n o .

KAL TOV TTCpiPoXov TOV vTTaidpov KaTaoKevdaaaa CK Td)[v ISJ/COV ixaptaaTO

35. T h e bibHography of the Sardis synagogue, including many annual or semi-popular

TOV TTavTOKpoLTopos 0<eo)>i5 ( n o . 7 = D F , no. 2 0 ) ; a n d t h r e e p o t t e r y

p p . 446 f. = C I J I I , n o . 748). T h i s i n s c r i p t i o n h a s g i v e n rise to v e r y

n a m e d l a e l , w i t h h e r son l o s o u a , a n arch(on) ; S a m o u e l , a presbeutes a n d

axn>e8pCcp TWV Kaipo8aTTtoTwv) a s u m for t h e d e c o r a t i o n o f his g r a v e ev TTJ

Phrygia 1.2 ( 1 8 9 7 ) , p p . 3 9 6 - 4 8 3 ; H . L e c l e r c q in D A C 1.2 (1907), cols.

J . G . D r o y s e n , Gesch. des Hellenismus, I I I . 2 C^iSyy), p . 271 ; R e i n a c h , Les

TOV /caTaCT/<'ei»aCT^e[v]Ta o[R]>cov vvo '/ouAias Xeovrjpas TI. Tvppwvios

6<f>€iXia€i. TXoewv TW hrjfxw... T h e e n d is m i s s i n g . T h e w o r d heroon, w h i c h

y , p.r}(vt) C'. T h e r e f e r e n c e to ' t h e f o u n t a i n w i t h t h e c o u r t y a r d ' is

' S a m p s a m e ' in i M a c . 1 5 : 2 3 c o u l d be u n d e r s t o o d as Amisus i n P o n t u s

J e w s w e r e also l i v i n g on t h e North Coast of the Black Sea from a n

TovSaioiv Kat deov AEJSCOV, a n d for t h e issues r a i s e d by this a n d

Ee^epo<v> , C I R B , n o . 743 ; C I J I ^ n o . 689a (p. 66).

m a n u m i s s i o n - i n s c r i p t i o n c e r t a i n l y d a t e d to A.D. 16, in w h i c h 11. 8-9 c a n

w h i c h u s e d A r a m a i c ( n o t e e s p e c i a l l y D r i v e r , G . R., Aramaic Documents of

t h e accession of t h e r i v a l E g y p t i a n king N e p h e r i t e s in 3 9 9 o r 398 B . C .

M i l i t a r y settlers a l s o o c c u r f r e q u e n t l y i n the G r e e k sources o f t h e

as G r e e k s , as a r e w a r d for t h e m i h t a r y assistance (avix/jLaxla) which

w h i c h w e r e k n o w n by t h e first five letters of t h e a l p h a b e t , t w o w e r e

O n t h e diffusion of t h e J e w s t h r o u g h o u t the rest o f E g y p t t h e

(a) Phoenicians. A c o l o n y of P h o e n i c i a n s ( T y r i a n s ) h a d existed in t h e

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