SGC nr.11-2009-ft

UIVERSITATEA DI PITEŞTI
FACULTATEA DE LITERE
CETRUL DE LIMBI STRĂIE LOGOS
STUDII
DE
GRAMATICĂ COTRASTIVĂ
r. 11/ 2009
EDITURA UIVERSITĂŢII DI PITEŞTI

COMITET ŞTIIŢIFIC/COMITÉ SCIETIFIQUE/ SCIETIFIC COUCIL BOARD
Laura BĂDESCU, Universitatea din Piteşti, România
Nadjet CHIKHI, Universitatea din M’sila, Algeria
Laura CÎŢU, Universitatea din Piteşti, România
Jean-Louis COURRIOL, Universitatea Lyon 3, Franţa
Dan DOBRE, Universitatea din Bucureşti, România
Ştefan GĂITĂNARU, Universitatea din Piteşti, România
Joanna JERECZEK-LIPIŃSKA, Universitatea din Gdańsk, Polonia
Lucie LEQUIN, Universitatea Concordia, Montréal, Canada
Milena MILANOVIC, Institutul de Limbi Străine, Belgrad, Serbia
Stephen S. WILSON, City University, Londra, Anglia
Adriana VIZENTAL, Universitatea Aurel Vlaicu din Arad, România
COMITET DE LECTURĂ/ COMITÉ DE LECTURE/PEER REVIEW COMMITTEE

Ioana COSMA, Universitatea Francois Rabelais, Tours, Franţa
Angela ICONARU, Universitatea din Piteşti, România
Clementina NIŢĂ, Universitatea din Piteşti, România
Raluca NIŢU, Universitatea din Piteşti, România
Florinela ŞERBĂNICĂ, Universitatea din Piteşti, România
DIRECTOR REVISTA/ DIRECTEUR DE LA REVUE/ DIRECTOR OF THE JOURAL

Laura CÎŢU, Universitatea din Piteşti, România
REDACTOR-ŞEF /RÉDACTEUR E CHEF/ EDITOR I CHIEF

Cristina ILINCA, Universitatea din Piteşti, România
COLEGIUL DE REDACŢIE/COMITÉ DE RÉDACTIO/EDITORIAL BOARD

Ana-Marina TOMESCU, Universitatea din Piteşti, România
Ana-Maria STOICA, Universitatea din Piteşti, România
ISS: 1584 – 143X

revistă bianuală/revue biannuelle/biannual journal
FACULTATEA DE LITERE
Str. Gh. Doja, nr. 41, Piteşti, 110253, România
Tel. / fax : 0348/453 300
Persoană de contact/personne de contact/contact person: Cristina ILINCA
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Editura Universităţii din Piteşti

Târgul din Vale, 1, 110040, Piteşti, Romania
Tél.: +40 (0)348 453 116
sorin.fianu@eup.ro
Studii de gramatică contrastivă
CUPRIS / TABLE DES MATIÈRES / COTETS
GRAMATICĂ COTRASTIVĂ
Silvia BONCESCU
Implicite, allusion et ambiguïté dans les néologismes français et allemands / Implicit,
Allusion and Ambiguity in French and German eologisms/Implicit, aluzie si
ambiguitate in neologismele frantuzeste si nemtesti / 7
Mirela COSTELEANU
Wrong Uses of Conjunctions in English and Romanian
Usages fautifs des conjunctions en anglais et en roumain
Utilizari gresite ale conjunctiilor in engleza si româna / 13
Bianca DABU
Phonetic Adaptation of English Words in Romanian
Adaptation phonétique des mots anglais en roumain
Adaptarea fonetica a cuvintelor englezesti in româna / 20
Laura IONICĂ
A Contrastive Analysis of Lexical and Grammatical Mistakes
Une analyse contrastive des erreurs lexicales et grammaticales
O analiza contrastiva a greselilor lexicale si gramaticale / 27
Andreea MACIU
Aspects of English vs. Romanian Prepositions
Aspects des prépositions anglaises vs. roumaines
Aspecte ale prepozitiilor englezesti vs. românesti /35
Constantin MANEA
Contrastive otes on Some English Idioms
otes contrastives sur quelques idiomes anglais
ote contrastive asupra unor idiomuri englezesti /39
Adina MATROZI MARIN

Meaning Construction and Prepositional Polysemy etworks in English and Romanian
La construction du sens et les réseaux de polysémie prépositionnelle en anglais et en
roumain
Constructia sensului si retelele de polisemie prepozitionala in engleza si româna / 54
Nicoleta MINCĂ
English Adverbial Clauses and Their Romanian Correspondents
Les propositions adverbiales anglaises et leurs correspondants roumains
Propozitiile adverbiale englezesti si corespondentele lor in româna / 63
5
Ana-Maria STOICA
Expressing Point Of View - A Comparative Study on the Literary Works of John
Galsworthy and Camil Petrescu
Exprimer le point de vue – une étude comparative sur l’oeuvre littéraire de John
Galsworthy et Camil Petrescu –
Exprimarea punctului de vedere – un studiu comparativ asupra operelor literare ale lui
John Galsworthy si Camil Petrescu /68
TRADUCTOLOGIE
Ioana CIODARU
L’expressivité du langage poétique dans l’œuvre de Marin Sorescu et difficultés de
traduction
The Expressivity of Poetical Language in the Literary Work of Marin Sorescu and
Difficulties in Translation
Expresivitatea limbajului poetic in opera lui Marin Sorescu si dificultati de traducere /
77
Carmen ONEL
Vocabulaire technique-petit glossaire de la construction du moteur d’automobile
Technical Vocabulary – Short Glossary of Automobile Engine Construction
Vocabular tehnic- mic glosar al contructiei motorului de automobile / 84
Cristina UNGUREANU
Advertising Slogans in English, French and Romanian. Issues of Translation
Les slogans publicitaires en anglais, français et roumain. Problèmes de traduction.
Sloganurile publicitare in engleza, franceza, româna. Probleme de traducere /98
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IMPLICITE, ALLUSIO ET AMBIGUÏTÉ DAS LES ÉOLOGISMES
FRAÇAIS ET ALLEMADS
Silvia BOCESCU
Université de Piteşti
Résumé : L’examen de quelques exemples de néologismes de la presse politique satirique

française et allemande a le but de montrer dans ce travail que l’implicite, l’allusion et l’ambiguïté
sont des formes de stratégie satirique qui provoquent le lecteur et qui le rendent complice des avis du
locuteur.
Mots –clés : implicite, allusion, ambiguïté, mot-valise, détournement.
Introduction
Les contenus implicites, l’allusion et l’ambiguïté jouent un rôle important dans le
discours satirique. Ils font passer des propositions sans les expliciter. Dans la
presse satirique, notamment dans l’hebdomadaire français Le Canard enchaîné et
dans le mensuel allemand Eulenspiegel, l’habileté du journaliste est de parler de
choses que tout le monde accepte et d’introduire subrepticement dans son discours
des contenus implicites lourds d’implications politiques. Nous allons voir dans ce
qui suit que l’interprétation y est souvent aléatoire et subjective en français aussi
bien qu’en allemand.
1. L’implicite
Nous avons remarqué que les expressions figées altérées donnent naissance à bien
des détournements, notamment des titres détournés. Ainsi, les journalistes
exploitent des locutions courantes afin de les détourner à la fois dans un but
humoristique (par l’effet de reconnaissance et de surprise amusée que l’ingéniosité
provoque chez le lecteur), comme un mécanisme astucieux de création verbale et
comme un moyen de stigmatisation du milieu politique. Dans un titre détourné,
crime de lèse-Chirac vient se superposer à une locution courante sous-jacente
crime de lèse-majesté. En 2007, un détournement identique est réalisé avec crime
de lèse-Sarkozy :
« Henri Guaino fait partie des déçus du gouvernement Fillon II. Le conseiller
spécial, grand supporter de la TVA sociale, scribe et gardien des promesses de
Sarkozy, s’était imaginé, le 18 juin, remplaçant de Jean-Louis Borloo à Bercy. Rien
que ça ! Il aurait même fait le siège de son voisin de bureau à l’Elysée pour que
celui-ci le nomme, plutôt que Christine Lagarde. Rêver d’écrire des notes de
conjoncture plutôt que des discours présidentiels : ça fuse le crime de lèse-
Sarkozy ».
(Le Canard enchaîné, N 4522, 27 juin 2007, p. 2)
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Dans les deux cas, l’implicite nous dirige vers la réflexion suivante : « Chirac et
Sarkozy sont des présidents qui se conduisent comme des majestés ».
Dans l’extrait suivant de Eulenspiegel, la nomination First Man fait résonner
dialogiquement la nomination détournée ici First Lady et, implicitement, une
catégorisation du rôle secondaire d’époux de Heide Simonis, ministre président de
Schleswig-Holstein depuis 1993 jusqu’en 2005, la seule femme qui ait eu cette
position dans un land allemand :
«Neben der unterdessen diverse Jahrzehnte währenden (Wochenend-)Beziehung zu
ihrem Gatten, dem “einzigen “First Man”” in der Bundesrepublik (Lübecker
Nachrichten), bekennt sich Heide Simonis zwischen zwei Muthutproben
ofenrohroffen zu: “meinem Bratkartoffelverhältnis” »1.
(Eulenspiegel, 08/03, p. 20)
Nous remarquons que les mots composés et les expressions figées sont susceptibles
de variations. Ainsi, dans les textes politiques, les suites de mots peuvent donner
lieu à des figements spécifiques. Le discours politique contient beaucoup de tels
défigements éphémères et sujets à détournement. Nous pouvons mesurer le
caractère instable de certains défigements employés dans les titres en observant la
difficulté de les interpréter une fois sortis de l’actualité et même de la situation
d’énonciation.
À la différence des néologismes qui font seulement des allusions à des signifiants,
graphiques ou phonétiques, d’autres lexies, il y a aussi des néologismes qui font
appel, dans leur constitution même, à plusieurs lexies. C’est notamment le cas des
mots-valises, procédé de fusion de plusieurs lexies, car il arrive très souvent que
l’on combine, par souci d’implicitation, des mots dans une seule unité lexicale
composée. Fondre les deux éléments en une seule lexie a comme effet de susciter
des sous-entendus:
« Hillaryant… »
(Le Canard enchaîné, N 4500, 24 janvier 2007, p. 8)
Si l’on examine la nouvelle unité lexicale créée Hillaryant, nous constatons que le
titre de l’article, qui a des connotations négatives, renvoie à la candidate américaine
aux élections présidentielles Hillary Clinton. Le procédé peut renvoyer à la volonté
du journaliste de tourner en dérision la femme politique en rendant vivante
l’expression et en rendant accessible l’information au lecteur, et elle fait partie de
la stratégie de séduction du lectorat soulignée par Patrick Charaudeau (1997). En
effet, le journaliste du Canard tourne en dérision implcitement dans son article les
ressemblances entre Hillary Clinton et Ségolène Royal, deux femmes candidates à
la présidentielle au moment de la parution de l’article et il dé-fige pour cela la lexie
hilarant, phonétiquement proche du nom de la candidate américaine.
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« Pendant cette relation (de weekend) qui dure depuis diverses décennies avec son époux,
le “seul “First Man”” de la République fédérale (Lübecker Nachrichten), Heide Simonis
avoue ouvertement entre deux essais courageux de chapeau qu’elle entretient une “relation
de routine conjugale” ».
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Tout mot-valise est un cas particulier qui requiert d’abord l’identification des lexies
auxquelles les formants sont empruntés, puis l’identification des relations
sémantiques qui contribuent à leur fusion dans le nouveau signifié :
« La singularité du signifiant des mots-valises est patente et oblige ceux qui les
entendent à un travail d’interprétation spécifique. La manière dont se combinent les
signifiés des lexies de départ n’est pas du tout prédictible et offre une palette de
possibilités infiniment plus large que celle observable dans la création de nouvelles
unités construites par composition et surtout par dérivation » (SABLAYROLLES,
2002 : 113).
2. L’allusion
La néologie dans la presse satirique fait constamment référence à des entités
existantes. Il s’agit dans ce cas de l’allusion, récurrente dans les jeux de mots, dans
laquelle « certaines lexies présentent deux sens à la fois : l’un, par rapport à une
autre lexie (ou groupe syntagmatique) occurrente dans le texte (c’est
microstructural), l’autre par rapport à un macrocontexte pas forcément verbal (c’est
macrostructural) » (MOLINIÉ, 2001 : 148).
Les néologismes que nous avons extraits sont créés à partir d’unités lexicales déjà
existantes. Jean-François Sablayrolles souligne le « double niveau de référence »
(SABLAYROLLES, 2000 : 394) de ces néologismes :
« La réalité désignée est assimilée à une autre par laquelle on désigne ce qui est en
question. Les néologismes formés à l’aide de ce procédé sont motivés car les
éléments utilisés dans leur formation donnent un éclairage assez précis sur l’objet
ou la notion dont il est question ».
Les allusions peuvent être d’ordre linguistique ou extralinguistique ; celles d’ordre
linguistique sont motivées par une ressemblance au niveau du signifiant et
renvoient à des événements et réalités socio-politiques ou à des personnes de la
scène politique. Il est question, par exemple, d’allusions intertextuelles et
linguistiques comme dans l’exemple suivant, où Le Front -ational sert à la
formation du défigement suivant :
« Front nazional »
(Le Canard enchaîné, N 4395, 19 janvier 2005, p. 1)
Le mot-valise est créé ici par paronymie sur nazi et national, parce que le Canard
critique les propos de Le Pen et fait allusion à son affirmation que les camps de
concentration n’étaient qu’un « point de détail ». La complicité du lecteur est une
donnée essentielle dans le décodage de ce néologisme synthétique et donc dans
l’écriture satirique du Canard.
De même, dans :
« Villeplein d’espoir »
(Le Canard enchaîné, N 4373, 18 août 2004, p. 2, titre)
Ce défigement réalisé sur la locution adjectivale plein d’espoir à l’aide du nom de
l’homme politique Villepin sert à nous suggérer qu’il espère être nommé à
Matignon.
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Dans l’exemple suivant, nous pouvons nous remémorer le syntagme république
bananière :
« Vers une république bandanière »
(Le Canard enchaîné, N 4355, 14 avril 2004, p. 8)
C’est une allusion ironique du Canard au fait que tout le monde allait porter le
bandana, puisque la loi allait interdire le voile à l’école.
Une autre illustration de l’allusion dans le processus néologique porte sur
l’actualisation discursive d’une lexie, plus précisément du syntagme nominal
l’ouverture de la porte et renvoie en même temps au syntagme ministre
d’ouverture par l’allusion à la politique d’ouverture de Sarkozy dans :
« Ouverture de Laporte »
(Le Canard enchaîné, N 4536, 3 octobre 2007, p. 1)
La nomination de Bernard Laporte, un « loser » selon Le Canard enchaîné, par
Sarkozy comme secrétaire d’État aux Sports est extrêmement critiquée par le
journal satirique à travers cette construction néologique.
La nouvelle forme associée a un sens nouveau qui est actualisé dans
l’énonciation du journaliste. Le néologisme s’enrichit de nouvelles acceptions,
notamment la nomination d’un homme politique dans un poste, en rapport avec le
contexte socio-politique français. Son usage est en corrélation avec l’idée d’emploi
d’un jeu de mots suggestif.
3. L’ambiguïté
Si, à la différence des dérivés, l’identification des mots-valises dans un texte ou un
énoncé est facile et systématique, l’opération d’identification des lexies dont ils se
composent peut parfois susciter des hésitations, parce que la manière dont les
éléments sont imbriqués n’est pas toujours évidente. Ainsi, le rapport avec des
lexies n’est pas toujours facile à établir ; les deux signifiés sont amalgamés dans un
signe lexical et graphique unique et l’énonciateur joue sur les éléments signifiants
de l’unité lexicale parce qu’il veut faire dire beaucoup plus qu’une simple
juxtaposition d’éléments. De ce point de vue, nous pouvons affirmer que le mot-
valise ressemble à un petit discours exprimé par un seul mot, comme la synthèse,
mais il se distingue de celle-ci dans la mesure où les éléments sont difficilement
identifiables. L’exemple allemand Rumsinsfeld est un cas d’ambiguïté, parce qu’il
est difficile, tout du moins au début, de percevoir les deux constituants. Nous
pouvons supposer que la séquence phonique combine deux lexies qui fondent en
une seule : le nom propre Rumsfeld et Springinsfeld (« gredin », figure picaresque
du polisson). Mais il y a aussi l’expression ins Feld ziehen (« partir en guerre ») qui
peut avoir fusionné avec le nom propre. Nous ne pouvons pas savoir laquelle des
deux lexies est à la base du mot-valise créé.
Il existe pour les mots-valises des modèles qui utilisent des procédés linguistiques
économiques qui répondent aux besoins de créativité. La « brachygraphie
gigogne » décrite par André Clas (1987) est basée sur les trois procédés qui sont
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l’apocope, l’aphérèse et la syncope. Les deux modèles les plus fréquents dans la
presse satirique sont les suivants :
Modèle 1 : apocope+aphérèse
Exemple : Soliphone, ségolâtre, démocrature
Modèle 2 : apocope simple
Exemple : Sarkocompatible, Sarcow-boy
« Borlogement de fortune »
(Le Canard enchaîné, N 4354, 7 avril 2004, p. 1, titre)
Il s’agit dans ce dernier exemple d’un portefeuille élargi pour Jean-Louis Borloo
qui, en plus de l’Emploi, du Travail et de la Cohésion sociale, récupère le ministère
du logement, ce qui incite le locuteur à forger le néologisme borlogement.
L’affirmation de Chirac selon laquelle il préfère Raffarin et qu’il ne veut pas d’une
troisième cohabitation avec Sarkozy à Matignon donne naissance à un autre
néologisme :
« Pas de sarkohabitation ! »
(Le Canard enchaîné, N 4355, 14 avril 2004, p. 2, titre)
Si dans les autres mots composés les éléments sont seulement juxtaposés, les
éléments du mot construit par contamination sont enchâssés : Sarko + cohabitation.
Notre analyse porte sur les principales opérations effectuées par le locuteur, en
l’occurrence le journaliste, dans le processus de production des mots-valises
satiriques qui relèvent toujours du double sens. Par l’effet ludique du double sens,
le sujet parlant crée l’ambiguïté. Il s’agit d’unités irrégulières, ce qui les exclut du
lexique de la langue.
Conclusion
Nous pouvons remarquer que la néologie dans la presse satirique s’inscrit dans un
contexte précis, d’où s’ensuit le caractère éphémère de ce type de néologismes,
puisque, une fois son point de référence oublié, un néologisme ne peut plus être
compris et disparaît. La connaissance des personnes ou des événements doit être
partagée par l’auteur et les lecteurs pour que l’on puisse percevoir l’implicite,
l’allusion extra-linguistique et l’ambiguïté dans les néologismes français et
allemands.
Bibliographie
Clas, A., 1987, « Une matrice terminologique universelle: la brachygraphie gigogne »,
META XXII, 3, p. 347-355.
Fiala, P./ Habert, B., 1989, « La langue de bois en éclat : les défigements dans les titres de
la presse quotidienne française », Mots, n° 21, p. 83-99.
Gréciano, G., 2002, « La variance du figement », Figures d’ajout : phrase, texte, écriture,
textes réunis par J. Authier-Revuz et Marie-Christine Lala, Presses Sorbonne Nouvelle, p.
149-153.
Kerbrat-Orecchioni, C., 1986, L’Implicite, Paris, Armand Colin.
Molinié, G., 2001, Dictionnaire de rhétorique, Paris, Armand Colin.
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Pérennec, M.-H., 2008, « Lässt sich Implizites eigentlich übertragen? Der Fall der
Auslandsberichterstattung », dans Steffen Pappert / Melani Schröter / Ulla Fix (éd.),
Verschlüsseln, Verbergen, Verdecken in öffentlicher und institutioneller Kommunikation,
Berlin, Erich Schmidt, p. 69-83.
Poumet, J., 1990, La satire en RDA. Cabarets et presse satirique, Lyon, PUL.
Sablayrolles, J.-F., 2000, « Lexique et processus », Cahiers de lexicologie, n° 77, p. 5-26.
Sablayrolles, J.-F., 2002, «Des néologismes au signifiant très significatif », dans GRUAZ
Claude (dir.), Quand le mot fait signe. Pour une sémiotique de l’écrit, Publications de
l’Université de Rouen, p. 97-117.
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WROG USES OF COJUCTIOS I EGLISH AD ROMAIA
Mirela COSTELEAU
University of Pitesti
Abstract: The present paper focuses on the commonest mistakes occurring when
using conjunctions in Romanian as well as in English. Most of the mistakes made by
Romanian learners of English occur as a result of their tendency to use them under the
influence of their native language.
Key words: Romanian conjunctions, English conjunctions, common mistakes.
Conjunctions are defined as words that connect parts of sentences, phrases or

clauses. According to their form, Romanian conjunctions are classified into:
a. simple conjunctions (că, să, dacă, sau, ori) ;
b. compound conjunctions (ca să, ca…să, cum că),
c. conjunctional phrases (măcar că, numai că, chiar că, măcar de, în afară de, în
loc să, de ciudă că ,pentru că, pentru ca să, după ce, până ce, pe dată ce, în timp
ce, în vreme ce, până unde, pe când, de când, din cauză că, în caz că, din pricină
că.
From a functional point of view, there are two types of conjunctions in
Romanian:
a. coordinating conjunctions which “link words or sentences with homogenous or
heterogeneous functions” (Constantinescu-Dobridor, 1996:342);
b. subordinate conjunctions which link subordinate clauses to the main clause (că,
până, fără, deşi, din cauză că).
Coordinating conjunctions, in their turn, are classified into the following
groups:
a. copulative conjunctions : şi, nici, precum şi;
b. disjunctive conjunctions : sau, fie, ori;
c. adversative conjunctions: dar, iar, însă;
d. conclusive conjunctions: deci, prin urmare
Subordinate conjunctions are divided into the following groups:
a. uncircumstantial conjunctions (că, ca să, să, dacă, de) :
Probabil că va veni în curând.
Datoria lui era ca să supravegheze întregul echipaj.
Simţea nevoia să petreacă şi să se bucure de tot ce dobândise.
b. circumstantial conjunctions (decât, că, cum, până, dacă, de, ca să, cum, căci,
deoarece, fiindcă, întrucât, încât, cînd) :
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A căpătat mai multă experienţă decât şi-ar fi putut imagina.
De-abia ajunse acasă, că trebui să plece din nou pentru treburi urgente.
Cum îşi dădu seama ce are de făcut, imediat trecu la acţiune.
Dacă a văzut că nu are susţinători, schimbă imediat tactica.
Romanian conjunctions are further classified, according to the nature of their
usage, into:
a. specialized (specific) conjunctions: ci şi, dar şi, nici, ci, încă, or, deci, aşadar,
fie, ori, sau, decât, până, căci, deoarece, fiindcă, întrucât, încât, deşi;
b. conjunctions with multiple values (non-specific) conjunctions: şi, dar, iar, că,
să, ca să, dacă, de.
Mircea Goga (2008:178) makes a list of the most frequent mistakes made by
Romanians when using Romanian conjunctions. These mistakes may lead to
further mistakes when translating the sentences which contain them into English.
The commonest wrong uses of Romanian conjunctions:
1. The use of two coordinating conjunctions in adversative clauses:
Au spus adevărul, dar nimeni însă nu i-a crezut.
In the sentence above the conjunction însă is wrongly used.
2. The use of the compound conjunction ca să to introduce a direct clause. This
situation is very common.
Nu suport ca să te văd aşa.
Correct use: Nu suport să te văd aşa.
3. Wrong use of the conjunctional phrase pentru ca să to introduce a direct clause:
Nu pot pentru ca să ştiu.
Correct use: Nu pot să ştiu.
4. There are situations when the conjunction căci is used to introduce other clauses
than the causative one:
Recunosc căci am de gând să renunţ la orice pretenţie.
Vreau să ştii căci sunt sănătos.
Vă avertizăm căci examenul va fi foarte dificil.
Sunt încântat de faptul căci am reuşit să onorez invitaţia voastră.
Correct uses:
Mărturisesc că am de gând să renunţ la orice pretenţie.
Vreau să ştii că sunt sănătos.
Vă avertizăm că examenul va fi foarte dificil.
Sunt încântat de faptul că am reuşit să onorez invitaţia voastră.
5. The wrong use of the conjuntion dacă to introduce an indirect clause:
Ne-au avertizat dacă vor pleca.
Correct use: Ne-au avertizat că vor pleca.
6. The conjunction încât is wrongly used instead of să:
Nu ai motive încât să te întristezi.
Correct use: Nu ai motive să te întristezi.
7. The disjunctive coordinating conjunction ori is used instead of the conjunction
or:
14
Se spune despre el că este un mincinos, ori el este cu siguranţă una dintre cele mai
oneste persoane pe care le cunosc.
Correct use : Se spune despre el că este un mincinos, or el este cu siguranţă una
dintre cele mai oneste persoane pe care le cunosc.
8. There are cases when conjunctions are superfluously used:
Deşi bolnav, tot a venit la şcoală.
Correct use: Deşi bolnav, a venit la şcoală.
Sometimes, all these wrong uses of conjunctions are characteristic even of
well-educated people.
According to their form, English conjunctions are classified into simple
conjunctions (and, but, if), compound conjunctions (unless, however, otherwise),
correlative conjunctions (both….as, either….or, neither….nor), and conjunctional
phrases (for instance, as if/though, as well as).
According to their function, English conjunctions are divided into
coordinating conjunctions and subordinate conjunctions. Coordinating
conjunctions are classified into the following categories:
a. copulative: and, not only…but also;
b. adversative: but, whereas, while;
c. disjunctive: or, else, otherwise;
d. conclusive: consequently, accordingly, hence;
e. explanatory: for example, namely, for instance.
Coordinating conjunctions “imply that something or somebody is added to
something or somebody else” (PAIDOS, 2001:202). Subordinate conjunctions
(although, though, as if, as though, lest, if) “connect subordinate clauses with their
corresponding regent sentences or clauses” (PAIDOS, 2001:203).
Learning conjunctions may turn out to be an objective difficult to achieve.
Even for advanced learners of English it is sometimes difficult to use conjunctions
correctly. The concept of joining ideas is sometimes difficult to understand and to
assimilate by most students. But, since knowing how to use conjunctions correctly
in order to be able to express ideas accurately and naturally lies at the centre of
sentence construction, it can be easily inferred that learning how to use them is a
necessary undertaking.
Conjunctions function as words that join other words or clauses together.
They were cold and hungry.
They are poor but very proud.
She is going to spend her holiday in France or Italy.
Besides joining clauses together, conjunctions also show what the relation
between the meanings of the two clauses is.
Susan got the job because she was the best candidate. (cause)
He is tired, yet still very energetic. (contrast)
I did the washing up and he took the garbage out. (addition)
The commonest mistakes made by Romanian learners of English when
using conjunctions:
15
1. The adversative conjunction whereas is used with a temporal meaning instead of
the adverb while:
He got malaria whereas he was traveling in Africa.
Correct use: He got malaria while he was traveling in Africa.
2. The compound conjunction unless is often used by Romanian learners of
English in a wrong way. Under the influence of the Romanian language, they use it
in combination with a negative verb:
We will be very disappointed unless we don’t win the prize.
In Romanian, the conjunction is followed by a negative verb:
Vom fi foarte dezamăgiţi dacă nu câştigăm.
Correct use: We will be very disappointed unless we win.
3. The copulative coordinating conjunction besides is often mistaken for the
preposition beside. Thus, such utterances as Beside being a talented singer, he is a
great actor and They live in a town besides the sea are commonly produced instead
of Besides being a talented singer, he is a great actor and He lives in a town beside
the sea.
4. Under the influence of their native language, Romanian students replace the
simple conjunction and by the preposition with.
Correct use: The skirt is black and white.
Incorrect use: The skirt is black with white.
5. The frequent comparison with the Romanian language leads to innumerable
mistakes in the use of the copulative conjunction neither…..nor.
Incorrect use: He neither doesn’t drink alcohol, nor doesn’t smoke.
Correct use: He neither drinks alcohol, nor smokes.
6. The conjunction though meaning in spite of the fact that, even if is placed at the
beginning of the sentence:
Though it’s hard work, he enjoys it.
When its meaning is nevertheless, though functions as an adverb and it
cannot be placed at the beginning of a clause.
Correct use: It’s hard work; he enjoys it though.
Incorrect use: It’s hard work; though he likes it.
7. The conjunctional phrases as if, as though are often followed by present or past
conditional:
Incorrect use: He behaves as if he would be the boss.
Correct use: He behaves as if he were the boss.
8. Each time and every time are wrongly followed by when:
Each time when we meet, we have a great time.
Every time when it rains, they stay at home.
Correct uses:
Each time we meet, we have a great time.
Every time it rains, they stay at home.
16
The same mistake occurs in such sentences as The last time when I saw her,
she was in a miserable condition and I will visit the Eiffel Tour the next time when I
visit France.
Correct uses:
The last time I saw her, she was in a miserable condition.
I will visit the Eiffel Tour the next time I visit France.
9. One of the most frequent mistakes made by Romanian learners of English is the
use of such conjunctions as before, after, long before, by the time, once, while,
whenever, in combination with future tenses. Such sentences are frequently
produced:
I will have finished the task before you will arrive.
I will get in touch with you after I will have made up my mind.
Long before we will come back, they will have forgotten their promise.
By the time the course will finish, the students will have already understood it.
Once you will get to know him, you will like him.
While he will be driving, he will be singing.
I will help you whenever you will need help.
Correct uses:
I will have finished the task before you come back.
I will get in touch with you after I have made up my mind.
Long before we come back, they will have forgotten their promise.
By the time the course finishes, the students will have already understood it.
Once you get to know him, you will like him.
While he is driving, he will be singing.
I will help you whenever you need help.
10. The conjunction but poses a lot of problems to Romanian learners of English
when used with the meaning of except that, however:
But for his intervention, everything would have been a complete disaster.
11. The use of the conjunction whether leads to frequent mistakes. Students have
the tendency to replace whether by if before infinitives, which is wrong:
The big question is if to go or to stay.
Correct use: The big question is whether to go or to stay.
Sometimes, if is used instead of whether after prepositions:
It all depends on if he is willing to accept this job.
Correct use: It all depends on whether he is willing to accept this job.
Another wrong use of the conjunction if instead of whether may be noticed in
combination with not in such sentences as I asked them if or not they were going to
attend the meeting.
Correct use: I asked them whether or not they were going to attend the meeting.
The conjunctions like and as are randomly used in many cases.
He works in the same office like my father.
Do like I say.
She was late like usual.
17
Like I said in my last letter, I am taking the French exam in February.
These sentences are acceptable in informal style. In formal style, the
conjunction as is preferred.
He works in the same office as my father.
Do as I say.
She was late as usual.
As I said in my last letter, I am taking the French exam in February.
The conjunction lest is wrongly used under the influence of the Romanian
language. Such a sentence as M-am temut ca ea să nu fie jignită will be rendered in
English as I was afraid lest she should not be offended.
Correct use: I was afraid lest she should be offended.
Punctuation errors
When writing a sentence, learners of English often have the tendency to
place a comma before the conjunction and. Although it is not always wrongly used,
a comma should not be used in most cases before the last item of a list.
They bought apples, pears and apricots. (no need for a comma before and)
Bridget, Susan and Tom were all involved in the accident. (no need for a comma
before and in this list of people)
Her uncle was friendly, loyal and honest. (no need for a comma before and in this
list of adjectives)
Yet there are situations when a comma is preferred before the conjunction
and in order to eliminate ambiguity.
Most viewers prefer Dangermouse, and Rug Rats. (a comma is used before Rug
Rats to make it clear to the reader that Dangermouse and Rug Rats are two
different programmes)
When a coordinating conjunction is used to join two independent clauses, a
comma must be used before the coordinating conjunction (if the two independent
clauses are not very short).
Commas are to be used before conjunctions which are followed by non-
essential elements.
These changes will cost quite a lot, but they will save us money in the long run.
When a sentence begins with a coordinating conjunction, it must not be
followed by a comma.
Yet he is still a child and you cannot judge him too harshly.
Although at first sight the conjunction can be categorized as a simple and
unproblematic part of speech both in English and in Romanian, it frequently poses
a lot of problems to speakers.
References:
Constantinescu-Dobridor, Gh., 1996, Morfologia limbii romane, Bucuresti, Editura Vox.
Irimia, Dumitru, 1997, Gramatica Limbii Române, Iaşi, Editura Polirom.
Paidos, Constantin, 2001, English Grammar, Theory and Practice, Iaşi, Editura Polirom.
18
Goga, Mircea, 2008, Gramatica Limbii Române, Bucureşti, Editura Niculescu.
Pănescu, Eugenia, 1996, Gramatica Limbii Engleze, Bucuresti, Editura Niculescu.
19
PHOETIC ADAPTATIO OF EGLISH WORDS I ROMAIA
Bianca DABU
Abstract: The paper deals with an investigation about the similarities and
dissimilarities in the phonetic sztems of English and Romanian. There are two important
steps involving phonetic and morphological aspects when speaking about adapting loan
words: transphonemization and transmorphemization. The process of integration of
English loan words in Romanian focuses primarily on the vowels as the number of vowels
in English is almost twice numerous compared to Romanian. The transphonemization of the
English diphthongs was achieved without difficulties because Romanian is permissive when
uttering the English diphthongs.
Key words: phonetic adaptation, transphonemization, transmorphemization.
0. Phonetic adaptations should be regarded from the point of view of similarity of

the phonematic systems of English and Romanian and from the point of view of
differention between vowel and consonant systems of the two languages. When
speaking about integration of borrowings Filipovič (1977:160) states that there are
two important steps involving phonetic and morphological aspects. The first step
in integrating new words in a language is to make primary transfer alterations of an
element from the source language to the target language which means to create
substitutes of the initial patterns able to undertake the same functions while the
second step consists of deeper substantial alterations at a morphological level.
Filipovič makes an entire description (1981:125-133) of the phenomenon called
transphonemization (the substitution of the phonemes) while the substitution of the
morphemes is called transmorphemization (1980:1-8).
Transphonemization concers both the vowels and the diphthongs, as well as the
consonants of a language and should consider the equivalent phonematic features
of the source language and the target language in order to provide a certain degree
of conformity. Thus, different degrees1 of integration may be achieved as long as
1
Filipovic, Transphonemization, enumerates three degrees of transfonemization namely:
zero degree of transphonemization that refers to those phonemes in the source language
coresponding almost completely to those in the target language; partial transphonemization
when the phonemes in the source language correspond only partially to those in the the
target language and the phonemes are different as to their opening or utterance; and free
transphonemization when the phonemes of the source language have no articulatory
equivalents in the target language case in which the substitution of these phonemes is
achieved through spelling or other extralinguistic factors.
20
the similarities and dissimilarities between the two language describe the two
phonetic systems.
1. The process of integration of English loan words in Romanian focuses primarily

on the vowels as the number of vowels in English is almost twice numerous
compared to Romanian. Ştefănescu-Drăgăneşti (1972: 75-88) points out that each
of the seven Romanian vowels have a double number of Engish vowels1, the
English phonemes having a different [+length] feature. The phonological value of
the English vowels is a main characteristic that differentiates them from the
Romanian ones.
Thus, due to the fact that in Romanian the chief oppositions [+/- front], [+/-
central], [+/- open], [+/- closed] are basic for the phonemic distinctive features
of vowels while in English the oppositions [+/- tense], [+/- long] (Manea, 2004:71)
are relevant, the transphonemization of the 12 English vowels is achieved in
Romanian as below:
English vowels Romanian vowels

[i:] meeting, speaker, dealer [i] miting, spicher, dealer
kerosene, preprint [e] kerosen, preprint
[i] design, debater [i] design, debater
market, detective, media [e] market, detectiv, media
manager [a] manager
[e] net, stress [e] net, stres
[æ] match, forehand [e] meci, forhend
laptop, fax [a] laptop, fax
[a:] aftershave, casting [a] after-shave, casting
[Ǥ ]shop, top, stopper [o] shop, top, stoper
[Ǥ:] hall, skateboard, call-girl [o] hol, skateboard, call-girl
[u] look, showroom [u] look, showroom

[u:] scooter, cool, crooner [u] scuter, cool, crooner
1
V. Ştefănescu-Drăgăneşti:„ The English vowel system as a whole creates difficulties to
Romanian speakers, first of all due to the existence of almost the double number of
elements”.
21
[ л ]drum, puzzle, summit [a] drum, puzzle, summit
pickup, upercut, club [u] picup, upercut, club
rugby [ă] rugbi
rummy [ö] rummy/ [e] remi
[∂ ] scorer, single [ă] scorer, single
slogan [a] slogan
poster, speaker [e] poster, spicher
[ ∂:] hurling, surfing [ă] hurling, surfing
flirt [i] flirt
This process should consider the following characteristics (Ciobanu, 1997:39-82)

of the vowels as they provide the most important dissimilarities at the adaption
from the source language to the target language:
[i:] in English is similar to Romanian [i] in stressed syllables but it is longer; that is
why Romanian speakers tend to transform it into a diphthong when they utter
English words containing this phoneme. In MDN the following English loan words
are recorded, having the vowel [i:] transphonemized in [i], [e] or even [a] in few
situations: agreement1, beagle, beep, beeper, blue-jeans, deeptank, feedback,
feeling, fider, free–lance gentleman’s agreement, goalkeeper, gulfstream, jeep,
kerosen, keyboards, leadership, leasing, mass media, policeman, preprint, remake,
reprint, rupiah, speech, speed, steeple–chase, team, tea–room, teenager, tepee,
tweed, tweeter, week-end
[i] in English is open, back and shorter than in Romanian rendered by Romanian
speakers as [i], [e], or [a]. In MDN the following English loan words compounds
with the prefix anti- contain transphonemized [i]: antialbuminat, antidepressant,
antihemolitic, antihemoroidal, antihipnotic, antimicotic, antipruritic, antireumatic,
antischeting, antisudorific, antivenin, antizimotic, artifact anticipant,
antidepressant, antidogmatic, antihemolitic, antihemoroidal, antihipnotic,
antimicotic, antipapal, antipatogen, antipruritic, antireformist, antireumatic,
antiromantic, antisubmarin, antisudorific, antizimoticbil;
Other English borrowings recorded in MDN uttered in the same manner: debater,
diagnostician, digger, digit, dixielander, disc-jockey, disconter, discount, display,
dibol, digitizor, dip, diptanc, establishment, event, fixing, ficţional, jitterbug, killer,
liftboy, lipoblast, listing, living, miss, mistress, recorder, recording, replay, ridger,
strimer, string, singleton, slip, vizualitate, window–dresing;
1
For agreement we can suggest a second very popular and largely used pronunciation
[agrement]
22
[e] in English is a front and close vowel but almost identical with the Romanian
[e]. In most cases transphonemization is complete with the exception of the word
heading [‘hediŋ] which in MDN is recorded with the pronunciation [‘hiding]1.
Other English loan words recorded in MDN with the transphonemized vowel are:
bending, betacism, best–seller, bezoar, centroid, cerebrofiziologie, centroid,
cerebralism, dermatografie, dermopunctură, deck, decolator, decorticator,
exponenţial, extracultural, feroterapie, fetometrie, fellow, gestualitate, henţ,
heptastih, heterocefal, ketch, ketchup, melanonichie, melisofobie, metaproteină,
managerial, renting, self–made man, semanticist, semifinalist, stem, step,
temperamental, venerabilitate, vestigial, welter, western;
[æ] in English is uttered almost simlarly to the Romanian [e] but as open as an [a];
that is why the English borrowings containing this phoneme undergo a
transphonemization into [e] and [a]. the following English loan words are recorded
in MDN: bantam, gag, stand, calico, camping, campus, caravaning, clan,
feedback, hacker, hacking, happening, lapping, mastiff, ranker, randomiza,
scratch, snack-bar, superman, bec, scana, sleming, smeş;
[a:] in English is a back vowel compared to the Romanian one which is central and
lacks the feature [+length]; the English loan words recorded in MDN are: barter,
by-pass, carting, cartist, cardiomiopatie, darling, garden-party, half, half-time,
hardback, hard–disk, hardpan, hard–rock, hard–top, hardware, impala, kakapo,
kalong, karma, marker, master, market, master, sahib, sarcocarp, sarcoplast,
sardinian, sari, staff, start, yard
[Ǥ ] in English is a back, open, short vowel and has no perfect equivalent phoneme
in Romanian. It is assimilated to the phoneme [o] spelled with the help of letter ‚o’
in already adapted words such as combină, moron etc. In MDN the English loan
words recorded are: adipofibrom, adipom, antipodic, boghead, boy, buldog, back–
cross, bob-scat, box–office, cob, cocher, cod, columnist, comics, copyright,
coroner, dogmatician, disc-jockey, dibol, expozitiv, fobofobie, globe-trotter,
gospel, hot dog, jobber, job-broker, lobby, lobbying, lobbyism, lock–out, loft, long
drink, longline, longest, mobbing, mobster, modeler, modeling, moderant,
moderant, modern–style, monitor, monitoring, naratologie, nonsubstanţional,
nonvirulent, nonvolatile, on–line, observaţional, off–line, ofsaid , off–shore,
radioautografie, radioecologie, radiotoxicitate, remote–control, reonom,
recoloniza, stoper, shocking, software, topologist, test–cross, teomorf,
ultrasonogramă;
[Ǥ: ] in English is a back, half-open vowel, less rounded than Romanian [o] and is
assimilated in all syllabic positions. In MDN the following Englsh loan words are
recorded: basse-ball, call–girl, chorus, cornflakes, court, draw, hol, indoor,
1
G. Ciobanu also provides the phonetic transcription [‘hidin] for the same English
borrowing in DN3
23
landlord, leghorn, mall, netbol, setbol, shortening, tomahawk, walkman, wash–
board, water–schi, york;
[u] in English is a short, less rounded and front than the Romanian counterpart [u].
it occur in medial position in stressed and non-stressed syllables. In MDN the
following items are recorded: boogie–woogie,book-maker, bushel, foot, full–time,
output, input, up-to-date, puding;
[u:] in English is less rounded, more open and longer than the Romanian [u]. It
occurs transphonemized in English loan words recorded in MDN: boom, booster,
bluming, crooner, guru, luping, rupiah, saloon, sloop, scuter, superman,
suprasterol, supraocluzie, superconductor, superdividend, supermarket,
supershow, superston, supertanc, supertrust, woofer, zoom;
[ л ] in English is a central and shorter vowel than the Romanian [a]. Besides this
phonetic equivalent, there is also a partial transphonemization as the same english
phoneme is rendered by [u] or [œ] for some words uttered under the influence of
French: bluf [blœf]1, rummy [‚rœmi] sau [‚rœgbi]. In MDN the transphonemized
vowel occur in: brunch, buggy, bungalou, buzer, cupman, crut, duglas, drummer,
durham, funky, fuzz, hunter, multivitamină, subcontract, subdialect, subdistrict,
subfilum, subgen, subgrup, subprogram, subtip, subton, sulky, trustier, uteranţă,
underground, ultraliberalism, ultrasonoscop, update, ultrademocratic, ultraist,
ultramundan, ultrasentimental;
[∂ ] in English is a vowel almost similar to the Romanian [ă] although it is shorter
and more open. Through phonemization it can acquire other phonetical values such
as [a] in coca-cola, [e] in coroner or broker, [o] in moderator. In MDN the
following English loan words are recorded: aisberg, autoservice, anuclear,
bazooka, broker, buzer, cluster, cracker, computaţional, coroner, digger, extender,
eye–liner, flanger, golgheter, hurdler, hurling, indan, killer, liner, marker, master,
outsider, over, rocker, pulover, science-fiction, suportabilitate, visiting professor,
vindrover, vinificator, voucher, woofer.
[∂:] in English has the same features as the above vowel with the additional feature
[+lenght] which implies certain difficulties for Romanian speakers who have only
the equivalent phoneme [ă] (or the obsolete [œ] under the French influence for sir
[sœr] or call-girl [colgœl]. In MDN there are the following English loan words
with the transphonemized vowel: nursing, surf, surfing, turbodinam, turbojet,
turboseter.
Considering the principles set out by Filipovič (supra) we may conclude that zero
transphonemization is acquired for the vowels [i:], [e], [Ǥ:], [u], [u:], [a:] [∂ ],
[∂: ] and partial transphonemization for the vowels [i], [æ], [ л ], [∂ ], [ ∂:]. At
1
MDN provides those pronunciations although the etymology is English while the words
blufa and bluffeur have French etymlogy which justifies the pronunciation with [œ]. As a
matter of fact, nowadays the speakers use [bluf], [remi] or [rugbi] rather than the above
ones.
24
the same time, we have to emphasize that there are situations when words may be
uttered differently by the speakers due to either non-observance of the phonetic
transcriptions provided by the dictionaries or a deficient adaptation of some
English loan words because of a poor knowledge of English. Thus, we may provide
the following examples: (Ciobanu, 1997:34) flash /fleȓ/ (English.) - /fleş/ şi /flaş/
(Romanian); dandy /dendi/ (English.) – /dendi/ şi /dandi/ (Romanian); broker
/’brouk∂/(English) - /brăucăr/ şi /brocher/ (Romanian); (Băncilă, Chiţoran,
1982:389) dumping /’dлmpiŋ/(English) - /dumping/ şi /damping/(Romanian);
(Ungureanu, 2008:128) manager /’mæniȴ∂/(English) - /mana’ȴer/ şi
/me’neȴer/ (Romanian); rugby /’rлgbi/ (English) - /răgbi/, /rugbi/ şi /röibi/1 etc.
2. English diphthongs underwent substantial transformations until they could be

uttered as a unit of two vowels having the features intensity and duration. In
Romanian the two vowels of a diphthong uttered in the same syllable do not have
the same lenght or intensity. The transphonemization of the English diphthongs
was achieved without difficulties because Romanian is permissive when uttering
the English diphthongs except [i∂], [ε∂], [u∂]. Their articulation is achieved
through pronunciation in a different syllable or as a monophtong.
English diphthongs Romanian diphthongs

[ei] ace, baby, fairplay [ei] ace, baby, fairplay
grapefruit, break, lady [e] grepfruit, brec, lady
laser, laburist [a] laser, laburist
[ai] high, hijacking, design [ai] high, hijacking, design
micotic, idiolalie, victimize [i] micotic, idiolalie, victimiza
[au] know–how, lock–out, howdah [au] know–how, lock–out, howdah
clown [o] clovn
[∂u] broker, soul [∂u] broker, soul
modem, turbo, poll, mogul [o] modem, turbo, poll2, mogul
[Ǥi] tabloid, toy-terrier, boy [oi] tabloid, toy-terrier, boy
1
V. Bănciulescu, Limbajul sportiv, Bucureşti, 1984, apud M.Avram în Anglicismele, p.15,
states that there are six pronunciations for this word.
2
In MDN the pronunciation is [poul] cf.OERD, but in practice the speakers use [pol]
mainly in the compound „exit-pol”.
25
[i∂] clearing [i] cliring
media [ia] media
intratraheal [ea] intratraheal
[ε∂] fair, fairplay, software [e] fair, fairplay, software
square, aerobacter [a] scuar, aerobacter1
[u∂] afterhours [u∂] afterhours2
intertextual, intersexual [ua] intertextual, intersexual
Bibliography
Băncilă, F., Chiţoran, D., 1982, The English Element in Contemporary Romanian, in The
English Element in European Languages , vol II, edited by Rudolf Filipovic, Zagreb
Bănciulescu, V., 1984, Limbajul sportiv, Bucureşti
Ciobanu, G., 1997, Adaptation of the English Element in Romanian, Timişoara, Ed. Mirton.
Filipovic, R., 1977, Some Basic Principles of Languages in Contact Reinterpreted
(Illustrated by the Serbo-Croation), SRAZ, 43-44
Filipovic, R., 1981, Substitution on a Phonological Level Reinterpreted, im W. Pockl (ed.),
Euripaische Mehrsprachigkeit, Tubingen, Niemeyer.
Filipovic, R., 1980, Transmorphemization: Substitution on the Morphological Level
Reinterpreted, SRAZ 25
Manea, C., 2004, Structura etimologică, Editura Universităţii din Piteşti.
Marcu, F., 2004, Marele Dicţionar de -elogisme, Bucureşti, (MDN), Editura Saeculum I.
O.
Ştefănescu-Drăgăneşti, V., 1972, A composite table of the Vowel System of English for
Constrastive Purposes, BRECAP 3
Ungureanu, C., 2008, Equivalences ou emprnts? Le francais, le roumain et les mots,
anglais, Thèse de doctorat IIIeme cycle, Atelier national de reproduction des Thèses, Lille
1
All English words having the prefix aero- recorded in MDN follow the same pattern:
aerocistografie, aerocistoscopie, aerodentalgie, aeroionoterapie, aeromamografie, aeropatie,
aeropauză etc.
2
G. Ciobanu provides this example as the only word in Romanian that preserves the English
diphthong.
26
A COTRASTIVE AALYSIS OF LEXICAL AD GRAMMATICAL

MISTAKES
Laura IOICA
University of Pitești
Abstract: Words have their own life consisting of the well-known cycle: birth,
living and death. Language has been created to serve as a link between individual and
society. It is not a mechanism per se, but it always acts within a society. The two essential
aspects of the language, spiritual and material are so strongly connected, that one cannot
exist without the other. Language is a living organism evolving at the same time with
humans. Analyzed both synchronically and diachronically, language captures the speaker’s
skills through the choice of eloquent words and phrases. In terms of diachrony, language
evolution from one historical stage to another shows a wide range of forms, each with
special changes and means of expression. The present paper aims to partially describe the
evolution of words and their psychological impact on our inner life.
Key words: cycle, living organism, diachrony, means of expression.
Introduction
There are no notions without words, no thinking without notions and no

spiritual life without language. Along with the logic element, the emotional aspect
breathes life into the expression. After entering the language, some words are
received with suspicion by linguists, but with more curiosity by the wider public.
Sometimes words change their meanings or combining preferences, create a word
family or combine with a "relative" that means the same, are understood,
misinterpreted or used excessively, so that they come to distort their meaning.
Common mistakes found in language regard not only the specialist, but
also the one concerned with correct expression. Even though most language users
neglect the requirements of accurate expression, considering important only the
content of the message, the form organizing the message is equally important.
Language mistakes or their absence from the expression represent a "card" for any
speaker.
Romanian authors, among whom G. Liiceanu and A. Pleșu are highly
concerned with the state of the Romanian language. They know it to the most
intimate details, being interested in its evolution and "health state". In most cases,
they strive to ennoble it, to diversify its creative potential, without altering its
essential role "to name things correctly".
Their preoccupations to create stylistic nuances, to unreservedly revive the
dynamism of the phrase and innovate the semantic value of the epithet (cititor
27
bulimic, uitarea sterilă de sine, sterilă volubilitate etc.) show their constant
concern with the welfare of the language.
It is well known that words evolve from one historical stage to another, and
this is not done in accordance with the linguists’ desire, but in compliance with the
changes occurring in society. The damage of the Romanian language has
frequently been subject of debate and reactions are varied and sudden. A. Plesu
decries "martirajul limbii române", and his words are eloquent "A vorbi șleampăt,
răstit, ofensator, grobian și, pe deasupra, greșit, a nu acorda greutate forței
cuvintelor, a spune orice despre oricine, a vorbi pentru a provoca furie sau durere
sunt tot atâtea feluri de a introduce, în mediul în care te manifești, o primejdioasă
otravă." (A. Pleșu, 2011: 245)
As a clear-cut reality, mass-media stand for an inexhaustible source of new
terms and phrases and help to expand the already existing terms by creating new
meanings. Being in a permanent search to decipher the messages, people tend to
embellish interpersonal communication with a number of expressive words and
phrases in order to reveal the speaker’s meaningful intention.
The frequently employed concept of wooden language gradually turns
communication into a ritual devoid of meaning, in which the form becomes
confused and the exchange of information is random and arbitrary. In actual
conversation, large categories of speakers tend to exhibit certain lexical
preferences, interpreted as fashionable words, which, in spite of their ephemeral
nature, create by their frequency an important impact in certain contexts or
language stages.
Since 1990, the Romanian language has been subject to a general process
of transition from censorship to freedom of expression, from the limiting aspect of
expression to diversity of communication as a whole. Substantial transformation
also occurred with other languages and societies.
Although Romanian has always benefited from an expressive and
consistent vocabulary, rich phrases and a well conformed grammatical structure, in
the 1990 it opened to foreign loans, especially from English. What was first
inaccessible now became fashionable words prevailing in various fields of activity:
technology, entertainment, customs etc. Such phenomena, related to the history of
words should not be incriminated, but treated as a common thing of the
contemporary world.
What disturbs is not the witting use of the English language to reflect the
mundane life, but using it "by ear" with semantic inadequacies, hypercorrection, an
everything that is superficial and arrogant. The literary norm can hardly face the
avalanche of loans. The multiple variants of words outside well-defined criteria
involve uncertainty and insecurity which is the first step toward change. In this
case, the lack of criteria changes for the worse.
The excessive use of barbarisms, the unjustified combination of stylistic
registers and the presence of lexical and grammatical variants, different from what
the literary norm imposes, denote shallowness and cultural scarcity. Linguistic
28
culture involves knowing an interpreting rules, respect for the word, understanding
and tolerance for others’ words. Such things must be grown and learned.
In her reference to the evolution of the Romanian language, M. Avram
asserts that "dinamica (limbii) se denumește prin zbucium, frământare,
efervescență, febrilitate, agitație spectaculozitate sau boom, respectiv avalanșă,
explozie, invazie, inflație, în timp ce pentru ierarhizarea variantelor se folosesc
termeni cu un conținut care include, mai mult sau mai puțin, ideea de agresivitate,
de la concurență și confruntare, la luptă pentru supremație." (2002: 4)
Despite the bad designation of the language: stricare, urâțire, its dynamics
is an objective reality translated through creativity. The interest for the accuracy of
language dates back to the end of the 19th century (Munteanu, 2000: 88), but has
become a constant preoccupation of linguists by the mid of the 20th century.
O gramatică a greșelilor (I. Iordan, 1943) was the first representative
work, whose main role was to emphasize the language refinement not only as the
linguists’ duty, but also the learned men’s main concern. The campaign for
language accuracy continued on radio and television with broadcasts such as: Doar
o vorbă să-ți mai spun (G. Pruteanu), Parol (TVR Cultural), Minutul de limba
română (Radio România Cultural) etc.
Due to its less conservatory nature, vocabulary changes more often, being
"the most mobile part of the language, closely related to the evolution of society."1
Such changes find their explanation within the language; words become obsolete,
lose their original expressiveness and need to be replaced and "revitalized". The
most receptive means to novelty is the language of the press which abounds in
clichés, stereotypes and ephemeral words. The lexical and grammatical mistakes
also occur due to loose and imitative translation of different texts. Rules that get
beyond linguistic reality should be revised regularly according to literary norms.
The English impact
Most mistakes that occur among Romanian speakers are mainly due to the
English influence. Another significant series regards the speakers’ desire to use a
more academic language. Mistakes also comprise pleonasm types, linguistic
clichés, paronymic attraction or misused words and phrases. All these elements
will be thoroughly analyzed, in order to understand people’s constant leaning to
wrongly use words.
The most visible feature of the Romanian lexicon is the English influence.
The term romgleză explains the concern of different Romanian intellectual circles
to the invasion of Anglicisms that threaten the national language identity. Authors
(O. Paler, A. Pleșu, E. Simion) did not hesitate to express their strong opinions
about this influence: "un jargon insuportabil care tinde să se împrăștie ca râia și să
1
Al. Graur, Tendințele actuale ale limbii române, 1968, p. 271
29
prostească, să urâțească limba" (E. Simion, Curentul 6.10.01, Tot despre
romgleză).
On the other hand, there are authors who support the idea of English loans.
The tolerance of such authors (M. Avram) is more related to normalization of
language rather than sociolinguistic and sociocultural aspects. "Influența engleză
este un fenomen internațional care nu are nimic negativ în sine și nu e mai
periculoasă pentru limba romană decât alte influențe din trecut și de azi…"1
Vocabulary is enriched both by new words (derivatives, compounds) and
semantic transformation of already existing words (expansion or limitation of
meaning, enrichment etc.). All these mechanisms are common in the evolution of
language, but they may become language mistakes, unless they correspond to the
stylistic register in which they occur.
The story of calque
The term calque (fr. calque) designates "the process of literal transposition
of a semantically construed words, structure or meaning from language A into
language B." 2 Among the types of calque known in the specialized studies, the
semantic one involves certain risks and it is perceived both as an advantage and a
threat to TL.
The speakers’ knowledge of the meaning, linguistic economy and rich
synonymy lie among the benefits of semantic calque, whereas lack of familiarity
with SL may bring about confusion of the type false friends (false cognates) or
"cuvinte altoite"3
False friends are frequently used in Romanian, due to the confusion
between TL and SL word: a agrea – to agree, a focusa – to focus, a realiza – to
realize, a aplica – to apply, suport – to support, promoție – promotion etc.
The semantic expansion of meanings is likely to be accepted in the
language, yet only temporarily. Avoidance of such mistakes is possible by
appropriate use of the Romanian equivalents: a se concentra instead of a se focusa,
casă / loc instead of locație, spectatori instead of audiență etc.
In its dynamics, Romanian has adopted a series of terms, thus explaining
its openness to change and the great mobility of vocabulary. Due to the frequency
of its use, the word job is omnipresent in our daily communication. Although
included in the class of Anglicisms, job is well adapted to the Romanian language
and follows the same flexion pattern as nouns in the neutral gender (plug –
pluguri).
1
M. Avram, Anglicismele în limba română actuală, 1997, p. 5
2
Dicționar de științe ale limbii, 2005, p. 90
3
G. Gruiță, Moda lingvistică 2007. -orma, uzul și abuzul, 2006, p. 15
30
The verb to apply which collocates with job is preferred by numerous
speakers instead of the obsolete forms a solicita, a cere, a candida pentru (to apply
for a job / scholarship / training course etc.). The verb to apply (to submit a
request) has a common meaning with the Romanian a aplica, and is frequently
used in the administrative style.
The noun application, on the other hand, is rendered into Romanian as
cerere, solicitare (de înscriere), but it has extended its meaning to the field of
informatics and mobile telephony, expressing a specific task performed by the
operating system and controlled by the user.
Expertise (expertiză) is another controversial noun whose analysis is worth
mentioning. Its general meaning sends to the idea of "technical research made by
an expert, at the request of a criminal investigation body." Expertise is specific to
the medical, technical or legal field. Following the English pattern, "an expert’s
opinion / advice, Romanian speakers make frequent use of its meaning "ability,
experience, skill."
Although DEXI (2007) records the term with the meaning "aptitudine,
pricepere, competență, experiență pe care o are cineva într-un anumit domeniu de
activitate", most of the other dictionaries exclude it and recommend us to use forms
such as experiență, pricepere, instead of expertiză: *Am o expertiză bogată în
domeniul informaticii vs. Am o experiență bogată în domeniul informaticii.
To visualize means to imagine, to conceive, while the Romanian equivalent
indicates another definition: a privi, a vedea un film, un spectacol, o partidă
sportivă etc.
Attachment refers to a file sent by e-mail, while the Romanian term
describes a strong, long-lasting affection.
Location (locatie) comes from fr. location and lat. location,-onis and is
translated as rent paid for certain things taken into temporary use. The English
location has extended its meaning to: a particular place, the position of something,
a place away from a film studio where scenes are filmed etc.
On the basis of formal similarity, the Romanian locatie has copied many of
the English meanings, including the cinema-related one. Its semantic extension is
correlated with its massive use by the journalists, since mass-media are the fruitful
field of the term. Location has penetrated the unspecialized language and has
become synonymous with loc.
However, the registers in which it occurs should be differentiated, so that
the term may not become the expression of perpetual dilettanteism.
Challenge (provocare) has undergone a significant semantic transfer from
the predominantly negative meaning to a positive one. It has deeply changed its
connotations and its position within the lexical family. The initial meaning of
provocare was negative: a wanted difficulty or a test of somebody’s abilities. It is
specific to sport events and artistic field, but has extended its meaning to almost all
activity fields.
31
Another symbolic word, frequently used in everyday language is to
socialize, whose sociological meaning a dobândi caracter social, a se pune la
dispoziția societății, was enriched with the English meaning to socialize (to have
friendly relationships with different persons). The term has become a successful
slang of modern life, especially among teenagers. It is employed euphemistically to
describe daily activities such as: to gossip, to chat, to go to parties etc.
A well known lexical phenomenon aims at the excessive use of pleonasms.
Pleonasm is a redundant combination of words and phrases with the same meaning.
It is most common in ironic contexts and is explained whether by the lack of
meaning knowledge or the semantic identity of two words and phrases. Some
pleonasms are possible and are no longer mistakes, others are intolerable in terms
of linguistic rules.
However, they usually occur because of lack of attention, ignorance or
wish to impress. As a universal feature of the language, tolerable pleonasms should
not be treated as mistakes. In current language, structures such as: am auzit cu
urechile mele, am văzut cu ochii mei, întuneric beznă, a interveni între etc., do no
longer shock the reader. They usually explain the speaker’s need to emphasize a
certain idea, to add an emotional mark to information.
In terms of usage and frequency, certain pleonasms are part and parcel of
out existence. They comprise structures such as: primul debut, demnitate umană, a
coabita împreună, aversă de ploaie, a cronometra timpul, definitiv și irevocabil, hit
de mare succes, rafinament fin, răstignit pe cruce, plan de viitor, procent la sută
etc.
Amploare mare is a wrong semantic interpretation occurring in different
varieties of language. The noun itself comprises the idea of dimension. Therefore,
it would be enough to say acțiune de amploare, anchetă de amploare, proteste de
amploare instead of the pleonastic construction de mare amploare.
Another highly debated pleonasm in specialized studies is mijloacele mass-
media. Its dictionary entry is enough for us to realize we deal with a pleonasm. The
English synonym media of mass communication was rendered as mijloace de
comunicare în masă, which justifies the contamination by translation. In spite of
the linguists’ effort to eliminate it from the language, it still appears on a large
scale.
Most pleonasms are used unintentionally by speakers who don’t know the
meanings and etymology of words or their semantic relationships. They are
specific to every speaker, regardless of education or social and cultural
environment.
Another series of pleonasms strictly refers to a smaller category of people
willing to show off, to employ a highly academic style: dorința unanimă a tuturor,
principalele protagoniste, vor conviețui împreună etc.
Adjectives in the superlative are also subject of debate, due to speakers’
leaning to ignore lexical or semantic rules. Their language is generally pointed with
structures of the type: mai superior, extreme de pozitiv, foarte urias, mai intim etc.
32
Pleonastic structures characterize both oral communication and literary
texts. Nevertheless, the press conveys the most powerful impact on the public,
whether it is periodicals, radio or television broadcast.
It would be a utopia to believe that pleonasm, like any other lexical mistake
could ever disappear from the language. However, the action of language
refinement should focus more on these mistakes, in order to remove intolerable
structures. Looking up in the dictionary or skimming through normative works
should become a priority, in order to avoid confusion and hilarity.
Vis-à-vis de, oamenii legii, la ora actuală, în cadrul, în principal, criza
financiară, pe cinste, tranziția etc., are examples of modern clishés whose role is to
embellish communication and to stir sensation. They can be called masterpieces of
the wooden language. Insufficient knowledge of language resources, hastiness, or
preference for certain rare, sounding words, clearly explains the presence of
linguistic clichés.
They do not justify the content of communication and create droning
statements or laughsome effects. Such groups of words do not contribute to the
understanding of ideas, but cause scarcity of language. Their excessive repetition is
annoying since it leads to inappropriately stylistic structures.
A. Plesu describes the exorbitant number of clichés as follows: "Lenea
mentală și senilitatea sunt sursele curente ale vorbirii stereotipe"1
In terms of structure, clichés usually contain one word (senzațional,
practic, devastator, teroare, șoc etc.), two words (sportul rege, efectele caniculei,
în cadrul, în principal etc.) or whole sentences (Inundațiile nu au fost bine
gestionate, Astăzi se întrunește Parlamentul, Au votat și copiii sau ceva de genul
ăsta, Victima zace într-o baltă de sânge etc.)
Clarifying of language requires a continuous attention on correct usage of
words and their proper contextualization. Language accuracy should become our
main concern in everyday communication. Using the right word in the right context
is not a game, but a great responsibility, since language is a complex, nuanced
reality based on the construction and selection of more or less individualized rules.
Bibliography
Avram M., 1997, Anglicismele în limba română actuală, București, Editura Academiei
Române.
Crystal D., 2000, English as a global language, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Dicționar de științe ale limbii, 2005, București, Editura Nemira.
Françoise T., 1993, Limba de lemn, București, Editura Humanitas.
Graur Al., 1968, Tendințele actuale ale limbii române, București, Editura Științifică.
Gruiță G., 2006 Moda lingvistică 2007. -orma, uzul și abuzul, Pitești, Paralela 45.
Hristea T., Un pleonasm intolerabil: mijloace de mass-media, Eco, 44, p.6
1
A. Pleșu, Despre frumisetea uitată a vieții, 2011, p. 247
33
Munteanu St., 2000, Cuvânt și cultură. Însemnări pe marginea cultivării limbii, Timișoara,
Editura Amfora.
Pleșu A., 2011, Despre frumusețea uitată a vieții, București, Editura Humanitas.
Stoichițoiu Ichim A., 2006, Aspecte ale influenței engleze în româna actuală, București,
Editura Universității din București.
Zafiu R., 2001, Diversitate stilistica în româna actuală, București, Editura Universității din
București.
34
ASPECTS OF EGLISH VS. ROMAIA PREPOSITIOS
Andreea MACIU
Abstract: The present paper presents several similarities and differences in relation with
the preposition in English and Romanian. The different criteria of classification in Romanian as well
as in English are taken into account, with specific examples of sentences for each of the respective
cases. As one knows language is a living organism in continuous change, still several characteristics
can be noted as regards the features and role of the preposition in the two languages.
Key words: preposition, definition, classification, role, significance.
In Romanian one should take into account the classical definition of

prepositions, that is (morphologically invariable) heads that can be combined with
various complements, especially those of nominal value, thus projecting
prepositional collocations (see Chomsky – 1965, Pană Dindelegan – 1997). As a
centre of the group, the preposition imposes on its complement a series of
grammatical restrictions, among which the restriction of the case and the restriction
of the topics. Therefore, prepositions in Romanian can be formed either with the
Accusative (între, fără, la etc.), the Genitive (contra, împotriva etc.), or with the
Dative (graţie, datorită, etc.). As regards word order, Alexandru Mardale
(http://www.llf.cnrs.fr/Gens/Mardale/mardale_categ.lex_categ.funct2006.pdf)
states that all the prepositions in the Romanian language have a fixed word order in
relation with their complement, in the sense that the complement is always
preceded by the preposition. Thus, the name of the preposition: pre-poziţie.
The definition of the preposition in English given by László Budai ( Budai,
2003: 369) is a structural or functional word used to present various relations
between words or groups of words (phrases and clauses) within the sentence. In
Advanced Learners’ Grammar, Mark Foley and Diane Hall give the following
definition of the preposition in English: ‘A preposition describes the relationship
between two or more things. It can link nouns, verbs or adjectives before the
preposition with a noun or pronoun after it:
Now, let’s move on to item six on the agenda.
Be careful. The hem of your dress is dragging along the floor.
John’s got an appraisal tomorrow. He’s really anxious about it.’ (Foley,
Hall, 2003: 280)
In the English language, prepositions may formally be divided into:
a) simple prepositions: on, it, at, by, with, etc.:
The book is on the table. He is in the kitchen. She is writing with a pencil.
b) compound prepositions: into, without, out of, etc.:
Then, she walked into the room. She jumped out of bed.
35
c) participial prepositions: during, concerning, regarding, etc.:
He was phoned during the conference.
I am not complaining regarding this issue.
d) phrasal or group prepositions: because of, as far as, instead of, in front
of, on account of, in spite of, side by side with, etc.:
He was standing in front of the door. She will leave instead of him.
In Romanian, according to Alexandru Mardale, prepositions function either
as independent predicates, usually expressing circumstantial relations (spatial/
locative: de, pe, spre, către, lângă, etc., temporal: pe, la, sub, în, etc., causative:
graţie, mulţumită, datorită, etc.), but not only circumstantial (see preposition cu for
instrumental or association relations, or they are subcategorized by an element in
the structure in which they occur (a crede în → credinţa în, a lupta împotriva →
lupta împotriva, a opta pentru → opţiunea pentru), or they appear from structural
reasons, being constrained by the context in which they appear (see in this sense: o
carte a doi copii, o uşă de biserică, atribuirea de burse la zece elevi). According to
this, one takes into account the existence of two classes of prepositions: lexical
prepositions and functional prepositions (Rizzi – 1988, van Riemsdijk – 1990),
Tseng – 2000, Fagard – 2006). The former are the correspondent of independent
and subcategorized predicates, the latter are the correspondent of prepositions that
appear from structural reasons, as well as from other reasons.
In the English language there is no formal difference between prepositions
and adverbs, but there is a difference in use: a preposition has an object, differing
from an adverb that does not:
Did you ever travel before the war, Dad? (preposition)
I have a strange feeling that I’ve been here before. (adverb) (Ibidem)
A classification of the meaning and use of prepositions in English
according to Mark Foley and Diane Hall is in conformity with the position,
movement and direction, time and other aspects of the prepositions:
A. Position – Vertical relationships: above, after, below, beneath, down,
on, on top of, over, under, underneath, up.
Are you going to fly over the Alps?
He disappeared under the waves.
Position – Horizontal relationships: against, along, alongside, around, at,
beside, between, by, in, near, next to, on, on the left/ right of
The two authors specify that the preposition at is used with a point in
space: at the bus stop, at 8 Baker Street and the preposition on with a surface or a
line: on the table, on the river, on Oxford Street. The preposition in is used with
something that surrounds: in the wood. They differentiate between the following:
At the corner of the street (= a point) but in the corner of the room (=
inside).
One usually uses in with countries, cities or towns and on with streets,
roads, avenues, etc. At is used with the names of squares if we think of the
‘address’ and in if we think of a square as ‘surrounding’ us:
36
The film premiere this year will take place at Leicester Square in London.
One uses at when referring to gatherings of people: at a party, at a
conference.
Position – ‘Facing’ relationships: across, after, before, behind, facing, in
front of, opposite, over.
The bank is opposite the museum.
One specifies that the difference between opposite/ facing and in front of
resides in the fact that the items on the ‘line’ are not facing in the same direction,
but are facing each other.
B. Movement and direction – Vertical movement: down (to), off, on, onto,
over, up (to).
She has just fallen off her bike.
Movement and direction – Passing movement: across, along, down, over,
past, through, up.
The two authors specified that one uses along for movement in a line:
along a river/ road.
One uses up and down with roads and rivers (meaning ‘along’):
Go up the road to the corner, and the cinema is on the left.
We use across for movement from one side to the other of something on a
‘surface’, e.g. across the river/ road/ field.
Through is used for movement inside something, e.g. through a tunnel/
room:
You walk across the playing field to the wood then you go through the
wood.
There also appears over, which is similar to across (one side to the other)
but it incorporates the idea of above:
Are we going to fly over the Alps on the way to Italy?
As the authors mentioned, past is used for a movement from one side to
the other of something, next to it:
I was startled by a hyge bird that flew past my window this afternoon.
Movement and direction – Movement in one direction: around, at, away
from, down, down to, from, into, onto, out of, to, towards, up, up to.
C. Time – Point in time: at, in, on.
Before or after: after, before, by, past.
Duration: as from/ of, between, during, for, from…till/ until/ up to, in,
inside, since, through(out), until/ till, up to, within.
D. Other meanings – Reason: because of, due to, for, from, out of, owing
to, through.
Means: by, by means of, in, via, with.
Purpose: for, towards.
Comparison: against, as, beside, between, contrary to, than, (un)like.
Inclusion and exclusion: among, as well as, besides, between, beyond,
inside, instead of, out of, outside, under, within, without.
37
Exception: apart from, barring, but for, except (for), save.
Contrast: despite, for all, in spite of.
Material: from, of, out of, with.
Benefit: for, for the sake of, on behalf of.
Reporting: according to.
As regards the Romanian language, Mioara Avram classifies the
prepositions in relation with their origin in: primary prepositions and prepositions
formed in Romanian by means of compound prepositions or by conversion of some
parts of speech. (Avram, 1997: 265)
Primary prepositions: asupra, către, contra, cu, de, după, fără, în, între,
întru, la, lângă, pe, pentru, peste, până, spre, sub.
Prepositions formed by means of compound prepositions: deasupra,
despre, din, dinspre, dintre, dintru, înspre, prin, printer, printru, de către, de la, de
pe, de sub, fără de, în contra, pe la, pe lângă, pe sub, până în, până la.
Prepositions formed by means of conversion: dedesubtul, împrejurul,
dimprejurul, înăuntrul, dinăuntrul, împotriva, înaintea, dinaintea, înapoia,
dinapoia.
In Romanian, in relation with their form prepositions are: simple or
compound and in relation with their meaning: prepositions with one or several
meanings, prepositions with abstract or proper sense and prepositions with
different grammar functions.
As Mioara Avram states ‘prepositions have in most cases a helpful role in
syntax, building various parts of preposition. Prepositions with this role can be
classified according to the expressed relations or there are taken into account
purely syntactic relations (for example attributive or completive), or the syntactic
criterion is combined with the semantic one.’ (ibidem, p. 267)
To conclude with, we have taken into account only several types of
classification of the prepositions in English and Romanian and as one can notice
there are several significant similarities as well as several differences as regards the
preposition in the two languages.
Bibliography
http://www.llf.cnrs.fr/Gens/Mardale/mardale_categ.lex_categ.funct2006.pdf;
A., Mioara, 1997, Gramatica pentru toți, Ed. București, Humanitas;
Budai, L., 2003, Gramatica engleză. Teorie și exerciții, București, Ed. Teora;
Foley, M. & Hall, D., 2003, Advanced Learners’ Grammar, Essex, Longman;
Thomson, A. J., Martinet, A.V., 1995, A Practical English Grammar, Oxford, Oxford
University Press.
38
COTRASTIVE OTES O SOME EGLISH IDIOMS
Constantin MAEA
Abstract: The contrastive and didactic analysis conducted by the author of the
present paper concentrates on idiomaticity, comparing meaning, expression, usage and
degree of awareness. In the paper, contrastivity was intended to offer some individual notes
and clues meant to benefit both EFL teachers and translators in this country. The idioms
are analysed from the angle of both their literality, referentiality, specific “scenario”, and
expressive power. A modest final proposal is made to the effect that a contrastive
methodical database should be compiled by Romanian teachers in order to sort out the
content and expression sides of English idioms, while comparing them to their (relative)
counterparts in Romanian. Reference to the main issues concerning the comparative
expressiveness of the idioms will be part of a future research.
Key words: contrastive analysis, English idioms, opaque, transparent,

translatable, international idioms, didactic.
Figurative meaning and connotation are generally the very spice of verbal
expression in (the spoken aspect of) a natural language. Figurative expression is
mainly based on more or less complex semantic mechanisms and processes (i.e.
metasememes) that are used through a century-old tradition, which are underlain by
(1) similarity and (2) contiguity, such as metaphor, simile and metonymy. These
mechanisms ensure, on the one hand, an undeniable measure of individuality (more
often than not freshly expressive, highly colourful, succulent), and, on the other
hand – and rather paradoxically, too (in some cases), a type of translinguistic,
transnational / international unity: in the context, one can talk about metaphors and
images (specific to phraseology, and also, connectedly, to paremiology or
apothegmatics) that are widely acknowledged as international figures.
The main contention of the present paper is to assert and illustrate some of
the intrinsic qualities of figurative expression in a number of phraseological units /
idioms of the English language, while at the same time trying to suggest the
(approximate) dimension of their relative spreading across various languages of the
world (especially by comparing them with the situation in Romanian). Hence, as
inheritors of a common or at least highly similar stock of images and metaphors
(part of the archetipal repository, or, from a broader perspective, of the cultural-
ideological treasury of humankind), the people all over the world are –
demonstrably – all the closer in their essential brotherhood.
The lexical materials that represented the starting point for the present
modest contrastive analysis were mainly selected from The American Heritage
39
Dictionary, 1994 (AHD) and Collins English Dictionary and Thesaurus,
©HarperCollins Publishers, 1993 (COLL).
Whether they are culture-specific or not, the idioms in a specific language
represent a source of valuable observations concerning their impact on the foreign
learners of that language, who are native speakers of another language (cf.
contrastivity). Practically any idiom incorporates images, more or less graphical or
fresh, which are derived from that people’s specific manner of thinking, feeling and
behaving, the cultural or even historical tradition, their broader cultural
background, unless the phraseological unit in question happens to be an (obvious
or easily recognizable) international idiom.
Moreover, the problems that idioms generally pose in (literary) translation
are notorious in TEFL. To make things worse, there are idioms specific to the
American variant of the English language, e.g. eat crow “To suffer a humiliating
experience” (AHD); “U.S. and Canadian informal. to be forced to do something
humiliating” (COLL); play possum “To pretend to be dead, a trick used by
opossums to defend themselves from predators” (AHD); as well as very closely
resembling American-vs.-British variants of some idioms, e.g. blow one’s own
horn “To brag about oneself… Sometimes phrased as toot one’s own horn”
(AHD).
Such instances of culture-specific idioms, which clearly enhance, through
their idiomaticity, the degree of nativelike-ness of a learner’s acquisition of a
foreign language, represent, we believe, fully convincing pieces of evidence: climb
on the bandwagon “To join a particular cause or political party”. A specifically
English idiom is Dutch treat “An outing or date on which each person pays his or
her own way. To “go Dutch” is to go on such a date” – (cf. Romanian a plăti
nemţeşte). Similarly, Indian summer (meaning “A period of unusually warm
weather in the fall” – AHD) is a culture-specific American idiom.
Even by superficially examining the selection of idioms we intended to
analyze, one can easily notice that the differences in meaning can vary from
absolute similarity (i.e. identity) to total dissimilarity, passing through various
intermediate degrees.
One of the best and (we believe) most rewarding methods of analyzing and
comparing such phraseological units is to study them: (a) from the standpoint of
expression structure (i.e. from the standpoint of the semantic-actant structure); (b)
from the standpoint of the mental scenario underlying the literal expression.
In some particular cases, in order to achieve appropriate comprehension
one should have recourse to etymology, e.g. let the cat out of the bag “To disclose
a secret” (AHD), or “to make known something that was a secret, accidentally and
at the wrong time”. (Formerly, countryfolk going to market would sometimes put a
cat in a bag that they pretended held a sucking pig, hoping to impose this on a
greenhorn who would buy it without examination; but, if the intending buyer
opened the bag, the trick was disclosed.) – cf. Rom. a se da de gol, (approx.) a lăsa
să-i scape porumbelul (din gură).
40
This ad hoc “etymological enquiry” can go as far as exposing the story
behind the phrase, e.g. town and gown “In a college town, the relations between
“town and gown” are those between the residents of the town and the students and
faculty associated with the school”. (Formerly, in Oxford the relations between the
students and the townspeople were rather unfriendly).
The first level of achieving comprehension of an idiom is discovering the
transparency of the “scenario” involved by the respective idiom. These mental
images / schemes are in fact semantic-logical codifications that present a scenario,
usually a strongly referential one, which can be highly specific or highly divergent
from its counterpart in the TL (i.e. the learner’s own language), or else it might be
similar, or even identical, to it. For instance, a specific scenario is to be found in
Eng. get a dose of one’s own medicine “To receive the same unpleasant treatment
one has given others” (cf. Rom. a vedea şi el cum e să… / când…).
One can analyze, in a (didactic and) contrastive manner, while also
adopting a certain amount of fuzziness, a number of extremely imaginative, wholly
non-transparent / opaque, specific scenarios, such as put your foot in your mouth
“To make an embarrassing or tactless blunder when speaking” (AHD).
Here are some other instances of scenarios that are referentially different in
the two languages:
In some cases, we have to do with scenarios based on quasi-identical
referentiality and pragmatic significance. In both languages, the factual truth
underlying the scenario seems to have the same purport: for instance, native users
of both English and Romanian actually make similar gestures or actions, although
the symbolic significance of the gesture is somewhat different in either language.
For instance, knock on wood “Some people say, “Knock on wood,” and then
knock on something made of wood for good luck when they have made a remark
that has been true up to that point, and they want it to continue to be true: “I’ve
never had an accident yet, knock on wood” (AHD). Unlike native users of English,
Romanians would knock on wood to keep away ill luck rather than attract
propitiousness. The same observation is valid for “keeping one’s fingers crossed”:
the direct pragmatic gesture native Romanians make in contexts where English-
speaking natives would keep their fingers crossed is keeping their fists tightly
clenched. See Eng. keep one’s fingers crossed “To hope that nothing will happen
to bring bad luck or to ruin one’s plans” (AHD).
Another quasi-common, if not identical, scenario – at least as far as the
factual basis of the metaphor is concerned, is know the ropes “To be familiar with
the details of an operation”; cf. pull strings “To use personal connections to obtain
a position” (AHD).
An English idiom displaying quasi-identity in point of factual content with
its Romanian counterpart is split hairs “To argue about an inconsequential and
trivial aspect of an issue”; the Romanian idiom, a despica firul în patru / (rarely) în
paisprezece, differs by a mere adverbial. There are many more similar cases, in
which the logically comparable actants in the two scenarios differ by their exact
41
nature, e.g. Eng. make a mountain out of a molehill “To blow an issue or event
out of proportion”, cf. Romanian a face din ţânţar armăsar; or get up on the
wrong side of the bed “To act unpleasant because the day got off to a bad start”
(AHD), cf. Rom a se scula cu faţa la cearşaf / pernă.
Some other pairs of scenarios are fully comparable, save for a tiny amount
of expressiveness, e.g. Rom. a-şi pune inima în palmă, cf. Eng. wear one’s heart
on one’s sleeve “To express affection or sentiment too openly or ostentatiously”
(AHD).
Going on, one comes across fully comprehensible scenarios, although the
factual basis of the English counterpart is evidently different, e.g. make ends meet
“To earn enough income to provide for basic needs”, cf. Romanian a te ajunge de
pe azi pe mâine; or Eng. turn the tables “To reverse a situation and gain the upper
hand”, cf. Rom a întoarce situaţia în favoarea cuiva; or even Eng. sit on the fence
“To remain neutral, to refuse to take sides in a dispute; often used in a derogatory
way about someone who is thought to lack the courage to decide”, cf. Rom. a sta la
mijloc, a nu se băga / implica.
At the level of sheer referentiality, the underlying scenarios of most idioms
could be possibly equated to phrases in most languages: let us compare, for
instance, Rom. ca gâsca / câinele prin apă and Eng. water off a duck’s back “To
fail to catch on or make a mark” (AHD).
Finally, there are scenarios that can be deemed virtually international, e.g.
on pins and needles “In a state of anxiety or tense expectation”, cf. Rom. (a sta
ca) pe spini / jăratic. Cf. also Eng. on tenterhooks “To be kept on tenterhooks is
to be held in a state of nervous apprehension” (in the latter case, it is also necessary
to know the meaning of the core noun, tenterhook “one of a series of hooks or bent
nails used to hold cloth stretched on a tenter”)”; or gilded cage “To be like “a bird
in a gilded cage” is to live in luxury but without freedom” (AHD).
Here are some other scenarios included in our selection that are practically
international: pot calling the kettle black “Criticizing others for the very fault one
possesses”, cf. Rom. râde ciob de oală spartă; set one’s teeth on edge “Something
that one finds intensely irritating may be said to “set one’s teeth on edge” (AHD);
play Russian roulette “To gamble foolishly on a risky or potentially ruinous
business; the expression refers to a deadly game in which a participant loads a
revolver with one bullet, spins the cylinder, and fires at his own head” (AHD).
But the most interesting such idioms are those in which the scenario of the
English phraseological unit has to be made transparent by dint of specific details of
a cultural nature, e.g. go the whole hog “To engage in something without
reservation or constraint” (AHD), “to do something thoroughly or unreservedly”
(COLL) (cf. Rom. dacă-i bal, bal să fie), where to go stands for “to drink”, and
hog means hogshead “a large cask used for shipment of wines and spirits” (COLL).
In many cases, it is easily noticeable that the scenarios represented by such
English idioms present a surplus of imaginative nuance, e.g. one’s goose is cooked
“One’s chances are ruined: “After the recent disclosures of foul play, political
42
analysts feel that the candidate’s goose is now thoroughly cooked” (cf. Romanian
a(-l) aranja pe cineva, a i-o face / coace cuiva).
At other times, the scenarios of the English idioms are expressive in a
humorous or otherwise imaginative manner, e.g. gravy train “A job or project that
requires little effort but yields considerable profits: “His father worked hard to
build the company, but all Percy has to do is sit back and ride the gravy train”
(AHD).
When the referentiality proper of the component elements (or actants) of
the scenario comes under analysis, it is easy to notice that we have to do with
idioms that are either:
(I) Connected with some specific domain of human activity, e.g.
(1) Old trades (crafts, agricultural occupations, husbandry, bakery, stock
breeding and shepherding, traditional ways of transport, etc.), e.g. baker’s dozen
“Thirteen; bakers once provided an extra roll with every dozen sold” (AHD); call a
spade a spade “To speak directly and bluntly; to avoid euphemism: “The
prosecutor said, ‘Let’s call a spade a spade; you didn’t borrow the money, you stole
it” (AHD); too many irons in the fire “To have “too many irons in the fire” is to
be engaged in too many activities” (AHD); get down to brass tacks “Get to the
real issue; deal with the task at hand”; nose to the grindstone “To work extremely
hard” (AHD); run of the mill “Common, ordinary, average” (AHD); end of one’s
rope “Out of options” (AHD); swap (switch) horses in midstream “To change
leaders or adopt a different strategy in the middle of a course of action” (AHD).
(2) Household activities, e.g. cry over spilt milk “To dwell pointlessly on
past misfortunes”; flash in the pan “Someone or something that promises great
success but soon fails”; fly the coop “To get away or escape: “The Hendersons
found the cocktail party rather dull and decided to fly the coop”; fly in the
ointment “A drawback, especially one that was not at first apparent”; fly off the
handle “To become suddenly enraged”; go to pot “To decline or deteriorate”; get
someone’s goat “To make someone annoyed or angry”; kick the bucket “To die:
“Scarcely anyone was sorry when the old tyrant finally kicked the bucket” (AHD).
(2') Food and cuisine, e.g. soup to nuts “To include or cover everything, as
in a full meal”.
(3) Navigation, e.g. sail under false colors “To behave deceptively; the
“colors” of a ship are its identifying flags” (AHD).
(4) Warfare, weaponry, e.g. burn your bridges behind you “To eliminate
any possibility of a retreat to a former position” (AHD); bury the hatchet “To
agree to end a quarrel”; fling (throw) down the gauntlet “To issue a challenge:
“The candidate flung down the gauntlet and challenged his opponent to a debate”
A gauntlet was a glove; the wearer would throw it to the ground to show that he
was challenging an opponent to fight” (AHD).
(5) Hunting, e.g. beat around the bush “To avoid getting to the point of
an issue”; sitting duck “A very easy target: “His arguments were so simple, she
was able to knock them down like sitting ducks” The term comes from hunting,
43
where it is much easier to hit ducks sitting on the water than when they are in
flight” (AHD); two strings to one’s bow “More than one option or set of
resources”.
(6) The animal world, e.g. a bull in a china shop “a clumsy person”; take
the bull by the horns “to face and tackle a difficulty without shirking” (COLL);
take the bull by the horns “Take the initiative in confronting a difficult position”;
shoot the bull “(U.S. and Canadian slang) to pass time talking lightly; to boast or
exaggerate” (COLL); for the birds “Worthless: “The last scheme you cooked up
was really for the birds”; bone to pick “Having a “bone to pick with someone”
means having a grievance that needs to be talked out”; feather one’s own nest “To
look after one’s own interests, especially material ones”; war horse “A person or
thing that has seen long service or has lived through many hardships and can be
relied on” (AHD).
(7) (Modern) technical (and scientific) activities, e.g. back to the drawing
board “A saying indicating that one’s effort has failed, and one must start all over
again”; trial and error “To “proceed by trial and error” is to experiment, rejecting
what does not work and adopting what does” (AHD).
(8) Aviation, e.g. fly-by-night “Shady or untrustworthy: “Before buying
stock in a newly formed company, the prudent investor will check its owners’
credentials to make sure it’s not a fly-by-night operation” (AHD).
(9) Medicine, e.g. second wind “A new surge of energy after a period of
mental or physical exhaustion: “At the midway mark, the marathoner got her
second wind and left the other runners far behind” The expression refers to the fact
that a person’s metabolism changes to a more efficient mode during prolonged
exercise”; clean bill of health “To “get a clean bill of health” is to be told by some
authoritative source, generally a doctor, that one is perfectly healthy. The phrase is
sometimes used figuratively to indicate that a person or organization has been
found free of any sort of irregularity” (AHD).
(10) Games, sporting activities, e.g. behind the eight ball “A term,
referring to the game of billiards, meaning in an unfavorable or uncomfortable
position”; throw in the towel “To quit in defeat. The phrase comes from boxing, in
which a fighter indicates surrender by throwing a towel into the ring” (AHD).
(11) The cultural field, including entertainment, music etc., e.g. by the
book “According to established rules”; call the tune “To be in control. The phrase
comes from the proverb “The one who pays the piper calls the tune”; trump card
“In general, something capable of making a decisive difference when used at the
right moment; in certain card games, trump is the suit designated as having
precedence over the others”; play to the gallery “To direct a performance toward
less sophisticated tastes; by extension, to attempt to gain approval by crude or
obvious means”; play it by ear “To improvise: “Rather than plan an elaborate
strategy, Andy decided to play it by ear” Music played by ear does not follow
written notes”; play second fiddle “To play a supporting or minor role in relation
to someone else: “Tired of playing second fiddle, she resigned and started her own
44
company” In an orchestra, the position of second violinist (fiddle) is not as
glamorous as that of first violinist” (AHD); run the gamut “To cover a whole
range”.
(II) Idioms connected with a very general, or universal kind of human
experience, e.g. as the crow flies “The most direct route between two places”
(AHD); bolt from (out of) the blue “An unexpected event that strikes like
lightning from the sky”; draw the line “To set a limit, as of acceptable behavior:
“Phil sometimes drank a few beers, but generally he knew when to draw the line”
(AHD).
It should be mentioned, be it as a subsidiary matter, that there are very
interesting English idioms based on century-old human experience (which is
however specific to Northern nations to a significant extent), which makes them
culturally marked, e.g. like lemmings to the sea “To follow a group in a blind and
self-destructive way. (…) Lemmings are rodents that periodically migrate under
strong, blind instinct. Supposedly, during the course of these migrations, whole
herds are sometimes drowned when they plunge together into the sea” (AHD).
In the context, a rather special category is formed by the idioms that
contain colours, e.g. red-letter day “A special or memorable day; the expression
refers to the old custom of printing holidays in red on calendars” (AHD); see red
“To be or become extremely angry” (AHD); red herring “In argument, something
designed to divert an opponent’s attention from the central issue. If a herring is
dragged across a trail that hounds are following, it throws them off the scent”
(AHD); red tape “Bureaucratic procedures that delay progress: “Paula had hoped
to settle the inheritance quickly but got caught up in a lot of red tape”. Some such
idioms make a comparatively imaginative, metaphoric use of the respective colour,
e.g. green thumb “A knack for growing plants and keeping them healthy” (AHD);
in the pink “In good health: “Marsha has recovered from the flu and is feeling in
the pink again” (AHD). Or there may be literary allusions encapsulated in them,
e.g. the green-eyed monster “Jealousy” (from a phrase in Shakespeare’s play
Othello); paint the town red “To go carousing: “Arnie and a few of his buddies
drove off in a big car Friday night and really painted the town red” (AHD).
Similarly, there is a subcategory of English idioms which are construed by
using numbers, e.g. nine days’ wonder “Someone or something that is famous and
celebrated for only a short time” (AHD). The most interesting (and widely
comparable) such idioms are those in which the (quasi-)symbolic meaning of the
respective numbers is emphasized, e.g. forty winks “A nap; a short sleep: “If
you’re feeling drowsy, take forty winks; I’ll wake you when our guests arrive”
(AHD) – cf. the French idiom faire les cent pas, the Jewish or Hebrew/Biblical
phrase take your thirty silver coins, the Romanian idiom peste nouă mări şi nouă
ţări / (rarely) peste şapte mări şi şapte ţări, etc.). In much the same way, some
English idioms are based on the use of letters, quite unlike Romanian idioms
(except for the international phrase to dot one’s i’s – which is supplemented in
English by …and cross one’s t’s, glossed as “to pay meticulous attention to detail”
45
(AHD), e.g. mind your p’s and q’s “Pay attention to details: “We want this
operation to run smoothly, so everyone please mind your p’s and q’s” (AHD).
(III) At the opposite extremity of the spectrum one can find the idioms of
demonstrable international use, which (should naturally) pose no problem whatever
to the Romanian translator, learner or teacher, e.g. can’t see the forest for the
trees “An expression used of someone who is too involved in the details of a
problem to look at the situation as a whole” (AHD), carry the torch “To carry on
a cause” (AHD), clean slate “A new start; especially to make a new start by
clearing the record. This phrase comes from the use of chalk and slates in
classrooms in the past. By wiping the slate clean, a student could remove any
evidence of a mistake” (AHD), eleventh hour “The last minute”, fifth wheel “A
hanger-on; a person who serves no function”, hit below the belt “To say
something that is often too personal, usually irrelevant, and always unfair: The
expression comes from boxing, in which it is illegal to hit an opponent below the
belt” (AHD), lion’s share “A disproportionately large segment of the whole”
(AHD), read between the lines “To pay attention to what is implied, though not
explicitly stated, in writing or in speech” (AHD), straw man “A made-up version
of an opponent’s argument that can easily be defeated. To accuse people of
attacking a straw man is to suggest that they are avoiding more worthy opponents
and more valid criticisms of their own position” (AHD), tip of the iceberg “Only a
hint or suggestion of a much larger or more complex issue or problem. This phrase
alludes to the fact that the bulk of a floating iceberg is concealed beneath the water,
leaving only a small portion, its tip, visible above” (AHD), vicious circle “A series
of reactions that compound an initial unfortunate occurrence or situation”, wash
dirty linen (laundry) in public “To air private problems where they can be seen
by all” (AHD).
Of course there are degrees of internationalness that can be easily
distinguished: some idioms are practically international, only that the nuclear terms
have different referents, e.g. kill two birds with one stone “To accomplish two
objectives with a single action” (AHD) – cf. Romanian a omorî doi iepuri dintr-o
lovitură; or their structure is minimally different, e.g. by the book – where book
stands for “strict or rigid regulations, rules, or standards” (cf. Rom. ca la carte);
other idioms are quasi-international through the very images presented by their
scenarios, e.g. hold water “To seem logical and consistent: “At first I was
persuaded by the politician’s speech, but upon reflection, I decided that his
arguments didn’t hold water” (AHD).
Some other international idioms bear information that goes back to ancient
(cultural) sources, e.g. crocodile tears “An insincere show of sympathy or sadness;
crocodiles were once thought to “weep” large tears before they ate their victims”
(AHD); in some such cases, the very etymology of the phrase is the key to the
symbolic, metaphoric relevance of the idiom, e.g. dog days “The hot, muggy days
of summer. The Romans associated such weather with the influence of Sirius, the
dog star, which is high in the sky during summer” (AHD) – cf. Rom. caniculă, and
46
Eng. canicular “of or relating to the star Sirius or its rising”, from Canicula
“another name for Sirius [Latin, literally: little dog, from canis dog]” (COLL).
In the same context, we consider very interesting (though comparatively
easy to translate) those idioms that exhibit a minimal difference from their
Romanian counterpart, e.g. castles in the air “Extravagant hopes and plans that
will never be carried out” (AHD) – cf. Rom. castele în Spania; chip off the old
block “An expression used of people who closely resemble their parents in some
way” (AHD) – cf. Rom. aşchia nu sare departe de trunchi; diamond in the rough
“Someone or something with potential or talent but lacking training or polish. This
phrase refers to the fact that diamonds found in nature are rough and uneven. They
must be cut and polished to bring out their true beauty” (AHD) – cf. Rom. diamant
neşlefuit.
On the other hand, the idioms which, though representing virtually
international scenarios, bear unmistakable national marks pertaining to culture, can
sometimes pose marginal problems for translators, e.g. carry coals to ewcastle
“To do something that is obviously superfluous; Newcastle is a city in England
where coal is mined” (cf. Rom. a te duce la vie cu struguri în poală / traistă).
At this point, it should be noted that specific cultural data can be
materialized either in the use of proper names, or in cultural allusion. Incidentally,
we have to stress the fact that, overall, the structure of phraseological and idiomatic
units is largely influenced by what Eugeniu Coşeriu called repeated discourse
(Rom. discurs repetat / Ger. wiederholte Rede / Sp. discurso repetido), which is
ultimately a type of partial (linguistic) quotation. It is used somewhat like the
collage technique in the fine arts: whole syntactic units or phrases are used as such,
i.e. virtually quoted; if changed in any way, such phrases do not lose the primary
allusion to what they refer to.
It goes without saying that proper names are virtually always highly
specific for the culture in question, e.g. land of od “To “go off to the land of
Nod,” or to “nod off,” is to go to sleep: “What a boring speech! Half the listeners
are on their way to the land of Nod” (cf. Rom. (vine) Moş Ene (pe la gene); Tom,
Dick, and Harry “A phrase referring to randomly chosen people: “I asked you to
keep my plans secret, but you’ve told them to every Tom, Dick, and Harry”
(AHD); rob Peter to pay Paul “To harm one person in order to do good to
another; by extension, to use money or resources set aside for one purpose for a
different one” (AHD); Timbuktu “A remote town in western Africa. Figuratively,
to go to Timbuktu is to go to a faraway and unknown place” (AHD). This is all the
truer when it comes to arbitrarily chosen / coined proper names (which are
however endowed with high intrinsic expressivity), e.g. life of Riley “A life of
luxury” (AHD); Murphy’s Law “A rule originated by engineers that states, “If
something can go wrong, it will” An addition to this law reads, “and usually at the
worst time” (AHD), etc. In such cases, translation into Romanian (i.e. adaptation or
equivalence) can prove rather difficult.
47
Though usually not very expressive, (international) idioms including
cultural data can be seen as valuable repositories of information of an
historical/diachronic, hence etymological type, e.g. live in an ivory tower “To lead
an impractical existence removed from the pressures and troubles of everyday life”
(AHD); golden mean “The desirable middle ground between any two extremes,
according to the philosophy of Aristotle” (cf. Latin aurea mediocritas); grain of
salt “To “take something with a grain [or a pinch – o.n.] of salt” is to ignore or not
worry about it, to treat it as trivial, as worth less than a grain of salt” (AHD) – cf.
Latin. cum grano salis.
The cultural areas of predilection, from which the terms that make up such
idioms were derived, are the following:
(1) Mythology, e.g. halcyon days “Times of peace and tranquillity; the
expression refers to a mythical bird that had the power to calm the waves when it
nested on the sea during the winter solstice” (AHD).
(2) Religion, e.g. sacred cow “Figuratively, anything that is beyond
criticism. In India, followers of Hinduism consider cows sacred and do not eat
them because they believe the animals contain the souls of dead persons” (AHD).
(3) History, e.g. meet one’s Waterloo “To encounter one’s ultimate
obstacle, and to be defeated by it. From the Battle of Waterloo, where Napoleon
Bonaparte was finally defeated” (AHD); Pyrrhic victory “A victory that is
accompanied by enormous losses and leaves the winners in as desperate shape as if
they had lost. Pyrrhus was an ancient general who, after defeating the Romans, told
those who wished to congratulate him, “One more such victory and Pyrrhus is
undone” (AHD); thrown to the lions “Figuratively, to be thrown to the lions is to
be placed in a difficult situation for which one is completely unsuited. During the
Roman persecutions, Christians were thrown to the lions in the Colosseum”
(AHD); thumbs up (or thumbs down) “Expressions of approval and disapproval
respectively. In the gladiatorial contests of ancient Rome, the thumbs-up gesture
from the crowd meant that the loser would live; thumbs down meant death”
(AHD)1.
Some (American) idioms come from the cultural area relevant of American
Indian customs and history, e.g. on the warpath “From a Native American
expression for war, to be “on the warpath” is to be exceedingly angry and to be
inclined to take some hostile action” (AHD).
A number of such cultural (and/or historical) idioms can be said to be
international, e.g. rich as Croesus “Extremely wealthy. Croesus was an ancient
Greek king whose wealth was legendary” (AHD); cross the Rubicon “to make an
irrevocable decision; it comes from the name of the river Julius Caesar crossed
with his army, thereby starting a civil war in Rome” (AHD); cut the Gordian knot
“To solve a notoriously difficult problem in a quick and decisive manner (…)
1
Although most historians say this was not true, no more than the “custom” invoked by the
preceding idiom.
48
According to Greek legend, an oracle declared that the man who could untie the
Gordian knot would become the ruler of all Asia. Alexander the Great impatiently
cut it with a single stroke of his sword and proceeded to conquer Asia” (AHD);
fiddle while Rome burns “To do something trivial and irresponsible in the midst
of an emergency; legend has it that while a fire destroyed the city of Rome, the
emperor Nero played his violin, thus revealing his total lack of concern for his
people and his empire” (AHD).
In other, very limited, cases, the very etymology underlying the cultural
allusion encapsulated by the respective English idiom is worth knowing for the
cultural allusion in question to become transparent for the user, e.g. white elephant
“An unwanted or financially burdensome possession, or a project that turns out to
be of limited value” (AHD) – which we could compare, on that specific point, with
such Romanian idioms as a da sf(o)ară în ţară or a lua (pe cineva) cu otuzbirul.
Sometimes, the cultural allusions included are in fact cases of repeated
discourse (Romanian discurs repetat), e.g. albatross around one’s neck “An
annoying burden: “That old car is an albatross”, or “a constant and inescapable
burden or handicap: an albatross of debt” (COLL).
A variant of the above is the fragmented or shortened cultural allusion, e.g.
kingdom come “The next world; the afterlife: “The superpowers have enough
nuclear warheads to blow the entire world to kingdom come” An allusion to the
Lord’s Prayer: “Thy kingdom come, thy will be done” (AHD); the last laugh “The
final victory or satisfaction. (See: He who laughs last, laughs best.)” (AHD); the
last straw (or straw that broke the camel’s back) “The last in a series of
grievances or burdens that finally exceeds the limits of endurance” (AHD).
(4) A special place is held, within this category, by Biblical allusion, e.g.
gild the lily “To adorn unnecessarily something that is already beautiful or perfect”
(AHD); cast pearls before swine “To offer valuable things to those who cannot
appreciate them. By extension, to express complex or elevated ideas to an
insensitive and hostile audience; from Jesus’ warning to his followers in the
Sermon on the Mount: “Give not that which is holy unto the dogs, neither cast ye
your pearls before swine” (AHD); salt of the earth “Basic, fundamental goodness;
the phrase can be used to describe any simple, good person: “I like Mary: she’s
reliable, trustworthy, and straightforward; she’s the salt of the earth” In the Sermon
on the Mount, Jesus tells his followers, who are mainly fishermen and other simple
people, “Ye are the salt of the earth” (AHD); wolf in sheep’s clothing
“Figuratively, anyone who disguises a ruthless nature through an outward show of
innocence. Jesus taught his followers to “beware of false prophets, which come to
you in sheep’s clothing, but inwardly they are ravening wolves” (AHD); worth
one’s salt “Worth one’s salary or wages” (AHD).
Likewise, literary allusions are quite frequent in the make-up of English
idioms. Among these, the most numerous are no doubt those derived from
Shakespeare’s works, e.g. be cruel to be kind “To cause someone pain for his or
her own good. The phrase is used by Hamlet after he has berated his mother for her
49
infidelity to the memory of her deceased husband” (AHD); the green-eyed
monster “Jealousy. This metaphor was coined by Shakespeare in his play Othello”
(AHD); star-crossed lovers “Lovers whose relationship is doomed to fail are said
to be “star-crossed” (frustrated by the stars), because those who believe in
astrology claim that the stars control human destiny. William Shakespeare created
the phrase to describe the lovers in Romeo and Juliet” (AHD); to the manner born
“A person who is “to the manner born” is one who has acquired genteel tastes and
habits by virtue of having been born into a privileged class. The phrase is from
Hamlet, by William Shakespeare” (AHD); milk of human kindness “A phrase
from Macbeth, by William Shakespeare, meaning humane feeling, concern for
other people” (AHD); pound of flesh “Creditors who insist on having their “pound
of flesh” are those who cruelly demand the repayment of a debt, no matter how
much suffering it will cost the debtor (…) From The Merchant of Venice, by
Shakespeare, in which Shylock demands a pound of flesh from his debtor’s body as
the agreed compensation for a loan the debtor is unable to repay” (AHD); salad
days “An expression from Shakespeare’s Antony and Cleopatra that refers to the
time of youth when one is inexperienced or “green” (like salad)” (AHD).
Sometimes, the idiom is the repetition of a whole, longer quotation, e.g.
The quality of mercy is not strained “Mercy is something that has to be freely
given; no one can force someone else to be merciful. (“Strained” is an old form of
“constrained,” meaning “forced”) From The Merchant of Venice by Shakespeare”
(AHD).
Of course the quotations may come from other British authors, e.g. far
from the madding crowd “To be “far from the madding crowd” is to be removed,
either literally or figuratively, from the frenzied actions of any large crowd or from
the bustle of civilization. (…) The main reason for the currency of this phrase is
that it was used as the title of a popular novel by the English author Thomas
Hardy” (AHD).
There are quite numerous quotations from American authors, as well, e.g.
footprints on the sands of time “A phrase from a poem by Henry Wadsworth
Longfellow, describing the mark that great individuals leave on history” (AHD);
ships that pass in the night “Often said of people who meet for a brief but intense
moment and then part, never to see each other again. These people are like two
ships that greet each other with flashing lights and then sail off into the night. From
a poem by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow” (AHD).
Comparatively, the quotations from world literature that have been turned
into common idioms are not very numerous, e.g. cultivate one’s own garden “To
take care of one’s own needs before trying to take care of others (…) This is the
moral of Candide, by Voltaire: take care of your own and the world will take care
of itself” (AHD).
Also, such quotations are very interesting, the source of which is an older
literary work – for instance Aesop’s fables, e.g. dog in the manger “A person who
spitefully refuses to let someone else benefit from something for which he or she
50
has no personal use … The phrase comes from one of Aesop’s fables, about a dog
lying in a manger full of hay. When an ox tries to eat some hay, the dog bites him,
despite the fact that the hay is of no use to the dog” (AHD).
In most cases, the idioms that are based on a (more or less ancient) fable,
anecdote or parable can face the learner – and possibly most translators – with
challenges derived from what we may call cultural etymology (or the “(romantic)
story of the word”), e.g. sour grapes ““Sour grapes” refers to things that people
decide are not worth having only after they find they cannot have them” (AHD);
sow wild oats “To engage in youthful indiscretions, usually sexual liaisons: “Paul
asked his father if he had sowed his wild oats before getting married” (AHD); buy
a pig in a poke “To buy something sight unseen (a “poke” is a bag): “The mail-
order offer sounded like a bargain, but I didn’t want to buy a pig in a poke” (AHD);
busman’s holiday “A vacation during which a person engages in activity that is
the same as or similar to his or her usual employment” (AHD). Some of these
idioms may assume the longer form of an apophthegmatic unit, e.g. Jack of all
trades, master of none “Someone who is good at many things but excellent at
none” (AHD).
From a semantic point of view, a number of idioms display a degree of
opaqueness which tends to be maximal when the terms that designate the basic
concepts of the image / scenario are hardly consistent with (or seem not to be
cogent within) the overall meaning of the idiom.
Sometimes, the image / scenario seems to be un-analyzable, apparently
opaque or at least absurd, e.g. fine kettle of fish “A troublesomely awkward or
embarrassing situation” (AHD). Here are some more (comparably) opaque idioms:
under the weather “Indisposed, unwell” (AHD); under the wire “Just in the nick
of time: “Nancy mailed off her application, and it got in just under the wire” From
horse racing, in which the wire marks the finish line” (AHD). Sometimes, the core
elements can be real False Friends, e.g. the noun grain in the phrase go against
the grain “To go contrary to someone’s natural disposition: “Having to be up this
early in the morning really goes against my grain” This refers to the fact that
someone who rubs his hand against the grain on a piece of lumber will get
splinters” (AHD).
In other cases, some data that are historical and etymological in nature
could help one to capture the overall meaning of the idiom (i.e. to make them
transparent, one has to know what the core term actually means), e.g. hoist with
one’s own petard “To be caught in one’s own trap: “The swindler cheated himself
out of most of his money, and his victims were satisfied to see him hoist with his
own petard” A “petard” was an explosive device used in medieval warfare. To be
hoisted, or lifted, by a petard literally means to be blown up” (AHD). Some other
idioms may exhibit old (possibly historical) terms, e.g. hue and cry “Any loud
clamor or protest intended to incite others to action: “In the 1980s, there arose a
great hue and cry for educational reform” (AHD).
51
Concluding, we can say that advocating the development of didactic aids or
multimedia materials dealing with idioms and set phrases that could be profitably
used by learners and translator alike would not be a bad idea; for instance, a
software device that included idiomatic material in English and Romanian, where
the parallel glossary could indicate: (1) the literality and the corresponding
meaning of the idioms selected, plus the Romanian translation; (2) the type of
scenario (usable primarily for quick-finding procedures), (3) the core / central
element, e.g. hue, petard, feather (again, to facilitate quick-finding). Such didactic
aids would be an immensely valuable support for both students/learners, translators
and teachers.
Bibliography:
Bidu-Vrănceanu, A., Forăscu, N., 1988, Cuvinte şi sensuri, Bucureşti, Editura Ştiinţifică şi
Enciclopedică.
Comte, F. 1994,, The Wordsworth Dictionary of Mythology, Wordsworth Editions Ltd.
Cowie, A.P., Mackin R., Isabel R.McCaig, 1993, Oxford Dictionary of English Idioms,
London, Oxford University Press
Glucksberg, S., 2001, Understanding Figurative Language. From Metaphors to Idioms,
Oxford: OUP.
Lass, Abraham et al., 1994, The Wordsworth Dictionary of Classical and Literary Allusion,
Wordsworth Editions Ltd.
Liu, D., 2008, Idioms. Description, Comprehension, Acquisition, and Pedagogy, New
York/London: Routledge
Manea, C. 2009, “Further Remarks on a Number of Apophthegmatic Units in English and
Romanian – Convergent and Divergent Points”, in Studii şi Cercetări de Onomastică şi
Lexicologie, anul II, nr. 1-2/2009, Craiova, Ed. Sitech, p. 145-157
Manea, C., Manea, M.-C., 2009, “Remarks on Some Phraseological and Apophthegmatic
Units in English and Romanian – Convergent and Divergent Points”, in Perspective
contemporane asupra lumii medievale, nr. 1/2009, Piteşti, Ed. Tiparg, p. 104-108
Manea, M.-C., Manea, C., 2004, English Vocabulary – Theory and Practice, Piteşti,
Editura Neotonic.
Manea, M.-C., Manea, C., 2007, “The Question of Culture in Foreign Language Teaching.
A Few NEST’s Queries and Remarks”,, in vol. Annales Universitatis Apulensis. Series
Philologica. Tom 2, Alba-Iulia, 2007
Pană-Dindelegan, G., (coord.), 2002, Aspecte ale dinamicii limbii române actuale,
Bucureşti, Editura Universităţii din Bucureşti.
Sala, M., 2006, Aventurile unor cuvinte româneşti, Bucureşti, Editura Univers
Enciclopedic, vol. II.
Seidl, J., McMordie, W., 1997, English Idioms, London: Oxford University Press
Skeat, Walter W., 1994, The Concise Dictionary of English Etymology, Wordsworth
Editions Ltd.
The American Heritage Dictionary, Softkey International Inc., 1994 (AHD)
The Wordsworth Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (revised by Ivor H. Evans), Wordsworth
Editions Ltd., 1998
Webster’s Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the English Language ©1995 Zane
Publishing, Inc. ©1994, 1991, 1988 Simon & Schuster, Inc.
52
Zimmerman, J. E., 1966, Dictionary of Classical Mythology, New York, Bantam Books.
53
MEAIG COSTRUCTIO AD PREPOSITIOAL POLYSEMY

ETWORKS I EGLISH AD ROMAIA
Adina MATROZI MARI

Abstract : The aim of this article is to bring together various opinions regarding the
status of the preposition, and especially its semantic content, from traditional theories and
studies to modern, logico-semantic and cognitive research. Grammarians have different
views on this topic, which is still open to debate: from denying its very status as a part of
speech to considering it the expression of a notion.
Key words: prepositions, semantic content, construction of meaning.
The preposition is a part of speech that does not have semantic autonomy.
It cannot fulfill semantic functions. It is dependant on or in a relation of semantic
continuity (sometimes only compatibility) with the lexical content of the term they
accompany and on the other hand with the syntactic function they fulfill. The term
preposition comes from Middle English preposicioun, from Old French
preposicion, from Latin praepositi , praepositi n-, a putting
before, preposition (translation of Greek prothesis), from praepositus,
past participle of praep nere, to put in front : prae-, pre- + p nere, to put;
see apo- in Indo-European roots. Its name derives from the fact that it cannot be
placed at the end of a subordinate group in the structures in which it appears. But in
Latin and other languages such as English, there are also postpositions.
In the Farlex dictionary, after the definition of the preposition, there is a
usage note, explaining that John Dryden was the first who „promulgated the
doctrine that a preposition may not be used at the end of a sentence, probably on
the basis of a specious analogy to Latin. Grammarians in the 18th century refined
the doctrine, and the rule has since become one of the most venerated maxims of
schoolroom grammar. But sentences ending with prepositions can be found in the
works of most of the great writers since the Renaissance. English syntax does allow
for final placement of the preposition, as in We have much to be thankful for or I
asked her which course she had signed up for. Efforts to rewrite such sentences to
place the preposition elsewhere can have stilted and even comical results, as
Winston Churchill demonstrated when he objected to the doctrine by saying "This
is the sort of English up with which I cannot put." 1
1
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/
54
There are various opinions among grammarians concerning the semantic
status of the preposition. Some of them even deny its role as a part of speech,
arguing that it cannot have a syntactic role (Zugun, 2003:45); in conclusion, the
author states that “Prepoziţiile şi conjuncţiile sunt semne gramaticale, deci
indicatori de sensuri gramaticale, supralexicale, ale cuvintelor din a căror structură
fac parte” (ibid.:48)1. At the same time, they are morphemes expressing
grammatical meanings such as localization, association or modality. The same
opinion is shared by C. Dimitriu (1999: 750).
Meyer-Lübke (1900:485-530) who divided prepositions into five
categories, according to their meaning: prepositions of place, time, cause and
purpose, instrument and manner, which in their turn were divided into
subcategories. It is in this work that Meyer-Lübke speaks about the general idea of
a preposition and presents the links between the different meanings of the same
preposition. The values underlined in the cited work are common to more
prepositions and the author did not try to establish the specific values of each
prepositon.
Other studies support the idea that the prepositions are units of meaning
and their contextual variants can be reduced to a fundamental meaning, specific to
each preposition (Gougenheim, 1959, nr. 1:1-25). Discussing the problem of the
empty prepositions in French, Gougenheim underlines the intrinsic value (the
meaning) and the functional value of the preposition. In his opinion, the idea of
static or dynamic punctuality can be found in all the functional values of the
preposition.
B. Pottier (1957:547) totally diasagrees with those specialists who
consider that the preposition are empty words. Researchers should not take into
account only those nuances resulting from different contexts; the author suggests
that they should start from the big number of meanings to establish the pertinent set
of features common to these uses of the discouse.
Following Pottier’s guidelines, L. Vasiliu emphasizes the relation
between the intrinsic and the functional values of the prepositions and the starting
point of her study on the meaning of the prepositions is the meaning of the
syntagms in which they occur. She tried to extract the meaning of the preposition
by eliminating the meanings of the noun and of the verb from the above-mentioned
syntagms (vb.+ prep.+ noun). Through analysis and synthesis, the author detaches
all the notes common to the meanings of a certain preposition and from them
extracts its general meaning, one that is more general than that expressed through
the varied meanings (1961:142). The different meanings analyzed are in fact
particular occurrences of some general meanings, specific to each preposition.
All the secondary meanings and functions are grouped around the
fundamental meaning (ibid.), but there are a number of meanings that cannot be
1
n.t. prepositions and conjunctions are grammatical morphemes, parts of a word and not words by
themselves
55
integrated into the general meaning. These are “reminiscenţe ale unor fapte mai
vechi care nu s-au păstrat în sistemul de relaţii actual, influenţe recente care încă nu
s-au încadrat sau nu se vor încadra vreodată în sistem, greşeli” (Vasiliu, ibid.:143)1,
facts that could not be clarified or classified.
In his study Tipologia limbilor romanice (1998), D. Copceag draws the
conclusion that from the point of view of its clear meaning (which is the equivalent
of the fundamental meaning found in L. Vasiliu’s terminology), the preposition,
which is the linguistic reflection of a relation, expresses a notion. This explains
why prepositions can be translated from one language into another, because to
translate means to establish an equivalence between two sound complexes, based
on their link with the same notion (ibid.:204). One can easily find the equivalents
of the preposition pe, in French or English: Cartea este pe masă.; Le livre est sur la
table.; The book is on the table.
The explanation he gives is that “în mintea bilingvului…se stabileşte
echivalenţa de complexe sonore”2 based on the clear meaning of the preposition (in
this case the relation of superposition, seen as a notion). Under such circumstances,
“folosirea prepoziţiilor e, (…) una din deprinderile greu de format în învăţarea unei
limbi străine”, deoarece “în această zonă lingvistică nu se pot formula reguli, iar
sensurile de bază nu sunt de mare folos (Zafiu, 1997, nr. 40).3, as the same relation
can be expressed in different languages using different prepositions.
G. Guillaume (1964, 1973) shows that the prepositions are characterized
by mental operations that are fundamental for the appearance and use of language.
His theory opposes the structuralist theories. Linguistic signs, in his opinion, do not
bring together conceptual or structural elements to be considered in the process of
interpretation, but directly influence the semantic construction (ideogenesis) and
syntactic form (morphogenesis).
Specialists reveal the existence of two classes of words: predicative
words, which are characterized by their incidence to a base, as opposed to non-
predicative words (such as the prepositions). The preposition is considered to be a
non-predicative word because it does not semantically contribute to a thought that
is being built, but functions in the interval of time between two consecutive
thoughts. (cf. Lebas, 2002:60).
Some of G. Guillaume’s disciples (Cervoni, 1991; Moignet, 1981, apud
Lebas, ibid.:61) tried to apply this theory in the case of prepositions, but the
correlation between these hypotheses and some linguistic facts proved to be
difficult. One of the most problematic issues was to explain why the preposition
1
n.t. remains of some older linguistic realities which are no longer present in the current system,
recent influences that are not fully adapted or simply mistakes
2
n.t. in the mind of the bilingual person ... the the equivalence between the sound complexes i
established
3
n.t. the use of prepositions is one of the skills that are very hard to acquire when learning a foreign
language, because in this linguistic area we cannot formulate rules, and the basic meanings are not of
much help
56
can have more or less semantic content, in other terms, to be more or less
„colourful”. His supporters face a paradox, because, as mentioned before, the
preposition was defined as a non-predicative class, without any semantic
contribution. To make the situation clear, they proposed a two-stage process: the
former – a characteristic of the prepositional status and the latter – a real incidence,
a semantic contribution (Cervoni, 1991:168-169, apud Lebas, 2002:61).
F. Lebas (2002:61-64) comes with a series of arguments against this
theory. The first refers to the integration of the semantic nature of the morphemes
that can be realized in a new theoretical frame based on the concept of extrinsic
property, introduced by Cadiot şi Nemo (1997, apud Lebas, idem). The main
motivation is that the central meaning of words is made up of the properties
derived from the habits, behaviour, objectives and usage by humans. The fact that
the extrinsic properties making up the semantic content of the noun can be of
different types, leads to the idea that the meaning of the preposition is made up of a
special and characteristic type of these properties. From this perspective, the
semantics of relations is perfectly compatible with the semantics of objects.
Lebas’conclusion is that (op. cit.:63) the semantic material of the
preposition is not in the manner in which this material is disposed, nor in any type
of syntactic information that can be added to these words, but in the linguistic
usage of this material. There is a non-incidental interpretation, a method that does
not allow the semantic material to contribute to the construction of objects at the
mental level; the semantic influence of prepositions is directed to the interpretation
process itself.
“Colourful” prepositions (colourful semantic prepositions – Spang-Hanssen,
1963, apud Feigenbaum, Kurzon, 2002:1), corresponding to the lexical
prepositions whose semantic content is seen as a full meaning, but directed to the
grammatical processes, are different from the colourless prepositions (colourless
case prepositions), corresponding to the functional prepositions which do not have
a semantic aspect associated with their meaning, but only different uses that give
rise to an intuitive semantic peculiarity. From a diachronic perspective, the latter
possesses so-called abstract values, which lack in the case of the former (at least at
first sight).
Another argument is that the preposition does not indicate a certain type of
relation between objects or a relation in a special manner. It can contribute to an
element of the interpretation called relation, but this relation does not represent the
meaning of the preposition; the relation is not even represented by the preposition
in this interpretation, an opinion that is completely different from that of Copceag.
The third and last argument is that although prepositions can contribute to a
relational element of the constructed meaning, they have other uses as well, and
these have nothing to do with the relations they establish (cf. Lebas, 2002:64).
Even though the preposition is only a grammatical instrument (some of
them with many semantic variants), which does not have a notional meaning , it
cannot be considered an empty word, because it has the role to establish relations
57
between the components of the sentence, and thus a relational meaning, expressing
the dependance between objects, actions and characteristics; subsequently they
have a referential relational function (cf. Găitănaru, 1998:312). It is demonstrated
if we compare such sequences as: Stau la/ pe/ sub/ lângă masă – I am sitting at/
on/ under/ near the table. On the other hand, a preposition can have various
meanings: după indicates the place (S-a ascuns după dulap.), time (A venit după
Crăciun.), instrument (L-a recunoscut după glas.), cause (După atâtea necazuri s-
a îmbolnăvit.), purpose (Umblă după câştig.) sau relation (“Un bătrân atât de
simplu, după vorbă, după port”.) (cf. Ciompec, 1985:268).
This view is also supported by Tranel and Kemmerer (2004:746), who
bring this topic into discussion with special application to locative prepositions:
”…. many locative prepositions are not restricted to describing static spatial
relationships but instead have a multiplicity of meanings”, an idea supported by
many other specialists in this field. They illustrate their inference with the
example of the preposition at, which „can refer not just to a point in space (Bill is
at the post office – Bill este la poștă) but also to a moment in time (Your plane
departs at 5:10 – Avionul tău pleacă la ora 5:10 ), a specific subject-matter (He’s
an expert at chess – Este expert la șah), a focus of attention (They laughed at the
joke – Ei au râs la gluma făcută; but with the same verb, the equivalent preposition
may be different: They laughed at him – Ei au râs de el.), an emotional state (She’s
at peace – Ea este împăcată), a directed activity (Those two countries have been at
war for years – Acele două țări sunt în război de ani întregi), and a causal linkage
or nearsimultaneity of events (At that he exploded – A explodat când a auzit/ văzut
lucrul acela)” (ibid.). As shown before, in Romanian, only the first four values are
expressed using the same preposition, the equivalent of the English preposition
In connection with the locative prepositions, the authors pinpoint the
importance of such body-part nouns like head, belly, arm, leg, front, and back for
four reasons: „(1) crosslinguistic research has demonstrated that they are frequently
the historical sources of locative prepositions (Svorou, 1994); (2) many languages
currently use them as either the principal device for describing spatial locations
(e.g., Zapotec) or as an ancillary device for this function (as in the English
expressions at the foot of the mountain - la poalele muntelui, on the face of the cliff
– pe fața/ suprafața, in the mouth of the cave – la gura peșterii, etc.); and (3)
neurological disorders that affect the conceptual representation of the body, such as
autotopagnosia, finger agnosia, and left/right disorientation are linked primarily to
disturbances of the left inferior parietal cortex” (Denburg & Tranel, 2003; Felician,
Ceccaldi, Didic, Thinus-Blanc, & Poncet, 2003) (Tranel and Kemmerer, op
cit.:745-746) .
P. Zugun considers that the previous examples are not relevant, because
the prepositions chosen “se organizează într-un microsistem (în cadrul sensului
lexical de localizare), şi în plus, prepoziţiile încetează de a mai avea acelaşi sens
58
lexical în alte construcţii” (2003:50)1. This is the consequence of the fact that the
relations expressed by the prepositions are more numerous and more concrete than
those expressd by other grammatical morphemes. Some prepositions can express
more relations and the same relation can be expressed through more prepositions.
Later, other linguists introduce the logico-semantic theory in the definition
of the preposition : “Prepoziţiile constituie o clasă relativ închisă de elemente cu
grad variabil de gramaticalizare, ai cărei membri pot fi caracterizaţi în mod
asemănător cu cei ai altor clase lexicale (verbe, nume, adjective, adverbe), anume
de a fi capuri care se pot combina cu un complement de natură variată (dar în
special nominală), proiectând astfel un grup prepoziţional” (Mardale, Cuniţă and
Nedelcu, 2006:6)2.
Tyler and Evans’ study (2003) is an attempt to represent the distinct
meanings associated with a single lexical form as well as possible. The emphasis is
put on the interaction between words and the human conceptual system in order to
establish the semantic content of the lexical representations, taking into
consideration the distinction between the conventionalized linguistic knowledge
and encyclopedic, general knowledge about the world, in fact the traditional
distinction between semantics and pragmatics. The meanings of the lexical items
are clearly established at a certain level of our spatio-physical interaction with the
physical world and the study offers an image on the relation between language,
mental representation and human experience (cf. Tyler şi Evans, ibid.: 2).
The authors suggest that the distinct yet related meanings of a preposition
make up a semantic network organized around the primary meaning (the same
ideas as in the work of L. Vasiliu); they point out the systematic organization of the
mental lexicon as well as the extremely creative nature of the human conceptual
system. The language determines the interpretations attributed to a lexical item, but
the construction of the meaning is mainly a conceptual process which implies the
elaboration and integration of linguistic and non-linguistic information in a very
creative manner.
Two theories were considered in order to explain the different meanings
of a lexical item: 1. homonymy, which does not justify why when we analyze the
spatial particles as a class of words we find regular meaning patterns in all the
members of the class and does not admit that the distinct meanings can be
motivated and therefore related at a certain level and 2. monosemy (Ruhl, 1989,
apud Evans and Tyler, 2003:5), which supports the idea that forms have a single,
1
n.t. are organized in a microsystem (within the lexical meaning of localisation) and, furthermore,
they do not have the same lexical meaning in other constructions
2
n.t. The prepositions are a relatively closed class of elements with a varying degree of
grammaticalisation, whose components can be characterized in a similar way with those of other
lexical classes (verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs); they can be heads and can be combined with an
object of a various nature (but especially a nominal one), crating a prepositional group.
59
very abstract meaning; this can be enriched by means of contextual knowledge, so
that all the distinct meanings associated with a lexeme are derived (cf. also Tranel
and Kemmere, 2004:721).
The counterargument brought by Tyler and Evans is that some meanings
are independent from the context, which demonstrates that pragmatic knowledge is
not sufficient in predicting all the meanings associated with a certain form.They
constitute a semantic network and while some variations are included and stored in
the long-term memory, others are created online, during the common interpretation
of communication.
Tranel and Kemmere explain that „the meanings of many locative
prepositions are difficult to define precisely because these words can accommodate
a tremendous variety of geometric situations in a spatially complex world.” (op.
cit.:720)
The example chosen by the authors to illustrate the theoretical
information is from the projective subclass of the locative prepositions: The cat
jumped over the wall, which, at first sight seems unambiguous. The demonstration
reveals that, in fact, the sentence contains lexical items that are open to
interpretation. The verb jumpencodes more trajectories: from the floor to the table;
on a spingboard, over a puddle, the same way as the trajectories encoded by over
can be: a spatial relation in which TR is statically located higher than LM: The
painting is over the fireplace - Tabloul e deasupra şemineului.; TR is higher than
LM and incontinuous motion The hummingbird lingered over the flower - Pasărea
colibri a zăbovit deasupra florii.; TR moves on a trajectory which is above and
along LM: The plane was flying over the city. - Avionul zbura deasupra orasului;
there is contact between TR and LM, with the trajectory shaped by LM: Sam
crawled over the wall - Sam s-a furișat peste zid (where TR is the element on the
trajectory and LM – the background element or landmark (cf. Tyler and Evans,
ibid.:12).
The same preposition is discussed by O’Ceallaigh and Coventry
(2008:1336) who, starting from the idea that words vary in meaning according to
the context in which they are used, ackowledge the fact that words can acquire
novel meanings in specific contexts.
For example, the word over can be used in a multitude of different ways,
and the likelihood with which a particular sense is used varies as a function of the
objects involved and the context in which the objects occur. While The tablecloth
is over the table usually involves direct contact between the table and tablecloth,
The light is over the table does not. However, if the tablecloth has just been bought
and is still in its wrapping, The tablecloth is over the table is unlikely to involve
direct contact.
60
A similar analysis, in terms of “figure,” which is the thing to be located,
and the “ground” or “landmark,” which is an object that serves as a point of
reference, is conducted by Tranel and Kemmere (2004:720).
For example, in the sentence The beer is in the refrigerator, the

nounphrase the beer specifies the figure, the noun-phrase the refrigerator specifies
the landmark, and the preposition in specifies the nature of the spatial relationship
between them. For the most part, locative prepositions express spatial relationships
in terms of very sketchy or schematic structural properties of the objects involved;
metrical details are usually ignored, such as the exact sizes, shapes, and
orientations of the objects, or the precise distances between them. For instance, in
the example given above, the real-world situation that the sentence refers to might
consist of a geometrically rich, idiosyncratic, three-dimensional spatial layout,
perhaps involving a Corona longneck standing upright on the top shelf of a big
refrigerator with many levels and compartments; yet the semantic structure of in is
very austere and skeletal, since it abstracts away from these spatial particularities
and instead treats the beer bottle as just a dimensionless point and the refrigerator
as simply an idealised container.
For instance, the preposition in prototypically describes a spatial relation

of containment in which (1) the landmark is a three-dimensional object: The child
is resting in the house – Copilul se odihnește în casă, (2) the landmark is hollow:
Experimentul a fost făcut în vid – The experiment was performed in a vacuum., and
(3) the landmark completely encloses the figure: The two characters were included
in his book - Cele două personaje au fost incluse în cartea sa; Father preserves the
wine in wooden barrels – Tata păstrează vinul în butoaie de lemn (cf. Tranel and
Kemmerer, ibid.). Furthermore, „each of these conditions can be violated, thereby
yielding extended meanings as exemplified in the following situations: (1) a person
standing inside a circle painted on the floor (landmark is two-dimensional), (2) a
nail that has been pounded into a board (landmark is solid), and (3) an apple in a
bowl, even though it rests on top of other fruit so that it is technically above the
horizontal upper edge of the bowl (figure not enclosed by landmark).” (ibid.)
We observe that changing the spatial particle results in the change in the
interpretation of the trajectory, therefore the spatial particles encode the trajectory
and, in the case of the preposition over, all its occurrences that are different in
configuration (the form of the trajectory and that of the LM), must be considered
distinct meanings (ibid..:11).
P. Cadiot (2002:41) draws attention to the fact that the presentation of spatial
descriptions in terms of connecting different entities (landmark/ trajectory) is likely
to favour the point of view of the observer.
In conclusion, the preposition (together with the nouns, adjectives, verbs
and some adverbs) has a descriptive content. A series of researchers (Cervoni,
61
1991, Cadiot, 1991, 1997, apud Feigenbaum and Kurzon, 2002:2), insisted upon
the pragmatic value of the prepositions and stated that the appropriate structural
framework for the study of the preposition is not the grammatical unity of the
sentence, but the discursive unit.
Bibliography
Ciompec, G., 1985, Prepoziţia, în LRC (coord. I. Coteanu), Editura Didactică şi
Pedagogică, Bucureşti.
Copceag, D., 1998, Tipologia limbilor romanice, Editura Clusium, Cluj- Napoca.
Dimitriu, C., 1999, Tratat de gramatică a Limbii Române,1, Morfologia, Institutul
european, Iaşi.
Găitănaru, Şt., 1998, Gramatica actuală a limbii române, Editura Tempora, Piteşti.
Gougenheim, R., 1959, Y-a-t-il des prepositions vides en français? in Le français
moderne, nr.1.
Evans, V. and A. Tyler, Rethinking English “Prepositions of Movement”, The Case of
To and Through, în H. Cuychens, W. De Mulder, T. Mortelmans (Eds.), Adpositions of
Movement, (Belgian Journal of Linguistics), Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Feigenbaum, S. and D. Kurzon, 2002, Prepositions in their Syntactic, Semantic and
Pragmatic Context, John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Guillaume, G., 1964, Langage et science du langage, Québec et Paris, Presses de
l'Université Laval et A.-G. Nizet.
Guillaume, G., 1973, Principes de linguistique théorique, Québec –Paris, Presses de
l'Université Laval – Klincksieck.
Lebas, F., 2002, The Theoretical Status of Prepositions:The Case of the Prospective
Use, în Prepositions in Their Syntactic, Semantic and Pragmatic Aspects, John Benjamins
Publishing Company, www.books.google.ro.
Meyer-Lübke, W., 1900, Grammaire des langues romanes, Paris/Leipzig, Welter
O’Ceallaigh, R. and and K. Coventry, 2008, Meaning Construction, Spatial Language,
and Past History, 1336-1341,
http://csjarchive.cogsci.rpi.edu/proceedings/2008/pdfs/p1336.pdf
Pottier, B., 1957, Sur la nature du cas et de la preposition, în Melanges de linguistique
et de la litterature romanes à la memoire d’Istvan Frank.
Tranel, D., and D. Kemmerer, 2004, Neuroanatomical Correlates of Locative
Prepositions, Cognitive -europsychology, 21(7), 719-749
Vasiliu, L., 1961, Câteva observaţii asupra conţinutului semantic al prepoziţiilor în
lumina categoriilor generalului şi particularului.
Zafiu, R., 2007, Romania literară, www.romlit.ro
Zugun, P., 2003, Cuvântul, Editura Universităţii “Al. I. Cuza”, Iaşi.
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/
62
EGLISH ADVERBIAL CLAUSES AD THEIR ROMAIA

CORRESPODETS
icoleta MICĂ
University of Piteşti
Abstract: The paper presents the adverbial clauses of time, reason, and purpose as
discharging the same functions as the respective adverbial modifiers, but at the level of the
complex sentence. We are interested in revealing some types of subordinate clauses in both
English and Romanian, which include the same elements and terminology like the parts of
the simple sentence, but with certain variations or fluctuations.
Key words: adverbial clauses, adverbial modifiers, complex sentence.
In English, at the syntactical level of the complex sentence, the elements of the
simple extended sentence may be developed into various subordinate clauses, that
is groups of words including a predicate which, however, discharge the function of
the subject, attribute, predicative, of an object, of one of the many types of
adverbial modifiers.
Adverbial clauses, like the adverbial adjuncts, usually qualify the main clause
as a whole. In accordance with the meaning expressed they can be divided into
adverbial clauses of time, place, cause or reason, purpose, result, condition,
concession or contrast, comparison, manner, restriction, and perhaps one or two
more. The meaning intended is usually indicated by the introductory conjunction,
though it sometimes has to be inferred from the sentence as a whole.
Adverbial clauses of time discharge the same functions as the adverbial
modifiers of time at the level of the simple extended sentence and therefore may be
subdivided on the basis of the distinction definite time – indefinite time and
frequency. However, this distinction is much less relevant at the level of the
complex sentence except as regards the use of tenses, which has to rely on this
distinction.
Adverbial clauses of time may be introduced by many connective adverbs or
conjunctions: when, whenever, while, as, before, after, until, till, as soon as, since,
as long as, as soon as, immediately after, etc.
I have only been ill once since I came to live here.
He turned pale when he saw her.
They will stay as long as they can.
Adverbial clauses of time also involve a pattern corresponding to the
Romanian model: nici nu apucasem să intru în casă că a şi sunat telefonul, etc. in
63
which it is quite difficult to distinguish the main clause from the temporal one. If
we consider our analysis by a re-phrasing of the sentence, we can realize that the
first clause is temporal, while the second is the principal one: A sunat telefonul
imediat după ce intrasem în casă. In English, the usual form is Hardly/ Scarcely
had I entered the house when the phone rang = The phone rang as soon as I had
entered the house.
Besides this pattern, adverbial clauses of time are subject to many constraints
as part of the set of rules called the sequence of tenses, which can be summarized
as follows:
• concomitance with the present tenses in the main clause is shown by the
present in the temporal clause; with the past tenses it is indicated by the past
indefinite in the temporal clause; with the future it is expressed by the present
indefinite in the temporal clause:
She comes here when(ever) she likes.
She came here when(ever) she felt like it.
She will come here when(ever) she thinks fit to do so.
• priority/ previousness to the present tenses in the main clause is indicated by
the present perfect in the temporal clause, to a past tense in the main clause is
expressed by the past perfect in the temporal clause, while priority to a future
action can only be expressed by the present perfect in the temporal clause.
I usually go to the library after I have taken my breakfast.
After he had spoken to me on the telephone, we actually met three days
ago.
I will give you my answer after I have thought it over.
• subsequence to the present in the main clause is obviously indicated by the
future (future indefinite or near future) while in relation to a past action, expressed
by either past tense or past perfect, it is shown by future in the past in the temporal
clause, or merely by a past tense, the time relation being indicated by the
conjunctions till, until, before, etc.
George is in Bucharest now, after which he will make a tour of the
provinces.
Bill stayed in the countryside before he went to study abroad.
Unlike Romanian, where tenses are mixed in narratives, English prefers the
past tense in such contexts. Hence, such forms as: după care se duce la
Bucureşti…, iar apoi va pleca la…, când avea să fie numit profesor…, are all
rendered in English by the past tense, with the very rare occurrence of the form
“when he was to…”(denoting subsequence). As the time of a past action is usually
rendered by a preterite, it is but natural to have the same tense for the initial
moment, the beginning of an action continuing in the present. If this is expressed in
a complex sentence, the present perfect is used in the main clause, and the preterite
in the temporal clause:
We have known him since we attended the same courses.
She has been living in this flat (ever)since she came to Cluj.
64
In Romanian, the correlative elements are of an adverbial nature, they can be
anticipated and taken back, and they are specific to each function. Whatever
position they may have, correlative elements are accomplished as constituent parts
of the main clause, and this is very important, especially when concerning the
segmentation operation. The adverbial clauses of time, owing to the very different
correlative elements they can use, offer various correlation alternatives:
Când te văd zâmbind copilăreşte, uit de toate grijile.
De câte ori intra în casă, de atâtea ori îl ironiza.
Cum a ajuns, cum a şi alergat la fratele său.
Adverbial clauses of reason also called causative clauses denote the first
element in the relation of determination or of cause to effect. The role discharged
by these clauses is similar to that of adverbial modifiers of reason/cause at the level
of the simple extended sentence. Adverbial clauses of reason may be introduced
by: as, because, since, seeing (that), considering (that), in that, now (that), for the
reason that, in view of the fact that, etc.
As you are not ready, we must go on.
Did you go on because he was not ready, or for another reason?
Since there is no help, let’s try to bear it as best we may.
The difference between a clause introduced by as and one beginning with because
is that in the former the emphasis is on the main clause, in the latter on the sub-
clause. Since agrees with as in this respect, but implies at the same time that the
cause or reason is an undisputed fact. In that, which is limited to literary English,
means primarily ‘consisting in this, that…’. This may be either restrictive (‘in so
far as’) or explanatory or both.
Since/ Because/ Considering he has no money on him, he couldn’t buy the
book.
-ow that/ For the reason that/ In view of the fact that we are all here, we
might as well begin our discussion.
In Romanian, adverbial clauses of reason may be introduced by: fiindcă,
pentru că, din cauză că, deoarece, întrucât, căci, din pricină că:
Se hotărâ să deschidă uşa, fiindcă auzise nişte bocănituri.
Nu vorbim, din cauză că ea citeşte.
Vrem să credem în ceva, din moment ce suntem oameni.
There are also some adverbial clauses of reason, intoduced by că, dacă, când,
which depend upon a direct or rhetorical interrogative sentence, where
interrogative pronouns or adverbs discharge the role of correlative elements: cine,
care, ce, cât, unde, când, cum:
Cum să n-audă, când strigătele oamenilor se înălţau până la cer?
De unde să plătesc dacă n-am!...
Adverbial clauses of purpose, also called final clauses, discharge the same
function as adverbial modifiers of purpose in simple extended sentence. They may
be introduced by: that, so that, in order that, for the purpose that. If the clause
expresses what is to be prevented, it may be introduced by the same words,
65
accompanied by not, or it may open with lest (in literary English only), for fear
(that), in case.
Stand there, (so) that I may take a good look at you.
He worked himself to death, in order that his wife might live in luxury.
She had to be very careful lest the news should become known too early.
Better chain up the dog in case/ for fear he bites.
In British usage the synthetic subjunctive rarely appears in conversation, in private
letters, etc. while in American English it may do so, and not only in association
with the more formal conjunctional phrase ‘in order that’:
He is studying so he become a teacher. (American English)
He is studying so that he becomes a teacher. (British English)
The utilization of the indicative mood in such cases, though evincing some
psychological motivation, does not resist comparison with grammatical rules
governing the use of direct or oblique moods. This instance of usage is normally
labelled as substandard.
When the subject of the two actions (in both main clause and final clause) is
identical, an infinitival phrase is preferred, in both the affirmative and the negative,
quite often preceded by in order to for the sake of clarity:
He went there (in order) to speak to her.
He stayed at home (in order) (not) to face the embarrassing situation.
When the two actions have different subjects, the construction “for – to
infinitive”/“for-phrase + infinitive” is used: He drew near, for me to see him.
The Romanian adverbial clause of purpose expresses the purpose of the verb
action fulfilment in the main clause. Therefore, the purpose could be presented as
possible, feasible: Oamenii veneau de pretutindeni să vadă şi să audă teatru
românesc; as real: Unii patroni şi-au pus angajaţii de le-au facut ore
suplimentare; as unreal: Şi atunci ne-am despărţit, ca să nu ne mai vedem
niciodată. The adverbial clauses of purpose usually anticipate the following
correlative elements: de aceea, anume, în acest scop…/ să, ca să…:
Stă-n drum anume ca să-l văd.
Câinele de aceea e câine, ca să fie îngrijit.
De aceea sunt mai mulţi oameni, ca să aibă mai multe idei.
As regards grammatical synonymy in syntax, there is the posibility of filling
the same place and role in a sentence by one word, by a phrase, or by a clause, all
this depending upon the speaker’s/writer’s will, intention, possibilities or upon
necessities of expression.Thus, the types of subordinate clauses will include the
same elements and terminology as that describing the parts of the simple sentence,
with certain variations, especially as concerns adverbial clauses which evince
certain differences from adverbial modifiers.
Bibliography:
Avram, M., 2001, Gramatica pentru toţi, Bucureşti, Editura Humanitas, Ediţia a III-
a.
66
Bădescu, A., 1984, Gramatica limbii engleze, Bucureşti, Editura Ştiintifică şi
Enciclopedică.
Bantaş, A., Leviţchi, L., 1992, Dicţionar englez-român, Bucureşti, Editura Teora.
Coteanu, I., 1993, Gramatica de bază a limbii române, Bucureşti, Editura
Garamond.
Chiţoran, D., 1978, Further Contrastive Studies, Bucharest University Press.
Diaconescu, I., 1989, Probleme de sintaxă a limbii române actuale, Bucureşti,
Editura Ştiinţifică şi Enciclopedică.
Dictionary of Contemporary English, Longman, Second Edition, 1994
Iordan, I., Robu, V., 1971, Limba română contemporană, Bucureşti, Editura
Didactică şi Pedagogică.
Irimia, D., 1997, Gramatica limbii române, Iaşi, Editura Polirom.
Leviţchi, L., Preda, I., 1992, Gramatica limbii engleze, Bucureşti, Editura Mondero.
Leviţchi, L., 1995, Gramatica limbii engleze, Bucureşti, Editura Teora.
Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., Svartnik, J., 1992, A Comprehensive Grammar
of the English Language, London and New York, Longman.
Thomson, A. J., Martinet, A. V., 1986, A Practical English Grammar, Oxford
University Press.
67
EXPRESSIG POIT OF VIEW

- A comparative study on the literary works of John Galsworthy
and Camil Petrescu -
Ana-Maria STOICA
University of Piteşti
Abstract: Having as a starting point the most important works of John Galsworthy
and Camil Petrescu, the present article expands upon the linguistic means of expressing
‘point of view’. The approach combines concepts and theories from narratology with the
theory of enunciation and pragmatics.
Key words: point of view, deixis, modality, theory of enunciation, pragmatics.
We start the investigation from the idea that “Both natural language and the
poetic subcode can be known only by induction, by analyzing their concrete
manifestation in (literary) texts” (Neţ 2002: 8). Therefore, we have chosen the
literary texts of two novelists of the 20th century in order to conduct a comparative
study (English vs. Romanian) on the linguistic means of expressing point of view.
In linguistics, the concept is associated with the persuasive dimension of
communication and with expressing an opinion, an attitude or an evaluation, often
seen in contrast with another opinion (attitude or evaluation) real or possible (cf.
Zafiu 2003). We shall proceed by concentrating, classifying and comparing the
most frequent linguistic means which function as triggers of certain points of view
in the literary works of the two novelists.
As specified by Herman Parret’s (1983:91), ‘deictisation’ (preffered to the
classical term of ‘deixis’) and modality are to be taken into account when
approaching enunciation.
According to Catherine Kerbrat-Orecchioni (1980: 36), the deictic elements
represent “les unites linguistiques don’t le fonctionnement semantico-référentiel
[…] implique une prise en consideration de certains des elements constitutifs de la
situation de communication, à savoir: le role que tiennent dans le process
d’énonciation les actants de l’énoncé; la situation spation-temporelle du locuteur et,
éventuellement, de l’allocutaire”.
At this point of the analysis, the main difference between the literary works
of the two writers comes from the specific of the narrative:
● The third person narrative (heterodiegetic) results in the lack of the
personal pronouns I sg/pl in Galsworthy’s novels: “On June 15, 1886, about four of
the afternoon, the observer who chanced to be present at the house of old Jolyon
68
Forsyte in Stanhope Gate, might have seen […]”; “After writing to Bosinney in the
terms that have already been chronicled” (Galsworthy ([1906-1921] 2001: 3, 177).
● The homodiegetic narrative in Camil Petrescu’s novels has as a
consequence the egocentric organisation of the deictic elements: “Când îmi dau
seama acum cât de puţin bănuiam ce sens profund avea să aibă într-o zi această
afirmaţie pentru mine, ce înnebunitoare problemă fără soluţie avea să-mi puie, cât
aveam să-mi repet întrebarea la nesfârşit, îmi vine să surând melancolic de
seninătatea cu care glumeam atunci [...]” (Camil Petrescu [1930] 1997: 52).
Modality (epistemic, deontic, evaluative), on the other hand, represents the
most important linguistic tool which indicates the Enunciator’s point of view
(attitude, belief) toward the situation or event described in the discourse.
In Galsworthy’s novels, the narrator’s position and attitude in the discourse
frequently manifest in the selection of:
● epistemic adverbs indicating certainty: “That she was one of those women
– not too common in the Anglo-Saxon race – born to be loved and to love, who
when not loving are not living, had certainly never ever occurred to him”; “Surely
this embodiment of respectability and the sense of property could not wish to bring
such a slur on his own sister”; “But, making all allowances, her remark did
undoubtedly show expansion of the principle of liberty, decentralization and shift
in the central point of possession from others to oneself”; “‘What? Are you a pro-
Boer?’ (undoubtedly the first use of that expression)”; “Her knowledge of things
and people seemed indeed precise and decided, if not profound […]”; (Galsworthy
[1906-1921] 2001: 41, 294, 360; [1924-1928] 2001: 68; [1931] 2007: 83);
● nominal prepositional constructions functioning as epistemic adverbs of
certainty: “The philosophic vein in him, of course, had always been too liable to
crop out of the strata of pure Forsyteism […]”; “[…] Pocket, in the deep sense of
that word, of course, self-interest as member of definite community”; “He walked
towards the Edgware Road, between rows of little houses, all suggesting to him
(erroneously no doubt, but the prejudices of a Forsyte are sacred) shady histories of
some sort or kind”; “But Jon was by no means typically modern” (Galsworthy
[1906-1921] 2001: 65, 293, 614; [1924-1928] 2001: 19).
We must, however, mention that in Galsworthy’s novels, “strong” epistemic
modality is more often realized with the help of representative speech acts (Searle
([1969] 1970), which do not necessarily contain the linguistic means mentioned
above.
The evaluative modality manifests itself in the selection of evaluative
adjectives and adverbs which reflect the narrator’s believes and attitudes: “James
[…] had experienced the saddest experience of all – forgetfulness of what it was
like to be in love”; “The beginnings and the endings of all human undertakings are
untidy: the building of a house, the writing of a novel, the demolition of a bridge,
and, emitently, the finish of a voyage”; “Mrs. Val Dartie, after twenty years of
South Africa, had fallen deeply in love, fortunately with something of her own
[…]”; He took his wife about with him into a society – a queer sort of society, no
69
doubt […]”; “[…] and at the back (a great feature) a little court tiled with jade-
green tiles, and surrounded by pink hydrangeas in peacock-blue tubs”; “There had
always been something primitive and cosy in his attitude towards life […]”;
“Characteristically, his irritation turned not against Irene but against Soames”
(Galsworthy [1906-1921] 2001: 24, 48, 55, 121; [1924-1928] 2001: 105; [1933]
2007: 8).
“Medium” or “weak” epistemic modality (cf. Halliday 1985; Chiţoran,
Cornilescu 1985) or, in other words, prudence in expressing points of view, are
most often expressed with the help of:
● non-factive (opinion) adverbs (which sometimes indicate inference or
mental processes of deduction): “Francie, the most free-spirited Forsyte of his
generation – except perhaps that fellow Jolyon […]”; “But after all, everybody was
emancipated now, or said they were – perhaps not quite the same thing!”;
“Originally, perhaps, members of some primitive sect, they were now in the
natural course of things members of the Church of England […]”; “[…] Perhaps
they regarded one another as an investment; certainly they were solicitous of each
other’s welfare, glad of each other’s company”; “When she entered a room it was
felt that something substantial had come in, which was probably the reason of her
popularity as a patroness”; “Perhaps what really affected them so profoundly was
the thought that a Forsyte should have let go her grasp of life”; “Family dinners of
the Forsytes observe certain traditions. There are, for instance, no hors d’oeuvres.
The reason for this is unknown. Theory among the younger members traces it to
the disgraceful price of oysters; it is more probably due to a desire to come to the
point, to a good practical sense […]”; “Given the reputation of the titled in
democratic countries, Hallorsen probably thought the worst”) (Galsworthy [1906-
1921] 2001: 14, 33, 55, 74, 169, 548, 611; ([1931] 2007: 91);
● complex modal constructions gradually placed between probability –
uncertainty: “It is likely enough that each branch of the Forsyte family made that
remark as they drove away […]”; “The exact and immediate cause of this letter
cannot, of course, be told, though it is not improbable that Bosinney may have
been moved by some sudden revolt […]”; “Whether or no James had cherished
hopes of an inheritance, or of something rather distinguished to be found down
there, he came back to town in a poor way […]”; “-or was it easy to say which, of
admiration, envy, or contempt, was dominant in that remark”; “Educated […] at
one of those establishments which, designed to avoid the evil and contain the good
of the Public School system, may or may not contain the evil and avoid the good,
Jon had left in April perfectly ignorant of what he wanted to become”; “It may
have been simply the decision to do something – more possibly the fact that he was
going to look at a house – that gave him relief”(Galsworthy [1906-1921] 2001: 9,
14, 15, 107, 113, 542).
On the other hand, the linguistic tools listed above are part of certain speech
acts. As previously mentioned, in Galsworthy’s novels, the narrator’s discourse
abunds in representative speech acts, which are, more frequently, direct
70
representatives. Their illocutionary purpose is to describe states, as seen through
the narrator’s point of view. Generally, they are:
● assertions/negations: “All are under sentence of death”; “There are people
in every human hive born to focus talk”; “If you avow a creed of indulgence, you
will be indulged by the credulous”; “Whatever her position in the eyes of the law,
or according to morality, a young and pretty woman breathes more easily when
inhaling the incense of devotion”; “Brutality is not so deplorably diluted by
humaneness as it used to be” (Galsworthy [1906-1921] 2001: 4, 7, 13, 67, 107;
● assumptions: “A student of statistics must have noticed that the birth rate
had varied in accordance with the rate of interest for your money” (Galsworthy
[1933] 2007: 24).
● deductions/inductions: “[…] people of good position not seeing to each
other’s buttons, and Emily was of good position […]”; “The position of their
houses was of vital importance to the Forsytes, nor was this remarkable, since the
whole spirit of their success was embodied therein” (Galsworthy [1906-1921]
2001: 183, 295);
● evaluations/evaluative comparisons: “Danger – so indispensable in
bringing out the fundamental quality of any society, group, or individual – was
what the Forsytes scented”; “All Forsytes, as is generally admitted, have shells,
like that extremely useful little animal which is made into Turkish delights […]”;
“Like cattle when a dog comes into the field, they stood head to head and shoulder
to shoulder, prepared to run upon and trample the invader to death”; “Just as in a
very old world to find things or people of pure descent is impossible, so with
actions” (Galsworthy [1906-1921] 2001: 542; [1924-1928] 2001: 364, 366, 762).
● acknowledgements: “The second generation of Forsytes felt indeed that he
was not greatly to their credit” (Galsworthy [1906-1921] 2001: 13);
● contradictions: “Time has been compared with a stream, but it differs –
you cannot cross it, grey and even-flowing, wide as the world itself, having neither
ford nor bridge; and though, according to philosophers, it may flow up and down,
the calendar as yet follows it but one way”) (Galsworthy [1933] 2007: 102).
In Camil Petrescu’s novels, the narrator, who is also a character in the story,
projects an universe enlightened by his own subjectivity and offers his own vision
about the world. In order to give spiritual or intellectual insight to the world he
describes, he places himself (1st person narrative) at the centre of the discourse.
Together with the egocentric organisation of the deictic elements, the category of
modality represents another linguistic tool indicating the narrator’s point of view,
in what concerns the story, the actors or his own discourse.
The most frequent linguistic means which trigger the presupposition of the
narrator’s point of view are:
● epistemic verbs and constructions indicating certainty: „Apăsarea asta, de
a nu cunoaşte ceea ce se întâmplă înainte, ştiu acum că e, în război, pentru unii de
neîndurat [...]”; „[...] nu se poate însă tăgădui că în arta decorativă […] a creat
«stilul epocii» [...]”(Camil Petrescu [1930] 1997: 158; [1933] 2001: 207, 215).
71
● non-factive (opinion) constructions used to express modal judgements
(„[...] ba cred că niciodată n-ar trebui să folosească, vorbind, persoana a treia [...]”;
„Nu vreau să spun că toţi maniacii au viaţă interioară, dar ţin să afirm că, după
părerea mea, [...] orice om cu viaţă interioară trebuie să-şi organizeze traiul de
toate zilele [...]”), or to launch hypotheses („Cred că toţi, în sinea lor, au repetat: au
dreptate cei care-l cred fenomenal pe Nae asta”; „[…] Socot că el se amăgea cu
oarecare luciditate”; „Cred că el şi-a dat seama că opinia publică, la noi, e
incapabilă de discernământ, dar în acelaşi timp şi mult mai sensibilă ca orice altă
opinie publică”; „Şi cred că e şi uşor de constatat din istorie că mai toţi oamenii
mari au avut manii”) (Camil Petrescu [1930] 1997: 61, 113; [1933] 2001: 127,
196);
● non-factive (opinion) constructions followed by elements which introduce
glosses: „Nicăieri nu sunt, cred eu, mai puţini maniaci, adică [...] mai puţini
oameni cu viaţă interioară ca la noi”; „Găsesc împotriva convingerilor obicinuite,
că tocmai a nu urma « moda», adică a nu fi îmbrăcat ca toată lumea, e o dovadă de
vanitate puerilă” (Camil Petrescu [1933] 2001: 127, 169);
● adverbs expressing propositional attitude of certainty: „A crede că iubirea
sufletelor e o astfel de combinare simplistă înseamnă, fireşte, a discuta ca toată
lumea, prosteşte […]”; „Fireşte că viaţa ar fi atroce în asemenea societate”;
„-eîndoios că din pricina femeilor superioare se suferă mai mult, mult mai adânc şi
sub forme care ţin de un desfiinţător sadism psihologic”; „Evident că era în această
putere ceva din pasiunea care o făcuse să asculte un curs întreg de calcul diferenţial
[…]” (Camil Petrescu [1933] 2001): 44, 219, 228; [1930] 1997: 29);
● complex constructions with verb “to be” expressing certainty in utterances
functioning as confessions: „E adevărat, trebuie să spun, că libertatea cuvântului şi
a gestului nu erau niciodată jignitoare la marea comediană”; „Mai mult mă
nemulţumea pasiunea cu care nevastă-mea discuta afacerile şi atenţia matură cu
care cântărea totul. […] era în această putere ceva din pasiunea care o făcuse să
asculte un curs întreg de calcul diferenţial, tot pentru mine; nu e mai puţin adevărat
că în acest interes al tinerei mele neveste pentru afaceri, vedeam vechiul instinct al
femeilor pentru bani” (Camil Petrescu [1930] 1997: 29, 41).
● nominal prepositional constructions functioning as prepositional adverbs
of certainty: „Dorea fără îndoială ca adăpostită de griji, să se despartă de mine”;
„[…] Această trăire în trecut, aprig şi voluptos dureroasă, ţine, fără îndoială, de
ordinul vegetativ” (Camil Petrescu [1930]1997): 125); ([1933]2001: 215).
The use of evaluative terms or evaluative comparisons represents another
linguistic tool pointing out the narrator’s attitude toward the world projected in the
text: „Era numai o banală şi lacomă cocotă, fostă servitoare, care nu cunoştea
Dama cu camelii nici măcar din traducerea apărută în «Biblioteca pentru toţi», dar
care, cu uşurinţa levantinilor ori a specimenelor inferioare, frumoasă, neasemănat
machiată, imita la perfecţie modelele ajunse aci din a treia, a patra mână (când
sensul şi conţinutul se evaporează şi când imitatorul nu mai ştie măcar pe cine
imită)”; „O îmbrăţişare adevărată a corpurilor e frumoasă ca o convorbire între
72
două intelegenţe, în care nici un moment una nu pierde înţelegerea cu cealaltă, sau
ca o carte citită cu pasiune, în care fiecare amănunt e priceput şi justificat”; „O
convorbire e aşa, ca jocul acela al figurii de pe dosul oglinjoarei: când nu izbuteşti
să potriveşti cele cinci mărgeluşe albe în gura turcului, dacă eşti înţelept începi să-i
admiri mustăţile” (Camil Petrescu 1930]1997: 109); ([1933] 2001: 42, 47).
We must state, however, that in the homodiegetic narrative uncertainty is
more frequent, an observation which underlines the narrator’s desire to produce a
discourse limited to his own perceptions and points of view. In Camil Petrescu’s
novels, uncertainty, inferential mental or deductive processes usually manifest in
the selection of:
● modal verbal constructions expressing uncertainty: „-u ştiu dacă am
dreptate să trag concluzia că oamenii problemelor mari sufleteşti sunt tocmai
dimpotrivă: neliniştiţi de calea destinelor care li s-au încredinţat şi faţă de vinovaţii
mari, atunci când e vorba de soarta colectivităţii [...]”; „-u pot să-mi dau seama ce
efect are asupra altor bărbaţi vulgaritatea voită [...] dar mie îmi înfăţişa şi mai mult
prostia acestei actriţe” (Camil Petrescu [1930] 1997: 45); ([1933] 2001: 49);
● modal inferential elements which express doubt: „Dacă […] Ionel Brătianu
nu l-a mai luat în noul minister din august, e poate şi rezultatul acestei beşteleli
care uluise publicul […]”; „Tânărul Fred Vasilescu […] era ataşat la legaţia din
Londra (probabil că îşi închipuia că pe baza meritelor proprii)” (Camil Petrescu
[1933] 2001: 82, 129);
● discourse markers which introduce presuppositions: „Totuşi parcă Emilia
exagerează” (Camil Petrescu [1933] 2001: 62, 68); „Nu sunt religios […] totuşi,
ceea ce are, zguduitor de profund, catolicismul e această dogmă, că soţul şi soţia
sunt predestinaţi de la facerea lumii, că peste catastrofele vieţii, uniţi şi egali unul
cu altul, faţă-n faţă unul cu altul, ca în această viaţă, vor fi şi în veşnicia viitoare. E
şi una dintre cele mai frumoase imagini create de gândirea omenească” (Camil
Petrescu [1930] 1997: 68);
In strong connection with the aspects listed above, the speech acts present in the
narrator’s discourse indicate believes, opinions, attitudes or points of view
regarding the world, in general, the story or the characters. These are most often
direct representative speech acts:
● assertions/negations: „Nu putem avea în simţuri, şi deci în minte, decât ora şi
locul nostru. Restul îl înlocuim cu imagini false, convenţionale, care nu corespund
la nimic, sunt cel mult o simplă firmă provizorie”;
● deductions/inductions: „Trei nule puse înaintea cifrei una sau după ea, nu
înseamnă acelaşi lucru”;
● comparissons: „Ladima [...] nu putea fi numit, de pildă, membru în nici un
consiliu de administraţie, aşa cum sunt numiţi şi încasează jetoane oameni care n-ar
putea să scrie exact titlul mai complicat şi mai nuanţat al vreunei instituţii, în
consiliul căreia figurează”;
73
● evaluations: „E greşit să socoţi că la firile mediocre inteligenţa rămâne deasupra
intereselor”; „E iritant de indiscret şi inelegant să-ţi auzi numele strigat într-un
restaurant”; „Revederile acestea sunt penibile prin începuturile convorbirii”;
● assumptions: „Poate din politeţă faţă de Mouthy, poate din timiditate, poate
fiindcă vrea să evite familiaritatea înghesuielii, […] Lena Coremati întârziase să se
suie în maşină”; „S-ar putea să nu fie vorba decât despre o simpatie anume […]”;
„Taina lui Fred Vasilescu merge poate în cea universală, fără nici un moment de
sprijin adevărat [...] (Camil Petrescu ([1930] 1997: 45, 246); [1933] 2001: 21, 74,
80, 130 253, 259).
Representative speech acts are sometimes perfomed through speculative-meditative
questions: „Dacă e o simplă coincidenţă [...] ca atâtea în viaţă?”; „Pe potecile
lunecoase ale amănuntelor şi ale interpretărilor va găsi reazem şi o mai adâncă
dezlegare? Va afla ceva mai multă împăcare decât acea sete, care nu se poate potoli
în vis? De altfel, când e un acord aproape unanim asupra relativităţii spaţiale, de ce
n-am crede că sistemul de repercutare al cauzelor nu poate afla nicăieri un punct
absolut” (Camil Petrescu [1930] 1997: 250 ; [1933] 2001: 259).
However, in Camil Petrescu’s novels enunaciation concentrates mainly on inner
states, as reflected in the high frequency of expressive speech acts which
incorporate verba sentiendi: „Simt că ameţesc, că mi se deschide o perspectivă
uluitoare, deşi dorită, ca putinţa de a merge a paraliticului, culcat în faţa altarului
pentru maslu”; „Simţeam o mulţumire potolită că am făcut o faptă bună”. The
propositional content of expressive speech acts also indicate motivating inner
states: „[…] dacă mă răsucesc de durere e tocmai din cauza spectacolului pe care-l
dă ea, fiind atât de ridicolă că suferă”; „Mă chinuiam lăuntric ca să par vesel, dar
nu puteam suporta prea mult minciuna şi ochii îmi deveneau de la ei trişti”; „Eram
stânjenit de parcă numai în străchini călcam”; „Mi-era ruşine de rolul grotesc, de
siluit de o femeie […]”; „Sunt într-o clipă năpădit de un sentiment uitat, care mă
pătrunde tot, ca o erupţie pe întreaga piele”; „Rămân uimit, am o tresărire, când
aud numele ăsta, dar mă opresc numaidecât, căci altfel nu mai aflu nimic” (Camil
Petrescu [1930] 1997: 16, 28 40, 65 ; [1933] 2001: 36, 49).
The conclusions can only be partial given the complexity that such a study
presupposes. We can state, however, that the differences in the selection of the
linguistic means expressing points of view in the literary works of the two authors
come mainly from the specific of the narrative. In the heterodiegetic novels of John
Galsworthy these are more often associated with certaintly. On the other hand, in
the homodiegetic narrative of Camil Petrescu they usually indicate uncertaintly,
enunciation focussing mainly on the inner states or on the perceptions and believes
of the Enunciator.
74
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76
L’EXPRESSIVITÉ DU LAGAGE POÉTIQUE DAS L’ŒUVRE DE

MARI SORESCU ET DIFFICULTÉS DE TRADUCTIO
Ioana CIODARU
Université de Piteşti
Résumé : Cette étude vise à souligner les traits définitoires de la poétique

moderniste et implicitement, les particularités du langage poétique sorescien, les capacités
combinatoires et d’expression du langage, ainsi que les aspects qui pourraient poser des
problèmes dans la traduction de l’œuvre de Marin Sorescu.
Mots clés : langage poétique, traduction littéraire, l’ironie.
Marin Sorescu a transposé simplement et naturellement ses idées, ses

sentiments, ses préoccupations et ses pensées, en aboutissant à une connexion
profonde entre l’écriture et la signification de ce qu’il transmet par son discours
poétique. Le poète éprouve le besoin de communiquer avec le lecteur ; on peut
remarquer une communication directe, spontanée, à travers la simulation des
sentiments du lecteur et l’attitude aisée envers les clichés et les stéréotypes du
langage poétique.
L’univers poétique sorescien est l’univers de la réalité quotidienne, et, à
travers chaque poème, on sent la présence du poète, par son empreinte personnelle,
ses visions originales de la vie comme spectacle, ses conceptions concernant les
aspects essentiels de l’existence. Ce ne sont pas les thèmes ou les sujets abordés
qui ont créé des controverses parmi les critiques, mais plutôt le langage utilisé pour
les exprimer. Marin Sorescu a eu recours à la langue standard, la langue de tous les
jours, mais en mettant l’accent sur l’harmonie des vers, sur le style fluide,
l’authenticité, la substance sonore et les inventions intelligentes. Il a assumé la
liberté de créer des mots nouveaux à travers les procédés d’enrichissement du
vocabulaire, spécifiques à chaque langue : la dérivation, la composition,
l’innovation, les associations inhabituelles des mots, tout en conférant au message
poétique sonorité, musicalité, accessibilité, profondeur et complexité. Le poète
« joue » avec les constructions des mots, des syntagmes et des inventions
stylistiques, sa poésie étant construite avec intelligence et subtilité, avec une
profondeur philosophique des idées toute particulière imprimant un caractère
sincère et exacte de la réalité.
La préoccupation essentielle de cette étude a eu comme sujet central la
découverte des aspects de langage définitoires de la poétique sorescienne, la mise
en évidence des moyens d’expression et la manière dont le poète a contribué à
77
l’évolution du langage poétique : l’humour, l’ironie, l’esprit laïc, le naturel, le
langage qui n’est pas solennel et l’observation des caractéristiques de la poésie
sorescienne du point de vue linguistique. Notre recherche a visé non seulement des
aspects théoriques du langage poétique, mais aussi des objectifs pratiques,
appliqués au niveau du discours poétique.
L’analyse linguistique démontre que Marin Sorescu ne s’est pas limité à
aborder une seule formule poétique, mais que son discours stylistique s’est enrichi
en fonction des expériences et des connaissances accomplies.
Cette étude est axée sur les aspects généraux de la poésie sorescienne, la
capacité du poète de découvrir des ressources poétiques, d’attirer l’attention sur les
choses les plus simples de la vie, vues comme universalités de l’existence, le talent
de regarder et de tout dire autrement.
Pour étudier le langage poétique sorescien, il nous a paru nécessaire de
faire une courte incursion dans la notion de langage poétique et de revoir les
termes généraux. Marin Sorescu est un poète entièrement qualifié en ce qui
concerne le langage, son désir primordial étant celui de tenir la poésie à l’écart de
toute rigidité, lois strictes, règles, définitions ou classifications ; en conclusion, une
analyse de son langage poétique est nécessaire.
De même, intégrer le poète dans un certain courant littéraire, n’a pas été
très facile non plus. Cependant, la plupart des critiques se sont mis d’accord que
Marin Sorescu est un écrivain moderne, en particulier grâce à sa permanente
recherche, afin de découvrir de nouvelles ressources et de nouveaux moyens
d’expression poétique, de libérer le langage de la tutelle des modèles et de
renouveler la lyrique roumaine, par sa vision originelle sur le langage et la
réactivation des réservoirs d’expressivité de la langue roumaine.
Mais, bien que Marin Sorescu soit considéré comme l’un des poètes les
plus importants qui a contribué au renouvellement du langage, une première
analyse montre qu’en effet il s’agit d’un retour à la tradition, au folklore et d’un
rafraîchissement de l’angle sous lequel on regarde les thèmes spécifiques à la
poésie.
Nous avons réalisé une investigation plus ample de la création poétique,
des coordonnés de la poésie, qui mettent en évidence les caractéristiques qui
définissent le style de Marin Sorescu.
Nous nous sommes proposés une courte explication théorique des termes
style et expressivité, mais aussi une analyse minutieuse des moyens à travers
lesquels le langage commun devient langage poétique : l’ironie et le ludique. Le
style sorescien est remarquable, le langage est vif et coloré, chargé de syntagmes
placés dans des endroits importants, dans des combinaisons surprenantes, son
modernisme conduisant à une association de notions et d’idées inattendue. Il se
caractérise par la désinvolture, l’intelligence, le sérieux, l’ironie et le ludique et sa
poésie exerce une grande force d’attraction. Il provient du processus de sélection
des éléments linguistiques, de leur combinaison, selon l’intentionnalité, la vision et
le message du poète. La suggestivité et le caractère réel, le désir d’attirer le lecteur,
78
les mots utilisés afin de créer des images artistiques, tout comme les éléments du
niveau phonématique – l’accent, l’intonation, le rythme, les figures phonétiques –
les allitérations, les répétitions, tous ces aspects caractérisent l’écriture de l’auteur.
Le genre d’ironie qui caractérise le mieux la poésie de Marin Sorescu est la
méthode ironique de Socrate, car elle est plus complexe, avec des implications
philosophiques, morales et esthétiques. L’ironie sorescienne met en discussion,
sous le masque de la simplicité, d’importants problèmes de l’existence.
L’expérience existentielle, les drames de l’homme moderne, la mutilation
spirituelle sont interprétés sous le signe de la dérision, de sorte que l’ironie qui
« provient de l’aperception de la duplicité ontologique de la « valeur »
transcendante, devient l’unique, l’exclusive modalité de s’exprimer de l’écrivain –
non seulement en poésie, où elle excelle et envahit, mais aussi dans la prose
roumaine… » (MORARESCU, 2004: 178)
Marin Sorescu transforme ses propres émotions en discours poétique
expressif, en utilisant des phénomènes variés à tous les niveaux de la langue :
phonétique, lexical, morphologique, syntaxique. La nouveauté frappante de sa
lyrique consiste dans l’abandon du langage cérémonieux et l’augmentation de la
valeur du langage quotidien, tout en démontrant qu’il existe aussi une poésie des
choses simples.
L’expressivité est réalisée aussi par l’emploi des termes colloquiaux, à
l’aide des suffixes diminutifs ou augmentatifs etc. Pour Marin Sorescu, la poésie
devient attractive grâce au langage employé, à la manière de combinaison des
mots, dans la plupart des cas inhabituelle, à l’expression poétique qui mène à des
visions différentes et des impressions surprenantes.
Par l’examen du niveau lexico-sémantique, nous avons envisagé d’établir
les traits du vocabulaire sorescien, d’en présenter et d’en démontrer la spécificité.
Même si Marin Sorescu a fait appel au vocabulaire de la langue standard, la
dynamique de son discours poétique est transposée justement par l’intermédiaire de
ces mots et de divers termes spécialisés, repris dans plusieurs domaines.
On attendait en permanence que Marin Sorescu change, et il l’a fait. Avec
chaque volume, nous pouvons remarquer non seulement un changement de
tonalité, de conception, mais un changement radical, comme c’est le cas des
volumes La Lilieci.
Les volumes La Lilieci ont provoqué des disputes littéraires en ce qui
concerne le genre littéraire dans lequel les poèmes auraient dû être encadrés. Au-
delà de ces problèmes de classification, Marin Sorescu se montre un observateur
attentif et original de l’espace roumain, en utilisant les connaissances culturelles
spécifiques à l’Olténie et un vocabulaire ayant une importante charge régionale.
Afin de démontrer la spécificité sémantique de l’expression poétique
sorescienne, nous avons examiné les relations paradigmatiques et les procédés les
plus productifs de sa formation, en analysant un poème traduit du roumain en
français – une confrontation interlinguistique des deux langages et systèmes
linguistiques.
79
Les diverses traductions des poèmes de Marin Sorescu nous ont permis de
mettre en relief des aspects linguistiques essentiels, de déceler les éléments de
langage entre les deux langues et la manière dont le traducteur réussit à interpréter
les mécanismes, les modalités et les sens du processus de création.
Même si le langage poétique sorescien nous paraît simple, le poète emploie
des éléments appartenant à des domaines variés, en utilisant tant des termes
habituels que des mots nouveaux, inventés. La thématique, inspirée du monde de
son village natal, valorise les ressources expressives de la langue populaire et
régionale, le potentiel linguistique local, provincial et archaïque. Comme source
documentaire, Marin Sorescu a interprété les informations reçues de sa mère,
Nicolina Sorescu, mais le poète présente aussi ses propres expériences, auxquelles
s’ajoute la documentation archivistique.
Le caractère épique est donné par le retour dans le temps, le temps du
déroulement – un mélange entre l’actuel et le passé -, par l’ampleur des
événements présents dans la vie des villageois, des personnages dont l’âge et les
préoccupations varient et qui vivent selon des normes et des principes archaïques.
Les drames individuels ou collectifs, l’existence des habitants du village de
Bulzeşti, des moments qui appartiennent à un passé lointain se mêlent à d’autres,
de l’actualité. Des souffrances, des histoires tragiques, des vies troublantes, des
méchancetés ou des destins malheureux, des caractères, des mentalités et des
bizarreries de comportement sont présentés par Marin Sorescu avec une certaine
lucidité et objectivité. Même si le poète revient dans le temps au siècle dernier,
nous pouvons remarquer une certaine actualité immédiate (qu’il conviendrait
d’appeler la contemporanéité du poète), grâce aux structures nouvelles qui tendent
à s’instaurer dans cet espace.
Marin Sorescu s’est beaucoup intéressé à l’interprétation et à la
valorisation du fond régional, tout en misant sur l’expressivité de la langue
populaire, sur les formes lexicales archaïques et sur les régionalismes d’Olténie,
lorsqu’il reconstitue les habitudes, les scènes de familles ou les événements
dramatiques.
Le vocabulaire riche, les expressions et les syntagmes inédits ont conduit
au renouvellement du discours poétique. Marin Sorescu travaille le langage,
exploite sa capacité de combiner des sens et des mots, se trouvant dans une
permanente recherche afin de trouver le mot adéquat. Il ne se propose pas de
connaître le monde, ni de l’expliquer, mais de « l’habiller » seulement, de le
présenter sous un autre visage, avec d’autres habits.
Sa poésie entière semble une invitation à la surprise ; en même temps elle
est le témoignage d’une architecture rigoureuse et mystérieuse et le langage
sorescien fait preuve de pertinence, de clarté. Marin Sorescu laisse la poésie
respirer, les expériences humaines étant moins tendues, comme libérées d’une
étreinte. L’univers sorescien est riche, divers et en même temps surprenant,
caractérisé par l’imagination ironique, parodique, par l’ingéniosité et l’attraction
pour le spectacle. Le refus des stéréotypes et de l’inertie, la permanente tendance
80
de renouvellement de la formule lyrique, ce sont des arguments en faveur de
l’originalité sorescienne.
À travers chaque volume, Marin Sorescu se propose d’enrichir son style et,
en effet, chaque recueil de poèmes représente une nouveauté, un essai ; mais, dans
son œuvre toute entière, nous pouvons remarquer des éléments constants : l’attitude
fantaisiste et ironique. Les perspectives ironiques et la redéfinition des aspects
familiaux de la vie courante, la capacité de communiquer dans les termes du
langage commun et la transposition des valences expressives des mots se
retrouvent dans son œuvre, remarquable, non seulement du point de vue quantitatif,
mais aussi et surtout qualitatif.
L’œuvre de Marin Sorescu se caractérise par la diversité thématique et
stylistique ; les thèmes abordés concernent l’existence humaine et « des réalités aux
fortes résonances philosophiques »(MARTIN, 1971 : 26-27): le thème de
l’aliénation, de l’angoisse, de l’anxiété, de l’incertitude, de l’étonnement (Un fel de
a fi, Viziune, Roboţii); la confrontation entre le bien et le mal (Popice, Viziune) ; la
condition humaine et de la création (Bocet crăpat); l’esprit limité dans la littérature
et dans la vie (Echer) ; la crise de la communication (Scaunele, Prieteni) ; le temps,
l’espace, l’existence quotidienne (Moartea ceasului) ; l’idée de continuité (Calul) ;
la fatalité du destin (În căutarea junghiului); l’histoire (Bărbaţii, Muzeul satului);
le thème de l’amour (Descântoteca), l’enfance et son pouvoir imaginatif, la
nostalgie pour le mode de l’enfance (Jucării, le volume Unde fugim de-acasă?).
L’attitude du poète envers ces thèmes est significative, car il ironise les
grands thèmes et symboles littéraires ; il s’en dégage ainsi une vision du monde
impressionante, les réponses émouvantes qu’il offre sont d’une lucidité parfaite,
puisque, « sa réplique, toujours inattendue, est, dans une multitude de versions, une
réplique de la réalité récalcitrante, réfractaire, dure, la réplique d’un paradoxal »
(RAICU, 1984: 214)
Sous l’apparente simplicité des vers, se cache une couche profonde et
significative, déterminée par les sentiments complexes et profonds de l’auteur. Les
poèmes soresciens représentent une réflexion sur la condition humaine, caractérisés
par une charge philosophique, mais « Sorescu apprivoise « la philosophie » dans
ses vers naïfs, flegmatiques, (il a fait de ce mélange son propre style, bon pour tout,
préparé à confronter tous les obstacles), en la conduisant à un horizon commun,
sans la baisser ou la vulgariser, sans trahir presque jamais son essence (Ibidem,
214-215)
L’acte poétique sorescien consiste en la manière originelle d’aborder les
thèmes de la poésie, la sincérité brutale et la nouveauté du discours pouvant être
observées, dans un premier temps, au niveau lexico-sémantique. Le discours est
prompte, manœuvrable, apprivoisé, le mot apoétique devient expression poétique,
des qualités qui, associées à la façon d’expression accessible, ont conféré à la
poésie sorescienne les attributs de la modernité.
Au-delà de la technique poétique, la force des vers réside dans l’attitude de
l’auteur par rapport à la poésie : « la poésie de Marin Sorescu se trouve dans un
81
équilibre permanent instable ; tout comme l’acrobate qui avance sur le fil, en
inclinant, exactement autant qu’il est nécessaire, la perche à droite ou à gauche, le
poète doit être très attentif au dosage, à garder la proportion » (ŞTEFANESCU,
1977: 93)
Le poète, créateur de valeur, réévalue continuellement les vérités qui
tendent à devenir conventionnelles et les mots sont libérés de leurs rôles
quotidiens.
L’impacte de l’expression poétique sorescienne sur la langue littéraire
actuelle réside autant dans le lexique que la syntaxe, de sorte que l’évolution du
langage poétique roumain, est due aussi, et même en grande partie, à la création de
Marin Sorescu.
La poésie de Marin Sorescu revêt un caractère d’unicité, remarquable dans
la littérature roumaine. La simplicité syntaxique, le potentiel expressif du discours
poétique, sa façon propre, typique de concevoir la réalité, de réfléchir et de
comprendre confèrent à son œuvre un caractère philosophique, car c’est une œuvre
dans laquelle l’auteur met ses doutes et ses angoisses existentiels.
Marin Sorescu a été un poète très populaire, connu non seulement en
Roumanie, mais aussi à l’étranger, par l’intermédiaire des traductions ou par la
mise en scène de ses pièces de théâtre. Nous devons souligner le fait que, ce n’est
pas grâce à sa formule poétique que Marin Sorescu s’est fait remarquer, mais, au
contraire, c’est grâce à ce qu’il a transmis par cette formule, le message de sa
poésie qui a fait ressortir et qui a traité avec une lucidité tranchante les tourments et
les inquiétudes qui n’appartiennent pas au seul poète, mais à nous tous.
Le langage poétique sorescien fait appel à un effort de compréhension, à
l’imagination, puisque Marin Sorescu possède une imagination débordante et
chaque poème représente une surprise pour les lecteurs. Ses vers ingénieux,
l’univers spécifique, original, la valeur artistique, le succès au public, ont fait que
la poésie sorescienne a résisté et s’est imposée non seulement dans la littérature
roumaine, mais dans la littérature universelle.
L’œuvre de Marin Sorescu, et en particulier son œuvre poétique, que nous
avons examinée dans notre recherche, est complexe, en se caractérisant par la
nouveauté du vers, la manière spécifique de réagir dans des situations
exceptionnelles, le pouvoir miraculeux du mot, la diversité thématique et
stylistique, des aspects qui nous autorisent à considérer Marin Sorescu comme l’un
des plus importants poètes modernes de la littérature roumaine.
Bibliographie:
Ballard, M., Kaladi, A.E., 2003, Traductologie, linguistique et traduction, Arras, Artois
Presses Universite.
Bantas, A.; Croitoru, E., 1998, Didactica traducerii, Bucuresti, Editura Teora.
Beltran, C.L., et Serrano, P., 2002, Un echange de commentaires sur la traduction de la
poesie, Ajaccio, Albiana.
Delisle, J. et al., 2005, Terminologia traducerii, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Casa Cărţii de
82
Stiinţă.
Delisle, J., 1994, La traduction raisonnee,. Manuel d'initiation a la traduction
professionnelle anglais- francais: methode par objectifs d'apprentissage, Presses de
l'Universite d'Ottawa.
Eco, U., 2008, A spune cam acelasi lucru, Iasi, Editura Polirom.
Ganscă, C., 2003, Opera lui Marin Sorescu, Pitesti, Editura Paralela 45.
Ionescu, G., 2004, Orizontul traducerii, Bucuresti, Editura Institutului Cultural Roman.
Jeanrenaud, M., 2006, Universaliile traducerii, Iasi, Editura Polirom.
Ladmiral, J.-R., 1994, Traduire: theorems pour la traduction, Paris, Gallimard.
Lungu Badea, G., 2003, Mic dicţionar de termeni utilizaţi in teoria, practica si didactica
traducerii, Timisoara, Editura Orizonturi universitare.
Manolescu, N., 2001, Literatura romană postbelică. Poezia, Bucuresti, Editura Aula.
Manolescu, N., 2006, Marin Sorescu, Romania literară, nr.8, 25 februarie.
Martin, A., 1971, Poeţi contemporani, vol II, Bucureşti, Editura Eminescu
Mavrodin, I., 1981, Modernii-Precursori ai clasicilor, Cluj.Napoca, Editura Dacia.
Morărescu, J., 2004, Orizonturi critice, Bucureşti, Editura Palimpsest.
O Canainn, A., 2008, Traducătorul sentimental, Mozaicul, anul XI, nr. 3(113), Craiova.
Raicu, L., 1984, Renumele şi valoarea, Bucureşti, Ed. Cartea Românească
Rădulescu, A., 2007, Est-il difficile de traduire Marin Sorescu?, Craiova, Editura Aius.
Ricoeur, P., 2005, Despre traducere, Bucuresti, Editura Polirom.
Simion, E., Secolul XX , nr. 7-9, iulie-septembrie 1980.
Sorescu, M., 1989, Paysans du Danube, Nimes, Ed. Jacqueline Chambon.
Sorescu, M., 1973, La Lilicei, vol. I, Bucuresti, Editura Eminescu.
Sorescu, M., in dialog cu Pruteanu, G., In zorii creierului nostru, in Cronica, nr. 8,
februarie 1986.
Stuparu, A., 2006, Marin Sorescu - starea poetică a limbii romane, Craiova, Editura Aius.
Ştefănescu, A, 1977, Preludiu, Bucureşti, Editura Cartea Românească
Thiers, G., 2002, Un echange de commentaires sur la traduction de la poesie, Ajaccio,
Albiana.
83
VOCABULAIRE TECHIQUE-PETIT GLOSSAIRE DE LA

COSTRUCTIO DU MOTEUR D’AUTOMOBILE
Carmen OEL
Université de Pitesti
Résumé: Lors de la traduction des textes techniques, le traducteur doit surmonter,

dans un premier temps, la difficulté la plus évidente, celle terminologique. Afin de bien
réussir il est fort conseillé de collaborer avec un spécialiste du domaine envisagé. Ce
travail se propose d’élaborer un petit glossaire français-roumain, avec des exemples tirés
d’un corpus pré-établi, réalisé à l’aide d’un spécialiste dans le domaine de la construction
d’automobile.
Mots-clés: glossaire, traducteur, traduction technique.
Le français technique comprend des termes spécialisés qui peuvent être

employés par les spécialistes ou par les locuteurs communs dans des situations de
communication diverses (spécialisées ou pas), surtout s’il s’agit du vocabulaire de
l’automobile.
Le français de la construction de l’automobile trouve des équivalents
roumains bien semblables à la langue source. Notre travail vise à présenter
quelques termes et syntagmes français sous la forme d’un glossaire, réalisé en
utilisant les informations tirées du site
http://www.lexilogos.com/francais_langue_dictionnaires.htm, de plusieurs
dictionnaires monolingues ou bilingues ( Le Petit Robert, Dictionnaire
encyclopédique Larousse, Dictionar francez-roman pentru traducatori ) et de
l’avis d’un ingénieur dont la collaboration représente, selon nous, une condition
nécessaire et indispensable à la réalisation d’un travail de traduction technique
efficace.
Amortisseur (amortizor) : Dispositif pneumatique ou hydraulique utilisé pour

réduire le nombre et l'amplitude des oscillations du système de suspension.
(http://www.lexilogos.com/francais_langue_dictionnaires.htm)
« Un amortisseur de vibrations de torsion (damper) est fixé par une grosse
vis à l’autre extrémité (nez) du vilebrequin. » (Dovat, François : Fonctionnement,
architecture et technologie des moteurs d'automobile.vPremière partie : Principes
fondamentaux et équipages mobiles)
84
Arbre (arbore) : 1) Pièce de révolution, de longueur égale à plusieurs fois son
diamètre, destinée à recevoir ou à transmettre un mouvement de rotation.
2) Partie du rotor qui supporte les autres organes tournants et est supportée elle-
même par des paliers dans lesquels elle peut tourner.
Arbre à manivelles (arbore cotit): Arbre de mouvement entraîné au moyen de

manivelles. (http://www.lexilogos.com/francais_langue_dictionnaires.htm)
« Le mouvement alternatif des pistons est converti en rotation par leurs

bielles qui les relient à l’arbre à manivelles nommé vilebrequin. » (Dovat,
François : Fonctionnement, architecture et technologie des moteurs
d'automobile.Première partie : Principes fondamentaux et équipages mobiles)
Arbre à cames (arbore cu came) : Axe muni d'excentriques qui transforme le

mouvement circulaire continu du vilebrequin en mouvement alternatif rectiligne
des organes de distribution.
« Jusque-là, l’arbre à cames était logé dans le bloc-cylindres, ce qui

facilitait sa lubrification et son entraînement» (Dovat, François : Fonctionnement,
architecture et technologie des moteurs d'automobile
Troisième partie : culasse et distribution)
Autoallumage (autoaprindere) : allumage spontané anormal du mélange carburant

dans un cylindre de moteur à explosion. (Le Petit Robert)
« Elles sont aujourd’hui toutes coulées en alliage d’aluminium, métal qui

procure un important gain de poids et dont la conductivité thermique environ 4 fois
plus grande que celle de la fonte permet une meilleure évacuation de la chaleur, ce
qui est primordial pour éviter l’auto-allumage des moteurs à essence. » (Dovat,
François : Fonctionnement, architecture et technologie des moteurs d'automobile
Automobile (automobil): Véhicule routier à quatre roues (ou plus), progressant de

lui-même à l’aide d’un moteur, à l’exclusion des grands véhicules utilitaires
(camions) et de transport collectif (autobus, autocar). (Le Petit Robert)
« Nous connaissons tous, au moins dans les grandes lignes, le principe de

fonctionnement des moteurs de nos automobiles. » (Dovat, François :
Fonctionnement, architecture et technologie des moteurs d'automobile.Première
partie : Principes fondamentaux et équipages mobiles).
85
Balayage (baleiaj) : action de parcourir une étendue donnée avec un faisceau
d’ondes ou de particules. (Le Petit Robert)
« … il permet un meilleur remplissage, particulièrement à haut régime, et

dans le cas d’un moteur suralimenté à injection directe, un balayage de la chambre
de combustion en éjectant les gaz brûlés résiduels par de l’air frais. » (Dovat,
Banc d’essai (banc de incercare) : bâti sur lequel on monte des moteurs ou des
machines pour les éprouver. (Le Petit Robert)
« Ici un moteur de Formule 1 BMW P83

à pleine puissance au banc d’essai… » (Dovat, François : Fonctionnement,
architecture et technologie des moteurs d'automobile.Première partie : Principes
fondamentaux et équipages mobiles)
Bielle (biela) : tige rigide, articulée à ses deux extrémités et destinée à la
transmission d’un mouvement entre deux pièces mobiles. (Le Petit Robert)
«Jusqu'ici, la plupart des bielles titane ont été réalisées en alliage

Ti6Al4V» (Dovat, François : Evolutions récentes des moteurs)
Bielle à fourche (biela cu cap in furca) : Ensemble de deux bielles d'un moteur en
V ou à cylindres opposés, la tête de l'une comportant une encoche pouvant recevoir
la tête de l'autre dont la largeur a été réduite.
Bielle maitresse (biela principala): Bielle principale tourillonnant directement sur

le vilebrequin. Elle comporte, à sa tête, une joue sur laquelle s'articulent les bielles
auxiliaires. Ce type de montage est utilisé sur les moteurs radiaux et sur certains
moteurs en V. (http://www.lexilogos.com/francais_langue_dictionnaires.htm)
Biellette (bieleta) : Bielle dont la tête s'articule sur celle de la bielle maîtresse.
« L’arbre à cames des NSU Prinz était

entraîné par deux biellettes sur excentriques… » (Dovat, François :
Fonctionnement, architecture et technologie des moteurs d'automobile
Bloc moteur (bloc motor) : Ensemble du carter et du ou des cylindres (ou de

l'enveloppe de cylindre) lorsqu'ils ne font qu'une seule pièce.
86
« Le bloc moteur est allégé de 24% par rapport à un bloc aluminium, si

bien que le moteur 3 litres de 258 ch complet ne pèse que 161 kg. » (Dovat,
François : Evolutions récentes des moteurs)
Bloc-cylindres (bloc cilindri) : bloc métallique contenant les cylindres d’un moteur
(Le Petit Robert)
« Les moitiés de ces paliers sont parties intégrantes du bloc cylindre et

elles sont supportées par des cloisons transversales réparties entre chaque cylindre,
si le moteur est en ligne, ou entre chaque paire de cylindre s'il est en V. » (Dovat,
2ème partie : bloc moteur, cylindres et paliers)
Boite de vitesses (cutie de viteze) : organe renfermant les trains d’engrenages du

changement de vitesses. (Dictionnaire encyclopédique Larousse)
Boulon (bulon) : Ensemble constitué d'une vis et d'un écrou accompagnés le plus
souvent d'une rondelle, qui, après serrage, maintient en contact étroit deux ou
plusieurs pièces traversées par la vis.
Boulonnage (bulonare) : Opération consistant à assembler deux ou plusieurs

pièces à l'aide de boulons et de leurs accessoires.
« Cette solution évite les têtes de vis à l'extérieur de la jupe inhérentes au

boulonnage en croix.» (Dovat, François : Fonctionnement, architecture et
technologie des moteurs d'automobile 2ème partie : bloc moteur, cylindres et
paliers)
Canal (canal) : Section de passage délimitée par deux aubes consécutives de roue
ou de diffuseur et par les deux flasques latéraux de la roue ou du diffuseur ou, dans
le cas de roues ouvertes et semi-ouvertes, par les parois du corps de pompe.
« L'essence est injectée dans le canal d’admission (injection indirecte) ou

dans la chambre de combustion (injection directe).» (Dovat, François :
partie : Principes fondamentaux et équipages mobiles)
87
Canalisation (tubulatura) : 1) Agencement de tubes assurant la circulation du
liquide de refroidissement dans un radiateur.
2) Ensemble de tuyaux rigides et flexibles reliant un maître-cylindre et des
cylindres de roues.
«Les progrès dans ce domaine permettent aujourd'hui de réaliser des blocs

monolithiques complexes incorporant une profusion de nervures de renfort, de
bossages pour la fixation des organes auxiliaires, des chambres de liquide de
refroidissement aux formes précisément définies, les canalisations de lubrification,
et même la volute de pompe à eau ainsi que le carter de chaîne de distribution.»
(Dovat, François : Fonctionnement, architecture et technologie des moteurs
d'automobile
Carter (baie) : enveloppe métallique étanche, sous le moteur et autour de lui (qui
sert aussi de cuve à huile) (Le Petit Robert)
« D’autres procédés de montage sont possibles, notamment si le ou les

bloc-cylindres est (sont) séparé(s) du carter de vilebrequin comme c’est encore le
cas pour des moteurs à cylindres opposés tels que ceux de Porsche » (Dovat,
Carter d’huile (baie de ulei) : Pièce en tôle emboutie ou en alliage léger coulé, qui
ferme le bas d'un moteur et qui contient l'huile du système de graissage dans lequel
tourne un vilebrequin mais non ses paliers.
« Leur principal inconvénient est que l'étanchéité doit être assurée de façon
fiable par des joints annulaires afin que le liquide de refroidissement ne fuie pas
dans le carter d'huile. » (Dovat, François : Fonctionnement, architecture et
paliers)
Chambre de combustion (camera de ardere) : Cavité ménagée sur le haut d'un

piston ou une culasse, et dans laquelle ont lieu l'allumage et la combustion d'un
mélange de carburant et d'air sous pression.
88
« La post-injection permet d'obtenir une post-oxydation efficace des suies
dans la chambre de combustion. » (Dovat, François : Evolutions récentes des
moteurs)
Chambre de turbulence (camera de turbulenta) : Élément annexe d'une chambre

de combustion divisée, dans lequel le combustible est injecté, communiquant avec
l'autre partie de la chambre de combustion par un large passage établi pour obtenir
une turbulence déterminée du fluide moteur.
« L'injection indirecte dans une chambre de turbulence de type Ricardo

Comet est restée longtemps la technique la plus répandue pour les Diesel de
voitures particulières, mais elle est aujourd’hui abandonnée. » (Dovat, François :
Fonctionnement, architecture et technologie des moteurs d'automobile
Coussinet (cuzinet) : Partie amovible cylindrique d'un palier lisse à charge radiale
dans lequel tourne la portée de l'arbre.
« Des coussinets constitués de deux demi coquilles revêtues d’une couche

de métal anti-friction sont intercalés entre les bielles et les manetons du
vilebrequin.» (Dovat, François : Fonctionnement, architecture et technologie des
moteurs d'automobile.Première partie : Principes fondamentaux et équipages
mobiles)
Culasse (chiulasa) : Bloc qui enferme le haut des cylindres et qui porte en creux
une partie importante de la chambre de combustion.
« De plus, la pompe peut continuer à tourner si nécessaire après l’arrêt

moteur chaud pour éviter une éventuelle surchauffe de la culasse. » (Dovat,
François : Evolutions récentes des moteurs)
Débrayage (debreiere) : Accouplement temporaire -en général embrayage à

entraînement instantané- pouvant être débrayé en marche, mais pas embrayé.
Démarreur (demaror) : 1) Appareil servant à mettre en marche un propulseur ou

un moteur.
2) Moteur électrique actionné par le courant d'une batterie et destiné à mettre en
marche un moteur par l'intermédiaire d'un lanceur.
89
Distribution (distributie) : Ensemble des organes qui permettent de réaliser

l'ouverture et la fermeture des orifices d'admission et d'échappement aux moments
nécessaires pour le fonctionnement du moteur.
« La distribution est généralement entraînée également depuis le nez de

vilebrequin, mais parfois depuis le côté opposé qui bénéfice d’une plus grande
régularité de rotation en raison de la présence du volant d’inertie. » (Dovat,
Douille ( dulie) : Pièce d'une chaîne de transmission, qui est sertie dans chacun des
trous des deux plaques intérieures, autour de laquelle pivote librement un rouleau.
« L’axe est rectifié avec des tolérances de 4 à 7 microns ; il peut pivoter

soit dans le pied de bielle en l’occurrence garni d’une douille en alliage cuivreux
(CuPbSn), soit dans les bossages du piston, soit dans les deux.» (Dovat, François :
Echappement (esapament) : Quatrième temps du cycle pendant lequel le piston,

en remontant, chasse les gaz brûlés.
Essence (benzina) : Mélange d'hydrocarbures provenant du raffinage du pétrole,

employé principalement comme carburant dans les moteurs à allumage commandé.
« Mis en place de la même manière, les sièges sont actuellement obtenus

par frittage d’un acier fortement allié et incorporant un lubrifiant solide s’ils
doivent résister à l’essence sans plomb. » (Dovat, François : Fonctionnement,
architecture et technologie des moteurs d'automobile. Troisième partie : culasse et
distribution)
Force (forta) : Phénomènes mécaniques qui se produisent du début de la mise en

oeuvre de la commande jusqu'à la fin de l'effet de freinage.
« Les fortes contraintes mécaniques dues aux pressions de fonctionnement

et aux forces d’inerties élevées auxquelles sont soumis les moteurs modernes
exigent une structure extrêmement solide et rigide, notamment au niveau des
paliers de vilebrequin. » (Dovat, François : Fonctionnement, architecture et
90
technologie des moteurs d'automobile.Première partie : Principes fondamentaux et
équipages mobiles)
Force de traction (forta de tractiune): En général, résistance opposée par un

spécimen soumis à un effort de traction considéré indépendamment de toute
torsion, compression ou cisaillement.
« ...le pied de bielle trapézoïdal est courant sur les diesels dans lesquels la
force de compression due à la combustion est supérieure à la force de traction
causée à haut régime par les violentes accélérations de piston autour du PMH»
(Dovat, François : Fonctionnement, architecture et technologie des moteurs
Friction (frictiune) : Résistance qui freine (frottement en marche) ou empêche

(frottement au repos) le mouvement relatif de rotation ou de translation de deux
corps en contact. (http://www.lexilogos.com/francais_langue_dictionnaires.htm)
« Bien entendu, ces systèmes ne suppriment que les pertes par pompage et
non les pertes mécaniques par friction des cylindres désactivés.» (Dovat, François :
Evolutions récentes des moteurs)
Gicleur (jiclor) : petit tube du carburateur servant à faire gicler l’essence dans le
courant d’air aspiré par le moteur. (Le Petit Robert)
« La face interne des têtes de pistons des moteurs suralimentés ainsi que de
ceux à haute puissance spécifique en général, est aujourd’hui refroidie par un
gicleur qui peut aussi alimenter une galerie interne où l’huile circule et est agitée
par les accélérations. » (Dovat, François : Fonctionnement, architecture et
technologie des moteurs d'automobile.Première partie : Principes fondamentaux et
équipages mobiles)
Gripper (a se gripa) : provoquer un grippage dans un mécanisme (Le Petit Robert)
« Elles peuvent êtres constituées de deux parties soudées par friction avec
des aciers de qualités différentes, car ceux qui résistent aux hautes températures ont
de mauvaises qualités de conductivité thermique et de glissement ; ils tendent à
gripper dans le guide. » (Dovat, François : Fonctionnement, architecture et
technologie des moteurs d'automobile. Troisième partie : culasse et distribution)
91
Injection (injectie) : Pulvérisation du carburant forcé sous pression, soit dans la
culasse du moteur (injection interne), soit dans la tuyauterie d'admission (injection
externe) où il se mélange à l'air.
Injection directe (injectie directa) : Injection de combustible dans une chambre de

combustion ouverte ou dans la partie principale d'une chambre de combustion
divisée. (http://www.lexilogos.com/francais_langue_dictionnaires.htm)
Injection indirecte (injectie indirecta) : Système d'injection dans lequel l'injecteur

communique avec l'élément annexe d'une chambre de combustion divisée.
« Grâce à l’injection directe, la conception de la culasse est simplifiée ; sa

face d'appui contre le bloc-moteur est plate avec 2, 3 ou 4 soupapes par cylindre,
voire jusqu’à 6 pour certains Diesel semi-rapides à forte densité de puissance
(MTU). » (Dovat, François :Fonctionnement, architecture et technologie des
moteurs d'automobile. Troisième partie : culasse et distribution)
Joint de culasse (garnitura de chiulasa) : Joint métalloplastique placé entre la

culasse et le bloc-cylindres, et assurant l'étanchéité de la chambre de combustion et
des chambres d'eau de refroidissement, entre elles et vers l'extérieur.
« Afin de l'éliminer, le MAN D20 dispose de canalisations de

refroidissement et de lubrification séparés pour le bloc-cylindres et la culasse, si
bien qu'il n'y a pas de passage de liquide à travers son joint de culasse. » (Dovat,
Jupe de piston (fusta pistonului) : Surface latérale d'un piston où sont disposés les
bossages reposant sur l'axe de pied de bielle.
« Les pistons monométalliques en alliage d’aluminium à jupe pleine,

coulés en coquille ou forgés, légers, simples et peu coûteux mais nécessitant un jeu
à froid relativement important. » (Dovat, François : Fonctionnement, architecture
et technologie des moteurs d'automobile.Première partie : Principes fondamentaux
et équipages mobiles)
Moteur (motor) : Machine qui transforme une énergie quelconque en énergie

mécanique. (http://www.lexilogos.com/francais_langue_dictionnaires.htm)
92
Moteur à combustion interne (motor cu ardere interna): Moteur dans lequel la
combustion du combustible produisant l'énergie nécessaire au fonctionnement se
passe dans le moteur lui-même.
Moteur à pistons rotatifs (motor rotativ) : Moteur appartenant à l'ère héroïque de

l'aviation (1900) et comportant des cylindres se déplaçant rapidement autour d'un
vilebrequin fixe. (http://www.lexilogos.com/francais_langue_dictionnaires.htm)
« Les bielles sont donc séparées de leur chapeau qui est ensuite boulonné
pour assembler le tout autour du maneton après que l’ensemble piston-bielle ait été
introduit dans le moteur en passant par le cylindre. » (Dovat, François :
Pied de bielle (piciorul bielei) : Extrémité d'une bielle s'articulant sur une autre
pièce mobile en translation rectiligne telle que piston ou coulisseau.
«…il peut pivoter soit dans le pied de bielle en l’occurrence garni d’une
douille en alliage cuivreux (CuPbSn), soit dans les bossages du piston, soit dans les
deux. » (Dovat, François : Fonctionnement, architecture et technologie des
mobiles)
Pignon (pinion) : Petite roue dentée montée sur l'arbre du démarreur et s'engrenant
dans la couronne dentée du volant.
« Alternativement, des pignons en deux parties mises sous tension

réciproque par des ressorts (en ciseaux) sont parfois montés. » (Dovat, François :
Fonctionnement, architecture et technologie des moteurs d'automobile. Troisième
partie : culasse et distribution)
Piston (piston) : Organe mobile animé d'un mouvement alternatif rectiligne et

servant de paroi mobile à la chambre de combustion.
« Mais le sujet des moteurs à pistons et à combustion interne est

inépuisable tant les conceptions et les réalisations pratiques sont différentes et
illimitées. » (Dovat, François : Fonctionnement, architecture et technologie des
mobiles)
93
Queue de soupape ( coada de supapa) : Partie terminale opposée à la tête de la

soupape, qui coulisse dans un guide sous le martèlement du culbuteur et porte, à
son extrémité, une coupelle destinée à servir d'assise au ressort de rappel.
« Des joints de queue de soupapes (larmiers) ont été laborieusement mis au

point dans les années 60 et 70 afin de solutionner le problème » (Dovat, François :
Fonctionnement, architecture et technologie des moteurs d'automobile. Troisième
partie : culasse et distribution)
Roue dentée (roata dintata) : Roue qui est pourvue de dents et qui est destinée à
en mouvoir une autre, ou à être mue par elle, par l'action des dents venant
successivement en contact.
« Sur les derniers modèles, ces variateurs avec leur roue dentée sont
désormais en aluminium. » (Dovat, François : Evolutions récentes des moteurs)
Roulement à billes (rulment cu bile) : Roulement dans lequel les éléments roulants
insérés entre deux bagues (bague intérieure et bague extérieure) sont sphériques.
« Les embiellages sur roulements à billes ou à rouleaux sont aujourd’hui

utilisés exclusivement dans les moteurs à 2-temps à essence, notamment de
motos. » (Dovat, François : Fonctionnement, architecture et technologie des
mobiles)
Segment (segment) : Anneaux circulaires en fonte douce, parfois en acier, et

pourvus d'une fente, qui font office de ressorts s'appuyant contre la paroi du
cylindre. (http://www.lexilogos.com/francais_langue_dictionnaires.htm)
Segment de feu (segment de foc): Le premier des segments d'étanchéité à partir du

dessus du piston. (http://www.lexilogos.com/francais_langue_dictionnaires.htm)
« Les frictions entre segments de pistons et cylindre sont réduites jusqu'à

30% par rapport à un cylindre en fonte alors que la consommation d'huile ainsi que
l'usure des cylindres et segments peuvent être diminuées d'un facteur 2» (Dovat,
94
Soupape (supapa) : Pièce d'un moteur à combustion interne dont le mouvement
règle l'entrée et la sortie des gaz dans la chambre de combustion.
Soupape d’admission (supapa de admisie): Soupape assurant l'entrée des gaz dans
la chambre de combustion.
«Une disposition des soupapes en losange avec conduits d’admission

tangentiels génère une forte turbulence giratoire (swirl) de l’air admis, favorisant
une dispersion plus intime des micro-gouttelettes de gasoil dans l’air de
combustion. » (Dovat, François : Evolutions récentes des moteurs)
Tête de bielle (cap de biela) : Extrémité d'une bielle s'articulant sur un maneton
qui, en tournant, lui fait subir un mouvement circulaire.
Tête de piston (cap de piston) : Partie perpendiculaire au fond du piston et située

en amont de l'axe du piston, qui porte les gorges devant recevoir les segments de
compression et, parfois, la gorge pour le segment racleur.
« La technique de séparation des chapeaux de paliers par fracture est

adoptée sur quelques moteurs, telle que déjà couramment pratiquée pour les têtes
de bielles. » (Dovat, François : Fonctionnement, architecture et technologie des
mobiles)
Transmission (transmisie) : Ensemble des organes interposés entre le volant

moteur et les roues motrices, servant à transmettre le mouvement à celles-ci.
« Tous les périphériques et les supports moteur sont vissés sur le carter en
magnésium qui intègre aussi le carter de chaîne de distribution et la face d'appui
pour la transmission. » (Dovat, François : Fonctionnement, architecture et
paliers)
Vilebrequin (vilbrochen) : Arbre constitué d'une suite de manivelles transformant

le mouvement alternatif rectiligne de l'ensemble piston-bielle en mouvement
circulaire continu. (http://www.lexilogos.com/francais_langue_dictionnaires.htm)
95
«… la suralimentation par compresseur entraîné par le vilebrequin est de
nouveau en vogue pour les moteurs à allumage commandé. » (Dovat, François :
Evolutions récentes des moteurs)
Volant d’inertie (volant de inertie) : Organe d'un moteur ou d'une machine

tournante, destiné à en réguler la vitesse de rotation.
« La distribution est généralement entraînée également depuis le nez de

vilebrequin, mais parfois depuis le côté opposé qui bénéfice d’une plus grande
régularité de rotation en raison de la présence du volant d’inertie. » (Dovat,
François : Fonctionnement, architecture et technologie des moteurs d'automobile.
Première partie : Principes fondamentaux et équipages mobiles)
On remarque le fait que la plupart des termes et des syntagmes français

tirés de notre corpus et énumérés dans le glossaire ci-dessus reçoivent des
équivalents roumains qui conservent la forme initiale de la langue source. En plus,
l’emploi figuré est assez fréquent et les parties du corps qui entrent dans la
composition des termes spécialisés sont aussi rencontrées dans leur traduction
roumaine.
Bibliographie
Cristea, A., Cristea, A., 2006, Dictionar francez-roman pentru traducatori, Brasov,
Academic ;
Kannas, C., 1998, Dictionnaire encyclopédique, Paris, Larousse ;
Kocoureck, R., 1982, La langue française de la technique et de la science : vers une
linguistique de la langue savante, 2e éd. augmentée, refondue et mise à jour, Wiesbaden,
Oscar Brandstetter Verlag;
Lerat, P., 1995, Les langues spécialisées, Paris, Presses universitaires de France ;
Rey-Debove, J., Rey, A., 2004, Le Petit Robert, Paris, Dictionnaires Le Robert ;
http://www.lexilogos.com/francais_langue_dictionnaires.htm, consulté le 10 janvier 2009 ;
Corpus
Dovat, F., Evolutions récentes des moteurs, consulté en ligne (http://www.auto-
innovations.com/site/dossier5/moteurevo81720.html) , le 10 janvier 2009.
Dovat, François, Fonctionnement, architecture et technologie des moteurs d'automobile
Première partie : Principes fondamentaux et équipages mobiles, consulté en ligne
(http://www.auto-innovations.com/site/dossier5/technologie_moteur1p18kc15.html##) , le
10 janvier 2009.
Dovat, F., Fonctionnement, architecture et technologie des moteurs d'automobile
2ème partie : bloc moteur, cylindres et paliers, consulté en ligne (http://www.auto-
innovations.com/site/dossier5/technologie_moteur2p4bci18.html##) , le 10 janvier 2009.
96
Dovat, F., Fonctionnement, architecture et technologie des moteurs d'automobile
Troisième partie : culasse et distribution, consulté en ligne (http://www.auto-
innovations.com/site/dossier5/technologie_moteur3p42dprint.html), le 10 janvier 2009.
97
ADVERTISIG SLOGAS I EGLISH, FRECH AD ROMAIA.

ISSUES OF TRASLATIO
Cristina UGUREAU
Abstract: The present paper focuses on the problems related to translation of

advertising slogans from English into Romanian / French or from French into English/
Romanian. There are three types of approaches which are analyzed in accordance with the
degree of modification of the original utterance: transposition, adaptation and rewriting.
Other issues of translations are also discussed.
Keywords: slogan, translation, advertising, languages, adaptation
1.Introduction
Translating English slogans or brand names into different languages can be
particularly difficult.
Susan Basnett (1988:2) considers that translations involves “the rendering
of a SL text into a TL so as to ensure that the surface meaning of the two will be
approximately similar and the structures of the SL will be preserved as closely as
possible, but not so closely that the TL structures will be seriously distorted”.
Eugene Nida and Charles Taber (1974:15) underline that translating consists of
reproducing, in the target language, the nearest equivalent to the message in the
source language, in the first place in the semantic aspect and, in the second place,
in the stylistic aspect.
When it comes to translating commercial advertisements one has to cope
with two aspects (Dimo, Sofronie, 2003:20): “on the one hand, any advertisement
is designed to inform the public about a certain product or service newly launched
or existing on the market. On the other hand, owing to the suggestive character of
advertising, the text and, moreover, the slogan must be psychologically grounded
and worded in such a way as to what the consumer’s desire to purchase and try the
product, and the sooner the better”. The translator should therefore take into
account the linguistic and cultural exigencies of the target public.
Unfortunately, in most cases, the task of translating advertising slogans is
given to a translator who does not work in the field and who is accustomed to
informative translation and who usually resorts to literal translation in order to save
time and effort.
The communication situation requires not only the qualities of a good
translator but also the knowledge of the field. Even within the field one should
make a distinction between advertising and publicity. According to Longman,
98
Dictionary of Contemporary English (1995:21) advertising is “the activity or
business of advertising things on television, in newspapers etc.” while publicity
(1995:1139) refers to the “attention that someone or something gets from
newspapers, television etc or the business of making sure that people know about a
new product, film etc or what a particular famous person is doing”. Although
definitions are similar specialists underline that they are different in terms of
control, cost and credibility. Advertising is a controlled form and it does not come
without a price. Therefore advertising is the content one pays for (radio, TV,
newspaper, banner advertising, etc) while publicity refers to the free content that
appears in the media.
2. What are slogans?

According to Longman (1995:1353) the slogan is “a short easily-
remembered phrase used by an advertiser, politician etc.”
The slogan has a particular status within advertising. It constitutes an
autonomous structure and by its layout stands for a title.
There are two features to be followed, one is the head-line and one is the
base-line. The former has a front position and serves as a title and the latter finds
itself in the bottom position functioning as a “morality”. Normally the head-line
refers to the product and the base-line affirms / suggests its qualities.
e.g. Givenchy: English:Irresistible attraction
Long-lasting colour.
French: Une irresistible attraction.
L’exigence haute tenue.
3. Transfer of slogans
The transfer of the advertising slogans from the SL into the TL involves
several translating approaches ranging from the strict literal one to the free
rewriting. Mathieu Guidere (2000:119) distinguishes three types of approaches in
accordance with the degree of modification of the original utterance: transposition,
adaptation and rewriting.
3.1. Transposition
According to Guidere (2000:119) transposition involves two aspects: the
transfer of the slogan from the SL into the TL without any modification, and the
linguistic transfer tends towards literality. The first one seems to be the option of
the hegemonic multinationals using English slogans on all the markets of the world
while the second one is a declared goal of all the companies desiring to be known
on an international scale.
Nike is a major publicly traded clothing, footwear, sportswear, and equipment
supplier based in the United States. The slogan for the Nike sports shoes is
invariable on all the continents: Just do it.
99
In fact in Romanian language many of the global slogans are not translated
being rendered as such:
Skoda – Simply Clever
Nokia – Connecting People
Panasonic – Ideas for Life
Sometimes when notoriety installs the message is presented in the target
language. If the original slogan proved its efficiency on a certain market the
companies orientate towards the literal translation on other markets (Guidere,
2000:122). Thus, the famous slogan of L’Oreal is rendered in a very close to the
original version:
F: Parce que je le vaux bien
E : Because I’m worth it
R : Pentru ca merit
3.2. Adaptation
The translator finds fimself obliged in numerous cases to resort to
adaptation. But what is adaptation?
The adaptation is one of the translation procedures defined by Vinay and
Darbelnet (1958:46) as a translation technique resulting from the existence of
cultural divergences. But dictionaries and encyclopedias define differently this
term.
The Encyclopaedia Universalis (1975:224) defines adaptation “en termes
de critique littéraires et artistique, on appelle adaptation l’ensemble des
modifications apportées à une œuvre que l’on souhaite exprimer dans une autre
forme que sa forme originale. Il peut s’agir du passage d’une langue à une autre ou
d’une expression artistique à une autre (adaptation d’un roman au théâtre, d’une
nouvelle à l’écran). La difficulté réside dans dans l’équilibre à maintenir entre la
fidélité à l’œuvre modèle et les ressources particulières des deux formes
d’expression : l’adaptation à l’écran d’une œuvre littérraire contraint à exprimer en
images concrètes ce qui était parfois dit à l’aide de termes abstraits».
Mathieu Guidere (2000:123) makes the following distinction: formal and
ideal adaptations, depending on where the translator lays the stress on – the form or
the content. The first category involves surface modifications which affect the
structure of the original message. The second one affects the meaning of the
utterance be it deliberately or by hazard. The goal of the formal adaptation is to
render the slogan in the TL as familiar and idiomatic as in the SL while the ideal
adaptation aims at synchronization of the initial content with the cultural
expectations of the final receptor.
In advertising Cartier, le slogan original Que serait l’audace sans la grace?
was translated in English in indicative mood and not in the conditional one : What
is audacity without grace?
The French slogan of the Allure de Chanel perfume (Indefinissable ..et
totalement irresistible) was rendered in English by a very creative parallelism:
100
Difficult to define. Impossible to resist. So, the translator should not make a calque
of the original text but neither should he go too far.
The adaptations focusing on content are numerous and diverse, ranging
from simple detail variations to replacing words close to original meaning but
which are not equivalent. The French slogan for the Faubour Hermes perfume Le
monde secret ou chaque femme est un soleil is translated in English by The secret
world where every woman is the spirit of light. The soleil is replaced by spirit of
light the translator passing from concrete to abstract, from object to essence.
The slogan for Philips is another example of content adaptation affecting
superficially the form in French and being rendered as such in Romanian. The
French translation slightly changes the original message, laying the stress on the
people who are invited to make efforts.
E: Let’s make things better.
F: Faisons toujours mieux.
R: Let’s make things better.
or
E: Great Coke taste, zero sugar
R: Acelasi gust Coca - Cola, zero zahar
3.3. Rewriting
Guidere (2000:128) considers that rewriting means in fact creating. On one
hand it is about producing a new slogan compatible with the target market; on the
other hand it is about offering a free and personal translation of the original slogan.
Therefore, the translator has the possibility of giving a different expressive
orientation to the initial message idea or of developing a completely new idea
while respecting the original style. The different versions of the Poeme de
Lancôme slogan are the best illustration:
F: Tue es le grand soleil qui me monte à la tête.
E : You are the sea, you cradle that stars.
Spanish: Tue s o sol que me escaladante a me cabeca.
Although the content of these slogans is totally different, all have the same
metaphorical development. (personification)
4. Other issues of translation

The most difficult aspect concerning slogans is their untranslatability.
Untranslatability here does not regard untranslatable words because of their organic
relationship between the phenomenon and a certain historical and cultural
environment. It mainly refers to the fact that the transposing achieved by translator
does not produce the original effect, wanted and required by the advertising
message. Therefore, this involves indifference on the part of the addressees and
platitude of the message. Most of the time the translator finds it impossible to
render puns or wordplay.
E: If you aren’t getting More, you are getting less. (More Cigarettes)
101
F : Sans More, c’est forcément moins.
Another issue regards the rhymes since certain slogans are rhymed:
Everything is nice with American rice. This very old advertising slogan formed part
of a campaign by the US food industry to penetrate and dominate global food
markets. The French translators ventured to render it as Tous les plats sont bons
avec le riz americain. From the point of view of the linguistic construction one
could say that this translation has no imperfection. But it is too dull and insipid and
it could not draw the addressee’s attention. Of course translators are not poems
writers but they should strive for the best equivalence considering all the elements
contained by each and every slogan in order to achieve the desired effect.
In an effort of innovation aiming at consumers’ satisfaction, translators
working in advertising strive to create new lexical units which sometimes violate
the rules of the language structure. Certain units do not survive during advertising
campaigns while others find a place in the dictionary. Wales (1991:117) considers
that this effort of lexical creation manifests itself under the form of deviation. M.
Karray (1989:124) gives two examples of deviations:
a. From a brand name into a verb:
e.g. To Volkswagen is divine (Volkswagen Cars)
Carpet with confidence (Du Pont Carpets)
The “Volkswagen” make of cars plays the role of a verb “to drive a Volkswagen”.
Similarly the case of the “carpet” noun plays the role of an imperative i.e. “Choose,
buy carpets …”
b. From a noun to an adjective
e.g. It’s time to be gin. (Gordon’s Gin)
Very Kool (Kool Cigarettes)
5. Conclusions
Advertising slogans are difficult to render in all their original splendour.
Most of the times they are rendered as such in all the other languages especially
taking into consideration global brands. They really need a rich semiotic
environment in order to produce the expected effect, otherwise this effect is lost
with too many explanations.
Rather than getting discouraged translators should forge ahead in breaking
the translation barriers through the evolution of the various theories and practices.
It is difficult to render slogans in the TL and to create the same impact on the TL
audience because the vivid formulas tend to lose their vigour.
Bibliography
Bassnett, S., 1988, Translation Studies, London and New York, Routledge
Dimo, O., S. Sofronie et al., 2003, Publicitatea ca formă a comunicării comerciale.
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UIVERSITATEA DI PITEŞTI

r. 11/ 2009

EDITURA UIVERSITĂŢII DI PITEŞTI

COMITET DE LECTURĂ/ COMITÉ DE LECTURE/PEER REVIEW COMMITTEE

DIRECTOR REVISTA/ DIRECTEUR DE LA REVUE/ DIRECTOR OF THE JOURAL

REDACTOR-ŞEF /RÉDACTEUR E CHEF/ EDITOR I CHIEF

COLEGIUL DE REDACŢIE/COMITÉ DE RÉDACTIO/EDITORIAL BOARD

ISS: 1584 – 143X

Editura Universităţii din Piteşti

CUPRIS / TABLE DES MATIÈRES / COTETS

Adina MATROZI MARIN

Résumé : L’examen de quelques exemples de néologismes de la presse politique satirique

Mots –clés : implicite, allusion, ambiguïté, mot-valise, détournement.

WROG USES OF COJUCTIOS I EGLISH AD ROMAIA

Key words: Romanian conjunctions, English conjunctions, common mistakes.

Conjunctions are defined as words that connect parts of sentences, phrases or

PHOETIC ADAPTATIO OF EGLISH WORDS I ROMAIA

Key words: phonetic adaptation, transphonemization, transmorphemization.

0. Phonetic adaptations should be regarded from the point of view of similarity of

1. The process of integration of English loan words in Romanian focuses primarily

English vowels Romanian vowels

[Ǥ ]shop, top, stopper [o] shop, top, stoper

[Ǥ:] hall, skateboard, call-girl [o] hol, skateboard, call-girl

[u] look, showroom [u] look, showroom

This process should consider the following characteristics (Ciobanu, 1997:39-82)

2. English diphthongs underwent substantial transformations until they could be

English diphthongs Romanian diphthongs

[Ǥi] tabloid, toy-terrier, boy [oi] tabloid, toy-terrier, boy

A COTRASTIVE AALYSIS OF LEXICAL AD GRAMMATICAL

Key words: cycle, living organism, diachrony, means of expression.

There are no notions without words, no thinking without notions and no

The English impact

The story of calque

ASPECTS OF EGLISH VS. ROMAIA PREPOSITIOS

Key words: preposition, definition, classification, role, significance.

In Romanian one should take into account the classical definition of

COTRASTIVE OTES O SOME EGLISH IDIOMS

Key words: contrastive analysis, English idioms, opaque, transparent,

MEAIG COSTRUCTIO AD PREPOSITIOAL POLYSEMY

Adina MATROZI MARI

Key words: prepositions, semantic content, construction of meaning.

For example, in the sentence The beer is in the refrigerator, the

For instance, the preposition in prototypically describes a spatial relation

EGLISH ADVERBIAL CLAUSES AD THEIR ROMAIA

Key words: adverbial clauses, adverbial modifiers, complex sentence.

EXPRESSIG POIT OF VIEW

Key words: point of view, deixis, modality, theory of enunciation, pragmatics.

L’EXPRESSIVITÉ DU LAGAGE POÉTIQUE DAS L’ŒUVRE DE

Résumé : Cette étude vise à souligner les traits définitoires de la poétique

Mots clés : langage poétique, traduction littéraire, l’ironie.

Marin Sorescu a transposé simplement et naturellement ses idées, ses

VOCABULAIRE TECHIQUE-PETIT GLOSSAIRE DE LA

Résumé: Lors de la traduction des textes techniques, le traducteur doit surmonter,

Mots-clés: glossaire, traducteur, traduction technique.

Le français technique comprend des termes spécialisés qui peuvent être

Amortisseur (amortizor) : Dispositif pneumatique ou hydraulique utilisé pour

Arbre à manivelles (arbore cotit): Arbre de mouvement entraîné au moyen de

« Le mouvement alternatif des pistons est converti en rotation par leurs

Arbre à cames (arbore cu came) : Axe muni d'excentriques qui transforme le

« Jusque-là, l’arbre à cames était logé dans le bloc-cylindres, ce qui

Autoallumage (autoaprindere) : allumage spontané anormal du mélange carburant

« Elles sont aujourd’hui toutes coulées en alliage d’aluminium, métal qui

Automobile (automobil): Véhicule routier à quatre roues (ou plus), progressant de

« Nous connaissons tous, au moins dans les grandes lignes, le principe de

WROG USES OF COJUCTIOS I EGLISH AD ROMAIA

PHOETIC ADAPTATIO OF EGLISH WORDS I ROMAIA

A COTRASTIVE AALYSIS OF LEXICAL AD GRAMMATICAL

ASPECTS OF EGLISH VS. ROMAIA PREPOSITIOS

COTRASTIVE OTES O SOME EGLISH IDIOMS

MEAIG COSTRUCTIO AD PREPOSITIOAL POLYSEMY

EGLISH ADVERBIAL CLAUSES AD THEIR ROMAIA

EXPRESSIG POIT OF VIEW

L’EXPRESSIVITÉ DU LAGAGE POÉTIQUE DAS L’ŒUVRE DE

VOCABULAIRE TECHIQUE-PETIT GLOSSAIRE DE LA

ADVERTISIG SLOGAS I EGLISH, FRECH AD ROMAIA.