FACILITATING HUMAN LEARNING (2nd Edition)

Avelina M. Aquino, Ed.D.

Chapter 1: Cognitive Process
Cognitive Process refers to mental abilities such as perceiving,
attending, remembering, memorizing, and problem solving.
The brain is responsible for cognition. Clearly, the brain is involved
whenever learning takes place (Woolfolk,2010).

Cognitive Processes
Our everyday experiences are replete with simple to complex events that
call our cognitive processes. Not only can we give concrete examples of how
our thoughts process, but we can also provide various examples in a wide
variety of life occurrences as the following:
 Perception
 Attention
 Memory
 Language
 Reasoning
 Decision Making
 Problem Solving

Cognition is influenced by:

 Heredity-Our ability to learn is influenced by neurological efficiency and genetic
component.
 Maturation-process of becoming fully grown, experienced adult learners does not
require an external stimulus for it is a natural occurrence within the learners.
 Environment- This may include learning opportunities that provide avenues for
learning.

Cognitive Processes
I. Thought Processes
 TOT experience or tip of the tongue phenomenon
II. Cognitive Process of Experts and Expert Systems
 Special Knowledge
 Domain Specificity
 Analogical Reasoning
 Expert Systems
 Creativity
III. Basic Unit of Cognition
 Concepts- building blocks of cognition.
 Propositions- composed of related concepts.
 Schemata- know how information is organized and utilized to interpret our
daily life experiences.
 They are basic knowledge
 They are highly structured
 They are general categories of knowledge
 They are used in comprehension.
IV. Productions
V. Scripts

Cognitive Strategies
 These are mental plans that we apply to manage our thinking and
behaviour during problem solving or learning.

 Student-Centered instruction
 Activating prior knowledge
 Social interactions
 Problem Solving
 Elaboration
 Concept Learning

Strategic Demands on Cognitive Processing

The major goal of instruction is student learning. The goal of instruction is to

help students achieve the learning objective.
 Extraneous processing
 Essential processing
 Generative processing

Learner Centered Psychological Principles

Psychological principle deals with learners and how they learn.

Prior Knowledge

Prior knowledge is a mental structure that describes our knowledge

and experiences gained during the course of our life and how old
experiences are used to understand new ones.

Strategies for Developing Prior Knowledge

Development of prior knowledge is based on our ability to learn and
the amount of experience we have gained.

 Advance Organizer
 Conceptual and pedagogical models
 Chunking
 Outlining
 Highlighting
 Questioning

Chapter 2: Analogical Process

Analogical process or thinking refers to our ability to perceive and use
relational similarity. Reasoning and problem solving have one thing in
common- they involve metacognitive tasks and structures. An analogue is a
referent or equivalent cognitive information in the brain that can easily be
accessed or mapped when needed.
Analogical reasoning is a method of information processing that
requires the comparison of related features between the old and new
concepts.

Analogical processes include the following:

 Retrieval
 Mapping
 Access
 Abstraction
 Representation
 Evaluation

Transfer of Learning (Is the effect of prior learning)

Positive transfer occurs when students ability to harness strong

associations for some recall in the future.
Negative transfer occurs when students find two events or items in
similar when in fact they are not.
According to Bynes (2001) gives the following reasons why transfer
does not work:
 Some bits of knowledge are embedded in single contexts
 Lack of conditional knowledge
 Lack of conceptual knowledge
 Inaccurate conceptions of the mind
 Lack of metacognition

Ways to Promote Transfer

 Similarity
 Association
 Degree of Original learning
 Critical Attributes

Ways to Teach Critical Attributes

Identify the attribute that describes something as what it is
Provide simple and specific examples
Move on to the complicated examples in a gradual manner
Allow students to generate examples of their own
Help students realize that there is a limit to various attributes

Chapter 3: Biological and Environmental

Predispositions in Learning
The adult human brain is almost 1.5 kg (about 3 lb.) mass of pinkish
gray jelly like tissue made up of approximately 100 billion nerve cells or
neurons, neuroglia (supporting tissues) cells, and vascular ( blood carrying)
cells, and other tissues (Roediger 2008). It is the brain the organ that
responsible for thoughts and feelings, the part of the body that responsible
for intellectual activities. The brain is divided into three different parts:
hindbrain, midbrain and forebrain.

Brain Lateralization
The brain has left and right hemispheres, left hemisphere
matches objects analytically and verbally. On the other hand,
right hemisphere matches objects that are the same to form a
visual pattern or relationship.

Environmental Predisposition in Learning

 Environmental influence starts at the onset of conception of the child;
the fetus in the womb is influenced by mother’s mental, physical, and
emotional conditions.
Some of the environmental factors or influence can be categorized as:

 Natural Setting
 Social setting
 Cultural Demands
 Social roles and expectation
 Media Influence

Chapter 4: METACOGNITIVE PROCESSES

Metacognition refers to the learners’ understanding and control of
their cognitive process (Kauchak & Eggen 2007)

Types of Metacognition:
 Explicit metacognitive knowledge (focus on factual knowledge)
 Implicit metacognitive knowledge (children know how to monitor themselves)

Essential Skills for Metacognition:

Planning
Monitoring
Evaluating
Stages of Metacognition:
 Rehearsal
1. Elaborative rehearsal
2. Questioning and answering
3. Predicting and clarifying
4. Restating and Paraphrasing
5. Outlining and Summarizing
6. Selecting
7. Note-taking
8. Underlining

 Clustering
 Elaboration
 Systematic Searching

Differences between Cognitive and Metacognitive

Strategies
Cognitive learning strategies are characterized by intentionally,
effort, situation, specificity, and goal-direction (e.g., analysing metaphors in
poem). On the other hand, metacognitive learning strategies appear to
share common characteristics, also it enhances the thinking skills and
capabilities of adults for self-regulation which implies relatively more
complex and complicated forms of learning (e.g., quizzing oneself to
evaluate one’s understanding of metaphors in a poem).
 Chapter 5: Learning Metaphors
and Theories of Learning
Learning has been defined as a process of gaining knowledge. Changes
in behaviour are pieces of evidence showing that learning has taken place. It
means that learning is a change in behaviour attributable to experience
(Mayer, 2011)

Metaphors of Learning

Metaphor is a cognitive tool that enables us to see one thing in

terms of developing higher order thinking skills.

Theories of Learning

I. (Egan, 2005), it is a transfer meaning from one another on the basis

perceived similarities. A specific type of metaphor is called synectics which
can be an effective means of Response Strengthening(reinforcement
theory concentrates on consequences)
 Reinforcement is commonly viewed as reward. Positive reinforcement occurs
when the behaviour produces another new stimulus. On the other hand, if
the disappearance or removal of a stimulus occurs, we call negative
reinforcement.
 Punishment is another consequence that often confused with reinforcement,
used to decrease the performance of a behaviour

Thorndike formulated a number of laws that govern important aspects of

behaviour. They are as follows:
1. The Law of Effect
2. The Law of Exercise
3. The Law of Readiness

II. Information Acquisition

This theory is popularized by Herman Ebbinghaus, he pointed out a
quantitative relation between the amount of practice and the amount
learned.

III. Knowledge Construction

This theory is popularized by Frederic Barlett, he proposed that
meaningful learning involves assimilating new information to existing
schemata. According to this theory, mental construction of meaning is
influenced by perception, understanding and memory.

IV. Semantic Networks

Based on this network model, knowledge is organized according to it’s
meaning.

V. Dual Coding
 According to Allan Urho Paivio, who proposed this theory, representation
of specific information accounts for verbal association and visual imagery.

VI. Magic number 7

George Miller is best known to his magic number (7 plus minus 2) which
focused his attention on to a problem called cognitive overload. He believed
that people can amass a large volume of information at anytime. He held the
idea that 7 plus minus 2 means the number of elements (letters, objects,
words, numbers, or other units) that the memory can handle.
VII.
Short Term Memory Techniques (Brownell, 2002)
Repetition
Chunking
Identifying logical patterns

VIII. Long Term Memory Techniques (Brownell, 2002)

Association
Categorization
Mediation
Imagery
Mnemonics

IX. Barriers to effective Memory

 Repression and distortion
 Retroactive inhibition
 Primacy and Recency effects

X. The Seven Sins of Memory (Daniel, 1999)

 Transience
 Absent-mindedness
 Blocking
 Misattribution
 Suggestibility
 Bias
 Persistence

XI. Generative Process

Merlin C. Wittrock was the founder of this theory that hinges on
knowledge about the brain processes and functions. The brain is responsible
for cognitive functions such as comprehension, knowledge acquisition,
attention, motivation, and transfer.

XII. Cognitive Process

 Cognitive development popularized by Jean Piaget who is known for his
research on the development of children’s cognition.

Stages of Cognitive Development

 Sensorimotor Stage (from birth to two years)
 Reflex scheme level
 Primary circular level
 Secondary circular level
 Coordination of secondary course round modest circular level
 Tertiary circular reaction level
 Symbolic representation

Educational Implications: To foster knowledge in this stage, it is suggested

that parents and caretakers allow children to play with objects or other toys
that produce sounds.

 Preoperational stage (two to seven years)

 Preconceptual level
 Intuitive level

Educational Implications: To maximize learning, children may play by

putting on costumes or disguising something and encouraging them to take
on a different character (e.g., paper, play-doh, sand, clay, water). This
activity can help children develop the concept of conservation.

 Concrete Operational Stage (seven to eleven years)

At this stage, child possesses operative schemes that necessitate him

to think logical terms.
Educational Implications: During this stage, children really enjoy
helping their mother in the kitchen, especially when she cooks something.
Helping mother can be fun especially when such activity turns into a great
learning opportunity.

 Formal Operational Stage ( eleven years and older)

 Composition
 Reversibility
 Associativity
 Identity
 Tautology
 Iteration

Educational Implications: During this stage, students are filled with

opportunities for hypothetical situations. They motivated to work
collaboratively within groups, or they be allowed to work in pairs so that they
develop working on hypothetical topics.

XIII. Behavior Theory

All behaviourists are focused on the analyses of stimuli and responses.
The methodology used in behaviourism is basically scientific where stimulus
variables can be objectively manipulated in response variables can be
reliably measured, many behaviourist conducted experiments using animal
subjects.

XIV. Gestalt Psychology

Gestalt theory was developed by three psychologists: Wolfgang Kohler,
Max Wertheimer, and Kurt Koffka. According to Gestalists, behaviour cannot
 be understood in terms of its molecular parts because the whole is greater
than the sum of its parts.

Gestalt theory generates five laws that govern perception. They as

follows:
 Law of Continuity
 Law of Closure
 Law of Similarity
 Law of Proximity
 Law of Pragnanz

XV. Social Cognitive Theory

This theory refers to the interface between behavioural behaviour and
cognitive perspectives. Social-cognitive perspective is focused on both
internal and external factors that lead to the idea of reciprocal determinism-
the interaction among person, person’s behaviour, and the environment.
XVI. Social Constructivism
Lev Semeonovich Vygotsky, stressed the people’s culture has something
to do with their development. For him, cognitive development is a social
process; he maintained the idea that socio-cultural contexts in which it
occurs. Vygotsky viewed, can best facilitated in the zone of proximal
development (ZPD) refers to variety of tasks that are slightly too complex for
a child to do alone but can be accomplished successfully with guidance from
an adult or more experience child (Bee & Boyd 2007).

Components of Constructivism:
 Discovery learning
 Inquiry learning
 Cooperative learning
 Individualized learning
 Learning with technology

XVII. Jerome Bruner’s Theory

Based on the concept of categorization, Bruner believed that as active
learners, student’s continue to structure and restructure their environment.
He further believed that the world they experience is a product of their mind.
He emphasizes discovery learning that is premised on his belief that the
information of coding systems requires discovery relationships.
Metaphoric assumptions can be helpful in describing learning. To engage
our students in the learning enterprise, we can help them for better
articulate their thoughts and ideas with the aid of metaphors. Through these
theories of learning are offered and these theories differ for a variety of
reasons, but these theories help in order to understand the nature of learning
and how it occurs.

Chapter 6: Types and Qualities of Knowledge

The concept of knowledge is central to process of learning and
instruction.
 Types of Knowledge:
 Episodic Knowledge refers to our biographical memory; we have our individual and
personal histories that make up who we are.
 Semantic Knowledge deals with the memories and information that are not tied to our
personal biography.
Types of SEMANTIC knowledge:
 Declarative Knowledge
 Procedural Knowledge
 Conditional Knowledge
 Strategic Knowledge

Organization of Semantic Knowledge:

 Facts
 Data
 Information
 Ideas
 Wisdom
 Concepts
 Properties
 Natural categories
 Artifact categories
 Nominal categories
 Generalizations

Qualities of Knowledge
Qualities of knowledge may be described as generic. Abstract.
Informal, elaborate, and structured. Each quality is suited to each type of
knowledge while others are used in more general. Although these qualities
described, sometimes some seem to overlap.

Knowledge Acquisition Techniques

Protocol-generation getting information through interviews
Protocol-analysis scrutiny of interview results
Hierarchy-production includes types of laddering in order to build
taxonomies such as grading or ranking structures.
Grid-construction deals with the formulation of reference lines on map
Sorting-out includes putting together things that have the same attributes
so that we can organize and disentangle something
Diagram-based involves provision, application, and processing of concepts
to indicate statistical trends or mathematical information

Chapter 7: Articulating the Learning Objectives

in the Classroom
Anatomy of Learning Objectives

 Specificity of student behaviours

 Description of a specific performance that students will exhibit
 Describe of the specific result instruction
 Written in language that students can understand
 Written for students to remain focused
 Make use of verb from bloom's taxonomy
 Emphasize students learning outcomes
 Help teachers and students begin the lesson with the end of the mind
 Written in single statement
 Used by students and teacher throughout the lesson to monitor progress
toward learning

Purposes of learning objectives

 Guide students in instructional planning, delivery, and evaluation of student
performance
 Guide and direct behaviour
 Provide opportunities for analysis to teaching and learning
 Provide clarity including challenges and standards
 Help select the appropriate learning experience and evaluation strategies

Components of Learning Objectives (ABCD Components)

Audience- Usually the student

Behaviour- Refers to action that describe an observable (Specific,
Measurable, Attainable, Research oriented, Time-bound, Research-Oriented)
Condition- Used to give students limitation:
 Given a set of rules
 "Using the poem the road not taken by Robert Frost...”
Degree of performance or criteria level- Describes how well the
behaviour must be performed to satisfy the intent of the behavioural verb.

Taxonomy types of knowledge

 Knowledge of facts-Knowledge of basic term
-Knowledge of specific information including its details and elements
 Knowledge of concepts- Knowledge of restriction for classifying objects
- Knowledge of principles and generalizations
- knowledge of theories, models, and structures
 Knowledge of Procedure- knowledge of subject-specific skills and
conceptual domains
-knowledge of subject-specific techniques and methods
- knowledge of criteria for determining when to use appropriate in
procedures
 Knowledge of metacognition- knowledge of certain strategies
- knowledge about function of cognition, including specific contextual and
conditional knowledge
- knowledge of self and regulating self

Chapter 8: The Place of Motivation in Learning

Motivation refers to an internal condition of stimulation that
often comes before the performance of a desired behaviour.
Motivation is triggered with variety of sources:
 Exercise
 Good nutrition
 Sleep
 Rewards
 Challenges
 Friendship
 Kindness
 Security
 Authority
 Independence
 Pleasant environment
 Creative expression
 Meaning

Aspects of Motivation
 Motivation takes place within the individual
 It is possible to treat students in ways that will encourage them to develop the desire for learning.
 It is possible to present materials to be learned in ways that will make learning easier.
 The potential learner’s motivation will automatically be directed toward his or her most pressing
need at moment.

Motivation and Behavior

Motivation is individual and elusive. It is important to learning: yet it

is influenced by a person’s beliefs, feelings, interests, and goals. The
following factors affect motivation. The following factors affect motivation:

Knowledge in a particular content area

Beliefs about what the teacher expects

Adolescents self-concept or perceived personal ability

Anxiety and concern over grades

Level of support I the classroom environment

Difficulty and challenges of the task

Social interactions

Belief that learning is useful, meaningful, and of consequence of others

How motivation works

 Interest
 Belief
 Attributions
 Goals
 Social partnership

Motives and Drives

 Motivation is an innate and integral part of our biological predispositions.
It means that motivation is connected to our minds, feelings, and emotions.
For example, when we are thinking or improving our grades in English, we
think of something concrete-one that will help us realize our goal. With the
goal in mind, our motives will determine how to respond to that goal. Our
feelings are influenced by our responses to a particular behaviour.

Predominant theories of human motivations mostly assured that people are compelled to act in
order to:
 Increase pleasure and decrease painful experience
 Get innate physiological needs
 Compensate for drive (Compton, 2005)

Elements of Motivational System

 Self-concept
 self-esteem
 self-regulation

Inner Speech

One very specialized form of self-talk is called inner speech (Brownell, 2002).
The four characteristics of Inner speech:
1. Egocentric
2. Silent
3. Compressed syntax
4. Semantic embeddedness

Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy affects the process of choosing goals, expectation of
outcomes and achieving success and failure (Snowman and Biehler, 2006).

Chapter 9 Theories of Motivation

Theories of Motivation
There are at least 3 different perspectives to understand motivation.
1. Biological Perspective
 Instinct Theory-Describes how motivation result in automatic behaviours.
 Drive-reduction Theory-Is anchored on the belief that all living organisms
have biological needs.
 Arousal Theory-Emphasizes the idea that we possess a certain amount of
curiosity in which we need to explore novelty and complexity of things in the
environment.
2. Psychological Theory
 Incentive Theory-Explain the motivations result in external stimuli.
 Cognitive Theory-Concerned with attributions that affect motivation.
3. Humanistic theory
 Dispositional Theory-This emphasizes the role of stable behavioural
tendencies in understanding the differences why individuals behave the way
they do.
 Two-Factor Theory –Herzberg proposed two kinds of factors that that
affect motivation.
Hygiene Factor
Motivators
 Alderfers ERG Theory-He improved Maslows Hierarchy of needs. Exhibits a
frustration-regression principle where an already satisfied lower level need
can be activated when people fail to satisfy a higher level need.
 Goal Theories-Represent basic categories for different achievement
situation.
Shaping Motivation
The following are some factors that shape motivation.
 Effective Teachers-Important factor in shaping student motivation. It is
believed that effective teachers have a great impact on student
performance.

 Pedagogical Knowledge
 Communication Skills
 Leadership
 Human Relations
 Technological Literacy

 Classroom Management-It is a place where students engage in a free

market of ideas as they share their feelings and insights.
 Effective Instruction-No lesson should begin unless we provide clear
instructions and gain students interest.
 The use of Imaginative activities-Enhancing the motivation of a student.
 Establishing Effective leaning environment-It should have Withitness-
refers to awareness of what is happening in the classroom and Group
Alerting pertains to the classroom environment that signals the entire
class.

 Kellers ARCS model in motivation

1. Attention
2. Relevance
3. Confidence
 Questioning Strategies-Help our student develop focus.
Adjunct questions are strategically placed
 Before the Information
 Within the Information
 After the Information

Chapter 10 Children’s Development

Nature and nurture controversy
Our ability to learn is affected by biological or genetic predisposition
( nature) and environmental factors (nurture)
Children's learning and development S
 growth development of a child: Constant ystematic
H olistic
A utomatic Dialectal theory  ou
N atural  innert biological dimension deals er
G radual  individual psychological dimension
E ssential  cultural –sociological dimension

physical dimension

Inner psychological dimension

 perceptual-cognitive-moral domain
Socio-emotional or personal domain  social- emotional or personality domain
 perceptual-cognitive-moral domain
 children's perception
 children's cognitive development
Characteristic of a child learning
 the learning of a child follows a certain sequence
 learning proceeds at varying rates
 development is also affected by multiple socio-cultural context
Young children-biological predisposition to learn  they may lack the needed
knowledge in some task but they are Knowledgeable in other cognitive domain

Chapter 11 Adolescent Learning

ADOLESCENT LEARNING

Characteristics of adolescent learning

 they have the ability to think of abstract concept and differentiate between hypothetical and real
 there is a regular increase in the complexity of their learning and thinking skills
Developmental dimension
There are a lot of developmental dimension that occur during adolescence. These
encompass the physical, cognitive, social, and emotional aspects that help shape teenager's
development process

DIMENSION FEATURES
 Physical  There is already sexual maturation
 Moments intense restlessness; there is a
rapid growth because of nutrition demand
 COGNITIVE  Creates mental pictures
 Their minds is filled with other issues
 They clarify their own thought and share
them with others manifest independent
and critical thinking
 SOCIAL  they also depend on parental values
 they can easily lose track of time
 they are frighten by novel situation
 EMOTIONAL  They are sensitive to criticism
 They feel that adults do not understand
their feeling
 Sometimes they tend to be inconsiderate
of others

Educational implication of adolescent's learning:

 Lesson in class should help them understand their physical development

 Lesson should provide opportunities for constructive social interaction and non-threatening
classroom environment.

Chapter 12 Addressing the Socio-Cultural

Development Dimension Learning
 Learning Strategies
Are cognitive processes that not occur automatically but require
effort(Santrock, Payne, & Isaacs 2006).

Different between a learning and strategy and a study strategy

 Learning strategy uses a higher level thinking behaviours such as decision
making, self-motivation, and self-monitoring
 Study strategy is more similar to a standard procedure o an ordered series
of steps that requires limited use of higher order thinking skills (Price &
Nelson 2007)
 Personal Management
 Efficient use of time
Long term goal
Short term goals
Immediate goals
 To manage wisely
Prioritizing
To do list
Scheduling
 Personal skills needed to succeed in all
subjects
Self-discipline
Self-esteem self determination
Assertiveness
Self confidence
Motivation
Initiative
Responsibility
Alertness
Judgement
Time management
Money management
 Study skills needed to succeed in all subjects
Finding information
Analysing information
Processing information
Summarizing
Problem solving
Critical and divergent thinking

Eight principles of effective studying

Principles of practice
1. Spacing
2. Feedback
3. Worked example
4. Guided discovery
Principles of generating
5. Testing
6. Self-explanation
7. Questioning
8. elaboration

Guiding student's cognitive processing during instruction

Effective learning occurs when students are actively involved in and

focused on the cognitive process.
 Instructional Techniques for selecting

1. objectives
2. pre question
3. post question
4. highlighting
Organizing
Process of mentality arranging the selected information into a coherent
representation.

Instructional techniques for organizing

1. outline
2. headline
3. pointer word
4. graphic organizer
5. summarizing

Integrating
The process of connecting the mental representation with relevant
prior knowledge retrieved from long term memory system.

Instructional techniques integrating

concrete advance organizer
concrete model

Pedagogy practice

Is science of instruction. It is a set of teacher's repertoire for making

students learn from the lesson
 create supportive learning environment
 encourage reflective thinking
 enhance the importance of new learning
 facilitate shared and negotiated meaning
 provide sufficient opportunities

Evidence-based practice

Multidisciplinary framework that is rooted in clinical practice since 1992`

12 principles of effective Instructional Design

1. Coherence
2. Signalling
3. Expectation
4. Segmenting
5. Spatial contiguity
6. Temporal contiguity
7. Pre training
8. Modality
9. Multi media
10. Personalization
11. Concreting
12. Anchoring

Technology in the classroom

Teaching and learning are now made easier and more comfortable,
with the aid of modern tools in teaching such as the multimedia projector,
slides, filmstrips, computers, tablet, learning is made fun and easy. The
advent of modern technology has facilitated globalization that influenced the
rapidly changing and exploding information and knowledge.

Globalization

Globalization likewise opens new possibilities for worldwide information

exchange and communication (Rao, 2004).

Lifelong Learning

The concept of lifelong learning may traced in Maslow’s taxonomy of

human needs. When we move from one level to another, we try to satisfy our
needs. The need for satisfaction is form of learning.

Chapter 13 Social Processes in Learning

The Term “social” refers to the interactions produced in the
environment.
Semiotic Mediation and Internalization

We develop more complex cognitive abilities which Vygotsky called

higher mental functions. Examples of which include concentrated attention,
deliberate memory, and logical thinking. Children use higher mental
functions that are developed through various interactions. These form part of
the shared knowledge of a culture. This process known as internalization.

Communication in Learning
Language is socially negotiated, constructed, and shared

Communication in teaching

The communication of ideas, facts, feeling, and emotion is very crucial

in facilitating human learning

The following important needed in in effective expression of ideas

 Word of use
 Encoding and decoding system
 Non-verbal cues
 Attitudes
 Knowledge base
 Socio cultural

Communication and language

Communication is the heart and soul of the classroom interactions.
Function of language
o Instrumental
o Regulatory
o Interactional
o Personal
o Imaginative
o Informational
o Heuristic
Characteristic of language
Every language is unique which characterized by the following:
language is system
language is arbitrary
language is basically vocal
language is symbolic
language is infinite
language is dynamic
language is social
language is unique

Effective classroom communication techniques

o assume the best from everyone

o operate with the assumption that everyone has the students' best interest in
mind
o keep a positive attitude
o practice empathy and understanding

Attributes of language( Andrande and May, 2004)

 language enable communication between individuals

 language is culturally transmitted and varies across cultural groups
 language uses primarily vocal sounds but only a subset of all possible vocal
sounds.
 Language units are arbitrary symbols need not have any correspondence to
the things they represent
 Language has a grammatical structure that can be analyzed on many levels.
 Language units can be arrange according to grammar to produce novel
utterances and to convey novel ideas.
 The ideas need not currently be true, and might never have or never be true.

The Message
The message is the meat of the communication situation. The
message is embedded in the following signs and symbols:
Natural sign
Non-natural sign
Iconic sign
Digital sign

Basic communication skills

Probing
Clarifying
Interpreting
Confronting
summarizing
 Chapter 14 Social and Cultural Influences on
the cognitive and motivational processes of
learning
Socio cultural influences on learning
Learning is the major goal of teaching. Learning is influence by various social
and cultural factors.

Theories of situated learning

Situated learning is also known as situated cognition. It hinges on
the belief that learning is embedded in or connected to the context in
which knowledge and skills are developed (Santrock,2004)
It is a basic assumption in the constructivist approach that deals
with leaning. This assumption is twofold (Snowman and Biehler, 2006)

Learning is made meaningful when it is anchored on a realistic context.

Traditional forms of classroom learning and instruction are largely
decontextualized in the sense that what students learn is good only for
taking tests and performing other classroom tasks. This situation leads to
condition that has been referred to as inert knowledge. This condition
indicates that students fail to use their learning to solving real life problems.

Teaching strategies to address the socio cultural dimension of learning

o active teaching
o critical thinking
o discussion strategy
o case story teaching
o social networking
o service learning
o problem based teaching
o experimental learning
o reflective teaching

Chapter 15 Theories of Intelligence

Intelligence is a construct that refers to our ability to acquire
knowledge, think and reason logically and deal effectively with the
environment.
SPEARMAN'S TWO FACTO THEORY

 G factor refers to inborn ability

 S Factor is influenced by the environment statistical procedures, such us factor analysis.

THORNDIKE'S MULTIFACTOR THEORY

 Level refers to the degree of difficulty of certain tasks

 Range is for the quantity of task of certain level of difficulty
 Area means the overall quantity of task of each level
 Speed is the rate of movement of each task

THURSTONE'S THOERY
 Verbal comprehension refers to our ability to understand written or spoken expression
 Perceptual speed
 Numerical ability
 Associative memory
 Spatial visualization

Triarchic theory of intelligence

Robert Stenberg develop the theory to emphasize product of or the end

results of intellectual work.

Analytic Intelligence
o Metacomponents
o Performance components
o Knowledge acquisition
 Creative intelligence
 Practical intelligence

Multiple Intelligences (MIs)

In 1983, Harvard psychologist Howard Gardner proposed his famous
theory of multiple intelligences.

 Linguistic intelligence
 logical/ mathematical intelligence
 spatial intelligence
 musical intelligence
 bodily-kinesthetic intelligence
 interpersonal intelligence
 naturalist intelligence
Types of Intelligences
Rational Intelligence deals with the mental function necessary for conceptual
and rational thinking.
Emotional Intelligence lies at our emotions.