WR423: Applied Hydrogeology

Lecturer: Eng. Joseph Ochieng Mtamba

Email: ochiengmalit@yahoo.com
Lecture Room: A218, Time 8.00- 10.00 Hrs

Office: Block B, Room B 11

Contact hours :Monday :12.00 – 14.00 Hrs
Friday :13.00 – 15.00 Hrs
4/17/2018
Review last lecture: Ground water flow

1. Hydraulic and hydraulic potential

2. Homogenous and heterogeneous aquifers
3. Heterogeneity and anisotropy
4. Darcy law and permeameter tests
 seepage velocity, linear velocity, K, k)
5. Flow in aquifers

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 Hydraulic head and hydraulic potential

The hydraulic head is a means of expressing the

potential energy of a unit weight of water.
The total potential energy in a unit weight of
groundwater consists of both gravitational
and pressure components.

where:
h = hydraulic head [L]
z = elevation [L]
p = pressure [M/L·t2]
ρw = fluid density [M/L3]
g = gravitational acceleration [L/t2]
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 Hydraulic head and hydraulic potential

The hydraulic potential (φ)is simply a way of

expressing the same fluid energy so that it is
independent of gravity

Hydraulic head is sufficient for the problems that will

be dealt with here.

Equipotential lines are lines with equal hydraulic heads and useful
in estimation of q between flow line boundary in an aquifer or
saturated media(earth embarkment, sheetpiles etc)
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Refer. Dr Pengfei Zhang notes Lecture No 9_Flow nets.pdf and Second year
foundation Enginnering notes
 Homogenous and heterogeneous aquifers

When we talk about variations of permeability in an aquifer, we use two

terms: heterogeneity and anisotropy.
-Heterogeneity: the parameter varies with respect to location
-Anisotropy: the parameter varies with respect to direction.
In isotropic aquifers or aquifer layers the hydraulic conductivity (K) is equal
for flow in all directions, while in anisotropic conditions it differs, notably in
horizontal (Kh) and vertical (Kv) sense.

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 Homogenous and heterogeneous aquifers
On small scales, the cause of anisotropy is the shape and orientation of minerals in
sedimentary rocks and unconsolidated sediments
On larger scales, anisotropy arises from layered heterogeneity
Equivalent Vertical Hydraulic Conductivity
Q

Total head loss (1)

From Darcy's law (2)

where i ranges from 1 to n, and (3) (4)

Substituting 1 in 4 then substituting 3, we have

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 Homogenous and heterogeneous aquifers

(6)

Canceling –q gives:

(7)

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 Homogenous and heterogeneous aquifers
Equivalent Horizontal Hydraulic Conductivity
Now let us consider the case where flow is parallel to the layering. Let ∆h be the
head loss over a horizontal distance l. The discharge Q through the layered
structure is the sum of the
discharges through the individual layers (Q1, Q2, ..., Qn). If the thickness of the
layered structure is 1 (unit thickness), then the cross-sectional area (perpendicular
to the horizontal flow) for each layer, Ai, is Ai=di x 1 , where i ranges from 1 to n.
From Darcy’s law we have

l
where i ranges from 1 to n, and

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 Homogenous and heterogeneous aquifers

(8)

From Darcy's law of equivalent horizontal hydraulic conductivity of the layered structure is Kx:

(9)

Equating, 5 and 6 and rearranging, we have,

(10)

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 Homogenous and heterogeneous aquifers

Equations 7 and 10 provide the Kx and Kz values for a single

homogeneous but anisotropic formation that is hydraulically
equivalent to the layered structure of homogeneous,
isotropic for all possible values of K geological. It can be
mathematically proven that K1, K2, …, Kn. For example, for a
simple layered system having two layers of identical
thickness with with K1= 10-1cm/s (gravel) and K2= 10-4 cm/s
(fine sand), Kx/Kz is 250!

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 Darcy law and permeameter tests

Seepage velocity/ average linear velocity, K, k)

Apparent velocity/
specific discharge/
Darcy flux.

Average linear flow velocity/ Where ne is Effective porosity

Seepage velocity

Transmissivity

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 Darcy law and permeameter tests

Seepage velocity/ average linear velocity, K, k)

If we divide Q through by the cross-sectional area, the volumetric discharge reduces down to a
1-dimensional discharge (i.e., velocity) called the darcian velocity (q), or:

Specific Discharge (Darcy Flux)

When we deal with real aquifers, we often use a quantity called the transmissivity (T),
which is defined as the hydraulic conductivity multiplied by the saturated thickness of the
aquifer (b), or:

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 Darcy law and permeameter tests

Seepage velocity/ average linear velocity, K, k)

intrinsic permeability (k) is a quantity that characterizes the ease with which any fluid
flows through a porous media, and only characterized the porous media itself.

where:
k = intrinsic permeability [L2]
ρfluid= density of the fluid [M/L3]
g = gravitational constant [L/t2]
µ fluid = viscosity of the fluid [M/L·t]

Discuss the limitations of Darcy law and state why it is used for ground water
studies. Refer : HydrogeologyLectureNotes-v2.3-LR.pdf in dropbox
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 QUESTION 1

In the heterogeneous system shown to the right, l-D groundwater

flow is perpendicular to layers of varying hydraulic conductivity.

The flow across the system (q) is 1 m/day. Using Darcy's Law. Find
the change in head across each layer. What is the total change
in head across the entire system?
• K1. =·20 m/day; K2= 5 m/day; K3= 10 m/day
• b1= 10 m; b2 = 20 m; b3 = 30 m
Find the effective hydraulic conductivity (K) for an equivalent
homogeneous system, that is, a system with the same total
gradient (from part a) and flow rate as the heterogeneous
system.
4/17/2018
 WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
WR423: Applied Hydrogeology
Course outline
Topic Contents Lecture
No.
5.0 Well hydraulics I. Ground water flow L4/5/6
and design II. steady and unsteady flow in
confined and unconfined aquifers,
III. Well hydraulics: Distance -
drawdown curves,

4/17/2018
 WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
WR423: Applied Hydrogeology
Course outline
Topic Contents Lecture
No.
5.0 Well hydraulics and IV. Well Radius of influence, L5/6
design V. Well efficiency,
VI. Well interference,
VII.Well Recharge and boundary
conditions

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 STEADY AND UNSTEADY FLOW

Steady State Governing Equation: Laplace equation

Dupuit assumptions
Homogeneous, isotropic and horizontal.
One dimensional flow.
Kind of steady flow.
Remember
Law of mass conservation is applied
No net change in mass in small volume of
aquifer
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 STEADY AND UNSTEADY FLOW
Governing Equation: Laplace equation

Physics
Law of conservation of energy
1st law of thermodynamics:
Energy can be neither lost nor gained,
it can only change forms.
Second Law:
"there is no such thing as a free
lunch“
All used to derive main equations ground-water flow
Use of Control Volume
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 STEADY AND UNSTEADY FLOW
Governing Equation

q - flow per unit cross sectional area [LT3]

Apply law of conservation of mass
I – O (what goes in minus what goes out) = ∆S (change in storage in the system)/∆T (change in time).

(1)

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 STEADY AND UNSTEADY FLOW
Governing Equation

(2)

where…
q = specific discharge (i.e., groundwater flow) in the x, y, or z
direction [L/t]
x, y, z = lengths in the principal directions in our coordinate systems
h = hydraulic head [L]
t = time [t]
Ss= specific storage [1/L]
We also substituted Darcy’s law… (3)

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 STEADY AND UNSTEADY FLOW
Governing Equation

(4)

But remember,
For confined aquifers, unsteady flow

where:
ρw= density of water [M/L3]
g = gravitational constant [L/t2]
α = compressibility of the aquifer matrix [1·M.L-1.t-2]
n = porosity [ - ]
β= compressibility of water [1·M·L-1·t-2]

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 STEADY AND UNSTEADY FLOW
Governing Equation

(5)

For steady state flow, ΔS/ΔT=0, homogenous and isotropic aquifer Kx = Ky= Kz= K.

(6)

(7)

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 STEADY AND UNSTEADY FLOW
Governing Equation

A very famous equation called the Laplace equation.

This equation describes the steady-state flow of
groundwater (i.e., no changes in storage) in a
homogeneous and isotropic aquifer. As we can see, the
assumptions of homogeneity and isotropy greatly
simplify the equation.

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 STEADY AND UNSTEADY FLOW
Steady State flow in unconfined aquifer
Case 1:

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 STEADY AND UNSTEADY FLOW
Steady State flow in unconfined aquifer

Mathematical model

Where W represent Net gain or loss (recharge,

discharge, evapotranspiration
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 STEADY AND UNSTEADY FLOW
Steady State flow in unconfined aquifer

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 STEADY AND UNSTEADY FLOW
Steady State flow in unconfined aquifer

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 STEADY AND UNSTEADY FLOW
Steady State flow in unconfined aquifer

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 STEADY AND UNSTEADY FLOW
Steady State flow in unconfined aquifer

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 STEADY AND UNSTEADY FLOW
Steady State flow in unconfined aquifer

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 STEADY AND UNSTEADY FLOW
Steady State flow in unconfined aquifer

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 STEADY AND UNSTEADY FLOW
Steady State flow in unconfined aquifer
Case 2: Parallel aquifers

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 STEADY AND UNSTEADY FLOW
Steady State flow in unconfined aquifer
TUTORIAL

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 STEADY AND UNSTEADY FLOW
Steady State flow in unconfined aquifer
TUTORIAL

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 STEADY AND UNSTEADY FLOW
Steady State flow in unconfined aquifer

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 STEADY AND UNSTEADY FLOW
Steady State flow in unconfined aquifer

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 STEADY AND UNSTEADY FLOW
Steady State flow in unconfined aquifer

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 STEADY AND UNSTEADY FLOW
Steady State flow in unconfined aquifer

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 STEADY AND UNSTEADY FLOW
Steady State flow in confined aquifer

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 STEADY AND UNSTEADY FLOW
Steady State flow in confined aquifer

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 STEADY AND UNSTEADY FLOW
Steady State flow in confined aquifer

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1-D GW Flow (x- direction)
Example 1
Measurements of surface water elevation indicated that a 50 m deep
lake at the end of sloping natural high rainfall vegetated ground is at
1050 masl. The aquifer is unconfined extending for a length of 5 km
from the lake. Its elevation varies 1050-1030 masl at the lake (above
bedrock) and 1450-1030 masl at the impervious end 25 km from the
lake. An estimated daily recharge of 0.5 m occurs throughout the
catchment. Assuming a transimissivity of 250 m2/d for this aquifer,
estimate
a) Maximum GW head
b) Maximum GW flow into the lake
c) GW heads at 0.5 m intervals {Your task}
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1-D GW Flow (x- direction)
Solution
Produce a conceptual diagram to
represent the problem
Given info:
1450 masl
T = 250 m2/d Hlake = 1050 masl q = 0.5 mm/d
q = 0.5 mm/d= 0.0005 m/d
L = 5 km = 5,000 m x=0–L
m

420 m
1050 masl
Equations:
Head:

30 m
50 m
Flow: Q = qx 1030 masl
Computations:
• Max values at farthest dist from 1000 masl
lake

4/17/2018 {Only movement is towards the lake!!}

 WR 423
APPLIED HYDROGEOLOGY
1-D GW Flow (x- direction)
Solution…
x=0m
Then
Head:

x = L = 5,000 m
Flow: Q = 0.0005 m/d  5,000 m = 2.5 m3/d
4/17/2018
 WR 423
APPLIED HYDROGEOLOGY

1450 masl
q = 0.5 mm/d
Assumption:
Constant
saturated
thickness of
aquifer
1075 masl
• Validate this!
1050 masl
420 m

30 m

50 m
1030 masl

1000 masl

4/17/2018 Task (c): estimate the rest of this curve

2-D GW Flow (x-y plane)
Dupuit-Forchheimer Approach
Unconfined GW flow patterns are difficult to estimate
• The free surface is both a boundary condition and a
solution to a drainage problem
• Need for complex solution methods
– Not always giving best results
• Simplified methods are therefore looked at
– e.g. Dupuit-Forschheimer method

4/17/2018
2-D GW Flow (x-y plane)
Dupuit-Forchheimer Approach
Unconfined GW flow patterns are difficult to estimate
• The free surface is both a boundary condition and a
solution to a drainage problem
• Need for complex solution methods
– Not always giving best results
• Simplified methods are therefore looked at
– e.g. Dupuit-Forschheimer method

4/17/2018
Example 2
An embankment of a new
excavated unpaved regional road
is composed of compacted sand
layer on top of a compacted
subgrade. The area receives the 1.5 m 9.0 m 1.5 m
highest rainfall of 75 mm/d while
recharge is normally 10% of unpaved embankment
rainfall.
Drain Drain

1.5 m
Estimate if embankment failure
will occur, which is related to

0.8 m

0.8 m
1.8 m
water rise of at least 1 m into the
sand layer. Then propose spacing
of drains to avoid this
4/17/2018 ! Try this out !
 1.5 m 9.0 m 1.5 m

unpaved embankment

Drain Drain

1.5 m
0.8 m

1.8 m

4/17/2018 ! Try this out !

 END OF LECTURE:
GOOD DAY

4/17/2018