Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280492843
CITATIONS READS
3 324
5 authors, including:
Eric Freyssinet
Lorrain de Recherche en Informatique et Ses …
16 PUBLICATIONS 8 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:
All content following this page was uploaded by Jean Luc Wybo on 31 July 2015.
Impact
of
social
media
in
security
and
crisis
management:
a
review
J.L.
Wyboa1,
F.
Fogelman-‐Souliéb,
C.
Gouttasc,
E.
Freyssinetd,
P.
Lionse
a
Mines
Paristech
/
CRC;
jl.wybo@free.fr
(Corresponding
author)
b
Université
Paris
13
/
L2TI;
soulie@univ-‐paris13.fr
c
Thales
Communications
&
Security;
catherine.gouttas@thalesgroup.com
d
Gendarmerie
Nationale
Française;
eric.freyssinet@m4x.org
e
CODAH
(Community
of
Le
Havre
area);
patrick.lions@agglo-‐havraise.fr
Abstract
Social
media
and
more
generally
online
social
networking
technologies
have
emerged
as
powerful
tools
to
exchange
information
among
a
large
variety
of
players,
including
the
public,
authorities,
companies,
and
journalists.
In
this
paper,
we
review
the
present
and
potential
uses
of
social
media
and
how
to
value
information
they
contain
to
help
manage
security
and
safety
matters.
We
present
some
examples
of
their
use
during
emergencies
and
crises,
how
relevant
information
can
be
extracted
to
support
fighting
against
cybercrime,
and
how
security
forces
and
emergency
managers
may
benefit
from
integrating
social
media
into
their
organizations.
Finally
we
propose
an
overview
of
technical
limitations
and
possible
misuse
of
social
media.
Keywords
Crisis
management,
cybercrime,
law
enforcement,
social
media,
big
data
Biographical
notes
Jean-‐Luc
Wybo
is
senior
researcher
at
Mines-‐Paristech
and
consultant.
He
got
a
MSC
in
Physics,
a
PhD
in
Computer
Science
and
Professor
grade
in
Organizational
Sciences.
His
research
interests
cover
risk
management
processes
and
crisis
prevention.
He
is
Editor
in
Chief
of
Safety
Science
(Elsevier)
and
member
of
the
steering
committee
“safety
and
security
“
of
the
French
National
Research
Agency.
Françoise
Fogelman-‐Soulié
is
associate
researcher
with
L2TI
Laboratory
at
University
of
Paris
XIII
(France)
and
scientific
advisor
for
the
TeraLab
Big
Data
platform
at
Institut
Mines
Télécom.
She
graduated
from
École
Normale
Supérieure
and
holds
a
PhD
from
University
of
Grenoble.
She
has
written
/
co-‐edited
over
120
scientific
articles
and
12
books
on
machine
learning,
social
network
analysis
and
big
data.
Catherine
Gouttas
has
a
background
in
Computational
Linguistics;
she
has
worked
as
research
engineer
in
Computational
Linguistics
in
the
Scientific
Center
of
IBM
France
and
in
the
IBM
Sweden
Development
Laboratory.
In
2006,
then
she
joined
Thales
to
manage
the
Thales
Communication
and
Security
Big
Data
and
Big
Analytics
laboratory.
She
is
also
responsible
for
the
CLEAR
Laboratory
-‐
Thales
/
LIP6-‐UPMC
joint
laboratory
Eric
Freyssinet
is
a
Colonel
with
the
Gendarmerie
Nationale
in
France,
currently
heading
the
Digital
Crimes
Centre
(C3N).
He
is
Engineer
from
Ecole
Polytechnique
and
holds
a
MSc
in
Computer
and
network
security
from
Telecom
Paristech.
Eric
Freyssinet
has
written
several
books
and
articles
on
cybercrime
and
digital
forensics,
teaches
at
the
University
of
Paris
II
and
is
due
to
defend
his
PhD
in
2015
on
the
fight
against
botnets.
Patrick
Lions
is
Manager
of
the
department
“information
about
major
hazards”
at
Le
Havre
municipality
and
supervises
the
Office
for
major
hazards
that
gathers
local
authorities
and
companies
of
the
Le
Havre
maritime
port
area.
After
acting
as
a
Pharmacist
for
7
years,
he
served
in
the
Fire
&
Rescue
as
top
officer
for
15
years,
in
charge
of
NRBC
units.
Specialist
of
crisis
management,
he
trained
hundreds
of
managers
from
public
and
private
organisms.
1 Corresponding author: Jean-Luc WYBO; MINES Paristech; Risk and Crisis Centre (CRC); CS 10207, 06904 Sophia Antipolis Cedex (France)
Published
in
:
Int.
J.
Emergency
Management,
Vol.
11,
No.
2,
2015,
105-128
Introduction
Although
security
and
safety
concerns
may
seem
quite
different,
we
argue
that
management
of
both
kinds
of
situations
is
based
on
the
same
principles:
detecting
weak
signals,
using
efficient
procedures
and
plans
to
reduce
threats
and
protect
people
and
values
at
stake,
and
manage
the
crisis
and
get
back
to
control
when
the
situation
escapes
from
known
conditions.
‘Disaster
response
may
be
the
ideal
environment
for
‘proving
the
worth’
of
social
media
as
a
serious
knowledge
management
platform
(…)
Social
media
is
designed
to
create
order
from
chaos,
using
media
as
an
artifact
around
which
knowledge
is
organized
in
clusters,
such
as
comments
on
blog
posts
or
tags
on
images.
Decision
makers
in
disaster
response
require
knowledge
contributions
to
be
highly
contextualized
because
environments
are
fluid
and
misunderstandings
are
common’
(Yates
and
Paquette
2011)
Social
media
play
today
an
important
role
in
the
daily
life
of
citizens
and
governments;
in
this
paper
we
review
the
impact
of
the
use
of
social
media
on
the
management
of
security
and
safety
situations
and
the
current
trends
in
processing
the
related
“big
data”
flowing
through
social
media.
In
the
literature,
the
term
‘social
media’
refers
to
a
wide
range
of
internet-‐based
tools
and
uses
allowing
a
large
number
of
users
and
communities
to
share
information,
ideas
or
opinions
in
an
interactive
manner:
blogs,
microblogs
such
as
Twitter,
social
networking
sites
such
as
Facebook,
and
Wikis.
The
main
feature
of
social
media
is
to
be
managed
in
a
very
decentralized
way
by
the
general
public:
‘Unlike
traditional
media,
social
media
relies
on
user-generated
content,
which
refers
to
any
content
that
has
been
created
by
end
users
or
the
general
public
as
opposed
to
professionals’
(Bertot
et
al.
2012).
Palen
(2008)
uses
the
word
‘crisis
informatics’
to
name
this
area
of
research
examining
technical,
social
and
information
aspects
of
disasters
and
crises.
Cloutier
&
Radford
(2011)
identified
the
main
trends
that
will
impact
on
the
dissemination
of
emergency
information
and
crisis
communications
practices:
“The
expectations
for
immediate
communications
responses
by
the
public
when
a
disaster,
crisis
or
business
disruptions
occurs;
the
growing
use
of
social
media
as
emergency
information
and
crisis
communications
channels;
monitoring
social
media
is
now
an
integral
part
of
crisis
communications
operations;
the
growing
reliance
on
mobile
communications
technology”
(Cloutier
&
Radford
2011,
p.
8)
Efficiently
using
social
media
in
the
management
of
catastrophes
and
for
fighting
terrorism
or
crime
involves
many
issues
(Rive
&
al.
2012).
Just
after
the
Haïti
earthquake
in
2010,
the
first
images
to
surface
were
photos
posted
on
Twitter
and
Facebook
by
people
on
the
field
providing
information
before
the
mainstream
media
(IRGC
2012).
Sutton
et
al
(2013)
made
a
survey
of
the
use
of
social
media
–more
precisely
Twitter-‐
by
authorities
during
the
Deepwater
Horizon
oil
spill.
Among
their
findings,
they
identified
that
“public
officials
are
contributing
to
the
Twitter
atmosphere
largely
by
producing
content
rather
than
engaging
with
others
through
directed
communication
or
content
consumption”.
One
of
the
key
questions
that
emerge
from
such
cases
is
how
the
huge
amount
of
data
flowing
through
these
social
media
can
be
analyzed
and
how
to
extract
relevant
information.
Qu
et
al
(2009)
studied
how
people
in
an
online
community
respond
to
a
national-‐wide
disaster:
the
2008
Sichuan
earthquake.
From
the
activity
of
‘netizens’
on
the
Tianya
web-‐based
discussion
forum,
they
identified
four
major
roles:
“information-related,
opinion-related,
action-related
and
emotion-related”.
AGE
18
to
24
86
31
25
to
34
72
20
35
to
49
64
16
50
to
64
52
12
65
and
over
46
10
Table
1:
percentage
of
Facebook
and
Twitter
users
in
France
Depending
on
events,
impacts,
visibility
and
duration,
population
react
differently.
In
most
cases,
people
use
social
media
to
get
information
or
to
witness
an
event
(figure
1).
The
public
wonder
about
what
is
happening,
what
they
see,
listen
or
feel.
They
also
use
social
media
to
check
if
other
people
share
their
feelings
on
an
event.
Three
social
media
emerge
during
emergency
and
crisis:
Facebook,
Twitter
and
Flickr,
specialized
in
the
sharing
of
images
and
photos.
Liu,
Palen
&
al.
(2008)
identified
29
groups
Flickr
created
by
citizens
to
allow
the
dissemination
of
photographs
documenting
for
crises.
The
media
community
also
uses
social
media,
as
it
provides
an
enormous
quantity
of
quickly
available
data
to
detect
what
is
happening.
Many
journalists
monitor
activity
on
Twitter
to
identify
where
they
will
rush
to
get
a
scoop
or
report
on
an
event.
Journalists
also
use
social
media
to
publish
information
on
their
personal
Twitter
accounts,
even
before
this
information
is
on-‐line
on
the
journal’s
official
web
page.
Figure
1.
USAir
flight
1549
in
the
Hudson
River,
posted
on
Twitter
What
is
specific
to
Twitter
is
the
short
lifetime
of
information.
Photos
and
videos
of
an
event
will
rapidly
be
forgotten
when
national
media
will
provide
aerial
images
and
interviews.
Authorities
in
charge
of
emergency
and
crisis
management
may
benefit
from
such
fast
reactivity.
On
one
hand,
monitoring
systems
may
process
these
data
to
get
relevant
information
quite
soon,
which
give
managers
essential
inputs
for
their
decisions.
On
the
other
hand,
providing
advices,
guidelines
and
orders
may
also
benefit
from
using
this
fast
channel
to
reach
a
large
number
of
people.
In
that
sense,
it
is
a
fast,
cheap
and
easy-‐to-‐use
communication
channel
to
the
public,
complementing
existing
communication
channels
(sirens,
automatic
calling
systems,
Web
sites,
etc.).
When
local
authorities
decide
to
create
a
Twitter
account,
this
implies
that
they
commit
to
be
reactive
when
a
new
situation
appears.
The
use
of
Twitter
imposes
a
search
for
information
to
provide
factual
data,
comments
on
what
is
happening,
what
resources
are
engaged,
but
also
fighting
against
rumors
and
false
information;
see
for
instance
the
use
of
the
Tweeter
hashtag
#Mythbuster
in
Australia
by
the
Queensland
Police
Service
(Bruns
2011).
Rumors
generally
emerge
from
fear
and
anxiety
in
the
public.
By
providing
factual
information
to
reduce
uncertainty
and
reassure
the
population,
authorities
may
also
refute
rumors
as
soon
as
they
appear,
as
it
was
set
up
by
FEMA
(2012)
during
the
Sandy
hurricane.
Published
in
:
Int.
J.
Emergency
Management,
Vol.
11,
No.
2,
2015,
105-128
social
networks
of
small
sizes
only.
For
large
media
(millions
of
nodes),
efficient
approximate
algorithms
exist:
see
for
example
the
technique
to
optimize
modularity
in
(Blondel
et
al
2008).
Many
metrics
have
been
defined
to
measure
social
network
characteristics;
see
for
example
(Wasserman
et
al
1994)
and
(Watts
2003)
for
more
details.
Centrality
metrics
aim
at
giving
an
indication
of
the
‘social
power’
of
a
node
based
on
how
well
it
connects
or
influences
the
network.
Influencers
or
opinion
leaders
are
important
to
detect
in
case
of
a
crisis,
since
they
can
best
propagate
important
messages.
In
order
to
implement
Social
Network
Analysis,
one
has
to
go
through
the
following
stages:
• Start
from
contact
data,
which
describe
entities
and
connections
and
define
various
business
filters
to
specify
the
semantics
of
the
interaction.
• Explore
the
social
network
and
visualize
it.
• Compute
on
the
social
network
various
social
variables.
• Use
these
social
variables
to
define
influencers,
or
build
predictive
models.
Addressing
the
governments’
concerns
about
information
flowing
in
social
media,
Kavanaugh
et
al
(2012)
argue:
“Data
mining
of
diverse
real-time
feeds
of
social
streams
related
to
real-world
events
is
needed
to
enable
officials
to
make
sense
of
the
vast
amount
of
information
generated.
In
so
doing,
government
should
be
able
to
act
more
effectively
on
matters
both
routine
and
critical”
Social
Network
Analysis
(SNA)
is
a
technique
that
aims
at
bringing
very
novel
ways
to
analyze
events.
SNA
should
be
implemented
whenever
one
wants
to
use
information
flowing
in
social
media
for
crisis
management
or
crime
investigation.
The
technique
exploits
data
gathered
during
the
crisis,
in
real-‐time,
and
provides
various
levels
of
analysis:
• Before
the
crisis,
it
helps
detecting
weak
signals
and
precursors
or
even
anticipating
trends
or
events;
• During
the
crisis,
it
allows
visualizing
situation’s
unfolding,
identifying
important
events
or
individuals
(‘influencers’),
understanding
the
structure
of
‘crowd
maps’;
• After
the
crisis,
it
provides
ways
to
understand
what
happened
and
which
were
the
critical
stages
or
individuals;
such
knowledge
can
then
be
incorporated
into
the
best
practice
guidelines
for
the
public
or
the
emergency
management
bodies
(Prentice
and
Huffman
2008)
(Lindsay
2011).
Figure
2
shows
an
example
of
these
different
stages
as
implemented
in
a
SNA
tool
(Chapus
et
al
2011).
the
processing
of
social
data
and
this
is
particularly
true
for
the
cybercrime
domain,
which
imposes,
in
addition
to
the
traditionally
existing
constraints,
some
new
specific
ones.
We
try
in
the
following
to
make
an
assessment
of
the
current
situation
in
terms
of
descriptive
characteristics
and
associated
challenges
related
to
the
language
analysis
dedicated
to
social
media.
techniques
able
to
take
into
account
in
depth
‘errors’
which
concern
the
style
or
the
typology
of
the
discourses3.
In
the
use
of
Tweeter
during
emergencies
and
crises,
the
development
of
codes
and
rituals
like
hashtags
facilitate
the
identification
of
relevant
messages
(Starbird
&
Palen
2011).
The
UN
Office
for
the
Coordination
of
Humanitarian
Affairs
has
recently
published
“hashtag
standards
for
emergencies”
(OCHA
2014)
to
promote
an
efficient
use
of
Tweeter
during
emergencies
and
crises.
The
languages
of
interest
of
the
domain
that
evolve
in
the
course
of
time
(Slavonic
languages
in
particular
today)
are
still
little
or
not
processed.
Finally,
but
this
is
true
for
all
fields
of
SNA
applications,
the
technological
evaluation
is
an
essential
task
to
assess
the
degree
of
reliability
of
the
produced
results.
In
addition
to
the
above,
there
exists
specific
–
or
stronger
–
constraints
in
terms
of
evidence
gathering:
timestamps,
precise
traceability
and
accountability
of
the
sources
as
well
as
procedures
to
guarantee
the
integrity
of
the
information
throughout
the
process
are
often
requested
by
investigators
and
subject
to
evaluation
by
the
justice.
These
constraints
need
to
be
properly
integrated
in
all
the
appropriate
steps
of
the
collection
and
analysis
process.
Social
media
as
sensors
and
monitoring
tools
in
dynamic
environments
Collecting
these
data
in
real
time,
for
example
on
Twitter
and
Facebook,
as
the
event
takes
place,
will
require
substantial
resources
and
skills.
Data
volume
and
velocity
will
have
to
be
handled,
possibly
through
a
specific
Big
Data
architecture.
In
many
cases,
collected
data
can
be
analyzed
and
filtered
to
provide
interesting
visualizations.
For
instance,
Twitter
has
a
geolocation
feature,
which
allows,
if
turned
on
by
the
user,
to
attach
the
location
information
to
each
tweet
made
by
this
user.
Tracking
these
locations
can
then
be
used
to
build
maps
of
events.
As
figure
4
shows,
such
maps,
tracked
in
time,
can
provide
very
useful
information
for
the
crisis
management
teams.
Published
in
:
Int.
J.
Emergency
Management,
Vol.
11,
No.
2,
2015,
105-128
Figure
4.
Maps
produced
from
the
geocoded
tweet
counts
for
the
March
2009
Morgan
Hill
earthquake
(left
from
(Earle
et
al
2010))
and
the
July
2011
Mumbai
blast
(right
from
(Gupta
et
al
2011))
The
social
network
itself
can
also
be
visualized
to
show
interesting
groups
(the
communities)
which
can
be
characterized
by
the
attributes
of
their
nodes,
for
example
by
tag
cloud
of
the
most
frequent
words
used
by
the
users
in
a
Twitter
users
network.
Police
forces
need
to
be
able
to
collect
information
from
social
media
that
will
help
detect
and
prevent
infractions,
or
breaches
in
public
order.
Taking
into
account
the
necessary
safeguards
in
terms
of
privacy
and
personal
data
protection,
they
need
to
be
able
to
exploit
the
information
that
is
available
and
maybe
initiate
by
their
online
contact
with
the
public
new
sources
of
information.
That
should
include
the
online
presence
of
police
personnel,
which
can
be
a
good
channel
for
accessing
interesting
information;
but
this
needs
to
be
organized,
as
well
as
an
official
online
presence
of
the
agencies
themselves.
It
also
requires
being
able
to
monitor
those
channels,
which
means
dealing
with
a
lot
of
information
(including
personal
information
that
needs
to
be
treated
appropriately)
over
a
reasonable
period
of
time
(hours,
days
or
months
depending
on
the
legal
specificities
or
the
necessity
of
the
situation),
to
detect
and
manage
weak
signals
(Brizon
and
Wybo
2009),
follow
the
community
reactions
to
an
event
and
adapt
the
response
of
law
enforcement
or
forward
that
information
to
investigators,
reconstruct
a
timeline
of
events
and
how
they
are
reported
by
the
public,
drawing
links
between
information
flows,
etc.
When
a
disaster
strikes
somewhere,
the
first
witnesses’
reaction
is
nowadays
to
take
photos
or
videos
and
to
post
them
on
social
media
(fig.
5).
By
accessing
them,
authorities
can
complete
their
perception
of
the
situation
and
take
appropriate
and
fast
decisions
to
address
the
more
urgent
needs
to
rescue
and
protect
lives
(Winerman
2009).
Figure
5.
Mobile-‐phone
photos
of
the
April
2013
Sichuan
earthquake
aided
the
rescue
efforts.
Another
concern
is
the
potential
malicious
use
of
social
media
during
disasters,
from
mischievous
pranks
to
acts
of
terrorism.
(Lindsay
2011).
other
types
of
investigations
(to
identify
the
person
behind
a
pseudonym,
get
more
information
about
a
suspect
or
a
victim's
contacts).
The
various
privacy
configurations
put
the
investigator
in
front
of
a
very
complex
set
of
scenarios
where
information
that
is
accessible
to
him
varies
a
lot
whether
the
data
is
accessible
to
the
public,
friends
and
contacts,
friends
of
friends,
and
whether
the
legal
system
in
their
country
recognizes
the
collection
of
such
evidence
in
the
different
situations.
In
some
countries,
for
specific
types
of
crimes
or
police
units,
it
is
possible
for
the
investigator
to
investigate
covertly,
using
a
pseudonym
and
thus
when
in
contact
with
a
suspect
profile,
gathering
more
information.
But
more
generally,
when
faced
with
social
media,
not
only
will
the
investigator
try
and
identify
who
is
doing
what,
but
he
can
try
and
address
the
origin
of
an
information
(who
was
the
first
to
publish,
does
it
exist
elsewhere
on
the
Internet?),
and
what
kind
of
metadata
can
be
extracted
from
the
information
published
(such
as
geolocation
information),
etc.
Information
flowing
in
social
media
may
also
help
police
authorities
to
get
a
precise
assessment
of
victims
and
damage.
About
the
2007
Virginia
Tech
shootings,
Starbird
and
Palen
(2010)
studied
how
students
collected
and
exchanged
information
and
identified
that:
“The
resulting
interactions
became
the
basis
of
a
highly
distributed
problem
solving
activity
that
‘discovered’
in
parallel
and
with
redundancy
and
apparent
accuracy,
the
names
of
the
32
fatalities
in
advance
of
official
release
of
that
information”.
In
some
cases,
directly
collecting
information
from
the
public
could
allow
faster
reaction
to
events,
as
well
as
a
better
quality
of
their
relation
with
the
police:
being
able
to
provide
more
information
(pictures,
videos,
instantly
collected
details
that
they
will
never
remember)
as
well
as
having
the
impression
to
actually
participate
in
the
protection
of
the
community
–
but
this
means
that
the
police
also
need
to
provide
their
public
with
feedback
in
terms
of
prevention
and
results.
In
order
to
be
efficient
when
facing
an
emergency,
a
threat
or
a
crisis,
the
social
network
should
already
exist.
IRGC
(2012)
argues
that
this
contributes
to
minimizing
damages
and
loss
of
life:
‘Social
media
tools
can
and
should
be
used
to
create
a
wide
network
of
subscribers
or
followers
before
the
event
of
a
crisis’.
Social
media
constitute
a
key
channel
to
defend
one’s
organization
reputation
and
limit
the
dissemination
of
rumors,
by
making
available
factual
data
on
the
current
situation.
‘Applying
social
media
tactics
to
corporate
and
government
crisis
communication
has
several
advantages.
First,
it
brings
credibility
to
your
organization
at
a
time
when
it
is
likely
to
be
most
needed.
And
at
the
same
time,
it
prompts
discussion,
debate
and
feedback
from
the
very
people
who
most
care
about
the
crises.
(Prentice
and
Huffman
2008)
Most
large
companies
have
set
up
a
‘social
media
team’
whose
role
is
to
monitor
what
is
said
about
the
company
on
the
different
media,
in
order
to
provide
immediately
information
and
data
when
faced
with
attacks,
rumors
and
false
information.
See
for
instance
the
blog
that
the
TOTAL
Company
set
up
to
provide
timely
information
about
the
gas
leak
in
the
North
Sea
at
Elgin
platform,
which
occurred
on
March
25th,
2012.
(Total
2012)
In
a
testimony
before
the
US
Senate
Committee
on
Homeland
Security,
Craig
Fugate
(2011),
a
FEMA4
administrator,
discussed
about
the
power
of
Social
Media
as
a
communication
tool
in
the
aftermath
of
disasters.
He
said:
‘Communication
in
and
around
a
disaster
is
a
critical,
life-saving
part
of
FEMA's
mission.
Social
media
provides
the
tools
needed
to
minimize
the
communication
gap
and
participate
effectively
in
an
active,
ongoing
dialogue.
Social
media
is
an
important
part
of
the
‘Whole
Community’
approach
because
it
helps
to
facilitate
the
vital
two-way
communication
between
emergency
management
agencies
and
the
public’.
Fugate
insists
on
the
fact
that
social
media
tools
are
well
known
by
the
public,
so
FEMA
has
to
adapt
to
the
way
the
public
communicates
rather
than
convince
the
public
to
adjust
to
the
way
FEMA
communicates.
In
2009,
the
London
Fire
Brigade
set
up
a
Twitter
account
and
a
Facebook
page.
Nowadays,
there
are
more
than
60.000
followers
of
both
accounts.
‘The
London
Fire
Brigade
has
the
largest
social
media
presence
of
any
UK
local
or
regional
public
sector
authority
in
the
country
and
has
delivered
significant
and
demonstrable
results
in
cutting
fires’
(London
Fire
Brigade
2013).
By
targeting
people
at
risk
from
fires
and
not
taking
notice
of
traditional
public
safety
messages
(young
professionals
well
connected
to
social
media),
The
London
Fire
Brigade
achieved
a
significant
reduction
in
the
weekly
number
of
fires.
This
category
is
responsible
of
around
25%
of
accidental
house
fires.
In
the
security
domain,
the
professional
presence
of
individual
law
enforcement
personnel
is
more
and
more
common
to
connect
with
each
other
and
with
the
people
they
are
in
contact
with
(industry,
academia,
local
authorities...).
There
are
some
associated
risks,
similar
to
those
any
organization
is
facing:
• There
are
more
chances
to
get
targeted
by
fake
profiles
fishing
for
information5;
• The
organization
itself
can
also
be
a
target:
people
claiming
to
be
part
of
an
agency
when
no
checks
are
being
made,
fake
organization
profiles
being
created
to
attract
the
members
of
a
community,
etc.
This
is
even
more
sensitive
an
issue
for
a
law
enforcement
agency.
In
that
context,
a
city
‘urban
area
community’,
associating
the
town
and
a
number
of
smaller
cities
around,
has
set
up
a
monitoring
system
to
follow
information
related
to
major
events
occurring
in
its
area
of
concern
(Blay
et
al
2012).
For
these
local
authorities,
the
most
important
aspect
of
social
media
use
is
about
the
human
character
of
exchanges.
More
attention
is
given
to
the
messages’
contents
than
to
the
way
they
are
transmitted.
What
is
essential
for
a
community
decision
maker
is
to
detect
relevant
events
as
soon
as
possible
and
to
anticipate
emerging
crisis
situations.
Monitoring
must
be
fast
and
find
information
where
it
is
first
posted.
To
achieve
this
objective,
community
managers
focused
on
social
media
monitoring
and
designed
a
methodology
to
extract
relevant
information
from
all
information
available
on
social
media.
This
methodology
to
search
for
relevant
data
associates
a
filter
on
major
hazards
(natural
and
technological)
and
a
filter
on
the
area
of
concern.
From
this
first
experience,
it
was
clear
that
this
monitoring
tool
has
a
potential
interest
for
crisis
management.
During
the
first
weeks
following
the
system
launch,
this
community
faced
a
strong
fire
in
an
electric
power
plant.
The
system
allowed
local
authorities
to
monitor
media
reactions
but
also
citizens’
reactions
on
social
media.
From
lessons
learnt
during
this
event
and
other
external
crises
(Sandy
hurricane,
Boston
terrorist
bombing,
smelly
gas
leak
in
another
urban
area)
the
monitoring
system
and
the
crisis
management
procedures
set
up
by
this
community’s
authorities
were
improved.
The
local
office
for
major
hazards
is
currently
setting
up
a
VOST
to
support
the
development
of
that
initiative.
Technological
limitations
Considering
the
complexity
of
the
language
used
on
the
social
media,
it
seems
clear
that
today
suppliers
of
solutions
of
Social
Media
Analysis
cannot
yet
claim
to
propose
solutions
fully
adapted
to
the
automatic
processing
of
social
textual
contents.
Today
Natural
Language
Processing
tools
(NLP)
are
very
efficient
on
limited
semantic
domain
of
analysis
with
very
homogeneous
and
well-‐formed
structures
and
contents.
Current
technologies,
available
for
English
and
sometimes
for
French,
only
allow
identifying
the
main
subjects
of
conversation
and
the
polarity
of
the
feelings
expressed
by
authors,
without
being
capable
of
characterizing
them
more
precisely.
The
NLP
community
is
very
active
on
all
the
SNA
challenges.
There
are
many
conferences
and
campaigns
today
which
address
all
the
challenges
related
to
these
massive,
dynamic,
complex
and
strongly
heterogeneous
data.
The
combination
of
the
statistical
and
symbolic
approaches
is
a
promising
track
as
well
as
the
consideration
of
Big
Data
technologies.
Coupling
textual
information
and
relational
information
analysis
is
also
a
very
promising
track
as
far
as
the
consideration
of
semantics
of
the
relations
between
texts;
actors
and
sources
help
in
the
analysis
and
the
interpretation
of
the
textual
contents.
Published
in
:
Int.
J.
Emergency
Management,
Vol.
11,
No.
2,
2015,
105-128
Figure
6
illustrates
the
dynamic
coupling
of
topics,
sources,
actors
and
texts
graphs,
which
helps
to
investigate
large
sets
of
social
data.
The
HMI
is
used
for
detection
and
investigation,
by
putting
in
relation
in
a
dynamic
way
a
set
of
connected
graphs:
topics,
sources,
actors,
and
texts
graphs;
it
allows
to
operate
personalized
user’s
paths,
based
on
filtering,
navigation
and
iterations.
This
capacity
enables
to
propose
several
analytical
viewpoints
to
analysts:
• They
can
quickly
draw
statistics
to
unveil
macroscopic
or
microscopic
trends
on
specific
topics;
• They
can
visualize
all
the
relations
found
in
the
collected
texts
and
map
these
relations
on
the
main
semantic
topics
extracted
from
a
combined
semantic/statistical
analysis
of
the
textual
contents.
Such
a
visualization
capability
enables
the
analysts
to
browse
a
huge
graph
in
order
to
identify:
• Frequent
and
rare
topics;
• Communities
of
actors
discussing
these
topics;
• Social
sources
which
publish
information
on
these
topics;
• Posts,
comments
which
deal
with
these
topics;
• Evolution
in
time
of
all
the
results.
• Expressing
inappropriate
views
in
public,
or
being
seen
in
contact
with
people
that
are
expressing
those
views,
or
have
bad
police
records
–
social
media
are
about
connecting
and
making
friends
and
most
don't
always
check
who
is
trying
to
connect
with
them.
Law
enforcement
staff
as
many
others,
tend
to
connect
to
social
media
from
work,
which
involves
the
risk
of
clicking
on
unwanted
links,
such
as
those
distributing
malware.
If
access
to
social
media
–
or
any
Internet
content
where
no
control
is
made
–
is
permitted
or
necessary,
all
precautions
should
be
taken
to
protect
from
those
particular
threats.
What
these
few
examples
show
is
that
law
enforcement
organizations
need
to
inform
and
advise
properly
their
personnel
about
risks
related
to
social
media;
some
institutions
are
already
doing
it,
such
as
the
French
Ministry
of
Defense6.
It
also
means
that
those
organizations
need
to
acknowledge
that
some
situations
are
unavoidable
and
not
always
blame
their
personnel
for
their
bad
connections,
but
rather
better
educate
them
about
the
risks.
Conclusion
Social
media
are
nowadays
part
of
the
organizational
systems
managing
security
concerns,
emergencies
and
crises.
More
and
more
authorities
at
the
local,
regional
and
national
levels
include
them
in
their
processes,
to
provide
public
with
the
information
they
request
and
to
collect
timely
information
about
what
is
going
on.
But
the
intrusion
of
social
media
in
existing
organizations
raises
a
number
of
concerns:
how
to
cope
with
new
and
time-‐consuming
duties,
how
to
avoid
malicious
use,
and
how
to
extract
relevant
information
in
the
huge
amount
of
data
flowing
through
social
media,
knowing
that
most
of
them
are
just
‘noise’.
The
scientific
community
as
a
whole
is
working
on
these
matters,
through
the
work
of
different
disciplines:
social
scientists
study
the
uses
and
behaviors
of
different
communities,
computer
scientists
study
the
methods
and
tools
to
process
big
data
flows,
and
the
political
sciences
community
work
on
the
definition
of
new
organizational
patterns
that
integrate
social
media.
We
argue
that
these
different
researches
should
be
integrated
to
provide
policy
makers,
authorities
and
practitioners
with
a
strong
background
and
help
them
understanding
why
and
how
integrating
social
media
in
their
practices
for
the
improvement
of
security
and
safety.
As
a
general
conclusion,
we
quote
an
argument
raised
by
(IRGC
2012):
‘The
lack
of
control
over
information
posted
on
social
media
platforms,
and
the
related
fear
that
it
is
much
more
difficult
for
government
agencies
to
‘control
the
message’
may
have
to
be
accepted
as
part
of
the
new
communication
reality:
an
unavoidable
challenge
that
comes
alongside
the
many
opportunities’.
Acknowledgements
Authors
thank
Dr.
Julie-‐Maude
Normandin
for
her
valuable
comments
and
suggestions.
References
Aggarwal
C.C.,
Wang
H.,
2010.
Managing
and
Mining
Graph
Data.
Springer
Barabasi
A.L.,
2002.
Linked.
Plume,
Penguin
Group
Bertot
J.C.,
Jaeger
P.T.,
Hansen
D.,
2012.
The
impact
of
polices
on
government
social
media
usage:
Issues,
challenges,
and
recommendations,
Government
Information
Quarterly
29,
30–40
Blay
L.,
Laclemence
P.,
Wybo
J.L.,
Lions
P.,
2012.
L’apport
d’une
veille
territorialisée
pour
anticiper
les
évènements
majeurs
dans
les
collectivités
locales,
WISG’12,
Troyes
Blondel
V.D.,
Guillaume
J.L.,
Lambiotte
R.,
Lefebvre
E.,
2008.
Fast
unfolding
of
communities
in
large
media.
J.
Stat.
Mech.,
arXiv:0803.0476v2
[physics.soc-‐ph]
Booz
Allen
and
Hamilton,
2010.
Risk
and
crisis
communications:
best
practices
for
Government
Agencies
and
Non-‐Profit
Organizations.
http://www.boozallen.com/media/file/Risk-‐and-‐Crisis-‐
Communications-‐
Guide.pdf
Brizon
A.,
Wybo
J.L.,
2009.
The
life
cycle
of
weak
signals
related
to
safety,
International
Journal
of
Emergency
Management,
6-2,
117-‐135
6 http://www.defense.gouv.fr/actualites/articles/reseaux-sociaux (in French)
Published
in
:
Int.
J.
Emergency
Management,
Vol.
11,
No.
2,
2015,
105-128
Bruns,
A.,
(2011).
Towards
Distributed
Citizen
Participation:
lessons
from
WikiLeaks
and
the
Queensland
Floods.
In
Parycek,
Peter,
Kripp,
Manuel
J.,
&
Edelmann,
Noella
(Eds.)
CeDEM11:
Proceedings
of
the
In-
ternational
Conference
for
E-Democracy
and
Open
Government,
Edition
Donau-‐Universität
Krems,
Danube-‐
University
Krems,
Austria,
pp.
35-‐52
Carbone
N,
2011.
Charting
the
Catastrophe:
Map
Matches
Earthquake
Videos
to
Location.
Time
NewsFeed.
March
12,
2011.
http://newsfeed.time.com/2011/03/12/charting-‐the-‐catastrophe-‐map-‐matches-‐
earthquake-‐videos-‐to-‐location/#ixzz2SuCwSlY4
Chapus
B.,
Fogelman
Soulié
F.,
Marcadé
E.,
Sauvage
J.,
2011.
Mining
on
Social
Networks.
In
Statistical
Learning
and
Data
Science,
edited
by
Mireille
Gettler
Summa,
Leon
Bottou,
Bernard
Goldfarb
and
Fionn
Murtagh.
Computer
Science
and
Data
Analysis
Series,
CRC
Press,
Chapman
&
Hall.
2011
Chatfield
A.T.,
Scholl
H.J.,
Brajawidagda
U.,
2013.
Tsunami
early
warnings
via
Twitter
in
government:
Net-‐
savvy
citizens'
co-‐production
of
time-‐critical
public
information
services,
Government
Information
Quarterly
30,
377-‐386
Cloutier
P.,
Radford
B.,
2011.
PTSC-‐Online
Project
to
advance
crisis
and
emergency
communications,
http://www.ptsc-‐online.ca
Crump
J,
2011,
What
Are
the
Police
Doing
on
Twitter?
Social
Media,
the
Police
and
the
Public,
Policy
@
Internet
3,
Issue
4,
article
7
Denef,
S.,
P.S.
Bayerl,
Kaptein
N.
2013.
Social
Media
and
the
Police-‐Tweeting
Practices
of
British
Police
Forces
during
the
August
2011
Riots.
In
Proceedings
of
the
2013
Conference
on
Human
Factors
in
Computing
Systems,
3471–3480.
New
York,
NY:
ACM
Press.
Earle
P,
Guy
M,
Buckmaster
R,
Ostrum
C,
Horvath
S,
Vaughan
A.,
2010.
OMG
Earthquake!
Can
Twitter
Improve
Earthquake
Response?
Electronic
Seismologist
of
America.
http://www.seismosoc.org/publications/srl/SRL_81/srl_81-‐2_es/
Erdös
P.,
Rényi
A.,
1959.
On
random
graphs.
Publicationes
Mathematicae,
6,
290-‐297
FEMA,
2012.
FEMA
Rumor
control,
http://www.fema.gov/hurricane-‐sandy-‐rumor-‐control
Freyssinet
E.,
2011.
L’Europe
en
lutte
contre
la
cybercriminalité
in
La
criminalité
en
France,
CNRS
éditions
Fugate,
C,
2011.
Testimony
before
the
Senate
Committee
on
Homeland
Security
and
Governmental
Affairs,
Subcommittee
on
Disaster
Recovery
and
Intergovernmental
Affairs:
‘Understanding
the
Power
of
Social
Media
as
a
Communication
Tool
in
the
Aftermath
of
Disasters’,
May
5
2011,
http://www.dhs.gov/ynews/testimony/testimony_1304533264361.shtm
Gupta
A.,
Kumaraguru
P.,
2011.
Twitter
Explodes
with
Activity
in
Mumbai
Blasts!
A
Lifeline
or
an
Unmonitored
Daemon
in
the
Lurking?
IIIT,
Delhi,
Technical
report,
IIITD-‐TR-‐2011-‐005,
2011.
http://14.139.56.164/Publications_files/AG_PK_TR_2011.pdf
Hecker
M.,
Vanbremeersch
N.,
De
Durand
M.,
Souchet
T.,
2012.
Nature
et
conséquence
des
réseaux
sociaux
pour
les
forces
armées.
http://www.defense.gouv.fr/content/download/204906/2271215/file/EPS2012-‐
Reseaux
sociaux.pdf
Heverin
T.,
Zach
L.,
2010.
Twitter
for
city
police
department
information
sharing,
proceedings
of
ASIST
2010
conference,
Pittsburgh
Hughes,
A.L.,
Palen
L.
2012.
The
Evolving
Role
of
the
Public
Information
Officer:
An
Examination
of
Social
Media
in
Emergency
Management.
Journal
of
Homeland
Security
and
Emergency
Management
9
(1),
article
22.
IRGC,
2012.
Social
Media
for
Crisis
Communication,
Concept
note,
International
Risk
Governance
Council,
Geneva
Jaeger
P.T.,
Shneiderman
B.,
Fleischmann
K.R.,
Preece
J.,
Qu
Y.,
Fei
Wu,
P.,
2007.
Community
response
grids:
E-‐government,
social
media,
and
effective
emergency
management.
Telecommunications
Policy,
31-
10,
592-‐604.
Kane
G.C.,
2013.
What
Can
Managers
Learn
about
Social
Media
from
the
Boston
Marathon
Bombing?
MIT
Sloan
Management
Review.
April
25,
2013.
http://sloanreview.mit.edu/article/what-‐can-‐managers-‐learn-‐
about-‐social-‐media-‐from-‐the-‐boston-‐marathon-‐bombing/
Kavanaugh
A.L.,
Fox
E.A.,
Sheetz
S.D.,
Yang
S.,
Li
L.T.,
Shoemaker
D.J.,
Natsev
A.,
Xie
L.,
2012.
Social
media
use
by
government:
From
the
routine
to
the
critical,
Government
Information
Quarterly
29,
480–491
Kleinberg
M,
1997.
Authoritative
sources
in
a
hyperlinked
environment.
IBM
Research
Report
RJ
10076,
May
1997.
Krebs
V.E.,
2002.
Mapping
Media
of
Terrorist
Cells.
Connections
24(3),
43-‐52
Published
in
:
Int.
J.
Emergency
Management,
Vol.
11,
No.
2,
2015,
105-128
Kumar
A.,
2012.
Role
of
Social
Media
in
Crisis
Response:
Mumbai
Blasts
2011.
Lessons
Learned.
ISCRAM
2012
Summer
School.
Sep
23,
2012.
http://www.slideshare.net/ajuonline/role-‐of-‐social-‐media-‐in-‐crisis-‐
response-‐mumbai-‐blasts-‐2011-‐lessons-‐learned-‐iscram-‐2012-‐summer-‐school
Latonero,
M.,
I.
Shklovski,
2011.
Emergency
Management,
Twitter,
and
Social
Media
Evangelism.
International
Journal
of
Information
Systems
for
Crisis
Response
and
Management
3-4
1–16
Lindsay
B.R.,
2011.
Social
media
and
disasters:
current
uses,
future
options
and
policy
considerations,
Congressional
Research
Service,
6
September
2011,
www.fas.org/sgp/crs/homesec/R41987.pdf
Liu
S.B.,
Palen
L.,
Sutton
J.,
Hugues
A.,
Vieweg
S.
(2008).
In
Search
of
the
Bigger
Picture:
th
The
Emergent
Role
of
On-‐Line
Photo
Sharing
in
Times
of
Disaster,
Proceedings
of
the
5 International
ISCRAM
Conference,
Washington
London
Fire
Brigade,
2013.
http://www.london-‐
fire.gov.uk/news/LatestNewsReleases_Socialmediareducesfires.asp#.UaSop0AvmSp
Memon
N.,
Hicks
D.L.,
2008.
Detecting
Core
Members
in
Terrorist
Media:
a
Case
Study.
In
Mining
Massive
Data
Sets
for
Security,
NATO
ASI
Workshop,
IOS
Press,
pp
345-‐356
Milligan
C.,
Reuter
S,
2012.
NZ
VOST
Training
guide,
Wellington
Region
Emergency
Management
Office,
Wellington
Newman
M.E.J.,
2003.
The
Structure
and
Function
of
Complex
Media.
SIAM
Review,
45,
167-‐256
OCHA,
2014.
Hashtag
standards
for
emergencies,
OCHA
Policy
and
Studies,
October
2014
Palen
L.,
2008.
Online
Social
Media
in
Crisis
Events,
Educause
Quarterly,
3,
76-‐78,
Pandit
S.,
Chau
D.H.,
Wang
S.,
Faloutsos
C.,
2007.
NetProbe:
A
Fast
and
Scalable
System
for
Fraud
Detection
in
Online
Auction
Media.
WWW
2007,
Session:
Mining
in
Social
Media.
May
8–12,
2007,
Banff,
Alberta,
Canada.
pp
201-‐210
Plasseraud
S.,
2013.
Blog
wearesocial.fr
Prentice
S.,
Huffman
E.,
2008.
Social
Media’s
New
Role
in
Emergency
Management,
Idaho
National
Laboratory,
INL/CON-‐07-‐13552
Qu
Y.,
Wu
P.F.,
Wang
X.,
2009.
Online
Community
Response
to
Major
Disaster:
A
Study
of
Tianya
Forum
in
the
2008
Sichuan
Earthquake,
Proceedings
of
the
42nd
Hawaii
International
Conference
on
System
Sciences
Ressler
S.,
2006.
Social
Network
Analysis
as
an
Approach
to
Combat
Terrorism:
Past,
Present,
and
Future
Research.
Homeland
Security
Affairs,
Vol
II,
N°
2.
Rodríguez
J.A.,
2005.
The
March
11th
Terrorist
Network.
Working
papers
EPP-‐LEA
03.
December
2005.
http://www.ub.edu/epp/wp/11m.pdf
St.
Denis,
L.A.,
Hughes
A.L.,
Palen
L.,
2012.
Trial
by
Fire:
The
Deployment
of
Trusted
Digital
Volunteers
in
the
2011
Shadow
Lake
Fire.
In
proceedings
of
9th
International
ISCRAM
Conference,
Vancouver
Starbird
K.,
Palen
L.,
2010.
Pass
it
on?:
retweeting
in
Mass
Emergency,
in
proceedings
of
the
7th
international
ISCRAM
conference,
Seattle
Sutton,
J.N.,
Spiro
E.,
Butts
C.,
Fitzhugh
S.,
Johnson
B.,
Greczek
M.,
2013.
Tweeting
the
Spill:
Online
Informal
Communications,
Social
Media,
and
Conversational
Microstructures
during
the
Deepwater
Horizon
Oilspill.
International
Journal
of
Information
Systems
for
Crisis
Response
and
Management
5-1:
58–
76.
Total,
2012.
http://www.elgin.total.com/elgin/
Trottier,
D.,
Schneider,
C.,
2012.
The
2011
Vancouver
riot
and
the
role
of
Facebook
in
crowd-sourced
policing.
BC
Studies:
The
British
Columbian
Quarterly,
175
.
pp.
57-‐72
Wasserman
S.,
Faust
K.,
1994.
Social
network
analysis:
methods
and
applications.
Cambridge
University
Press.
Watts
D.,
2003.
Six
Degrees,
the
science
of
a
connected
age.
W.W.
Norton
&
Company
Publisher
Rive
G.,
Hare
J.,
Thomas
J.,
Nankivell
K.
(2012).
Social
Media
in
an
Emergency:
A
Best
Practice
Guide.
Wellington
Region
CDEM
Group:
Wellington
Winerman
L.,
2009.
Crisis
Communication,
Nature
457,
376-‐378
Wu
P.F.,
Qu
Y.,
Preece
J.J.,
2008.
Why
an
emergency
alert
system
isn’t
adopted:
the
impact
of
socio-‐
technical
context.
In
BCS
HCI
(2),
pp.
101-‐104.
Published
in
:
Int.
J.
Emergency
Management,
Vol.
11,
No.
2,
2015,
105-128
Wybo
J.L.,
2013.
Percolation,
temporal
coherence
of
information,
and
crisis
prevention,
Safety
Science
57,
60–68
Yates
D.,
Paquette
S.,
2011.
Emergency
knowledge
management
and
social
media
technologies:
A
case
study
of
the
2010
Haitian
earthquake,
International
Journal
of
Information
Management
31,
6–13