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Symposium
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Focus: The Eighteenth Century
1 Das neue Handbuch der Musikwissenschaft, edited by Carl Dahlhaus, takes its place alongside Die Musik
in Geschichte und Gegenwart and The New Grove as one of the monuments of musicology since World War II.
In the introduction to volume 5 of the Neues Handbuch, Professor Dahlhaus, drawing on a most distin-
guished career of research and reflection, proposes nothing less than a revision of the prevailing model of
eighteenth-century music history. His observations demand careful consideration by teachers and scholars.
The material translated here is from Carl Dahlhaus, introduction to Die Musik des 18. Jahrhunderts,
Das neue Handbuch der Musikwissenschaft, volume 5 (Laaber: Laaber Verlag, 1985), pp. 1-8. Warmest thanks
are due Professor Dahlhaus and Laaber Verlag for their generous permission to have this material pub-
lished here, and to Frau Herma Pawlitzki of Hamburg for her expert assistance with the translation.
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2 COLLEGE MUSIC SYMPOSIUM
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MUSIC-HISTORICAL EPOCH 3
tious still speak of a caesura around 1740 in order not to surrender completely the
proximity with the earlier epochal year 1750, which remains popular among musical
laymen. The traits of the new style (homophonic texture, short-phrased melody,
rhythmic squareness, and slow harmonic rhythm) are too striking to ignore or to dis-
miss as irrelevant. Also, as soon as one draws back from a history of heroes, the lesser
stature of the composers representing the New cannot be used as a historical argu-
ment. Whatever one's aesthetic judgment, it is the historical significance of what hap-
pens that is certain. (By way of analogy, the same stylistic change would have occurred
around 1600 even without Monteverdi, though the music would generally have been
less well composed after the turn of the century than before.) Besides, a more precise
characterization of the history of composition will not emerge from a mere bundling
up of technical traits. It will rather arise out of the grouping together of the aesthetic,
social, stylistic, and technical concerns facing a composer around 1720/30.
However, if one assumes that the break in continuity took place between 1720
and 1 730 (a fact that one might repress into the back of one's historical consciousness
but cannot seriously deny), then the concept of a Pre-Classic or "intervening period"
stretching over more than half a century (from 1720 to 1780) really seems absurd.
This nomenclature is revealed as makeshift, demanding an inquiry into the uncer-
tainty and perplexity that betray it as such.
The concept "gallant style," which has been suggested from time to time to fill
the gap, provokes a tangential discussion (just as the term musica reservata has for dec-
ades in Renaissance research). Scholars did not (or did not desire to) recognize that its
primary focus is not stylistic-compositional but aesthetic-social. The "gallant style" is
the style of the galant homme. Its essence is that which a man of the world enjoys. One
can indeed classify the music of the eighteenth century, in a manner consistent with
the criteria of a galant homme, into acceptable and tasteless phenomena. (Analogously,
it would be possible to explain certain traits in the music of the nineteenth century
from the perspective of the educated bourgeoisie.) However, one should not think
that the term "gallant" would adequately characterize the style of an epoch. First, the
aesthetic judgments of the galant homme were selective. Thus one cannot speak of the
expression of a Zeitgeist that characterizes the entire epoch. Second, between the be-
ginning of the century when the concept arose and the French Revolution to which it
and the other requisites of the ancien regime fell victim, these aesthetic judgments
changed so often in musical content that it seems impossible, at least at first blush, to
define the gallant style through a set of compositional-technical traits. It has nothing
to do with a compositional technique explainable through a description of its
compositional-historical premises and consequences. It is rather a complex of aes-
thetic criteria which have to be understood on a socio-psychological basis.
The galant homme represents a music culture with which the bourgeois historians
of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were always on uncertain terms
and which they distorted because of their own biases. They knew, but did not want to
admit, that the essential musical institution of the eighteenth century was the system
of Italian court operas that extended from Naples and Madrid to Saint Petersburg
and from London to Vienna. By cultural-historical criteria the century was neither an
"Epoch of Bach" during its first half nor an "Age of Haydn and Mozart" during its sec-
ond half. To the annoyance of the bourgeois-nationalistic historians, the music of the
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4 COLLEGE MUSIC SYMPOSIUM
eighteenth century was courtly and international in its characteristic traits. If one
were to speak of the music in the aesthetic of the age, then what is meant is not "pure,
absolute instrumental music" (Eduard Hanslick) as in the nineteenth century, but op-
era, and indeed mainly opera seria.
The view that solely opera buffa was a progressive genre, compositionally as well
as socio-historically, is questionable, despite the fact that the form of the large ensemble
was first developed in opera buffa. It is questionable because the sources of phe-
nomena and their consequences must be examined before a well-founded historical
judgment is possible. At least as significant as the origin of new formal and structural
principles in opera buffa is their assimilation into opera seria. The latter maintained
its dominance precisely because it was able to adapt.
Moreover, the premise that because opera buffa portrayed bourgeois individ-
uals it was therefore a genre embodying the bourgeois spirit is too simple to be con-
vincing. The stylistic convention regarding rank that reserved a tragic fate to "kings
and noblemen" (Hugo von Hofmannsthal) and tolerated the bourgeois on stage only
as an object of comedy is unmistakably of aristocratic derivation. Bourgeois tragedy
was the first genre to be bourgeois in the full sense of the word, but it scarcely ap-
peared in opera before the French Revolution. The comedie larmoyante, as opera semi-
seria music-historically a fringe phenomenon, consisted of a mixture of tragic and
comic elements.
On the one hand, the bourgeois-nationalistic musicological literature was im-
plicitly or openly hostile toward opera seria as an international court opera in the Ital-
ian language. On the other hand, scholarly preference was given to Singspiel in the
national tongue. It was thus elevated to a significance that can be justified neither aes-
thetically nor historically. There is no doubt that this was ideologically motivated. Die
Entfuhrung aus dent Serail (1782) and Die Zauberflote ( 1 79 1 ) endowed the patriotic glori-
fication of Singspiel with an appearance of legitimacy that vanishes as soon as one takes
cognizance of the true paradigms of the genre in harmless, trivial works such as
Johann Adam Hiller's Lottchen am Hofe ( 1 767). In these works there are not "too many
notes" to disturb mindless pleasure, as Emperor Leopold II complained in reference
to Mozart's score.
Consequently one can scarcely speak of an aesthetic equivalence between Ger-
man Singspiel and Italian opera. Moreover, the view motivating the propensity toward
Singspiel (i.e., that the eighteenth century was music-historically a bourgeois period or
at least one tending strongly toward the bourgeois) is exceedingly questionable on
institutional-historical grounds. We should not allow the care with which the begin-
nings of bourgeois concert life have been investigated to mislead us. Until the middle
of the nineteenth century, the aristocratic-private concert stood alongside the
bourgeois-public concert as a place where essential music-historical decisions were
made through aesthetic agreement among the musically educated. The fact that
Beethoven's Eroica (1803) was first performed in a nobleman's palace (and indeed
with less of a shocking effect than later in the bourgeois public) is no exception but a
culture-historically characteristic fact. One must not be misled to a false institutional-
historical emphasis by the fact that published accounts about public concerts are by
their nature more numerous than those about private ones.
On the one hand, historians' social biases combined with the problem of inade-
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MUSIC-HISTORICAL EPOCH 5
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6 COLLEGE MUSIC SYMPOSIUM
These problems are scarcely soluble, if at all, except by breaking away from the cate-
gories and criteria that, during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, came to deter-
mine what effectively has been the operational history of the music written between
1720 and 1814. (Making oneself aware of the intellectual tradition in which one has
grown up means not that one remains its captive but that one has the opportunity to
separate oneself from it, at least in some measure). The prescriptive-historical fact
that the works of Bach and Handel, Gluck, Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven were the
ones that survived in the concert and opera repertoire while Metastasian opera fell
victim to the "fury of oblivion" (Hegel) is thoroughly inappropriate and misleading as
a point of departure for a music history that sets claim to historical truth or adequacy.
The problem of "Pre-Classic" is actually one of "Classic": a problem, namely, of
the prejudice that those musical events that emerged so densely between 1781 and
1814 in Vienna, and which the backward-looking concert and opera public of the
nineteenth and twentieth centuries have regarded as of extraordinary significance,
represented also in their own time the essence and substance, by European standards, of
the whole of music history of the age. As absurd as it would be to denigrate or impugn
the significance of Mozart, it would be no better for a historian proceeding empirically
to ignore the fact that contemporaries (and indeed not only the Italians but also the
Germans) felt more appropriately represented musically by Antonio Sacchini and
Giuseppe Sarti, Giovanni Paisiello and Domenico Cimarosa.
But if one recognizes that "Viennese Classicism" is a (later-developed) concept
of stature and not one of epoch (rooted in the awareness of contemporaries), and in-
deed a nationalistically tinged concept of stature shaped by the German bourgeoisie
of the nineteenth century and imposed upon the rest of Europe through the promi-
nence of German musicology, then it will be possible and necessary to describe Euro-
pean music history between 1720 and 1814 only partially (and not primarily or exclu-
sively) in conscious or subconscious orientation toward the, for us, aesthetically
towering phenomenon of Viennese Classicism. (It would be pointless to strive to
transform the category "Classic" from a normative to a descriptive concept. Pleyel is
not a "Classicist" at all, despite his stylistic dependence upon Haydn, whose forms and
structures he in some measure translated into the popular.) Only when one ceases to
allow the problems one addresses about the epoch as a whole to be dictated solely by
the works of Gluck, Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven can one possibly succeed in ob-
taining answers that do not distort the spirit of the age one seeks to describe.
Let us broaden the nationalistically-narrowed perspective to a European one;
differentiate descriptive from normative categories (without doing the impossible in
cultural history, strictly dividing them); appropriately emphasize the relationship be-
tween vocal and instrumental music as well as that between court and bourgeois music
culture; permit Italian court opera to serve as the central musical or musical-theatrical
institution of the epoch; and reveal the word-of-convenience "Pre-Classic" as a phan-
tom term that was supposed to resolve the ostensible problem resulting from a one-
sided fixation on Viennese Classicism. Within the bounds of our own prejudices
(which will be evident only to later generations), all of these goals are attainable. A
modern writing of music history that is skeptical of the biases of the nineteenth and
early twentieth centuries can accomplish this as soon as the music history of the eigh-
teenth century is no longer centered on the historically influential and aesthetically
privileged concept of Viennese Classicism.
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