cHAprER 2 A "Methodical" History of Language Teachíng 37

Activity Types Learner Roles Teacher Roles Roles of Materials

Dialogues and drills, rep- Organisms that can be Central and active Primari Iy teacher-oriented.
etition and memorization, directed by skilled teacher-dom inated Tapes and visuals, lan-
pattern practice. training techniques to method. Provides model, guage lab often used.
produce correct controls direction and
responses. pace.

Imperative drills to elicit
physical actions.
Listener and performer,
Iittle influence over the
content of learning.
Active and direct role;
"the director of a stage
play" with students as
actors.
No basic text; materials
and media have an
important role later.
lnitially voice, action, and
gestures are sufficient.

Learner responses to
commands, questions/
and visual cues. Activi-
ties encourage and shape
oral responses without
grammatical explanation
or modeling by teacher.
Learning is a process of
personal growth. Learners
are responsible for their
own learning and must
develop independence,
autonomy, and responsi-
bi lity.
Teachers must (a) teach
(b) test (c) get out of the
way. Remain impassive.
Resist temptation to
model, remodel, assist,
direct, exhort.
Unique materials: col-
ored rods, color-coded
pronunciation and vocab-
ulary charts.

Combination of innova- Learners are members of Counsel i ng/parental No textbook, which

tive and conventional.
Translation, group work,
recording, transcription,
ref lection and observa-
tion, listening, free
conversation.
a community. Learning is analogy. Teacher pro- would inhibit growth.
'not viewed as an indi- vides a safe environment Materials are developed
vidual accomplishment, in which students can as course progresses.
but something that is learn and grow.
ach ieved col laboratively.

Activities allowing com-
prehensible input, about
things in the here-and-
now. Focus on meaning,
not form.
Should not try to Iearn
language in the usual
sense, but should try to
lose themselves in activi-
ties involving meaningful
communication.
The teacher is the pri-
mary source of compre-
hensible input. Must
create positive low-
anxiety climate. Must
choose and orchestrate a
rich mixture of classroom
activities.
Materials come from
realia rather than text-
books. Primary aim is to
promote comprehension
and communication.

lnitiatives, question and
answer, role play, lis-
tening exercises under
deep relaxation.
Must maintain a passive
state and allow the mate-
rials to work on them
(rather than vice versa).
To create situations in
which the learner is most
suggestible and present
material in a way most
likely to encourage posi-
Consists of texts, tapes,
classroom fixtures, and
music. Texts should have
force, literary quality, and
i nteresting characters.

tive reception and reten-

tion. Must exude author-
itv and confidence.

Engage learners in com-
munication; involve
processes such as
information sharing,
negotiation of mean ing,
and interaction.
Learner as negotiatoÍ/
interactor, giving as well
as taking.
Facilitator of the commu
nication process, partici-
pants' tasl<s, and texts;
needs analyst, counselor,
process manager.
Primary role in promoting
commun icative language
use; task-based materials;
authentic.
36 IHAPTER 2 A "Methodical" History of Language Teaching

Table 2.1. An overview of methods (adapted from Nunan, 1989a)

Theory of Learning
Theory of Language
Habit formation; skills
Language is a sYstem of
ru le-governed structures are learned more effec-
00
tively if oral precedes
hieraichically arranged.
written; analogY, not
analysi s.
Objectives Syllabus
Control of structures of Craded syllabus of
phonology, morPhologY,
sound, form, and order;
¿nd svntax. Contrastive
mastery over symbols of
analysis.
the language; goal:
native-speaker masterY

sYl labus
Basicallv a structuralist, L2 learning is the same as Teach oral proficiencl' to Sentence-based
Ll learnin!; comprehen- produce learners who with grammatical and
;;;;i ü"*d;;;?
';ü lrñn,,roé
rorróuu6\' ,ion beforó produt tion i' t ¿n communir ¿le unin' lerical criteria being Pri-
"imorinled"'lhrough c¿r- h¡bitedly and intelligibly mary, but focus on
rying out cottañdt with native speakers' meaning, not torm.
(rightbrain functioni ng);
E
reduction of stress'

Each language is com- Processes of learning a Near-native fluency,.cor- Futitully,trtuttYlnl-..-,

."iÁnJ Irnnrrn" ,rJ fun- re( I pronunci¿lion' basit lessons planned around
oosed of elements that
cl¿mentallv"diff"erenl lrom of
prat tical knowledge tr¿mmdlr( dl llPm\ ¿no
+ iive it a unique rhYthm rz' ielated vocabularv ltems
ánd spirit. Functional ü i;;;; tt1*'ning ih" g',u*'.'-'u', of thé
vocabulary and core L un int"lÉ.tu.l, cogni"- to
Lear"ner Iearns how are introduced according
structure are keY to the i# pt.*;tl;;inn¿?t t. learn a language to their grammatical
spirit of the language. the music of the lan- comPlexitY'
F guage, silent awareness/
then active trial.
bo
t)noil)ee is more than -a Learninq involves the No specilic obiectire>. No set svllabus course
>F *üi" p%"án. ril' n \e¿r-n¿rive mdster) i\
progression i' ropir -
lil;:;i?;,:#".;;i:: goal b¿sed; le¿rners provide
,

ir." ii i"""h"t in" *not" social protess ol grovrlh the " the Lopics syllabus
üá,.r.",,rir[: educa- rrot.hltdlit
"d"i"n-
aj
trbo
[;;;' 'd"";ü;;;,;i' dence to self-direction emerges from learners'
intention and the
\)bo and communicative nnd indup"nd"nt"
teacher's reformulations'
{ processes.
The essence of language fhere are two ways of L2 Designed to give begin- Based on selection of
U
i; ;;;;;;;. v;."üirr,!, tanguage devetopmenr: . ners ándinteimediaie communicative activities
;;, ;;;;.,; i, in" n"á,t ,r.?rliit"",;-.i"t",,"1
o
¡earners basic commu- and ropics derived from
;iir;;;";;' earnerneeds

.¡[ffir;]::iil,
acquisi-
cannot lead to
:::#lliilil"j::ilil'""'
(oral/written); academic
z
q) tion. learning skills
(oral/written)'

Rather conventional, Learning occurs through To deliver advanced con Ten unit courses con-
although memorization ,rlg"uün. when.le¿rñer' versation¿l ' ompelence ti:llli
3] graded br
quicklv..l errners.rre ,. dialogues '^i.Or0-Illd
;f ;h":" meaningrul ar|ln a deeplv r.laxed and Srammar
texts is recommended. iix". suroql" music is required to m¿ster prodi- vocabulary
o used lo induce lhis st¿te. giou: ltsl: ol \ocdbular)
qb the goar is
s
:fli:,,i'jl:ilrJ
remoriz¿lion.

:o lanq.u¿ge is ¿ slstem for Doing atlivilies lhal ¿- Objecrive' will rellect,the

needs of the learner: lher
Will include some/all of
the fol lowing: structures,
o, É rhe Éxn"rersion óf inrolve re¿l communit
functions, notions,
¡ F ;;;i;n, ;ri."ry func- tion, carrying our mean- will include functional
.q * tion--¡n%i-act¡on'and ingful tasi<s, ánd using skills as well as Iinguistic themes, tasks. Ordering
will be guided bY learner
S H. communication lañguage which is mean- objectives'
ingful.to the learner Pro- needs.
Fü
mole learnins
S5
@9**!@