Alternative Comparative forms

Use and Form:

These structures can be used to compare two things. They are alternatives to the comparative form (-er / more ...).
1) Some phrases can be used to show that two things are identical.
the same (noun) as My pen is the same as yours.
His house is the same size as ours.
This phrase can be used with quantifiers: such as just, exactly, almost, and nearly.
Your bag is exactly the same as mine!

2) Some phrases can be used to show that two things are the same or nearly the same.
as (adjective / adverb) as My bag was as expensive as yours.
He runs as quickly as me.
This structure is often used in literature to make similes.
She’s as quiet as a mouse today.
You’re as pretty as a picture!
You can use quantifiers such as: just, almost, nearly with these phrases.
He runs almost as fast as me.
Your bag was nearly as expensive as mine.
3) Other phrases focus on differences.
different from His results are a bit different from ours.
This phrase can be used with quantifiers, such as slightly, a bit and a little.
not as (adjective) as Your jacket isn’t as new as mine.
(negative verb) as (adverb) as He doesn’t work as hard as I do.
This structure be used with the quantifiers quite, half and nearly.
My job isn’t half as interesting as yours.
He doesn’t play the piano nearly as well as his sister.
4) When comparing adverbs and adjectives, we sometimes re-write the auxiliary verb at the end of the sentences.
If there is not auxiliary, you can write do, does or did.
Julia is just as sociable as Maria is.
You can’t run as fast as I can!
I didn’t sleep as well as I did on Sunday night.
Common Mistakes:
Some students try to use the –er / more comparative form to make negative comparisons. However, not as … as is more
common.
I’m not taller than you. => I’m not as tall as you.
Both, either and neither
Use:
1) Both
Both means two of two things.
I have two cats. I like both of them.
2) Neither
Neither means not one or the other of two things.
Neither of my cats is grey.
Remember to use a singular verb after neither.
Neither of the dogs are dangerous. => Neither of the dogs is dangerous.
3) Either
Either means one or the other.
There are two cakes. Please have one. You can have either one.

Form:
1) You can use both, neither and either directly before a noun.
Both supermarkets are good.
Neither supermarket sells electrical goods.
We can go to either supermarket, I don’t mind.
2) Both, neither and either are often used with ‘of’. But you must always use a determiner (the, my, these, those, his
etc) before the noun.
Both of children like chocolate cake. => Both of the children like chocolate cake.
However, you don’t have to use of with both.
Both of the children like chocolate cake.
Both children like chocolate cake.
3) You can use both, neither and either+ of + object pronoun(you, them, us).
Both of them wore white dresses.
Neither of us was late.
Have either of you got a pen?
4) You can use both ... and ...; neither ... nor ..., and either ... or ....
Examples:
Both James and Diana work here.
Neither James nor Diana works here.
You can ask either James or Diana.
Second Conditional

Use:
The second conditional structure is used to talk about imaginary situations and the consequences.
Example: If I had a car, I could visit my friend.
(But the truth is, I do not have a car, and I cannot visit my friend).
The second conditional structure is also used to talk about imaginary abilities and the consequences.
Example: If I could fly, I wouldn’t need a car.
(But the truth is, I cannot fly, and so I need a car.)

Form:
1) Make the second conditional in this way.
If I past simple , I would / wouldn’t verb
you you ‘d (infinitive form)
he he
she... she... could / couldn’t

Example: If we had more money, we would buy that house.

Or
I would / wouldn’t verb if I past simple
you ‘d (infinitive form) you
he he
she... could / couldn’t she...
Example: She’d be more successful if she worked harder.
2) The verb to be can use were for all subjects. This is particularly true in the sentence: If I were you…
If I were you, I’d buy a bicycle.
However, this rule is often overlooked.
If he were more careful, he wouldn’t break everything. =>
If he was more careful, he wouldn’t break everything.
3) To talk about imaginary abilities, use could.
If I could + verb (infinitive) , I would / wouldn’t verb
you you ‘d (infinitive form)
he he
she... she...
Example: If I could help you, I would!
4) Notice that the infinitive verb after the modal verbs is not necessary if the meaning is clear. Don’t contract modal verbs
when there is no infinitive verb present.
If I could pay, I’d... => If I could pay, I would...
Common errors:
1) Many students write would after If
If I would have a lot of money, I would buy that car!
=> If I had a lot of money, I would buy that car!
2) Many students forget to use could to talk about abilities.
If I played the drums, I’d join a band.
=> If I could play the drums, I’d join a band.
Third Conditional

Use:
Use the third conditional to talk about past events. Use it to describe what could have happened (event ‘b’) as a result of
something else (event ‘a’). However, neither event a nor event b happened. Therefore the third conditional describes
hypothetical, imaginary situations.
If I had been at home yesterday, I’d have got your phone call.
(But, I was not at home, and I didn’t receive your call.)
The third conditional is often used to criticise:
If you had worked harder, you wouldn’t have failed the test.
(But you didn’t work hard and you failed the test).
Or it can be used to express regret:
If I hadn’t spent all my money, I could’ve bought a computer.
(But I spend all my money and I couldn’t buy a computer).
Or it can be used to express relief:
If I we’d taken that route, we’d have been stuck in the traffic jam for hours!
(But we didn’t take that route, and we didn’t get stuck)
Form:
a) Make the third conditional structure this way:
would have
would’ve
If past perfect , ‘d have past participle
(had + past participle) wouldn’t have
(hadn’t + past participle)
EVENT A EVENT B
If you’d told me that Anna had put on weight, I wouldn’t have congratulated her on becoming pregnant.
Or:

I / you / he / she / would have past perfect

we / it / they would’ve (had + past participle)
‘d have past participle if (hadn’t + past participle)
wouldn’t have
EVENT B EVENT A
Jim wouldn’t have made those mistakes if you had trained him properly.
b) You can also use may have / may not have, might have / might not have or could have / couldn’t have to describe
less certain possibilities rather than certain consequences.
You might have had an accident if you’d driven home in the snow last night.
c) Sometimes the if clause is implied but not spoken.
‘I’d have helped.’
means ‘I’d have helped if you’d asked me.’
‘I wouldn’t have said that.’
means ‘I wouldn’t have said that if I’d been there.’
Common Mistakes
Some students write would after if. Would does not go in the If clause, it goes in the other clause.
If I would have seen Sally, I’d have told her the news. → If I had seen Sally, I’d have told her the news.
Connecting words
Use:
Connectives join two clauses, and show the relationship between them.
The relationship can show:

 a contrast Although, but, even though, however, despite, in spite of

 a cause because, because of, as a result of, due to
 an effect so, consequently, as a result, thus, therefore

These words cannot be used interchangeably. They may be located in different places with in the sentence, and they may
use a different grammar.
Form:
a) Connectives showing Contrast
Compare these sentences with the same meaning:
i It is sunny but temperatures are low.
Never start a sentence with But. You can use but after a comma(,). In short sentences, no punctuation is needed.
ii Although it is sunny, temperatures are low. / Even though it is sunny, temperatures are low.
Note how Although and Even though are located in a different part of the sentence from But. Although and Even
though go before the known clause, whereas but goes before the unknown clause. The two clauses are separated with a
comma. The order of clauses can be reversed.

Temperatures are low, even though / although it’s sunny.

iii It is sunny. However, temperatures are low.
Note how however starts a sentence and is followed by a comma. It may also be seen after a semi-colon (;).
Consequently, it is usually seen in longer sentences.
iv Despite the sun, temperatures are low.
In spite of the sun, temperatures are low.
Note the position of Despite and In spite of before the known clause. The order of clauses can be reversed:
Temperatures are low despite / in spite of the sun.
Also note that these words are followed by a noun, not a verb clause. You can also use the –ing form of the verb in these
sentences.
Despite / In spite of it being sunny, temperatures are low.
b) Connectives showing a Cause
Compare these sentences with the same meaning.
i I arrived late because the traffic was bad.
Because the traffic was bad, I arrived late.
Note you can ONLY start a sentence with Because if there are two clauses in the sentence.

Because we were late. INCORRECT

Because we were late, we missed the start of the show. CORRECT
Starting a sentence with Because is more formal than using it in the middle of a sentence, and is most commonly used in
writing, not speaking.
ii I arrived late because of the bad traffic. OR Because of the bad traffic, I arrived late.
I arrived late due to the bad traffic. OR Due to the bad traffic, I arrived late.
I arrived late as a result of the bad traffic. OR As a result of the bad traffic, I arrived late.
Note how these expressions are followed by a noun, not a verb clause.
c) Connectives showing Effect
Compare these sentences with the same meaning.
i We were late so we missed the beginning of the show.
Never start a sentence with So. So can follow a comma(,). In short sentences, no punctuation is needed.
ii We were late and thus we missed the beginning of the show.
We were late and consequently we missed the beginning of the show.
We were late and as a result we missed the beginning of the show.
We were late and therefore we missed the beginning of the show.
Consequently, As a result, Therefore and Thus are more formal than So. They are common in formal sentences. They
often start a sentence, but they can be joined to the previous sentence with and.
Common Mistakes:
1. Some students begin sentences with But and So.
Joe went to university. But he didn’t like it. → Joe went to university, but he didn’t like it.
2. Some students write a sentence with because and only one clause.
I went to the shop. Because I needed some bread. → I went to the shop because I needed some bread.
3. Some students do not use nouns when they needed to.
I went indoors due to it was cold outside. → I went indoors due to the cold weather outside.
Embedded questions
Use:
Whenever you use an introductory phrase before a question, you must change the word order in the question.
Introductions include:
Can you tell me...? Do you know...? I don’t know... I’m not sure... I wonder... I can’t remember...
What’s the time? =>Can you tell me what the time is?
Where did he go? =>I don’t know where he went.
Form:
1) If the question has an auxiliary verb, swap the positions of the auxiliary verb and the subject. You can also do this in
sentences with the verb to be.
Example: When can you get here?
Can is the auxiliary verb and you is the subject. Swap their positions when you add an introduction.
Do you know when you can get here?
Other examples:
Where has he gone? =>I don’t know where he has gone.
What are they doing? =>I don’t know what they’re doing.
What time is it? =>Have you any idea what time it is?
You cannot contract the verb if it is the last word in the sentence.
Do you know what time it’s? =>Do you know what time it is?
2) If the question is in the present or past simple, remove do / does / did from the question. Change the verb ending so
that the verb is in the correct tense.
Example:
Where did he go? =>Did you see where he went?
What time do you get up? =>Can you tell me what time you get up?
Where does she work? =>I wonder where she works.
3) If a question does not have a question word (Where, What, Why etc.) use if or whether before the question.
Example:
Does he live here? =>Do you know if he lives here?
Are they coming to the party? =>Do you know whether they are coming to the party?
Future Continuous
Use:
a) Use the future continuous to talk about an event that will already be in progress at a specified time in the future.
This time next week, I’ll be driving to my parents’ house.
Phrases often seen with this use of the future continuous include:
By ..., This time next week..., In __ years’ time...; when + present simple; by the time + present simple.
When you arrive, I’ll be driving home.
By the time I get home, you’ll probably be having a bath.
b) The future continuous can be used instead of the present continuous for future plans.
Will you be going to Jane’s party?
Yes, but I’ll be getting there a bit late, because I’m going to a meeting after work.
c) We can also use the future continuous to make a guess about something that is in progress at the moment.
Don’t phone Richard now, he’ll be having dinner.
Oh no, I forgot about the dinner! It’ll be burning, I know it!
These sentences are not about the future but we can use the future continuous to talk about what we assume is
happening at the moment.
Form:
a) You can make the future continuous with will or going to. Make the future continuous this way:
Positive and Negative
I will be verb + ing
you won’t be
he / she it
we am / are / is going to be
they
Questions
Will I be verb + ing?
you
Won’t he / she it
Am we going to be
Is they
Are
b) Remember that some verbs are not used in continuous tenses. These include verbs connected with
possession: possess, own, belong, likes and dislikes: like, love, hate and other abstract verbs: seem, be, cost, want.
Grammar: So, such, too, enough
Too
Use:
Too means there is a lot of something. It shows a negative opinion.
It’s too hot = It is very hot and I don’t like it.
Form:
You can use too before an adjective.
It’s too cold. My trousers are too small.
You can also use it before an adverb,
You walk too fast. James speaks too quietly.
Before a noun, use too much (uncountable nouns) or many (countable nouns).
I ate too much food.
I ate too many sandwiches.
You can also use too much after a verb.
I ate too much.
Paul drinks too much.
Enough
Use:
Enough means you have what you need.
We have enough food for everyone = everyone has some food.
We don’t have enough chairs for everyone = some people don’t have chairs.
Form:
Write enough before a noun.
We have enough chairs.
But write it after an adjective or verb.
Are you warm enough? He’s qualified enough. She isn’t tall enough to be a model.

You don’t work hard enough. Are you sleeping enough?

Sentences with enough are sometimes followed by to + verb infinitive.
I’m not tall enough to reach the book.
I haven’t got enough money to buy that coat.
So
Use:
So means very.
It’s so hot!

Form:
So is generally used before an adjective or an adverb.
He’s so funny! He plays the piano so well!
However, in modern English, it is increasingly being used before nouns and verbs.
That dress is so last year! (= That dress is last year’s fashion)
I’m so going to shout at him when I see him! (so = really)
So can be used with a that clause, to show a result of the first clause.
I was so hot that I couldn’t sleep.

Such
Use:
Such also means very. Such is used before an adjective and noun.
They are such nice children.

Form:
A / an, if necessary, go after such, not before.
That’s a such pretty dress. => That’s such a pretty dress!
Like So, Such can be used with a that clause, to show a result of the first clause.
I was such a nice day that we decided to go to the park.

Common mistakes
1) Some students use too with a positive meaning. But use so or very here
It’s too hot! I love the summer! => It’s so hot! I love the summer!
2) Some students write enough in the wrong place.
Do we have sugar enough? => Do we have enough sugar?
3) Some students use so / such…that incorrectly.
It was so hot that the sun was shining.
This sentence is not correct because ‘the sun was shining’ is not a direct result of ‘It was so hot’. The hot day did not
cause the sun to shine.
May Might and Adverbs of Probability
May and Might
Use:
Use May and Might to talk about what will possibly happen in the future. May and Might mean maybe will. They can
refer to the future or the present.
Examples: I might have a pen in my bag. ( = present use)
She may arrive tomorrow. ( = future use)
Form:
May and Might are modal verbs, like can, will and should, so they follow the same rules.
1) Do not add ‘s’ to the third person singular.
He may come. NOT He mays come.
She might stay. NOT She mights stay.
2) To form a negative, add not after may and might.
He may not come. She might not stay.
3) To form questions, invert may/might and the subject. However, questions with might are not common.
Might he be late?
4) May can be used with ‘I’ or ‘we’ to make requests. However, can and could are more common.
May I have some chocolate? May we go to the party?
5) May and Might are always followed by a verb in the infinitive form.
I might go. NOT I might to go.
She might stay. NOT She might staying.

Will + adverbs of probability

Use:
You can use will and won’t with different adverbs to show how probable a future event is.
I’ll possibly go to the party.
I’ll probably go to the party.
I’ll definitely go to the party.
I’ll certainly go to the party.
Form:
Note that will / ‘ll is used before the adverb, but won’t is used after the adverb.
I’ll probably see you later.
I probably won’t see you later.
Using Modals for Recommendations
Use:
The following modals can be used to give recommendations.
must Must can be used to give a strong recommendation.
You must see the Empire State Building while you are in New York.
have to You can also use have to for recommendations, but must is more common. Have to is generally used to talk
about rules and things beyond your control.
You have to see the Empire State Building while you are in New York.
should Should and ought to are used to give a suggestion.
You should try haggis while you are in Scotland.
could Could is used to give an option.
You could stay in a hotel, or you could stay at a guest house.
don’t have to Don’t have to is used to say that something isn’t necessary.
You don’t have to get a taxi; the metro is really fast and efficient.
shouldn’t Should is used to warn someone gently against doing something.
You shouldn’t walk home alone after dark.
mustn’t Mustn’t is used to warn someone strongly against doing something.
You mustn’t go to that part of the city – it’s dangerous.
Form:
Must, should and could are modals. Modals follow the following rules.
1) Do not add ‘s’ to the third person singular.
He must. NOT He musts
2) To form a negative, add not after the verb.
I shouldn’t. NOT I don’t should
3) To form questions, invert the modal verb and the subject.
Must you? NOT Do you must?
4) Modals are always followed by a verb in the infinitive form.
I should go. NOT I should to go. / I should coming.

Have to is a regular verb.

1) Use Do / Does / Did to form questions.
Do you have to go? NOT Have you to go?
2) Have to is followed by a verb in the infinitive form.
I have to go.
3) Use don’t / doesn’t / didn’t to form negative sentences.
I don’t have to go. NOT I haven’t to go.
Common Mistakes:
1. Many students use to after modal verbs.
You must to visit the museum. → You must visit the museum.
2. Some students write the question and negative form of have to incorrectly.
You haven’t to take the bus → You don’t have to take the bus.
Have you to go now? → Do you have to go now?
Past Modals for Deduction
Use and Form:
The following modals can be used to guess what happened in the past.
must have + past participle verb
Use this when you make a guess about the past, and you are almost certain that your guess is correct.
‘The chickens have escaped! How did they get out?’
‘They must have got out under the gate. There is no other way out.’
may have + past participle verb
might have + past participle verb
could have + past participle verb
Use this when you make a guess about the past, but you are only suggesting one possibility. You are not certainyou are
correct.
‘The chickens have escaped! How did they get out?’
‘They may have got out under the gate, or they might have escaped through this hole in the fence.’
may not have + past participle verb
might not have + past participle verb
Use this when you make a guess about what didn’t happen in the past, but you are only suggesting one possibility. You
are not certain you are correct.
‘Where’s John? Why isn’t he at the meeting?’
‘He may not have got the message.’ / ‘He might not have received the message.’
NOTE: may not is not contracted to mayn’t, and might not is rarely contracted to mightn’t.
can’t have + past participle verb
couldn’t have + past participle verb
Use this when you make a guess about what didn’t happen in the past, and you are almost certain that your guess is
correct.
‘The chickens have escaped! How did they get out?’
‘They can’t have got out under the gate. I fixed that yesterday.’
NOTE: you cannot use: mustn’t have + past participle verb to make deductions about the past.
Common Mistakes:
1. Many students do not take the opportunity to use these structures when they can.
Maybe I left my book at home. → I may have left my book at home.
I think Robin went to the restaurant without us. → Robin must have gone to the restaurant without us.
2. Note that could have has the same meaning as might have and may have.
Why is Tom late?
He may / might / could have got stuck in traffic.
However, in the negative form the meaning is not the same.
Why is Tom late?
He may / might not have got your message. (NOT could not)
= Maybe he didn’t get your message.
Couldn’t have has the same meaning as can’t have.
Why is Tom late?
I’m not sure! He can’t / couldn’t have forgotten about the party!
= I’m sure he didn’t forget.
Modals for Deduction

Use and Form:

The following modals can be used to make guesses about a present situation.
must + infinitive
Use this when you make a guess and you are almost certain that your guess is correct.
‘Where’s John?’
‘He’s not here. He must be in the bathroom.’
may + infinitive
might + infinitive
could + infinitive
Use this when you make a guess but you are only suggesting one possibility. You are not certain you are correct.
‘Where’s John?’
‘He’s not here. He may be in the bathroom, or he might be in the kitchen, or he could be outside.’
may not + infinitive
might not + infinitive
Use this when you make a guess about what is not true, but you are only suggesting one possibility. You are not
certain you are correct.
‘Where’s John?’
‘He’s not here. He may not be at work today.’
NOTE: Do not use could not here.
can’t + infinitive
Use this when you make a guess about what is not true, and you are almost certain that your guess is correct.
‘Where’s John? Is he in the kitchen?’
‘No, he can’t be. I was in there a minute ago.’
NOTE: you cannot use: mustn’t + infinitive to make deductions about what is not true.

Common Mistakes:
1. Many students do not take the opportunity to use these structures when they can.
Maybe your bag is in the classroom. => Your bag might be in the classroom.
Prepositions and prepositional phrases of place
Use:
Use prepositions of place to describe where something is.

The ball is in the box.

The ball
The ball is on the box. is under the box.

The ball is over the box.

The ball is next to the The ball is between the
box. two boxes.

The ball is near (to) the

box. The ball is in front of the The ball is behind the
box. box.

In is also used in these situations:

Countries, cities, villages We live in France / in Paris / in Madrid.
It’s the highest building in the world.
the world
They have a cottage in the mountains / in a valley.
mountains and valleys
She works in a bank.
buildings
Don’t swim in the sea / the river / the lake.
water
He lives in the middle of Paris / in the city centre.
the middle / centre
Which film was that actor in? I read about it in the newspaper.
books / films / newspaper
On is also used in these situations:
walls, ceilings, doors, floor: She hung the picture on the ceiling / the wall / the door.
There’s a dirty mark on the page / table
surfaces
There’s a label in on the box / bottle
the front / side/ back
The school is on the left.
left / right
 Jim’s office is on the second floor.
Floors
What’s on the menu? Did you buy everything on the list?
lists / menus
I live on Jackson street. The nearest gas station is on the motorway. The post box is on
roads the way to work.
He lives on the coast. London is on the River Thames.
natural lines and borders
At is also used in these situations:
the top / bottom (of a page) Sign your name at the top / bottom.
Turn left at the traffic lights / roundabout / end of the street.
Directions:
Wait at the traffic lights / corner / tree.
Position (next to something)
I wrote my name at the front / back of the book.
the front / the back
What happened at the beginning / end of the film?
the beginning / the end
I met him at a party / conference / football match
events
I’ll meet you at the airport / the station / home
buildings

Common mistakes:
1. Some students miss out part of the prepositional phrases.
I live next a small shop. => I live next to a small shop.

I parked the car in front the I parked the car in front of the building.
building. =>
2. Some students add a second preposition where it is not necessary.
Your bag is behind of the door.=> Your bag is behind the door.
Prepositions of Time
Use:
Use prepositions of time before days, months, years and other time words.
AT:
Use before:
Times: We’re leaving at 3 o’clock
Lunchtime / bedtime: He’s arriving at lunchtime.
Night: I can’t sleep at night.
The weekend: See you at the weekend!
Festivals: We went away at Easter.
IN:
the morning / afternoon / evening: See you in the morning!
Months: My birthday’s in June.
Seasons: We always go on holiday in summer.
Years: He was born in 1996.
ON:
Dates: We arrived here on 4th August.
Days of the week: Let’s go to the zoo on Saturday.
Single day events: We always eat out on Christmas Day.
Use ON before a day + morning/ afternoon/ evening/ night. See you on Tuesday night!

Don’t use a preposition before: today, tonight, tomorrow, yesterday.

Present Perfect Continuous

Use:
Use present perfect continuous in two situations.
1) You started something in the past and you are still doing it now.
I’ve been working all morning (and I’m still working now).
2) You have just finished doing something. The effects of this activity can still be seen.
I’ve been gardening, so my hands are dirty.

Form:
Form the present perfect continuous in this way.
Positive and Negative
have / haven’t been verb + ing
I, you, we, they ‘ve /’ve not
has / hasn’t
he, she, it ‘s / ‘s not
Examples: You’ve been eating chocolate. I’ve not been sleeping well.

Questions
I, you, we, they been verb + ing?
Have
Has he, she, it

Examples: Have you been drinking? Has Emily been seeing her ex-boyfriend?
Present Perfect vs Past Simple
Present Perfect
Use:
1) The present perfect tense is often used to tell up-to-date news.
‘Great news! Jane has had a baby!’
But you cannot use the present perfect with phrases relating to finished time.
‘Great news! Jane has had a baby yesterday!’
So, to ask about and give more details, you need to use the past simple.
‘Great news! Jane has had a baby!’
‘When did she have it?’
‘She had it last night!’
2) The present perfect can be used with phrases relating to unfinished time, such as:
this week, today, this year
I’ve seen Roger twice this week.
That’s the second time I’ve seen that film this year.
3) The present perfect is often used in sentences with these words:
just, yet, already, ever, never
I’ve just finished the report.
Karen has finished the book already.
I haven’t finished the report yet.
I’ve never been to Spain. Have you ever been?
4) The present perfect is used to describe periods of time that start in the past and continue until the present. It is often
used with for and since.
I’ve lived here for five years.
James has worked here since last summer.

The present perfect and past simple may appear in the same sentence:
I’ve lived here since I was a child.
Tom has been unemployed since he left the factory.
Past Simple
Use:
The past simple can be used with phrases relating to finished time, such as:
yesterday, last week, last month, in 2010, two weeks ago
Jemma left the company six weeks ago.
I emailed Tony last week.
Form:
Present Perfect
Positive
I / you / they / have / ‘ve past participle
we
he / she / it has / ‘s

Negative
I / you / they / we haven’t / ‘ve past participle
he / she / it not
hasn’t / ‘s not
Questions
Have you / they / past participle?
we
Has
he / she / it
Past Simple
Positive
I / you / they / past tense verb
we / he / she / it
Negative
I / you / they / didn’t infinitive verb
we / he / she / it
Questions
Did you / they / infinitive verb?
we / he / she /
it
Simple passive

Use:
The passive voice is used:
a) When the object of a sentence is more important than the subject
The city was destroyed by the volcano.
b) When the subject of the sentence is unknown.
This cheese was made in Canada.
It is common in formal and scientific writing.
Form:
You can use the passive voice in all tenses. Use the correct form of be + the past participle of the verb.
Present Simple: Past participle The workers collect the rubbish of
I Wednesdays.
you / they / we am => The rubbish is collected on
It / She / he are Thursdays.
is
Past Simple: taken People built the castle over 800 years
you / they / we given ago.
I / It / She / he were built => The castle was built over 800
was made years ago.
eaten
Present Perfect: brought Someone has taken my book!
I / you / they / we cooked => My book has been taken!
It / She / he have been left...
has been
Past Perfect: When we arrived at the airport,
I / you / they / we / it / she / he someone had resold our tickets.
had been => When we arrived at the airport,
our tickets had been resold.
Modals You must wear a hard hat in this area.
I / you / they / we / it / she / he => Hard harts must be worn in this
can be area.
will be
would be
must be
should be
could be

To mention who caused the action, use by.

The bins were emptied by the cleaning staff.
Past Perfect

Use:
a) The past perfect is a narrative tense. This means it is used when telling a story about the past.
It is used in the same paragraph as verbs in the past simple tense, and is often used in the same sentence as a past
simple verb.
The past perfect describes an event which happened before another event in the past. We use it when we do not want
to say the events in the order they happened.
Example:
A sentence with the events in the order they happened:
John went to the shop on the way home from work, so he got home late.
Both verbs are in the past simple.
A sentence in which the events are NOT in order:
John got home late because he had gone to the shop on the way home from work.
The event which happened before the other verb is in the past perfect tense.
b) The past perfect is also used in other structures such as:
I wish: I wish I had cleaned the house!
Third Conditional: If I had practiced harder, we might have won the competition.
Form:
I
you
he / she / it had past participle
we hadn’t
they
Write any adverbs between had and the past participle.
The film had already started.
The post had just been delivered.
Reported Speech
Comparatives

Use:
Use reported speech to talk about what another person said in the past.
Eve: ‘I went to the party on Friday night’.
James: ‘Eve said that she had gone to the party on Friday night’.

Form:
1) When reporting speech, the verb in the sentence may shift to a past tense.
am / is / are changes to was / were
“I am fine.” She said that she was fine.
present simple changes to past simple
“I like it.” He said he liked it.
present continuous changes to past continuous
“She’s sleeping.” He said that she was sleeping.
will changes to would
“I’ll be there.” You said that you’d be there.
can changes to could
“I can come to the meeting.” You said that you could come to the meeting.
past simple changes to past perfect
“I did the shopping.” Tom said that he had done the shopping.
present perfect changes to past perfect
“I’ve read that book.” I told him that I’d read the book.
past continuous changes to past perfect continuous
“She was walking home alone.” He said that she had been walking home alone.
present perfect continuous changes to past perfect continuous
“I’ve been working,” I told him that I’d been working.
2) To report speech, use He / She / I said (that) ...
You can also use He / She told me (that)...; I told him / her (that)...

3) Don’t use quotation marks (“) when reporting speech.

4) References to times in the past also may need to change when using reported speech, if that time is no longer the
same.
this morning / week / month → that morning / week / month
yesterday → the previous day
last week / month → the previous week / month
ago → earlier / previously
tomorrow → the following day
next week / month → the following week / month
Question Tags

Use:
Use question tags in two situations.
1) You are not sure if something is true, so you want to check. In this case, your voice should rise when you say the
question tag.
↗
You’re not going now, are you?

2) You know something is true. You want to include/involve another person in the conversation. In this case, your voice
should fall when you say the tag. It does not sound like a question.
↘
He doesn’t live here now, does he?
Form:
Question tags are either:
1) positive statements with short, negative questions at the end.
These tags check something that you believe is true.
It’s Monday today, isn’t it?
2) negative statements with short, positive questions at the end.
These tags check something that you believe is false.
It’s not raining, is it?
Make question tags this way:
1) If there is an auxiliary verb or a modal verb, write it in the opposite form (positive or negative) at the end of the
sentence. Then write the subject pronoun of the sentence.
Ian’s nice, isn’t he?
Laura hasn’t arrived yet, has she?
I can’t do anything to help, can I?
We won’t be late, will we?
Caution:
CAUTION: Use aren’t with I’m in questions tags.
I’m a bit careless, aren’t I? NOT I’m a bit careless, am not I?
2) In present and past simple sentences, use do, does or did in the question tag.
Brian and Cathy don’t eat meat, do they?
Your dad lives abroad, doesn’t he?
Your friends enjoyed themselves, didn’t they?
3) Use a positive question tag after never.
Miles never goes out, does he?
Should have

Use:
1) Should have can be used to express regret about the past – to wish that something in the past had happened
in a different way:
I should have studied for my exam!
(I didn’t study for my exams. I failed. Now I wish that the past was different.)
2) Should have can also be used to talk about something you expected to happen, but it didn’t happen (or it didn’t
happen until later).
The letter should have arrived by now, but it hasn’t come yet.
(I was expecting a letter, but it isn’t here).
Here’s the bus! It should have been here twenty minutes ago.
(The bus is late. It has just arrived).
Form:
I should have + past participle You should have phoned me.
You should’ve
He / She / It You shouldn’t have done that.
We shouldn’t have + past participle
They