Construction and Building Materials 93 (2015) 782–789

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Construction and Building Materials

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Properties of mortars with fly ash as fine aggregate

Turhan Bilir a, Osman Gencel b,⇑, Ilker Bekir Topcu c
a
Bülent Ecevit University, Department of Civil Engineering, 67100 Zonguldak, Turkey
b
Bartin University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Civil Engineering, 74100 Bartin, Turkey
c
Eskisßehir Osmangazi University, Department of Civil Engineering, 26480 Eskisßehir, Turkey

h i g h l i g h t s

 We studied the influence of fly ash as fine aggregate in mortar properties.

 Fly ash decreases mechanical properties.
 Usage of fly ash as fine aggregate presents a new approach to consume high amount of fly ash.
 Usage of fly ash as fine aggregate in mortar increases strain capacity of mortar.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Coal power plants produce million tons waste fly ash worldwide that cause environmental problem and
Received 21 February 2015 threaten people health. Moreover, its depoting costs are high and need extensively large depot areas.
Received in revised form 24 March 2015 Recycling is a strategy to consume waste content left from several industries. Although fly ash has been
Accepted 1 May 2015
used in cement and concrete technology. In concrete technology it has been used as supplementary
Available online 21 May 2015
cementitious material or replacement material with a portion of cement until now. But, it has not been
considered as fine aggregate. In this study, the effect of fly ash as fine aggregate in mortars is investigated.
Keywords:
Flow ability, unit weight, ultrasound pulse velocity, compressive and flexural strengths, modulus of elas-
Fly ash
Mortar
ticity, stress–strain behavior and free drying and restrained shrinkage tests were conducted on mortars
Fine aggregate produced. It was observed that the usage of fly ash as fine aggregate presents a new approach to consume
Recycling high amount of fly ash without causing significant changes on properties of mortars when it was used at
the ratio of 60–70%.
Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction country and reduce negative effect of waste materials on

Environmental concern has increased worldwide. Countries
have gotten conscience to environment and taken cautions to pro-
tect it since high contents of wastes have been produced. General
tendency to decrease waste amounts from different industries is
depoting them in large areas which results in huge and may waste
deposits. To deal with this problem, many developed and develop-
ing countries have taken some regulations such as specifications,
new rules, taxes, quota or limit to use natural resources and raw
materials, etc. These regulations have prompted companies to give
importance research and development (R&D). By this way,
university-industry cooperation has improved and become strong
to develop new materials and technologies. New products and
technologies returns both economic income for company and
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +90 378 223 5360; fax: +90 378 223 5258.
E-mail address: osmangencel@gmail.com (O. Gencel).
environment.
One of the sectors is construction technologies to evaluate
wastes. Concrete, which is the most used construction material,
has a high potentials recycling wastes in point of returning them
to new and useful products or improving existing products.
Many waste materials such as silica fume, demolished aggregates,
waste tires, bottom ash, crush tile and brick, granulated furnace
blast slag, ferrochromium slag, cupper slag, marble wastes, waste
glass, polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottle wastes, rice husk
ash etc. has been evaluated in concrete.
Gencel et al. [1] produced interlocking paving blocks in which
natural aggregates are partly replaced with waste marble. They
observed that paving blocks produced with waste marble has
enough strength for usage and increased freeze–thaw durability
and wear resistance. So waste marble can be used as alternative
for virgin aggregate in paving block production.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.05.095
0950-0618/Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 T. Bilir et al. / Construction and Building Materials 93 (2015) 782–789
Gencel et al. [2] used waste ferrochromium slag as replacement
aggregate with natural limestone based aggregate in concrete.
They reported that ferrochromium aggregates increase mechanical
properties and wear resistance of concrete.
Uygunoglu et al. [3] used demolished concrete wastes to pro-
duce interlocking paving block. And they observed that paving
blocks produced with these recylced aggregates had strength
desired, 3.6 MPa. López Gayarre et al. [4] have produced concrete
kerbs and floor blocks with recycled aggregates replacing two
types of natural aggregates. They have concluded that the proper-
ties and manufacturing properties are little bit lower than those of
the produced with only the natural aggregates. Another study of
Lopez-Gavarre et al. [5] indicates the similar compressive strength
of recycled aggregate concrete similar to the ones of ordinary con-
crete and they have found that the effect of curing conditions affect
the compressive strength of recycled aggregate concretes likewise
ordinary concrete.
Topcu and Bilir [6] used waste crushed tile as fine aggregate in
mortar. They observed that there is no problem the usage of
crushed tile up to the ratio of 60% replacement in point of mechan-
ical strength since at this ratio compressive strength is above
20 MPa. Also, the usage of crushed tile reduces drying shrinkage
and crack with due to it.
Li and Zhao [7] evaluated granulated blast furnace slag in con-
crete. And they observed that concrete with granulated blast fur-
nace slag has early and long term compressive strengths and
resistance to chemical attach and corrosion.
Park et al. [8] used waste glass as aggregate in concrete since
recycling it as aggregate can be useful in point of conservation
environment and economical advantage. They obtained compres-
sive strength over 30 MPa when waste glass was used at 70%
replacement ratio.
Eldin and Senouci [9] conducted experimental studies to inves-
tigate usability of waste tires as aggregate in cement based con-
crete. They observed that although the usage of waste tires with
different sizes and contents as aggregate in concrete decrease com-
pressive strength, concrete with waste tire aggregates did not
show brittle failure, and had energy absorption capacity under
loads.
Singh and Siddique [10] conducted a study on incorporation of
bottom ash as replacement fine aggregate up to 100% for natural
sand in concrete. Compressive strength of concrete containing
100% bottom ash instead of natural sand has no strength loss when
compared with that of conventional concrete. But, bottom ash used
as fine aggregate increases water demand to obtain workability
desired. The usage of water reducer admixture compensates it.
Anwar et al. [11] produced concrete with rice husk ash at differ-
ent ratios up to 40% of cement content and investigated character-
istics of concrete produced. They observed that rice husk ash is a
very active pozzolanic material and its usage in concrete increases
mechanical strength even at early ages, durability such as chloride
ions impermeability and decreasing permeability.
As understood a literature survey above, concrete technology
has a capacity of consume wastes incorporating them useful prod-
ucts, and also has environmental advantages pretty significant in
point of sustainability of natural resources since no natural
resources have limitless reserves.
Another waste material is fly ash. Fly ash, a by-product of coal
power plants, causes environmental pollution and its storage cost
is pretty high. Turkey produces about 18 million tons waste fly
ash per year [12]. It is about 80 million tons per year in India
[13]. Overall fly ash content worldwide is about 600 million tons
[14].
There are many papers published about the usage of fly ash in
cement and concrete technology [15]. Fly ash is considered effec-
tively as a supplementary cementitious material or replacement
783
material with a portion of cement up to 30–40%. But, fly ash has
not been considered as an aggregate in mortar and concrete until
now. Aggregates occupy high volume about 75–80 wt.% of con-
crete. Thus, aggregates significantly influence the performance of
concrete [2]. In this respect, the usage of FA as aggregate in con-
crete and mortar presents a new approach to consume high
amount of FA.
In this study, the evaluation of fly ash as fine aggregate in mor-
tar is investigated. Thus, flow ability, unit weight, ultrasound pulse
velocity, compressive and flexural strengths, modulus of elasticity,
free and restrained drying shrinkage tests are conducted on mor-
tars produced.
2. Materials and method
CEM II/B-M 32.5 cement was used as hydraulic binder complying with TS EN
197-1 [16]. Cement was obtained from Set cement factory in Eskisehir, Turkey.
Chemical composition of cement is presented in Table 1. The specific gravity, speci-
fic surface area, flexural and compressive strengths were determined corresponding
to TS EN 196-1 [17]. Specific gravity and specific surface of cement used were
2.85 g/cm3 and 3574 cm2/g. Compressive strengths of cement at 2, 7 and 28 days
were 12.8, 26.9 and 39.5 MPa, respectively.
Modified polycarboxylate based high-rate water-reducing superplasticizer (SP)
was used to avoid the possibility of increase in water demand of mortars and to pro-
vide a satisfactory workability. Its density at 20 °C is 1.08–1.1 g/cm3. Its pH and
solid content are 5.7% and 40%. Standard sand (SS) (Rilem-Cembreu) with high silica
content was used as reference sand to produce mortar. The sizes of SS grains remain
below 2 mm.
The FA fine aggregate was provided from Catalagzı Thermal Power Plant in
Zonguldak, Turkey. FA fine aggregate was used to replace standard sand (SS).
Physical and chemical properties of FA are given in Table 2. The FA was used accord-
ing to ASTM C 618 [18]. The FA is classified as class C and class F according to ASTM
C 618. The sum of SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 must be more than 50% for class C and 70%
for class F. FA was classified as F type according to the code because total of major
oxides in FA is 89.59%. The SS is coarser than the FA. About 82% of FA grains are
below the size of 200 lm. 49% of FA grains are below 2 mm. Approximately 1% of
FA grains are finer than 0.08 mm and these finer particles may lead to increment
in water demand. However, round shape of FA grains and usage of superplasticizer
have decreased it. In this study, FA has replaced with the standard sand by weight.
Mixture proportioning was based on the absolute volume method. Six mortars
with 40  40  160 mm size from each mixture were prepared with Portland
cement as binder, standard sand, superplasticizer and fly ash as aggregate. The FA
was replaced with the SS at different concentrations (10–100 wt.% at 10% intervals).
The mix proportions of series are given in Table 3. After keeping demolded mortar
specimens at 20 °C and 90% relative humidity for 24 h. specimens were immersed
into water with 23 ± 2 °C for 7 and 28 days. On fresh mortars, flow table test was
done to determine the effect of the FA on workability according to ASTM C 1437
[19]. Compressive and flexural strength tests were done according to ASTM C 349
[20] and ASTM C 348 [21]. The modulus of elasticity was determined according
to ASTM C 469 [22]. Stress and strain values were calculated using force, shortening
and dimensions of specimen. The r–e curves were plotted using the calculated val-
ues. Modulus of elasticity was calculated by the curves and the initial tangent
method. Ultrasonic pulse velocity was determined according to ASTM C 597 [23].
Unit weight of hardened mortar was determined according to Archimedes principle.
Free drying shrinkage was determined by measuring the lengths changes according
to ASTM C 157 [24] on specimen with 25  25  285 mm.
The restrained drying shrinkage crack formation is provided by attempting ring
test. Three ring type mortar specimens were produced for measuring the restrained
drying shrinkage crack widths. After 24 h, the outer steel ring molds of specimens
were removed. Specimens were subjected to drying at 23 ± 2 °C and 50 ± 4% relative
humidity. Crack developments were observed and measured every day during
60 days. Crack widths were measured using an optical crack microscope every
day. Ring specimens were exposed to drying conditions from only the outer circular
surface of mortar. Top surface was sealed with silicone. So, internal stresses
Table 1
Chemical composition of cement (wt.%).
SiO2 31.53
Al2O3 7.06
Fe2O3 3.29
CaO 48.89
MgO 1.46
SO3 2.01
Free Cl 0.27
Loss on ignition 4.55
784 T. Bilir et al. / Construction and Building Materials 93 (2015) 782–789

Table 2
Properties of fly ash used as fine aggregate.

Chemical composition wt% Physical properties Value

3
SiO2 58.69 Specific gravity (g/cm ) 1.80
Al2O3 25.10 Loose unit weight (kg/dm3) 0.87
Fe2O3 5.80 Dense unit weight (kg/dm3) 1.11
CaO 1.49 200 lm sieve remaining (wt.%) 12.7
K2O 4.04 90 lm sieve remaining (wt.%) 34.8
Na2O 0.59 45 lm sieve remaining (wt.%) 49.7
MgO 2.22
SO3 0.12
Free Cl 1.28

occurred were not uniform due the non-uniform stress distribution by inner steel
ring additional to uniform stress distribution. Ring specimen is shown in Fig. 1. If
Fig. 1. Ring specimen for restrained drying test.
a cross section has been taken and looked from the side of the ring it is seen that
the ring mortar specimens have the height of 140 mm, the outer diameter of
320 mm and the inner diameter of 250 mm. In this manner, the thickness of the
ring mortar specimen is as 35 mm. Besides, the ring mold also includes an inner Table 4
steel ring at the inner diameter of 200 mm and the outer diameter of 250 mm Flow diameters of mortars with FA fine aggregate and standard sand.
(Inner surface of the mortar ring contact with the outer surface of this steel ring).
FA content (%) Flow diameter (mm) Relative changes (%)
Therefore, it has the thickness of 25 mm and restrains the drying shrinkage of ring
mortar specimen leading to the internal stresses and cracking. 0 194 100
10 191 98.5
20 189 97.4
3. Results and discussion 30 187 96.4
40 184 94.8
50 183 94.3
3.1. Flow table test
60 180 92.8
70 178 91.8
Flow diameters of fresh mortars are presented in Table 4. All 80 175 90.2
mortars were flexible and easy to handle, and were easily com- 90 172 88.7
pacted by hand compaction and easily finished. High water absorp- 100 168 86.6

tion capacity of FA fine aggregate due to its specific surface reduces

flow ability and so workability of mortars. Superplasticizer used
compensates workability loss of mortar. Usage of SP presents
easier compaction and fresh mortar consolidates into mold. It is
attempted to compare mortars incorporating FA to reference spec-
imens by providing sufficient compatibility of mortars.
Additionally, the round shape of FA grains helped this objective
to be achieved. Mortars with FA can be compared to mortars with-
out FA in point of crack widths by disabling other effects of FA.
Flow diameters of mortars range between 168 and 194 mm.
Usage of FA at the rate of 100% instead of sand decreases flow abil-
ity of mortar up to 13.4% which is correspond to 26 mm considered
as negligible. The values in this study are highly sufficient. Many
studies [14,25–27] reported that FA increases workability of
cement based composites when FA is used as supplementary
cementitious material or replacement material with a portion of
cement. However, when FA is used as fine aggregate instead of nat-
ural river sand or crushed sand, FA decreases workability. Formosa
et al. [28] reported that mortars prepared with magnesium
by-products as aggregates with 100 micron had flow ability
between 180 and 200 mm. These flow values are acceptable for
consistency and workability for many applications. Babu and
Babu [29] reported flow ability of mortars containing silica fume
in the range of 47–58 mm which correspond to a slump of about
50–70 mm.
3.2. Unit weight
Unit weight changes of mortars are presented in Fig. 2. The
increment in FA replacement results in reduction of unit weight
when compared to that of reference. The reason of reduction is
specific gravity of FA, 1.80, which is lower than that of the SS
replaced. 28-day unit weights of mortars vary between 1.47 and
2.32 kg/dm3, while those of 7-day change between 1.38 and
2.28 kg/dm3. Relative values to unit weight of control series are
presented in Table 5. Unit weight of the control (0% FA replacement

Table 3
Mixture proportions.

FA content SS (kg/ Cement (kg/ Water (kg/ FA (kg/ SP (kg/

(%) m3) m3) m3) m3) m3)
0 1600 500 250 0 3
10 1440 500 250 160 3
20 1280 500 250 320 3
30 1120 500 250 480 3
40 960 500 250 640 3
50 800 500 250 800 3
60 640 500 250 960 3
70 480 500 250 1120 3
80 320 500 250 1280 3
90 160 500 250 1440 3
100 0 500 250 1600 3
Fig. 2. Unit weights with respect to FA content.
 T. Bilir et al. / Construction and Building Materials 93 (2015) 782–789 785

Table 5
Relative variations of unit weight of mortars.

FS (%) Relative changes at 7 days Relative changes at 28 days

0 100 100
10 93.9 97.0
20 91.2 94.4
30 87.7 89.2
40 85.5 87.9
50 79.8 81.9
60 74.1 76.3
70 68.9 72.8
80 65.4 69.4
90 62.3 65.9
100 58.8 63.4

ratio) decreased to the relative value as 63.4% when FA was

replaced with sand at the ratio of 100%. Therefore, it can be said Fig. 4. Ultrasonic pulse velocities with respect to FA content.
that there is a loss in unit weight up to 39.6%. This reduction is con-
sidered significantly for structural applications and reducing dead
load of structure resulting in a decreased cross sections of struc- Table 6
Relative variations of ultrasound pulse velocity of mortars.
tural elements and a reduction in risk of earthquake damage
[26,30–32]. The ACI [33] classifies lightweight concretes according FS (%) Relative changes at 7 days Relative changes at 28 days
to their unit weights and compressive strengths. Concretes with 0 100 100
unit weight of 16–19, 14–16 and 8–14 kg/dm3 are considered as 10 99.3 98.8
structural, half-structural and isolation concretes, respectively. 20 97.1 97.2
30 96.9 96.0
Structural and half structural concretes are achieved in this study
40 92.4 95.1
for different applications. Also relation between unit weight and 50 91.9 92.1
compressive strength of mortars are presented in Fig. 3. There is 60 90.5 90.4
a linear correlation between them. There is a high correlation, 70 84.0 87.9
R2 = 0.9514 at 7 days and R2 = 0.9102 at 28 days, between unit 80 82.6 83.9
90 80.0 81.1
weight and compressive strength of mortars. As clearly understood 100 78.0 78.7
from here, a high content usage of fly ash will result in reducing
unit weight and compressive strength.
cement based composites have been reported as exponential
relationship.
3.3. Ultrasound pulse velocity
CS ¼ xeyv ð1Þ
Ultrasound pulse velocity results are presented in Fig. 4. The rel-
ative variations of them are given in Table 6. Ultrasound pulse where CS is compressive strength, v is ultrasound pulse velocity and
velocity decreases by exhibiting an approximately linear behavior x and y are empirical constants. The relation between them in this
with the increase in FA in the mixture. Pulse velocity varies study is presented in Fig. 5. As seen clearly from Fig. 5, the coeffi-
between 3.27 and 4.19 km/s for specimens at age of 7 days and cient of correlation for relation between ultrasound pulse velocity
between 3.37 and 4.28 km/s for 28 days. Effect of mortar age on and compressive strength of mortars at 7 and 28 days are 0.9732
ultrasound pulse velocity is significant since strengths of mortars and 0.9571, respectively.
change significantly depending on FA amount in mixture. Ultrasound is affected by the medium in that pulse travels. In
Ultrasound pulse velocity increases with the increment in the this respect, the unit weight of medium is important. Fig. 6 shows
age of specimen. Ultrasonic pulse velocity is used as an indicator the relation between unit weight and ultrasound pulse velocity of
of strength with a high confidence. Studies [34,35] on correlation mortars. As seen from Fig. 6, the increment in unit weight of
between ultrasonic pulse velocity and compressive strength of

Fig. 5. Relation between ultrasound pulse velocity and compressive strength of

Fig. 3. Relation between unit weight and compressive strength of mortars. mortars.
786 T. Bilir et al. / Construction and Building Materials 93 (2015) 782–789

Table 7
Relative variations of flexural strength of mortars.

FS (%) Relative changes at 7 days Relative changes at 28 days

0 100 100
10 81.3 86.1
20 71.3 74.2
30 82.7 88.5
40 79.1 79.6
50 65.3 67.6
60 48.7 54.8
70 45.1 50.5
80 36.0 44.0
90 28.5 33.3
100 24.4 28.1

Fig. 6. Relation between ultrasound pulse velocity and unit weight of mortars.

mortar results in increasing ultrasound pulse velocity since propa-

gation velocity of ultrasonic pulses is quicker in a dense medium.

3.4. Flexural strength

Flexural strengths of mortars at 7 and 28 days are presented in

Fig. 7. Relative variations of flexural strengths of mortars are given
in Table 7. Flexural strength development presents a decreasing
trend with the increment in FA content in the mixture. Relative
reduction is observed up to 75.6% in the content of 100% FA.
Although compressive strength of cement based composites like
mortar and concrete is considered in structural design, the flexural
strengths of them are important in applications such as the design
of highway, airfield slabs and dam [36]. There is a close relation
between flexural strength and compressive strength which is
shown in Fig. 8. As seen from Fig. 8, compressive strength
increases, flexural strength increases but at a decreasing rate. The
correlation between them was R2 = 0.8694 for 7 days and
R2 = 0.9184 for 28 days. Also, age is a factor in relation between
two strengths. The results obtained in this study are in agreement
with the general tendency. Besides, there is a sign of FA’s poz-
zolanic activity as an effect on the flexural strength in Fig. 8. The
pozzolanic effect of FA may have caused to higher flexural
strengths of replacements of 30% and 40% than for 20%. Besides,
this result may also be considered as an indicator of improved
interfacial transition zone for these replacement ratios. For higher
ratios, the amount of Portland cement and thus, the hydration rate
decreases. In this manner, the flexural strengths continue to
decrease for higher replacement ratios.
Fig. 8. Relation between flexural and compressive strength of mortars.
3.5. Compressive strength
Compressive strength is the most important property of con-
crete and mortar since compressive strength presents a general
idea about quality and properties of concrete, and is invariably a
vital element of structural design. Compressive strength results
are presented in Fig. 9. Compressive strength varies between 9.86
and 40.2 MPa for 7 days, and 12.1 and 44.96 MPa for 28 days.
Besides, a similar behavior to flexural strength behavior is seen
for compressive strength results (higher compressive strength
results for 30% and 40% replacement ratios). Likewise, the reason
can be said as the pozzolanic activity and increasing amount of
FA. When FA replaced with sand at the ratio of 100%, compressive
strength decreases 75.5% and 73.1% at 7 and 28 days, respectively
as seen from Table 8. The reason for this reduction may be the

Fig. 7. Flexural strengths with respect to FA content. Fig. 9. Compressive strengths with respect to FA content.
 T. Bilir et al. / Construction and Building Materials 93 (2015) 782–789 787

Table 8
Relative variations of compressive strength of mortars.

FS (%) Relative changes at 7 days Relative changes at 28 days

0 100 100
10 98.3 88.0
20 83.8 97.5
30 81.6 104.0
40 62.5 77.7
50 47.6 66.9
60 45.6 62.6
70 37.2 53.4
80 31.8 44.0
90 27.0 33.8
100 24.5 26.9

decreased unit weight according to ultrasound pulse velocity

obtained. This relation is seen from Fig. 5. As mentioned also above, Fig. 11. Stress–strain curves of mortars.

compressive strength is directly related with unit weight. As seen

from Fig. 3, compressive strength decreases with the decrease in
unit weight. Still, the results obtained shows that FA can be used
at the ratio of 70% replacement with sand according to Turkish
earthquake resistant code, specification for buildings to be built
in seismic zones. According to this code, concrete used for building
has minimum 20 MPa compressive strength. The usage of 70% FA
as aggregates instead of sand presents 24 MPa compressive
strength. A higher usage ratio of FA as fine aggregate instead of
sand is possible for production of cement based brick or isolation
concrete.
3.6. Modulus of elasticity
Elasticity moduli are presented in Fig. 10. Stress–strain plots are
presented in Fig. 11. Elasticity modulus of reference mortars is
60 GPa while elasticity modules of mortars containing FA as fine
aggregates in varying concentrations range between 17 and
37 GPa. Increment in FA ratio reduces the modulus of elasticity.
A decrease at about 41.7% for the content of 10% is obtained.
After then, decreases at about 38.3–71.7% are observed. The mod-
ulus of elasticity is 26 GPa for 100% replacement ratio. The mini-
mum one is at about 17 GPa for the content of 70%. The obtained
results of mortars correspond with their compressive strengths.
The increment in compressive strength presents a high elasticity
modulus. Elasticity modulus, one of the most important properties
of concrete and mortar, affects structural performance and service
life. Elastic modulus is closely related to property of paste, aggre-
gate stiffness. Generally coarse aggregate and content are consid-
ered as responsible for elasticity modulus. But, this study shows
that fine aggregate is effective to adjust elasticity modulus. The
elastic modulus of cement based composites is influenced mainly
by the elastic properties of matrix and fine aggregate. The usage
of FA as fine aggregate in mortar increases strain capacity of mortar
as seen from Fig. 11.
3.7. Free drying shrinkage
Strains due to free drying shrinkage are presented in Fig. 12. The
stress–strain curves were calculated from the applied forces and
deformations which are measured during compression tests. The
length changes of the mortar specimens for all series were mea-
sured every day after measuring the initial length of demolded
mortar specimen. In this way, strains were calculated for each
day. Strains for all mixtures increase by depending on time. The
strain values of mortars including FA at different contents are
higher than that of reference. This can be attributed to the fineness
of FA used as fine aggregate in mixtures. Increment in FA content in
mixture increases water demand of mortars. Free drying shrinkage
is related to the water loss of mortar body. The more FA in the mor-
tar, the more water loss. On the other hand, the free drying shrink-
age of specimens containing the FA content of 50% up to 90%
content. When looked at the relative strain changes of reference
specimens which are not contain FA and specimens containing
100% FA at first reading day, Specimen with 100% FA presents
55% higher strain. This value is 40% at the last reading day. As
understood here, at advancing ages, strain decreases. This can be
attributed to the water loss decreasing.

Fig. 10. Experimental statically modulus of elasticity. Fig. 12. Free drying shrinkage of mortar specimens.
788 T. Bilir et al. / Construction and Building Materials 93 (2015) 782–789
3.8. Drying shrinkage cracks
Variations of crack width are presented in Fig. 13. Crack
occurred at top of outer surface of specimen into its bottom.
Crack width increases with time advancing. As seen from Fig. 13,
FA delays the crack formation. Crack width development changes
depending on FA content. Crack with development of reference
specimen stops at 27 days. For specimens containing FA, it is
between 31 and 41 days depending on FA content in the mixture.
Crack widths can be related with free drying shrinkage and water
loss. Decreases in crack widths are observed for series containing
FA as fine aggregate up to 70%. Relative increment is in question
for the series containing higher contents than 70%. Series contain-
ing between 70% and 100% content of FA are very close to each
other.
Initial cracks measured at days of 14, 15, 20, 23, 24, 27, 29, 30,
31 and 33 for 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90% and
100% FA, respectively. Although crack widths stops between 27
and 41 days, crack developments at first week of specimen produc-
tion. Development after ultimate value is not significant due to
lower acceleration. Acceleration of increase in crack widths is
lower for specimens containing higher FA. Use of FA in mortars
reduces cracking due to drying shrinkage. Crack occurrence is
delayed. And crack widths develop slowly and become lower with
increment in FA ratio in mixture.
4. Conclusions
The key findings of the using FA as fine aggregate in mortar are
as follows:
The usage of FA as fine aggregate in the mixture reduces work-
ability. When it is used at the ratio of 100%, workability loss is
13.4%. Still it has enough workability. Unit weights of hardened
mortars are in the range of 2.32–1.47 kg/dm3 at 28 days. FA usage
significantly reduces unit weight which is desirable in point of
reducing cross sections of structural elements and dead load.
Reducing dead load is very important to lightening the earthquake
damage and saving life. Weight loss is 36.6% when FA is used at the
ratio of 100%. Ultrasound pulse velocity decreases depending on FA
content up to 21.3% which is corresponding to 0.91 km/s when FA
is used at 100%. Compressive strength is the most important char-
acteristic. FA reduces compressive strength up to 73.1%.
Compressive strengths of mortars with FA range of 39.55–
12.1 MPa at 28 days. For structural application, 20 MPa is required.
In this respect, 70% replacement ratio is allowed. 70% replacement
ratio is a high ratio to consume this waste when mortar and con-
crete production is considered annually worldwide. There is a close
Fig. 13. Crack widths obtained from ring test.
relation between compressive strength and flexural strength of
cement based materials. Flexural strength behavior of mortars
with FA presents the same trend observed on compressive strength
of mortars with FA. Although FA decreases elasticity modulus, FA
increases strain capacity of mortar. Free drying shrinkage increases
with increment in FA. But, crack width shows a decreasing trend.
And crack formation is delayed.
Future work is planned using fly ash as fine aggregate in con-
ventional concrete and self-compacting concrete in order to
increase the consumption of fly ash waste.
References
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