Hidden History Sustainable Design

Discovery Guides

H idden H istories: the story of sustainable design
By Alison Knight
(YHU\ SURGXFW WKDW HQWHUV RXU OLYHV KDV ZKDW WKH\ FDOO D µKLGGHQ KLVWRU\¶ ± an
undocumented inventory of wasted or lost materials used in its production, trans-
port, use, and disposal
±Paul Hawkens, Amory B. Lovins, and L. Hunter Lovins1
Introduction
0DQ\RIXVWRGD\DUHVRIDUUHPRYHGIURPWKHWKLQJVZHFRQVXPHZHGRQ¶WNQRZZKHUHWKH\
come from or who made or designed them. The concept of hidden histories requires us to
WKLQNDERXWWKHWKLQJVZHEX\DQGDVNTXHVWLRQVOLNH³+RZPXFKHQHUJ\ZDVXVHGWR make
WKLV"´ DQG ³:KHUH ZDV LW SURGXFHG"´ One person who decided to find out was economist
Pietra Rivoli. After she was challenged by an anti-
globalL]DWLRQSURWHVWRUZLWKWKHZRUGV³:KRPDGH\RXU
T-VKLUW"´she bought a shirt in Fort Lauderdale, Florida,
USA and traced its hidden history to find that the cotton
was grown in Texas, USA and then exported and made
into a shirt in Shanghai in China by a woman earning a
hundred dollars a month. It was then exported back to
the high street shop in Florida where Rivoli bought it.2
Many of the products we buy have similar stories to
tell. Edwin Datschefski reports WKDW ³PRVW HQYLURQ-
mental problems are caused by unintentional side ef-
fects of the manufacture, use, and disposal of products.
For example, according to one source, over 30 tonnes
of waste are produced for every one tonne of product
that reaches the consumer and then 98 percent of those
SURGXFWV DUH WKURZQ DZD\ ZLWKLQ VL[ PRQWKV´3 If we

knew the histories behind the products we buy perhaps Dumpster
we would put more consideration into our choices. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste
%XWLWGRHVQ¶WKDYHWREHOLNHWKDW± ZHGRQ¶WKDYHWRH[SORLWSHRSOHDQGQDWXUDOUHVRXUFHVMXVW
to produce a T-shirt or a car or a packet of breakfast cereal. Now the stories are starting to
change and designers are among the people involved in that change. For too long design has
been seen as part of the commercial process of making goods more attractive to consumers
by adding decoration, luring them to make a purchase. However, John Thackara, director of
Doors of Perception, FODULILHV WKH VLWXDWLRQ ³$OWKRXJK PDQ\ SHRSOH SHUFHLYH GHVLJQ WR EH
about appearances, design is not just about the way things look. Design is also about the way
things are used; how they are committed to the world, and the way they are proGXFHG´4 De-
sign is about function as well as form.

©2009 ProQuest Released June 2009
1

Knight: Hidden Histories

How is design changing? Well, just imagine yourself getting up
tomorrow morning: having breakfast and getting ready for the day
DKHDGEXWLWLVQ¶WDGD\OLNHWRGD\LWLVDGD\LQDWRWDOO\VXVWDLQDEOH
world. This is the scenario Datschefski presents in his book The Total
Beauty of Sustainable Products. He begins by asking what a typical
day would look like in a sustainable world and uses a storytelling
technique to create a vision of the future hinting at what we might
wear, eat and do. The future from his point of view is one of beauty, The Recycling symbol
http://en.wikipedia.or
something we would like to aspire to and by accepting that life view g/wiki/Recycling
we are moving towards the ethos of sustainable design.5 What does
this involve? It is a radical new approach to design, a move from things to systems and ser-
YLFHVGHVLJQLQJIRUSHRSOHV¶QHHGV,WLVDSURFHVVWKDWZLOOUHGHVLJQWKHZD\ZHZLOOOLYHLQ
the future. This approach is still in its infancy. It has been a difficult birth, but an exciting
one, a necessary one; this is the story of that birth.
T hree waves in defining sustainable design
In 1972 designer and educator Victor Papanek criticized the design profession for creating
products wasteful of environmental resources and submitting to consumerism. He challenged
designers to produce more ethical products, low technology for people in developing coun-
tries, help for people with disabilities, and products not harmful to the environment. He called
for a new design culture based on social responsibility. His criticism came at a time that
Tracy Bhamra and Vicky Lofthouse refer to as the first of three waves in the evolution of the
concept of sustainability.6
The first wave they identify started in the 1960s and 1970s. Growing public concern for the
environment had been aroused by Rachel CDUVRQ¶V ERRN Silent Spring, published in 1962,
highlighting the dangers of pesticides to both eco-
systems and humankind. In 1968 scientist James
Lovelock wrote his Gaia hypothesis that the earth
is a self-regulating organism which can keep its
climate and chemistry at a state suitable for life.
In the same year Bill Andes on the Apollo 8 mis-
sion gave us the Earth Rise photograph, providing
us with a view we had never seen before of our
planet from space. A year later the environmental
group Friends of the Earth was formed. Then in
early 1970 Greenpeace was founded. At around
the same time the first energy crisis occurred,
alerting us to the dangers of relying on fossil fuels
for our existence. The hippie generation began to
question conventional design as being harmful to
Sustainable design copies and sustains the
HDUWK¶VHFRV\VWHPV the planet. They were concerned with finding
http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/B different ways of doing and making things and
lueMarble/
consulted the Whole Earth Catalog on issues of
self sufficiency and alternative technology. It was at this time that Victor Papanek and a small
number of other pioneers in the design world started to examine ways of making products

ProQuest Discovery Guides
http://www.csa.com/discoveryguides/discoveryguides-main.php Released June 2009
2


that used less energy and made use of recycled materials. Papanek did a lot of work for
81(6&2DQGGHVLJQHGPDQ\VLPSOH³JDGJHWV´IRUSHRSOHLQWKHGHYHORSLQJZRUOG2QHitem
he and one of his students designed was a radio made from one transistor and an energy
source consisting of paraffin wax and a wick housed in a recycled juice can. The design was
very successful for its purpose but invited criticism from the design world at the time because
RILWV³XJO\´DSSHDUDQFH3DSDQHNUHDOL]HWKHLPSRUWDQFHRIFXOWXUDODVSHFWVLQGHVLJQ+HKDG
QRWLPSRVHGKLVLGHDVRI³JRRGWDVWH´RQWKHDSSHDUDQFHRIWKHUDGLRs because he believed the
Indonesian people would want to decorate them to their own needs.7 (For a chart outlining a
brief history of environmental politics and theories in relation to graphic design see Gerber,
2008.)8
The second wave en route to sustainability occurred

in the 1980s and 1990s. A wave of environmental cri-
ses, including Bhopal and Chernobyl, resulted in in-
creased environmental and safety legislation being
introduced. The public was becoming more environ-
mentally aware and designers had started to produce
³HQYLURQPHQWDOO\ IULHQGO\´ JUHHQ SURGXFWV WKRXJK
not all lived up to their names. The Green Consumer
Guide was published in 1988 and proved a useful re-
source for concerned citizens, protecting them from
exploitation by some retailers who advertised their
products as being greener than they actually were, i.e.
making false or distorted claims or Greenwashing. So
far the terms Green design and eco-design had existed
almost alongside each other; green design had its
roots in green politics, but as the term became out-

dated eco-design took over. Green design described a
The Green Consumer Guide process of dealing with individual environmental im-
http://cgi.ebay.com.my/ws/eBayISAPI.dll
?ViewItem&item=350111918850&indexU
pacts, eco-design dealt with environmental impacts
RL= RYHUDSURGXFW¶VHQWLUHOLIHVSDQIURPFUDGOHWRJUDYH
Taking life-cycle models from ecology, eco-design
was concerned with environmental impacts from the conception of the project, when purchas-
ing raw materials, during production, manufacture and use and finally disposal at the end of
WKHSURGXFW¶VOLIH
The third wave was prompted by the publication, in 1987, of the Brundtland Report, our
Common Future, produced by the World Commission on Environment and Development,
which LQWURGXFHGWKHWHUP³VXVWDLQDEOHGHYHORSPHQW´ ³GHYHORSPHQWWKDWPHHWVWKHQHHGVRI
WKHSUHVHQWZLWKRXWFRPSURPLVLQJWKHDELOLW\RIIXWXUHJHQHUDWLRQVWRPHHWWKHLURZQQHHGV´
The term was much broader than that previously used, introducing a global perspective to the
consumption of energy and resources. The agenda now was concerned with moving from a
product-based level towards looking at systems and services. Instead of just being concerned
with environmental impacts, as was the case with green design and eco-design, sustainable
design includes the impact on people and is involved with social and ethical constraints.
Designers are now being asked to think about both the global and local effects of their ac-
tions. We live in an unequal world; this is exemplified by the fact that twenty percent of the

3


ZRUOG¶VSRSXODWLRQFRQVXPHVHLJKW\SHUFHQWRIWKHZRUOG¶VUHVRXUFHV7KHDLPRIWKHHPHUJ-
ing sustainable design is to live within our ecological means not only on an environmental
level but socially and ethically also.
To summarize: the first wave arose due to a growing awareness of environmental problems
leading to the emergence of environmental action groups. The second wave occurred when
consumers started to demand eco-friendly products as a result of concerns over further
environmental crises. The third wave is about the growing realization that the actions we
have taken so far are not sufficient to halt the impending crises of global warming and cli-
mate change. A small proportion RIWKHZRUOG¶VSRSXODWLRQLVWKUHDWHQLQJWKHSODQHW¶VDELOLW\
to sustain life by over consumption of its resources. To be able to meet the challenges this
brings, far more radical changes are needed. What might these be? Pauline Madge tells us
that sustainDEOH GHVLJQ LV ³D EURDGHU ORQJ-term vision of eco-GHVLJQ´ DQG WKDW LW FDQ PHDQ
analyzing and changing the systems in which we make, use and dispose of products.9 Now
the emphasis is on products, services and systems that meet human needs. The focus on needs
leads to design theory and thinking based on social and cultural change. To be able to meet
the challenge of sustainable product design, Victor Margolin says there must be a shift in de-
sign culture from designing objects to returning to design¶s original concept: that of problem
solving and thereby adding to human well-being.10
So the transition from green design to eco-design to sustainable design can be seen as one of
³EURDGHQLQJRIVFRSHLQ WKHRU\ DQGSUDFWLFH´DV GHVLJQHUVEHFRPHDZDUHRIHQYLURQPHQWDO
issues and how to deal with them. This is reflected in current events; in 1997 the Kyoto
Protocol was introduced, a document setting goals for the reduction of greenhouse gas emis-
sions. In 2002 the second World Summit on Sustainable Development was held. Although
decisions were made on a number of issues, it was agreed that progress towards sustainable
development was slower than anticipated. However, designers were beginning to rise to the
challenges. In 2005 John Thackara called for a change in design culture in his book In the
Bubble, in the same year that the Kyoto Protocol was ratified. One of the main problems
designers have had to face is where to start. The Kyoto Protocol provides some clues.
The Kyoto report highlights six themes seen as problem areas suitable for design activity:
³TXDOity of life, efficient use of natural resources, protecting the global commons, managing
human settlements, the use of chemicals and the management of human and industrial waste,
DQGIRVWHULQJVXVWDLQDEOHHFRQRPLFJURZWKRQDJOREDOVFDOH´11 At last designers were being
given a list of issues to address.
Problems associated with the concept of sustainable design
The concept of sustainable design has now been defined and areas of concern that designers
can work on have been identified. However, many designers still find sustainable design a
difficult concept to understand fully, and even more difficult to accept. Designers have be-
come used to designing things; the shift to designing systems and services is not so easy to
grasp. Papanek would say that it is going back to the roots of design, which started as a sys-
tem of problem solving. That is exactly what is required now for sustainable design, so we
have gone full circle. In the second edition of his book Design for the Real World Papanek
GHILQHVGHVLJQDV³WKHFRQVFLRXVDQGLQWXLWLYHHIIRUWWRLPSRVHPHDQLQJIXORUGHU´12

4


Many designers have found

the idea of sustainable design
³WRR hard,´ both emotionally
and on a pragmatic level. Re-
peatedly telling people about
the dangers of carbon and
other greenhouse gases leading
to climate change either bores
them or frightens them so
much they are unable to act,
they feel powerless. Thackara
VD\V ³HFRJXLOW GRHVQ¶W VHOO
newspapers, and being told
that a planet-wide calamity is

A Duke University student demonstrates her group's pedal-powered RQH¶VIDXOWLVDVSOHQGLGUHDVRQ
mechanical aerator, National Sustainable Design Expo, 2007 for turning straight to the
Photo by Alex Wong/Getty Images
VSRUWV SDJHV´13 But what is
needed is action. Writing for a special supplement on sustainable design for Design Week,
&ODUH%UDVVVWDWHV³6RPHWLPHVWKH6-word feels like a challenge just too vast for designers to
take on. If clients are putting sustainability into the brief, it is often simply an attempt to be
VHHQ WR EH JUHHQ´ 6KH JRHV RQ WR PHQWLRQ VRPH VXVWDLQDEOH GHsign problems, which range
from the choice of materials and processes to social issues arising from the products
themselves. Finally she challenges designers to be more entrepreneurial in their practices to
find new solutions to WRGD\¶V problems.14 Philosopher Tony Fry says that designing for
sustainment requires a whole new way of thinking. Fry realizes that for this to happen the
problems must be clearly identified and defined so that solutions can be found.15 This
emphasizes the need for leadership and creativity. As designer and television presenter Kevin
McCloud points out in an interview with Andrew Simns: ³6RZHDUHWKHSUREOHPZHDUHWKH
patient and the victim, we are the potential solution. And the solutions, I think, as they come,
when they come, will be creative and breathtaking, and not at all to do with technology.
Some of them will be cultural change and the pursuit of different happinesses and joys. I look
for that kind of re-DWWUDFWLRQRIGHOLJKW,ISHRSOHDUHKDSSLHUWKH\ZDQWOHVV´16
This is a concept put forward by many futurists, amongst them John Ehrenfeld, who says that
OLIHVKRXOGEHPRUHWKDQMXVWPHUHVXUYLYDO+HVHHVVXVWDLQDELOLW\DV³WKHSRVVLELOLW\WKDWKX-
PDQVDQGRWKHUOLIHZLOOIORXULVKRQWKHHDUWKIRUHYHU´17 How will we achieve this? Ehrenfeld
says that the emergent field of industrial ecology can guide us: ³,QGXVWULDOHFRORJ\VXJJHVWV
that societies built around principles derived from ecosystem properties and dynamics might
be sustainable in the same sense WKDWHFRV\VWHPVDUH´18 Almost all materials in an ecosystem
are recycled within the system; there is little waste. This recycling is possible because of the
relationships between the organisms within the ecosystem; they live almost entirely in a
symbiotic relationship. There is competition in the ecosystem but modern human societies, by
comparison, exist in an almost exclusive world of competitive markets where companies and
individuals compete against each other with their products and services. According to
Ehrenfeld, LQGXVWULDO HFRORJ\ SURYLGHV XV ZLWK D ³QHZ VHW RI EHOLHIV DQG QRUPV´ based on
ecosystems and in tune with sustainability.19 By embracing a more holistic relationship with

5


our environment than we do at present we can become more interconnected with it and other
SHRSOH7KDWLQLWVHOIZLOOOHDGWRIHHOLQJVRIIORXULVKLQJLHWKH³JRRGOLIH´
The principles of industrial ecology can guide us in our use of natural resources when design-
ing goods and services. This can lead to more sustainable design practices. This Guide looks
at some of the applications that have emerged. It is not an exhaustive list, merely a start.
Returning to nature for answers to design problems is not a new concept. William Morris in
the UK and Richard Buckminster Fuller in the USA were both advocates of considering the
environment in design.20 One of the main premises of industrial ecology is to reduce waste.
Some examples to be considered are based on mimicking nature to see how natural organisms
and systems are able to avoid waste by their design (biomimicry), their systems (Life cycle
approach, Cradle to Cradle design and the Transition initiative movement) and by
dematerialization (moving from products to services).
Return to Nature
Biomimicry/biomimetics/bionics
A bird is an instrument working according to m athematical law, which instrument is within

the capacity of man to reproduce with all its movements.
±Leonardo Da Vinci, 1511, cited21
Humans have for centuries looked

to nature for examples of how to im-
prove the objects they design. Many
terms have been used to describe the
processes used to do this; amongst
them the most common are biomim-
icry, biomimetics and bionics.

Leonardo Da Vinci based many designs on birds
http://www.ushpa.aero/aboutus.asp

6


7KH ZRUG ³ELRQLFV´ ZDV FRQFHLYHG E\ 'U -DFN ( 6WHHOH RI WKH 86 $LU )RUFH DQG PDGH
SXEOLFDWDVFLHQWLILFPHHWLQJLQ%LRQLFVPHDQV³WKHXVHRIELRORJLFDOSURWRW\SHVIRUWKH
design of man-made synthetic systems. To put it in simpler language: to study basic
principles in nature and emerge with applications of principles and processes to the needs of
PDQNLQG´22 When he wrote this in 1971 Papanek noted
WKDW ³YLUWXDOO\ QRWKLQJ KDV EHHQ ZULWWHQ LQ WKH DUHD RI
ELRQLFV´23 However he does list a number of examples
RI ELRQLFV LQFOXGLQJ *HQHUDO (OHFWULF¶V Sidewinder, a
heat-seeking missile based on the temperature sensing
organs found in rattlesnakes used to detect prey, and also
radar and sonar systems which mimic the echo-location
device used by bats. Bats can navigate entirely by sound.
They emit high-pitched sounds between ten and twenty
times a second that bounce off objects in their path and
are picked up by their extraordinarily sensitive ears. The
faster the sound returns the nearer the object is to them,
a system allowing them to find their way in pitch dark
unhindered. Scientists have used echo-location to find
objects under water, i.e. sonar systems, and to locate Microscope image of a new adhesive
objects in the air, i.e. radar. In the case of sonar, for material inspired by the soles of
insects' feet
example, the sound waves hitting the sea bed or other http://www.danshope.com/news/show
objects produce echoes which are picked up by article.php?article_id=93
machines, and the time taken for the sound to bounce back is recorded, allowing the distance
to the bottom of the ocean to be calculated. The same principle has been used to design a
walking cane for people with sight problems. In this case laser-beams are sent out of the cane
at three different heights to detect objects in the path of the walker. Depending on the height
of the object a different sound is emitted.24
7KHWHUP³ELRPLPHWLFV´ZDVFRLQHGE\2WWR+6FKPLWWLQIURP bios, meaning life, and

mimesis, meaning to imitate.25 The term has been used mainly in science and engineering,
whereas the term bionics comes from biology and has more recently been used in the world
of medicine where its principles have been used to assist with the production of replacement
organs and other body parts. The distinction between the terms biomimetics and biomimicry
at first appears difficult as many examples used are the same; however, biomimicry has been
put forward as a method of working towards sustainment.
Janine Benyus has written extensively on the topic of ³biomimicry,´ which she defines as
³LQQRYDWLRQ LQVSLUHGE\ QDWXUH.´26 6KHVWDWHVWKDW³%LRPLPLFU\LV WKHLGHDWKDWVWXG\LQJWKH
models, systems, processes and elements of nature will offer sustainable design solutions to
KXPDQSUREOHPV´27 Bionics, biomimetics and biomimicry all follow nature for design ideas.
Benyus uses biomimicry to promote the concept of learning from nature as a possible
PHWKRGRORJ\ IRU VXVWDLQDEOH GHVLJQ ³7R EH WUXO\ VXVWDLQDEOH´ %HQ\XV H[SODLQV ³GHVLJQV
have to both mimic biological material-HIILFLHQW IRUPV DQG IROORZ QDWXUH¶V PDQXIDFWXULQJ
rules.´28 %\FRS\LQJQDWXUH¶VPHWKRGVRIPDQXIDFWXUHLWLVH[SHFWHGWKDWOHVVHQHUJ\ZLOOEH
used.

7


Benyus asks us to treat nature as ³Model 0HDVXUH DQG 0HQWRU´ :H WDNH PRGHOV IURP
nature, for example a leaf and how it photosynthesizes, to solve a human problem in
producing the solar cell. As a measure we look to nature to see what is possible and what
works; for example spider silk is stronger than steel. And when looking at nature as a Mentor
we accept it as a teacher and learn from it. There are different levels that we can engage with
biomimicry. These are form or function (for example: Velcro mimicking burrs on fur), the
process level (as with coating manufacture resembling seashell growth) and also the systems
level, closed-loop lifecycles where outputs and by-products become inputs for something
HOVH7KLVKDVEHHQFDOOHG³ZDVWHHTXDOVIRRG´E\ Cradle to Cradle authors McDonough and
Braungart and will be examined more closely later on in this Guide.
One of the examples of biomimicry that Benyus mentions frequently is that of trying to
fathom the secrets of spider silk. Christopher Viney is one of many scientists attempting to
uncover this mystery. He has been studying the Golden Orb Weaver Spider (Nephilia
Clavipes) which produces six
different types of silk for a number
of purposes from snaring pray to
attracting members of the opposite
sex. It turns out that the spider can
manufacture a silk that is a
composite, i.e. two types of material
LQRQH$V%HQ\XVVD\V³&RPSDUHG
ounce for ounce with steel, dragline
silk is five times stronger´29 The
silk has a unique molecular structure
composed of long amino acid chains
forming protein crystals; these are
embedded in a rubbery matrix of Spider webs are the inspiration for numerous materials
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spider_web
organic polymer. The rubbery
constituent makes the silk elastic so it can catch insects that fly into it without breaking. This
PDWHULDOLVSURGXFHGLQVLGHWKHVSLGHU¶VERG\E\VSHFLDOJODQGVDQGLVWKHQVTXHH]HGWKURXJK
a series of nozzles (spinnerets DW WKH UHDU RI WKH VSLGHU¶V DEGRPHQ ,W LV QRW HQWLUHO\ FOHDU
what happens in the nozzles as a soluble liquid protein enters the nozzle and what emerges is
an insoluble fiber. What the spider is doing is making a fiber that is stronger than Kevlar, the
material used in bullet proof vests, and it is doing it at body temperature. For humans to make
Kevlar, high temperatures and sulfuric acid are involved producing toxic byproducts along
the way. If this mystery can be solved a number of manufacturing processes can be improved
saving energy and waste products as well as creating a wealth of new product possibilities.
The example of spider silk research highlights the benefits, in terms of saving energy and
minimizing waste, that can be obtained by understanding natural processes. In this way it is
helpful to examine the manufacturing process of a product itself from an industrial ecology
perspective, i.e. to look at the system of production as a whole. In this way the process of the
SURGXFW¶VLQFHSWLRQSURGXFWLRQDQGXVHDQGILQDOO\LWVHQGRIOLIHDUHUHJDUGHGDVLWVOLIHF\FOH

8


Lifecycle approach
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) started in the 1960s, with the earliest documented example
DWWULEXWHG WR &RFD &ROD FRPSDULQJ WKH LPSDFWV RI D JODVV ERWWOH DQG D FDQ ³/&$ LV
technically defined as an investigation and valuation of the environmental impacts of a
product oUVHUYLFHWKDWLVFDXVHGRUQHFHVVLWDWHGE\LWVH[LVWHQFH´30
We will now return to the example of the T-shirt mentioned at the beginning of this Guide
and the discovery that economist Pietra Rivoli made about the cotton T-shirt. We will

Life Cycle Assessment examines the total environmental impact of a product
http://www.scienceinthebox.com/en_UK/sustainability/lifecycleassessment_en.html
examine both the environmental impacts of cotton and the human costs. The USA is a large
cotton producer but not a cotton manufacturer; it exports most of its cotton because it does
not have a cheap labor force available to turn it into cloth economically. That is why the
cotton for the T-shirt bought by Rivoli went to China to be processed and was then imported
back into the USA. The USA is able to grow and sell cotton competitively because the
government pays its farmers huge subsidies to do so. This in turn keeps the world price of
cotton down so that farmers in developing countries are only able to get a low price for their
cotton even though they depend on the crop for survival. To put this in perspective: ³7KH
annual US cotton subsidy is roughly three times greater than the amount the US Agency for
International Development gave Africa in aid in 2004.´31 The Environmental Justice
Foundation has noted other social effects of global cotton production including the use of
child labor in Uzbekistan and the toxic effects on humans due to the use of pesticides.
8]EHNLVWDQ LV WKH ZRUOG¶V VHFRQG ELJJest exporter of cotton and it is here that children of
seven years old have been reported harvesting the cotton crop. Workers have also been
affected by toxic chemicals used in growing cotton resulting in an estimated 1 million to 5
million cases of pesticide poisoning each year.32
A life cycle analysis comparing cotton and polyester cloth is interesting as it shows that
cotton is not as environmentally friendly a fabric as retailers would have us believe. A case
study of the two fibers over a lifetime of two years shows the following results for one
kilogram of fabric.33 The amount of energy use to produce the polyester fabric was 171.5

9


mega Joules compared to 140.1 mega Joules for cotton. Oil and gas usage for polyester fabric
production was 1.5kg compared to zero for cotton as it grows naturally. However, cotton uses
457g of fertilizers and 16g of pesticides to facilitate growth (unless it is organic cotton which
uses neither of these) compared to zero for polyester. Emissions produced in polyester
production account for 3.8kg of carbon dioxide and 0.2g of sulfur dioxide compared to 5.3kg
carbon dioxide and 4g sulfur for cotton. Finally, polyester fabric production uses 1,900 liters
of water compared to 26,700 liters for cotton production, most of which is for irrigation.
It is difficult making true comparisons between different materials and products; however,
the results above show that organic cotton which does not use fertilizers or pesticides should
produce less greenhouse gases than non-organic cotton. One study shows that an organic T-
shirt produced 2.4kg of greenhouse gases over its product life cycle. Continental Clothing Co.
/WGDSLORWSDUWQHUZLWKWKH&DUERQ7UXVW¶VSURGXFWIRRWSULQWLQJDQGODEHOLQJLQLWLDWLYHKDs
released the results of a study into the life cycle greenhouse emissions of their organic cotton
T-shirts, sweatshirts and tote bags. The results indicated that use of renewable energy and
low-impact techniques of manufacture could reduce emissions significantly. Other factors
affecting the carbon footprint included the number of colors added to the print design, ocean
and land transport, packaging, and finally washing, drying and ironing by consumers.34
In producing this case study the Continental Clothing Co. Ltd used a methodology from BSI
PAS 2050:2008 the Specification for the assessment of the life cycle greenhouse gas
emissions of goods and services standard. Another tool available to designers and product
manufacturers is the Cradle to Cradle protocol.
Cradle to Cradle protocol: a systems approach
Cradle to Cradle (C2C) design raises awareness of lifecycle design. It is a set of guidelines
for voluntary certification of sustainable products. It is based on the idea that everything we
own should be capable of being either recycled, remade, or buried in the ground to compost.
Chemist Michael Braungart and architect William

McDonough have collaborated to write the book Cradle to
Cradle: Re-making the Way We Make Things. The book
sets out the thinking behind what they call a design
paradigm based on principles and an understanding of the
pursuit of value: ³$WDIXQGDPHQWDOOHYHOWKHQHZSDUDGLJP
proposes that human design can learn from nature to be
HIIHFWLYHVDIHHQULFKLQJDQGGHOLJKWIXO´35
Throughout the book Cradle to Cradle we are challenged

with new concepts ± for LQVWDQFH ³:DVWH HTXDOV IRRG,´
where all materials can be seen as nutrients. We are asked
to move from being less bad to how to do most good. And

instead of being eco-efficient (doing more with less) we are
http://www.mcdonough.com/cra asked to be eco-effective (am I doing the right thing to be
dle_to_cradle.htm
100 percent good?).

10


Previous examples of sustainable designs have focused on minimizing environmental
damage; however, C2C argues that this does not stop damage, all it does is destroy the
HQYLURQPHQW D ³ELW OHVV´ :KDW && DGYRFDWHV LV WR EHFRPH PRUH HIIHFWLYH UDWKHU WKDQ
efficient. C2C takes the whole system view that outputs (waste) from one system can become
inputs (nutrients) for another product or process in a cyclic system, which is what happens in
nature. In C2C two forms of nutrient are identified: the biological nutrient cycle and the
technical nutrient cycle. The biological nutrient refers to products that are designed to return
to the biological cycle and can be composted. A technical nutrient is a product designed to go
back into the technical cycle; for example it may be disassembled and the parts re-used.
Shaw Carpets use C2C principles in their manufacturing processes. When customers want a
new carpet they usually throw away the old one, which may be a mix of toxic chemicals
bound for the landfill. With C2C this is not the case. Shaw Carpets have adopted C2C
principles and many of its carpets are made from 100 percent recycled materials. It has
established a collection network enabling the company to collect up to 300 million pounds of
carpet waste every year from customers which is then reused (i.e. become nutrients) in new
carpet manufacture.36
Herman Miller is another company that uses C2Cguidelines. In 2003 they launched their
Mirra Chair constructed from steel, plastic, aluminum, foam and textile, all of which is 96
percent recyclable at the end of the FKDLU¶VOLIH. Even the packaging material used in delivery
of the product is recycled and the production line for the chair uses renewable energy: both
wind turbines and gas from a landfill.37
Herman Miller is concerned not only for the environment but also for its employees.
%UDXQJDUWDQG0F'RQRXJKGHVLJQHGWKHRIILFHVSDFHIRU+HUPDQ0LOOHUWR³JLYHworkers the
IHHOLQJ WKDW WKH\¶G VSHQW WKH GD\ RXWGRRUV.´ 7R DFKLHYH WKLV WKH\ LQFOXGHG VN\OLJKWV RYHU
every work station and made sure workers had a view outside, not something typical of a
factory. The design was so successful that a number of workers who left for higher wages in a
QHDUE\IDFWRU\UHWXUQHGEHFDXVHWKH\VDLGWKH\FRXOGQ¶WZRUN³LQWKHGDUN.´8
We have seen the way that mimicking the lifecycle of an ecosystem can assist in the design
of sustainable manufacturing processes; we shall now look at how such an approach can
provide a model for sustainable living using the transition town movement as an example.
The transition initiative movement
The transition initiative movement is a massive social experiment in community design. The
idea is to design and plan a way of living according to the concept of permaculture, ³DGHVLJQ
philosophy based on ecological principles and ethics for working with nature in building sys-
WHPVWRVXSSRUWKXPDQH[LVWHQFH´39 Permaculture was conceived by ecologists Bill Mollison
and David Holmgren in the 1970s in Australia as a method of agriculture and more recently
its principles have been adopted to become a model for building, designing and living
sustainably within a local community. Essentially the aim of the transition movement is to
equip communities with the ability to live independently within their local limits, and in do-
ing so to prepare themselves against the challenges of climate change and also reduce their
dependence on oil. The Transition movement started as a vision of a permaculture lecturer,

11


Rob Hopkins, and one of his students. Hopkins realized that communities were becoming
concerned about the dangers of climate change and oil dependency, and even more concerned
by the lack of action by national and local governments. As a result he has given them a tool
to wean themselves off oil. Oil dependency is linked to climate change, as most modern
manufacturing processes depend on it
either as an ingredient in their materi-
als or as an energy source in their
production processes. Cheap oil
sources are running out; we are
steadily reaching a period termed
peak oil. In the future it will take
more energy to extract the oil that is
left, therefore increasing the amount
of greenhouse gases in the atmos-
phere. Hopkins¶ Energy Descent Ac-
tion Plan gives communities a blue-
print in how to survive and thrive in
a future with less oil, based on

An example of permaculture using animals and gardens localization, motivation to change
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permaculture and re-skilling.40
3DUW RI +RSNLQV¶V YLVLRQ EHFDPH D UHDOLW\ LQ ZKHQ 7RWQHV LQ 'HYRQ 8. EHFDPH WKH
ZRUOG¶V ILUVW WUDQVLWLRQ LQLWLDWLYH WRZQ 7KH VWDUWXS ZDV PRGHVW ZLWK LQLWLDWLYHV LQYROYLQJ D
garden-share scheme, the Totnes Food Guide advertising where to buy local produce, a re-
skilling project giving guidance on re-cycling and other issues, and the introduction of a local
currency, the Totnes Pound. By introducing their own currency the town ensures that money
stays within the community. In the space of two years another 700 towns, cities and villages
across the globe from Australia to the USA have taken up this initiative and are working their
way towards sustainability. The transition movement is an example of what Boehnert calls
design activism: design led by non-designers. She asks designers to take notice.41 The need
for sustainable design affects whole communities and emphasizes the requirement for new
design thinking. It also highlights the need for collaboration between communities and
designers.
One example of such a partnership is that between the UK Design Council and the regional
development agency One North East, which came together for a year-long festival called
Designs for the Time 2007 (Dott 07). 7KHIHVWLYDOH[SORUHGWKHTXHVWLRQ³:KRGHVLJQV\RXU
OLIH"´DQGHQFRXUDJHGORFDOSHRSOHDQGRUJDQL]DWLRQV to think about ways they could organize
their lives in a more sustainable way. John Thackara was the program director and for him
the most interesting collaboration that came out of the festival was that between the design
company Live/Work and Scremerston County First School in Northumberland. The designers
and pupils jointly explored mobility needs in the area and how they could be better met.42
Another example of how designers can help facilitate change and cooperation between
different agencies is in the move from products to services, a process referred to as
dematerialization.

12


Dematerialization (moving from products to services).
By adopting an industrial ecology

perspective it is possible to appreciate
the fact that using less energy and
producing less waste can be achieved
by producing less in the way of
products. If we can share or borrow,
instead of own, we need not produce
so much. It has been argued that what
we need is a service not a product.
Thackara asks us to use, not own,
technology and in the process reduce
environmental impact. He states that
³7KH DYHUDJH FRQVXPHU SRZHU WRRO LV

used for ten minutes in its entire life ± Tool Library, Missoula Urban Demonstration Project
but it takes hundreds of times its own http://www.missoula.com/news/node/838
weight to manufacture such an object.
Why own one, if I can get ahold of one when I need it? A product-service system provides
me with access to the products, tools, opportunities, and capabilities I need to get the job
done ± QDPHO\SRZHUWRROVIRUPHWRXVHEXWQRWRZQ´43
By following this example we are moving from a product to a services orientation in a

SURFHVVFDOOHGGHPDWHULDOL]DWLRQ³ZKHUHOHVVPDWHULDOVDUHXVHGWRGHOLYHUWKHVDPHOHYHORI
functionality to the user.´44 It can be difficult to distinguish between levels of service but
Tracy Bhamra and Vicky Lofthouse have identified three categories: product-oriented
services, use-oriented services and results-oriented services.45
Product-oriented services are characterized by customers owning the product but being
served by a maintenance agreement, for example when buying a washing machine. In the
case of use-oriented services the product is owned by the manufacturer and leased to the
customer; for example a Xerox photocopy machines is maintained by the manufacturer, who
also disposes of it at the end of its life. In the situation of results/needs oriented services the
product is produced, owned and run by the supplier, for example in pest control where the
PDQXIDFWXUHUJXDUDQWHHVWRULGWKHFXVWRPHURISHVWV7KHFXVWRPHU¶VQHHGLVWREHSHVWIUHH
and in this scenario the customer pays for the result: no pests, The service provider does the
rest.
Environmental improvements can be made by adopting service systems like these. Some
examples include: car clubs, bike hire schemes and digital music distribution. The Design
Council in London has produced a case study showing that bike theft from hire schemes is
much less than from private use, an added bonus which helps promote cycle use. A very
successful example of bike hire is the Velib public bicycle rental program in Paris, France
(See Velib46).
A case study showing the benefits for business of moving from a product to a service is
provided by Xerox who managed to save US$80 million in costs and saved 65,000 tonnes of

13


material from landfill by establishing a product-oriented service and a results-oriented
service. The former service involves leasing machines to companies who return them for
upgrading, maintenance and remanufacture. The latter service requires Xerox to provide the
equipment, paper and toner and the customer pays for the number of copies used. By
providing these services the company has been able to offer more functions to customers
while using less material.47
As we have seen, the challenges both designers and businesses face when moving from
traditional design and production methods to ones that promote a sustainable future are huge.
Why do it? By embracing an eco-efficient philosophy businesses can achieve company-wide
savings on materials and energy consumption, therefore reducing their costs. They can reduce
emissions of toxic substances by improving waste management and pollution systems. They
can encourage good design and innovation providing more benefits to customers through
better quality, performance and price. This in turn should improve their image, marketability
and customer numbers.48
Conclusion
Environmentalists in the 1970s

were critical of what humans
were doing to the planet, and
today there are some who
think it is too late to save our
host. James Lovelock now
says that we have done so
much harm to the planet that it
can no longer correct itself,
and that global warming is
irreversible.49 But others take
the opposite view. Michael
Most waste ends up in a landfill
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste Braungart goes as far as say-
LQJ³&UDGOH-to-Cradle design means that, instead of minimizing
damage, we create positively. Instead of waking up in the morn-
ing and apologizing for being human, we ask how we can be
benefiFLDO IRU RWKHU VSHFLHV´ 50 He believes that by using the
processes of biomimicry we can reduce environmental harm.
-RKQ7KDFNDUDVWDWHV³,IZHFDQGHVLJQRXUZD\LQWRGLIILFXOW\
ZHFDQGHVLJQRXUZD\RXW´51 This is a statement he has used to
motivate designers, businesses and organizations in such
collaborative projects as Dott 07. Neither he nor Michael Braun-
gart are humble about their claims. We humans have taken our
planet for granted and it will take a huge amount of action to
halt climate change, if it is possible at all. What is required is a
vision of a sustainable future to inspire us into action and that is
exactly what the designers are doing by using an industrial ecol-
http://faculty.msb.edu/rivoli
ogy perspective. But it is not just the designers who should be p/travelsofatshirt/

14


held to account. We as consumers are not impotent; we can play a part in this. Every time we
buy something we can stop and think about whether we will harm the environment by doing
so, as Pietra Rivoli did at the beginning of this Guide.
References
1. Hawken, Paul; Lovins, Amory B. and Lovins, L. Hunter, 1999, Natural capitalism: the next Industrial
Revolution. London: Earthscan, p. 81. In: Thackara, John. 2006, pbk ed. In the bubble: designing in a
complex world. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press p.12.
2. Steffen, Alex, ed. 2006 :RUOGFKDQJLQJDXVHU¶VJXLGHIRUWKHst century. New York: Abrams, p.46.
3. Datschefski, Edwin. 2001. The total beauty of sustainable products. Crans-Pres-Celigny, Switzerland:
RotoVision, p. 17.
4. Steffen, Alex, ed. 2006 :RUOGFKDQJLQJDXVHU¶VJXLGHIRUWKHst century. New York: Abrams,

p.86.(With a quote from John Thackara)
5. Datschefski, Edwin. 2001. The total beauty of sustainable products. Crans-Pres-Celigny, Switzerland:
RotoVision, p. 73.
6. Bhamra, Tracy and Lofthouse, Vicky. 2007. Design for sustainability: a practical approach .
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7. Papanek, Victor. 1971. Design for the real world: human ecology and social change . London: Thames
and Hudson, p.164-165.
8. Gerber, Anna. 2008. Design & sustainability: pt2. Creative Review, Dec., pp.30-33.
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10. Margolin, Victor. 1998. Design for a sustainable world. Design Issues, vol.14 (2) p.90.
11. Ibid. p.91.
12. Papanek, Victor. 1985. 2nd ed. Design for the real world: human ecology and social change. Chicago,
Ill.: Academy Chicago, p.4.
13. Thackara, John. 2006. pbk ed. In the bubble: designing in a complex world. Ca mbridge,
Massachusetts: MIT Press, p.23.
14. Brass, Clare. 2008. Introduction by Clare Brass. Design Week, Sustainable design supplement. June, p.
3.
15. Fry, Tony. 2003. The voice of sustainment: the gap. Design Philosophy Papers, Vol. 1., n.p.,
http://www.desphilosophy.com/dpp/dpp_journal/feature/body.html Accessed April 6th, 2009
16. Simns, Andrew and Smith, Joe, eds. 2008. Do good lives have to cost the earth? London: Constable,
p.179.
17. Ehrenfeld, John, R. 2008. Sustainable design: A subversive strategy for transforming our consumer
culture. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, p.6.
18. Ehrenfeld, John, R. 2004. Searching for sustainability: no quick fix. Reflections. Vol. 5. No. 8, p.7

15


19. Ibid. p.8.
20. Fuad-Luke, Alastair. 2002. Eco design: the sourcebook. San Francisco, CA: Chronicle Books. Fletcher,
Kate T. and Goggin, Phillip A. 2001. The dominant stances on ecodesign: a criticism. Design Issues,
Vol. 17 (3)
Fletcher, Kate T. and Goggin, Phillip A. 2001. The dominant stances on ecodesign: a criticism. Design
Issues, Vol. 17 (3)
21. Papanek, Victor. 1971. Design for the real world: human ecology and social change . London: Thames
and Hudson, p.188.
22. Ibid. pp.185-186.
23. Ibid.p.188.
24. Berger, Melvin. 1978. Bionics. New York: F. Watts, pp. 47-49.
25. Sarikaya, Mehmet and Aksay, Ilhan A. (eds.) 1995. Biomimetics: design and processing of materials.
Woodbury, N.Y.: AIP Press. p.2.
26. Benyus, Janine M. 2002. Biomimicry: innovation inspired by nature . 2nd ed. New York: Harper
Perennial, p.2.
27. Cooper, Melanie. 2008. Closing the loop. Prodesign. Oct., Issue 97, p. 33.
28. Pulfer, Rachel. 2008. Form follows nature. Azure, May, pp. 108.
29. Benyus, Janine M. 2002. Biomimicry: innovation inspired by nature . 2nd ed. New York: Harper
Collins, Perennial, pp.129-139.
30. Allen, Timothy. 2008. Life cycle tools for sustainable change. Prodesign, Issue 96. p.52-54.
31. Steffen, Alex, ed. 2006 :RUOGFKDQJLQJDXVHU¶VJXLGHIRUWKHst century. New York: Abrams, p.46.
32. Environmental Justice Foundation http://www.ejfoundation.org/page327.html

Accessed May 12th, 2009
33. Sustainability-ed. http://www.sustainability-ed.org/pages/example4-3.htm

34. Continental Clothing Co. Ltd. http://www.continentalclothing.com/?module=cms&P=382

35. McDonough Braungart Design Chemistry. http://www.mbdc.com/c2c_home.htm

Accessed April 6th, 2009
36. Shaw Floors. http://www.shawfloors.com/Shaw-Environmental/Sustainability

Accessed April 6th, 2009
37. McLaren, Jake and Allen, Timothy. 2008. Life cycle management: from product to business.
Prodesign, Issue 95. p.82, 84.
38. McDonough, William and Braungart, Michael. 2009. Pbk ed. Cradle to Cradle: remaking the way we
make things. London: Vintage Books, p.75.

16


39. Boehnert, Jody. 2008. Design and transition: what designers can learn from the Transition Movement.
EcoLabs (UK) p.9. http://eprints.brighton.ac.uk/5343/
40. Leitch, Luke. 2008. Transition: gearing up for the great power-down. TimesOnline, Nov. 17th,
http://women.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/women/the_way_we_live/article5158241.ece
Accessed April 6th, 2009.
Hammer, Ed. 2007. Local hero Rob Hopkins: transition town Totnes. Ecologist. Nov. 27th,
http://www.theecologist.org/pages/archive_detail.asp?content_id=1139
41. Boehnert, Jody. 2008. Design and transition: what designers can learn from the Transition Movement.
EcoLabs (UK) p.2. http://eprints.brighton.ac.uk/5343/
42. Weaver, Tanya. 2007. On the dot. Newdesign, no. 55. pp. 72-73.
43. Thackara, John. 2006. pbk ed. In the bubble: designing in a complex world. Cambridge, Massachusetts:
MIT Press, p.18-19.
44. Bhamra, Tracy and Lofthouse, Vicky. 2007. Design for sustainability: a practical approach .
Aldershot: Gower, p. 159.
45. Ibid.p. 127-130
46. Velib.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velib. Accessed April 6th, 2009.
47. Bhamra, Tracy and Lofthouse, Vicky. 2007. Design for sustainability: a practical approach.
Aldershot: Gower, pp. 128.
48. Ibid. pp. 28-29, 160.
49. Lovelock, James, 2006. The revenge of Gaia: why the Earth is fighting back ± and how we can still
save humanity. London: Allen Lane.
Aitkenhead, Decca. 2008. Enjoy life while you can. The Guardian. Saturday, 1 st March.
http://www.guardian.co.uk/theguardian/2008/mar/01/scienceofclimatechange.climatechange
50. 0LFKDHO%UDXQJDUWGHVLJQLQJ³HFR-HIIHFWLYH´VROXWLRQV(DUWK$FWLRQ1HWZRUN,QF*DOH*URXS
The Free Library by Farlex. http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Michael+Braungart:+designing+%22eco-
effective%22+solutions-a0159390918
51. Thackara, John. 2006. pbk ed . In the bubble: designing in a complex world. Cambridge, Massachusetts:
MIT Press, p.1.

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Discovery Guides

T hree waves in defining sustainable design

The second wave en route to sustainability occurred

Problems associated with the concept of sustainable design

Many designers have found

A bird is an instrument working according to m athematical law, which instrument is within

Humans have for centuries looked

7KHWHUP³ELRPLPHWLFV´ZDVFRLQHGE\2WWR+6FKPLWWLQIURP bios, meaning life, and

Cradle to Cradle protocol: a systems approach

Chemist Michael Braungart and architect William

Throughout the book Cradle to Cradle we are challenged

The transition initiative movement

By adopting an industrial ecology

By following this example we are moving from a product to a services orientation in a

Environmentalists in the 1970s

4. Steffen, Alex, ed. 2006 :RUOGFKDQJLQJDXVHU¶VJXLGHIRUWKHst century. New York: Abrams,

11. Ibid. p.91.

19. Ibid. p.8.

22. Ibid. pp.185-186.

32. Environmental Justice Foundation http://www.ejfoundation.org/page327.html

33. Sustainability-ed. http://www.sustainability-ed.org/pages/example4-3.htm

34. Continental Clothing Co. Ltd. http://www.continentalclothing.com/?module=cms&P=382

35. McDonough Braungart Design Chemistry. http://www.mbdc.com/c2c_home.htm

36. Shaw Floors. http://www.shawfloors.com/Shaw-Environmental/Sustainability

45. Ibid.p. 127-130

46. Velib.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velib. Accessed April 6th, 2009.

48. Ibid. pp. 28-29, 160.

S-ar putea să vă placă și

7KHWHUP³ELRPLPHWLFV´ZDVFRLQHGE\2WWR+6FKPLWWLQIURP bios, meaning life, and

4. Steffen, Alex, ed. 2006 :RUOGFKDQJLQJDXVHU¶VJXLGHIRUWKHst century. New York: Abrams,