GEOLOGIC NOTE AUTHORS

Subhotosh Banerjee  School of Geology

Remote surface mapping using and Geophysics, University of Oklahoma,
Norman, Oklahoma 73019

orthophotos and geologic maps Subhotosh Banerjee received his B.Sc. and M.Sc.
degrees from Calcutta University and his M.S.
degree in geology from the University of Okla-
draped over digital elevation homa (2002). He is currently working toward
a Ph.D. in structural geology at the University
models: Application to the Sheep of Oklahoma. His research interests are in sur-
face and subsurface structural analysis and the
Mountain anticline, Wyoming application of remote sensing and geographic
information systems to structural geology.
Subhotosh Banerjee and Shankar Mitra Shankar Mitra  School of Geology and
Geophysics, University of Oklahoma, Norman,
Oklahoma 73019; smitra@ou.edu
Shankar Mitra holds the Monnett Chair and
ABSTRACT Professorship of Energy Resources at the Uni-
versity of Oklahoma. He received his Ph.D.
Remote mapping of surface structures can be conducted by draping
degree from Johns Hopkins University in 1976.
digital orthophotos and geologic maps over digital elevation models
His primary research interests are in surface
in geographic information systems. Formational contacts can be and subsurface structural analysis.
mapped by viewing the intersections of these contacts with the
topography on a true-to-scale, three-dimensional image. Bedding
orientations can be determined from (1) the trends and slopes of ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
dip slopes or (2) best fit planes to multiple points of intersection
The authors thank AAPG reviewers Zeev Berger,
of a bedding surface with the topography. The methods are tested Sandro Serra, and Kathy Hanks and editor
against mapped formation contacts and bedding attitudes for the John Lorenz for their reviews of the manuscript
Sheep Mountain anticline in the Bighorn basin, Wyoming. Detailed and for their comments and suggestions. We
mapping of formation contacts is improved by careful observations also acknowledge a fellowship from Phillips
of the contacts on three-dimensional images. Interpreted bedding Petroleum (now Conoco-Phillips) to support
attitudes from slope and multiple-point solutions show strong posi- Subhotosh Banerjee.
tive correlations with field measurements. This mapping method
provides an efficient and accurate alternative to stereoscopic mapping
using aerial photographs and satellite images, particularly for re-
mote and inaccessible areas.

INTRODUCTION

The identification of prospective structures for hydrocarbon explo-

ration and production involves the integration of surface and sub-
surface data. Although good surface maps are available for many

Copyright #2004. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All rights reserved.
Manuscript received September 2, 2003; provisional acceptance October 31, 2003; revised manuscript
received February 2, 2004; final acceptance February 17, 2004.

AAPG Bulletin, v. 88, no. 9 (September 2004), pp. 1227 – 1237 1227
Figure 1. Location map of the Sheep Mountain anticline (modified from Hennier, 1984).
previously explored regions, surface maps for remote
and unexplored areas are commonly poor to nonexis-
tent. The first step in exploring such areas commonly
involves the delineation of prospective structures using
surface mapping.
Remote-sensing techniques have long been recog-
nized as an effective tool for supplementing direct field
measurements in structural mapping. These methods
allow rapid mapping of areas and are most effective in
areas where structures are poorly exposed or inacces-
sible. Traditional approaches included the use of aerial
photographs and satellite and radar images to map for-
mation contacts and faults. A review of these methods
is provided in Sabins (1997). More quantitative meth-
ods have included the use of stereoscopic aerial pho-
tographs to estimate bed strikes and dips from topo-
graphic slopes (Colwell, 1955; Threet, 1956; Miller,
1961; Turner, 1977; Ricci, 1982; Sabins, 1997). With
the advent of stereoscopic satellite data, such as Landsat
and SPOT imagery, these methods have also been
applied to satellite data and used to successfully obtain
quantitative measurements over large areas (Berger
et al., 1992; Bilotti et al., 2000).
The mapping of structures using these approaches
involves the use of vertically exaggerated stereoscopic
1228 Geologic Note
images and a proper correction for the resulting dis-
tortions. The acquisition of quantitative data involves
a correct estimation of several parameters and is there-
fore prone to instrument and operator error.
This article describes a method for surface mapping
that involves the integration of topographic and geo-
logic data by the draping of geologic maps and georec-
tified photographs over digital elevation models (DEM)
in a geographic information systems (GIS) database.
Using this method, formation contacts and faults can
be accurately mapped using a three-dimensional per-
spective of the intersection of the contacts and faults
with the topography. In addition, quantitative data of
bed strikes and dips can be obtained using slope data
for dip slopes and best fit surfaces for points of inter-
section between the beds and the topography.
The methods are applied to a well-exposed and
mapped structure, the Sheep Mountain anticline, within
the Bighorn basin area in Wyoming to show the corre-
lation between the measurements obtained using these
remote mapping methods and those obtained by direct
field mapping.
The Sheep Mountain anticline is a major anticline
located on the northeastern margin of the Bighorn ba-
sin in northern Wyoming (Figure 1). Structures in the
Bighorn basin involve Precambrian basement and were
formed during the Laramide orogeny. The structure is a
northwest-southeast–trending, doubly plunging anti-
cline that exposes units ranging in age from the Missis-
sippian Madison Group to the Cretaceous Thermopolis
Formation. The best exposed units are in the Permian
Phosphoria Formation.
The excellent exposure of this structure enables
detailed surface mapping of the structure. The most
detailed maps of the area northwest of the Bighorn
River were made by Hennier and Spang (1983) and
Hennier (1984). These surface maps and field mea-
surements provide an opportunity to test the methods
of mapping contacts and estimating bed attitudes using
the methods described in this paper.
PREVIOUS RELATED STUDIES
Remote mapping of surface structures has long been
recognized as an effective tool for supplementing field
mapping, particularly in remote or inaccessible areas.
The first applications of this approach included the
mapping of structures using stereo pairs of aerial pho-
tos. This method was used both to map formational
contacts and to estimate bedding attitudes. The acqui-
sition of quantitative data involved the determination
of topographic slope and its use to determine the dip
of an interpreted dip slope. The methods of slope
measurement involve (1) the use of stereoscopic par-
allax, (2) the comparison of a slope plane generated
instrumentally, with a slope segment, and (3) the use
of tracing overlays to obtain the slope by geometric
construction (Turner, 1977). The most commonly used
method involves the determination of the elevation of
points from the parallax, the height of the sensor, and
the base of the distance directly below the sensor for
the images.
The availability of satellite and radar images ex-
tended the use of remote mapping methods to a more
regional scale. Methods for obtaining quantitative topo-
graphic data from radar data were also devised (Zebker
and Goldstein, 1986). The recent availability of ste-
reoscopic satellite images, such as Landsat and SPOT
satellite data, has improved the acquisition of quanti-
tative data, using similar approaches to those that were
developed for aerial photographs (Berger et al., 1992;
Bilotti et al., 2000). The methods can be used for both
nadir-viewing Landsat images or off-nadir images, such
as SPOT satellite data.
The basic methodology for the acquisition of quan-
titative data for all of these methods involves the accu-
rate measurement of several parameters and is there-
fore prone to both instrument and operator errors. The
calculation of elevations of individual points is also te-
dious. Finally, all interpretations and measurements are
based on a single viewing direction.
REMOTE MAPPING METHODOLOGY
The methodology of mapping proposed in this paper
employs the integration and draping of geologic maps
and digital orthophoto quadrangle (DOQ) photographs
over DEM within a GIS database using the program
ArcGIS (Figure 2). Digital orthophoto quadrangles
and digital elevation models are available from the U.S.
Geological Survey for most locations in the United
States.
Digital elevation models consist of a raster grid of
regularly spaced elevation values that are primarily
derived from the U.S. Geological Survey topographic
map series. They are typically available as 7.5-min
DEM, which correspond to the U.S. Geological Survey
1:25,000 or 1:24,000 topographic quadrangle maps.
Most of the models have a grid spacing of 30 m (100 ft),
but 10-m (33-ft) grids are also available. For the Sheep
Mountain structure, 7.5-min DEM with a 10-m (33-ft)-
grid spacing were used (Figure 2b).
Digital orthophoto quadrangles are computer-
generated images of aerial photographs, in which the
image displacements caused by terrain relief and cam-
era tilt have been removed. Therefore, they combine
the image characteristics of the aerial photographs
and the georectified qualities of a map. The images are
available both as 3.75-min (quarter quadrangle) im-
ages, which cover an area of 3.75-min longitude by
3.75-min latitude, and 7.5-min (full quadrangle) im-
ages, which cover an area of 7.5-min longitude and
7.5-min latitude. For the Sheep Mountain area, 3.75-
min quadrangles with 1-m (3-ft) resolution were used
(Figure 2a).
The draping of orthophotos of 1-m (3-ft) resolu-
tion over DEM of 10-m (33-ft) resolution enables the
identification and mapping of photographic features
at a very magnified scale (Figure 2c). The lower resolu-
tion (10 m; 33 ft) of the DEM does not significantly
reduce the mapping resolution and, in fact, aids in
average slope calculations by smoothing out meter-scale
irregularities in the topography.
Banerjee and Mitra 1229
Figure 2. Method of construc-
tion of a three-dimensional terrain
model. Georectified orthopho-
tographs (a) are draped over
digital elevation model (b) to ob-
tain the final terrain model (c).
MAPPING OF FORMATION CONTACTS
The mapping of formation contacts is significantly
improved by the use of the draped images in three
dimensions. Traditional mapping techniques involved
the mapping of formation contacts at outcrop loca-
tions and extrapolation or interpolation of these con-
tacts through intermediate areas using simple rules
relating the intersections of the formation boundary
with the irregular topography. This requires the accu-
rate use of the rule of Vs and, unless practiced care-
fully, is subject to significant human error.
The use of satellite or aerial photographs in stereo-
scopic pairs provides an effective supplement in the
mapping of contacts and can significantly improve the
quality of mapping. Similarly, SPOT satellite data can
also be used to enhance mapped contacts (Berger et al.,
1992). However, this method is also prone to errors
because of the vertical exaggeration of the stereoscop-
ically viewed images and distortions when viewing areas
away from the immediate center point or nadir. The
method also involves the viewing of formation contacts
in only the vertical direction. Finally, the manual pro-
cess of tracking contacts through the area using stereo-
scopy is somewhat tedious.
Because existing geologic maps and orthophotos can
be draped directly over the digital elevation models, we
can view an integrated image that allows easy correlation
between the three components. Because all three com-
1230 Geologic Note
ponents are georectified, the distortions and vertical
exaggeration associated with stereoscopy are eliminated,
and all features can be viewed on a one-to-one scale. It
is possible to view the intersections in three dimensions
and thereby use the best perspectives for each point
on the formation contact in the mapping process.
The method of mapping uses two images of the
draped surfaces, used on side-by-side computer screens
(Figure 3). The Arc Scene image enables interactive
three-dimensional viewing of the images, whereas a
corresponding Arc View image is used to map the for-
mation contacts. The Sheep Mountain structure is a
well-exposed anticline and therefore provides a good
opportunity for comparing mapped formation con-
tacts with those obtained using the three-dimensional
draped images. Because the structure is intersected
by an intricate network of bedding-normal drainage,
mapping in three dimensions provides better control
in the placement of formational contacts at topographic
Vs (Figure 4).
Hennier and Spang’s (1983) map constructed from
field mapping is compared with those made by remote
mapping. The overall quality of Hennier and Spang’s
map is good and shows little difference with that obtained
by remote mapping. At a very detailed scale, however,
mapping of the formation contact through valleys
and ridges is significantly improved in several loca-
tions through the integrated three-dimensional im-
agery (Figure 5).
Figure 3. Method of mapping formation contacts. Mapping was done (a) in the map view (Arc View), whereas the three-
dimensional model (Arc scene) was used to view formation contacts and topography in three dimensions (b).

Figure 4. A three-dimensional model for the northwestern part of the Sheep Mountain anticline showing mapped formation contacts.

Banerjee and Mitra 1231

Figure 5. Improvement in de-
lineation of formation contacts
using three-dimensional mapping.
White lines represent results
from an earlier map by Hennier
(1984). Tops of Amsden and
Tensleep formations have been
significantly modified because
of the effect of topography,
whereas the top of Madison is
not modified.
QUANTITATIVE MEASUREMENTS
The acquisition of quantitative field measurements using
stereoscopic aerial photographs has been applied to a
large number of areas, which could not be accessed
by traditional mapping. As discussed in a previous
section, most methods involve the calculation of dips
and strikes from a dip slope using the parallax be-
tween stereoscopic photographs to determine the slope.
More recently, similar approaches have also been ap-
plied to SPOT satellite images (Berger et al., 1992;
Bilotti et al., 2000) either using the traditional parallax
approach or using three points on the dip slope whose
elevations can be estimated. As discussed previously,
these approaches, although effective, involve correc-
tions for vertical exaggeration and can also be tedious
in practice.
Draping of DOQ on DEM in a GIS system en-
ables a direct measurement of bed attitudes using 1:1
three-dimensional images. Two methods are discussed:
the first using slope measurements of interpreted dip
slopes and the second using best fit planes to intersec-
tions between bedding surfaces and the topography.
Bed Attitudes from Slope Data
The slope of any topographic surface can be deter-
mined using simple equations relating the change in
rise with elevation (Burroughs, 1986). The strike can
1232 Geologic Note
be directly estimated from the normal to the maxi-
mum slope direction in map view.
Programs embedded in ArcGIS enable the cal-
culation of slope values for any topographic grid using a
variety of cell sizes (Figure 6a–c). Bed dips and strikes
can be estimated by performing a slope calculation on
an interpreted dip slope. As in the case of all previ-
ously used methods for stereoscopic photo pairs, the
accuracy of the measurements is dependent on the
degree of coincidence between the bedding plane and
the dip slope. This is dependent on the bed dip, lithol-
ogy, and the nature of weathering and erosion in the
area.
Once a potential dip slope is identified, the de-
termination of bed dip is dependent on the correla-
tion between the slope and the actual dip of bedding.
If most of the slope corresponds to the actual bedding
dip, then the best estimate for the dip would be the
mean of the dip over that area. However, in most cases,
a very small part of the slope corresponds to the ac-
tual bedding dip. In this case, the maximum value of
the slope will most closely correspond to the actual
bedding dip. Therefore, the bedding dip commonly
ranges between the mean and the maximum of the
slope measurements.
Figure 6a– c show the range of dips for a dip slope
in the Phosphoria Formation on the west limb of the
Sheep Mountain anticline. In this case, a significant part
of the sloping surface has been identified as a dip slope.
Figure 6. (a) Three-dimensional view of flatirons, with locations of six points on the dip slope. Field measurement in a nearby valley is
306/69j northeast. (b) Slope map draped over DEM for the same flatiron; colors represent values of slope in degrees. (c) Histogram
showing slope values (22 cells) in degrees. The maximum and the mean value of the slope are 69.8 and 64.6j, respectively. (d) Six
points are plotted in three-dimensional space; the best fit medium plane passing through those points has an orientation of 302/64j
northeast. Color bar shows elevation in meters.

Therefore, the mean value of the slope is used to de-
termine the dip of bedding. For most measurements
around the Sheep Mountain anticline, the slopes are of
poorer quality, so that the maximum slope value pro-
vides a better estimation of the true dip.
Bed Attitudes from Surface Intersections
Bed attitudes can also be obtained directly from the
intersections of the bedding plane with the topography.
The points can be obtained from a dip slope or from
outcrop points of a bed on the topography. The dips
and strikes can be directly estimated by determining
the best fit plane to all of the intersection points. In
its simplest form, the method uses the three-point
solution for estimating bed dip and strike that is wide-
ly used for surface and subsurface analysis. The use
of three points to estimate bedding dip and strike
(Bilotti et al., 2000) is prone to significant error, re-
sulting from any one of the points not lying directly
on the slope or an incorrect estimation of its coor-
dinates. Therefore, the use of multiple points to deter-
mine the bedding attitude provides a more accurate
bedding attitude.
For a series of intersection points with coordinates
x i, y i, and z i, the best fit medium plane is calculated by
minimizing the normal distance from that plane to

Banerjee and Mitra 1233

each of the points. An example of the calculation the
medium plane using the three-dimensional mapping
software Gocad is shown in Figure 6d. In this ex-
ample, the estimation of the bedding attitude using
the best fit medium plane from six intersection points
is performed for the same dip slope that was previ-
ously analyzed using slope analysis (Figure 6a). The
result is the same as the mean slope for the area covered
by the points and about 5j less than the maximum
slope.
Comparison of Remote and Field Measurements
The Sheep Mountain anticline provides an excellent
opportunity for the comparison of quantitative bedding
measurements using field studies and remote mapping.
Carefully collected field measurements from Hennier
and Spang (1983) can be compared with the remote
measurements using slope and surface intersections.
At its northwestern part, the structure is a relatively
simple, plunging asymmetric anticline, in which the two
limbs and hinge are well exposed, enabling a large num-
ber of traditional outcrop measurements. The steeply
dipping, northeastern limb dips between 60 and 85j
northeast, whereas the more gently dipping, south-
Figure 7. Comparison of bedding-plane dips from field measurement with dips generated from slope maps and multiple-point
solutions. White dots show locations where bedding attitudes were interpreted using slopes and multiple points. The locations of the
field measurements are within a 150-m (490-ft) radius from these points.
1234 Geologic Note
western limb dips between 20 and 40j southwest. This
provides a test for the reliability of remote measure-
ments for a wide variety of dips.
Figure 7 shows the measured and interpreted bed
attitudes for 31 points for the northwestern part of the
Sheep Mountain structure. The histograms show the
relative values of dip for the field measurements and
those estimated using the slope and multiple-point
methods. Figure 8 shows the same points plotted on a
graph of measured versus interpreted dips. The high
correlation coefficients indicate a good positive cor-
relation between the interpreted and measured values,
particularly for the lower dipping, southwest limb of
the structure. Among the remote measurements, the
surface intersection method provides a closer fit to the
field measurements. The final map showing the re-
vised formation contacts and the calculated dip and
strike measurements is shown in Figure 9.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
Draping of orthorectified photographs and geologic
maps over DEM provides an effective mechanism
for remote mapping of surface structures. The method

is an efficient and accurate replacement for traditional
mapping of structures using stereoscopic photographs
and satellite images. It can be used to supplement
field mapping, particularly in remote and inaccessible
areas.
The method enables both the tracing of forma-
tional contacts and the acquisition of quantitative bed-
ding data using slope data or intersections of bedding
surfaces with the topography.
Testing of the method against field maps for the
Sheep Mountain anticline in the Bighorn basin, Wyo-
ming, shows that it provides an accurate tracing of
formational contacts and a positive correlation between
interpreted and calculated bedding attitudes.
The method yields the highest quality data for the
well-exposed structures. However, it can also be ap-
plied to areas where the structures are less well ex-
posed. The method has been successfully applied to
map a fairly large area in the Caribou Mountain area
of the Idaho–Wyoming fold-thrust belt (Banerjee and
Mitra, 2004, unpublished work). The accuracy and
Figure 8. Interpreted dips
from slope maps (crosses) and
multiple-point solutions (trian-
gles) plotted against measured
dips within a 150-m (490-ft)
radius. Results show a good
linear fit and a positive corre-
lation coefficient.
quality of the quantitative data obtained decrease with
the quality of the exposure. However, we emphasize
that the method provides the only source of data for
poorly exposed and inaccessible areas.
The applicability of the method is also constrained
by the availability of digital orthophotos and high-
quality DEM data. Currently, high-quality DEM data
are only available in the lower 48 states in the United
States. However, such data can also be extracted from
other remote-sensing data, including SPOT (Bolstad
and Stowe, 1994; Zhen et al., 2001) and the Advanced
Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radi-
ometer (Hirano et al., 2003) satellite data. Bolstad and
Stowe (1994) have compared the quality of data ob-
tained from standard DEM approaches to that ob-
tained from SPOT data and found that the data qual-
ity is comparable.
Because there is widespread coverage of satellite
data, extensions of the technique can be extended to
remote and inaccessible areas where geologic maps are
not available. However, the accuracy of geologic maps
Banerjee and Mitra 1235
Figure 9. Final structural map of the Sheep Mountain anticline. Black symbols are data from Hennier (1984), and white symbols are
interpreted from slope maps and multiple-point solutions. Formation contacts are modified using the methods described in this paper.

and data obtained from remote-sensing approaches will
depend on the nature of the terrain and vegetation and
the quality of geological exposure.
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1236 Geologic Note

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