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1
How to weld
duplex stainless steels
Austenitic-ferritic stainless steels, usually referred to as duplex
steels, combine many of the good properties of ferritic and
austenitic stainless steels.
2
Figure 1: Microstructure of a weld in 2205 – transition between plate and weld
4
Corrosion properties
Duplex steels offer a very wide range of corrosion pro- Detailed information on the corrosion properties of
perties. Thanks to the high chromium content, corrosion duplex steels is given in the corrosion handbook
resistance is generally very good in most environments. published by Outokumpu.
This applies to both pitting and crevice corrosion. The
high strength also means that the resistance to stress cor-
rosion is very good. Because of the low carbon content, CPT (°C)
intergranular corrosion is rarely a problem.
100 100
Generally speaking, corrosion resistance increases
with increased nickel, chromium and nitrogen content. 80 80
This is reflected in the “resistance ranking” of the duplex
steels: LDX 2101; 2304; 2205 ; 2507. The pitting corrosion 60 60
resistance is shown in diagram 1.
For the most part, the corrosion resistance of a welded 40 40
joint is slightly lower than that of the parent metal. This
is primarily due to: the temperature cycle undergone by 20 20
the weld and the heat-affected zone (HAZ); the shape
0 0
of the weld surface; and, the contaminants and defects 4404 LDX 2101 2304 2205 2507 254 SMO
generated in welding. To achieve the best possible cor-
rosion resistance, the surfaces of the weld and the plate Metal base Unión soldada
must be clean and even. After welding, the weld metal
and HAZ must be pickled. Refer also to the “Pre-weld Diagram 1: Typical critical pitting temperatures (CPT) as per ASTM
cleaning” and “Post-weld cleaning” sections. G150 – parent metal and weld, brushed and pickled TIG joint
1)
P = hot rolled plate, H = hot rolled coil, C = cold rolled coil
2)
Welded with Avesta Flux 805
3)
Welded with Avesta PW type FCW
5
Table 3: Recommended heat treatments
LDX 2101® 2304 2205 2507
Hot forming °C 900–1100 900–1100 950–1150 1025–1200
Solution heat treatment °C 1020–1080 950–1050 1020–1100 1040–1120
Stress-relieving annealing °C 1020–1080 950–1050 1020–1100 1040–1120
Shaping With all products, direct current (DC+) gives the best
Hot forming, if required, must be performed at the welding results. Nonetheless, all rutile-acid electrodes
temperatures given in table 3. Duplex steels are prone can also be used with alternating current. However,
to precipitation when they are subjected to tempera- weldability is clearly inferior than it is with direct
tures under approximately 900°C. Precipitation entails current.
a lowering of both ductility and corrosion resistance. A short arc is to be used for welding. This gives the
To reduce the quantity of precipitates, the workpiece best stability and reduces the risk of nitrogen pick-
should undergo solution heat treatment after hot for- up. The latter can lead to pore formation and increase
ming. Duplex steels soften considerably at high tempe- surface oxidation.
ratures. This must be borne in mind during handling
and when tooling up/positioning prior to heat treat- MIG welding (really MAG – welding is often carried
ment. out with an active component in the shielding gas) is a
particularly good method for welding sheet metal up
Cold forming of duplex steels can be accomplished to around 6 mm thick. Welding is usually from two
using conventional methods. However, because of sides, but sheet metal (< 4 mm) can be welded single-
the high strength, operations such as deep drawing, sided with a root backing. A spray arc or pulsed
stretch forming and spinning are more difficult than current is normally used for welding. The advantage
they are with austenitic steels. of spray-arc welding is the higher deposition rate.
However, because the weld pool is relatively large,
Machining of duplex steels (LDX 2101 excepted) is,
position welding possibilities are limited. Drop trans-
owing to their hardness, slightly more difficult than it
fer is considerably more sedate and more controlled
is for austenitic steels. Tools made of high-speed steel
with a pulsed arc. The opportunity for position weld-
are usually more effective than ceramic tools.
ing, especially vertical-down, is thus very great. As
the stability of a spray arc is relatively poor, a pulsed
Welding methods arc is particularly important when welding the super
All conventional welding methods such as MMA
duplex steel, 2507.
(covered electrodes), MIG/MAG, TIG, SAW, FCAW,
The MIG method is especially suited to robot or
plasma and laser can be used to weld duplex steels.
automatic welding in all positions.
Welding without filler metals is only permitted where
subsequent heat treatment (solution heat treatment) is TIG welding is normally used for thin (up to around
possible. If heat treatment is not carried out, there is a 4 mm) workpieces. It is especially common in the weld-
great risk that the ferrite content in the weld metal will ing of pipe joints. The method is also highly suitable
be too high. As a result, ductility and corrosion resis- for welding single-sided root beads (both with and
tance will be lower. without root backing). Subsequent beads can then be
Property requirements, positional weldability and welded using a method with a higher deposition rate.
productivity usually determine the choice of welding
method. SAW is widely used with duplex steels. Its high pro-
ductivity and beautiful weld finishes are a big plus.
MMA welding is particularly excellent for position
Furthermore, the SAW work environment is consider-
welding, single-sided welding and where access is limi-
ably better than that of other methods. Both fume gene-
ted. Avesta Welding has a very wide range of covered
ration and radiation are minimal. The disadvantages of
electrodes for duplex steels:
SAW are that it is restricted to the horizontal position
LDX 2101-3D all positions and that the heat input is relatively large. Consequently,
LDX 2101-4D position welding small objects present problems. A basic agglomerated
2304-3D all positions flux, e.g. Avesta 805, must be used for SAW.
2205-2D high metal recovery
2205-3D all positions
2205-4D position welding
2205 Basic high impact strength requirments
2507/P100-3D all positions
2507/P100-4D position welding
2507/P100 Rutile all positions
6
Figure 2: Welding with Avesta FCW-2D 2205
FCAW is suitable for material thicknesses above Flux cored wire is available as LDX 2101, 2304 and
approximately 2.5 mm. Thanks to the slag that is 2205 in the following variants:
formed, positional weldability is very good. When FCW-2D LDX 2101 welding in the flat and horizontal-
FCW is used, the arc and weld pool are protected by vertical positions
both the slag and the shielding gas. Drop transfer is FCW LDX 2101-PW position welding
even and finishes are extremely smooth and fine.
FCAW can advantageously be used for single-sided FCW-2D 2304 welding in the flat and horizontal-
welding against a ceramic backing. This is fast and vertical positions
efficient. At the same time, the surface properties FCW 2304-PW position welding
on the root side are very good. For the best results, FCW-2D 2205 welding in the flat and horizontal-
the root bead should here be welded using a slightly vertical positions
lower current intensity. FCW 2205-PW position welding
1)
Single-sided
7
Laser, laser hybrid and plasma welding are high Shielding gases
productivity methods that are very suitable for duplex MIG welding of duplex steels is possible using the
steels. However, as previously stated, if a filler metal conventional shielding gases used with stainless steels.
is not used, the workpiece should be heat treated after Normally, argon is used with an addition of 2% O2 or
welding. 2–3% CO2. Both of these act as arc stabilisers. An addi-
Laser hybrid is a particularly interesting method. It tion of around 30% helium is advantageous. It increases
combines keyhole welding (laser) with arc welding arc energy which, in turn, increases weld pool fluidity
(MIG/MAG, TIG or plasma). The method ensures a and enables higher welding speeds.
high productivity process that, thanks to the filler metal Using a pulsed arc, a four-component gas (Ar + 30%
and the low heat input, preserves metallurgical proper- He + 2.5% CO2 + 0.03% NO) has given very good results.
ties. In superduplex welding, a mixed gas will give the
Nowadays, laser hybrid welding is most often per- best weldability, but at the risk of increased porosity.
formed using a CO2 laser or a Nd:YAG laser. With the For a pore-free weldmetal, pure argon should be used.
exception of the considerably better penetration, laser Arc stability varies greatly between different arc
hybrid welding of thin sheets has much in common types, different steel grades and even between different
with ordinary MIG/MAG welding. Penetration depth welding machines. Table 5 sets out general recommen-
is primarily determined by the laser beam’s ability to dations for the MIG welding of various duplex grades.
create a keyhole. The width is dependent on the heat
TIG welding is usually performed with pure argon as
transferred by the arc.
the shielding gas. Resistance to, in particular, pitting
There are two variants of laser hybrid welding, name-
corrosion can be considerably raised by the addition
ly, “leading” and “trailing” laser. Whichever is chosen,
of up to 2% nitrogen. However, because the risk of
it is important that the arc and the beam are sufficiently
pores increases with increased nitrogen content, the
close to each other for them to work in the same weld
latter should not exceed 2%.
pool. For better process stability in “leading” laser
The addition of around 30% helium markedly
hybrid welding, the angle of the MIG/MAG nozzle
increases arc energy and thus enables a considerable
should be as slight as possible (i.e. nozzle in the upright
increase (20–30%) in welding speed. In the welding
position). Having the arc in the leading position allows
of duplex steels, the addition of hydrogen is not to be
material from the filler wire to fill any gaps. This means
recommended. In combination with the high ferrite
that the laser beam creates a keyhole in a stable weld
content (over 70%), this can lead to hydrogen embritt-
pool. The result is an even weld with good penetration.
lement.
In the laser-MIG/MAG process, the following
Single-sided root beads must be welded with a
parameters have proved to be important: torch angle,
backing gas. This is normally the same as the shiel-
“offset”, stick-out, working distance and focal length.
ding gas. However, Formier gas (90% N2 + 10% H2)
The effect of torch angle is much the same as in con-
is a good alternative that also provides first-class root
ventional MIG/MAG welding.
protection while also being cheaper than pure argon.
Spray and pulsed arcs can advantageously be used.
Because only a negligible quantity of the hydrogen
However, because there is no stabilising of the arc, a
penetrates the weld metal, no negative effect has been
short arc must not be used in laser-MIG/MAG welding.
demonstrated. A backing gas should also be used for
tack welding all the way up until weld thickness is at
Table 5: Shielding gases for MIG, TIG, FCAW, least 8 mm.
plasma and laser welding
FCAW is most suitably performed using argon with
Method Grades Shielding gases an addition of 16–25% carbon dioxide as the shielding
MIG LDX 2101, 2304, 2205 1. Ar+30%He+1–3%CO2 gas. Welding with pure carbon dioxide is also pos-
2. Ar+1–2%O2 or Ar+2–3%CO2 sible, but arc stability and weld pool control are noti-
2507/P100 1. Ar1)
ceably poorer. However, compared with a mixed gas,
2. Ar+30%He+1–3%CO21) one advantage is that penetration is slightly better.
3. Ar+30%He+1–2%N2+1–2%CO21) Also compared with a mixed gas, the voltage should
TIG LDX 2101, 2304, 2205, 1. Ar+2%N2 + 0–30%He be increased by 2–3 volts when welding with pure
2507/P100 2. Ar carbon dioxide. This prevents the arc being too short.
FCAW LDX 2101, 2304, 2205 1. Ar+16–25%CO2 Plasma welding normally uses pure argon, or argon
2. 100% CO2
with an addition of 20–30% helium, as both the plasma
Plasma LDX 2101, 2304, 2205, 1. Ar2) and the shielding gas. As with TIG welding, the addition
2507/P100 2. Ar+20–30%He+1–2%N22) of 2–3% nitrogen has a positive effect on corrosion resis-
Laser LDX 2101, 2304, 2205, 1. Ar tance. The addition of hydrogen should be avoided.
2507/P100
Laser welding can be carried out with pure argon,
1)
Depending on requirements. See ”Shielding gases” for further information. nitrogen, helium or mixtures of these gases. To ensure
2)
Also as plasma gas. high-quality welds when using a CO2 laser or a
8
Nd:YAG-laser, a shielding gas is required. Because Because of the weld pool’s slightly poorer penetra-
interaction between the beam and the shielding gas tion and fluidity (compared with standard austenites),
affects heat transfer to the workpiece, the choice of the joint must be correctly designed to give full pene-
shielding gas in CO2 laser welding is critical. The tration without the risk of burn-through. The groove
normal shielding gases are pure argon or, where high angle must be sufficiently wide to allow the welder
laser powers (1.5–2.0 kW) are used, helium. As there full control of the arc, weld pool and slag. A groove
is little or no interaction between shielding gases and angle of around 35° (i.e. somewhat larger than for
the wavelength of the Nd:YAG laser, argon, which is austenitic steels) is to be recommended for manual
relatively cheap, is normally used. welding.
Fig 2-4.pdf 06-10-30 14.24.40
Laser hybrid welding with a CO2 laser has demon- General recommendations:
strated that the shielding gas need not be pure helium. • An X-joint can advantageously be used for plate
It is sufficient that a minimum of 30% helium is added thicknesses above approximately 15 mm.
Fig 2-4.pdf 06-10-30 14.24.40
via the MIG/MAG Edge nozzle. For Nd:YAG laser hybrid
preparation • For plate thicknesses above approximately 30 mm,
welding, a mixture of Ar + 30–35% He + 2–5% CO2 can a double U-joint is advantageous.
advantageously be used. The mixture is added via the
MIG/MAG nozzle. The addition
Fig 4 ny.pdf
of helium
06-10-30 14.31.25
improves • In single-sided welding, a root gap of 2–3 mm and
Joint
Edge preparations
preparation Table
a straight edge of about 0–1 mm are7.1recommended.
process stability and gives even
Edge preparation welds.
No. and joint type For double-sided welding, the straight edge can be
Sides Method Thickness
Edge preparation
1. I-joint increasedOne
to side
1.5–2 mm.
TIG < 2.5 mm
No root gap 1)
When weldingJointstainless steels, meticulous edge
preparations
Edge preparation
• A wider root gap, 4–6 mm, should be used when
Table 7.1
Joint preparations Table 7.1
preparation and2. the correct
I-joint choice of joint type are Two sides a ceramic
welding against SAW 6 – 9 mm
No.No.
and
No joint
root
and gaptype
2) type
joint Sides
Sides Method backing.
Thickness
Method Thickness
important for good results. This applies even more
1. I-joint
particularly to duplex steels.
1. I-joint One side TIGTIG
One < 2.5 mm
3. I-joint Oneside
side PAW < 2.5
1 –mm
8 mm
No root gap1) 1)
Joint preparations
No root gap Table 7.1
4. and
No. I-joint joint type One side
Sides MMA
Method < 2.5 mm
2. I-joint
2. I-joint Two
Two SAW 6 –Thickness
sides SAW
sides 69 –mm
9 mm
Figure 3: a number D =of 1.0common
– 2.02)mm
2) joint types. MIG
No No rootroot
gapgap
12. V-joint One side TIG
MMA 4 – 16 mm
3. βI-joint
1 =I-joint
3. 45° 1. side
One
One
I-joint
side PAW
for:
FCW single-sided
PAW 1 – 18 –mm 8 mm
MMA, TIG and
Joint type 1 5. βI-joint D TwoPAW;
sides and,
MMA double-sided
< 4 mm
2 = 15° welding using
I-joint, t < 2.5 mm D4.==I-joint
4. CI-joint
2.0
1.0 –– 2.5
2.0 mm
mm β1 One
Oneside MIG
MMA
sidesame MMA < 2.5 mm mm
< 2.5
D = 1.0–2.0 mm DD = D = 1.0 – 2.0 mm the TIG
MIG methods plus MIG and FCAW.
= 2.0
1.0 –– 3.0
2.0 mm
mm MIG
Single-sided, with or without root backing
D SuitableTIG
FCWroot
TIG protection must be used
13. V-joint Two sides MMA 4 – 16 mm
I-joint, t < 4.0 mm 6. V-joint
5.=I-joint α D β2 Two with
sides
One side single-sided
MMA
MMA < 4 mm TIG
4 – 16 mmand plasma wel-
D = 2.0–2.5 mm 5. βI-joint
1 45°
D60°
= 2.0
3) – 2.5 mm D Two sides MIG FCW
MMA < 4 mm
C
βαD2 ==
= 15°
2.0 – 2.5but
mm C ding. TIGMIG
MIG
Double-sided without rootC backing
== 0.5
2.0 –– 1.5
2.5 mm
mm TIG
FCWTIG
withM root grinding D == 2.0 2.0 –– 4.0
2.5 mm
mm FCW
FCW
Y 6. V-joint
7. V-joint
α C One side
Two
MMA
sides MIG
4 – 16 mm
MMA 16
14.6. V-jointα = 60° 3)
α 2. V-joint
One
One side
side (t > 4 mm)
FCW
MMA 44––20 for:
16 mm
mm single and
Joint type 2 βαα1 == 60°
=C45°
3)
against MIG
CMC
C = 2.0–2.5 mm
α = 60° 3)
α C against
CY 8. V-jointC = 1.5 – 2.5 mm One side
backing FCW 4 – 20 mm
D =CM2.5–3.5 mm α =D60° 3) – 6.0 mm
= 4.0 D against
Double-sided
CMY 15. root
without X-joint
C = 1.5 backing
– 2.5but mm α Two sides
backing MMA 14 – 30 mm8)
with root grinding 9. V-joint
MY α = 60° 3)
D = 4.0 – 6.0 mm C MIG
C = 2.0 – 3.0 mm α Two sides TIG+
TIG 6) 3 – 16 mm
D
K
M C Edge preparation
Edge preparation
Y
D
CM
M
D = 2.0 – 3.0 mm exceed FCW
150 mm. This is so that shrinkage
M does not prevent full penetration.
24. Half X-joint One side MMA 14 – 30 mm
t2
Y
123456789 Y α = 50°
19. U-joint α Two sides
MIG
MMA < 50 mm
Joint type 7
CM C = 1.0 – 1.5 mm
5) Welding
β = 10°performed against ceramic backing (round type). 7. SimpleMIG U-joint
TIG 6)
for the welding of thick
0+θωερτψ
U-joint, t > 20 mm 6) Normally
CM
mm for the first 1 – 3 runs. FollowedCby MIG, FCW, MMA or SAW.
D = 2.0 – 4.0
R = 8.0only
mm
sections FCW 5)
TIG(t6) > 30 mm). The joint can
α = 10°
υιοπ?????λ
MY
7) For
C openings
= 2.0 – 2.5such
mmas manways, viewports and nozzles. FCW
R = 8 mm
MY
25. Half X-joint
8) A D = 2.0 – above
thickness 2.5 mm α
20 mm can be prepared as an asymmetrical X-joint.
advantageously
Two sides MMA
SAW10)
14be– made
30 mm as a symmet-
α = 50°
κϕηγφδσ<ζ D MIG
CY
C = 2.0–2.5 mm
CY
C = 1.5 – 2.5 mm
rical or asymmetrical
TIG 6) double U-joint.
D = 2.0–2.5 mm (4–6 mmDagainst
ξχϖβνµ,.−
CMY
= 2.0 –a 3.0
backing)
mm tt1 R Root welding
FCW is most suitably carried
Double-sided without
CMY
88root backing but
C out as a TIG or MMA weld followed by,
ΘΩΕΡΤΨΥ
K
with root K
grinding
D for example, FCAW or SAW.
ΙΟΠ??∋??Λ 26. Fillet weld Two sides MMA < 2 mm
ΚϑΗΓΦ∆Σ No root gap
20. Double U-joint β Two sides
MIG 9)
SAW
TIG
> 20 mm
β = 15°
Α<ΖΞΧςΒ R = 8.0 mm
FCW
10
“Starts and stops”– This is most simply done using MMA or TIG welding
striking and extinguishing the arc with electrode diameters of 2.50 mm and 1.60–2.40 mm
It is very important to use the right technique when respectively. As already stated, a backing gas must be
striking and extinguishing the arc. As regards metal- used in TIG welding. Single-sided welding without
lurgical, mechanical and corrosion properties, each start root backing places the severest demands on even and
and stop is a “critical” area. thorough edge preparation. Figure 5 shows a correc-
To avoid striking scars, the arc must always be struck tly executed TIG root bead.
down in the joint. If, despite this, striking scars occur,
Root beads must satisfy three important
they must be carefully repaired by grinding and polish-
requirements:
ing or, in the worst cases, repair welding.
In MMA welding, the arc must be extinguished care- • Correct metallurgy and structure (right root gap to
fully by first making several circular movements in ensure sufficient quantity of filler metal).
the centre of the weld pool. The electrode is then to be • Correct geometry (no concavity, undercutting or
moved slowly backwards 10 mm through the weld lack of fusion).
pool before being gently lifted. If this is done too
quickly, crater cracks and slag inclusions may result. • Best possible productivity (always in relation to
Modern power sources for MIG and TIG welding weldability).
often have a so-called crater filling facility. This gives Filler beads must be deposited with the highest pos-
smooth and controlled stops. sible productivity. At the same time, structure and
To remove any crater cracks and slag inclusions, each mechanical properties have to be maintained. In many
start and stop must be carefully ground with a suitable cases, fill passes use the same filler metal as that used in
grinding disc. root passes. High productivity welding methods may
thus be economical for joint filling. Several common
Planning the welding sequence choices are:
Because it makes burn-through unnecessary, double-
sided welding is always to be preferred over single- • TIG root pass + MMA, MIG or SAW fill passes
sided welding. To ensure full burn-through on the last • MMA root pass + SAW or FCAW fill passes
bead, the root side must be ground to clean metal. A
grinding disc not exceeding 2 mm in width is a suit- Generally speaking, welding is carried out with the
able tool. If it is difficult to decide whether grinding has highest possible heat input that is still consistent with
reached the first bead, penetrant testing can be used. maintained properties and weldability. Visual inspec-
In double-sided MMA welding, electrodes with a tion between the passes is important.
diameter of 3.25 to 4.00 mm can be used from the very Slag residues and severe welding oxide are removed
start. Single-sided welding is most simply carried out before depositing the next layer. Otherwise, there is al-
against a root backing. Single-sided root beads are ways the risk of slag inclusions being left behind. A suit-
suitably welded with a 2.50 mm diameter electrode. able grinding disc must be used. To avoid damaging
The joint is then filled using 3.25, 4.00 or 5.00 mm elec- adjacent surfaces, grinding should be carried out with
trodes. The choice of electrode diameter is determined some care. Figure 6 shows deleterious grinding scars.
by welding position. In certain cases (e.g. pipe joints)
single-sided welding without root backing is required.
11
The cap bead is primarily intended to give the weld Interpass temperature
good corrosion protection. Besides structure, surface The recommended interpass temperature for LDX
geometry can also play a critical role here. Undercut- 2101 is 150°C. Both 2304 and 2205 are slightly more
ting, unevenness, high crowns, gaps, etc. can all have tolerant, but should be welded below 200°C. Super
a negative impact on corrosion resistance. Aesthetic duplex steels such as 2507 have a far more sensitive
considerations are often also important. structure and, because the risk of deleterious precipi-
When using slag forming welding methods, weld tation rises sharply with increased interpass tempera-
reinforcements must be cleaned of all slag residues. ture, should not be welded above 100°C.
Thermal conductivity is of the same order as that of
Welding techniques austenitic stainless steels, i.e. considerably lower than
In the flat position, there should be no significant it is for low-alloy and carbon steels. This means that,
weaving. However, in the vertical-up position, weaving compared to carbon steels, it takes longer to reach the
of up to 20 mm is advantageous. For the best control of correct interpass temperature. The cooling rate can be
arc and weld pool, welding is normally carried out with increased by using compressed air. This is most suit-
a torch or electrode angle of around 10° away from the ably directed at the back of the plate or the inside of the
welding direction, i.e. “backhand”. In submerged arc pipe. Compressed air directed straight into the welded
welding, the torch is not normally angled. A torch angle joint presents the risk of contamination. Cooling can
of 10–15° in the welding direction (i.e. “forehand”) in- also be accelerated by intermittent welding or using a
creases penetration. This allows the unbevelled edge to correctly planned welding sequence.
be increased to up to around 8 mm. However, because The interpass temperature must be measured. Some
LDX 2101 and 2507 are slightly more sensitive to the form of thermometer or thermoelement is appropriate
necessary high heat input, this increase must only be for this. Temperature crayons seldom give good results
used for 2205 and 2304. Especially when using welding and must be avoided.
wire, backings are very often ceramic. Backing shape
may vary with joint type. A root gap of 4–6 mm most Heat input
often gives a nicely shaped root bead. Too wide a gap Without negatively affecting microstructure and,
can result in a too thin root bead that, in the worst consequently, properties, 2205 can be welded using a
cases, may crack because of the degree of restraint. relatively high heat input. Heat inputs above 3 kJ/mm
Ceramic backings are frequently used for welding have been used with no negative effects. Welding
stainless steel cargo tanks in chemical tankers. Here, method, radiation, distortion and weld pool size are
welding is often in difficult positions with little access most often the limiting factors (rather than heat input).
from both sides. LDX 2101, 2304 and, in particular, 2507 must be wel-
ded with lower heat inputs.
Distortion
Broadly speaking, the coefficient of expansion of duplex General recommendations:
steels is lower than that of austenitic steels. It is only 2304 max. 2.0 kJ/mm
slightly higher than that of carbon steels. Consequently, 2205 max. 2.5 kJ/mm
distortion during the welding of duplex steels is some- LDX 2101, 2507 max. 1.5 kJ/mm
what less than it is with austenitic steels. However, this
does not mean that tack welding can be simplified. Duplex steels should not be welded with a too low heat
input. The cooling rate could then be very high, which
Preheating might result in a high ferrite content (above 70%). This
On the whole, stainless steels (duplex steels included is particularly true in the welding of thick workpieces.
therein) must not be preheated before welding. Theoretical minimum heat inputs are 0.5 kJ/mm
Normally, welding takes place at room temperature. for 2304 and 2205 and 0.3 kJ/mm for LDX 2101 and
At lower temperatures, preheating to a maximum of 2507. Especially in automatic welding, heat input is
50°C is advisable. This drives off any moisture that easy to control.
may otherwise lead to pore formation. Although it is always desirable to optimise produc-
When welding castings, or where the workpiece tivity by increasing the welding parameters, heat
is thick or where restraint is high, preheating to a input should never exceed the recommended value.
maximum of 150°C may be advantageous. This is
particularly true where the welding method has a low
{ }
UxI UxI U = voltage
Heat input = –––––––––– –––––––––– = kJ/mm I = current
heat input (max. 0.5 kJ/mm). In these cases, a suitable V x 1,000 mm/s x 1,000 V = speed
preheating method is the use of electric blankets or
similar. The use of soot-depositing flames can result in
local carbon pick-up. This reduces resistance to inter-
granular corrosion.
12
Figure 7: Storage tanks are a major end use for duplex stainless steels.
13
Figure 8: Avesta BlueOneTM being used to spray pickle a stainless steel tank.
Post-weld heat treatment which also gives a weld metal that is highly resistant
Duplex stainless steels do not normally need post-weld to cracking.
heat treatment. However, in certain situations, it may Welding to other stainless steels such as EN 1.4301
be necessary to subject the workpiece to solution heat or EN 1.4401 is also fully possible. It can be done with
treatment or stress-relieving annealing. The spinning a duplex filler metal or with Avesta P5 or Avesta 309L
of dished ends is just such an example. Shaping is here (only stainless steels that are not alloyed with molyb-
carried out in stages with intermediate heat treatment. denum).
Table 3 gives the recommended temperatures. Welding to fully austenitic steels or nickel base
The heat treatment of duplex steels requires very pre- alloys is suitably carried out using a filler metal that
cise control of both time and temperature. It must only matches the other metal, for example, Avesta P12
be carried out by qualified personnel using suitable when welding 2205 to 254 SMO.
equipment.
Post-weld cleaning
Welding duplex steels to other metals Post-weld cleaning is critical in achieving fully satis-
Duplex or austenitic filler metals such as Avesta P5 factory corrosion resistance. Clearly enough, it is thus
(309MoL) or Avesta 309L are used to weld duplex steels an integral part of the entire stainless steel welding
to carbon or low-alloy steels. As austenitic metals procedure. Despite this, post-weld cleaning is not
demonstrate a somewhat greater toughness, Avesta always standard.
P5 or 309L may be particularly suitable for welding The method and extent of cleaning is determined by
workpieces where there is a high degree of restraint the requirements imposed in respect of corrosion resist-
(t > 20 mm). A further alternative is to use Avesta P7, ance, hygiene and appearance.
14
Generally speaking, one basic requirement is that de- tails are available at www.avestafinishing.com or can be
fects, welding oxide, organic contaminants and carbon obtained directly from Avesta Finishing Chemicals.
steel contamination must be removed from weld and
parent metal surfaces. This can be done mechanically Defects
(grinding, brushing, polishing, blasting) or chemically Broadly speaking, duplex steels are no more prone to de-
(pickling). An important rule of thumb for grinding fects than other stainless steels. However, several factors
is to always finish with polishing. The risk of harmful require special attention.
grinding scars is otherwise very great.
• The high nitrogen content of duplex steels means
The demonstrably most reliable method is a combina-
poorer penetration.
tion of mechanical and chemical cleaning, i.e. brushing
with a stainless steel brush followed by pickling. • Compared to austenitic steels, there is a slightly greater
Avesta Finishing Chemicals has a complete product tendency to pore formation.
programme for the pickling of stainless steel welds. It
•Arc stability, fluidity and arc control are also somewhat
comprises cleaning products, pickling pastes, pickling
poorer than they are for austenitic stainless steels.
sprays, pickling fluids and various items of equipment.
Duplex steels are generally more difficult to pickle Consequently, to avoid incomplete penetration
than austenitic steels such as 1.4301 (304) and 1.4404 (fig. 9), slag inclusions (fig. 10) and pores (fig. 11),
(316). Thus, Avesta BlueOneTM and Avesta RedOneTM, the margins for welding parameters and root gaps are
which are comparatively strong pickling products, more restricted.
should be used for pickling duplex grades. Further de-
Figure 10: Slag inclusions, SAW 2205 Figure 11: Pores, FCW LDX 2101
15
Repair welding
All defects must be suitably repaired. Minor surface results, but is both time-consuming and costly. Hence,
defects such as spatter, slag and oxide islands can easily ferrite content is normally determined using a so-
be remedied by grinding followed by polishing using called “ferritescope” such as the Fischer Feritscope®
an at least 320 mesh disc. Note that a grinding disc in- MP30 or by calculations based on the chemical compo-
tended for stainless steel must be used. After polishing, sition. There are a number of calculation methods, e.g.
conventional pickling is to be carried out. Pickling paste DeLong and WRC-92. For duplex steels, calculation as
is most often the simplest alternative. per WRC-92 gives results that are closer to reality than
Defects must never be repaired by TIG dressing those obtained using DeLong. Figure 12 shows a WRC-
(remelting using a TIG electrode). This is because TIG 92 diagram.
dressing has the same effect as welding without filler When it is obtained by measurement, ferrite content
metal, i.e. high ferrite content. is normally expressed as a percentage. Where it is ob-
Large defects and subsurface defects require heavier tained by calculation it is usually expressed as a ferrite
grinding with a coarser grinding disc. Once the entire number (FN). A normal range is 20–70 (%/FN).
defect has been removed (which can be checked by, for
example, penetrant testing), the ground area is to be fil- Overlay welding
led using a suitable method, most often MMA welding. Duplex filler metals can be advantageously used for the
A plasma arc can be used to remove deep subsurface overlay welding of carbon steels. The duplex overlay
defects in thick workpieces. Because of the resultant is resistant to corrosion and has good wear resistance.
carbonisation, carbon arcs should not be used. The Although all welding methods can be used, those with
problem with both plasma and carbon arcs is the a high deposition rate (i.e. SAW, FCAW and MIG) are
powerful spatter. If care is not taken, this can damage normally preferred. Welding with 2205 can be direct
adjacent surfaces. The latter should be protected using, onto carbon steel. However, filler metals such as 309L
for example, Masonite or chalk paint. After gouging, or P5 can also be used for the first layer. This is some-
the area must be ground before welding can start. what more cost-efficient, especially when welding with
Correct repair welding can be carried out at least five 2507/P100.
times with no negative impact on the parent metal. In overlay welding, there should be as little dilution
of the parent metal as possible. This can be a particular
Measuring ferrite content problem with SAW, FCAW and MIG welding. Welding
Ferrite content can be assessed in several ways. Point parameters and technique are of great importance. Each
counting, which is a standardised method (ASTM run is built up on the preceding. The arc should never
E562), is one of these. This method gives very precise be directed towards the parent metal.
Nickel equivalent =
Ni + 35C + 20N + 0.25Cu WRC-1992
18 20 22 24 26 28 30
18 18
4
12
0
16 A 16
FN
16
20
2
10
24
28
14
2507/P100
18
35
22
26
30 45
14 40 14
AF
50
2205 60
70
F
10 10
18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Chromium equivalent =
Cr + Mo + 0.7Nb
16
Table 6. Examples of chemical compositions of overlay weld metals
Chemical composition, % by weight Ferrite
Method Final layer1) Filler Layer Flux C Si Mn Cr Ni Other FN2) %3)
SAW 2205 P54) 1 805 0.03 0.7 1.2 21.0 13.0 Mo 2.3 5 6
2205 2 805 0.03 0.7 1.2 22.5 9.0 Mo 2.8 35 45
MMA 2205 P54) 1 – 0.03 0.8 1.1 21.5 13.0 Mo 2.4 8 8
2205 2 – 0.03 0.8 0.7 22.5 9.5 Mo 2.8 25 35
MMA 2507 P54) 1 – 0.03 0.8 1.1 21.5 13.0 Mo 2.4 8 8
2507/P100 2 – 0.03 0.6 1.3 24.5 10.5 Mo 3.5 25 35
FCAW 2205 FCW-2D P54) 1 – 0.03 0.6 1.4 22.0 12.0 Mo 2.1 15 15
FCW-2D 2205 2 - 0.03 0.7 1.1 22.5 9.5 Mo 3.1 30 40
1)
Target analysis of the final layer 3)
Ferrite in % using a Fischer Feritscope® MP30
2)
Ferrite as per Schaeffler-DeLong 4)
Welding is also possible with 2205 or 2507/P100
How to weld duplex steels of similar testing (RT), ultrasonic testing (UT) and ferrite
content measurement using a “ferritescope”. In
compositions
ultrasonic testing, it is important that surfaces are
There are a number of steel grades that have composi-
ground flat so that defects such as pores and cracks
tions similar to those of the Outokumpu duplex steels
can be reliably detected.
described above. Some general recommendations are
set out below.
Handling of filler metals
Stainless steel covered electrodes, flux cored
Table 7. Welding duplex steels of similar wires and fluxes can be prone to moisture pick-
compositions up. Avesta Welding’s consumables are supplied
Steel grades Filler metal in packages that have been designed to resist
ASTM 329 Avesta 2205
moisture. However, for the best possible results,
AL 2003 (UNS S32003) Avesta 2205 the following storage and handling precautions are
3RE60 (S31500) Avesta 3RE60 or 2205 still recommended.
URANUS 35N, SAF 2304, S32001 (1.4482), Avesta 2304 or 2205
S32202 (1.4062) Storage of unbroken packages: Covered eletrodes,
SAF 2205, Uranus 45N, remanit 4462, Avesta 2205 FCWs and fluxes must be stored in their unbroken,
1903SC, AF22, VS22, Falc 223, SM 22Cr, NKCr22
original packaging. Storage in opened packaging
SAF 2507, Zeron 100, DP-3W, S32760 (1.4501), Avesta 2507/P100
Uranus 52N+, S32520, S32550 (1.4507) can considerably shorten the product’s service life.
Following the “first in, first out” principle, storage
time must be kept as short as possible. Covered
electrodes and fluxes should not be stored longer
than 5 years and FCW should not be stored for
Inspection and quality assurance
more than 2 years. Products older than that should
The rules that apply to structural steels apply also to
be redried before use.
stainless steels (duplex included therein). The follow-
Covered electrodes, FCWs and fluxes should
ing are some of the relevant international standards:
not be stored in direct contact with floors or outer
• ISO 5817, which gives guidelines on acceptance walls.
levels for various defects in welded joints. Storeroom temperature must be kept as even as
possible (± 5°C) and should not fall below 15°C.
• EN 288 and ASME IX, which describe the approval The relative air humidity should not exceed 50%.
of welding procedures.
Handling of opened packages: Electrodes that
However, duplex steels are used in applications remain unused at the end of a shift should be
where the strength and corrosion requirements are replaced in their packaging and resealed. Alterna-
very severe. There is thus every reason to be extra tively, they can be put in a warm heating cabinet
careful from beginning to end. Welding oxide, spatter, at 60–70°C. The relative air humidity should not
striking scars and grinding scars must be removed to exceed 50%.
achieve the correct corrosion resistance. For the best Flux that has not been used should be stored in a
fatigue resistance, the weld surface must be even with heating cabinet at 60–70°C.
no sharp edges.
Nondestructive testing is an integral part of the Handling during welding: It is an advantage if
examination of welded joints. Suitable methods are welding can be carried out at room temperature
visual inspection, penetrant testing (PT), radiographic and low relative air humidity. Covered electrodes,
17
FCWs and fluxes should be used at the same rate Health and safety
as they are unpacked – preferably within 24 hours. The fumes and radiation given off during welding can be
During shifts, electrodes must be kept as dry as pos- hazardous to health. Spatter, molten metal and arcs can
sible. If the climate so demands, they should be kept cause burns and fires. Furthermore, electrical equipment
warm in a portable heat-retaining container or similar. is used. If it is not handled correctly, there is the risk of elect-
One alternative is to use smaller packs, e.g. half or rical shock. Thus, it is of the greatest importance that wel-
quarter capsules. ders and supervisors are aware of all the potential dangers.
Rebaking: Electrodes and flux cored wires that have • Ensure that ventilation is adequate and that the
sustained slight moisture damage can be rebaked for, welding site has an extractor system that removes
respectively, around 3 hours at 250–280°C and 24 hours fumes and gases from the welder’s “breathing zone”.
at 150°C. Heating and cooling must both be gradual. • When welding in confined spaces, use respiratory
Items should not be rebaked any more than three protective equipment or a compressed air line
times. Fluxes can be rebaked for 2 hours at 250–300°C. breathing apparatus. Use safety equipment for
Procedures that have been approved for carbon steel hands, eyes and body, e.g.: gloves; helmet or face
electrodes are also completely satisfactory for stainless mask with filter glass; safety boots; apron; and arm
steel electrodes. This is because the latter are not as and shoulder guards.
prone to moisture pick-up.
• Keep the workplace and equipment clean and dry.
Recycling: Because they can be reused, leftover products
and scrap are valuable. Wherever possible, products • Regularly check that safety clothing and equipment
and packaging must be recycled in accordance with are in good condition.
local regulations. • As far as possible, insulate all conducting elements.
Figure 13: Order and tidiness are essential for a good work environment.
Photo: The Karl Kremsmüller Welding Academy, Austria
18
Figure 14: Storage tanks in chemical tankers are often made of duplex stainless steels.
All rights reserved. Contents subject to change without warning or notification. Great care has been taken to ensure that the contents of this publication
are correct. However, Avesta Welding and its subsidiaries cannot accept responsibility for errors or for information that is found to be misleading.
Suggestions for, or descriptions of, working methods or of the use, treatment or machining of products are for information only and Avesta Welding
and its subsidiaries can accept no liability in respect thereof. Before using products supplied or manufactured by the company, customers should satisfy
themselves of product suitability.
19
10601EN-GB:3, Centrumtryck, Avesta 2010
Avesta Welding
P.O. Box 501, Modellvägen 2
SE- 774 27 Avesta, sweden
Tel: +46 (0) 226 857 00
Fax: +46 (0) 226 857 16
info@avestawelding.com
www.avestawelding.com