Transition to Secular Thought in Europe:

Lessons for Muslims

Asad Zaman

1. Introduction ................................................................................................................. 1
2. The Corruption of the Christian Clergy ...................................................................... 2
2.1 Need for Separation of Religious and Temporal Leadership................................ 4
2.2 Preferring Simple Lifestyles to Luxury ................................................................ 5
2.3 The Worst of all Creatures .................................................................................... 6
3. Rejection of Traditions and Formation of Sects ......................................................... 7
3.1 Unity in Diversity ................................................................................................. 8
3.2 The Ummah as One Body ................................................................................... 10
3.3 Love and Tolerance............................................................................................. 10
4. Religious Wars in Europe ......................................................................................... 12
4.1 The European Mindset ........................................................................................ 14
4.2 The Rules of War ................................................................................................ 15
4.3 Islamic Standards of Justice ................................................................................ 16
5. Conclusions ............................................................................................................... 17

1. Introduction

A dramatic transition in ways of thinking took place in Europe between the sixteenth and
the eighteenth century. Tawney (1930) describes this transition to secular ways of
thinking as follows:

The theory of a hierarchy of values, embracing all human interests and

activities in a system of which the apex is religion, is replaced by the
conception of separate and parallel compartments, between which a due
balance should be maintained, but which have no vital connection with each
other.

An essential ingredient of secular thought is the idea that there are spheres of human life
and intellectual effort which are not connected to religion. Islamic teachings match pre-
modern European thought that religious considerations are of paramount importance in
all spheres of life. In dramatic contrast, eighteenth century European thought treats social,
political and economic thought without reference to religion or the spiritual aspirations of
man. Tawney (1930) has documented this revolution in thought, and also provided the
complex and subtle historical details of how it came about in England.

1
 Since then, secular thought has come to dominate the world, influencing the
thinking of all across the globe. Religion has been virtually driven out of the public
sphere. Removal of religious barriers against greed, hedonism and individualism has led
to
• social catastrophes: breakdown of families and community.
• political calamities: immoral wars conducted for control of resources.
• Environmental disasters: pollution, global warming, destruction of species and
forests, all for the sake of multinational profits
• Financial Crisis: Ponzi schemes, large scale speculative gambling, and fraudulent
practices encourage by putting greed above all social considerations.

More recently, the harmful effects of relegating spirituality and morality to a personal and
private choice have become obvious for all to see. An effort is being made to reintroduce
religion, spirituality and morality into debates and intellectual arenas from which they
have been long excluded.

Our goal in this article is to review some neglected and forgotten aspects of
European history which led to this transition from religious based thought to secular ways
of thinking. As Western education has become widespread throughout the Islamic world,
some aspects of secular thinking have also become widely accepted by Muslims. Secular
thought is clearly incompatible with Islam, which is a complete religion and provides
guidance in all spheres of life. Maulana Syed Abul Hassan Ali Nadvi has highlighted the
conflict between Islam and Modernity taking place all over the world in Islamic societies.
Our object is not to present a comprehensive or balanced picture of this European history,
which has been done by many authors, in many books, from many different angles.
Instead, we will highlight certain ingredients which are especially important to Muslims
in the struggle to resist the encroachment of secular thought into Islamic societies. In
particular, we will put stress on those teachings of Islam which create barriers against
replication of the European history of loss of faith.

2. The Corruption of the Christian Clergy

The chain of events leading to the modern secular world was set in motion by what
Barbara Tuchman has called “the most momentous event in the history of Europe” in her
book The March of Folly. This is the corruption of a sequence of Popes in the sixteenth
century which led to the rise of the Protestants and the Reformation. The following quote
about Pope Alexander VI, who purchased his Papal Office (a sin called simony often
legislated against by the Roman Catholic Church without much effect) illustrates some
aspects of this corrupt behavior:

The already corrupt Papacy reached perhaps its ultimate depths during the reign of
Rodrigo Borgia, who was elected to the papacy in 1492 … and who assumed the
name Pope Alexander VI. (When) Borgia … became pope, myth and legend quickly
rose up around his family. Alexander VI had four acknowledged children, three males
and one female. Alexander VI was himself known as a corrupt pope bent on his

2
 family's political and material success, to an even greater extent than Sixtus IV had
been. It was no secret that Alexander VI's oldest son Cesare, was a murderer, and
had killed many of his political opponents.
[http://www.pbs.org/empires/medici/medici/families.html]

Political power wielded by Popes led to countless actions more worthy of Machiavelli
than of spiritual leaders, representatives of God on Earth. The famous saying “Power
corrupts, and absolute power corrupts absolutely,” was coined in response to
wrongdoings of Popes. It is worth noting parenthetically that 1492 was laden with events
which changed the course of history. This was the year the Muslims finally lost their last
foothold in Spain, and also the year in which Columbus sailed to discover the Americas.
All three of these events continue to have significant impacts to this day. Some of the
effects of the corruption of the church have been listed below:

Since the middle of the 15th century discontent with the state of the church was widespread:

• The wealth of the church had lead to spiritual shallowness and demoralization of the
clergy. In Germany every 9th inhabitant was a member of the clergy. Though the church
officially demanded for celibacy of the clergy, most clergymen had more or less
clandestine sexual relations to women. Once even an illegitimate son of a pope was
elected as pope.
• High clerics (bishops, abbots, canons), often delegated their pastoral duties to uneducated
vicars to have more time for a luxurious life or at best for studies.
• A tendency to transform the churches instruments of salvation into legalism and profit: the
personal confession to a priest (with spiritual guidance) had been turned into a system of
preaching torments of hell, imposing severe penitence and selling indulgence.
• Scholastic theology had become a sterile repetition of formulae and this affected also
divine services for the population.

[http://history-switzerland.geschichte-schweiz.ch/reformation-switzerland-calvin.html]

Widespread discontent with the Catholic Church set the stage for the success of the revolt
against it led by Martin Luther. Pope Leo X used the sale of indulgences to finance a
massively luxurious rebuilding of Rome replete with statues and other artistic
accompaniments. In particular, those who gave alms to his favorite project, the new St.
Peter's Basilica in Rome, would have their sins forgiven. These “indulgences” exacted
money from the simple-minded among the faithful by promising them perpetual
happiness in this world and eternal glory in the next. The false doctrine and scandalous
conduct of the "pardoners" were an immediate occasion of the Protestant Reformation.
The aggressive marketing practices of Johann Tetzel in promoting this cause provoked
Martin Luther to write his Ninety-Five Theses, protesting against what he saw as the
purchase and sale of salvation. In Thesis 28 Luther objected to a saying attributed to
Tetzel: "As soon as a coin in the coffer rings, a soul from purgatory springs". The Ninety-
Five Theses not only denounced such transactions as worldly but denied the Pope's right
to grant pardons on God's behalf in the first place: the only thing indulgences guaranteed,
Luther said, was an increase in profit and greed, because the pardon of the Church was in

3
God's power alone. Luther was excommunicated, but his ideas became popular and led to
the Reformation, a landmark event in European history.

From this first step in the process by which Europeans lost their faith in God, and
abandoned their religion, we can derive several important lessons, reinforcing the
message of the Quran and Hadeeth.

2.1 Need for Separation of Religious and Temporal Leadership.

Many Muslim authors have regretted the split between the the religious and temporal
leadership that occurred at the end of the golden period of the Rightly Guided Caliphs.
The example of the Catholic Church is a reminder that power corrupts, and it takes men
of very high integrity to be able to resist this corruption. If temporal and spiritual
leadership are combined within a man of insufficient integrity, this could cause damage
to the faith of the people, with consequences tremendously worse than lack of temporal
power in the hands of the religious. People without sufficient spiritual training who are
given religious authority will inevitably exercise this authority for worldly gain.
Descriptions of Fir’on and Qaroon show the corrupting effects of power and money. The
temptation to sell faith for money is described in the Quran:

ِ ‫ابُلَتُبَ يِّ نُنَّهُُلِلن‬

ُ‫َّاس َُو ُلَ تَكْتُ ُمونَُه‬
ِ
َ َ‫ينُأُوتُواُْالْكت‬
ِ َّ َ ‫وإِ ْذُأَخ َذُاللّه ُِميث‬
َ ‫اقُالذ‬ َ ُ َ َ
‫س َُماُيَ ْشتَ ُرو َُن‬ ِ ِ ِِ ِ ِ
َ ‫فَنَبَ ُذوهُ َُوَراءُظُ ُهوره ْم َُوا ْشتَ َرْواُْبهََُثَنُاً قَليالًُفَبْئ‬
3:187 AND LO, God accepted a solemn pledge from those who were granted earlier revelation
[when He bade them]: "Make it known unto mankind, and do not conceal it!" [143] But they cast
this [pledge] behind their backs, and bartered it away for a trifling gain: and how evil was their
bargain!

The cause of the crisis which eventually led to rejection of religion in Europe was the sale
of indulgences to finance luxurious lifestyles and projects for reconstruction of Church
buildings on a magnificent scale. Seen from a distance, the “sale of indulgences” seems
like an obvious and gross violation of religious teachings. It is important for Muslims to
realize that this is not true. The issue in question is very delicate. The Quran states
ِ ‫ُالس يِّئ‬
ُ‫ات‬ ِ ِ ْ ‫إِ َّن‬
(11:114) Lo! good deeds annul ill deeds. َ َّ ‫ْب‬ َ ْ ‫ُاْلَ َسنَاتُيُ ْذه‬
There is a recommendation in Ahadeeth to do a good deed after doing a bad deed so as to
remove its evil effects. Since spending in charity is a highly recommended good deed, it
is a perfectly valid recommendation to a sinner that he should spend money on good to
compensate for any sin (that he confesses to). As religious authorities, we may be able to
evaluate the different uses for charity and recommend one use, such as spending on
madrassahs or perhaps a particular madrassah, as the best use of charity at this time. This
is exactly the logic that was by Church authorities to justify raising money for spending
on Church projects.

4
In accordance with the Hadeeth that “Innamal A’mal bil niyyat” – the value of actions
depends on the intentions – a recommendation to spend can be judged only according to
the intention with which it is made. The delicacy of such issues is brought home by Ali
r.a. refusal to kill the man who had spit in his face, because his anger had mixed up a
personal intention with a purely religious one. This is a warning for those who seek
power and prestige for Muslims as a means to the spread of Islam. To do this, one must
have enough self-knowledge and self-control to recognize the tricks of the Nafs and to
resist them. Seeking power for oneself is not a recommended course of action, and as an
Ummah we must find ways of giving power to those who have the extraordinary Taqwa
displayed by Ali r.a. to be able to differentiate between pure and impure intentions. How
this is to be done is a question that we need to consider, but it is clear that western
mechanisms of elections and democratic institutions do not take these considerations into
account and cannot be adapted to our purposes.

2.2 Preferring Simple Lifestyles to Luxury

The immediate cause of the revolt against the Catholic Church was the sale of
indulgences to finance luxurious construction. Today the Muslims are also engaged in the
pursuit of luxurious lifestyles, even though this has been very harmful to us on many
occasions in history. The Dolmabahçe Palace was built between the years 1843 and 1856
under the order of the Empire's 31st sultan, Sultan Abdülmecid , at a cost of five million
Ottoman gold pounds, the equivalent of 35 tons of gold. Fourteen tons of gold in the form
of gold leaf were used to gild the ceilings of the palace. Heavy interest based foreign
loans were taken by the Khalifa for this enterprise. When these debts could not be
repayed, Europeans demanded and obtained substantial amount of financial control over
the Ottoman Empire. Details are provided in Blaisdell (1929) European Financial
Control in the Ottoman Empire. This was a very important element in the eventual
demise of the Empire and the abolishment of the Khilafat.

Currently, the western media are promoting the pursuit of luxurious lifestyles as the
object of life throughout the Islamic world. This poisonous message, which is infiltrating
the minds of muslims, is in stark contrast to the simplicity in lifestyle which is the ideal
of Islam. The lifestyle of the Prophet s.a.w., who is the perfect model for us all, was
simple in the extreme. He rarely had a second pair of clothing, apart from the one he
wore, which was patched in many places. He did not eat his full two times in a row, and
months would pass without a fire in his kitchen. This simplicity was maintained
throughout his life, even though he received huge gifts on many occasions, which he
distributed to the poor and the needy. His example was follow by Abu-Bakr and Umar,
who are unparalleled in their combination of worldly rule with extreme simplicity of
lifestyle.

One important feature of simplicity is to live in a way so as to not provoke envy or

jealousy. One of the reasons for which Qaroon was condemned was his parading his
wealth to the envy of his nation. Muslims are commanded to dress and feed their slaves

5
as equals. Those who have more than their neighbors are told to share their blessings or
else consume the extra concealing it from others so as to not cause envy. The Islamic
spirit of moderation in consumption is perfectly expressed in

ِ ُِ َ‫ندُ ُك ِّلُمس ِج ٍدُوُكلُواُْوا ْشربواُْولَُتُس ِرفُواُْإِنَّهُل‬ ِ ِ ُ ‫ُآد َم‬

َ ‫بُالْ ُم ْسُِرف‬
ُ‫ي‬ ُّ ‫ُُي‬ ُ ْ َ َُ َ ْ َ َ ‫ُخ ُذواُْزينَتَ ُك ْمُع‬ َ ‫يَاُبَِِن‬

(7:31) O CHILDREN of Adam! Beautify yourselves for every act of worship, and eat and drink
[freely], but do not waste: verily, He does not love the wasteful!

The prohibition of wastefulness (Israf) and unnecessary expenses (Tabzeer) together with
the recommendations of spending money over and above our needs for the sake of Allah
would go a long way towards solving the problems of Islamic societies.

2.3 The Worst of all Creatures

European history shows the importance of good behavior by the religious leaders. Bad
conduct of religious leaders damages the faith of the people. This brings out the
importance of the following Hadeeth:

A certain sahaabee of the nabee sallal-laahu `alayhi wa sallam asked him: "Who is the
worst of all creatures?" He answered: "Don't ask me questions about bad things, but
ask me questions about good things. The worst of all creatures are the guilty scholars"
(i.e. those who do not practise what they say).

Corruption of their religious leaders was the first of a long sequence of events which
eventually led to the loss of faith in God among the Europeans. In many areas of
European history we see that the transition between the good and the evil is gradual, and
takes place in a series of small steps, each one of which appears permissible, or only a
minor change. This brings out the importance of vigilance, recommended in Ahadeeth
which ask us to stay away from the boundaries between the Haram and the Halal.

In the past, madrassahs used to provide spiritual training in addition to intellectual and
scholarly training. Nowadays this tradition has been largely abandoned and the spiritual
training has been left up to the student, on his inclination and option. We need to bring
back the spiritual training and make it an essential and central component of a religious
education. Producing Ulema without taking any steps to ensure their training in the lines
of Zikr, Taqwa, Khushoo’, Ikhlaq violates the spirit of Islamic teachings, since the central
teaching of our Prophet s.a.w. was along these lines. There are many active movements in
the Islamic world which aim to develop faith or Eeman; in addition to traditional Sufi
orders, the Risale-Noor movement of Said Bediuzzaman Nursi, as well as the movement
of Tableegh and Dawah, which is the largest grassroots movement in Islamic history.. It
is important to note that Eeman is the base, and that development of good conduct,
etiquette, social relations, and spiritual development requires further training for which
we will need to look back at our traditions and revive institutions and methods developed

6
for this purpose by our ancestors. This is in accordance with the following passage from
Fazail-e-Amal:

Says the nabee sallal-laahu `alayhi wa sallam in another Hadith: "Knowledge is of two
kinds: one, which remains on the tongue only and does not affect the heart and so is in
fact an accusation from Allah; and the other which penetrates into the heart and
revives the spirit: that is indeed useful."

What we mean to say is that a Muslim should not acquire only that knowledge which
concerns the formalities, but also the spiritual knowledge, which would purify his
heart and enlighten his brain; otherwise it would be a cause for questioning on the day
of qiyaamah as to how far it was acted upon.

Of course schools and madrassahs are the secondary sources of education, especially
when it comes to moral education. The primary education takes place at home. It is
essential to impart moral training (Terbiyyah) at homes to a much greater extent than is
currently being done. To combat the flood of immorality being imparted by western
media, it is essential for us to take steps to introduce the teachings of Quran and Hadeeth
in every Muslim household on a regular basis. Special courses for newlyweds need to be
designed to train them to bring up children in the right way. Many different Islamic
groups have carried out many different experiments in trying to protect their children
from the harmful effects of the current environments. We need to compare notes and
evaluate different techniques to select good ones and compile instructions for those who
are starting to worry about this problem. It will take concerted group effort to comply
with the Quranic command: 66:6 O ye who believe! save yourselves and your families from a Fire

‫ُآمنُواُقُواُأَن ُف َس ُك ْم َُوأ َْهلِي ُك ْمُنَ ًارا‬

َ ‫ين‬
ِ َّ
َ ‫يَاُأَيُّ َهاُالذ‬

3. Rejection of Traditions and Formation of Sects

Martin Luther’s criticism of corrupt practices of the Roman Catholic Church was
motivated by the intention of reform, and a return to earlier and purer forms of
Christianity. Pope Leo X declared 41 articles of Luther's teachings as heretical, and
Luther's books were publicly burned in Rome. Eventually Luther’s excommunication
from the Catholic Church led to a split in Christiandom, with far reaching consequences
for Europe and for the whole world. Some of the key ideas that we need to look at from
this history are summarized in the passage below:

Martin Luther (1483-1546) stands in history as one of those unique forces, an

individual who by force of will and by his ideas changed the world fundamentally.
There are several ironies incumbent on Luther's pivotal role in history: 1) he doesn't
really represent a break with the past, but rather a flash point where ideas and trends
which had been smoldering in Europe for several centuries suddenly blazed aflame; 2)

7
 Luther initially saw himself as a great reformer of the Catholic church, a simple monk
who thought the force of his ideas would single-handedly redirect the Leviathan of the
church; in the end, however, he divided Christianity into two separate churches and
that second division, Protestantism, would divide over the next four centuries into a
near infinity of separate churches; 3) finally, Luther (and all the other reformers) saw
themselves as returning Christianity to its roots, they believed that they were setting
the clock back; in reality, their ideas irreparably changed the world and pushed it
kicking and screaming, not into some ideal past, but into the modern era.

From: “World Civilizations: An Internet Classroom and Anthology,” webpage on Martin

Luther ( http://wsu.edu/~dee/REFORM/LUTHER.HTM ) by Richard Hooker(1996).

Note that Luther started out with the intention to reform the Church, and ended up
splitting it and eventually destroying the basis of faith in Europe. Of special importance
to Muslims are two of the concepts which were central to Lutheran theology in permitting
a reformulation of Catholic teachings:

1. “sola scriptura” making the Bible the sole measure of theology, Previously, the
Scriptures had been seen by some as the pinnacle of a hierarchy of sacred texts, and on
par with the oral traditions of the Church.

2. “sola fida” or justification by "faith alone." Luther's first writing was The Sermon on
Good Works, in which he argued that good works do not benefit the soul; only faith
could do that.

The rejection of the (Catholic) tradition as a source of religious knowledge had serious
consequences. The tradition serves to anchor possible interpretations of texts. Without
this anchor, texts can be given a vast variety of interpretations. Initial disagreements
between the early reformers like Luther and Zwingli made it clear that the inner eye of
faith does not serve to resolve disputes nearly as easily as a fixed tradition and a process.
The varied possibilities for interpretation of texts manifested themselves in the eventual
split of the Protestants into a “near infinity” of churches.

3.1 Unity in Diversity

The formation of many different Protestant sects and their battles with each other over
small theological issues was a very important cause for the loss of faith in Europe. This
brings out clearly the importance of the Islamic tradition of tolerance for dissent, so that
conflicting opinions may simultaneously be held to be acceptable Islamic solutions to a
given problem.
ِ ‫صىُبِِهُنُوح‬
‫صْي نَا‬
َّ ‫اُو‬ َ ‫اُوالَّذيُأ َْو َحْي نَاُإِلَْي‬
َ ‫ك َُوَم‬ َ ً َ ‫مُم َنُالدِّي ِن َُم‬
َّ ‫اُو‬ ِّ ‫عُلَ ُك‬
َ ‫َشَر‬
‫ِّين َُوَلُتَتَ َفَّرقُواُفِ ُِيه‬ ِ
ُ ‫يسىُأَ ْنُأَق‬
َ ‫يمواُالد‬
ِ ‫بِِهُإِب ر ِاهيمُوموس‬
َ ‫ىُوع‬
َ َ ُ َ َ َْ

8
42:13 The same religion has He established for you as that which He enjoined on Noah - the which
We have sent by inspiration to thee - and that which We enjoined on Abraham, Moses, and Jesus:
Namely, that ye should remain steadfast in religion, and make no divisions therein.

A tradition named “Ilm-ul-Ikhtilaf” which is Islamic way of handling conflicts of opinion

has no parallel outside of Islam. This is acceptance of the idea that there are more than
one right opinions about a given religious issue. Useful discussions of Islamic source
materials on tolerance of dissent are given by Shaikhul Hadeeth Maulana Mohammad
Zakariyya Kandehlvi (1938) in his book Al Ai’tdal fil Maratib ar-Rijal and in Hujjat-
ullah-ul-Balegha by Shah Waliullah (1750, conclusion of Part I). From the beginning, the
Quran takes a very broad minded attitude – Allah T’aala promises to guide us to his
ways, in plural, in the Ayat cited earlier in the introduction. He promise a good end to
“Christians, Sabeans, Jews,” if they believe and do good deeds. The Prophet s.a.w.
indicated that differences were a blessing for the Ummah and that all of the Companions
(despite their differences) were rightly guided, so that following any of them would be
sufficient for salvation. He also indicated that the Scholars who made a ruling on a
controversial matter would receive one blessing if he made a mistake, and two if he did
not. Muslims who give up and concede the argument to the other party, even though they
believe themselves to be in the right, are promised palaces in Heavens.

All of this led a to situation where Muslims were broad minded and generous in their
acceptance of disagreement. The attitude was that while there was one unique truth, we
humans were fallible in our attempts to understand and no one is more fallible than
myself. This humility permits tolerance of diversity. This was displayed in the emergence
of four pathways – Hanbali, Malaki, Shafi’ee, and Hanafi – all of which accept the others
as correct despite major disagreements on many issues. In a similar way, there are
substantial disagreements among the different orders of Tassawuf, but none who claim
unique access to the truth. This is in stark contrast with European and other cultural
traditions, where small disagreements have led to the formation of sects and major
battles.

The role of tradition in maintaining unity also becomes clear from this European history.
If we take the view that the Quran and Hadeeth and the light of faith are enough for us,
and discard the tradition of Islam, as represented by sayings and writings of the scholars
in the 1400 years between now and the early prophetic era, we will go astray. One
consequence of trust in the promise of God that:
ُ‫اُالذ ْكَر َُوإِنَّاُلَهُُ َْلَافِظُو َن‬
ِّ َ‫َّاَُننُنََّزلْن‬
ُ ْ َ ‫إن‬
ِ
15:9 Behold, it is We Ourselves who have bestowed from on high, step by step, this reminder? [9] and,
behold, it is We who shall truly guard it [from all corruption].

is that the truth is circumscribed by the opinions of the elders. That is, we cannot come up
with a valid interpretation of the Quran that has not been held by anyone in the past 14
centuries. Even though there is huge range and diversity in the opinions of our elders,
there is no room to deviate entirely outside these bounds as the West has done. If on the
other hand we claim to directly interpret the Quran and the Hadeeth, and disregard the
tradition, then the number of variant readings that is possible will be extremely large, and

9
the possibility of going astray correspondingly large. This methodology, advocated by
some modern Muslims, could provide the basis for fragmentation and formation of sects.
In addition, the idea that the Hadeeth and the Quran are enough for us shares the attitude
of contempt and disrespect that modern Western scholars have towards Islamic traditions.
In effect, we are saying that the deep and complex intellectual traditions, and fourteen
centuries of Islamic scholarship are of no value, and can be completely ignored. Such a
position can only be taken by those who are in fact ignorant of these intellectual
traditions.

3.2 The Ummah as One Body

The maintenance of unity among Muslims is a religious obligation of paramount

importance, as indicated by many verses and Ahadeeth. It was realized very early by
Muslims that this unity could not be achieved on the condition that every one would
agree on all major issues of importance. Therefore they learned to create unity without
seeking agreement on all theological issues.

ِ َّ ‫اصِِبواُْإِ َّنُاللّ َهُم ُع‬ ِ ‫ُُوأ‬

ِ ‫َطيعُواُْاللّ َهُور ُسولَهُُولَُتَنَ َاز ُعواُْفَتَ ْف َشلُواُْوتَ ْذ َه‬
َ ‫ُالصاب ِر‬
ُ‫ين‬ ََ ُ ْ ‫بُرُيُ ُك ْم َُو‬
َ َ َ ََ َ
8:46 And pay heed unto God and His Apostle, and do not [allow yourselves to] be at variance with
one another, lest you lose heart and your moral strength desert you. [50] And be patient in adversity:
for, verily, God is with those who are patient in adversity.

The history of Europe shows the importance of unity. Disunity among scholars is
exploited by those who are against religion to discredit religion as a whole. There are
many occasions on which enemies of Islam have created and utilized divisions among
Muslims to achieve victories. Islamic republics within Russia were separated into
nationalities, and were given different cultures, histories and languages using a deliberate
Russian policy to create divisions among Muslims. Differences among scholars were
exploited to discredit the Islamic faith and seduce Muslims away from Islam into
communism.

The Quran and Hadeeth warn us against such tactics. According to the Hadeeth, this
Ummah is like one body, and the whole body feels pain if any part is hurt. Differences
and conflicts between Muslims destroy the faith like the fire burns up dry wood, or the
razor shaves off the hair. Great emphasis is placed on sila-rahmy, or maintaining
connections with relatives. The best of conduct is to behave well and be kind to others
even when they behave badly and are unkind to us.

3.3 Love and Tolerance

The horrifying example of St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre (to be described in the next
section), where vast numbers of innocents were slaughtered for no reason other than

10
religious differences created a precedent which has had vast ramifications throughout
European history. This in stark contrast with the deep love our Prophet s.a.w. for all of
mankind, as the Quran proves:

ُ‫ُعلَْي ِه ْم‬ ِ ِ ِ ِ ِ ‫ُأَفَمنُزيِّنُلَهُسوء‬

َ ‫ك‬َ ‫بُنَُ ْف ُس‬
ْ ‫يُمنُيَ َشاءُفَ َالُتَ ْذ َه‬ َ ‫ُح َسنًاُفَإ َّنُاللَّ َهُيُض ُّل َُمنُيَ َش‬
َ ‫اءُويَ ْهد‬ َ ُ‫ُع َملهُفَ َرآه‬
َُ ُ ُ َُ َ
‫صنَ عُو َُن‬ ِ ِ‫اتُإِ َّنُاُللَّهُعل‬
ٍ ‫حسر‬
ْ َ‫يمُِبَاُي‬
ٌ ََ ََ َ
35:8 Is he, the evil of whose deeds is made fair seeming unto him so that he deemeth it good, (other
than Satan's dupe)? Allah verily sendeth whom He will astray, and guideth whom He will, so do not
kill yourself with sorrow for them.

His concern to save all human beings from the rigors of the hellfire was so great that he
ignored all cruel treatments to Muslims and his own self, and gave love in return for hate.
The example of Vahshi r.a. is amazing. The man who chewed the liver of the beloved
uncle Hamza, was assiduously courted by the Prophet of Allah and converted to Islam
eventually. This was even though seeing him was such a painful reminder of past events
that the Prophet requested Vahshi not to come in front of him when he came to visit.

Historically, Islamic civilizations have displayed much greater tolerance and provided
much greater freedom to minorities than has ever been achieved in the West. In
particular, the concept of allowing minorities personal law that is separate from the
overall law of the state arguably achieves a level of freedom for subcultures that is
greater than currently available in the West. Western traditions of intolerance and
persecution of minorities were directly responsible for the rise of secular thinking in the
west. In stark contrast, Islamic traditions of tolerance created culture of peaceful
coexistence between Jews, Christians in Muslims in Spain. In The Ornament of the
World: How Muslims, Jews and Christians Created a Culture of Tolerance in Medieval
Spain Menocal (2002) writes about how tolerant Muslim rulers created a culture of
“philosophers, of poets whose work inspired Chaucer and Boccaccio, of weeping
fountains, breezy courtyards, and a long-running tolerance profoundly rooted in the
cultivation of the complexities, charms and challenges of contradictions. The Spanish
reconquest of 1492 ended this era of tolerance, and initiated repression of Judaism and
Islam. Ultimately, tortures and the Inquisition was use to force all remaining Muslims to
convert to Islam. Western historians have recognized the achievements of the Muslims in
this field; for example, Toynbee (1951) wrote: “The extinction of race consciousness as
between Muslims is one of the outstanding moral achievements of Islam. In the
contemporary world there is, as it happens, a crying need for the propagation of this
Islamic virtue … of tolerance and peace”.

Travellers through the Muslim world have often recorded their experience of hospitality;
see One Thousand Roads to Mecca: Ten Centuries of Travelers Writing about the Muslim
Pilgrimage by Wolfe (1998). For example, Malcolm X. (1965) found in his travel
experience “a spirit of unity and brotherhood that my experiences in America had led me
to believe never could exist between the white and non-white…” While these traditions

11
of love, tolerance and hospitality have been considerably weakened by the onslaught of
modernity, enough remains to build them up again. The importance of doing so is clear
from the European history which shows that violations of these traditions is a good way
to drive people away from the faith. We must strive to recreate the traditions of love,
which the Quran tells us is a gift from God more valuable than all the treasure on the
Earth:
َِ ‫ض‬ ِِ
ُ‫ي‬ ْ ‫ُماُأَلََّف‬
َ ْ َ‫تُب‬ َّ ً‫َُجيعا‬ ِ ‫ت َُم‬
ِ ‫اُِفُاأل َْر‬ َ ‫يُقُلُوِب ْمُلَ ْوُأَن َف ْق‬َ ْ َ‫فُب‬ َ َّ‫َوأَل‬
ٌُ ‫ُح ِك‬
‫يم‬ َ ُ‫فُبَْي نَ ُه ْمُإِنَّه‬
َ ‫ُع ِز ٌيز‬
ِ ِِ
َ َّ‫قُُلوِب ْم َُولَك َّنُاللّ َهُأَل‬
(8:63) And (moreover) He hath put affection between their hearts: not if thou hadst spent all that is in
the earth, couldst thou have produced that affection, but Allah hath done it: for He is Exalted in
might, Wise.

4. Religious Wars in Europe

The historical details below are a condensed version of Lecture 6: Europe in the Age of
Religious Wars, by Steven Kreis (2002):
(available at: http://www.historyguide.org/earlymod/lecture6c.html:)

The Reformation smashed the medieval synthesis and destroyed the unity of the Christian
matrix. Between 1560 and 1715, Europe witnessed only thirty years of international
peace. The latter half of the sixteenth century and the beginning of the eighteenth century
brought about one of the most passionate and calamitous series of wars that Europe had
ever experienced. The growing division between Christian churches in Europe led to a
series of armed conflicts for over a century. Protestants and Catholics shed each other's
blood in prodigious amounts in national wars and in civil. The final result of these
struggles was the overthrow and execution of Charles I in England in the middle of the
seventeenth century, an historical earthquake that permanently changed the face of
Europe.

On August 24, 1572, the day before St. Bartholomew's Day, royal forces hunted down
and executed over three thousand Huguenots, including Coligny, in Paris. Within three
days, royal and Guise armies had hunted down and executed over twenty thousand
Huguenots in the single most bloody and systematic extermination of non-combatants in
European history until World War II. The St. Bartholomew Massacre was a turning point
in both French history and the history of the European Christian church. Protestants no
longer viewed Catholicism as a misguided church, but as the force of the devil itself. No
longer were Protestants fighting for a reformed church, but they suddenly saw themselves
fighting for survival against a Catholic church whose cruelty and violence seemed to
know no bounds. Throughout Europe, Protestant movements slowly transformed into
militant movements.

By the mid-1580's, the Catholic League was in control of France and, after Henry III
attempted to attack the League in 1588, the League drove him from Paris and embarked

12
on a systematic massacre of non-combatants that rivaled the earlier St. Bartholomew's
Massacre.

Henry of Navarre, as next in line to the throne, became King of France as Henry IV
(ruled 1589-1610). Henry understood that the only way that France would find peace is
if it were ruled by a tolerant Catholic king, so on July 25, 1593, he rejected his Protestant
faith and officially became Catholic. On April 13, 1598, Henry IV ended the long and
tiring religious wars in France by proclaiming the Edict of Nantes. This Edict granted to
Huguenots the right to worship publicly, to occupy public office, to assemble, to gain
admission to schools and universities, and to administer their own towns.

The year 1556 saw the accession of perhaps the most important monarch of the sixteenth
century: Philip II of Spain (ruled 1556-1598). Of all the monarchs of Europe, Philip was
the most zealous defender of his religious faith and his energies in pursuit of this defense
greatly changed the face of Europe. Philip sent the Duke of Alba with an army to quell
the Protestant revolt in the Netherlands in 1567. Alba imposed a tribunal, the Council of
Troubles, to question and sentence heretics (Protestants). The Dutch called this council
the "Council of Blood," for it managed to publicly execute thousands of people before
Alba was forced from the Netherlands.

Philip finally decided to invade England after the execution of the Catholic Mary, Queen
of Scots. On May 30, 1588, he sent a mighty armada of over 130 ships to invade
England. The Armada contained over 25,000 soldiers and the ships gathered for the
invasion in the English Channel south of England. In practical terms, the defeat of the
Armada was a temporary setback for Spain. The 1590's saw impressive military victories
for the Spanish. However, the defeat of the Armada was a tremendous psychological
victory for European Protestants. Spain represented the only powerful military force that
threatened the spread of Protestantism; when even the mighty Spanish navy could be
defeated by an outnumbered English and Dutch fleet, Protestants everywhere were
reinvigorated in their struggles against Spain and the Roman church. By the end of the
seventeeth century, Spain was no longer a major player in the power politics of Europe.

With the exception of the English civil war, the last major war of religion was the Thirty
Years War. It is fair to say, however, that this war was as much about politics as it was
about religion. Just as the Palatinate was fanatical about the spread of Calvinism and
Protestantism, so Bavaria was fanatical about the spread of Catholicism and the Counter-
Reformation. When Frederick IV, Elector of the Palatine, formed a defensive league with
England, France, and the Netherlands in 1609, Maximillian, Duke of Bavaria, formed a
Catholic League. In 1618, the relationship between these two regions erupted into war;
this war would outdo all the other previous religious wars in terms of extent and
destructiveness. The Thirty Years War was, perhaps, the first World War fought in
Europe, for nearly every state in Europe became involved in the war in some way or
another. The sheer amount of casualties and human destruction made this war the most
calamitous and disastrous war of European history before the nineteenth century. The
Thirty Years' War was a terrifying war whose destruction was only matched by the First
and Second World Wars. The land was destroyed and cattle slaughtered -- all of which

13
was made worse by a re-visitation of the plague. The Holy Roman Empire lost one
quarter of its inhabitants and its fragmentation into hundreds of small states delayed
economic recovery as well as any hope for a unified Germany. And during the English
Civil War of 1640-1660, the English beheaded their king in 1649. All of these conflicts
were inspired by religious differences owing to the Reformation, and all of these conflicts
had political, economic and social ramifications.

4.1 The European Mindset

These events created a deep and lasting impression on the European mindset. One of
them was the idea that religion is the source of “all” wars. The reality is the many of the
so called ‘religious’ wars had political motives behind them. Political leaders would
switch sides and alliances would be made across religious lines on political grounds. At
the same time, some of the wars were motivated by religion. The Europeans generalized
from their experience to all religion, not understanding that it was specific features of
Christianity and its development in Europe that were responsible for their difficulties.
The Islamic experience with religion and war has been entirely different, but Muslims
trained in the West learn to believe that Islam has also been the source of conflicts and
wars throughout history, even thought this is contrary to fact.

Another important consequence of perpetual warfare in Europe has been a mindset that
contact between any two groups of people must be hostile. This idea is present in
countless works of fiction as well as respectable academic works in Europe. The most
recent example is the “Clash of Civilizations” by Huntington. The idea that two
civilizations can meet, learn from each other, trade, enjoy benefits of mutual friendship
simply does not occur to Huntington and similar scholars in the European tradition. It is
assumed that war, conflict and attempts by one to dominate the other must result from
contact as this is the lesson of European history. The contrast with Muslim commands for
courtesy and good behavior towards those not of our faith could not be greater. The
Quran commands us to seek common grounds with the non-believers, to argue with them
in the best of ways (kindly, with courtesy and respect) :

ِ ِ َ‫ُُتَ ِادلُواُأ َْهلُالْ ِكت‬

ْ ‫ابُإَِّلُبِالَِِّتُه َيُأ‬
ُ‫َح َس ُن‬ َ ُ ‫َوَل‬

Also the Hadeeth state that the Prophet s.a.w himself will be the advocate for the
unbelievers in disputes in which Muslims are unjust to the them. European history shows
the importance of this courtesy and good behavior. In Europe, warring factions each of
which claimed certainty for its own side and killed others without mercy led to a
weariness with religion among the masses. This created the basis for widespread
agnosticism and atheism in Europe. An illustration of the hatred for religion created by
these events is given below:

In November 1793, atheism reached its zenith, with its mockery of the rites of the
church. On the tenth of November the commissioners of the Convention dressed
up an ass in sacerdotal habit, and loaded it with the symbols of Christianity, and

14
 tied the Old and New Testaments to its tail. It was then led in mock procession by
two sansculottes bearing a sacred cup, out of which they gave the animal
sacramental wine to drink. Arriving at their destination, the crowd piled books of
devotion into heaps, and burned them to ashes amid blasphemous shouts. A
prostitute was enthroned as the Goddess of Reason, and received adoration from
the National Convention..."

Such an event could not be contemplated anywhere in the Islamic world, even today.

4.2 The Rules of War

The extreme cruelty of the religious leaders of Europe to co-religionists with different
points of view has left a deep impress on European minds, and continues to influence
their worldviews and policies to this day. Alfred McCoy has documented the evolution of
the European tradition of torture of heretics (including Muslims and Jews), which started
with the Inquisition. He describes the CIA manual for torture (The Kubark Manual) as
“the first real revolution in the cruel science of pain in more than three centuries.” This
manual describes techniques developed by ‘scientific’ research on mental patients funded
by the CIA. These methods, used in Al-Gharaib and Guantanamo Bay, are in stark
contrast with Islamic rules for Jihad. Unlike the European idea that “All is fair in love
and war,” Jihad is a religious duty, and subject to strict Islamic rules from the earliest
times. The most important of these were summarized by Abu Bakr r.a., in the form of ten
rules for the Muslim army:

Stop, O people, that I may give you ten rules for your guidance in the
battlefield. Do not commit treachery or deviate from the right path. You must not
mutilate dead bodies. Neither kill a child, nor a woman, nor an aged man. Bring no
harm to the trees, nor burn them with fire, especially those which are fruitful. Slay
not any of the enemy's flock, save for your food. You are likely to pass by people
who have devoted their lives to monastic services; leave them alone.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_military_jurisprudence

Islamic traditions were established by the magnificent precedent of the Prophet s.a.w.
who upon the conquest of Mecca, forgave bitter enemies who had caused tremendous
harm as well as tortured large numbers of the early Muslims. Many Muslim conquerors
have followed this precedent, based on the Quranic teaching to be fair and just even to
our enemies:

ٍ ِ ِ ِ ‫ياُأَيُّهاُالَّ ِذينُآمنواُْ ُكونُواُْقَ َّو ِام‬

ّ‫ُعلَىُأَ ُل‬ َْ َ‫ُش َه َداءُبِالْق ْسط َُول‬
َ ‫َُي ِرَمنَّ ُك ُْم َشنَآ ُنُقَ ْوم‬ ُ ‫يُللّ ِه‬ َ َُ َ َ َ
ِ ِ ِ ِ
َ َ‫بُللتَّ ْق َوى َواتَّ ُقواُْاللّهَُإِ َّنُاللّه‬
‫ُخبِ ٌريُِبَاُتَ ْع َملُو َُن‬ ُ ‫ُه َوُأَقْ َر‬
ُ ْ‫ُاعدلُوا‬
ْ ْ‫تَ ْعدلُوا‬

15
Q5:8 O ye who believe! stand out firmly for Allah, as witnesses to fair dealing, and let not the
hatred of others to you make you swerve to wrong and depart from justice. Be just: that is next to
piety: and fear Allah. For Allah is well-acquainted with all that ye do.

The idea that the ends justify the means, used to justify torture, mass killing of civilian
innocents, and other atrocities in contemporary wars, is a continuation of a long European
tradition dating back to the era of religious wars. This idea has never been part of Islam.
Ameer Mu’awiyah recalled armies from a surprise attack, planned for immediately after
expiry of a peace treaty, when the religious scholars ruled that this was not permissible in
Islamic law. Bulgarians temporarily occupied Edirne during the First Balkan War (March
1913) after a siege of six months. Even in dire circumstances with compelling necessity,
the ruling of Islamic law that the property of the non-Muslims could not be seized for
purposes of defence was obeyed punctiliously by Muslims under siege. No other nation
can produce parallel examples.

It was very late in their history that the Europeans came to the realization that there
should be rules even in war, and codified them in the Geneva convention. Even now, this
convention is honored more in the breach than in observance, and extensive violations are
documented for USA, UK, France and other European countries. Fanning flames of
hatred against enemies is a common element of their strategy of war; witness the current
treatment of Islam in the West. Our current problem is succinctly summarized by a
beautiful scene from the movie “The Lion of the Desert”. When a young man insists on
mistreating a European captive as revenge for injustices done to Muslims, Omar Mukhtar
responds by saying “They (Europeans) are not our teachers.” Unfortunately, we have
allowed the West to become our teachers. Colonization by the West has destroyed
Islamic traditions and culture, and even the memories of these traditions have been lost in
contemporary Islamic societies. Muslims trained in western universities and armies have
learnt the lessons of hatred and cruelty to enemies, and have done things which are alien
to our traditions and history. In particular, torture of prisoners and murder of innocent
non-combatants is against Islamic law. Massive effort is required to throw off the
shackles of mental slavery of the colonial era, and recreate the ideals of the Quran as a
living reality in Islamic societies.

4.3 Islamic Standards of Justice

The failure of character of religious leaders in Europe was a key element in the loss of
faith suffered by Europeans. In particular, it was oppression, cruelty, and injustice against
opponents that led Europeans to believe that faith did not suffice as a guarantor of justice,
and led them to the development of the “rule of law” as a secular alternative. The
European heritage in this area goes back to the era of gladiators, where combat between
champions of was used to settle the issue of which of two parties was on the right. The
same spirit remains in operation to this day, as several recent high profile trials
demonstrates; those with the wealth for expensive lawyers can literally get away with
murder, as in the O. J. Simpson case. A panel of lawyers unanimously agreed that a
lawyer defending a male client known to be guilty of rape nonetheless is obliged to

16
destroy the reputation of the female victim if this is the best possible defence. All agreed
that justice is an incidental by-product of an adversarial struggle between opposing
parties.

Again, Islamic teachings stand in stark contrast to western traditions. Muslims are
required to bear witness, even if it is against their own self, and kith and kin:

ُ‫يُإِنُيَ ُك ْنُ َغنِيًّا‬ ِ ِ ِ ِ ُ ‫ياُأَيُّهاُالَّ ِذينُآمنُواُْ ُكونُواُْقَ َّو ِاميُبِالْ ِقس ِط‬
َ ِ‫ُعلَىُأَن ُفس ُك ْمُأَ ِوُالْ َوال َديْ ُِنُ َواألَقْ َرب‬ َ ‫ُش َه َداءُللّه َُولَ ْو‬ ْ َ َ َ َ َ
ِ ِ ِِ
َ ‫ضواُْفَِإ َّنُاللّهَُ َكا َنُِبَاُتَ ْع َملُو َن‬
‫ُخبِ ًريا‬ ُ ‫أ َْوُفَ َق ًرياُفَاللّهُُأ َْوََلُِب َماُفَالَُتَتَّبِعُواُْا ْْلََوىُأَنُتَ ْعدلُواْ َُوإِنُتَ ْلُُوواُْأ َْوُتُ ْع ِر‬
Q4:135 O ye who believe! stand out firmly for justice, as witnesses to Allah, even as against
yourselves, or your parents, or your kin, and whether it be (against) rich or poor: for Allah can best
protect both. Follow not the lusts (of your hearts), lest ye swerve, and if ye distort (justice) or
decline to do justice, verily Allah is well- acquainted with all that ye do.

Western traditions do not aspire to these high standards; the Fifth Amendment of the US
gives people a constitutional right to abstain from bearing witness against themselves.
The challenge facing Muslims is to prove the truth of the Quranic teachings by translating
it into a living reality in Muslim societies.

5. Conclusions

ُ‫اُوظَنُّواُأَن َُّهم‬ ْ ‫نُديَا ِرِه ْم ُِأل ََّوِل‬

َ ‫ُاْلَ ْش ِر َُماُظَنَنتُ ْمُأ‬
َ ‫َنَُيُْر ُُجو‬
ِ ‫اب ُِم‬
ِ َ‫اُمنُأ َْه ِلُالْ ِكت‬
ِ
ْ ‫ينُ َك َف ُرو‬
ِ َّ ِ
ْ ‫ُه َوُالَّذيُأ‬
َ ‫َخَر َجُالذ‬
ُ‫َُيْ ِربُو َنُبُيُوتَ ُهمُبِأَيْ ِدي ِه ْم‬
ُ‫ب‬ ُّ ‫ف ُِِفُقُلُوِبِِ ُم‬
َ ‫ُالر ْع‬ َ ‫اُوقَ َُذ‬ ِ َ ‫ثُ ََل‬
َ ‫ُُيتَسبُو‬ ْ ْ ُ ‫ُحْي‬
ِ
َ ‫اه ُمُاللَّهُُم ْن‬
ِ ِّ ‫َّمانِعتُهمُحصونُه‬
ُ َ‫مُم َنُاللَّهُفَأَت‬ ُ ُ ُ ُْ َ
‫صا ُِر‬ ِ ‫اعتَِِبُواُيَاُأ‬ ِِ ِ
َ ْ‫ُاألَب‬
ْ ‫ُوِل‬ ْ َ‫يُف‬ َ ‫َوأَيْديُالْ ُم ْؤمن‬
59:2 He it is who turned out of their homes, at the time of [their] first gathering [for war], such of the
followers of earlier revelation as were bent on denying the truth. [1] You did not think [O believers]
that they would depart [without resistance] - just as they thought that their strongholds would
protect them against God: but God came upon them in a manner which they had not expected, [2] and
cast terror into their hearts; [and thus] they destroyed their homes by their own hands as well as the
hands of the believers. [3] Learn a lesson, then, O you who are endowed with insight!

The Europeans destroyed their own faith with their own hands, and have suffered
tremendously in consequence, as described briefly in the introduction. In this essay, our
goal was to discuss the process by which the Europeans lost their faith in Christianity,
and to learn lessons relevant to Muslims today.

The humiliation of defeat has led Muslims to a deep seated inferiority complex,
exacerbated by Western accounts of their own superiority. To overcome this, it is

17
essential to examine western history from a religious point of view. The secular narration
of western history, which is the dominant one, misses crucial ingredients of the story. The
failings of religious leaders in the west led to the development of many western
ideologies which are directly opposed to religious teachings. By examining these issues,
we learn the importance of certain Islamic teachings relating to justice, fairness, unity,
tolerance and love for each other as well as all human beings, as a key to maintaining a
society of the faithful. Since these secular western ideologies are in wide circulation and
being assimilated by Muslims, an examination of their history also serves to expose their
roots in anti-religious thought, and protect us from their influence.

The teachings of Islam are at a level of excellence which is much higher than that which
the West currently aspires to. As long as they remain on our books and history, but not in
the lives and hearts of Muslims, they are a source of embarrassment rather than pride.
The challenge which faces the Ummah today is to translate the teachings of Islam into a
living reality. We make the struggle to bring this about, with trust in Allah that He will
guide us to His pathways. We conclude with the prayer that Allah T’aala may grant us
the strong faith which form the basis for His friendship and that He may guide us from
the darkness into the light:
ُ‫ُّوِر‬ ِ ِ ُّ ِّ ‫َُيْ ِرج ُه‬ ِ َّ ُّ ِ‫اللّهُو‬
ُ ‫مُم َنُالظلُ َماتُإ ََلُالن‬ ُ ُ ْ‫ُآمنُوا‬
َ ‫ين‬َ ‫ِلُالذ‬ َُ

18