EMG 2505

EMG 2505
MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION
K.V. Rop @ 2017

Measurement and Instrumentation
EMG 2505: MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION
Course Outline (45 Lecture Hours)

Purpose
The purpose of this course is to enable the student to;
1. Have an understanding of basic physical principles supporting common
transducers
2. Have an introduction to principles of measurement, analogue and digital
instruments
3. Have knowledge on treatment of measurement errors and signal processing
techniques
Learning outcomes
At the end of this course, students should be able to;
1. Analyze measurement errors
2. Describe the static and dynamic characteristics of instrumentation systems
3. Understand several basic remote sensing techniques and appreciate the
importance of signal processing
Course description
Transducers: Resistive, capacitive, inductive, thermal, optical, piezoelectric, ultrasonic
etc. Performance terminology. Analogue and digital instruments Principles of operation
of analogue and digital instruments. Instrument transformers; current and potential
transformers, ratio and phase angle errors. Cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO). Calibration
of instruments. Description of measurement system and treatment of errors Elements
of a measurement system. Sources of error; system error, random error, and human
error. Statistical treatment of errors in measurements. Mathematical definitions for
absolute error, relative error, resolution and sensitivity of instrument. Accuracy and
precision. Measurements: Measurements of voltage, current, charge, resistance,
inductance, capacitance, phase angle, frequency, power and energy. Generalized
performance of instrumentation systems Static characteristics. Meteorological
standards. Dynamic characteristics: dynamic system models; first and second order
systems. Remote sensing Remote sensing techniques Signal conditioning Noise and
interference reduction. Microprocessor application in instrumentation. Chart recorder:
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X-Y plotters, digital data recording, digital displays. Data conversion: Data acquisition
cards, interfacing and data acquisition and processing software for example LabVIEW.
Prerequisites:
EMG 2312 Metrology
Course Textbooks
 Alan S. Morris, (2001), Measurement and Instrumentation Principles – 3rd ed.,
Butterworth-Heinemann
 Beckwith R.D. & Lienhard J.H. (1995), Mechanical Measurements, Addison-Wesley
Publishing Co.
 Roman Malaric, (2011), Instrumentation and Measurement in Electrical Engineering,
Brown Walker Press
 Robert B. Northrob, (2005) Introduction to Instrumentation and Measurements, 2nd
edition, Taylor and Francis Group
Reference Textbooks
 Sirohi R.S. & Krishna H.C.R. (1991), Mechanical Measurements, New Age
publishers, 3rd Ed.
 Fraser C. & Milne J. (1994), Integrated Electrical and electronic Engineering for Mechanical
Engineers, McGraw-Hill.
 Gregory, B.A., An Introduction to Electrical Instrumentation
 Martin Reissland, Electrical Measurements‖, New Age International (P) Ltd., 2001.
 Charles K. Alexander & Matthew n. o. Sadiku, (2013), Fundamentals Of
Electric Circuits, 5th ed., McGraw-Hill
 Francis S. Tse, Ivan E. Morse (1989), Measurement and instrumentation in
engineering: principles and basic laboratory experiments, CRC Press, illustrated Ed.
 Journal of Dynamic Systems, Measurement, and Control
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
EMG 2505: MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION .............................................. i

1.0. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS .............................................. 7
1.1. Introduction to International Systems of Units .................................................................. 7
1.1.1. Definitions of the SI Base units ..................................................................................... 8
1.1.2. Derived SI units ......................................................................................................... 9
1.1.3. Prefixes Used For Multiples of Units ....................................................................... 11
1.2. Introduction to Electrical Measurement .......................................................................... 12
1.2.1. Evolution of Instruments ......................................................................................... 12
1.2.2. Active and Passive Instruments ................................................................................ 12
1.1.4. Null-type and deflection-type instruments ................................................................ 13
1.1.5. Classification of Instruments .................................................................................... 13
1.1.6. Characteristics of Instruments; ................................................................................. 14
1.1.7. What affects your measurements? ............................................................................ 15
1.1.8. Calibration ............................................................................................................... 16
2.0. MEASUREMENT ERRORS, NOISE, AND CALIBRATIONS ............................... 19
2.1. Measurement Errors ........................................................................................................ 19
2.2. Classification of Errors .................................................................................................... 19
2.2.1. Systematic Errors ..................................................................................................... 20
2.2.2. Random Errors ........................................................................................................ 20
2.3. Error Analysis ................................................................................................................. 21
2.3.1. Absolute and Relative Errors ................................................................................... 21
2.3.2. Systematic Error....................................................................................................... 22
2.3.3. Random Errors ........................................................................................................ 27
2.3.4. Uncertainty Analysis................................................................................................. 33
2.4. Noise Measurement ......................................................................................................... 41
2.4.1. Sources of Measurement Noise ................................................................................ 42
2.4.2. Techniques for Reducing Measurement Noise ......................................................... 43
2.5. Calibration ....................................................................................................................... 45
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2.5.1. Primary calibration ................................................................................................... 45

2.5.2. Secondary calibration ............................................................................................... 45
2.5.3. Direct calibration ..................................................................................................... 45
2.5.4. Indirect calibration ................................................................................................... 46
2.5.5. Calibration Standards ............................................................................................... 46
3.0. MEASUREMENT OF ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES .............................................. 48
3.1. Principles of Measurements ............................................................................................. 48
3.2. Analogue Measuring Instruments .................................................................................... 49
3.2.1. Moving Coil in Measuring Instruments .................................................................... 51
3.2.2. DC Measurements ................................................................................................... 56
3.2.3. Loading Errors ......................................................................................................... 66
3.2.4. A.C. Measurements .................................................................................................. 70
3.3. Oscilloscope .................................................................................................................... 73
3.3.1. Operating Principles of an Oscilloscope ................................................................... 74
3.3.2. Simplified Block Diagram of an Oscilloscope........................................................... 75
3.3.3. Multi-Trace Oscilloscopes ........................................................................................ 82
3.3.4. Digital Storage Oscilloscopes (DSO) ........................................................................ 83
3.4. Virtual Instrumentation ................................................................................................... 84
3.4.1. Components of Virtual Instrumentation .................................................................. 86
4.0. VARIABLE CONVERSION ELEMENTS ................................................................. 88
4.1. Measurements ................................................................................................................. 88
4.2. Bridge Circuits ................................................................................................................. 89
4.2.1. Advantages of Bridge Circuit: ................................................................................... 90
4.2.2. DC Null Measurements............................................................................................ 90
4.2.3. Deflection-Type D.C. Bridge ................................................................................... 94
4.2.4. A.C. Bridges ........................................................................................................... 104
5.0. INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS ......................................................................... 105
5.1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 105
5.2. Types of instrument transformers.................................................................................. 105
5.2.1. Current Transformers ............................................................................................ 106
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5.2.2. Potential Transformers........................................................................................... 111

5.2.3. Difference between C.T. and P.T. .......................................................................... 112
5.3. Basic important rules for Instrument Transformers ....................................................... 113
6.0. DISPLACEMENT AND MECHANICAL STRAIN .................................................114
6.1. Transducers ................................................................................................................... 114
6.1.1. Characteristics of Transducers................................................................................ 115
6.1.2. Transducers Selection Factors ................................................................................ 115
6.1.3. Classification of Transducers.................................................................................. 116
6.2. Displacement Sensors.................................................................................................... 120
6.2.1. Capacitive Sensors.................................................................................................. 120
6.2.2. Resistive Sensors .................................................................................................... 121
6.2.3. Inductive Sensors ................................................................................................... 122
6.2.4. Magnetic Sensors ................................................................................................... 124
6.2.5. Hall-Effect Sensors ................................................................................................ 126
6.2.6. Piezoelectric Sensors .............................................................................................. 126
6.3. Strain Gages (Gauges) ................................................................................................... 128
6.3.1. Tension and Compression ...................................................................................... 128
6.3.2. Stress...................................................................................................................... 128
6.3.3. Strain...................................................................................................................... 129
6.3.4. Hooke’s law ........................................................................................................... 129
6.4. Optical Sensors (Air Path) ............................................................................................. 131
6.5. Optical sensors (fibre-optic) .......................................................................................... 132
6.6. Ultrasonic transducers ................................................................................................... 133
6.6.1. Ultrasonic Imaging ................................................................................................. 134
7.0. TELEMETRY & TRANSMISSION ......................................................................... 136
7.1. Advantages and Disadvantages of Telemetry ................................................................. 136
7.1.1. Advantages of Telemetry........................................................................................ 136
7.1.2. Disadvantages of Telemetry ................................................................................... 136
7.2. Components of a Typical Wireless Telemetry System .................................................... 137
7.2.1. Applications ........................................................................................................... 137
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7.3. Signal Transmission ....................................................................................................... 138

7.3.1. Electrical Transmission .......................................................................................... 138
7.3.2. Pneumatic Transmission ........................................................................................ 139
7.3.3. Fibre-Optic Transmission ...................................................................................... 140
7.3.4. Optical Wireless Telemetry .................................................................................... 142
7.3.5. Radio Telemetry (Radio Wireless Transmission) ..................................................... 142
8.0. RECORDING AND PRESENTATION OF MEASUREMENT DATA ................ 143
8.1. Recording of Measurement Data ................................................................................... 143
8.1.1. Mechanical Chart Recorders ................................................................................... 143
8.1.2. Ultra-violet recorders ............................................................................................. 146
8.1.3. Magnetic Tape Recorders ....................................................................................... 147
8.2. Presentation of data ....................................................................................................... 148
8.2.1. Tabular data presentation ....................................................................................... 148
8.2.2. Graphical presentation of data ............................................................................... 149
9. SIGNAL CONDITIONING ...................................................................................... 152
9.1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 152
9.2. Amplification/Attenuation ............................................................................................ 154
9.2.1. Operational amplifier (op-amp) .............................................................................. 155
9.2.2. Filtering.................................................................................................................. 156
9.2.3. Wheatstone Bridge ................................................................................................. 157
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1.0. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS
Why do we need to Study Electrical Measurement?
Example of Case Studies
1. NASA's Mars Climate Orbiter. Programming teams in Europe and the USA
used two different measurement systems, imperial and metric, to calculate the
trajectory of the spacecraft. The probe consequently entered the Martian
atmosphere at the wrong angle, and promptly disintegrated.
2. The ‘Gimli Glider’. An Air Canada Boeing 767-233 jet was refueled in Montreal
using 22 300 pounds of fuel instead of 22 300 kilograms. The pilot calculated
how much fuel he needed thinking he was getting his fuel in pounds per litre.
When the plane ran out of fuel mid-flight, the pilot had to make an emergency
'gliding' landing at Gimli Canadian Air Force Base.
All engineers measure things, but try asking yourself the following questions:
 Are the measurement results accurate enough?

 Is the measurement device working correctly?
 How critical is this measurement? If it is wrong, will someone lose money? Or
could someone lose their life?
1.1. Introduction to International Systems of Units
With the need to unify systems of units around the word, the International Systems of
Units (SI) was established in 1960.
SI units is that are used in modern metric system have the following features;
i. Coherent – Composed of seven base units (meter, kilogram, second, ampere,

kelvin, mole, and candela) which are mutually independent.
Coherence means the basic unit of natural laws is always associated with factor 1
(1x1=1, 1/1 =1).
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ii. Unified – All units are defined by unchangeable natural constrains except for
weight.
iii. Uniform – The measurements in the dynamics, electrodynamics, and
thermodynamics can be compared with each other in terms of conservation of
mass and energy.
1.1.1. Definitions of the SI Base units
The SI is a set of Definitions. The standards are the physical objects whose
characteristics agree with the definition of unit.
The Seven Base Units are;
Note
 The first letters of the names of the units are in lower case, e.g. four kilograms
or eight seconds. The one exception is the Celsius, which is capitalized because
its full version is ‘degrees Celsius’ with a small ‘d’.
 For clarity, it is normal practice to put a single space between a number and its
unit symbol, e.g. 4mm rather than 4mm.
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1.1.2. Derived SI units
All measurements can be expressed using combinations of the seven base units (and
angle if needed). These combinations are called derived units.
An example is the unit of electrical resistance Ohm Ω

𝑉
Ω= 1.1
𝐴
𝑾
Where, 𝐕 = ; V is the SI unit of Voltage, A (ampere) is the SI unit of Current, W
𝑨
(Watt) is the SI unit of Force. SI unit of Watt is derived from the SI unit of Joule and
Newton, and whose unit are derived from Kilogram, meter, and second. Thus Ohm
is expressed in base units of SI as;
Ω = 𝑚2 . 𝑘𝑔. 𝑠 −3 . 𝐴−2 1.2
Such applied for all derived SI units. Some of the derived SI units are;
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Figure 1.1: The Relationship of Base and Derived Units
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1.1.3. Prefixes Used For Multiples of Units
A shorthand system of prefixes was agreed as part of the SI. All prefixes are related to
each other by powers of 10, making them very easy to use.
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1.2. Introduction to Electrical Measurement
Measurement is a process of process of comparison between a standard and an

unknown resulting in knowing the magnitude of the unknown in terms of standard
Instrumentation is a device in which we can determine the magnitude or value of the

quantity to be measured.
The two main essential characteristics of an electrical instrument are;
i. The operational power consumption should be minimal

ii. The instrument should not change the ambient condition for the circuit in
which it has been introduced.
1.2.1. Evolution of Instruments
 Mechanical: These instruments are very reliable for static and stable conditions.
But their disadvantage is that they are unable to respond rapidly to measurements
of dynamic and transient conditions.
 Electrical: It is faster than mechanical, indicating the output are rapid than
mechanical methods. But it depends on the mechanical movement of the meters.
The response is 0.5 to 24 seconds.
 Electronic: It is more reliable than other system. It uses semiconductor devices
and weak signal can also be detected.
1.2.2. Active and Passive Instruments
Instruments are divided into active or passive ones according to whether the instrument
output is entirely produced by the quantity being measured or whether the quantity
being measured simply modulates the magnitude of some external power source.
An example of a passive instrument is the pressure-measuring for weigh milk in milk

collecting points. An example of an active instrument is a float-type petrol tank level
indicator using electric sensors.
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1.1.4. Null-type and deflection-type instruments
The pressure gauge just mentioned is a good example of a deflection type of instrument,
where the value of the quantity being measured is displayed in terms of the amount of
movement of a pointer.
An alternative type of pressure gauge is the deadweight gauge which is a null-type

instrument. An example is the old weighing machine for meat.
The accuracy of these two instruments depends on different things.
 For the first one, it depends on the linearity and calibration of the spring
 For the second, it relies on the calibration of the weights.
1.1.5. Classification of Instruments
Instrument
Indirect Direct
Absolute Instrument Secondary Instrument
(Mode)
Analog Digital
Instrument Instrument
(Indication Mode)
Deflecting Null Deflection

(Type of Operation)
Indicating Integrating Recording

Instrument Instrument Instrument
i. Absolute Instrument – These are those which gives the value of parameter
under measurement in terms of physical constant of instrument. They contain
less mechanical movable parts and are highly accurate. They are mostly used to
calibrate the other commonly used instruments.
ii. Secondary Instrument – These instruments base their operation on the direct
methodology of measurement. These instruments are generally used in day to
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day measurements. Examples are Ammeter, Voltmeter, etc. They are less
accurate because they contain many mechanical movable parts.
iii. Analog Instrument – This is an instrument whose operations varies
continuously with time all the while maintaining a constant relationship with
output. Example is the deflection-type of pressure gauge.
iv. Digital Instrument - This is an instrument whose operations varies discretely
with time all the while maintaining a constant relationship with output. Any
digital computer system, of which the microcomputer is but one example,
performs its computations in digital form.
v. Deflecting Instruments – Those which indicate their end of measurement with
the deflection of pointer away from the zero position.
vi. Null Deflection Instruments – Those which indicate their end of measurement
with zero or null deflection.
vii. Indicating Instrument – Instrument which give the instantaneous value of the
parameter under measurement. e.g. Ammeter, Voltmeter
viii. Integrating Instrument – Instrument which give the sum or total of the
electrical parameter consumed over the period of time. E.g. Power/Energy
meter, water meter.
ix. Recording Instrument – An instrument which give the historical information
about the measurement in terms of a continuous record of measurements over
a specific period of time. E.g. Recording Voltmeter. Speed Governor.
1.1.6. Characteristics of Instruments;
i. Accuracy – A qualitative term that describes how close a set of measurements

are to the actual (true) value.
ii. Precision – Describes the spread of these measurements when repeated - a
measurement that has high precision has good repeatability.
iii. Range or span – Defines the minimum and maximum values of a quantity that
the instrument is designed to measure.
iv. Threshold – If the input to an instrument is gradually increased from zero, the
input will have to reach a certain minimum level before the change in the
instrument output reading is of a large enough magnitude to be detectable.
v. Uncertainty – The quantification of the doubt about the measurement result
and tells us something about its quality.
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vi. Sensitivity – The sensitivity of

measurement is a measure of the change
in instrument output that occurs when
the quantity being measured changes by
a given amount. The sensitivity of
measurement is therefore the slope of
the straight line
vii. Error – The difference between the
measured value and the true value of the
thing being measured.
viii. True value – The value that would be obtained by a theoretically perfect
measurement.
ix. Tolerance – The maximum acceptable difference between the actual value of a
quantity and the value specified for it.
x. Repeatability – The closeness of agreement between repeated measurements of
the same thing, carried out in the same place, by the same person, on the same
equipment, in the same way, at similar times
xi. Reproducibility – The closeness of agreement between measurements of the
same thing carried out in different circumstances, e.g. by a different person, or a
different method, or at a different time
xii. Noise – A spurious current or voltage extraneous to the current or voltage of
interest in an electrical or electronic circuit.
xiii. Speed of Response – The rapidity with which a measurement system responds
to changes in measured quantity.
xiv. Fidelity – The degree to which a measurement system indicates changes in the
measured quantity without any dynamic error.
xv. Dynamic Error - The difference between the true value of the quantity changing
with time and the value indicated by the measurement system if no static error is
assumed. It is also called measurement error.
1.1.7. What affects your measurements?
i. Environmental conditions – Changes in temperature or humidity can expand

or contract materials as well as affect the performance of measurement
equipment.
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ii. Inferior measuring equipment – Equipment which is poorly maintained,

damaged or not calibrated will give less reliable results.
iii. Poor measuring techniques – Having consistent procedures for your
measurements is vital.
iv. Inadequate training – Not knowing how to make the right measurement, not
having the confidence to challenge the results and not being willing to seek advice
can all have a negative impact.
1.1.8. Calibration
Calibration of all instruments is important since it affords the opportunity to check the
instruments against a known standard and subsequently to find errors and accuracy.
Calibration Procedure involve a comparison of the particular instrument with either
Problem Question:
Quiz 1: The following resistance values of a platinum resistance thermometer were

measured at a range of temperatures. Determine the measurement sensitivity of the
instrument in ohms/°C.
Resistance Temperature (°C)

307 200
314 230
321 260
328 290
Answer
If these values are plotted on a graph, the straight-line relationship between resistance
change and temperature change is obvious.
For a change in temperature of 30°C, the change in resistance is 7 Ω. Hence the

measurement sensitivity =7/30 = 0.233 Ω /°C.
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Appendix
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2.0. MEASUREMENT ERRORS, NOISE, AND CALIBRATIONS
2.1. Measurement Errors
Error has to do with uncertainty in measurements that nothing can be done about.
Error is the difference between the measured and the true value.
 The difference between the measurement and the accepted value is not what is
meant by error.
 Error doesn’t mean a blunder.
Errors in measurement systems can be divided into two
i. Those that arise during the measurement process.

ii. Those that arise due to later corruption of the measurement signal by induced
noise during transfer of the signal from the point of measurement to some other
point.
No measurement can be made with perfect accuracy and precision.
 Detected error – I can be eliminated or its effect accounted for in the form of
a suitable correction.
 Undetected error – Makes the experimental data unreliable.
2.2. Classification of Errors
There are two main classification of errors;
 Systematic Errors
 Random Errors
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2.2.1. Systematic Errors
Systematic errors describe errors in the output readings of a measurement system that
are consistently on one side of the correct reading, i.e. either all the errors are
positive or they are all negative.
They tend to shift all measurements in a systematic way so their mean value is displaced.
Systematic errors displace measurements in a single direction.
Sources of Systematic Errors
 System disturbance during measurement

 Effect of environmental changes (modifying inputs)
 Bent meter needles
 Uncalibrated instruments,
 Drift in instrument characteristics
 Poor cabling practices.
Even when systematic errors due to the above factors have been reduced or eliminated,
some errors remain that are inherent in the manufacture of an instrument.
These are quantified by the accuracy figure quoted in the published specifications
contained in the instrument data sheet.
2.2.2. Random Errors
Random errors are errors which fluctuate from one measurement to the next. They
yield results distributed about some mean value.
For example, if you were to measure the period of a pendulum many times with a stop
watch, you would find that your measurements were not always the same.
The main source of these fluctuations would probably be the difficulty of judging
exactly when the pendulum came to a given point in its motion, and in starting and
stopping the stop watch at the time that you judge. Since you would not get the same
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value of the period each time that you try to measure it, your result is obviously
uncertain.
Random errors displace measurements in an arbitrary direction.
Sources of Random Errors
 Certain type of human error

 Error resulting from variations in definition
 Uncontrollable fluctuations in initial conditions in the measurements.
 Electrical Noise
 Limitations imposed by the precision of your measuring apparatus, and the
uncertainty in interpolating between the smallest divisions.
 Lack of precise definition of the quantity being measured.
 Sometimes the quantity you measure is well defined but is subject to inherent
random fluctuations.
No matter what the source of the uncertainty, to be labeled "random" an uncertainty

must have the property that the fluctuations from some "true" value are equally likely
to be positive or negative. This fact gives us a key for understanding what to do about
random errors.
2.3. Error Analysis

2.3.1. Absolute and Relative Errors
The absolute error in a measured quantity is the uncertainty in the quantity and has
the same units as the quantity itself. For example if you know a length is 0.428 m ±
0.002 m, the 0.002 m is an absolute error.
The relative error (also called the fractional error) is obtained by dividing the absolute
error in the quantity by the quantity itself. The relative error is usually more significant
than the absolute error. Relative errors are dimensionless. When reporting relative
errors it is usual to multiply the fractional error by 100 and report it as a percentage.
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2.3.2. Systematic Error

2.3.2.1. Sources of Systematic Error
A. System disturbance due to measurement
The process of measurement always disturbs the system being measured. The
magnitude of the disturbance varies from one measurement system to the next and is
affected particularly by the type of instrument used for measurement.
Ways of minimizing disturbance of measured systems is an important consideration in

instrument design.
Measurements in Electric Circuits
Thevenin’s theorem can be used to analyze the system disturbance during

measurements in electric circuits.
Consider a circuit in Figure 2.1 in which the voltage across resistor R5 is to be measured
by a voltmeter with resistance Rm. Here, Rm acts as a shunt resistance across R5,
decreasing the resistance between points AB and so disturbing the circuit. Therefore,
the voltage Em measured by the meter is not the value of the voltage E0 that existed
prior to measurement.
The extent of the disturbance can be assessed by calculating the open circuit voltage E0
and comparing it with Em.
Thevenin’s theorem allows the circuit of Figure 2.1 (a) comprising two voltage sources
and five resistors to be replaced by an equivalent circuit containing a single resistance
and one voltage source.
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Figure 2.1: Analysis of circuit loading: (a) a circuit in which the voltage across R5 is to
be measured; (b) equivalent circuit by Thevenin’s theorem; (c) the circuit used to find
the equivalent single resistance RAB.
Starting at C and D, the circuit to the left of C and D consists of a series pair of
resistances (R1 and R2) in parallel with R3, and the equivalent resistance can be written
as:
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2.1
Moving now to A and B, the circuit to the left consists of a pair of series resistances
(RCD and R4) in parallel with R5. The equivalent circuit resistance RAB can thus be
2.2
Substituting for RCD in eq. 2.1 into eq. 2.2, we obtain:
2.3
Defining I as the current flowing in the circuit when the measuring instrument is
connected to it, we can write:
2.4
and the voltage measured by the meter is then given by:
2.5
In the absence of the measuring instrument and its resistance Rm, the voltage across AB
would be the equivalent circuit voltage source whose value is E0. The effect of
measurement is therefore to reduce the voltage across AB by the ratio given by:
2.6
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The measurement error is given by (E0 – Em), and is mostly expressed in terms of
percentage.
It is thus obvious that as Rm gets larger, the ratio Em/E0 gets closer to unity, showing
that the design strategy should be to make Rm as high as possible to minimize
disturbance of the measured system.
(Note that we did not calculate the value of E0, since this is not required in quantifying
the effect of Rm.)
Example 2.1
Suppose that the components of the circuit shown in Figure 1.1(a) have the following
values:
R1 = 400 Ω; R2 = 600 Ω; R3 = 1000 Ω; R4 = 500 Ω; R5 = 1000Ω
The voltage across AB is measured by a voltmeter whose internal resistance is 9500 Ω.

What is the measurement error caused by the resistance of the measuring instrument?
Solution
Proceeding by applying Thevenin’s theorem to find an equivalent circuit to that of

Figure 2.1(a) of the form shown in Figure 2.1(b), and substituting the given component
values into the eq. 2.3 for RAB, we obtain:
From eq. 2.6, we have:
The measurement error is given by (E0 – Em):
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Substituting in values:
Thus, the error in the measured value is 5%.
B. Errors Due to Environmental Inputs
An environmental input is defined as an apparently real input to a measurement system

that is actually caused by a change in the environmental conditions surrounding the
measurement system.
The magnitude of any environmental input must be measured before the value of the
measured quantity (the real input) can be determined from the output reading of an
instrument.
C. Wear in instrument components
Systematic errors can frequently develop over a period of time because of wear in
instrument components. Recalibration often provides a full solution to this problem.
D. Connecting leads
In connecting together the components of a measurement system, a common source

of error is the failure to take proper account of the resistance of connecting leads.
Careful consideration needs to be given to the choice of connecting leads to ensure that
they are of adequate cross-section so that their resistance is minimized, as well as they
should be adequately screened if they are thought likely to be subject to electrical or
magnetic fields that could otherwise cause induced noise.
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2.3.2.2. Reduction of Systematic Errors
The prerequisite for the reduction of systematic errors is a complete analysis of the
measurement system that identifies all sources of error. Amongst the various methods
of reducing the systematic errors are;
i. Observing Proper Measurement Practices

ii. Careful instrument design
iii. Method of opposing inputs
iv. High-gain feedback
v. Calibration
vi. Manual correction of output reading
vii. Intelligent instruments
2.3.2.3. Quantification of Systematic Errors
After eliminating or reducing the magnitude of systematic errors, the final action
required is to estimate the maximum remaining error that may exist in a measurement
due to systematic errors.
This remaining error is quantified by assuming mid-point environmental conditions and

specify the maximum measurement error as ±% of the output reading to allow for the
maximum expected deviation in environmental conditions away from this mid-point.
Data sheets supplied by instrument manufacturers usually quantify systematic errors in

this way, and such figures take account of all systematic errors that may be present in
output readings from the instrument.
2.3.3. Random Errors
Positive errors and negative errors occur in approximately equal numbers for a series
of measurements made of the same constant quantity.
Therefore, random errors can largely be eliminated by calculating the average of a

number of repeated measurements, provided that the measured quantity remains
constant during the process of taking the repeated measurements.
K.V. Rop Page 27
2.3.3.1. Statistical Analysis of Measurements Subject To Random Errors
A. Mean and median values
Mean – The most probable value of measured variable is the arithmetic mean of the
number of readings taken.
For any set of n measurements x1, x2 … xn of a constant quantity, mean is given by;
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + ∙ ∙ ∙ 𝑥𝑛 𝑥𝑛
𝑥𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = ∑ 2.7
𝑛 𝑛
This is valid for all data sets where the measurement errors are distributed equally about
the zero error value, i.e. where the positive errors are balanced in quantity and
magnitude by the negative errors.
Median – An approximation to the mean that can be written down without having to
sum the measurements. The median is the middle value when the measurements in the
data set are written down in ascending order of magnitude.
2.8
 The smaller the spread of the measurements, the more confidence we have
in the mean or median value calculated.
 The median value tends towards the mean value as the number of measurements
increases.
B. Standard Deviation And Variance
Deviation – This is the departure of the observed reading from the arithmetic mean of
the group of readings.
2.9
Average Deviation – This is an indication of the precision at the instruments used in

making the measurements. Highly precise instruments will yield a low average deviation
between readings.
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By definition average deviation is the sum of the absolute values of the deviations
divided by the number of readings.
2.10
Variance (V) – This is the square of the sum of the absolute values of the deviations
divided by the number of readings minus 1. In measurements unlike in mathematics,
we are concerned only with finite data sets, thus the use of (n-1).
𝑑12 + 𝑑22 + ∙ ∙ ∙ 𝑑𝑛
2 ∑ 𝑑22
𝑉= = 2.11
𝑛−1 𝑛−1
Standard Deviation (σ) – This is simply the square root of the variance.
It is a measure that is used to quantify the amount of variation or dispersion of a set

of data values.
A standard deviation close to 0 indicates that the data points tend to be very close
to the mean (also called the expected value) of the set, while a high standard deviation
indicates that the data points are spread out over a wider range of values.
2.12
 As V and σ decrease for a measurement set, the calculated mean or median

value is close to the true value, i.e. that the averaging process has reduced the
random error value close to zero.
 The mean value increases as the number of measurements increases.
2.3.3.2. Graphical Data Analysis Techniques – Frequency Distributions
The simplest way of analyzing random measurement errors using graphical techniques
is by drawing a histogram, in which bands of equal width across the range of
measurement values are defined and the number of measurements within each band is
counted.
K.V. Rop Page 29
Figure 2.2: Histogram of measurements and deviations.
For instance in Figure 2.2, there are 11 measurements in the range between 405.5 and
407.5 and so the height of the histogram for this range is 11 units. Also, there are 5
measurements in the range from 407.5 to 409.5 and so the height of the histogram over
this range is 5 units.
As the number of measurements increases, smaller bands can be defined for the
histogram, which retains its basic shape but then consists of a larger number of smaller
steps on each side of the peak.
In the limit, as the number of measurements approaches infinity, the histogram

becomes a smooth curve known as a frequency distribution curve as shown in Figure
2.3. The ordinate of this curve is the frequency of occurrence of each deviation value,
F(D), and the abscissa is the magnitude of deviation, D.
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Figure 2.3: Frequency Distribution Curve of Deviations
If the height of the frequency distribution curve is normalized such that the area under
it is unity, then the curve in this form is known as a probability curve, and the height
F(D) at any particular deviation magnitude D is known as the probability density
function (p.d.f.).
The probability that the error in any one particular measurement lies between two levels
D1 and D2 can be calculated by measuring the area under the curve contained between
two vertical lines drawn through D1 and D2, as shown by the right-hand hatched area
in Figure 2.3. This can be expressed mathematically as:
2.13
Gaussian distribution
Measurement sets that only contain random errors usually conform to a distribution
with a particular shape that is called Gaussian.
The shape of a Gaussian curve is such that the frequency of small deviations from the
mean value is much greater than the frequency of large deviations. This coincides with
the usual expectation in measurements subject to random errors that the number of
K.V. Rop Page 31

measurements with a small error is much larger than the number of measurements with
a large error.
Alternative names for the Gaussian distribution are the Normal distribution or Bell-
shaped distribution.
A Gaussian curve is formally defined as a normalized frequency distribution that is

symmetrical about the line of zero error and in which the frequency and magnitude of
quantities are related by the expression:
2.14
where m is the mean value of the data set.
This formula can be presented in form of the relationship between F(D) and D as;
2.15
The shape of a Gaussian curve is strongly influenced by the value of σ, with the width
of the curve decreasing as σ becomes smaller. As a smaller σ corresponds with the
typical deviations of the measurements from the mean value becoming smaller, this
confirms the earlier observation that the mean value of a set of measurements gets
closer to the true value as σ decreases.
2.3.3.3. Rogue data points
In a set of measurements subject to random error, measurements with a very large error
sometimes occur at random and unpredictable times, which are not termed as random.
It is accepted practice in such cases to discard these rogue measurements, and a

threshold level of a ±3σ deviation is often used to determine what should be discarded.
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2.3.4. Uncertainty Analysis
Any system that relies on a measurement system will involve some amount of
uncertainty (doubt).
The uncertainty may be caused by individual inaccuracy of sensors, limitations of the

display devices, random variations in measurands, or environmental conditions.
The accuracy of the total system depends on the interaction of components and their
individual accuracies.
Thus, the estimation of the uncertainty is important.
2.3.4.1. Mathematical Analysis of the Uncertainty
If an experiment has number of component sources, each being measured individually

using independent instruments, a procedure to compute the total accuracy is necessary.
Let,
2.16
where x1, x2, x3, … , xn are independent variables. Each variable is defined as
2.17
is known as the nominal value; ∆x is known as the uncertainty in

the variable x1; then
2.18
where
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The uncertainty ∆R = wR can be computed using Taylor’s series expansion and

statistical analysis. All partial derivatives of R are taken. The partial derivative shows
the sensitivity of R to variable xi.
Since the measurements have been taken, the xi values are known and can be substituted
into the expressions for the partial derivatives and partial derivatives are evaluated at
known values of x1, x2, . , xn.
Limiting Error
Two methods are commonly used for determining the uncertainty. The first one is
called the method of equal effects and it yields the limiting (guarantied) error
(maximum uncertainty possible).
2.19
Where is the partial derivative of the function with respect to x1 calculated at the
nominal value.
The absolute value is used because some of the partial derivatives may be negative and
would have a canceling effect.
If one of the partial derivative is high compared to the others, then a small uncertainty
in the corresponding variable has large effect on the total error.
Hence, the equation also illustrates which of the variable exerts strongest influence on
the accuracy of the overall results.
Example
The voltage generated by a circuit is equally dependent on the value of three resistors
and is given by the following equation: V0 = I(R1R2/R3)
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If the tolerance of each resistor is 1 per cent, what is the maximum error of the
generated voltage?
Solution:
Let us find the sensitivities first.
All tolerances are given as 1%, therefore:
Uncertainty is equivalent to sensitivity multiplied by error tolerance
That yields ∆V0 = 0.03V0
The total variation of the resultant voltage is ±0.3 per cent, which is the algebraic sum
of the three tolerances.
The maximum error is slightly different from the sum of the individual tolerances.
On the other hand, it is highly unlikely that all three components of this example would
have the maximum error and in such a fashion to produce the maximum or minimum
voltage.
Therefore, the statistical method outlined below is preferred.
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Expected Value of Uncertainty
The second method is called the square root of sum of squares.
It is based on the observations stated before for the random errors. It yields the
expected value of the uncertainty and computed as
2.20
Example
P = VI, if V = 100 ± 2 volt (measured) and I = 10 ± 0.2 Amp (measured), determine

the maximum allowable uncertainty, and the expected uncertainty in power.
Solution
This is the limiting value of the uncertainty.
However, the expected uncertainty
The nominal value of power = 100x10 = 1000 watts

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Percentage uncertainty = (28.3/1000)x100 = 2.83%, and
P = 1000 ± 28.3 watt.
Example
The resistance of a certain size of copper wire is given by R + Ro[1+α(T - 20)] . The
resistance at 20ᵒC is Ro = 6Ω±0.3%, temperature coefficient α = 0.004/ᵒC ± 1%,
temperature T = 30ᵒC ± 1ᵒC.
Compute the uncertainty in the resistance R.
Solution
The nominal value of R is;
Uncertainty in the nominal value of R0 = percentage uncertainty of R0 x nominal R0
The uncertainty in the resistance R is given by:
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The maximum error in the resistance can be found as:
2.3.4.2. Series and Parallel Analysis
Example
Two resistors R1 and R2 are connected first in series, then in parallel. Let R1 = 10 Ω ±
0.5Ω and R2 =10 Ω ± 0.5Ω. Find the maximum and expected values for the uncertainty
in the combination.
A. Series Analysis
The limiting error (maximum uncertainty)
The uncertainty:
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Yielding ∆Rs ≈ 0.7Ω.
The relative uncertainty = 0.7/20 = 0.035,
The percentage uncertainty = 3.5%.
Therefore, Rs = 20Ω ± 0.7Ω = 20Ω ± 3.5%
B. Parallel analysis
(Rem the quotient Rule D΄=g/h = (hg΄-gh΄)/h2)
Hence,
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Therefore the uncertainty in Rp is
The nominal value of Rp = 5Ω,
The percentage uncertainty = (0.175/5)x100=3.5%
Then Rp = 5 ± 0.175 Ω = 5Ω ± 3.5%
Limiting error in Rp
2.3.4.3. Summary of how to propagate the errors
Assume that z = f(x,y); table summarizes the relationship between z, x and y.
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2.4. Noise Measurement
Further errors are often created in measurement systems when electrical signals from
measurement sensors and transducers are corrupted by induced noise.
This induced noise arises both within the measurement circuit itself and also
during the transmission of measurement signals to remote points.
The aim when designing measurement systems is always to reduce such induced noise
voltage levels as far as possible.
Noise voltages can exist either in serial mode or common mode forms.
Serial mode noise voltages act in series with the output voltage from a measurement
sensor or transducer, which can cause very significant errors in the output measurement
signal.
The extent to which series mode noise corrupts measurement signals is measured by a
quantity known as the signal-to-noise ratio.
2.21
where Vs is the mean voltage level of the signal and Vn is the mean voltage level of the
noise.
Common mode noise voltages are less serious, because they cause the potential of
both sides of a signal circuit to be raised by the same level, and thus the level of the
output measurement signal is unchanged.
Noise can be generated from sources both external and internal to the measurement
system.
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2.4.1. Sources of Measurement Noise
External sources
i. Inductive Coupling
o Proximity to mains-powered equipment and cables (causing noise at the
mains frequency).
o Proximity to fluorescent lighting circuits (causing noise at twice the mains
frequency).
o Proximity to equipment operating at audio and radio frequencies (causing
noise at corresponding frequency).
ii. Capacitive (electrostatic) coupling
o Occur between the signal wires in a measurement circuit and a nearby
mains-carrying conductor.
o Switching of nearby d.c. and a.c. circuits.
iii. Noise due to multiple earths
o Large currents machinery connected to the same earth plane can cause the
potential to vary between different points on the earth plane.
iv. Noise in the form of voltage transients
o When motors and other electrical equipment (both a.c. and d.c.) are
switched on and off, large changes of power consumption suddenly occur
in the electricity supply system.
o Corona discharge (both of the latter causing induced spikes and
transients).
v. Electrochemical potentials
o Arise within measurement systems due to electrochemical action. Poorly
soldered joints are a common source.
Internal Sources
vi. Thermoelectric potentials.
o Whenever metals of two different types are connected together, a

thermoelectric potential is generated according to the temperature of the
joint.
vii. Shot noise and potentials due to electrochemical action.
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o Random fluctuations in the rate of transfer of carriers across junctions

within such devices transistors, integrated circuits and other
semiconductor devices.
2.4.2. Techniques for Reducing Measurement Noise
i. Location and design of signal wires

o Both the mutual inductance and capacitance between signal wires and
other cables are inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between the wires and the cable.
o Thus, noise due to inductive and capacitive coupling can be minimized by
ensuring that signal wires are positioned as far away as possible from such
noise sources.
o A minimum separation of 0.3m is essential, and a separation of at least 1m
is preferable.
Figure 2.4: Cancellation of Induced Noise in Twisted Pair Cable
o In the first loop, wire A is closest to the noise source and has a voltage V1
induced in it, whilst wire B has an induced noise voltage V2. For loop 2,
wire B is closest to the noise source and has an induced voltage V1 whilst
wire A has an induced voltage V2. Thus the total voltage induced in wire
A is V1 + V2 and in wire B it is V2 + V1 over these two loops. This
pattern continues for all the loops and hence the two wires have an
identical voltage induced in them.
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ii. Earthling
o Power earth: provides a path for fault currents due to power faults.
o Logic earth: provides a common line for all logic circuit potentials.
o Analogue earth (ground): provides a common reference for all analogue
signals.
o Safety earth: connected to all metal parts of equipment to protect
personnel should power lines come into contact with metal enclosures.
iii. Shielding
o Enclosing the signal wires in an earthed, metal shield that is itself isolated
electrically from the signal wires.
Others
iv. The phase-locked loop – Often used as a signal-processing element to clean

up poor quality signals.
v. Lock-in amplifiers – used to extract d.c. or slowly varying measurement signals
from noise. The input measurement signal is modulated into a square-wave a.c.
signal whose amplitude varies with the level of the input signal. This is normally
achieved by either a relay or a field effect transistor.
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2.5. Calibration
Calibration is a set of operations that establish the relationship between the values that
are indicated by the measuring instrument and corresponding known values of
measured.
All measuring instruments are to prove themselves their ability to measure reliably and
accurately.
2.5.1. Primary calibration
If the instrument is calibrated against primary standards, then the calibration is called
primary calibration.
After the primary calibration, the instrument can be used as a secondary calibration
instrument.
2.5.2. Secondary calibration
The secondary calibration instrument is used as secondary for further calibration of

other devices of lesser accuracy.
This type of instruments are used in general laboratory practice as well as in the industry
because they are practical calibration sources.
Secondary calibration can be classified into two types namely;
 Direct calibration
 Indirect calibration
2.5.3. Direct calibration
Direct calibration with a known input source is in general of the same order of accuracy
as primary calibration.
So, the instrument which are calibrated directly are also used as secondary calibration
instruments
For example using voltage standard to calibrate a voltmeter.
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2.5.4. Indirect calibration
This procedure is based on the equivalence of two different devices adopting same
similarity concept.
Figure 2.5: Indirect Calibration of a Meter
2.5.5. Calibration Standards

2.5.5.1. International standards:
International standards are defined by international agreement. They represent certain

units of measurement to the closest possible accuracy attainable by the science and
technology of measurement.
2.5.5.2. Primary standards:
The Principle function of primary standards is the calibration and verification of

secondary standards.
Primary standards are maintained at the National standards Laboratories in different

countries.
These Primary standards are absolute standards of high accuracy that can be used as
ultimate reference standard.
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2.5.5.3. Secondary standards:
Secondary standards are basic reference standards used by measurement and calibration
laboratories in industries.
These secondary standards are maintained by the particular industry to which they
belong.
Each industry has its own secondary standard to the National Standards Laboratory for
calibration, the National Standards Laboratory returns the secondary standards to the
particular industrial laboratory with a certification of measuring accuracy in terms of a
primary standards.
2.5.5.4. Working standards:
Working standards are the principal tools of a measurement laboratory.
These standards are used to check and calibrate laboratory instruments for accuracy
and performance for example, manufactures of electronic components such as
capacitors resistors etc. use a standard called a working standard for checking the
component values being manufactured a standard resistor for checking of resistance
value manufactured.
Review Questions
1. What are the sources of errors in DC voltage measurement?

2. A circuit requirement for a resistance of 550Ω is satisfied by connecting together
two resistors of nominal values 220 Ω and 330 Ω in series. If each resistor has a
tolerance of ±2%, calculate the error in the sum and total resistance in the circuit.
3. If the power in a circuit is calculated from measurements of voltage and current
in which the calculated maximum errors are respectively ±1% and ±2%, what is
the maximum likely error in the calculated power value.
4. A rectangular-sided block has edges of lengths a, b and c, and its mass is m. If
the values and possible errors in quantities a, b, c and m are as shown below,
calculate the value of density and the possible error in this value.
a = 100mm ± 1%, b = 200mm ± 1%, c = 300mm ± 1%, m = 20 kg ± 0.5%.
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3.0. MEASUREMENT OF ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES
3.1. Principles of Measurements
Electrical Voltage and Current are two important quantities in an electrical network.
The voltage is the effort variable without which no current is available.
 It is measured across an electrical circuit element or branch of a circuit.

 The device that measures the voltage is the voltmeter.
 The voltmeter connection is rather easy since it is connected without disturbing
the circuit layout.
The current is the flow variable that represents net motion of the charged particles
(electrons in solids, ions in a liquid) in a given direction.
 The current is measured by an ammeter (also called an amperemeter). Ammeters

are connected in series with the load to measure the current in the load.
 Eventually, the ammeters require breaking the current loop to place it into the
circuit
The product of the two yields the instantaneous electrical power. The ratio of the
voltage to the current is the impedance.
Therefore, most electrical measurements require determination of the voltage

rather than the current due the ease of measurement.
Figure 3.1: Connections for an Ammeter and a Voltmeter
K.V. Rop Page 48

The current generates a magnetic field around the current carrying conductor.
It is also possible to check out the size of the current by sensing the magnetic field
strength. This is carried out by clamp-on type ammeters.
The electrical resistance of a circuit component is measured using an ohmmeter that

applies a voltage across and determines the current passing through the component.
Voltmeters and ammeters display the results as deflections of dials on calibrated screens
or numerical values on alphanumeric displays. Both types are connected to the circuit
via sensing leads and indicate the voltage. However, their internal operations and user interfaces
are different.
Many measuring instruments use operational amplifiers and similar electronic devices
for signal amplification and processing.
3.2. Analogue Measuring Instruments
Analogue meters
 Are relatively simple and inexpensive and are often used instead of digital
instruments, especially when cost is of particular concern.
 Suffer less from noise and isolation problems as compared to their digital
counterparts.
 Are electromechanical devices that drive a pointer against a scale.
 Are prone to measurement errors from a number of sources that include
inaccurate scale marking during manufacture, bearing friction, bent
pointers and ambient temperature variations.
 Further human errors are introduced through parallax error (not reading the
scale from directly above) and mistakes in interpolating between scale markings.
There are three essential forces that are required by an indicating instrument in order
to efficiently indicate the value of parameter under measurement namely;
K.V. Rop Page 49

i. Deflecting (or operating) torque.

ii. Controlling (or restoring) torque.
iii. Damping torque
i. Deflecting torque (Td) – The deflecting torque causes the moving system to
move from zero position to indicate the value of the electrical quantity
being measured on a graduated scale. The actual method of producing the
deflecting torque depends upon the type of instrument.
ii. Controlling torque (Tc) - is produced by spring or gravity and opposes the
deflecting torque. The pointer comes to rest at a position, where these two
opposing torques are equal.
If the deflecting torque were acting alone, the pointer will continue to move
indefinitely and would swing over to the maximum deflected position
irrespective of the magnitude of the electrical quantity to be measured. This
necessitates providing some form of controlling or opposing torque. This
controlling torque should increase with the deflection of the moving system. The
pointer will be brought to rest at a position where the two opposing torques are
equal. ie, Td = Tc .
The controlling torque performs two functions.
 It increases with the deflection of the moving system so that, the final
position of the pointer on the scale will be according to the magnitude of
the electrical quantity to be measured.
 It brings the pointer back to zero position, when the deflecting torque is
removed. If it were not provided, the pointer once deflected would not return
to zero position on removing the deflecting torque.
The controlling torque can be provided by,
 Using one or more springs

 The weight of moving parts.
iii. Damping torque (Tdamp) - It ensures that, the pointer comes to the final
position, without oscillations, thus
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If the moving system is acted upon by deflecting and controlling torques alone,
then due to inertia, the pointer will oscillate about its final deflected position for
some time before coming to rest.
This oscillation makes it difficult to obtain quick and accurate reading.
In order to avoid these oscillations of the pointer and to bring it quickly to its
final deflected position, a damping torque is provided in the indicating
instruments. The damping do not affect the stationary pointer, as the damping
torque acts only when the pointer is in motion and always opposes the
motion.
3.2.1. Moving Coil in Measuring Instruments
There are two types of moving coil instruments namely,
a. The permanent magnet moving coil type which can only be used for direct
current, voltage measurements and
b. The dynamometer type which can be used on either direct or alternating
current, voltage measurements.
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Mechanism (PMMC)
In PMMC meter or (D’Arsonval) meter or galvanometer (all are the same instrument),
a coil of fine wire is suspended in a magnetic field produced by permanent
magnet.
According to the fundamental law of electromagnetic force, the coil will rotate in the
magnetic field when it carries an electric current by electromagnetic (EM) torque effect.
When the instrument is connected in the circuit to measure current or voltage, the
operating current flows through the coil. Since the current carrying coil is placed in
the magnetic field of the permanent magnet, a mechanical torque acts on it. As a result
of this torque, the pointer attached to the moving system moves in clockwise
K.V. Rop Page 51

direction over the graduated scale to indicate the value of current or voltage being
measured.
Figure 3.2: Force with Reference to Current
The magnitude of the force on the conductor depends on the magnitude of the current
which it carries. The force is a maximum when the current flows perpendicular to the
field and it is zero when it flows parallel to the field as illustrated in diagrams A and B
respectively in Figure 3.2.
The (EM) torque is counterbalance by the mechanical torque of control springs

attached to the movable coil also. When the torques are balanced the moving coil will
stopped and its angular deflection represent the amount of electrical current to be
measured against a fixed reference, called a scale.
If the permanent magnet field is uniform and the spring linear, then the pointer
deflection is also linear.
Figure 3.3: The Basic PMMC Meter
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This type of instruments can be used to measure direct current only. This is because,
since the direction of the field of permanent magnet is same, the deflecting
torque also gets reversed, when the current in the coil reverses. Consequently, the
pointer will try to deflect below zero.
Deflection in the reverse direction can be prevented by a “stop” spring.
3.2.1.1. Mathematical Representation of PMMC Mechanism
The coil is suspended in a uniform magnetic field and rotates due to the
electromagnetic torque TEM. This torque is opposed by spiral control springs
mounted on each end of the coil.
Assume there are (N) turns of wire and the coil is (L) in long by (W) in wide. The
force (F) acting perpendicular to both the direction of the current flow and the
direction of magnetic field is given by:
F=N⋅B⋅I⋅L
where N - turns of wire on the coil; I - current in the movable coil; B - flux density in
the air gap L - vertical length of the coil; A - effective coil area
Electromagnetic torque is equal to the multiplication of force with distance to the

point of suspension
Total torque is;
This torque will cause the coil to rotate until an equilibrium position is reached at an
angle θ with its original orientation. At this position
Electromagnetic torque = control spring torque
TI = Ts
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The torque put forth on the control spring is
TS = kθ
where θ is the angle of rotation (degrees) and k is spring constant (N-/degree).
At equilibrium (at balance)
T1 = TS yielding NBIA = kθ
The equation can be rearranged for θ,
𝑁𝐴𝐵
𝜃= ( ) 𝐼 = 𝑆𝐼
𝑘
Where S is the sensitivity, N = Number of Turns, A = Area of the Moving coil, I =

Current, K = Spring Constant
In this respect, the moving coil instrument can be considered as a transducer that
converts the electrical current to angular displacement.
Example 3.1
A moving coil has following parameters: Area A= 2 cm2, N=90 turns, B= 0.2 Tesla,
coil resistance = 50Ω, current I= 1 mA. Calculate:
a. Power dissipated by the coil;

b. The electromagnetic torque established;
c. Assume that the electromagnetic torque of the coil is compensated by a spring
torque and the spring constant k = 3.6x10-8 N-m/degrees. Find the angle of
deflection of the coil at equilibrium.
Solution
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a. Power dissipated by the coil;
P = I2xRm = 50Ω x (1mA)2
= 50μW.
b. The electromagnetic torque established;
T1=NBAI
= 90 x 0.2 x (2x10-4) x (1x10-3)
= 3.6x10-6 N-m
c. Find the angle of deflection of the coil at equilibrium.
θ= T1 / k
= 3.6x10-6 N-m / 3.6x10-8 N-m/degrees
= 100 ᵅ
Example 3.2
A moving coil instrument has the following data: number of turns of the coil = 100,
width of the coil = 2 cm, length of the coil = 3 cm, flux density in the air gap = 0.1
Wb/m2 (Tesla).
a. Calculate the deflection torque when carrying a current of 10 mA.

b. Also calculate the deflection (angle) if the control spring constant is 20x10-7 N-
m/degree.
a. A = LxW = 6 cm2
b. T1 = 60x10-6 N-m
c. θ= T1 / k = 30 ᵅ
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3.2.2. DC Measurements
3.2.2.1. D.C. Ammeter
An Ammeter is always connected in series with a circuit branch and measures the
current flowing in it.
An ideal ammeter would be capable of performing the measurement without

changing or distributing the current in the branch but real ammeters would possess
some internal resistance.
Since the coil winding in PMMC meter is small and light, they can carry only small
currents (μA-1mA). Measurement of large current requires a shunt external resistor
to connect with the meter movement, so only a fraction of the total current will passes
through the meter.
Figure 3.4: Shunt Resistance in Current Measurement
Example 3.3:
If PMMC meter have internal resistance of 10Ω and full scale range of 1mA.
Assume we wish to increase the meter range to 1A, calculate the Shunt resistance.
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Solution
So we must connect shunt resistance with the PMMC meter of;
A. Direct D.C. Ammeter Method (Ayrton Shunt)
The current range of d.c ammeter can be further extended by a number of shunts
selected by a range switch
Figure 3.5: Direct D.C. Ammeter Shunt Method
Example 3.4
Design a multirange ammeter by using direct method to give the following ranges
10mA, 100mA, 1A, 10A, and 100A. If d’Arsonval meter have internal resistance of 10Ω
and full scale current of 1mA.
Solution
Rm=10Ω Im=1mA
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B. Indirect D.C. Ammeter Method
Figure 3.6: Indirect D.C. Ammeter Shunt Method
Example 3.5
Design an Ayrton shunt by indirect method to provide an ammeter with current

ranges 1A, 5A, and 10A, if PMMC meter have internal resistance of 50Ω and full scale
current of 1mA.
Solution
Rm=50Ω , IFSD=Im=1mA
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Where R=Ra+ Rb+ Rc, And r = parallel resistors branch

with the meter
For 1A Range:
For 5A Range:
, where
But, Ra=R-(Rb+Rc)
For 10A Range:
Where r =Rc
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3.2.2.2. D.C. Voltmeter
A voltmeter is always connect in parallel with the element being measured, and
measures the voltage between the points across which it is connected.
Most d.c voltmeter employ PMMC meter with series resistor as shown.
The series resistance should be much larger than the impedance of the circuit being
measured, and they are usually much larger than Rm.
Figure 3.7 D.C. Voltage Measurement Using PMMC
Im=IFSD
The ohm/volt sensitivity of a voltmeter is given by:
So the internal resistance of voltmeter or the input resistance of voltmeter is
Rv = VFSD x Sensitivity
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Example 3.6
We have a micro ammeter and we wish to adapted it so as to measure 1volt full scale,
the meter has internal resistance of 100Ω and IFSD of 100μA.
Solution
So we connect with PMMC meter a series resistance of 9.9KΩ to convert it to

voltmeter.
A. Direct D.C. Voltmeter Method
In this method each series resistance of multirange voltmeter is connected in direct with
PMMC meter to give the desired range.
Figure 3.8: Direct D.C. Voltmeter Method
Example 3.6
Design d.c voltmeter by using direct method with d’Arsonval meter of 100Ω and full
scale deflection of 100μA to give the following ranges: 10mV, 1V, and 10V.
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Solution
B. Indirect D.C. Voltmeter Method
In this method one or more series resistances of multirange voltmeter is connected with
PMMC meter to give the desired range.
Figure 3.9: Indirect D.c Voltmeter Method
Example 3.7
Design a basic d’Arsonval movement with internal resistance of 100Ω and half scale
current deflection of 0.5 mA and is to be converted by indirect method into a multirange
d.c voltmeter with voltages ranges of 10V, 50V, 250V, and 500V.
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Solution
IFSD = IHSD x 2 IFSD = 0.5mA x 2 =1mA
3.2.2.3. Ohmmeter and Resistance Measurement
Analog ohmmeter can be designed simply by adding a battery and a variable resistor in
series with the moving coil instrument as shown in Figure 3.10. The unknown resistance
is connected to the terminals of the device to complete the electrical circuit.
The output terminals are shorted together with the leads (wires) used in connecting the
external resistor.
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Figure 3.10: Circuit and Scale of a Basic Ohmmeter
The variable resistance is adjusted until the full-scale deflection current passes through
the coil. This is marked as the “0” resistance. When the leads are separated from each
other, no current flows indicating an open-circuit which means “infinite ∞” resistance.
Hence, the scale is non-linear with resistance increases on the right side (opposite to
ammeter).
Multi-range ohmmeters can be obtained by combining the circuits of a series ohmmeter

and a multi-range ammeter.
Methods used;
i. Indirect method by ammeter and voltmeter - The ammeter has a small

resistance and voltmeter have a high resistance.
ii. Series Ohmmeter - Rx is the unknown resistor to be measured, R2 is variable
adjusted resistance so that the pointer read zero at short circuit test. The scale of
series ohmmeter is nonlinear with zero at the right and infinity at extreme left.
iii. Shunt Ohmmeter - Shunt ohmmeter are used to measure very low resistance
values. The unknown resistance Rx is now shunted across the meter, so portion
of current will pass across this resistor and drop the meter deflection
proportionately.
iv. Voltage Divider (potentiometer) - The meter of voltage divider is voltmeter
that reads voltage drop across Rs which dependent on Rx. This meter will read
from right to left like series ohmmeter with more uniform calibration.
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3.2.2.4. The VOM Meter
The functions of ammeter, voltmeter and ohmmeter can be combined in a

multipurpose meter called a VOM (volt-ohm-milliampere) meter, or shortly “the
VOM”.
It has several multiple scales, usually color-coded in some way to make it easier to
identify and read.
Generally, it has a single multipurpose switch to select the function and the range.
Example
A moving coil has 100 turns, 5 cm2 coil area, and air-gap magnetic flux density of 0.1
Tesla (Wb/m2). The control spring exerts a torque of 5x10-6 N-m at the full-scale
deflection of 90ᵒ. The potential difference across the coil terminals at the full-scale
deflection is 100 mV. Using the above movement, design a multi-range DC ammeter
with ranges 0-50 mA, 0-1 A and multi-range DC voltmeter with ranges 0-10 V and 0-
200 V.
Solution
IFSD=TSP/NBA = 1 mA,
Therefore RMC= VMC / IFSD =100 Ω
For ammeter ranges:

RSH1= 100 mV/ (50-1) mA = 2.04 Ω
RSH2 = 100/999 = 0.1 Ω
For voltmeter ranges:

RS1 = (10-0.1) V/1mA = 9.9 k Ω
RS2 = 199.9 k Ω
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3.2.3. Loading Errors

3.2.3.1. Instrument Loading
All measuring instruments draw energy from the source of measurement –this is
loading effect of the instrument.
Hence, all measurements include errors due to instrument loading. If the energy taken
by the instrument is negligibly small compared to the energy existing at the source, then
the measurement is assumed to be close to perfect, and the loading error is ignored.
Ideal ammeter has zero internal resistance and no voltage across it.
Ideal voltmeter has infinite internal (meter) resistance and draws no current from
the circuit.
The practical ammeter can be represented by an ideal ammeter with added series
resistance that represent the meter resistance. Similarly, the practical voltmeter can be
represented by an ideal voltmeter in parallel with the meter resistance. These two
models are illustrated below.
Figure 3.11: Representations of practical ammeters and voltmeters
3.2.3.2. Loading Errors in Ammeters
Any electrical circuit can be modeled by a voltage source VT and a series resistance RT.
The circuit is completed when the load resistance RL is connected across the output
terminals and a load current RL flows through the load.
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An ammeter can be placed in series with the load to measure this current as shown in
Figure 3.12. Current in the circuit can be calculated as
Figure 3.12: Ammeter Loading
In ideal condition, RM = 0 and the true value of the current is
The error is the difference between the measured value and the true value, and generally
expressed as the percentile error which is:
Loading error can be ignored if RM<<(RT+RL) which is satisfied in most applications.
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3.2.3.3. Loading Errors in Voltmeters
In voltage measurement, the meter is connected in parallel with load resistor.
Figure 3.13: Voltmeter Loading
The true value of the voltage across the resistor is (without the meter)
As the meter is connected, RM becomes in parallel with RL and effective load resistance
becomes
RLeff ≡ RL if RM>>RL. The voltage measured by the meter is
Example
A 150-V DC voltage source is coupled to a 50 kΩ load resistor through a 100 kΩ source

resistance.Two voltmeters (A) and (B) are available for the measurement. Voltmeter-A
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has a sensitivity 1000Ω/V, while voltmeter-B has a sensitivity 20000 Ω/V. Both meters
have 0 – 50 V range.
 Calculate reading of each voltmeter.

 Calculate error in each reading expressed in a percentage of the true value.
Solution
Input resistance of voltmeter-A = sensitivity x range

= (1000 Ω /V) x (50 V) = 50 kΩ
Effective value of the load resistance

= 50||50 = 25 kΩ
Voltage indicated by voltmeter-A;
% age loading error
Input resistance of voltmeter-B

= (20000 Ω /V) x (50 V) = 1000 kΩ
The effective value of the load resistance

50//1000 = 48 kΩ
Voltage indicated by voltmeter-B;
% age loading error
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Example
A voltmeter has a resistance of 20 kΩ/V is used to measure the voltage on the circuit
shown on a 0 - 10 V range. Find the percentage loading error.
VTRUE = 10 x 20/40 = 5 V
With RM = 200 kΩ, the effective load resistance is;
RLeff = (400/22) = 18.18 kΩ.
Therefore,
VMEAS =10 x 18.18/38.18 = 4.76 V.
% loading error is;
%error = 100 x (4.76 – 5)/5 = -4.8%
3.2.4. A.C. Measurements

3.2.4.1. Dynamometer:
This instrument is suitable for the measurement of direct and alternating current,
voltage and power.
The deflecting torque in dynamometer relies by the interaction of magnetic field

produced by a pair of fixed air cored coils and a third air cored coil capable of angular
movement and suspended within the fixed coil.
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Figure 3.14: A Dynamometer
3.2.4.2. AC Voltmeters
When measuring the value of an alternating current signal it is often necessary to

convert the signal into a direct current signal of equivalent value (known as the root
mean square, RMS value).
This process can be quite complex. Most low cost instrumentation and signal converters
carry out this conversion by rectifying and filtering the signal into an average value and
applying a correction factor.
We can classify the AC voltmeters in two broad categories as the
 Averaging and
 True RMS types.
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a. Average and RMS Values
The moving coil instrument reads the average of an AC

waveform. The average of the current waveform i(t) shown in
Figure 3.15 is:
Figure 3.15: AC waveform
where T is the period and ω = 2Π/T = radial frequency (rad/sec).
However, if this current is applied to a resistor R, the instantaneous power on the

resistor p(t) = i2(t)R. The average power over the period T becomes:
Hence, the average power is equivalent to the power that would be generated by a DC
current called the effective current that is
Due to squaring, averaging (mean) and square-rooting operations, this is called the
“RMS.” Value of the current IRMS is the true value of the current that we want to
measure. The r.m.s value of a waveform refers to its power capability. It refer to the
effective value of a.c signal because the r.m.s value equal to the value of a d.c
signal which would deliver the same power if it replaced with a.c signal.
The averaging time must be sufficiently long to allow filtering at the lowest frequencies
of operation desired. Hence, in electrical terms, the AC RMS value is equivalent to the
DC heating value of a particular waveform – voltage or current.
For example, if a resistive heating element in an electric furnace is rated at 15 kW of

heat at 220 V AC RMS, then we would get the same amount of heat if we applied 220
V of DC instead of AC.
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3.2.4.3. Clamp on Meters (Average Responding A.C. meter):
Clamp on meter is used to measured a.c current, voltage in a wire without having to
break the circuit being measured.
The meter having use the transformer principle to detect the current. That is, the clamp
on device of the meter serves as the core of a transformer. The current carrying wire is
the primary winding of the transformer, while the secondary winding is in the meter.
The alternating current in the primary is coupled to the secondary winding by the core,
and after being rectified the current is sensed by a d’Arsonval meter.
Figure 3.16: Clamp-on Meter.
Current induced in the secondary winding is
rectified and applied to a moving-coil meter.
Although it is a very convenient instrument to use, the clamp-on meter has low
sensitivity & the minimum current measurable is usually about 1 amp.
3.3. Oscilloscope
Oscilloscopes are electronic equipment mainly

used in displaying and measuring electrical
voltage signals.
The signal is a physical variable (such as force,

velocity, voltage, current etc) associated with a
system and it is almost always a function of time.
A waveform is a graphic representation of a
wave.
For inscribing the variations of a signal in time, a

pen and paper can be used. In this case, the writing
pen moves vertically in response to the magnitude of the signal while the writing
medium (paper) moves horizontally at a constant speed. This is called y-t recording
since the signal is represented on vertical axis (y-axis) and the horizontal axis represents
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the time. A voltage waveform shows time on the horizontal axis and voltage on the
vertical axis.
The cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a device that allows the amplitude of
electrical signals, whether they are voltage, current; power, etc., to be displayed
primarily as a function of time. An oscilloscope measures voltage waves.
The trajectory looks like a bouncing ball that moves across the screen and the human
eye can follow it if the motion is slow. If the light ball draws the same trajectory on the
screen for more than about 24 times a second, the human eye cannot follow the motion
and it will see it as a fixed trace on the screen.
The oscilloscope is a versatile instrument that can be used for measuring signal voltages
from a few millivolts up to hundreds of volts. Thus CRO can be regarded as a fast x-y
plotter.
Figure 3.17: Waveform Displayed on an Oscilloscope
3.3.1. Operating Principles of an Oscilloscope
Figure 3.18: Front Panel of an Analog Oscilloscope (Tektronix TAS 465)
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Oscilloscopes also come in analog and digital types.
 An analog oscilloscope works by directly applying a voltage being measured to

an electron beam moving across the oscilloscope screen.
 The voltage deflects the beam up and down proportionally, tracing the waveform
on the screen.
 This gives an immediate picture of the waveform.
In contrast, a digital oscilloscope samples the waveform and uses an analog-to-digital

converter (or ADC) to convert the voltage being measured into digital information.
It then uses this digital information to reconstruct the waveform on the screen.
Components
 Front panel of an oscilloscope is shown in Figure 3.22. It has a display screen

with an 8 cm by 10 cm grid drawn on it.
 The display has controls for the intensity (brightness of the trace), focus and
astigmatism (sharpness of the trace).
 On the right hand side there are control sections for vertical, horizontal, and
trigger controls and input connectors.
 Depending on how we set the vertical scale (volts/div control), an attenuator
reduces the signal voltage or an amplifier increases the signal voltage.
3.3.2. Simplified Block Diagram of an Oscilloscope
General oscilloscope consists of the following parts:
i. Cathode ray tube (CRT)

ii. Vertical deflection stage
iii. Horizontal deflection stage
iv. Power supply
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Figure 3.19: A Diagram of CRT
Figure 3.20: A Simplified Block Diagram of an Analog Oscilloscope
The electron beam produced by the electron gun is used to produce a visual image on
the screen.
The power supply block provides voltages required by the CRT and the rest of the
oscilloscope circuitries.
 The CRT requires high voltages in the order of a few thousand volts for the
acceleration of the electron,
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 Low voltage are used for the electron gun, which emits the electrons.
Fluorescent (phosphor) Screen – The light produced by the screen does not
disappear immediately when bombardment by electrons ceases, i.e., when the signal
becomes zero. The time period for which the trace remains on the screen after the
signal becomes zero is known as "persistence". The persistence may be jS short as a few
microsecond, or as long as tens of seconds ~en minutes. Long persistence traces are
used in the study of transients. Long persistence helps in the study of transients since
the trace is still seen on the screen after the transient has disappeared.
Deflection System - Two signals are needed to deflect the beam on the screen
horizontally and vertically.
 Vertical Deflection - The signal to be viewed is applied to a vertical

(deflection) amplifier that increases the potential of the input signal to a level
that will provide a useful deflection of the electron beam.
 Horizontal Deflection – it helps in deflecting the signal in a horizontal manner.
It comprises of time base generator, Triger circuit and horizontal amplifier.
The time-base circuitry – Used to generate the sawtooth voltage, required to deflect
the beam in the horizontal section. This voltage deflects the spot at a constant time
dependent rate. Thus the x-axis' on the screen can be represented as time, which, helps
to display and analyses the time varying signals.
The voltage waveform is named commonly as the sweep signal and it has the
appearance of a repetitive ramp function.
Triggering circuit – used to synchronize the horizontal deflection with the vertical
input, so that the horizontal deflection starts at the same point of the vertical input
signal each time it runs (sweeps). It converts the incoming signal into the triggering
pulses, which are used for the synchronization.
Eventually, the beam moves at a constant time-dependant rate horizontally and the
image generated on the screen indicates the time variation of the input signal.
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Delay line – The delay line is used to delay the signal for some time in the vertical
sections. Each block in a signal path causes certain time delay. Hence, the beam does
not start moving horizontally immediately following the detection of the trigger point.
The delay line delays the signal applied to the vertical plates by an amount equal to the
time delay for the sweep signal applied to the horizontal deflection plates. Eventually,
the vertical signal is displayed on the screen always starting at the trigger point.
Figure 3.21: Sweep mode of Operation
The voltage applied to horizontal deflection mechanism is the sawtooth that is

generated by the time-base circuit. It has a fixed slope and lets the electron beam to
travel horizontally at a constant speed.
Meanwhile, the input signal (sinusoidal type in the figure) is amplified and applied to
the vertical deflection plates.
The second sweep follows the first one immediately indicating that the retrace time is
negligible compared to the trace time.
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Figure 3.22: Display of Signals on the Oscilloscope Screen in Sweep Mode
Vertical settings are in ranges of V/cm while the horizontal time base setting is in
ms/cm.
Example
For the dual trace shown, the vertical settings

are 0.1 V/cm and 0.2 V/cm for V1 and V2
respectively. The time base setting is 5 ms/cm.
The trigger source is CH-1 (V1). Assume
uncertainty of ±0.5 mm in all distances
measured. Find:
i. Peak and peak to peak values of V1 and

V2 with uncertainties involved.
ii. Time period and frequency of V2 and
their uncertainties.
iii. The trigger level and slope.
iv. The phase shift between V1 (CH-1) and V2 (CH-2). Does V1 leads or lags V2?
v. How much is the uncertainty in the phase shift?
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Solution
Peak value of V1 = V1p

= 2 (cm) x 0.1 (V/cm) = 0.2 V;
Peak-to-peak value of V1 = V1p-p

= 4 (cm) x 0.1 (V/cm) = 0.4 V. Similarly,
V2p = 3 (cm) x 0.2 (V/cm) = 0.6 V;
V2p-p = 6 (cm) x 0.2 (V/cm) = 1.2 V
The uncertainty in distance is 0.5 mm yielding

V1p = (2 ± 0.05) (cm) x 0.1 (V/cm)
= 0.2± 0.005 V = 0.2 V± 2.5%
V2p = (3 ± 0.05) (cm) x 0.2 (V/cm)

= 0.6± 0.01 V = 0.6 V± 1.67%
V1p-p = (4 ± 2x0.05) (cm) x 0.1 (V/cm)

= 0.4± 0.01 V = 0.4 V± 2.5%
V2p-p = (6 ± 0.1) (cm) x 0.2 (V/cm)

= 1.2± 0.02 V = 1.2 V± 1.67%
Time period and frequency of V2. T

=(5± 0.05)(cm)x5(ms/cm)
= 25± 0.25 ms = 25ms± 1%
Nominal value of the frequency; f = 40 Hz. Limiting error

is the same as the expected accuracy for the frequency.
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yields the relative accuracy for the period and the frequency
are the same as 1%. Hence, f = 40± 0.4 Hz = 40 Hz ± 1%
Trigger level = -0.5 cm & (+) slope.
Nominal value of the phase shift is
Among the two traces, the one that assumes its maximum first is called the
leading trace. Hence, V1 is leading V2 (also can be said as V2 is lagging V1).
The uncertainty in the phase:
Yielding
The dominant factor in ∆θ/θ is ∆d/d since it is much larger than ∆T/T
Further Work: Study on various form and generation of Lissajous pattern.
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3.3.3. Multi-Trace Oscilloscopes
Most laboratory oscilloscopes display two more traces simultaneously although they
have a single electron gun. Each trace can represent an independent input signal.
Figure 3.23: Multi-Trace Operation Using an Electronic Switch
There are identical input connector, attenuator and amplifier for each input. Outputs
of vertical amplifiers are selected one-by- one by an electronic switch and applied to the
driver amplifier for the vertical deflection plate.
There are two modes of operation of the electronic switch
 Chopped
 Alternate.
In the alternate mode, the switch remains in one of the channel throughout the
complete sweep duration and it picks the other one in the next sweep.
Since switch displays each channel at alternate cycles of the sweep signal, the name
alternate mode is used.
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3.3.4. Digital Storage Oscilloscopes (DSO)
Oscilloscopes also come in analog and digital types.
An analog oscilloscope works by directly applying a voltage being measured to an

electron beam moving across the oscilloscope screen. The voltage deflects the beam up
and down proportionally, tracing the waveform on the screen. This gives an immediate
picture of the waveform as described in previous sections.
In contrast, a digital oscilloscope samples the waveform and uses an analog-to-digital

converter (or ADC) to convert the voltage being measured into digital information. It
then uses this digital information to reconstruct the waveform on the screen.
 Digital oscilloscopes allow us to capture and view events that may happen only
once.
 They can process the digital waveform data or send the data to a computer for
processing.
 Also, they can store the digital waveform data for later viewing and printing.
The waveform to be stored is digitized, stored in a digital memory, and retrieved for
displayed on the storage oscilloscope.
Figure 3.24: Simplified Block Diagram of a Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO)
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The stored waveform is continuously displayed by repeatedly scanning the stored

waveform.
The digitized waveform can be further analyzed by either the oscilloscope or by loading
the content of the memory into a computer.
They can present waveforms before, during and after trigger.
They provide markers, called the cursors, to help the user in measurements in
annotation (detailing) of the measured values.
Modes of operation:
The digital storage oscilloscope has three modes of operation:
a. Roll mode
b. Store mode
c. Hold or save mode.
3.4. Virtual Instrumentation
A virtual instrumentation system is computer software that a user would employ to

develop a computerized test and measurement system, for controlling from a computer
desktop an external measurement hardware device, and for displaying test or
measurement data collected by the external device on instrument-like panels on a
computer screen.
The virtual instrument is a system that uses customizable software and modular
measurement hardware to create user-defined measurement systems as opposed to
traditional hardware instrumentation systems such as digital multimeters and
oscilloscopes that are made up of pre-defined hardware components.
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Figure 3.25: A Display Panel for a Virtual Instrumentation System
The traditional systems are completely specific to their stimulus, analysis, or

measurement function and because of their hard-coded function, these systems are
more limited in their versatility than virtual instrumentation systems.
 Here, the software is used to replace a large amount of hardware.

 The software enables complex and expensive hardware to be replaced by already
purchased computer hardware.
 Virtual instrumentation extends also to computerized systems for controlling
processes based on data collected and processed by a computerized
instrumentation system.
 Delivers solutions with faster development time, lower costs, and greater
flexibility.
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3.4.1. Components of Virtual Instrumentation
 General purpose computers and

workstations – computing platform (PC
or Server) to run the software and
connect to I/O module
 Data collection hardware devices -
The modular I/O for measurements that
require higher performance, resolution,
or speeds.
 Virtual instrumentation software -
The flexible software that allows an
innovative engineer or scientist to
develop a user-defined instrument
specific to the application needs. Figure 3.26: Virtual Instrumentation
Combination
Figure 3.27: An Example Design Screen for the Virtual Instrumentation in Labview
(National Instruments)
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Figure 3.28: An Example of a Test and Analysis Screen for Virtual Instrumentation in Labview
(National Instruments)
The understanding of thermal responses as well as the thermal properties of a wide

variety of materials is crucial in any engineering design.
Thermal property is the response of a material to the application of heat. Heat

capacity, thermal expansion, and thermal conductivity are properties that are often
critical in the practical utilization of solids.
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4.0. VARIABLE CONVERSION ELEMENTS
4.1. Measurements
Potentiometers
A Potentiometer is an instrument designed to measure an unknown voltage by

comparing it with a known voltage
Bridge Resistance
 Low Resistance(<1Ω)
o Ammeter voltmeter method
o Kelvin’s double bridge method
o Potentiometer method
 Medium Resistance(1 Ω to 0.1M Ω)
o Ammeter-voltmeter method
o Substitution method
o Wheatstone bridge method
o Ohmmeter method
 High Resistance(> 0.1M Ω)
o Direct deflection method
o Loss of charge method
o Meg ohm bridge
Inductance
 Maxwell’s Inductance- Capacitance Bridge

 Hay’s bridge
 Owen’s bridge
 Anderson’s bridge
Capacitance
 De sauty’s bridge
 Schering bridge
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Frequency
 Wien’s Bridge.
4.2. Bridge Circuits
Bridge circuits are used very commonly as a variable conversion element in

measurement systems and produce an output in the form of a voltage level that changes
as the measured physical quantity changes.
Normally, excitation of the bridge is by a d.c. voltage for resistance measurement and
by an a.c. voltage for inductance or capacitance measurement.
Bridges types;
 Null Bridges – mainly employed for calibration purposes

 Deflection Bridges –used within closed-loop automatic control schemes.
The bridge circuit compares the value of an unknown component with that of an
accurately known standard component.
 Thus the accuracy depends on the bridge components and not on the null
indicator.
 Hence high degree of accuracy can be obtained.
Figure 4.1: Bridge Circuits Classification
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4.2.1. Advantages of Bridge Circuit:
i. The balance equation is independent of the magnitude of the input voltage or its
source impedance. These quantities do not appear in the balance equation
expression.
ii. The measurement accuracy is high as the measurement is done by comparing
the unknown value with the standard value.
iii. The accuracy is independent of the characteristics of a null detector and is
dependent on the component values.
iv. The balance equation is independent of the sensitivity of the null detector, the
impedance of the detector or any impedance shunting the detector.
v. The balance condition remains unchanged if the source and detector are
interchanged.
4.2.2. DC Null Measurements
The DC null techniques are used with Wheatstone bridges, Kelvin bridges and
potentiometers to obtain increased measurement accuracy.
A null method of measurement is a simple, accurate and widely used method which
depends on an instrument reading being adjusted to read zero current only. The method
assumes:
 If there is any deflection at all, then some current is flowing;

 If there is no deflection, then no current flows (i.e. a null condition).
Hence it is unnecessary for a meter sensing current flow to be calibrated when used in
this way. A sensitive milliammeter or microammeter with centre zero position setting
is called a galvanometer.
Present day dc null sensing devices make use of electronic amplification and display
devices.
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4.2.2.1. Wheatstone Bridge
The bridge consists of four resistive arms together with a source of e.m.f. and a null
detector. The galvanometer is used as a null detector.
Figure 4.2: Wheatstone Bridge
The four arms of the bridge consist of the unknown resistance Ru, two equal value
resistors R2 and R3 and a variable resistor Rv. A d.c. voltage Vi is applied across the
points AC and the resistance Rv is varied until the voltage measured across points BD
is zero. This null point is usually measured with a high sensitivity galvanometer.
To analyze the Wheatstone bridge, define the current flowing in each arm to be I1 . . .
I4 as shown in Figure 4.1.
Normally, if a high impedance voltage-measuring instrument is used, the current Im

drawn by the measuring instrument will be very small and can be approximated to zero.
If this assumption is made, then, for Im = 0:
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Looking at path ADC, we have a voltage Vi applied across a resistance Ru + R3 and by

Ohm’s law:
Similarly for path ABC:
Now we can calculate the voltage drop across AD and AB:
4.1
4.2
By the principle of superposition,
Thus;
4.3
At the null point (At balance) V0 = 0, so:
Inverting both sides:
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4.4
Thus, if R2 = R3, then Ru = Rv. As Rv is an accurately known value because it is derived

from a variable decade resistance box, this means that Ru is also accurately known.
This condition can be used to determine the exact value of an unknown resistor. It is
placed into one the arms and others are adjusted until a zero volt is obtained at the
output. This is called “the null mode of operation”
Example 4.1
Assume that the bridge shown in Figure 4.2 below is used to determine the resistance
of an unknown resistance Rx. The variable resistance is the resistance box that allows
selection of several resistors in series to obtain the total resistance and it is set until null
position in the meter observed. Calculate the unknown resistance if the variable
resistance setting indicates 625.4Ω.
Figure 4.3: Circuit for Null-Mode

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Solution
The bridge will be balanced if R1/R4 = R2/R3.
Hence,
R4 = Rx = R1/(R2/R3)
= 1000x625.4/600
= 1042.3 Ω.
4.2.3. Deflection-Type D.C. Bridge
A deflection-type bridge with d.c. excitation differs from the Wheatstone bridge mainly
in that the variable resistance Rv is replaced by a fixed resistance R1 of the same
value as the nominal value of the unknown resistance Ru.
As the resistance Ru changes, so the output voltage V0 varies, and this relationship
between V0 and Ru must be calculated.
Figure 4.4: Deflection-Type D.C. Bridge.
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This relationship is simplified if we again assume that a high impedance voltage

measuring instrument is used and the current drawn by it, Im, can be approximated to
zero.
The analysis is then exactly the same as for the preceding example of the Wheatstone
bridge, except that Rv is replaced by R1.
Thus, from equation 4.3, we have:
4.5
When Ru is at its nominal value, i.e. for Ru = R1, it is clear that V0 = 0 (since R2 = R3).
For other values of Ru, V0 has negative and positive values that vary in a non-linear way
with Ru.
Example 4.2
A certain type of pressure transducer, designed to measure pressures in the range 0–10
bar, consists of a diaphragm with a strain gauge cemented to it to detect diaphragm
deflections. The strain gauge has a nominal resistance of 120Ω and forms one arm of a
Wheatstone bridge circuit, with the other three arms each having a resistance of 120Ω.
The bridge output is measured by an instrument whose input impedance can be
assumed infinite. If, in order to limit heating effects, the maximum permissible gauge
current is 30 mA,
a. Calculate the maximum permissible bridge excitation voltage.

b. If the sensitivity of the strain gauge is 338mΩ/bar and the maximum bridge
excitation voltage is used, calculate the bridge output voltage when measuring a
pressure of 10 bar.
Solution
This is the type of bridge circuit shown in Figure 4.3 in which the components have the
following values:
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Defining I1 to be the current flowing in path ADC of the bridge, we can write:
At balance, Ru = 120 and the maximum value allowable for I1 is 0.03 A.
Hence:
Thus, the maximum bridge excitation voltage allowable is 7.2 volts.
For a pressure of 10 bar applied, the resistance change is 3.38Ω, i.e. Ru is then equal to
123.38Ω.
Thus, if the maximum permissible bridge excitation voltage is used, the output voltage
is 50mV when a pressure of 10 bar is measured.
4.2.3.1. Non-Linear Relationship
Where the change in the unknown resistance Ru is typically small compared with the
nominal value of Ru, we can calculate the new voltage V’0 when the resistance Ru in
equation 4.5 changes by an amount δRu, we have:
4.6
The change of voltage output is therefore given by:
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4.7
If δRu << Ru, then the following linear relationship is obtained:
4.8
4.2.3.2. Case Where Current Drawn By Measuring Instrument Is Not

Negligible
It is not always possible to meet the condition that the impedance of the instrument
measuring the bridge output voltage is sufficiently large for the current drawn by it to
be negligible.
Using Thévenin’s theorem, the voltage source Vi in Figure 4.4(a) is replaced by a zero
internal resistance produces the circuit shown in Figure 4.4(b), or the equivalent
representation shown in Figure 4.4(c).
It is apparent from Figure 4.4(c) that the equivalent circuit resistance consists of a pair
of parallel resistors Ru and R3 in series with the parallel resistor pair R1 and R2.
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Figure 4.5: (A) A Bridge Circuit; (B) Equivalent Circuit By The´Venin’s Theorem; (C)
Alternative Representation; (D)
Thus, RDB is given by:
4.9
The equivalent circuit derived via Thévenin’s theorem with the resistance Rm of the
measuring instrument connected across the output is shown in Figure 4.4(d). The open
circuit voltage across DB, E0, is the output voltage calculated earlier eq. 4.5 for the case
of Rm = 0:
4.10
If the current flowing is Im when the measuring instrument of resistance Rm is connected

across DB, then, by Ohm’s law, Im is given by:
4.11
If Vm is the voltage measured across Rm, then, again by Ohm’s law:
4.12
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Substituting for E0 and RDB in equation 4.12, using the relationships developed in
equations 4.10 and 4.11), we obtain:
4.13
4.14
Example 4.3
A bridge circuit shown in figure 4.5 below is used to measure the value of the unknown
resistance Ru of a strain gauge of nominal value 500Ω. The output voltage measured
across points DB in the bridge is measured by a voltmeter. Calculate the measurement
sensitivity in volts/ohm change in Ru if
a) The resistance Rm of the measuring instrument is neglected, and

b) Account is taken of the value of Rm.
Figure 4.6: Bridge Circuit
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Solution
For Ru = 500Ω, Vm = 0.
To determine sensitivity, calculate Vm for Ru = 501Ω.
a. Applying equation 4.4:
Where Vo = Vm
Thus, if the resistance of the measuring circuit is neglected, the measurement sensitivity
is 5.00mV per ohm change in Ru.
b. Applying equation 4.14 and substituting in values:
Thus, if proper account is taken of the 10 kΩ value of the resistance of R m, the true
measurement sensitivity is shown to be 4.76mV per ohm change in Ru.
4.2.3.3. Error Analysis
In the application of bridge circuits, the contribution of component-value tolerances to

total measurement system accuracy limits must be clearly understood.
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The maximum measurement error is determined by first finding the value of R u in

equation 4.3 with each parameter in the equation set at that limit of its tolerance which
produces the maximum value of Ru.
Similarly, the minimum possible value of Ru is calculated, and the required error band
is then the span between these maximum and minimum values.
Example 4.5
In the Wheatstone bridge circuit of Figure 4.1, Rv is a decade resistance box with a
specified inaccuracy ±0.2% and R2 = R3 = 500Ω ±0.1%. If the value of Rv at the null
position is 520.4Ω, determine the error band for Ru expressed as a percentage of its
nominal value.
Solution
Applying equation 4.3 with
Rv = 520.4Ω + 0.2% = 521.44Ω,
R3 = 5000Ω + 0.1% = 5005Ω,
R2 = 5000Ω - 0.1% = 4995Ω,
we get:
Applying equation 4.3 with
Rv = 520.4Ω - 0.2% = 519.36Ω,
R3 = 5000Ω - 0.1% = 4995Ω,
R2 = 5000Ω + 0.1% = 5005Ω,
we get:
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Thus, the error band for Ru is ±0.4%.
The cumulative effect of errors in individual bridge circuit components is clearly seen.
Although the maximum error in any one component is ±0.2%, the possible error in the
measured value of Ru is ±0.4%. Such a magnitude of error is often not acceptable, and
special measures are taken to overcome the introduction of error by component-value
tolerances. One such practical measure is the introduction of apex balancing. This is
one of many methods of bridge balancing that all produce a similar result.
4.2.3.4. Apex balancing
One form of apex balancing consists of placing an additional variable resistor R5 at the
junction C between the resistances R2 and R3, and applying the excitation voltage Vi to
the wiper of this variable resistance, as shown in Figure 4.6.
Figure 4.7: Apex Balancing.
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For calibration purposes, Ru and Rv are replaced by two equal resistances whose values
are accurately known, and R5 is varied until the output voltage V0 is zero.
At this point, if the portions of resistance on either side of the wiper on R5 are R6 and
R7 (such that R5 = R6 = R7), we can write:
We have thus eliminated any source of error due to the tolerance in the value of R2 and
R3, and the error in the measured value of Ru depends only on the accuracy of one
component, the decade resistance box Rv.
Example 4.6
A potentiometer R5 is put into the apex of the bridge shown in Figure 4.6 to balance
the circuit. The bridge components have the following values:
Determine the required value of the resistances R6 and R7 of the parts of the
potentiometer track either side of the slider in order to balance the bridge and
compensate for the unequal values of R2 and R3.
Solution
For balance,
R2 + R7 = R3 + R6;
hence, 515 + R7 = 480 + R6
Also, because R6 and R7 are the two parts of the potentiometer track R5 whose
resistance is 100Ω:
R6 + R7 = 100;
thus
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515 + R7 = 480 + (100 - R7);
i.e. 2R7 = 580 - 515 = 65
Thus,
R7 = 32.5Ω;
hence,
R6 = 100 - 32.5 = 67.5Ω.
4.2.4. A.C. Bridges
Bridges with a.c. excitation are used to measure unknown impedances.
Ac bridges are used to measure capacitance, capacitor dissipation factor (D),

inductance, inductor quality factor (Q), mutual inductance and the small signal
transconductance (gm) of bipolar junction transistors (BJT) and field effect
transistors.
As in the case of dc null methods, ac methods are used to obtain accurate measurements
of component values based on the accuracy of the bridge components.
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5.0. INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
5.1. Introduction
In power systems, currents and voltages handled are very large. Direct measurements
are not possible with the existing equipment’s. Hence it is required to step down
currents and voltages with the help of instrument transformers so that they can be
measured with instruments of moderate sizes
Instrument Transformers are used in AC system for measurement of electrical
quantities i.e. voltage, current, power, energy, power factor, frequency.
Instrument transformers are also used with protective relays for protection of power
system.
Basic function of Instrument transformers is to step down the AC System voltage
and current. The voltage and current level of power system is very high. It is very
difficult and costly to design the measuring instruments for measurement of such high
level voltage and current. Generally measuring instruments are designed for 5 A and
110 V.
5.2. Types of instrument transformers
These instrument transformers are of two types:-

 Current transformers
 Potential transformers
Fig 5.1. Indicates the current

measurement by a C.T. The
current being measured passes
through the primary winding
and the secondary winding is
connected to an ammeter. The C.T. steps Figure 5.1: Current Transformer
down the current to the level of ammeter.
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Figure 5.2: Potential Transformer

Fig 2. Shows the connection of P.T. for voltage measurement. The primary winding is
connected to the voltage being measured and the secondary winding to a voltmeter.
The P.T. steps down the voltage to the level of voltmeter.
Figure 5.3: Common connections of instrument transformers
5.2.1. Current Transformers

5.2.1.1. What is current Transformer (CT)?
A current transformer is a transformer, which produces in its secondary winding low

current, which is proportional to the high current flowing in its primary winding.
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The secondary current is usually much smaller in magnitude than the primary current.
The design of CT depends on which type of instrument is connected to its secondary
winding.
 Measuring instrument CT is expected to give accurate results up to a
maximum of 125% of its normal full-load rated current.
 Protective instrument CT is expected to be accurate for up to 20 times of its
normal full-load rated current (about 2000% of its full-load rated current).
5.2.1.2. Construction of C.T.
C.T. has a primary coil of one or more turns made of thick

wire connected in series with the line whose current is to be
measured.
The secondary consists of a large number of turns made of
fine wire and is connected across an ammeter or a relay’s Figure 5.4: C.T. Example
terminals. – Window and Bar Type
The primary and secondary currents are expressed as a
ratio such as 100/5 or 1000/5 .
With a 100/5 ratio CT, 100A flowing in the primary
winding will result in 5A flowing in the secondary
winding, provided that the correct rated burden is
connected to the secondary winding.
Figure 5.5: Single-Ratio CT and Multi-Ratio CT
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If we know the current ratio and the reading of an a.c. ammeter, the primary current
can be calculated as:
Primary Current = CT ratio × ammeter reading
5.2.1.3. Why CT secondary should never be open?
 Ammeter resistance is very low ,the current transformer normally works as a

short-circuited instrument. If for any reason the ammeter is taken out of
secondary winding then the secondary winding must be short-circuited with the
help of a short-circuit switch.
 If this is not done, then a high m.m.f. (Ampere-turns IT) will set up a high flux
in the magnetic core and it will produce excessive core loss which produce heat
and high voltage across the secondary terminals .
 The high voltage can damage any electronic components in secondary side.
Figure 5.6: Polyester Taped Bushing CT on Outdoor Circuit Breaker
CT Turns-ratio (TR)
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Polarity
 Primary current into “polarity” forces

 Secondary current out of “polarity”
Figure 5.7: Polarity Diagrams

 Primary current into “non-polarity” forces.
 Secondary current out of “non-polarity”
CT Metering Accuracy
Since actual secondary current ≠ Rated secondary current, then the difference in %
is known as the “Accuracy” or “Class” of the CT
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CT accurate Burden Calculation
ZT = RCT + RL + ZB
Where ZT - Total burden in ohms (vector summation of resistance and inductance
components), RCT - CT secondary resistance in ohms @75 deg C , RL - Resistance of
leads in ohms (Total loop distance), ZB - Device impedance in ohms
Figure 5.8: CT Actual Connections
Figure 5.9: Outdoor BO7 - Replaces BCT’s in shielded aluminum housing
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5.2.2. Potential Transformers

5.2.2.1. What is a Potential Transformer (PT) or (VT)?
A PT or sometimes called VT is a step-down transformer having many primary turns

but few secondary turns.
In a step-down transformer the voltage decreases and the current increases, thus voltage
can be easily measured by using a low-range voltmeter instrument.
The voltage is stepped-down in a known ratio called the voltage ratio.
5.2.2.2. Construction and working of P.T.
A potential transformer has many primary winding turns but few number of secondary
winding turns that makes it a step-down transformer.
A Voltmeter is connected to the secondary winding is usually a voltmeter of 150 V.
 Primary terminals are connected in parallel across the line to which the voltage
is to be measured.
 The voltmeter reading gives the transformed value of the voltage across the
secondary terminals.
 The deflection of the voltmeter when divided by the transformed ratio gives the
actual voltage across the primary winding as:
The Line voltage = deflection / transformation – Ratio

Where transformation ratio = V2/V1
5.2.2.3. Precaution for P.T.
Since the secondary of a p.t. is connected to relays, their ratings are usually 40 to 100
Watts.
For safety purpose the secondary should be completely insulated from the high
voltage primary and should be in addition grounded.
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Rating Type
1. Below 5000 v Shell type
2. 5000-13800 v Dry type and oil type
3. Above 13800 v only oil type
5.2.3. Difference between C.T. and P.T.
Few differences between C.T. and P.T. are listed below –
Sl. Current Transformer (C.T.) Potential Transformer (P.T.)

No.
1 Connected in series with power circuit. Connected in Parallel with Power circuit.
2 Secondary is connected to Ammeter. Secondary is connected to Voltmeter.
3 Secondary works almost in short Secondary works almost in open circuited
circuited condition. condition.
4 Primary current depends on power Primary current depends on secondary
circuit current. burden.
5 Primary current and excitation vary Primary current and excitation variation
over wide range with change of power are restricted to a small range.
circuit current
6 One terminal of secondary is earthed to One terminal of secondary can be earthed
avoid the insulation break down. for Safety.
7 Secondary is never be open circuited. Secondary can be used in open circuit
condition.
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5.3. Basic important rules for Instrument Transformers
i. Never open circuit a current transformer secondary while the primary is energized
ii. Never short circuit the secondary of an energized VT - Damaging current will result from
short circuiting the secondary circuit of an energized VT.
iii. CT secondary leads must be added to the CT burden - Electronic relays usually represent
very little burden to the CT secondary circuit. In many cases the major burden
is caused by the CT secondary leads.
iv. Never use a 60 Hz rated VT on a 50 Hz System - Severe equipment damage is

possible
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6.0. DISPLACEMENT AND MECHANICAL STRAIN
6.1. Transducers
A transducer is a device that convert one form of energy to other form. It converts
the measurand to a usable electrical signal.
 The input transducer is called the sensor,

because it senses the desired physical quantity
and converts it into another energy form.
 The output transducer is called the
actuator, because it converts the energy into Figure 6.1: An Example of a
a form to which another independent system Transducer
can react, whether it is a biological system or
a technical system.
In other words, a transducer is a device that is capable of converting the physical quantity into a
proportional electrical quantity such as voltage or current and vice versa.
Transducer contains two parts that are closely related to each other i.e. the sensing
element and transduction element.
The sensing element is called as the sensor. It is device producing measurable response
to change in physical conditions.
The transduction element convert the sensor output to suitable electrical form.
Figure 6.2: A Block Diagram of a Transducer
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6.1.1. Characteristics of Transducers
 Ruggedness  Linearity
 Repeatability  Accuracy
 High stability and reliability  Speed of response
 Sensitivity  Small size
6.1.2. Transducers Selection Factors
i. Operating Principle: The transducer are many times selected on the basis
of operating principle used by them. The operating principle used may be
resistive, inductive, capacitive, optoelectronic, piezo electric etc.
ii. Sensitivity: The transducer must be sensitive enough to produce detectable
output.
iii. Operating Range: The transducer should maintain the range requirement
and have a good resolution over the entire range.
iv. Accuracy: High accuracy is assured.
v. Cross sensitivity: It has to be taken into account when measuring
mechanical quantities. There are situation where the actual quantity is being
measured is in one plane and the transducer is subjected to variation in
another plane.
vi. Errors: The transducer should maintain the expected input-output
relationship as described by the transfer function so as to avoid errors.
vii. Transient and frequency response: The transducer should meet the
desired time domain specification like peak overshoot, rise time, setting time
and small dynamic error.
viii. Loading Effects: The transducer should have a high input impedance and
low output impedance to avoid loading effects.
ix. Environmental Compatibility: It should be assured that the transducer
selected to work under specified environmental conditions maintains its
input- output relationship and does not break down.
x. Insensitivity to unwanted signals: The transducer should be minimally
sensitive to unwanted signals and highly sensitive to desired signals.
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6.1.3. Classification of Transducers
 Active and passive transducers.

 Analog and digital transducers.
 On the basis of transduction principle used.
 Primary and secondary transducer
 Transducers and inverse transducers.
6.1.3.1. Active and Passive Transducers
Active Transducers
These transducers do not need any external source of power for their operation.
Therefore they are also called as self-generating type transducers.
As the output of active transducers we get an equivalent electrical output signal e.g.
temperature or strain to electric potential, without any external source of energy being
used.
They can be classified as photovoltaic, thermoelectric, electromagnetic, piezo electric,

chemical, etc.
Passive Transducers
These transducers need external source of power for their operation. So they are not
self-generating type transducers.
A DC power supply or an audio frequency generator is used as an external power

source.
These transducers produce the output signal in the form of variation in resistance,
capacitance, inductance or some other electrical parameter in response to the quantity
to be measured.
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Figure 6.3: Classification of Passive Transducers
6.1.3.2. Primary and Secondary Transducer
Primary Transducers – these are those devices which actually sense the parameter
under measurement. These are generally mechanical transducers that convert the sensed
parameter into a proportional mechanical signal. They deal with the physical quantity
to be measured.
Secondary Transducers – these are those devices which sense the output of primary
transducer and converts it into an analogous electrical signal.
Example: A diaphragm, acting as primary transducer, converts pressure (the quantity

to be measured) into displacement (the mechanical signal). The displacement is then
converted into change in resistance using strain gauge that acts as the secondary
transducer.
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6.1.3.3. According to Transduction Principle
Figure 6.4: Classification Based on Transduction Principle
i. Capacitive Transducer:
The measurand is converted to a change in the capacitance.
A typical capacitor is comprised of two parallel plates of conducting material separated

by an electrical insulating material called a dielectric. The plates and the dielectric may
be either flattened or rolled.
The purpose of the dielectric is to help the two parallel plates maintain their stored
electrical charges.
ii. Electromagnetic Transduction
The measurand is converted to voltage

induced in conductor by change in the
magnetic flux, in absence of excitation.
The electromagnetic transducer are self-

generating active transducers.
Figure 6.5: Electromagnetic
Transduction
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The motion between a piece of magnet and an electromagnet is responsible for the
change in flux
iii. Inductive Transducer
In inductive transduction, the measurand is converted into a change in the self-

inductance of a single coil.
It is achieved by displacing the core of the coil that is attached to a mechanical sensing
element
iv. Piezo Electric Induction
In piezoelectric induction the measurand is

converted into a change in electrostatic charge q
or voltage V generated by crystals when
mechanically stressed.
v. Photovoltaic Transduction:
In photovoltaic transduction the measurand is

converted to voltage generated when the junction Figure 6.6: Piezo Electric
between dissimilar materials are illuminated. Induction
Figure 6.7: Photovoltaic Transduction
vi. Photo Conductive Transduction:
In photoconductive transduction the measurand is converted to change in resistance

of semiconductor material by the change in light incident on the material.
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Figure 6.8: Photo Conductive Transduction:
6.1.3.4. Transducer and Inverse Transducer
Transducer: Transducers convert non electrical quantity to electrical quantity.
Inverse Transducer: Inverse transducers convert electrical quantity to a non-electrical

quantity
6.2. Displacement Sensors
The displacement x is related to velocity and acceleration through differential /integral

operations as velocity v = dx/dt and acceleration a = d2x/dt2.
It is converted into electrical current or voltage using resistive, inductive, capacitive and
piezoelectric sensors and related circuitries.
6.2.1. Capacitive Sensors
Capacitive sensors consist of two parallel metal plates in which the dielectric between
the plates is either air or some other medium.
The capacitance C is given by
C = ε0εrA/d,
where; ε0 is the absolute permittivity (dielectric coefficient),
εr is the relative permittivity of the dielectric medium between plates
A is the area of the plates
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d is the distance between them.
The motion of a moveable capacitive plate relative to a fixed one changes the
capacitance.
Can be used to measure pressure, sound, or acceleration. It can also measure moisture
content, humidity values, and liquid levels.
Figure 6.9: Capacitive Type Displacement Sensor Its Symbol and Characteristic
We can change the capacitance by changing any one of the defining parameters.
In many applications, one of the capacitance plates is kept fixed while the other one
can move.
6.2.2. Resistive Sensors
Resistive sensors rely on the variation of the resistance of a material when the measured
variable is applied to it.
This principle is most commonly applied in temperature measurement using resistance

thermometers or thermistors, and in displacement measurement using strain gauges or
piezoresistive sensors.
In addition, some moisture meters work on the resistance-variation principle.
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6.2.3. Inductive Sensors
An inductive electromechanical transducer is a transducer which converts the physical

motion into the change in inductance.
The inductive transducers are of the self-generating or the passive type. The self-
generating inductive transducers use the basic generator principle i.e. the motion
between a conductor and magnetic field induces a voltage in the conductor.
The variable inductance transducers work on the following principles.
 Variation in self-inductance
 Variation in mutual inductance
Self-inductance may vary due to;
 Change in number of turns N

 Change in geometric configuration
 Change in permeability of magnetic circuit
6.2.3.1. Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
AN LVDT is used to measure linear mechanical displacement or position in control

systems and in precision manufacturing gauging, and can be used indirectly to measure
force, pressure, acceleration, etc., or any quantity that can cause a linear displacement.
AN LVDT transducer comprises a coil former on to which three coils are wound.
The primary coil is excited with an AC

current, the secondary coils are wound
such that when a ferrite core is in the
central linear position, an equal voltage is
induced in to each coil.
The secondary are connected in opposite

so that in the central position the outputs
of the secondary cancels each other out.
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The excitation is applied to the primary winding and the armature assists the induction
of current in to secondary coils.
When the core is exactly at the center of the coil then the flux linked to both the
secondary winding will be equal.
Due to equal flux linkage the secondary induced voltages (eo1 & eo2) are equal but they
have opposite polarities. Output voltage eo is therefore zero. This position is called
“null position”
Figure 6.10: LVDT Schematic. Note dot notation on the output coils.
Figure 6.11: LVDT When the Core Is Exactly At the Center of the Coil
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Now if the core is displaced from its null position toward sec1 then flux linked to sec.1
increases and flux linked to sec.2 decreases. Therefore eo1 > eo2 and the output voltage
of LVDT eo will be positive
Similarly if the core is displaced toward sec.2 then the eo2 > eo1 and the output voltage
of LVDT eo will be negative.
6.2.4. Magnetic Sensors
Magnetic sensors utilize the magnetic phenomena of inductance, reluctance and eddy
currents to indicate the value of the measured quantity, which is usually some form of
displacement.
i. Inductive sensors translate movement into a

change in the mutual inductance between
magnetically coupled parts.
In this, the single winding on the central limb of an

‘E’-shaped ferromagnetic body is excited with an
alternating voltage. Figure 6.12: Inductive
Displacement Sensor
The displacement to be measured is applied to a ferromagnetic plate in close proximity
to the ‘E’ piece.
Movements of the plate alter the flux paths and hence cause a change in the current
flowing in the winding.
By Ohm’s law, the current flowing in the winding is given by I = V/ωL. For fixed values
of w and V, this equation becomes I = 1/KL, where K is a constant.
The relationship between L and the displacement, d, applied to the plate is a non-linear
one, and hence the output-current/displacement characteristic has to be calibrated.
ii. Variable reluctance sensors - a coil is wound on a permanent magnet rather

than on an iron core as in variable inductance sensors.
Such devices are commonly used to measure rotational velocities.
K.V. Rop Page 124

Figure 6.13 shows a typical instrument in which a ferromagnetic gearwheel is placed

next to the sensor.
Figure 6.13: Variable Reluctance Sensor
As the tip of each tooth on the gearwheel moves towards and away from the pick-up
unit, the changing magnetic flux in the pick-up coil causes a voltage to be induced in
the coil whose magnitude is proportional to the rate of change of flux.
Thus, the output is a sequence of positive and negative pulses whose frequency is
proportional to the rotational velocity of the gearwheel.
iii. Eddy current sensors consist of a probe

containing a coil that is excited at a high
frequency, which is typically 1MHz.
This is used to measure the displacement of the

probe relative to a moving metal target.
Figure 6.14: Eddy Current Sensor
Because of the high frequency of excitation,
eddy currents are induced only in the surface of the target, and the current magnitude
reduces to almost zero a short distance inside the target.
This allows the sensor to work with very thin targets, such as the steel diaphragm of a
pressure sensor.
The eddy currents alter the inductance of the probe coil, and this change can be
translated into a d.c. voltage output that is proportional to the distance between the
probe and the target.
Measurement resolution as high as 0.1 μm can be achieved. The sensor can also work
with a non-conductive target if a piece of aluminium tape is fastened to it.
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6.2.5. Hall-Effect Sensors
A Hall-effect sensor is a device that is used to

measure the magnitude of a magnetic field.
It consists of a conductor carrying a current

that is aligned orthogonally with the magnetic
field. This produces a transverse voltage
difference across the device that is directly
proportional to the magnetic field strength.
For an excitation current I and magnetic field

Figure 6.15: Principles of Hall-Effect strength B, the output voltage is given by V
Sensor = KIB, where K is known as the Hall
constant.
The conductor in Hall-effect sensors is usually made from a semiconductor material as

opposed to a metal, because a larger voltage output is produced for a magnetic field of
a given size.
The magnitude of this field changes when the device becomes close to any ferrous metal
object or boundary.
The Hall Effect is also commonly used in keyboard pushbuttons, in which a magnet is
attached underneath the button. When the button is depressed, the magnet moves past
a Hall-effect sensor. The induced voltage is then converted by a trigger circuit into a
digital output.
Such pushbutton switches can operate at high frequencies without contact bounce.
6.2.6. Piezoelectric Sensors
Piezoelectric transducers produce an output voltage when a force is applied to them.
They are frequently used as ultrasonic receivers and also as displacement transducers,
particularly as part of devices measuring acceleration, force and pressure.
In ultrasonic receivers, the sinusoidal amplitude variations in the ultrasound wave

received are translated into sinusoidal changes in the amplitude of the force applied to
the piezoelectric transducer.
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In a similar way, the translational movement in a displacement transducer is caused by

mechanical means to apply a force to the piezoelectric transducer.
Figure 6.16: Symbolic Representation of a Piezoelectric Crystal
The charge q is proportional to the applied force as
q = kf
k being the piezoelectric constant in Coulomb/Newton.
Piezoelectric transducers are made from piezoelectric materials. These have an

asymmetrical lattice of molecules that distorts when a mechanical force is applied to it.
This distortion causes a reorientation of electric charges within the material, resulting
in a relative displacement of positive and negative charges.
The charge displacement induces surface charges on the material of opposite polarity
between the two sides.
By implanting electrodes into the surface of the material, these surface charges can be
measured as an output voltage.
For a rectangular block of material, the induced voltage is given by:
where, F is the applied force in g,
A is the area of the material in mm,
d is the thickness of the material and
k is the piezoelectric constant.
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The polarity of the induced voltage depends on whether the material is compressed or
stretched.
Materials exhibiting piezoelectric behaviour include
 Natural materials
o quartz,
 Synthetic Materials
o Lithium sulphate
o Ferroelectric ceramics such as barium titanate.
o Polymeric films such as polyvinylidine
6.3. Strain Gages (Gauges)

6.3.1. Tension and Compression
A bar of metal as shown in Figure 6.17 is subjected to a force

(T) that will elongate its dimension along the long axis that is
called the axial direction.
This force is called the tension.
If the force acts in opposite direction and shortens the length,

this called the compression.
Figure 6.17: A Metal Bar

6.3.2. Stress
Stress is defined as the force per unit area.
The tension T produces an axial stress
where A is the cross-sectional area.
Dimension of stress is the same as that of the pressure. Figure 6.18: Bar With Tension
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6.3.3. Strain
The stress generates changes in the dimensions of the

bar.
The fractional change in length is defined as the strain.
The change in the direction of the force is called the

axial strain
Figure 6.19: The Strain
Dimension of strain is unity, i.e. strain is dimensionless.
6.3.4. Hooke’s law
Stress is linearly related to strain for elastic materials.
The Hooke’s law mathematically expresses this relationship as;
where Ey is called the modulus of elasticity, also called the Young’s modulus.
The relationship between the axial stress and

axial strain is displayed in Figure 5.20.
It has two distinct regions as the elastic (linear) and

plastic (deformation). In the elastic range, the
change is reversible, while in the plastic range the
change is irreversible.
The slope of the characteristic (ratio of change in

stress to strain) is the Young’s modulus and it is
fairly constant if the stress remains below the
elastic limit.
Figure 6.20: The Stress-Strain
The strain is expressed in terms of micro-strain Relationship
(μstrain)
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Table 6.1: Elastic Properties of Some Materials
Example 5.1
A phosphor-bronze wire, 1.0 mm2 in cross-section area, is subjected to a tensile force

of 10 N. Using the data in the table given previously, calculate;
i. The axial stress

ii. Elongation if the wire is 10 m long
iii. Force required to break the wire
Axial Stress
Elongation
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Force required to break the wire
Summary
Strain gauges are devices that experience a change in resistance when they are stretched
or strained.
They are able to detect very small displacements, usually in the range 0–50 μm.
They are typically used as part of other transducers, for example diaphragm pressure
sensors that convert pressure changes into small displacements of the diaphragm.
Measurement inaccuracies as low as ±0.15% of full-scale reading are achievable and the
quoted life expectancy is usually three million reversals.
Strain gauges are manufactured to various nominal values of resistance, of which 120Ω,
350 Ω and 1000 Ω are very common.
The typical maximum change of resistance in a 120 Ω device would be 5 Ω at maximum

deflection.
6.4. Optical Sensors (Air Path)
Optical sensors are based on the modulation of light travelling between a light source
and a light detector.
The transmitted light can travel along either an air path or a fibre-optic cable.
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Either form of transmission gives immunity to electromagnetically induced noise, and

also provides greater safety than electrical sensors when used in hazardous
environments.
Figure 6.21: Operating Principles of Optical Sensors
Light sources suitable for transmission across an air path include tungsten-filament
lamps (prone to interference from the sun and other sources since its visible part of the
light frequency spectrum), laser diodes and light-emitting diodes (LEDs).
Infrared LEDs or infrared laser diodes are not affected by sunlight.
The main forms of light detector used with optical systems are photocells (cadmium
sulphide or cadmium selenide being the most common type of photocell),
phototransistors and photodiodes.
These are all photoconductive devices, whose resistance is reduced according to the
intensity of light to which they are exposed.
Air-path optical sensors are commonly used to measure proximity, translational motion,
rotational motion and gas concentration.
6.5. Optical sensors (fibre-optic)
The basis of operation of fibre-optic sensors is the translation of the physical quantity
measured into a change in one or more parameters of a light beam.
The light parameters that can be modulated are one or more of the following:
 intensity
 phase
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 polarization
 wavelength
 Transmission time.
Fibre-optic sensors usually incorporate either glass/plastic cables or all plastic cables.
All glass types are rarely used because of their fragility.
Plastic cables have particular advantages for sensor applications because they are cheap
and have a relatively large diameter of 0.5–1.0mm, making connection to the transmitter
and receiver easy.
Advantages
 Fibre-optic sensors characteristically enjoy long life. For example, the life
expectancy of reflective fibre-optic switches is quoted at ten million operations.
 Their accuracy is also good, with, for instance, ±1% of full-scale reading being
quoted as a typical inaccuracy level for a fibre-optic pressure sensor.
 Simplicity, low cost, small size, high reliability and capability of working in
many kinds of hostile environment.
Two major classes of fibre-optic sensor are;
 Intrinsic sensors – here, the fibre-optic cable itself is the sensor,

 Extrinsic sensors – here, the fibre-optic cable is only used to guide light
to/from a conventional sensor.
 Distributed sensors – this details distributing a number of discrete sensors
measuring different variables along a fibre-optic cable.
6.6. Ultrasonic transducers
Ultrasound is a band of frequencies in the range above 20 kHz, that is, above the sonic
range that humans can usually hear.
Measurement devices that use ultrasound consist of one device that transmits an
ultrasound wave and another device that receives the wave.
Changes in the measured variable are determined either by;
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 Measuring the change in time taken for the ultrasound wave to travel between
the transmitter and receiver,
 Measuring the change in phase of the transmitted wave.
 Measuring the change in frequency of the transmitted wave.
Ultrasonic devices are used in for measuring fluid flow rates, liquid levels, translational
displacements, and in imaging systems among others.
The transmission speed of ultrasound varies according to the medium through which
it travels.
When transmitted through air, the speed of ultrasound is affected by environmental

factors such as temperature, humidity and air turbulence.
The velocity of sound through air varies with temperature according to:
where T is the temperature in °C.
Humidity changes have a much smaller effect. Air currents can alter the direction of
travel of ultrasound waves
6.6.1. Ultrasonic Imaging
The main applications of ultrasound in imaging are found in medical diagnosis and in
industrial testing procedures.
A short burst of ultrasonic energy is transmitted from the ultrasonic element into the
medium being investigated and the energy that is reflected back into the element is
analyzed.
Ultrasonic elements in the frequency range 1MHz to 15MHz are used.
Ultrasound is reflected back at all interfaces between different materials, with the
proportion of energy reflected being a function of the materials either side of the
interface.
The principal components inside a human body are water, fat, muscle and bone, and
the interfaces between each of these have different reflectance characteristics.
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Measurement of the time between energy transmission and receipt of the reflected
signal gives the depth of the interface according.
In medical diagnosis procedures, the reflected energy appears as a series of peaks,

with the magnitude of each peak corresponding to the type of interface that it is
reflected from and the time of each peak corresponding to the depth of the interface in
the body. Thus, a ‘map’ of fat, muscle and bone in the body is obtained.
Applications in industrial test procedures usually involve detecting internal flaws

within components.
Such flaws cause an interface between air and the material that the component is made
of. By timing the reflections of ultrasound from the flaw, the depth of each flaw is
determined.
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7.0. TELEMETRY & TRANSMISSION
Telemetry is defined as the sensing and measuring of information at some remote

location and then transmitting that information to a central or host location.
There, the signal can be monitored and used to control a process at the remote site.
A telemeter is a device used to remotely measure any quantity. It consists of a sensor,

a transmission path, and a display, recording, or control device.
Telemeters are the physical devices used in telemetry.
Electronic devices are widely used in telemetry and can be wireless or hard-wired,
analog or digital.
7.1. Advantages and Disadvantages of Telemetry

7.1.1. Advantages of Telemetry
 No transmission lines to be cut or broken.

 Faster response time
 Lower cost compared to leased lines
 Ease of use in remote areas where it is not practical or possible to use wire or
coaxial cables
 Easy relocation
 Functional over a wide range of operating conditions
7.1.2. Disadvantages of Telemetry
 Noise
 Interference
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7.2. Components of a Typical Wireless Telemetry System
At the remote site, a sensor or sensors are typically the data source. The output of the
sensor(s) is converted to digital data by a small
computer device or RTU (Remote Terminal
Unit).
The RTU is interfaced to a modem device that

converts the digital data into an analog signal that
can be transmitted over the air. The radio
transmitter then transmits the signal to the host
site radio receiver.
At the receiver, the modem takes the analog signal

received and converts it back to a digital form that
can be processed by the data recovery equipment.
Figure 7.1: A Typical Wireless Telemetry
In a typical application, the base or host site
requests data from the remote site(s). The base transmits a request to the remote unit
telling it to send its data. The base reverts to a receive mode and awaits the transmission
from the remote site.
After the remote sends its data, it goes back to a receive mode waiting for further
instructions to come from the base.
Once the base receives the remote site information, it may send additional instructions
to that site or continue on to request data from the next remote site.
This polling process continues until all the remotes in the system have sent their data.
7.2.1. Applications
 Meteorology - Used by weather balloons for transmitting meteorological data.

 Oil and gas industry - Used to transmit drilling mechanics and formation
evaluation information uphole, in real time, as a well is drilled. The data recorded
can be used for Formation evaluation, Drilling Optimization, and Geosteering.
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 Space science - Used by manned or unmanned spacecraft for data transmission.

 Motor racing - In modern motor racing, telemetry allows race engineers to
interpret data collected during a test or race and use it to properly tune the car
for optimum performance.
 Defense, space and resource exploration
 Military intelligence
 Flight testing
 Agriculture
 Water management
 Energy monitoring
 Medicine/Healthcare, among others
7.3. Signal Transmission
Signal transmission is the process of sending and propagating an analogue

or digital information signal over a physical point-to-point or point-to-
multipoint transmission medium, either wired, optical fiber or wireless.
Signals can be transmitted electrically, pneumatically, optically, or by radio

telemetry, in either analogue or digital format.
7.3.1. Electrical Transmission
With electrical transmission, a signal can be transmitted as a varying analogue

voltage, varying current, or superimposed on an a.c. carrier system.
i. Transmission as Varying Voltages
The simplest mode of transmission is to maintain the signals in the same form.
This kind of transmission uses the various copper wired transmission mediums
to relay the information.
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Signal amplification prior to transmission is essential if a reasonable signal to

noise ratio is to be obtained after transmission. This is because it suffers from
Signal attenuation and noise e.g. Induced Noise. It is also usually necessary to
provide shielding for the signal wires.
ii. Current Loop Transmission
In this case, voltage signals are transmitted as varying current signals, thus the
signal-attenuation effect of conductor resistances is minimized. Currents in the
range between 4mA and 20mA are used to represent the voltage level of the
analogue signal.
iii. Transmission using an a.c. Carrier
Low level d.c. voltage signals can be transferred into an a.c. carrier system before
transmission and extract it from the carrier at the end of the transmission line. Both
amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency modulation (FM) can be used.
After shifting the d.c. signal onto a high-frequency a.c. carrier, a high-pass filter can be
applied to the AM signal. This successfully rejects noise in the form of low-frequency
drift voltages and mains interference. At the end of the transmission line, demodulation
is carried out to extract the measurement signal from the carrier.
7.3.2. Pneumatic Transmission
In a pneumatic system, energy is stored in a potential state under the form of

compressed air. Working energy (kinetic energy and pressure) results in a pneumatic
system when the compressed air is allowed to expand.
Pneumatic transmission consists of transmitting analogue signals as a varying

pneumatic pressure level that is usually in the range of 3–15 p.s.i. (Imperial units are
still commonly used in process industries, though the equivalent range in SI units is
207–1034 mbar, which is often rounded to 200–1000 mbar in metric systems).
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Frequently, the initial signal is in the form of a varying voltage level that is converted
into a corresponding pneumatic pressure.
In most cases, current to pressure converter is used to convert the 4–20mA current
signals into 0.2 – 1 bar pneumatic signals prior to transmission and vice versa.
Figure 7.2: Current to Pressure Converter (I/P) and Pressure to Current Converter
(P/I)
Pneumatic transmission has the advantage of being intrinsically safe, and provides
similar levels of noise immunity to current loop transmission.
However, one disadvantage of using air as the transmission medium is that

transmission speed is much less than electrical or optical transmission.
7.3.3. Fibre-Optic Transmission
Optical fibre consists of thin glass fibres that can carry information at frequencies in
the visible light spectrum and beyond.
The typical optical fibre consists of a very narrow strand of glass called the core.
Around the core is a concentric layer of glass called the cladding.
Light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving through a single uniform substance.
If a ray of light traveling through one substance suddenly enters another substance (of
a different density), the ray changes direction as shown in Figure 5.6.
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Figure 7.3: Fiber Optic Cable
7.3.3.1. Characteristics of Optical Fiber
 Greater capacity: The potential bandwidth, and hence data rate, of optical fiber
is immense; data rates of hundreds of Gbps over tens of kilometers have been
demonstrated.
 Smaller size and lighter weight: Optical fibers are considerably thinner than
coaxial cable or bundled twisted-pair cable
 Lower attenuation: Attenuation is significantly lower for optical fiber than for
coaxial cable or twisted pair and is constant over a wide range.
 Electromagnetic isolation: Optical fiber systems are not affected by external
electromagnetic fields.
 Greater repeater spacing: Fewer repeaters mean lower cost and fewer sources
of error.
 Security: cannot tap into cable - Fibers do not radiate energy, so there is little
interference with other equipment and there is a high degree of security from
eavesdropping. In addition, fiber is inherently difficult to tap.
 No corrosion
 Distance - Longer distances than copper wire
 Transmission Rate - Faster transmission rate
7.3.3.2. Disadvantages of Optical Fiber
 Physical vibration will show up as signal noise!

 Limited physical arc of cable. Bend it too much and it will break!
 Difficult to splice
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7.3.4. Optical Wireless Telemetry
This is the wireless transmission of optical signals by using either radio or light
waves to carry the transmitted signal across a plain air path between a transmitter and
a receiver. It consists of a light source (usually infrared) transmitting encoded data
information across an open, unprotected air path to a light detector.
7.3.5. Radio Telemetry (Radio Wireless Transmission)
Radio telemetry is normally used over transmission distances up to 400 miles, though
this can be extended by special techniques to provide communication through space
over millions of miles.
In radio telemetry, data are usually transmitted in a frequency modulated (FM) format.
Radio telemetry is very reliable because, although the radio frequency waveband is
relatively crowded, specific frequencies within it are allocated to specific usages thus,
there is no interference to other licensed users of the same frequency in other areas.
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8.0. RECORDING AND PRESENTATION OF MEASUREMENT DATA
8.1. Recording of Measurement Data

8.1.1. Mechanical Chart Recorders
Mechanical chart recorders are a long-established means of making permanent records

of electrical signals in a simple, cheap and reliable way, even though they have poor
dynamic characteristics which means that they are unable to record signals at
frequencies greater than about 30 Hz. They have particular advantages in providing
a non-corruptible record that has the merit of instant ‘viewability’, thereby satisfying
regulations in many industries that require variables to be monitored and recorded
continuously with hard-copy output.
Mechanical chart recorders are either of the galvanometric type or potentiometric type.
8.1.1.1. Galvanometric recorders
These work on the same principle as a moving-coil meter except that the pointer draws
an ink trace on paper, as illustrated in Figure 8.1, instead of merely moving against a
scale.
The measured signal is applied to the coil,

and the angular deflection of this and its
attached pointer is proportional to the
magnitude of the signal applied.
The displacement y of the pen across the

chart recorder is given by y=Rsinθ. This sine
relationship between the input signal and the
displacement y is non-linear, and results in an
error of 0.7% for deflections of ±10°.
Figure 8.1: Simple galvanometric recorder
A more serious problem arising from the pen
moving in an arc is that it is difficult to relate the magnitude of deflection with the time
axis.
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Figure 8.2: Output of simple chart recorder: (a) y versus θ relationship
Neglecting friction, the torque equation for a galvanometric recorder in steady state can
be expressed as:
Torque due to current in coil = Torque due to spring 8.1
Following a step input, we can write:
Torque due to current in coil = Torque due to spring + Accelerating

torque 8.2
8.3
where I is the coil current,
θ is the angular displacement,
J is the moment of inertia
Ki and Ks are constants.
Consider now what happens if a recorder with resistance Rr is connected to a transducer

with resistance Rt and output voltage Vt, as shown in Figure 5.11.
Figure 8.3: Connection of transducer to chart recorder

K.V. Rop Page 144
The current flowing in steady state is given by: I = Vt/(Rt + Rr). When the transducer
voltage Vt is first applied to the recorder coil, the coil will accelerate and, because the
coil is moving in a magnetic field, a backward voltage will be induced in it given by
8.4
Hence, the coil current is now given by:
8.5
Now substituting for I in the system Eq. 5.3
8.6
This is the standard equation of a second order dynamic system, with natural
frequency ω and damping factor ξ given by:
8.7
In steady-state, and equation 5.7reduces to:
8.8
which is an expression describing the measurement sensitivity of the system.
8.1.1.2. Limitations of Mechanical chart recorders
Galvanometric recorders have a typical quoted measurement inaccuracy of ±2% and a

resolution of 1%. Their accuracy is also affected by dirt, particularly because it increases
friction in the bearings carrying the suspended coil.
Errors often occur in reading this type of chart, as interpolation for points drawn
between the curved grid lines is difficult. The electromechanical system gives the
instrument a slow response time. This means that potentiometric recorders are only
suitable for measuring d.c. and slowly time-varying signals.
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8.1.1.3. Circular chart recorders
They consist of a rotating circular paper chart which typically turns through one full
revolution in 24 hours, allowing charts to be removed once per day and stored.
The pen in such instruments is often driven pneumatically to record 200–1000 mbar
(3–15 psi) pneumatic process signals, although versions with electrically driven pens
also exist.
Figure 8.4: Circular chart recorder
Apart from single channel versions, models recording up to six channels, with traces in
six different colours, can be obtained.
8.1.2. Ultra-violet recorders
Ultra-violet recorders work on very similar principles to standard galvanometric chart

recorders, but achieve a very significant reduction in system inertia and spring constants
by mounting a narrow mirror rather than a pen system on the moving coil.
This mirror reflects a beam of ultra-violet light onto ultra-violet sensitive paper. It is
usual to find several of these mirror-galvanometer systems mounted in parallel within
one instrument to provide a multi-channel recording capability, as illustrated in Figure
8.5.
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This arrangement enables signals

at frequencies up to 13 kHz to be
recorded with a typical
inaccuracy of ±2% f.s.
Whilst it is possible to obtain

satisfactory permanent signal
recordings by this method,
special precautions are necessary
to protect the ultra-violet-
sensitive paper from light before
use and to spray a fixing lacquer
on it after recording.
Such instruments must also be

handled with extreme care,
because the mirror
galvanometers and their delicate Figure 8.5: Ultra-violet recorder
mounting systems are easily
damaged by relatively small shocks. In addition, ultraviolet recorders are significantly
more expensive than standard chart recorders.
8.1.3. Magnetic Tape Recorders
Magnetic tape recorders can record analogue signals up to 80 kHz in frequency. As the
speed of the tape transport can be switched between several values, signals can be
recorded at high speed and replayed at a lower speed. Such time scaling of the recorded
information allows a hard copy of the signal behavior to be obtained from instruments
such as ultra-violet and galvanometric recorders whose bandwidth is insufficient to
allow direct signal recording.
A 200 Hz signal cannot be recorded directly on a chart recorder, but if it is recorded on

a magnetic tape recorder running at high speed and then replayed at a speed ten times
lower, its frequency will be time scaled to 20 Hz which can be recorded on a chart
recorder.
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Instrumentation tape recorders typically have between four and ten channels, allowing
many signals to be recorded simultaneously.
The two basic types of analogue tape recording technique are direct recording and
frequency-modulated recording.
 Direct recording offers the best data bandwidth but the accuracy of signal
amplitude recording is quite poor, and this seriously limits the usefulness of this
technique in most applications.
 The frequency-modulated technique offers better amplitude-recording
accuracy, with a typical inaccuracy of ±5% at signal frequencies of 80 kHz. In
consequence, this technique is very much more common than direct recording.
8.2. Presentation of data
The two formats available for presenting data on paper are tabular and graphical ones.
8.2.1. Tabular data presentation
A tabular presentation allows data values to be recorded in a precise way that exactly
maintains the accuracy to which the data values were measured. In other words, the
data values are written down exactly as measured.
Besides recording the raw data values as measured, tables often also contain further
values calculated from the raw data.
An example of a tabular data presentation is given in Table 8.1. This records the results
of an experiment to determine the strain induced in a bar of material that is subjected
to a range of stresses. Data were obtained by applying a sequence of forces to the end
of the bar and using an extensometer to measure the change in length. Values of the
stress and strain in the bar are calculated from these measurements and are also included
in the table. The final row, which is of crucial importance in any tabular presentation,
is the estimate of possible error in each calculated result.
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Table 8.1: Sample tabular presentation of data
A table of measurements and calculations should conform to several rules
i. The table should have a title that explains what data are being presented within
the table.
ii. Each column of figures in the table should refer to the measurements or
calculations associated with one quantity only.
iii. Each column of figures should be headed by a title that identifies the data values
contained in the column.
iv. The units in which quantities in each column are measured should be stated at
the top of the column.
v. All headings and columns should be separated by bold horizontal (and
sometimes vertical) lines.
vi. The errors associated with each data value quoted in the table should be given.
8.2.2. Graphical presentation of data
Presentation of data in graphical form involves some compromise in the accuracy to

which the data are recorded, as the exact values of measurements are lost.
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However, graphical presentation has important advantages over tabular presentation.
i. Graphs provide a pictorial representation of results that is more readily

comprehended than a set of tabular results.
ii. Graphs are particularly useful for expressing the quantitative significance of
results and showing whether a linear relationship exists between two variables.
iii. Graphs can sometimes show up a data point that is clearly outside the straight
line or curve that seems to fit the rest of the data points. Such a data point is
probably due either to a human mistake in reading an instrument or else to a
momentary malfunction in the measuring instrument itself.
Figure 8.6 shows a graph drawn from the stress and strain values given in the Table 8.1.
Construction of the graph involves first of all marking the points corresponding to the
stress and strain values.
Figure 8.6: Sample graphical presentation of data: graph of stress against strain.
Proper representation of data in graphical form has to conform to certain rules:
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 The graph should have a title or caption that explains what data are being
presented in the graph.
 Both axes of the graph should be labelled to express clearly what variable is
associated with each axis and to define the units in which the variables are
expressed.
 The number of points marked along each axis should be kept reasonably small –
about five divisions is often a suitable number.
 No attempt should be made to draw the graph outside the boundaries
corresponding to the maximum and minimum data values measured
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9. SIGNAL CONDITIONING
9.1. Introduction
In general, a measurement refers to the transduction of the process parameter into

some corresponding analog parameter, such as a pneumatic pressure, an electric
voltage, or current.
A transducer is a device that performs the initial measurement and energy conversion
of a physical component into analogous electrical or pneumatic information.
In many cases, transformation or signal enhancement may be required to complete the

measurement function. Such processing is known as signal conditioning.
Figure 9.1: A block diagram of a typical instrumentation system with several different
output devices
A typical modern instrumentation system can be split into the three functional blocks,
a sensor, signal conditioning circuits and an ADC.
The digital output from the ADC can then be processed in a programmable digital
processor to extract information that can be displayed to an operator, stored in a
memory or transmitted via a data link or used in feedback control.
The electronic aided measurement system represents the measurement of physical

quantity faithfully in the analog or digital form of it obtained from the signal
conditioning circuits.
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For passive transducers, the signal conditioning circuit mainly includes excitation
and amplification circuitry, while for active transducers, only amplification circuitry
is needed and the excitation is not needed.
Figure 9.2: Data Acquisition System
In general, Signal conditioning circuits are used to process the output signal from
sensors of a measurement system to be suitable for the next stage of operation
The function of the signal conditioning circuits include the following items:
 Signal amplification (opamp),

 Filtering (opamp),
 Interfacing with a microprocessor (ADC),
 Protection (Zener & photo isolation),
 Linearization,
 Current – voltage change circuits, resistance change circuits (Wheatstone bridge),
 Error compensation
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Figure 9.3: Signal conditioning operations
Signal conditioning system enhances the quality of signal coming from a sensor in terms
of:
 Protection – To protect the damage to the next element of a system such

microprocessors from the high current or voltage signals.
 Right type of signal – To convert the output signal from a transducer into the
desired form i.e. voltage / current.
 Right level of the signal – To amplify or attenuate the signals to a right
/acceptable level for the next element.
 Noise – To eliminate noise from a signal.
 Manipulation – To manipulate the signal from its nonlinear form to the linear
form.
9.2. Amplification/Attenuation
Various applications of electrical engineering accept voltage amplitudes in range of 0 to

10 Volts. However many sensors produce signals of the order of milli volts. This low
level input signals from sensors must be amplified to use them for further control
action.
Operational amplifiers (op-amp) are widely used for amplification of input signals.
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9.2.1. Operational amplifier (op-amp)
Operational Amplifier is a basic and an important part of a signal conditioning system.
Often abbreviated as op-amp, it is a high gain voltage amplifier with a differential input.
The gain is of the order of 100000 or more.
Differential input is a method of transmitting information with two different electronic

signals which are generally complementary to each other.
Figure 9.4: Circuit Diagram of an Op-Amp
It has five terminals. Two voltages are applied at two input terminals. The output
terminal provides the amplified value of difference between two input voltages. Op-
amp works by using the external power supplied at Vs+ and Vs- terminals.
In general op-amp amplifies the difference between input voltages (V+ and V-). The
output of an operational amplifier can be written as
Vout = G * (V+ – V-)

where G is Op-amp Gain.
Generally the op-amp has the following properties:
 Gain: being of the order greater than 100000, ideally = infinite

 Input impedance: ideally infinite
 Output impedance: ideally zero; practical values 20-100W
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Example – An Op-amp used as a Comparator
The circuit is designed to control temperature with a certain range. When the
temperature is below certain value, the thermistor R1 is more than R2 and the bridge is
out of balance, it gives an output at its lower saturation limit which keeps the transistor
OFF. When temperature rises and R1 falls the op-amp switch to positive saturation
value and switch the transistor ON
Figure 9.5: Thermistor Controlled Op-amp
9.2.2. Filtering
Output signals from sensors contain noise due to various external factors like improper
hardware connections, environment etc.
Noise gives an error in the final output of system. Therefore it must be removed.
In practice, change in desired frequency level of output signal is a commonly noted

noise. This can be rectified by using filters.
Following types of filters are used in practice:
 Low Pass Filter – Used to allow low frequency content and to reject high
frequency content of an input signal.
 High Pass Filter – They allow high frequencies to pass through it and block
the lower frequencies.
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 Band Pass Filter – Band pass filter can be developed by connecting a low-pass
and a high-pass filter in series in some applications, we need to filter a particular
band of frequencies from a wider range of mixed signals.
 Band Reject Filter - These filters pass all frequencies above and below a
particular range set by the operator/manufacturer. They are also known as band
stop filters or notch filters. They are constructed by connecting a low-pass and a
high-pass filter in parallel
Figure 9.6: Characteristics of ideal filters: (a) low-pass filter, (b) high-pass filter, (c)
band-pass filter, (d) band-stop filter
9.2.3. Wheatstone Bridge
Wheatstone bridge is one of the most used signal conditioning circuit.
It can be used to convert a resistance change to a voltage change as in the following

example:
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Figure 9.7: Wheatstone Bridge
At balanced condition V0 = 0 and in result
When not balanced VBD =
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EMG 2505 - Measurement and Instrumentation PDF

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MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

K.V. Rop @ 2017

EMG 2505: MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

Course Outline (45 Lecture Hours)

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EMG 2505: MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION .............................................. i

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2.5.1. Primary calibration ................................................................................................... 45

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5.2.2. Potential Transformers........................................................................................... 111

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7.3. Signal Transmission ....................................................................................................... 138

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1.0. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS

Why do we need to Study Electrical Measurement?

Example of Case Studies

 Are the measurement results accurate enough?

1.1. Introduction to International Systems of Units

i. Coherent – Composed of seven base units (meter, kilogram, second, ampere,

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1.1.1. Definitions of the SI Base units

The Seven Base Units are;

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1.1.2. Derived SI units

An example is the unit of electrical resistance Ohm Ω

Ω = 𝑚2 . 𝑘𝑔. 𝑠 −3 . 𝐴−2 1.2

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Figure 1.1: The Relationship of Base and Derived Units

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1.1.3. Prefixes Used For Multiples of Units

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1.2. Introduction to Electrical Measurement

Measurement is a process of process of comparison between a standard and an

Instrumentation is a device in which we can determine the magnitude or value of the

The two main essential characteristics of an electrical instrument are;

i. The operational power consumption should be minimal

1.2.1. Evolution of Instruments

1.2.2. Active and Passive Instruments

An example of a passive instrument is the pressure-measuring for weigh milk in milk

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1.1.4. Null-type and deflection-type instruments

An alternative type of pressure gauge is the deadweight gauge which is a null-type

The accuracy of these two instruments depends on different things.

1.1.5. Classification of Instruments

Absolute Instrument Secondary Instrument

Deflecting Null Deflection

Indicating Integrating Recording

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1.1.6. Characteristics of Instruments;

i. Accuracy – A qualitative term that describes how close a set of measurements

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vi. Sensitivity – The sensitivity of

1.1.7. What affects your measurements?

i. Environmental conditions – Changes in temperature or humidity can expand

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ii. Inferior measuring equipment – Equipment which is poorly maintained,

Calibration Procedure involve a comparison of the particular instrument with either

Quiz 1: The following resistance values of a platinum resistance thermometer were

Resistance Temperature (°C)

For a change in temperature of 30°C, the change in resistance is 7 Ω. Hence the

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