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Mechanisms
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• Deformation of single crystal is explained
by the movement of dislocation
• Slip and Twinning deformations
• Single-crystal specimens for ideal condition
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• With the exception of solid state electronic
devices, single-crystal are rarely found in
engineering applications
• In polycrystalline materials we must consider
the restraining surrounding grains to explain
plastic deformation
• Basics relationship governing dislocation
• Strength is inversely related to dislocation
mobility
• In high purity crystals, several factors can
affect the strength and mechanical behavior
• Crystal structure determines:
– Number and type of slip systems
– Burgers vector
– Lattice friction stress ( Peierls Stress) which sets
the base strength and temperature dependence of
strength
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• In closed-packed structure, the Stacking Fault
Energy determines the extent of dislocation
dissociation which influences the ease of cross
slip and subsequent strain hardening
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• However, more complexity is needed to
produce materials of highest strength and
usefulness
• To increase the strength
– Fine grain size desirable for higher strength
– Large additions of solute atoms
– Fine particles
– Phase transformation
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Grain boundary and deformation
• The boundaries between grains a polycrystalline
aggregate are a region of disturbed lattice only a
few atomic diameter wide
• The crystallographic orientation changes abruptly
in passing one grain to the next across the grain
boundary
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• When a single crystal is deformed in tension
– Free to deform in a single slip system
– Changes its orientation by lattice rotation as extension
takes place
• Polycrystals not subjected a to single unixaial
stress systems when deformed in tension
• Continuity must be maintained so that the
boundaries remain intact.
• Each grain tries to deform in conformity of the
whole
• Strain in the vicinity of a grain boundary different
from the strain at the center of the grain
• Grain size decreases and strain will increase
• This causes slip to occur on several systems even
at low strain
• Different slip systems operate in adjacent regions
of the same grain boundary
– Complex lattice rotations
• Formation of deformation bands
• Greater hardness near the boundary than at
the center of grain
• As the diameter the grain is reduced, more
effects of the grain boundaries felt at the
center
• Thus, strain hardening of a fine grain size
metal is greater than in coarse-grain
polycrystal.
• Von Mises showed for a crystal to undergo a
general change of shape by slip
– 5 independent slip systems must exist
• Crystals which do not possess 5 independent slip
systems are never ductile in polycrystalline form
• Cubic metals satisfy the requirement: high
ductility
• HCP do not satisfy the requirement at RT
• Zn and Mg become ductile at high temperature at
which non basal slip can become operative and
increase the number of slip systems to at least 5
Asby’s dislocation model
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• Statistically stored dislocations
– Encounter and trap one another randomly as in
single crystal
– Generates overlaps and voids between grains
• Geometrically necessary dislocations
– Generated as a result of nonuniform strain in the
crystal
– Grains again fit together
• At temperature above 0.5 TM (Melting
Temperature) deformation can occur by sliding
along the grain boundary
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• Because impurities aggregate to grain
boundaries, intergranular fracture is strongly
influenced by composition
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• Hall-Petch applies not only to grain
boundaries but to other kinds of boundaries
such as ferrite-cementite in pealite,
mechanical twins, and martensite plates
• Consider a dislocation source at the center of
a grain of D which sends out dislocations to
pile-up at the GB
• The stress at the tip of the pile-up must exceed some critical
shear stress to continue past the GB barrier
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Grain size measurement
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ASTM grain size number G is related to the number of grain per mm2
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Low angle grain boundary
• Substructure within the grains surrounded by
high-energy grain boundaries
• Difference in orientation only few minutes of
an arc or few degres
• X-Ray techniques required for the detection
• Lower energy boundary than grain boundaries
– Etch less
Low angle grain boundary
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• Low-angle boundary contains simple
arrangement of dislocations
• Array of edge dislocations
• Produced by several ways
– During crystal growth
– During high temperature creep deformation
– As a result of phase transformation
• Introduce a small amount of deformation ( 1 to 10%
prestrain)
• Follow with an annealing treatment to rearrange the
dislocations into subgrain boundaries
• Amount of deformation and temp. must be low
enough to prevent recrystallization
– Process is called recrystallization in situ or polygonisation
Yield point phenomenon
• Many metals in particular low-carbon steel
• Yield point produced in the stress-strain curve
• Yield point associated with small amount of
interstitial or substitutional impurities
• Complete removal of carbon or nitrogen from
carbon will remove the yield point
• General yield stress
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Solid solution strengthening
• Introduction of solute atoms into solid
solution
• 2 types
– Solute and solvent atoms are roughly the same
size: substitutional solid solution
– Solute atoms are much smaller: interstitial solid
solution
• Example: Carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen and
boron are used commonly
• Size factor is important
• When size factor differ by less than 15%
– Size factor is favorable
• Otherwise, the extent of solid solubility is
restricted to less than 1%.
• Relative valence is also important
– Solubility of a metal with higher valence in a
solvent of lower valence is more extensive than
for the reverse situation
Solid solution strengthening
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Deformation of 2 phase-aggregates
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• Deformation of an alloy consisting of 2 ductile
phases depends on the volume fraction of the 2
phases and the total deformation
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Strengthening from fine particles
• Small second-phase particles distributed in a
ductile matrix
• In dispersion hardening, the hard particles are
mixed with the matrix powder
• Precipitation hardening or Age hardening is
produced by solution treating and quenching
an alloy in which a second phase is in solid
solution at the elevated temperature but
precipitates upon quenching and aging at a
lower temperature
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• Example: Aluminum alloys or Copper-Beryllium
Alloys
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• Strongest alloys are produced by combining the
effects of precipitation hardening and strain
hardening
• If plastic deformation precedes the aging
treatment, a finer dispersion is produced when
particles nucleate on the dislocation in the matrix
• Extensive plastic deformation of alloys containing
fine, strong, dispersed particles can result in very
high strength
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• Particles act as barriers to dislocations in
several ways
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• Solid solution and particle strengthening have
a significant influence on the deformation
characteristics of the alloy
– Ductility
– Strain-hardening rate
– Fatigue crack initiation
– Fatigue crack growth rate
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Fiber Strengthening
• Because of their high strength, whiskers have
been used for fiber strengthening
• Example
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Load transfer
• The load transfer agent is the bond between
the matrix and the fiber which is represented
by an interfacial shear stress
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Strengthening due to point defect
• Movement of jogs produced by dislocation can
lead to the formation of point defects
– Vacant sites
– Interstitial atoms
• Quenching from temperatures near the melting
point retains an excess of vacancies
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• The quenched hardened crystals showed
coarse slip band compared to the soft slow-
cooled crystal
• The results can be explained by the
assumption that the excess of vacancies
migrate to dislocations and pin them in a way
similar to solute atoms
• Irradiation can increase the yield stress by a
factor of 2 to 4
• FCC metals (ex: Al, Cu) develop a sharp yield
point increase
• In BCC (Steel, Molybdenum) yield point is
eliminates
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Martensite strengthening
• Transformation of austenite to martensite in
quenching of steel is the common
strengthening processes used in engineering
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• Contributions of the high strength of
martensite:
– 2 structures of martensite:
• A plate structure and internal structure of paralleled
twins each about 0.1 microns thick within the plates
• A block martensite with high dislocation density
( )
– Carbon composition
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• Solubility of carbon in iron is reduced during the
rapid transformation of austenite to ferrite
• Carbon atoms strain the ferrite lattice and this
strain can be relieved by redistribution of carbon
atoms by diffusion at room temperature
• Strong binding is set up between dislocations and
the carbon atoms
• Restriction of the motion of dislocations
• Another result is the formation of carbon atom
clusters on {110} planes
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Strain hardening
• Plastic deformation which is carried out in a
temperature region and over a period of time
interval such that the strain hardening is not
relieved is called cold work
• Plastic deformation produces an increase of
the number of dislocations
• Strain hardening or cold work can be detected
by x-ray diffraction
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Cold Work Structure
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• Because of increased internal energy of the
cold work state, chemical reactivity is
increased
• This leads to a general decrease in corrosion
resistance and in certain alloys introduces the
possibility of stress-corrosion cracking
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• High rate of strain hardening implies mutual
obstruction of dislocations
– Interaction of the stress fields of the dislocations
– Interactions producing sessile locks
– Interpenetration of one slip system by another
(like cutting trees in forest)
• Basic relationship of the stress field (strain
hardening) and structure
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Annealing of cold worked metal
• Cold work state is a condition of higher internal
energy
• Cold-work dislocation cell structure is
mechanically stable but thermodynamically
unstable
• With increasing temperature, the cold work state
becomes more unstable
• Eventually, the metal soften and reverts to a
strain-free condition
• The process by which this occurs is known as
annealing
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• Annealing restores the ductility to a metal that
has been strain-hardened
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