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LECTURE # 1
Basic definition, amu, NA & Mole, Moles of atoms and molecules :
Introduction :
There are a large number of objects around us which we can see and feel.
Anything that occupies space and has mass is called matter.
Ancient Indian and Greek Philospher’s beleived that the wide variety of object around us are made from
combination of five basic elements : Earth, Fire, Water, Air and Sky.
Ancient Greek Philosphers also believed that all matter was composed of tiny building blocks which were
hard and indivisible.The Greek philosphere Democritus named these building blocks as atoms, meaning
indivisible.All these people have their philosphical view about matter, they were never put to experimental
tests, nor ever explain any scientific truth.It was John Dalton who firstly developed a theory on the
structure of matter, later on which is known as Dalton’s atomic theory.
RESONANCE page # 1
Classification of matter
Element Compound
1
1 amu = × mass of one C-12 atom
12
~ mass of one neucleon in C-12 atom.
= 1.66 × 10–24 gm or 1.66 × 10–27 kg
one amu is also called one Dalton (Da).TODAY , AMU HAS BEEN REPLACED BY ‘u’ WHICH IS
KNOWN AS UNIFIED MASS
RESONANCE page # 2
III. ATOMIC MASS
It is the mass of 1 atom of a substance it is expressed in AMU.
Atomic mass = R.A.M × 1 amu
Note : Relative atomic mass is nothing but the number of nucleons present in the atom.
Example :
Find the relative atomic mass of ‘O’ atom and its atomic mass.
Sol. The number of neucleons present in ‘O’ atom is 16.
relative atomic mass of ‘O’ atom = 16.
Atomic mass = R.A.M × 1 amu = 16 × 1 amu = 16 amu
Q. Find the relative atomic mass, atomic mass of the following elements.
(i) Na (ii) F (iii) H (iv) Ca (v) Ag
Ans. (i) 23, 23 amu (ii) 19, 19 amu (iii) 1, 1.008 amu (iv) 40, 40.078 amu (v) 108, 107.87 amu
Q. How many neucleons are present in 5 atoms of an element which has atomic mass 14 amu
Ans. = 70
1
x= = NA
1.66 x 10 24
RESONANCE page # 3
or
It is also defined as mass of 6.02 × 1023 atoms.
or
It is also defined as the mass of one mole atoms.
Now see the table given below and understand the definition given before.
Example :
What is the weight of 3-g atoms of sulphur R.A.M. of s = 32.
Ans. 96 g
Example :
How many g atoms are present in 144 g of sulphur
Ans. 4.5 g atoms
Example :
The ratio of mass of a silver atom to the mass of a carbon atom is 9 : 1. Find the mass of 1 mole of C atom
if molar mass of Ag is 108.
Ans. 12
Example :
Calculate mass of sodium which contains same number of atoms as are present in 4g of calcium. Atomic
masses of sodium and calcium are 23 and 40 respectively.
Ans. 2.3 g
VI. MOLECULES :
It is the smallest particle of matter which has free existence. Molecules can be further divided into its
constituents atoms by physical & chemical process.
Number of atoms presents in molecule is called its atomicity.
Element : H2, O2, O3 etc.
Compound : KCl, H2SO4, KClO4 etc.
Molecule Atomicity
KCl - 2
H2SO4 - 7
O3 - 3
H2 - 2
RESONANCE page # 4
VIII. GRAM MOLECULAR MASS :
The molecular mass of a substance expressed in gram is called the gram-molecular mass of the substance.
or
It is also defined as mass of 6.02 × 1023 molecules
or
It is also defined as the mass of one mole molecules. (molar mass)
For example for ‘O2’ molecule :
Molecular mass of ‘O2’ molecule = mass of one ‘O2’ molecule
= 2 × mass of one ‘O’ atom
= 2 × 16 amu
= 32 amu
gram molecular mass = mass of 6.02 × 1023 ‘O2’ molecules = 32 amu × 6.02 × 1023
= 32 × 1.66 × 10–24 gm × 6.02 × 1023 = 32 gm
Example:
Find the mass in grams of 3 mol of zinc. (GMM = 65)
Sol. Mass = mol × At. wt. = 3 × 65 gm = 195 gm
Example :
How many atoms of copper are present in 0.5 mol of pure copper metal?
Sol. No. of atoms = no. of moles × NA = 0.5 × 6.02 × 1023 = 3.01 × 1023
Example :
The molecular mass of H2SO4 is 98 amu. Calculate the number of moles of each element in 294 g of H2SO4.
Solution
Gram molecular mass of H2SO4 = 98 gm
294
moles of H2SO4 = = 3 moles
98
H2SO4 H S O
One molecule 2 atom one atom 4 atom
1 × NA 2 × NA atoms 1 × NA atoms 4 × NA atoms
one mole 2 mole one mole 4 mole
3 mole 6 mole 3 mole 12 mole
Example :
A sample of (C2H6) ethane has the same mass as 107 molecules of methane. How many C2H6 molecules
does the sample contain ?
Ans. n = 5.34 × 106
RESONANCE page # 5
Example :
How many molecules of water are present in 252 mg of (H2C2O4.2H2O)
Ans. 2.4 × 1021
Example :
From 48 g of the He sample ,6.023 x 1023 atoms of He are removed. Find out the moles of He left.Also
Calculate the mass of carbon which contains same number of atoms as left over in this sample.
Ans. 11 mole, 132 g of C.
LECTURE # 2
Laws of chemical combination, Molar volume of ideal gasses at STP, Average
molar mass.
II THE LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION
Atoine Lavoisier, John Dalton and other scientists formulate certain law concerning the composition of
matter and chemical reactions.These laws are known as the laws of chemical combination.
RESONANCE page # 6
Thus, in both samples of the oxide the proportions of the weights of the metal and oxygen are fixed. Hence,
the results follow the law of constant proportion.
RESONANCE page # 7
RELATIVE DENSITY :
It is the density of a substance with respect to any other substance.
Ex. What is the V.D. of SO2 with respect to CH4
M.W . SO 2
V.D. = M.W . CH
4
64
V.D = =4
16
Ex. Find the density of CO2(g) with respect to N2O(g).
Mass
RESONANCE page # 8
Ex. From 160 g of SO2 (g) sample, 1.2046 x 1024 molecules of SO2 are removed then find out the volume of left
over SO2 (g) at STP.
Ans. 11.2 Ltr.
Ex. 14 g of Nitrogen gas and 22 g of CO2 gas are mixed together. Find the volume of gaseous mixture at STP.
Ans. 22.4 Ltr.
Ex. 672 ml of ozonized oxygen (mix of O2 and O3) at N.T.P. were found to weight one gram. Calculate the
volume of ozone in the ozonized oxygen.
Ans. 56 ml
The weighted average of the isotopic masses of the element’s naturally occuring isotopes.
a1x 1 a 2 x 2 ..... an x n
Mathematically, average atomic mass of X (Ax) =
100
Ex. Naturally occuring chlorine is 75% Cl35 which has an atomic mass of 35 amu and 25% Cl37 which has a
mass of 37 amu. Calculate the average atomic mass of chlorine -
(A) 35.5 amu (B) 36.5 amu (C) 71 amu (D) 72 amu
% of isotope x its atoms mass % of I isotope x its atomic mass
Sol. (A) Average atomic mass =
100
75 x 35 25 x 37
=
100
= 35.5 amu
Note : (a) In all calculations we use this mass.
(b) In periodic table we report this mass only.
n M
j1
j j
n j1
j
jn
Here nj1
j = 100
RESONANCE page # 9
LECTURE#3
Empirical formula, % Composition of a given component by mass, % By mole,
Minimum molecular mass determination.
EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULA :
We have just seen that knowing the molecular formula of the compound we can calculate percentage
composition of the elements. Conversely if we know the percentage composition of the elements initially,
we can calculate the relative number of atoms of each element in the molecules of the compound. This
gives us the empirical formula of the compound. Further if the molecular mass is known then the molecular
formula can easily be determined.
Thus, the empirical formula of a compound is a chemical formula showing the relative number of atoms in
the simplest ratio, the molecular formula gives the actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule.
The molecular formula is generally an integral multiple of the empirical formula.
i.e. molecular formula = empirical formula × n
molecular formula mass
where n = empirical formula mass
Ex. Acetylene and benzene both have the empirical formula CH. The molecular masses of acetylene and
benzene are 26 and 78 respectively. Deduce their molecular formulae.
Sol. Empirical Formula is CH
Step-1
The empirical formula of the compound is CH
Empirical formula mass
= (1 × 12) + 1 = 13.
Molecular mass = 26
Step-2
To calculate the value of ‘n’
Molecular mass 26
n = Empirical formula mass = =2
13
Step-3
To calculate the molecular formula of the compound.
Molecular formula = n × (Empirical formula of the compound)
= 2 × CH = C2 H2
Thus the molecular formula is C2 H2
Similarly for benzene
To calculate the value of ‘n’
Molecular mass 78
n = Empirical formula mass = =6
13
thus the molecular formula is 6 × CH = C6H6
Ex. An organic substance containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen gave the following percentage composition.
C = 40.684% ; H = 5.085% and O = 54.228%
The molecular weight of the compound is 118. Calculate the molecular formula of the compound.
RESONANCE page # 10
Sol. Step-1
To calculate the empirical formula of the compound.
Element Symbol Percentage At. mass Relative no. Simplest Simplest whole
Percentage
of element of element of atoms = atomic ratio no. atomic ratio
At. mass
Empirical Formula is C2 H3 O2
Step-2
To calculate the empirical formula mass.
The empirical formula of the compound is C2 H3 O2 .
Empirical formula mass
= (2 × 12) + (3 × 1) + (2 × 16) = 59.
Step-3
To calculate the value of ‘n’
Molecular mass 118
n = Empirical formula mass = =2
59
Step-4
To calculate the molecular formula of the salt.
Molecular formula = n × (Empirical formula) = 2 × C2 H3 O2 = C4 H6 O4
Thus the molecular formula is C4 H6 O4.
Ex. An oxide of nitrogen gave the following precentage composition :
N = 25.94
and O = 74.06
Calculate the empirical formula of the compound.
Ans. N2O5
Ex. Hydroquinone, used as a photographic developer, is 65.4%C, 5.5% H, and 29.1%O, by mass. What is the
empirical formula of hydroquinone ?
Ans. C3H3O
% PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION :
Here we are going to find out the percentage of each element in the compound by knowing the molecular
formula of compound.
We know that according to law of definite proportions any sample of a pure compound always possess
constant ratio with their combining elements.
Ex. Every molecule of ammonia always has formula NH3 irrespective of method of preparation or sources. i.e.
1 mole of ammonia always contains 1 mol of N and 3 mole of H. In other wards 17 gm of NH3 always
contains 14 gm of N and 3 gm of H. Now find out % of each element in the compound.
Mass of N in 1 mol NH3
Mass % of N in NH3 = 100 = 14 × 100 = 82.35 %
Mass of 1 mol of NH3 17
RESONANCE page # 11
Ex. What is the percentage of calcium and oxygen in calcium carbonate (CaCO3) ?
Ans. 40%, 48%.
Ex. A compound of sodium contains 11.5% sodium then find the minimum molar mass of the compound.
Ans. 200 gm/mole.
LECTURE # 4
Stoichiometry Law of conservation of mass (LOCM) ,Equation based calculations
(Elementary Level Single Equation or 2).
CHEMICAL REACTION :
It is the process in which two or more than two substances interact with each other where old bonds are
broken and new bonds are formed.
VI CHEMICAL EQUATION :
All chemical reaction are represented by chemical equations by using chemical formule of reactants and
products. Qualitatively a chemical equation simply describes what the reactants and products are. However,
a balanced chemical equation gives us a lot of quantitative information mainly the molar ratio in which
reactants combine and the molar ratio in which products are formed.
Example :
When potassium chlorate (KClO3) is heated it gives potassium chloride (KCl) and oxygen (O2).
KClO3 KCl + O2 (unbalanced chemical equation )
2KClO3 2 KCl + 3 O2 (balanced chemical equation)
Attributes of a balanced chemical equation: (From NCERT PAGE - 17)
(a) It contains an equal number of atoms of each element on both sides of equation.(POAC)
(b) It should follow law of charge conservation on either side.
(c) Physical states of all the reagents should be included in brackets.
(d) All reagents should be written in their standard molecular forms (not as atoms )
(e) The coefficients give the relative molar ratios of each reagent.
Balancing a chemical equation
According to the law of conservation of mass, a balanced chemical equation has the same number of
atoms of each element on both sides of the equation. Many chemical equations can be balanced by
trial and error. Let us take the reactions of a few metals and non-metals with oxygen to give oxides
4 Fe(s) + 3O2(g) 2Fe2O3(S) (a) balanced equation
2 Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(S) (b) balanced equation
P4(s) + O2(g) P4O10(S) (c) unbalanced equation
Equations (a) and (b) are balanced since there are same number of metal and oxygen atoms on each
side of equations. However equation (c) is not balanced. In this equation. phosphorus atoms are
balanced but not the oxygen atoms. To balance it, we must place the coefficient 5 on the left of oxygen
on the left side of the equation to balance the oxygen atoms appearing on the right side of the equation.
P4(S) + 5O2(g) P4O10(S) balanced equation
Now let us take combustion of propane, C3H8, This equation can be balanced in steps.
RESONANCE page # 12
Step 1. Write down the correct formulas of reactants and products. Here propane and oxygen are reactants, and
carbon dioxide and water are products.
C3H8(g) + O2(g) CO2 (g) + H2O (l) unbalanced equation
Step 2. Balance the number of C atoms : Since 3 carbon atoms are in the reactant, therefore, three CO2
molecules are required on the right side.
C3H8(g) + O2 (g) 3CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
Step 3. Balance the number of H atoms : on the left there are 8 hydrogen atoms in the reactants however, each
molecule of water has two hydrogen atoms , so four molecules of water will be required for eight
hydrogen atoms on the right side.
C3H8 (g) + O2 (g) 3CO2 (g) + 4H2O (l)
Step 4. Balance the number of O atoms : There are ten oxygen on the right side (3 × 2 = 6 in CO2 and 4 × 1 =
4 in water). Therefore, five O2 molecules are needed to supply to supply the required ten oxygen atoms.
C3H8 (g) + 5O2 (g) 3CO2 (g) + 4H2O (l)
Step 5. Verify that the number of atoms of each element is balanced in the final equation.
Always remember that subscripts in formula of reactants and products cannot be changed to balance
an equation.
Ex. 3 moles (367.5 gm) of KClO3 when heated how many moles KCl and O2 is produced.
Sol. The reaction is
2KClO3 2KCl + 3O2
33
mole of O2 produced = = 4.5 moles
2
RESONANCE page # 13
Ex. CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O (from NCERT Page - 18)
following conclusions can be drawn from above reaction by observing its stoichiometry
One mole of CH4 (g) reacts with two moles of O2 (g) to give one mole of CO2 (g) and two moles of H2O (g)
One molecule of CH4 (g) reacts with 2 molecues of O2 (g) to give one molecule of CO2 (g) and 2 molecules
of H2O (g)
22.4 L of CH4 (g) reacts with 44.8 L of O2 (g) to give 22.4L of CO2 (g) and 44.8 L of H2O (g)
16 g CH4 (g) reacts with 2×32 g of O2 (g) to give 44 g of CO2 (g) and 2 × 18 g of H2O (g).
Note : In fact mass-mass and mass-vol analysis are also interpreted in terms of mole-mole analysis you can use
following chart also.
(a) 144 gm × 32
g
(mol. m
wt.)
9/2 mole of O2
lt
× 22.4 at STP)
lume
(b) 100.8 lt (vo
Ex. Iron in the form of fine wire burns in oxygen to form iron (III) oxide
4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) 2Fe2O3(s)
How many moles of O2 are needed to produce 5 mol Fe2O3 ?
Ans. 7.5 mol O2
Ex. Nitric acid, HNO3, is manufactured by the Ostwald process, in which nitrogen dioxide, NO2, reacts with
water.
3NO2(g) + H2O(l ) 2HNO3(aq) + NO(g)
How many grams of nitrogen dioxide are required in this reaction to produced 6.3 g HNO3 ?
Ans. 6.9g NO2
Ex. How many grams of Fe2 O3 is formed by heating 18 gm FeO with Oxygen.
4FeO + O2 2Fe2 O3
Ans. 20. gm
RESONANCE page # 14
Ex. How many litre O2 at N.T.P. is required for complete combustion of 1 mole C5 H10.
Ans. 168 lt.
Ex. Calculate the weight of residue obtained when CaCO3 is strongly heated and 5.6 litre CO2 is produced at
N.T.P.
Ans. 14 gm
Ex. When sodium bicarbonate is heated 1.806 x 1024 molecules of water is obtained. Then find the volume of
CO2(g) obtained at STP and amount of NaHCO3 needed for this reaction.
Sol. 2NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2
So volume of CO2 = 3 × 22.4 = 67.2 Lt.
Mass of NaHCO3 needed = 6 × 84 = 504 gm.
LECTURE # 5
Limiting Reagent , % Excess , % Yield / Efficiency
LIMITING REAGENT :
The reactant which is consumed first and limits the amount of product formed into the reaction, and is
therefore called limiting reagent.
Limiting reagent is present in least stoichiometric amount and therefore controls amount of product.
The remaining or leftout reactant is called the excess reagent.
When you are dealing with balanced chemical equation then if number of moles of reactants are not in the
ratio of stoichiometric coefficient of balanced chemical equation, then there should be one reactant which
should be limiting reactant.
Example :
Three mole of Na2 CO3 is reacted with 6 moles of HCl solution. Find the volume of CO2 gas produced at
STP. The reaction is
Na2 CO3 + 2HCl 2 NaCl + CO2 + H2O
RESONANCE page # 15
Sol. From the reaction : Na2 CO3 + 2HCl 2 NaCl + CO2 + H2O
given moles 3 mol 6 mol
given mole ratio 1 : 2
Stoichiometric coefficient ratio 1 : 2
See here given moles of reactant are in stoichiometric coefficient ratio therefore none reactant left over.
Now use Mole-mole analysis to calculate volume of CO2 prdouced at STP
Moles of Na 2 CO3 Mole of CO 2 Pr oduced
=
1 1
Moles of CO2 produced = 3
volume of CO2 produced at STP = 3 × 22.4 L = 67.2 L
Example :
6 moles of Na2 CO3 is reacted with 4 moles of HCl solution. Find the volume of CO2 gas produced at STP.
The reaction is
Na2 CO3 + 2HCl 2 NaCl + CO2 + H2O
Sol. From the reaction : Na2 CO3 + 2HCl 2 NaCl + CO2 + H2O
given mole of reactant 6 : 4
give molar ratio 3 : 2
Stoichiometric coefficient ratio 1 : 2
See here given number of moles of reactants are not in stoichiometric coefficient ratio. Therefore there
should be one reactant which consumed first and becomes limiting reagent.
But the question is how to find which reactant is limiting, it is not very difficult you can easily find it
according to the following method.
RESONANCE page # 16
Ex. For the reaction 2P + Q R, 8 mol of P and 5 mol of Q will produce
(A) 8 mol of R (B) 5 mol of R (C*) 4 mol of R (D) 13 mol of R
Ex. X + Y X3 Y4
Above reaction is carried out by taking 6 moles each of X and Y respectively then
(A) X is the limiting reagent (B) 1.5 moles of X3 Y4 is formed
(C) 1.5 moles of excess reagent is left behind (D) 75% of excess reagent reacted
X + Y X3 Y4
Ans. B, C, D
Sol. 3X + 4Y X3 Y4
6 mole 6 mole
6 – 4.5 0 1.5 mole
1.5 mole
left formed
RESONANCE page # 17
Ex. Three moles of Phosphorus is reacted with 2 moles of iodine to form P3 according to the reaction
P + 2 P3
P3 formed in the above reaction is further reacted with 27 g of water. According to the reaction.
P3 + H2O H3PO3 + H
HI formed in the above reaction is collected in the gaseous form. At higher temperature HI dissociated 50%
then find the molecules of H2 gas liberated
H H2 + 2
Ans. 3/8 NA.
1000 g H2 1 mol H2
moles of H2 = 10.00 kg H2 × 1kg H2 × 2.016 g H2 = 4.96 × 103 mol
According to the above equation, 1 mol N2 (g) requires 3 mol H2 (g), for the reaction, Hence, for 17.86 ×
102 mol of N2, the moles of H2 (g) required would be
3 mol H2 (g)
17.86 × 102 mol N2 × 1molN (g) = 5.36 × 103 mol H2
2
But we have only 4.96×103 mol H2. Hence, dihydrogen is the limiting reagent in this case. So NH3 (g)
would be formed only from that amount of available digydrogen i.e., 4.96 × 103 mol
Since 3 mol H2 (g) gives 2 mol NH3 (g)
2 mol NH3 (g)
4.96 × 103 mol H2 (g) × 3 mol H (g)
2
Ex. When 3.90 gm Al(OH)3 is reacted with excess of HCl, 6.50 gm AlCl3 is formed. Determine the percentage
yield of product. (Al = 27).
Sol. Al(OH)3 + 3HCl AlCl3 + 3H2O
1 mole 1 mole
= 78 gm = 133.5 gm
78 gm Al(OH)3 produce 133.5 gm AlCl3
RESONANCE page # 18
133 .5
3.90 gm Al(OH)3 should produce × 3.90 = 6.675 gm AlCl3.
78
6.50
But the amnount formed is only 6.50 gm. Hence, the percentage yield is × 100 = 97.38%.
6.675
LECTURE # 6
POAC, Reactions in sequence, Reactions in parallel , Mixture analysis , % Purity
PRINCIPLE OF ATOM CONSERVATION (POAC) :
POAC is based on law of mass conservation if atoms are conserved, moles of atoms shall also be
conserved hence mass of atoms is also conserved.
This principle is fruitful for the students when they don’t get the idea of balanced chemical equation in the
problem. This principle can be under stand by the following example.
Consider the decomposition of KClO3 (s) KCl (s) + O2 (g) (unbalanced chemical reaction)
Apply the principle of atom conservation (POAC) for K atoms.
Moles of K atoms in reactant = moles of K atoms in products
or moles of K atoms in KClO3 = moles of K atoms in KCl.
Now, since 1 molecule of KClO3 contains 1 atom of K
or 1 mole of KClO3 contains 1 mole of K, similarly,1 mole of KCl contains 1 mole of K.
Thus, moles of K atoms in KClO3 = 1 × moles of KClO3
and moles of K atoms in KCl = 1 × moles of KCl.
moles of KClO3 = moles of KCl
wt. of KClO3 in g wt. of KCl in g
or =
mol. wt. of KClO3 mol. wt. of KCl
The above equation gives the mass-mass relationship between KClO3 and KCl which is important in
stoichiometric calculations.
Again, applying the principle of atom conservation for O atoms,
moles of O in KClO3 = 3 × moles of KClO3
moles of O in O2 = 2 × moles of O2
3 × moles of KClO3 = 2 × moles of O2
wt. of KClO 3 vol. of O 2 at NTP
or 3 × mol. wt. of KClO = 2 × s tan dard molar vol. (22.4 lt.)
3
The above equations thus gives the mass-volume relationship of reactants and products.
Q. Write POAC equation for all the atoms in the following reaction.
(i) N2O + P4 P4O10 + N2
(ii) P4 + HNO3 H3PO4 + NO2 + H2O
RESONANCE page # 19
Example :
27.6 g K2CO3 was treated by a series of reagents so as to convert all of its carbon to K2 Zn3 [Fe(CN)6]2.
Calculate the weight of the product.
[mol. wt. of K2CO3 = 138 and mol. wt. of K2Zn3 [Fe(CN)6]2 = 698]
Sol. Here we have not knowledge about series of chemical reactions
but we know about initial reactant and final product accordingly
Several
K2CO3 K2Zn3 [Fe(CN)6]2
Steps
Since C atoms are conserved, applying POAC for C atoms,
moles of C in K2CO3 = moles of C in K2Zn3 [Fe(CN)6]2
1 × moles of K2CO3 = 12 × moles of K2Zn3 [Fe(CN)6]2
( 1 mole of K2CO3 contains 1 moles of C)
wt. of K 2CO 3 wt. of the product
mol. wt. of K 2CO 3 = 12 × mol. wt. of product
27.6 698
wt. of K2Zn3 [Fe(CN)6]2 = × = 11.6 g
138 12
Q.1 0.32 mole of LiAlH4 in ether solution was placed in a flask and 74 g (1 moles) of t-butyl alcohol was added.
The product is LiAlHC12H27O3 . Find the weight of the product if lithium atoms are conserved.
[Li = 7, Al = 27, H = 1, C = 12, O = 16]
Ans. 81.28 g
REACTIONS IN SUCCESSION :
In such problems, the amount of any one of the reaction component belonging from a reaction is to be
determined from the given amount of some other reaciton component belonging from some other reaction
with the help of some common components.
Ex. How many gram of ethylene can be burnt completely by the oxygen gas produced from complete
decomposition of 49 gm KClO3.
Sol. 2KClO3 2KCl + 3O2
C2H4 + 3O2 2CO2 + 2H2O
Relate the moles of the component of given amount with the component of required amount, with the help
of commom compound, with the help of balanced chemical reactions.
2 mole KClO3 = 3 mole O2 = 1 mole C2H4
= 2 × 122.5 gm = 28 gm
28
49 gm = × 49 = 5.6 gm.
2 122 .5
RESONANCE page # 20
2.52
Hence, the percentage composition of the mixture is, NaHCO3 = × 100 = 63%
4
and NaCl = 100 – 63 =37%.
Ex. 2 gm of a mixture of CaCO3 and MgCO3 requires 2 gm of H2SO4 for complete reaction. Determine the
percentage composition of the original mixture.
Sol. Let the mixture contains x gm CaCO3. Then the weight of MgCO3 should be (2 – x) gm.
CaCO3 + H2SO4 CaSO4 + CO2 + H2O
1mole 1mole
= 100 gm =98 gm
100 gm CaCO3 requires 98 gm H2SO4.
98
x gm CaCO3 will react with × gm H2SO4
100
MgCO3 + H2SO4 MgSO4 + CO2 + H2 O
1mole 1mole
= 84 gm = 98 gm
84 gm MgCO3 requires 98 gm H2SO4
98
(2 – x) gm MgCO3 will react with × (2 – x) gm H2SO4
84
98 98
Hence, the total weight of H2SO4 required = x+ (2 – x) gm = 2 gm (from question).
100 84
x = 1.78 gm
Hence, the percentage composition of the mixture is
x
CaCO3 = × 100 = 89%.
2
2–x
MgCO3 = × 100 = 11%.
2
Ex. When 1.25 gm of a sample of chalk is strongly heated, 0.44 gm CO2 gas in produce. Determine the
percentage of pure CaCO3 in the chalk sample.
Sol. CaCO3 CaO + CO2
1mole 1mole
=100 gm = 44 gm
44 gm CO2 is produced from 100 gm CaCO3
100
0.44 gm CO2 should be produced from × 0.44 = 1.0 gm CaCO3
44
1.0
Hence, percentage of pure CaCO3 in the sample = × 100 = 80%.
1.25
RESONANCE page # 21
Ex. Calculate the amount of 80% pure NaOH sample required to react completely with 21.3 gm chlroine in hot
condition.
Sol. 6NaOH + 3Cl2 5NaCl + NaClO3 + 3H2O
6mole 3mole
=6×40 gm =3×71gm
3 × 71 gm Cl2 requires 6 × 40 gm pure NaOH
6 40
21.3 gm Cl2 will react with × 21.3 = 24 gm pure NaOH.
3 71
100
Hence, the weight of NaOH sample required = 24 × = 30 gm.
80
LECTURE # 7
Basics of oxidation number.
CONCEPT OF OXIDATION NUMBER :
Real or imaginary charge present on an element when it goes from its elemental free state to
combined state.
1. Fluorine atom :
Fluorine is most electronegative atom yet known and it has always oxidation number equal to –1 in any
compound
2. Oxygen atom :
In general and in the case of its oxide oxygen atom has oxidation number equal to –2. In case of peroxide
(e.g. H2O2, , Na2O2 ) it is –1, In case of super oxide (e.g KO2) and ozonide (KO3) it is –1/2 and –1/3 , In case
of oxygendiflouride OF2 it is + 2 & in dioxygendiflouride O2F2 it is +1
3. Hydrogen atom :
In general H atom has oxidation number equal to +1 in all its compounds but in case of metallic hydride
e.g. NaH, KH it is –1
4. Halogen atom :
In general all halogen atom (Cl,Br ,I) has oxidation number equal to –1 But if halogen atom is attached with
an atom which is more electronegative than halogen atom then it will show positive oxidation number e.g.
5 5 7 5
K ClO3 , HI O 3 , HCIO 4 , KBrO3
5. Metals :
(a) Alkali metal (Li , Na, K, Rb, .......) always have oxidation number +1 in all its compound.
(b) Alkaline earth metal (Be , Mg , Ca .......) always have oxidation number +2 in all its compound.
Note :- Metal may have negative or zero oxidation number
RESONANCE page # 22
6. Oxidation number of an element in free state or in allotropic forms is always zero
0 0 0 0
e.g. O , S , P , O
2 8 4 3
Structure :
RESONANCE page # 23
2. If there in a bond between different type of atoms
e.g. A – B (B is more electronegative than A)
Then after bonding bonded pair electrons are counted with B - atom .
Ex. Calculate oxidation number of each atom in HCl molecule
Structure :
Note : Electron of H-atom is now counted with Cl-atom, because Cl-atom is more E.N. than H-atom
H : number of electrons in the valence shell = 1
number of electrons left after bonding = 0
oxidation number = 1 – 0 = + 1
Cl : Number of electrons in the valence shell = 7
Number of electrons left after bonding = 8
Oxidation number = 7– 8 = – 1
Ex. Calculate individual oxidation number of each s -atom in Na2S2O3 (sodium thio sulphate) with the help of its
structure .
Sol. Structure :
1. Calculate individual oxidation number of each s -atom in Na2S4O6 (sodium tetrathionate) with the
help of its structure .
RESONANCE page # 24
Miscellaneous Examples :
In order to determine the exact or individual oxidation number we need to take help from
the structures of the molecules. Some special cases are discussed as follows:
O O
The structure of CrO5 is Cr
||
O O
O
From the structure it is evident that in CrO5 there are two peroxide linkages and one double bond.
The contribution of each peroxide linkage is –2. Let the O.N. of Cr is x.
x + (–2)2 + (–2) = 0 or x = 6
O.N. of Cr = +6
O
The structure of H2SO5 is H O O S
O
H O
From the structure, it is evident that in H2SO5. there are one peroxide linkage, two sulphur-oxygen double
bond and one OH group. Let the O.N. of S = x.
+1 – 2 + x + (–2) 2+ (–2) + 1 = 0
or x + 2 – 8 = 0
or x – 6 = 0
or x = 6
O.N. of S in H2SO5 is + 6.
The element marked with asterisk in each species is exhibiting the different oxidation state (oxidation
number) from rest of the atoms of the same element in each of the species. This reveals that in C3O2, two
carbon atoms are present in +2 oxidation state each whereas the third one is present in zero oxidation
state and the average is 4/3. However the realistic picture is +2 for two terminal carbons and zero for the
middle carbon.
2 0 2
O C C* C O
Structure of C3O2
(Carbon suboxide)
Likewise in Br3O8, each of the two terminal bromine atoms are present in +6 oxidation state and
the middle bromine is present in +4 oxidation state. Once again the average, that is different from reality is
16/3.
O O O
+6 +4 || +6
O = Br Br* Br = O
||
O O O
Structure of Br3O8 (tribromooctaoxide)
In the same fashion, in the species S4O62–, is 2.5, whereas the reality being +5,0,0 and +5
oxidation number respectively for each sulphur.
RESONANCE page # 25
O O
|| +5 0 ||
- 0
O S S* S* S O¯
|| ||
O O
2-
Structure of S4 O6 (tetrathionate ion)
In general, conclude that the idea of fractional oxidation state should be taken with care and the
reality is revealed by the structures only.
1. Find the average and individual oxidation number of Fe3O4, Mn3O4, Pb3O4 , which are mixed oxides.
2. Calculate oxidation number of each atom in the following compounds.
(a) H2S2O8 (b) CrO5 (c) Rb4Na[HV10O28] (d) Na2S2O3
(e) K2FeO4 (f) Ba2XeO4 (g) HCN (h) HNC
(i) C3O2 (j) S4O62– (k) Br3O8 (l) Fe3O4
Oxidation and reduction always take place simultaneously. Such overall reactions which involves
simultaneous oxidation and reduction are called Redox Reaction.
( 5 ) ( 2) ( 2 )
(0)
2 HNO 3 + 3 H2 S 2 NO + 3S + 4H2O
O.A. R.A.
RESONANCE page # 26
Important oxidizing agents :
O2, O3, X2 (halogens), KMnO4, K2Cr2O7, Na2Cr2O7, CrO3, H2SO4, HNO3, NaNO3, FeCl3, HgCl2, KClO3, MgO,
CuO, CrO3, CO2, P4O10, H2O2, CO2, SO3 etc.
Note : (i) If an element is in it’s highest possible oxidation state in a compound, it can function as an
oxidizing agent.
Ex. KMnO4, K2Cr2O7, HNO3, H2SO4, HClO4 etc.
(ii) If an element is in its lowest possible oxidation state in a compound, it can function as a reducing
agent.
Ex. H2S, H2C2O4, FeSO4, Na2S2O3, SnCl2 etc.
(iii) If an element is in its intermediate oxidation state in a compound it can function both as an
oxidizing agent as well as reducing agent
Ex. H2O2, H2SO4, HNO2, SO2 etc.
RESONANCE page # 27
(a) Metal displacement: A metal in a compound can be displaced by another metal in the uncombined
state. Metal displacement reactions find many applications in metallurgical processes in which pure
metals are obtained from their compounds in ores. A few such examples are:
2 6 2 0 0 2 6 2
CuSO 4 (aq) Zn(s) Cu(s) ZnSO 4 (aq)
5 2 0 0 2 2
V2O 5 (s) 5 Ca(s) 2V(s) 5CaO(s)
4 1 0 0 2 1
TiCl4 ( ) 2 Mg(s) Ti (s) 2MgCl2 (s)
3 2 0 3 2 0
Cr2O 3 (s) 2 Al(s) Al2O 3 (s) 2Cr(s)
In each case, the reducing metal is a better reducing agent than the one that is being reduced which
evidently shows more capability to lose electrons as compared to the one that is reduced.
(b) Non-metal displacement: The non-metal displacement redox reactions include hydrogen displacement
and a rarely occurring reaction involving oxygen displacement.
All alkali metals and some alkaline earth metals (Ca, Sr, and Ba) which are very good reductants, will
displace hydrogen from cold water.
0 1 2 1 2 1 0
2Na(s) 2H2O( ) 2NaOH(aq) H2 (g)
0 1 2 2 2 1 0
Ca(s) 2H2 O( ) Ca(OH)2 (aq) H2 (g)
Less active metals such as magnesium and iron react with steam to produce dihydrogen gas.
0 1 2 2 2 1 0
Mg(s) 2H2 O( ) Mg(OH)2 (s) H2 (g)
0 1 2 3 2 0
2Fe(s) 3H2 O( ) Fe 2 O 3 (s) 3H2 (g)
Many metals, including those which do not react with cold water, are capable of displacing hydrogen
from acids. Dihydrogen from acids may even be produced by such metals which do not react with
steam. Cadmium and tin are the examples of such metals. A few examples for the displacement of
hydrogen from acids are :
0 1 1 2 1 0
Zn(s) 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2 (aq) H2 (g)
0 1 1 2 1 0
Mg(s) 2HCl(aq) MgCl2 (aq) H2 (g)
0 1 1 2 1 0
Fe(s) 2HCl(aq) FeCl2 (aq) H2 (g)
Above three reactions are used to prepare dihydrogen gas in the laboratory. Here, the reactivity of
metals is reflected in the rate of hydrogen gas evolution, which is the slowest for the least active metal
Fe, and the fastest for the most reactive metal, Mg. Very less active metals, which may occur in the
native state such as silver (Ag), and gold (Au) do not react even with hydrochloric acid.
We already know that the metals - zinc (Zn), copper (Cu) and silver (Ag) through tendency to lose
electrons show their reducing activity in the order Zn> Cu>Ag. Like metals, activity series also exists for
the halogens. The power of these elements as oxidising agents decreases as we move down from
fluorine to iodine in group 17 of the periodic table. This implies that fluorine is so reactive that it can
replace chloride, bromide and iodide ions in solution. In fact, fluorine is so reactive that it attacks water
and displaces the oxygen of water:
1 2 0 1 1 0
2H2O( ) 2F2 (g) 4HF(aq) O 2 (g)
It is for this reason that the displacement reactions of chlorine, bromine and iodine using fluorine are not
generally carried out in aqueous solution. On the other hand, chlorine can displace bromide and iodide
ions in an aqueous solution as shown below:
RESONANCE page # 28
0 1 1 1 1 0
Cl2 (g) 2KBr(g) 2KCl(aq) Br2 ( )
0 1 1 1 1 0
Cl2 (g) 2K (aq) 2KCl (aq) 2 (s)
As Br2 and I2 are coloured and dissolve in CCI4, can easily be identified from the colour of the solution.
The above reactions can be written in ionic form as:
0 1 1 0
Cl 2 ( g) 2Br (aq) 2Cl (aq) Br2 ( )
0 1 1 0
Cl 2 ( g) 2 (aq) 2Cl (aq) 2 ( s)
Above two reactions form the basis of identifying Br– and I– in the laboratory through the test popularly
known as ‘Laye!’ Test’. It may not be out of place to mention here that bromine likewise can displace
iodide ion in solution:
0 1 1 0
Br2 ( ) 2 (aq) 2Br (aq) 2 ( s)
The halogen displacement reactions have a direct industrial application. The recovery of halogens from
their halides requires an oxidation process, which is represented by:
–
2X– X2 + 2e
– – –
here X denotes a halogen element. Whereas chemical means are available to oxidise Cl , Br and I , as
–
fluorine is the strongest oxidising agent; there is no way to convert F ions to F2 by chemical means.
–
The only way to achieve F2 from F is to oxidise electrolytically, the details of which you will study at a
later stage.
4. Disproportionation reactions :
Disproportionation reactions are a special type of redox reactions. In a disproportionation reaction an
element in one oxidation state is simultaneously oxidised and reduced. One of the reacting substances
in a disproportionation reaction always contains an element that can exist in at least three oxidation
states. The element in the form of reacting substance is in the intermediate oxidation state; and both
higher and lower oxidation states of that element are formed in the reaction. The decomposition of
hydrogen peroxide is a familiar example of the reaction, where oxygen experiences disproportionation.
1 1 1 2 0
2H2O 2 (aq) 2H2O ( ) O 2 (g)
Here the oxygen of peroxide, which is present in -1 state, is converted to zero oxidation state in O2 and
decreases to -2 oxidation state in H2O. Phosphorous, sulphur and chlorine undergo disproportionation in
the alkaline medium as shown below:
0 3 1
P4 ( s) 3OH (aq) 3H2 O( ) PH3 ( g) 3H2PO 2 (aq)
0 2 2
2
S 8 ( s) 12OH (aq) 4S (aq) 2S 2 O 23 (aq) 6H2 O( )
0 1 2
Cl2 ( g) 2OH (aq) ClO (aq) Cl (aq) H2 O( )
The last reaction describes the formation of household bleaching agents. The hypochlorite ion (CIO-)
formed in the reaction oxidises the colour-bearing stains of the substances to colourless compounds.
It is of interest to mention here that whereas bromine and iodine follow the same trend as exhibited by
chlorine in the last reaction, fluorine shows deviation from this behaviour when it reacts with alkali. The
reaction that takes place in the case of fluorine is as follows:
2F2(g) + 2OH–(aq) 2F– (aq) + OF2(g) + H2O()
(It is to be noted with care that fluorine in reaction above will undoubtedly attack water to produce some
oxygen also). This departure shown by fluorine is not surprising for us as we know the limitation of
fluorine that, being the most electronegative element, it cannot exhibit any positive oxidation state. This
means that among halogens, fluorine does not show a disproportionation tendency.
RESONANCE page # 29
5. Comproportionation reactions : Reverse of disproportionation is called comproportionation
– – +
For Ex. I + IO3 + H I2 + H2O.
Ex. Which of the following species, do not show disproportionation reaction and why?
CIO–, CIO2–, CIO3– and ClO4–
Also write reaction for each of the species that disproportionates.
Sol. Among the oxoanions of chlorine listed above, CIO4– does not disproportionate because in this oxoanion
chlorine is present in its highest oxidation state that is, +7. The disproportionation reactions for the other
three oxoanions of chlorine are as follows:
1 1 5
3ClO 2Cl ClO 3
3 5 1
h
6ClO 2 4ClO 3 2Cl
5 1 7
4ClO 3 Cl 3ClO 4
RESONANCE page # 30
LECTURE#8
Steps for balancing redox reactions & Practice of balancing redox
reactions.
Balancing of redox reactions :
All balanced equations must satisfy two criteria
1. Atom balance (mass balance) :
That is there should be the same number of atoms of each kind in reactant and products side.
2. Charge balance :
That is the sums of actual charges on both sides of the equation must be equal
Two methods are used to balance chemical equations for redox processes. One of these methods is
based on the change in the oxidation number of reducing agent and the oxidising agent and the other
method is based on splitting the redox reaction into two half reactions - one involving oxidation and the
other involving reduction. Both these methods are in use and the choice of their use rests with the individual
using them.
(a) Oxidation Number Method : In writing equations for oxidation-reduction reactions, just as for other
reactions, the compositions and formulas must be known for the substances that react and for the
products that are formed. The oxidation number method is now best illustrated in the following steps:
Step 1: Write the correct formula for each reactant and product.
Step 2: Identify atoms which undergo change in oxidation number in the reaction by assigning the oxidation
number to all elements in the reaction.
Step 3: Calculate the increase or decrease in the oxidation number per atom and for the entire molecule/ion in
which it occurs. If these are not equal then multiply by suitable coefficients so that these become equal.
(If you realise that two substances are reduced and nothing is oxidised or vice-versa, something is
wrong. Either the formulas of reactants or products are wrong or the oxidation numbers have not been
assigned properly).
Step 4: Ascertain the involvement of ions if the reaction is taking place in water, add H+ or OH– ions to the
expression on the appropriate side so that the total ionic charges of reactants and products are equal. If
the reaction is carried out in acidic solution, use H+ ions in the equation; if in basic solution, use OH–
ions.
Step 5: Make the numbers of hydrogen atoms in the expression on the two sides equal by adding water (H2O)
molecules to the reactants or products. Now, also check the number of oxygen atoms. If there are the
same number of oxygen atoms in reactants and products. The equation then represents the
balanced redox reaction.
Let us now explain the steps involved in this method with the help of a few problems given below:
Ex. Write the net ionic equation for the reaction of potassium dichromate (VI), K2Cr2O7 with sodium sulphite
(Na2SO3) in an acid solution to give chromium(III) ion and the sulphate ion.
RESONANCE page # 31
Step 3: Calculate the increase and decrease of oxidation number, and make them equal:
6 2 4 2 3 6 2
Cr2 O 72 (aq) 3SO 32 (aq) 2Cr 3 (aq) 3SO 24 (aq)
Step 4: As the reaction occurs in the acidic medium, and further the ionic charges are not equal on both the sides,
add 8H+ on the left to make ionic charges equal
Cr2O72–(aq) + 3SO32–(aq) + 8H+(aq) 2Cr3+(aq) + 3SO42–(aq) + 4H2O()
Step 5: Finally, count the hydrogen atoms, and add appropriate number of water molecules (i.e., 4H2O) on the
right to achieve balanced redox change.
Cr2O72–(aq) + 3SO32–(aq) + 8H+(aq) 2Cr3+(aq) + 3SO42–(aq) + 4H2O()
Ex. Permanganate ion reacts with bromide ion in basic medium to give manganese dioxide and bromate ion.
Write the balanced ionic equation for the reaction.
Step 1 : The skeleton ionic equation is :
–
MnO4– (aq) + Br – (aq) MnO2(s) + BrO3 (aq)
Step 2 : Assign oxidation numbers for Mn and Br
7 1 4 5
MnO 4 (aq) Br (aq) MnO 2 ( s) BrO 3 (aq)
this indicates that permanganate ion is the oxidant and bromide ion is the reductant.
Step 3: Calculate the increase and decrease of oxidation number, and make the increase equal to the decrease.
7 1 4 5
2MnO 4 (aq) Br (aq) 2MnO 2 ( s) BrO 3 (aq)
Step 4: As the reaction occurs in the basic medium, and the ionic charges are not equal on both sides, add 2
OH- ions on the right to make ionic charges equal.
2MnO4–(aq) + Br –(aq) 2MnO2(s) + BrO3–(aq) + 2OH–(aq)
Step 5: Finally, count the hydrogen atoms and add appropriate number of water molecules (I.e. one H2O
molecule) on the left side to achieve balanced redox change.
– –
2MnO4 (aq) + Br (aq) + H2O() 2MnO2(s) + BrO3–(aq) + 2OH–(aq)
(b) Half Reaction Method (Ion electron method): In this method, the two half equations are balanced
separately and then added together to give balanced equation.
Suppose we are to balance the equation showing the oxidation of Fe2+ ions to Fe3+ ions by dichromate
ions Cr2O72– in acidic medium, wherein, Cr2O72– ions are reduced to Cr3+ ions. The following steps are
involved in this task.
Step 1: Produce unbalanced equation for the reaction in ionic form :
Fe2+(aq) + Cr2O72– (aq) Fe3+(aq) + Cr3+(aq)
Step 2: Separate the equation into half reactions :
2 3
Oxidation half : Fe 2 (aq) Fe 3 (aq)
6 2 3
Reduction half : Cr2O 27 (aq) Cr 3 (aq)
Step 3: Balance the atoms other than and H in each half reaction individually. Here the oxidation half reaction is
already balanced with respect to Fe atoms. For the reduction half reaction, we multiply the Cr3+ by 2 to
balance Cr atoms.
2–
Cr O (aq) 2Cr3+(aq)
2 7
RESONANCE page # 32
+
Step 4: For reactions occurring in acidic medium, add H2O to balance O atoms and H to balance H atoms.
Thus, we get:
Cr2O72–(aq) + 14H+ (aq) 2Cr3+(aq) + 7H2O()
Step 5: Add electrons to one side of the half reaction to balance the charges. It need to, make the number of
electrons equal in the two half reactions by multiplying one or both half reactions by appropriate
coefficients.
The oxidation half reaction is thus rewritten to balance the charge:
–
Fe2+ (aq) Fe3+ (aq) + e
Now in the reduction half reaction there are net twelve positive charges on the left hand side and only six
positive charges on the right hand side. Therefore we add six electrons on the left side.
Cr2O72–(aq) + 14H+(aq) + 6e– 2Cr3+(aq) + 7H2O()
To equalise the number of electrons in both the half reactions. We multiply the oxidation half reaction by
6 and write as : Fe2+(aq) Fe3+(aq) + 6e–
Step 6: We add the two half reactions to achieve the overall reaction and cancel the electrons on each side.
This gives the net ionic equation as :
6Fe2+(aq) + Cr2O72–(aq) + 14H+(aq) 6Fe3+(aq) + 2Cr3+(aq) + 7H2O()
Step 7: Verify that the equation contains the same type and number of atoms and the same charges on both sides
of the equation. This last check reveals that the equation is fully balanced with respect to number of atoms
and the charges.
For the reaction in a basic medium, first balance the atoms as is done in acidic medium. Then for each H+
ion, add an equal number of OH- ions to both sides of the equation. Where H+ and OH- appear on the same
side of the equation, combine these to give H2O.
Ex. Permanganate (VII) ion. MnO4– in basic solution oxidises iodide ion, I– to produce molecular iodine (I2) and
manganese (IV) oxide (MnO2). Write a balanced ionic equation to represent this redox reaction.
7 4
Reduction half : MnO 4 (aq) MnO 2 ( s)
Step 3: To balance the 1 atoms in the oxidation half reaction, we rewrite it as:
2I–(aq) I2(s)
Step 4: To balance the atoms in the reduction half reaction. We add two water molecules on the right:
MnO4–(aq) MnO2(s) + 2H2O()
To balance the H atoms. we add four H+ ions on the left:
MnO4–(aq) + 4H+(aq) MnO2(s) + 2H2O()
As the reaction takes place in a basic solution, therefore, for four H+ ions, we add four OH– ions to both
sides of the equation :
+ –
MnO4–(aq) + 4H (aq) + 4OH (aq) MnO2(s) + 2H2O() + 4OH–(aq)
Replacing the H+ and OH- ions with water, the resultant equation is:
MnO4–(aq) + 2H2O() MnO2(s) + 4OH–(aq)
RESONANCE page # 33
Step 5 : In this step we balance the charges of the two half-reactions in the manner depicted as:
–
2I(aq) I2(s) + 2e
– – –
MnO4 (aq) + 2H2O() + 3e MnO2(s) + 4OH (aq)
Now to equalise the number of electrons, we multiply the oxidation half-reaction by 3 and the reduction
half-reaction by 2.
6I(aq) 3I2(s) + 6e–
2MnO4–(aq) + 4H2O() + 6e– 2MnO2(s) + 8OH–(aq)
Step 6: Add two half-reactions to obtain net reactions after cancelling electrons on both sides.
–
6I– (aq) + 2MnO4– (aq) + 4H2O() 3I2(s) + 2MnO2(s) +8OH (aq)
Step 7: A final verification shows that equation is balanced in respect of the number of atoms and charges on both
sides.
Step 2: Now convert the reaction in ionic form by eleminating the elements or species which are not going either
oxidation or reduction
7
Fe2+ + Mn O 4 Fe3+ + Mn2+
Step 4: Spilt the ionic reaction in two half one for oxidation and other for reduction
oxidation Re duction
Mn 2
Fe2+ Fe3+ MnO 4
Step 5: Balance the atom other than oxygen and hydrogen atom in both half reactions
Step 7: Now see equation (i) & (ii) is balanced atomwise. Now balance both equations chargewise To balance the
charge add electrons to the electrically positive side .
Fe2+ oxidation
Fe3+ + e– ............(1)
RESONANCE page # 34
5e– + 8H+ + MnO4– Re duction
Mn2+ + 4H2O ............(2)
Step 8: The number of electrons gained and lost in each half -reaction are equalised by multiplying suitable factor
in both the half reaction and finaly the half reactions are added to give the over all balanced reaction
Here we multiply equation (1) by 5 and (2) by one
Fe2+ Fe3+ + e– ..........(1) × 5
5e 8H MnO 4 Mn 2 4H2O
.........( 2) 1
5Fe 2 8H MnO 4 5Fe 3 Mn 2 4H2 O
Here at this stage you will get balanced redox reaction in ionic form
Step 9: Now convert the Ionic reaction into molecular form by adding the elements or species which are removed
in step (2). Now by some manipulation you will get
5
5 FeSO4 + KMnO4 + 4H2SO4 Fe2 (SO4)3 + MnSO4 + 4H2O or
2
10FeSO4 + 2KMnO4 + 8H2SO4 5Fe2(SO4)3 + 2MnSO4 + 8H2O + K2SO4.
1 3 6
Re duction Oxidation
Cl O Cl – Cr O 2 Cr O 24
Now student are advised to follow step VI to balance ‘O’ and H– atom
2H+ + ClO– Cl– + H2O | 2H2O+ CrO2– CrO42– + 4H+
Now since we are doing balancing in basic medium therefore add as many as OH– on both side of equation
as there are H+ ions in the equation
2OH– + 2H+ + ClO– Cl– + H2O +2OH– 4OH– + 2H2O + CrO2– CrO42– + 4H+ + 4OH–
Finally you will get Finally you will get
H2O + ClO– Cl– + 2OH– ...........(i) 4OH– + CrO2– CrO42– + 2H2O ........... (ii)
Now see equation (i) and (ii) in which O and H atoms are balanced by OH– and H2O
Now From step VIII
2e– + H2O + ClO– Cl– + 2OH– ............. (i) ×3
4OH– + CrO2– CrO42– + 2H2O + 3e– ............. (ii) ×2
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Adding : 3ClO– + 2CrO2– + 2OH– 3Cl– + 2CrO42– + H2O
RESONANCE page # 35
LECTURE # 9
Units of concentration measurement, Inter conversion of units.
SOLUTIONS :
A mixture of two or more substances can be a solution. We can also say that a solution is a homogeneous
mixture of two or more substances ‘Homogeneous’ means ‘uniform throughout’. Thus a homogeneous
mixture, i.e., a solution, will have uniform composition throughout.
CONCENTRATION TERMS :
The following concentration terms are used to express the concentration of a solution. These are :
1. strength of solution
2. Molarity (M)
3. Molality (m)
4. Mole fraction (x)
5. % calculation
6. Normality (N)
7. ppm
Remember that all of these concentration terms are related to one another. By knowing one concentration
term you can also find the other concentration terms. Let us discuss all of them one by one.
1. STRENGTH OF SOLUTION :
The concentration of solution in gram/litre is said to be strength of solution.
(a) A 65% solution has the following meanings
65% by weight i.e. 100 gm solution contain 65 gm solute
65% by volume i.e. 100 ml of solution contain 65 ml solute
65% by strength i.e. 100 ml of solution contain 65 gm solute
If, anything is not specified, 65% generally mean 65% by mass
(b) For concentrated acids, like 98% H2SO4, 65% HNO3 etc, if anything is not specified than percentage by
mass/volume is usually considered.
(c) For the calculation of strength (% w/w, %w/v etc) the solute must be completely dissolved into the solution,
otherwise, the given terminologies will be invalid. For example, the specific gravity of gold = 19.3 gm/cm3,
193
if we add 193 gm gol powder in 1 litre of water, its % w/w = x 100 = 16.17 is appears to be
1000 193
correct, but gold is not dissolvable in water, its % w/w in water cannot be calculated.
2. MOLARITY (M) :
The number of moles of a solute dissolved in 1 L (1000 ml) of the solution is known as the
molarity of the solution.
number of moles
i.e., Molarity of solution =
volume of solution in litre
Let a solution is prepared by dissolving w gm of solute of mol.wt. M in V ml water.
w
Number of moles of solute dissolved =
M
RESONANCE page # 36
w
V ml water have mole of solute
M
w 1000
1000 ml water have M V
ml
w 1000
Molarity (M) = (Mol. wt of solute) V
ml
4 g / 40 g 0.1mol
= = 0.4 mol L–1 = 0.4 M
0.250L 0.250 L
Note that molarity of a solution depends upon temperature because volume of a solution is temperature
dependent.
Some other relations may also useful.
mass of solute
Number of millimoles = 1000 = (Molarity of solution × V )
(Mol. wt. of solute) inml
Molarity is an unit that depends upon temperature .it varies inversely with temperature .
mathematically : molarity decreases as temperature increases.
1 1
Molarity
temperature volume
Ex. 149 gm of potassium chloride (KCl) is dissolved in 10 Lt of an aqueous solution. Determine the molarity of
the solution (K = 39, Cl = 35.5)
Sol. Molecular mass of KCl = 39 + 35.5 = 74.5 gm
149 gm
Moles of KCl = 74 .5 gm = 2
2
Molarity of the solution = = 0.2 M
10
Q. 117 gm NaCl is dissolved in 500 ml aqueous solution. Find the molarity of the solution.
Ans. 0.4 M
RESONANCE page # 37
Ex. Calculate the molarity of water
H2O 18 gm
= 1 mole
Volume of water = 1 Litre
Mass = 1000 gm
1000
mole =
18
1000
Molarity of water = = 55.55 M
18
Ex. Find the minimum volume of 0.2 M HCl solution for the complete neutralisation of 0.4 M, 40 ml of NaOH
solution.
Ex. CaCO3 reacts with aq. HCl to give CaCl2 and CO2 according to reaction
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O
How much mass of CaCO3 is required to react completly with 100 ml of 0.5 m HCl
1
1 mole of HCl reacts
2
1
50 mmole of HCl reacts × 50 = 25 mmole of CaCO3
2
25
mole of CaCO3 =
1000
25
mass of CaCO3 = × 100 = 2.5 gm.
1000
RESONANCE page # 38
50 150 200
[Na+] = =2M
100 100
50
[Cl–] = = 0.5 M
100
75
(CO32–] = = 0.75 M.
100
LECTURE # 10
Dilution, Practice & Mixing of two liquids.
(i) If a particulars solution having volume V1 and molarity = M1 is diluted to V2 mL then
M1V1 = M2V2
M2 : Resultant molarity
(ii) If a solution having volume V1 and molarity M1 is mixed with another solution of same solute having
volume V2 mL & molarity M2
then M1V1 + M2V2 = MR (V1 + V2)
MR = Resultant molarity
M1V1 M2 V2
= V1 V2
Ex. Calculate the molarity of H+ ion in the resulting solution when 200 ml 1M HCl is mixed with 200 ml 1M
H2SO4
Sol. For HCl
M1 = 1 M
V1 = 200 mL
For H2SO4
M2 = 1
V2 = 200 mL
nHCl = MHCl × VHCl = 1 × 0.2
HCl H+ + Cl–
nH = 0.2 (from HCl)
RESONANCE page # 39
nH2SO 4 MH2SO4 VH2SO4
= 1 × 0.2 = 0.2 mole
Ex. What are the final concentration of all the ion when following are mixed
50 ml of 0.12 M Fe(NO3)3 + 100 ml of 0.1 M FeCl3 + 100 ml of 0.26 M Mg(NO3)2
18 52 70
= = 0.28
250 250
[Cl–] = 0.12 M
[Mg++] = 0.104 M
[Fe3+] = 0.064 M
MOLALITY (m) :
The number of moles of solute dissolved in1000 gm (1 kg) of a solvent is known as the molality of
the solution.
i.e., molality =
number of moles of solute
1000
mass of solvent in gram
Let y gm of a solute is dissolved in x gm of a solvent. The molecular mass of the solute is m. Then Y/m
mole of the solute are dissolved in x gm of the solvent. Hence
Y
Molality = 1000
m x
Ex. 225 gm of an aqueous solution contains 5 gm of urea. What is the concentration of the solution in terms of
molality. (Mol. wt. of urea = 60)
Sol. Mass of urea = 5 gm
Molecular mass of urea = 60
5
Number of moles of urea = = 0.083
60
Mass of solvent = (255 – 5) = 250 gm
Number of moles of solute 0.083
Molality of the solution = 1000 = 1000 = 0.332
Mass of solvent in gram 250
Note : molality is independent of temperature changes.
RESONANCE page # 40
Problem 1.8 (NCERT Page - 21)
The density of 3 M solution of NaCl is 1.25 g mL–1. Calculate molality of the solution.
Sol. M = 3 mol L–1
Mass of NaCl in 1 L solution = 3 × 58.5 = 175.5 g
Mass of 1L solution = 1000 × 1.25 = 1250 g (since density = 1.25 mL–1)
Mass of water in solution = 1250 – 175.5 = 1074.5 g
No. of moles of solute 3 mol
Molaity = Mass of solvent in kg = 1.0745 kg = 2.79 m
Q. 518 gm of an aqueous solution contains 18 gm of glucose (mol.wt. = 180). What is the molality of the
solution.
Ans. 0.2 m
5. % CALCULATION :
The concentration of a solution may also expressed in terms of percentage in the following way.
(i) % weight by weight (w/w) : It is given as mass of solute present in per 100 gm of solution.
mass of solute in gm
i.e. % w/w = mass of solution in gm 100
(ii) % weight by volume (w/v) : It is given as mass of solute present in per 100 ml of solution.
mass of solute in gm
i.e., % w/v = 100
mass of solution in ml
(iii) % volume by volume (V/V) : It is given as volume of solute present in per 100 ml solution.
Volume of solute in ml
i.e., % V/V = 100
Volume of solution
Example
0.5 g of a substance is dissolved in 25 g of a solvent. Calculate the percentage amount of the substance in
the solution.
Solution.
Mass of substance = 0.5 g
Mass of solvent = 25 g
0 .5
percentage of the substance (w/w) = 100 = 1.96
0.5 25
RESONANCE page # 41
Problem 1.6 (NCERT Page - 19)
A solution is prepared by adding 2 g of a substance A to 18 g of water. Calculate the mass per cent of the
solute.
Solution
Mass of A 2g
Mass per cent of A = × 100 = 2gofA 18gofwater × 100
Mass of solution
2g
100 = 10 %
20g
Example
20 cm3 of an alcohol is dissolved in80 cm3 of water. Calculate the percentage of alcohol in solution.
Solution
Volume of alcohol = 20 cm3
Volume of water = 80 cm3
20
percentage of alcohol = 100 = 20.
20 80
X1M1 X2M2
volume in L = 1000
X2 1000
molarity (M) = X M X M
1 1 2 2
MM1
2. Molarity into mole fraction x2 = MM 1000 MM
1 2
Sol. Molarity into mole fraction
molarity (M) = moles solute in 1000 ml of solution
so moles of solution = M
mass of solution = x 1000
wt. of solute = MM2
wt. of solvent = 1000 – MM2
1000 MM2
moles of solvent = M1
RESONANCE page # 42
MM1
Hence x2 = MM 1000 MM
1 2
x 2 1000
3. Mole fraction into molality m = x1M1
Sol. Mole fraction into molarity
mole fraction of solute X2 and solvent X1
mole is n2 & n1
n2 x2 n2 x 2
molality = n M x 1000 = x M x 1000
n1 x1
1 1 1 1
mM1
4. Molality into mole fraction x2 = 1000 mM
1
m mM
mole fraction X2 = 1000 = 1000 mM
1
m
M1
m 1000
5. Molality into molarity M = 1000 mM
2
m 1000
molarity = 1000 mM
2
M 1000
6. Molarity into Molality m = 1000 MM
2
M1 and M2 are molar masses of solvent and solute. is density of solution (gm/mL)
M = Molarity (mole/lit.), m = Molality (mole/kg), x1 = Mole fraction of solvent, x2 = Mole fraction of solute
Sol. Molarity (M) into molality (m)
molarity = mole of solute in 1000 ml of solution
moles of solute = M
wt. of solute = MM2
wt. of solution = 1000
mass of solvent = 1000 – MM2
moles of solute M 1000
molality = wt of solvent x 1000 ; m = 1000 MM
2
RESONANCE page # 43
LECTURE#11
HARDNESS OF WATER :
Hard water does not give lather with soap.
A water is said to be soft water if it gives enough lather with the soap .
The water sample is said to be hard if it forms a insoluble scum and gives very little lather with soap.
Generally , all salts ( except the salts of alkali metals Viz Na,K, Li etc) containing Mg2+, Ca2+,Al3+ etc
makes water hard.
Hardness can be grouped primarily under two heads:
I) Temporary hardness II) Permanent Hardness
I) Temporary Hardness : It is due to presence of bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium.
It is easily removed by boiling which decomposes bicarbonates readily and the insoluble
carbonates settle down.So its named as temporary hardness.
Degree of hardness :
The degree of hardness of water is defined as the number of parts of calcium carbonate or equivalent to
various calcium and magnesium salts present in a million parts of water. ( ppm in terms of CaCO3)
A sample labeled as “ Hardness 180 ppm in terms of MgSO4 “.
It means that the sample contains 180 g of MgSO4 in a 106 g of given water sample.
If this is expressed in terms of CaCO3 ( which is the normal practice ) , we can convert it as follows,
Equiv.mass of CaCO3 = 100/2 = 50
Equiv.mass of MgSO4 = 120/2 = 60
50 g of CaCO3 = 60 g of MgSO4
if any sample that contain 150 ppm of MgSO4 ,then in terms of CaCO3 ,
degree of hardness = 50/60 X180 = 150 ppm
So hardness of water is expressed in terms of ppm of CaCO3 although hard water does not contain CaCO3
.
So we can say that
1 mole CaCl2 1 mole CaCO3 1 mole MgCl2 1 mole CaCO3
RESONANCE page # 44
Ex. 0.00012% MgSO4 and 0.000111% CaCl2 is present in water. What is the measured hardness of water
and millimoles of washing soda requires to purify water 1000 lt water.
Sol. Basis of calculation = 100 g hard water
0.00012
MgSO4 = 0.00012g = Mole
120
0.000111
CaCl2 = 0.000111g = mole
111
0.00012 0.000111
equivalent moles of CaCO3 = 120
111
mole
0.00012 0.000111
mass of CaCO3 = × 100 = 2 × 10–4 g
120 111
2 10 4
Hardness (in terms of ppm of CaCO3) = 10 6 = 2 ppm
100
2 10 6 2
Required NaCO3 for 1000 litre water = 10 6 mole ( d = 1g/ml)
100 100
20
= mole = 20 m mole
1000
Ex. Calculate the weight of CaO required to remove the hardness of 1m3 of water containing 1.62 g of calcium
bicarbonate per liter.
56 162
Sol. CaO + Ca(HCO3 )2 CaCO + H O
3 2
56
1.62 10 3 g 1.62 × 103g
162
= 560 g.
Ex. A sample of hard water contains 96 ppm of SO42– and 183 ppm of HCO3– with Ca2+ as the only cation. How
many mole of CaO will be required to remove HCO3– from 1000 kg of this water ? If 1000 kg of this water
is treated with the amount of CaO calculated above, what will be the concentration ( in ppm ) of residual
Ca2+ ions (Assume CaCO3 to be completely insoluble in water) ? If the Ca2+ ions in one litre of the treated
water are completely exchanged with hydrogen ions, what will be its pH.
2
Sol. Sample of hard water contains 96 ppm SO42– and 40 ppm Ca as CaSO4. Also it contains 183 ppm HCO3–
and 60 ppm Ca2+ as Ca(HCO3)2.
To remove Ca(HCO3)2 from 103 kg or 106 g sample of hard water which contains 243 g Ca(HCO3)2 or
3/2 mole of Ca(HCO3)2, CaO required is 3/2 mole.
Ca(HCO3)2 + CaO 2CaCO2 + H2O
Thus, mole of CaO required = 3/2 or 1.5
Also Ca2+ ions left in solution are of CaSO4 i.e., 40 ppm
40 10 3
Now 1 litre water contains Ca2+ after removal of Ca(HCO3)2 = 6
40 10 3 g
10
RESONANCE page # 45
40 10 3
or [Ca 2 ] 10 3
40
If these Ca2+ are exchanged with H+ then [H+] in solution = 2 × 10–3
STRENGTH OF OLEUM :
Oleum is SO3 dissolved in 100% H2SO4. Sometimes, oleum is reported as more than 100% by weight, say
y% (where y > 100). This means that (y 100) grams of water, when added to 100 g of given oleum
sample, will combine with all the free SO3 in the oleum to give 100% sulphuric acid.
80 18
SO3 + H2 O H2SO4
80
× (y – 100) (y – 100)
18
HYDROGEN PEROXIDE (H 2O 2 ) :
H2O2 can behave both like oxidising and reducing agents in both the medium (acidic and basic).
RESONANCE page # 46
Strength (in g/) :
Strength = molarity × mol.wt.= molarity × 34
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
The uncertainty in the experimental or the calculated values is indicated by mentioning the number of
significant figures. Significant figures are meaningful digits which are known with certainty. The
uncertainty is indicated by writing the certain digits and the last uncertain digit. Thus, if we write a
result as 11.2 mL, we say the 11 is certain and 2 is uncertain and the uncertainty would be ±1 in the
last digit. Unless otherwise stated, an uncertainty of ±1 in the last digit is always understood.
There are certain rules for determining the number of significant figures. These are stated below :
(1) All non-zero digits are significant. For example in 285 cm, there are three significant figures and in
0.25 mL, there are two significant figures.
(2) Zeros preceding to first non-zero digit are not significant. Such zero indicates the position of decimal
point.
Thus, 0.03 has one significant figure and 0.0052 has two significant figures.
(3) Zeros between two non-zero digits are significant. Thus, 2.005 has four significant figures.
(4) Zeros at the end or right of a number are significant provided they are on the right side of the decimal
point. For example, 0.200 g has three significant figures.
But, if otherwise, the terminal zeros are not significant if there is no decimal point. For example, 100
has only one significant figure, but 100. has three significant figures and 100.0 has four significant
figures. Such number are better represented in scientific notation. We can express the number 100
as 1 × 102 for one significant figures and 1.00 × 102 for three significant figures.
(5) Counting numbers of objects, for example, 2 balls or 20 eggs, have infinite significant figures as
these are exact numbers and can be represented by writing infinite number of zeros after placing a
decimal i.e. 2 = 2.000000 or 20 = 20.000000
In numbers written in scientific notation, all digits are significant e.g., 4.01 × 102 has three significant
figures, and 8.256 × 10–3 has four significant figures.
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
The result cannot have more digits to the right of the decimal point than either of the original numbers.
12.11
18.0
1.012
31.122
Here, 18.0 has only one digit after the decimal point and the result should be reported one upto one
digit after the decimal point which is 31.1.
MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION OF SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
In these operations, the result must be reported with no more significant figures as are there in the
measurement with the few significant figures.
2.5 × 1.25 = 3.125
Since 2.5 has two significant figures, the result should not have more than two significant figures,
thus, it is 3.1.
While limiting the reuslt to the required number of significant figures as done in the above mathematical
operation, one has to keep in mind the following points for rounding off the numbers.
1. If the rightmost digit to be removed is more than 5, the preceding number is increased by one, for
example, 1.386 if we have to remove 6, we have to round it to 1.39.
2. If the rightmost digit to be removed is less than 5, the preceding number is not changed. For example,
4.334 if 4 is to be removed, then the reuslt is rounded upto 4.33.
3. If the rightmost digit to be removed is 5, then the prceding number is not changed if it is an even
number but it is increased by one if it is an odd number. For example, if 6.35 is to be rounded by
removing 5, we have to increase 3 to 4 giving 6.4 as the result. However, if 6.25 is to be rounded off it
is rounded of to 6.2.
RESONANCE page # 47
NCERT PROBLEMS
1. How many significant figures are present in the following ?
(i) 0.0025 (ii) 208 (iii) 5005 (iv) 126,000 (v) 500.0 (vi) 2.0034
Ans. (i) 2 (ii) 3 (iii) 4 (iv) 3 (v) 4 (vi) 5
2. Round up the following upto three significant figures :
(i) 34.216 (ii) 10.4107 (iii) 0.04597 (iv) 2808
Ans. (i) 34.2 (ii) 10.4 (iii) 0.0460 (iv) 2810
3. How many significant figures should be present in the answer of the following calculations ?
0.02856 298.15 0.112
(i) (ii) 5 × 5.364
0.5785
Ans. (i) 3 (ii) 4
EXAMPLES
1. Find significant figures in the following observations -
(i) 0.007 gm (ii) 2.64 x 1024 kg (iii) 0.2370 gm/cm3 (iv) 6.320 J/K
2
(v) 6.032 N/m (vi) 0.0006032 K –1
RESONANCE page # 48
MOLE CONCEPT : BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Mole concept for IIT-JEE (Includes Equivalent Concept and Titration) : Shishir Mittal.
(TMH-2011 Edition)
2. Text Book of Physical Chemistry (Includes complete General Chemistry) : Shishir Mittal.
(Disha Publication, 6th Edition)
RESONANCE page # 49