Myology

Muscles are the struetures formed by the bundles of muscle cells in the form of
fibers and pomem the property of contraction on stimulation. The term mascle or
musculas . Is originally a latin word.

There are three main types of musclcs available in the body.

1. Skeletal muscles
2. Smooth muscles
3. Cardiac muscles

1) Skeletal muscles: Skeletal muscles are attached to the bones of the skeleton.

Each mascle fiber (cell) consists of

a) Sarcolemma............ The cell membran.

b) Sarcoplasm............ The cytoplasm.
c) Nuclei
d) Myofibrils............ Parallel contractle threads along the long axis.
e) myofilament........protein filament component of myofibrils-
f) Sarcoplasmic.
g) Mitochondria.
h) Paraplasmic granules.

2) Smooth muscles:

moth muscles make the bulk of a available in skeletal muscles are not fourd in
smooth muscle.

3) The car die muscle:

The cardiac muscle or myocardium is composed of muscle fibers which join with
surrounding fibers in a irregular manner to form a network.
Myology

Fascia :

The connec tive tissue membranes seperating muscles from each other and binding
them into position are called fascia.

A more loosely packed layer next to the skin is the super ficial fascia and the
definite layer in vasting the groups of muscles and sending inter musculer septa is
the deep fascia.

Tendon:

Each muscle has a body and end generally the proximal fieshi and fixed end is
called origin and distal fibrous narrow or flat end is called in serttion. When the in
sertion is in the form of a fibrous cord, it is called tendor and when in the form of a
thin sheet it is called aponeurosis.

Cutaneous Muscle:

Some striated muscles placed at the subcuties of some parts of the body are known
as cuteneous muscle. In some places this fibreso are in serted in the skin and
thereby caused twitch has of skin on contraction. They may or may not have any
connection with the skeleton.

Bursa and sheathes:

Bursa is a thin walled bag contain a small amount of synovial fluid and interposed
at the point of pressure between muscle and tender or between muscle or tender
and bone to provide frictionless environment. When friction from sides is expected
a tubular a tubular synovial bag encircles a tendon. known as synovial sheath.

A bursa may communicate with the Join capsule which is situated very close to it.

Linea Alba:

Linea alba is white fibrous rap he extent from gyphoid cartilage to pre pubic
tendon. The aponurasis of the oblique and the transverse muscle o froth the sides of
the abdomen unite together to form this line.
Tunica Abdominis:

It is a deep fascia which convenes the external aspect of the abdominal muscles.
The Tunic is well developed towards the floor. In the inguinal region the tunic
supports the penis, septum of scrotum and median suspensors ligament of the
mammary gland.

Gumentum Nuchae/Nuchal Ligament:

It is the modification of supra spinus ligament in to a cord like structure composed

of mainly strong flatten cell of fibrous and elastic tissue which extends from the
occipital bone to the wither of hump. The function of this structure is to asssist
extensor muscle o fthe head and neck in supporting the weighe of the head. It
consist of a tunicular part and a lameller part. The tunicular part begins in the
ragion of 2nd thoracic spinous process to the occipital bone and the lameller part is
confined to the cervical region.

“A Typical Vertebra”

Perimysium: The skeletal muscle is compassed of bundles o contractile fibrous

surrounding by a thin sheath o fconnective tissue that is termed as perimysium.

 The description of skeletal muscles may be arranged under the following

heads:-
i) Name According to action. Flexion. Attachment. Shape.
Position. Direction.

ii) Shape and Position.

iii) Attach ment.

iv) Action.

v) Structure.

vi) Relations.

vii) Blood and nerve supply.

1) Name: The name of a muscle may be determined by various consideration as for
example, the action, position, direction, shape etc. In most case two or more of
these are combined to produce the name.

e.g. i) Flexor carpi radialis [ from carpal to radius]

ii) Lang us coli [ According to shape and position]

iii) Oblique extern us abdominals [ According to word base]

ii) Shape and Position: The shape o fa muscle may be termed as triangular,
quadrilateral, fane shaped, some muscles are characterized as long, broad, short
etc, or bicular or ring like muscle circumscribes opening. Since the contraction o
fsuch a muscle closes the orifice. It is often termed as splincler muscle. e.g.
Urinary bladder. Anus. Cervix.

The position and direction are usually started with refcrence to the origin occupied
with adjacent structure.

iii) Attachmest: In mast cases muscles are attached to bones but many muscles are
attached to cartilage, ligament, fascia or with the skin. As a matter of convenious
the term origin is applicd to the attach ment which always or rare commonly
remains stationary. When the muscle contracts, the more movable attachment is
termed as the insertion.

In case o fmuscle of limbs, the proximal attac hment is termed as origin and the
distal attachment is called to the insertion. It all cases of the attachment is made by
fibrous tissue (tendon) the masculare tissue not coming into direct relation to the
point of attachment.

iv) Action: It belongas to physiological study but the main point are usually givern
in Anatomical description.

v) Structure: It in cludes the direction of muscle fibrous the arrangement of the

tendon, the synovial membrane and many other accessory structure.

In case of the long muscle o fthe limbs the origin is termen as the head when the
muscle is fusiform, the large fleshy pary is often called the belly o fthe muscle.
Some muscle have two or more heads and are hence designated as
biceps, triceps etc.

A digestric muscle is one having two bellys and an intermediate tendon.

vi) Relation: It consitute a very important part of Anatomical topography and a

knowledge of them is fundamental to further study in this respect.

vii) Blood and Nerve: Blood and nerve supply are off course important clinical
branch.

 Muscles of Lips and cheeks:

i) Orbicular is oris.
ii) Levator Nasolabialis.
iii) Levator Labii Superioris Propious.
iv) Zygometicus.
v) Gncisivus inferior.
vi) Gncisivus superior.
vii) Mentalis.
viii) Depressor Labii inferioris.
ix) Buccinator.
 Muscles of Nostril:
i) Levator nasolabialis.
ii) Dilatator Neris Lateralis.
iii) Transverses nasi.
iv) Lateralis nasi.
 Muscles of Facial expression:
i) Lavatory rasolebiclis.
ii) Dilatator reris lateralis.
iii) Transarses rasi.
iv) Malaris.
  Muscles of Eyelids:
i) Orbicalaris Oculi.
ii) Corrugator supercilli.
iii) Malaris.
iv) Lavator palpebrae superiors.
 Orbicularis oris: This is the sphincter muscle of the mouth. It is continuous
with the other muscle which converse to the lips. It is between the skin and
mucous membrane of the lips and is intimately adherent to the former. Most
of the fiber run parallel to the free edges of the lips and have no direct
attachment to he skeleton.

Action: It closes the lips.

Blood supply: Palato-Libial, facial and mental aurteries.

Nerve supply: Facial nerve.

 Zygomaticus: This is very thin muscle lies imedeately under the skin of the
cheeke.

Origin: The fascia covering the messenter muscle bellow the facial crest.

Insertion: The commissure of the lips. Blendimg with the Buccinator.

Action: It retract and raise the angle of mouth.

Blood: Fcial artery.

Nerve: Fcial nerve.

 Muscles of the Mandible/Muscle of Mastication:

The muscles of the mandible are sit in number.

i) Masseter.
ii) Temporalis.
iii) Pterigoidius medialis.
 iv) Pterigoidius laterails.
v) Occipito mandibularis.
vi) Digas tricus.

i)Masseter: This muscle extends from the zygomatic arch and facial crest over the
broad. Part of the mandibular ramus. It is semi eliptrical in out line.

Origin: By a strong tendon from the zygomatic arch and the facial crest.

Jnsertion: The lateral surface of the road part of the ramus of the mandible

Action: It brings the jaws together.

Blood supply: Transvers facial and massentaric artery.

Nerve supply: Mandibular nerve.

 Hyoid muscles:
i) Mylo-hyoideuds.
ii) Stylo- hyoideuds.
iii) Occipito-hyoideuds.
iv) Genio-hyoideuds.
v) Kerato-hyoideuds.
vi) Hyoideus-transversus.
vii) Sterno-thyro-hyoideus.
viii) Omo-hyoideus.
 Muscles of the neck:

1.Ventral cervical group: This group consist of 12 pairs of muscles which lie
ventral and lateral to the vertebrae.

i) Cuteneus coil

ii) Broachioce phalicles.

iii) Sterno-cephalicus.

iv)sterno- thyro-Hyoideus.

v)omo-thyro-hyoideus.
vi) Scalenus.

vii)Cervical is ascends.

ix)Rectus capitalis ventral is minor.

2. Lateral cervical group: This group consist of 12 pairs of muscles arranged in

layer.

1st layer:

i) Trapezius cervicalis.

2nd layer:

ii) Rhomboideus cervicalis.

iii) Serratus cervicis.

3rd layer:

iv) Scalenius.

4th layer:

v) Longissimus capitis.
vi) Complexus.
vii) Mulfidus cervicis.
viii) Spinalis.
ix) Obliqus capitis posterior.
x) Obliqus cpitis anterior.
xi) Rectus capitis dorsalis major.
xii) Rectus capitis dorsalis major.
 Muscles of Back and Loin: There are i poirs of muscles arranged in layer.

1st layer:

i) Trapezius thoracalis.
ii) Latissimus dorsi.

2nd layer:

iii) Rhomboideus thoracalis.

 iv) Ceretus dorsalis anterior.
v) Ceretus dorsalis posterior.

Rd layer:

vi) Longissimus costarum.

vii) Longissimus dorsi.
viii) Multifideus dorsi

4th layer:

ix) Inter transversales lumbora.

 Longissimus Dorsi: This is the largest and longest muscle in the body. It
extends from the sacrum and illium to the neck, filling up the spaccs
between the spiny process and the lumber transvers process and the upper
ends of the ribs ventrally, conscquently. It has the form of a three sided
prisim.

Origin:

i) The tubercocci, crest and adjacent part of the ventral surface of the
illium.
ii) The first three sacral spines.
iii) The lumber and thoracic spines and the supra spinus ligament.

Insertion:

i) The lumber transvers and articular process.

ii) The thoracic transvers Process.
iii) The spinus and transvers process of last four cervical vertebrac
iv) The lateral surfaces of the ribs (except the first).

Blood supply: Dorsal, Deep cervical, inter-costal and lumber arteries.

Narve supply: Dorsal, Branches of the thoracic and lumber spinal nerve.

 Muscles of Abdominal Press:

i) Oblique’s abdominis externus: [ paired muscle]

origin: Lateral surfaces of ribs and lumbo dorsal fascia.

Insertion: Linca alba and pre-pubic tendon.

Blood supply: Anterior and posterior artery inter costal and lumber arteries,
circumflex illium arteries.

Nerve supply: Intercostal and lumber nerve.

ii) Obliquus abdominis internus: [paired muscle]

Origin: Tuber coccy and lumbo dorsal fascia.

Insertion: Linca coccy and lumbo dorsal fascia.

Blood and Nerve supply: Sameas obliquus externus.

iii) Transverse abdominis: [paired muscil]

Origin: Transverse process of lumber vertebrae.

Insertion: Linea alba.

Blood and Nerve supply: Same as other.

iv) Rectou abdominis: [Paired muscle]

Origin: Lateral and ventral surface of sternum.

Insertion: Linea alba and pubic.

Blood and Nerve supply: Same as other.

v) Cremaster muscle [simgle muscle, present in case of male animol]

 Muscles of Respiration: seven muscle are involved. 3 paired and 1 is
unpaired.
a) Paired costarum.
i) Levator costarum.
ii) Inter costal externus.
iii) Inter costal internus.
b) Unpaired muscle:
i) Diaphragm.
 i) Levator costarum (paired):

Origin: Transverse process of the thoracic vertebrae.

Insertion: Inter costal arteries.

Blood and Nerve supply: Intercostal nerves.

ii) Inter costal externus (Paired):

Origin: Caudal border of the precending. ribs.

Insertion: Craial and lateral surface of the succiding ribs.

Blood and Nerve supply: Same.

iii) Inter costal internus (Paired):

Origin: Caudal border of the succending ribs.

Insertion: Caudal border of the precending ribs

Blood and Nerve supply: Same.

(i)Diaphragm (unpaired): This is the principal musele of respiration. Diaphragm is

a uapair muscle which form a partition between the thoracic and abdominal
covities. in out line it has a resemblance to a palm leaf like frame. It consist of
central tendinus part. The conective tissue par which contain three opening or
foramine and peripheral muscles part with costal-sternal and lumber attavhment.

 Opening of the Diaphragm and their contents:

Hiatus aorticus.
i) Hiatus esophagus.
ii) Foramen venacava. [contents]
iii) Hiatus aorticus aorta, vena azygos and cisterna chyle.
iv) Hiatus esophagus esophagus, vegus nerve adn esophgeal branch
of gastric aurtery.
v) Foramen venacava Posterior venacava.
 Attachment of the Diaphragm:
 i) Costal attachment: The cartilage of eighth, ninth and tenth ribs.
ii) sternal attachment: The upper surface of the xiphoid cartilage,
ventrally and xiphoid cartilage of the sternum.
iii) Lumber attachment: It consist of right and left crus. The right crus is
attached to the 1st four to the five lumber vertebrae adn left crus is
attached to the 1st and 2nd lamber vertebrae.

Action: It is the principal muscle of the body.

Insertion: It helps mainly in inspiration.

Blood supply: phrenic and musculo phnenic.

Nerve supply: phrenic nerve..

Muscle of Fore Limb/Thoracic Limb:

Muscle of shoulder gardle: This group consist of those muscle which connect the
thoracic limb with the head, neck and trunk. This connection or attachment is
termed as synsarcosis (syn=False, Sarcosis=attachment). It may be regared as
consisting of two division-

Dorsal devision: The muscle of dorsal devision are arrangd in two layer-

(a) 1st layer-

1. Trapizius

Cervicalis

Thoracalis

(b) 2nd layer-

2. Trapizius
Cervicalis
Thoracalis
3. Latissimus dorsi

ii)Ventral devision: The muscle of ventral devision are arronged in four types-
 1. Brachiocephalicus
2. Superficial pectoral muscle.
3. Deep pectoral muscle.
4. Serratas ventralis.
Cervicis
Thoracis

 Trapizius cervicalis:

Origin:The tunicular part of the ligamentum nuclei form the 2 nd cervical to the 3rd
thoracic vertebrac.

Insertion: The spine of the scapula and fascia of the shoulder and arm.

 Trapizius tharacalis:

Origin: The supra spinus ligament form 3rd to 10th thoracic vertebrae.

Insertion: The tuber spine or the scapula.

Action: As a whole t elevate the shoulder the cervical part draws the scapula
foreward and upward and the thoracic part draws it backward and upqard.

Blood supply: Dorsal deep cervical and intercostal aurteries.

Nerve Supply: Spinal accessory nerve.

 Rhomboid us cervical is:

Origin:The tunicular part of the ligamentum nuclei from the 2nd cervical vertebrae
to 2nd thoracic vertebrae.

Insertion: The medial surface of the cartilage of the scapula.

 Rhomboidius thoracalis:

Origin: From 2nd to 7th thoracic vertebrae.

Insertion: The medial surface of the cartilage of the seapula.

Blood Suppply: Dorsal and deep cervical aurteries.

Nerve supply: 6th and 7th cervical spinal nerve.

 Brachiocephalicus:

Origin:

i) The mastoid process of the temporal bone adn muchal crest.

ii) The wing of the atlas and the transverse process of the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th
cervical vertebrae.

Insertion: The deltoid tuberosity and crest of the humerus, the fascia of the
shoulder and arm.

Blood supply: In farrior cervical, carotid and vertebral aurteries.

Nerve supply: Spinal accessory, cervical and axillary nerve.

 Muscles of shoulder:

The muscles of this groove arise of the scapula and end on the arm. they may be
divided into two groups covering the lateral and the other covering the medial
or cosal surfauce of the seapula.

A. Lateral groove muscle:

i) Deltoidius.
ii) Supra spinatus.
iii) In fra spinatus.
iv) Teris minor.
B. Medial groove muscle:
i) Sub scapularis.
ii) Teris major.
iii) Coracobrachialis.
 Deltoidius:

Origin:

i) The upper part of the posterior border of the scapula.

 ii) The spine of the scapula by means of the which spine of the which covers
the inter spinatus.

Insertion: Deltoid tuberosity and Brachial fascia.

Action: Flex the shoulder joint and adduct.

Blood supply: subscapular aurteries.

Nerve supply: Acce laru nerve.

 Supra spinatus:

Origin: The upea spinatus fossa and part of the cartilage of the scapula.

Insertion: The anterior parts of the proxial tuberoity of the humerus.

Action: It extends the shoulder part.

Blood supply Supra scapular.

Nerve supply: supra scapular nerve.

 Infra spinatus:

Origin: The infraspinus fossa and scapular cartilage.

i) The lateral tuberosity of the humerus.

ii) The posterior imino

Action: To abduct the arm and roled out work .

Blood supply: sub scapular aurtery.Nerve supply: supra scapular nerve.

 Sub scapularis muscle:

Origin: sub scapular fossa.

Insertion: The posterior immencece of the medial tuberosity of the humerus.

Blood supply: sub scapular aurtery.

Nerve supply: sub scapular nerve.

Action:To abduct the humerus.

 Pes is devided into three clases:

i) Tarsus
ii) Meta tarsus
iii) Digit

Proximal row: It consists of tibial tarsal. Fibular tarsus

(Talus) (Calcaneus)

Central row: It consists of central tarsus bones,

Distal row: It consists of 1st ,2nd,3rd and 4th carpal bone. In case of cattle the tarsus
of cattle, five shory bones and they are arranged in three rows.

Proximal row: It consists of tibial and fibular tarsals bone.

Central row: It consists of central and 4th tarsus bone are fused to form
centroauartal bone.

 Metatarsus (typically five in numbers):

Three metatursus bones present only the 3rd (last) metatursus bone is fully
developed and carries a digit. The first metatursus is absent; the 2 nd and 4th are
much rounded and called splint bone.

In case of cattle there is two metatarsal bone , one is large and another one is small.
The large metatarsal bone is result from the fusion of 1 st, 2nd and 3rd metatarsal
bone. The small metatarsal bone result from the fusion of 4 th and 5th metatarsal
bone

 Digil:

1st.2nd and 3rd phalanges are colectiuely known as digit. In horse only one digit is
well developed that is third one. In case of cattle 4 digit are present of this one 3 rd
and 4th are well developed and carry 3 phalanges and three seasmoid bones. The
2nd and 5th are redlece and present due claw and the first digit is absent.

 Manus:
It is devided into three segments

i) carqus.
ii) Metacaarpus.
iii) Digit.

i)Carpus:

It case of horse. Carpus consists of 7 or 8 carpal bones arranged into rows-

proximal and distal rows.

Proximal row: In proximal row, radial, radial, intermediatd, ulnur and accessory
carpal bones are present.

Distal row: In distal row, 1st carpal bone abent, 2nd and 3rd are found to form a large
quadrilateral bone and 4th carpal bone is present.

Metacarpus and Digit are same as carpal in hind limb in case of cattle.

 Muscle of fore arm and Manus:

A. Extensor group:
i) Extensor carpi radialis.
ii) Common digital extensor.
iii) Lateral digital extensor.
iv) Extensor carpi obliqus.
B. Flexor group:
i) Flexor carpi radialls.
ii) Flexor carpi ulnaris.
iii) Ulnaris lateralis.
iv) Superficial digital flexor.
v) Deep digital flexor.
 Muscle of pelvi limb/Hind limb:
A. Muscle of sub-lumber region:
i) Sous major.
ii) sous minor.
iii) Jllicus.
iv) Quadrates labarum.
v) Inter transversoris.
 B. Lateral muscle of the hip and thigh:
i) Tensor fascia latae.
ii) Gluteus superficivialis.
iii) Gluteus protund us.
iv) Gluteus protund us.
v) Biceps femoris.
vi) Semi tensions us.
vii) Semi membranosus.

C. The medial muscle of hte thigh:

These muscles are arranged in three layers-

1st layer:

i) Sartorious.
ii) Gracilis

2nd layer:

Pectinious.
i) Aductor.
ii) Semi member a nosus .

3rd layer:

i) Q uardratus remoris.
a. Obturator externus.
ii) Obturator in ternus.
iii) Gemellus.
D. Anterior muscles of the thigh:
i) Sartorius.
ii) Q uardraceps.
iii) Capsularis coxae.
E. Muscles of the leg and foot:
1. Dorso lateral group:
i) Long digital extensor.
 ii) Lateral digital extensor.
iii) Peroncus tertius.
iv) Tibialis anterior.
2. Plantar group:
i) Gastro cnemius.
ii) Sorius.
iii) Superficial digital flexor.
iv) Deep digital Flexor.
v) Popliteus.
Syndesmology

Syndesmology: Joints on articulations are the structures, formed by the union of

two or more articular ends of bones or cartilages with the help of certain binding

e.g. The ligaments or other tissue

Classification:

Broadly joints can be classified into three groups such as:

1) Synovial (diarthrodial) or Movable joints.

2) Fibrous (Synarthrodial) or immovable joints.
3) cartilaginous (amphiarthrodial) joints.

Synovial Joint’s

Definition: synovial joint is a joint in which opposing bony surfaces are covered
with a layer of hyaline cartilage or tibrocartilage within a joint cavity that contains
synovial fluid, lined with synovial membrane and recovered by a fibrous capsule
and ligaments. There is some degree of free movement possible.

Description: Synovial joints are formed by articular cartilages, joint capsule,

synovial fluid and ligaments.

Articular cartilage: They are mostly hyaline in nature and cover, the articular
ends of the boncs. These cartilages provide low friction lubricated (bangla) surface
and make the movement easy. It is thicker is young and thinner in old subjects. The
cartilage is non-vascular and devoid (bangla) of nerves too. It is believed that this
tissue derives it’s nutrition from vascular network of synovial membrane synovial
fluid and from blood vessels of underlying marrow spaces.

Besides these articular in some joints other varieties of cartilages such as intra-
articular cartilage, circumferential cartilage, etc are prsent.

Joint capsule: The capsule has an external fibrous part is made up of parallel and
interlacing bundies of white connective tissue fibers. It is perforated in some places
for the passage of vessels and nerves.
Joint capsule consists of different types of components such as:- Synovial
membrane, Synovial bursa, Synovial tendon sheath, Synovial villa, articular fat
pads and lamina propia synovalis.

Synovial fluid: It is a lubricant fluid secreted by the synovial membrane. It

resembles the egg albumin but have a yellowish tinge. It is composed of albumin,
mucin, slalts, water and a small mixed population of cells. It’s reaction is slight
alkaline at rest. It also contain hyaluronic acid. The viscosity of the fluid depends
on the concentration of this acid.

Ligaments: These are binding materials of the joints. They are made up of non-
elastic white fibrous tissue and are usually in the form of strong bands or
membranes.

The ligaments may be of following vorieties:-

a) Joint capsule.
b) Collateral ligaments.
c) Intra-articular ligament.
d) Interosseous ligament.
e) Annular ligaments.

Fibrous Joint

Definition: These are temporary joint. In this joint the segments are united by
fibrous tissue in the process of ossification. These joints practically provide on
movement and hence also termed as immovable joints.

These joints are of following types:

1. Sutures:
a) Suture serrate.
b) Suture squamosa.
c) Suture harmonia or plane suture.
2. Syndcsmosis.
3. Schindylcsis.
4. Gomphosis.
Description:

1. Suture: These joints are mostly found in the skull. The borders of adjacent
bones are united by fibrous connective tissue, the sutural ligament.
a) Suture Serrata: The edges are serrated or like the teeth of saw. The
edges interdigitate with each other.
e.g. Frontal suture.
b) suture squamosa: In this articulation the edges are in the form of thin
plates. They overlap with each other to make union.
e.g. Suture between parietal and temporal bone.
c) Suture harmonia or plane suture:In these articulations the edges are
plane or slightly roughened.
e.g. Nasal suture.
2. Syndesmosis: It these articulations the uniting medium is white fibrous
tissue.
e.g. Joints between bodies of metacarpal bones or attachments between
costal cartilges.

3. Sehindylesis: When a bone is fitted into a groove of another bone, the

term schindylesis is applied.

e.g. Junction between vomar and sphenoid bone.

4. Gomphosis: The articulations between the roots of teeth in the alveolar

sockets are termed as gomphosis.

The gomphosis is not properly considerded joint at all since the teeth are not
ports of skeleton.

“Cartilaginus joints”

Definition: The bones are articulated by fibro cartilage or by hyaline cartilage or

by both. They permit limited movement.

These are of two types:

1. Synchondrosis.
2. Symphysis.
 1. Synchondrosis: They are articulated by hyaline cartilage. These are
temporary joints and subseqventtly may get ossified.
e.g. Junction between sphenoid and occipital bones.

2. This termed is usually limited a few medium joints. Which conect the
symmitrical parts of the skeleton. They permit certain amount of movement.
e.g. Pelvic symphysis, symphysis mandibkl.

llote: 2wU bone Øviv hy³ lip bone ‡K pelvic symphysis e‡j| Bnv Cartilage Øviv
hy³ _v‡K|

“Joint’s of the skull”

1. Temporo-Mandibular articulation.
2. Hyod, articulation.
3. Proximal and distal intercornual articulation.
4. Basi-Cornual articulation.
5. Synchondrial articulation.
6. Mandibular. Symphysis.

“Joint of Forelimb/Thoracic limb”

1. Shoulder joint.
2. Elbow joint.
3. Carpal joint/Knee joint.
4. Fetlock joint.
5. Pastern joint.
6. Coffin joint.

“Joints of ltindlimb/Pelviclimb”

1. Hip joint.
2. Stifle joint.
3. Hock or knee joint.
4. Fetlock joint.
5. Pastern joint.
6. Coffin joint.
“Joint’s of thorax”

1. Costo-vertebral joint.
2. Costo-central joint.
3. Costo-transverse articulation.
4. Costo-chondral junctions.
5. Costo-sternal articulation.
6. Sternal joint.

“Joints of vertebral column”

1. Intercentral articulation.
2. Intercentral articulation.
3. Special verteloral articulation.
a. Occipito-atlantal joint.
b. Atlanto-axial joint.
c. Sacor-coccygeal joint.
d. Inter-coccygeal joint.
“Splanchnology”

Splanchnology deals ith the following system:

1. Digestive system.
2. Respiratory system.
3. Kro-ginital system.
a. Urinary system.
b. Genital system.

The body cavities with their contents: The body as a whole is built round the
bony framework or skeleton and consist of a number of different parts like head,
neck and trunk. The trunk is further divided into chest or thorax, abdomen and
pelvic. For descriptive purpose the body cavities means the thoracic cavity,
abdominal cavity and pelvic cavity.

Boundary and content of thoracic cavity: The thoracic cavity is formed dorsally
by the thoracic vertebrae, ligament, muscles connected with them, ventrally by the
sternum, cartilages of the sternum, muscles connected with them, laterally by the
ribs and inter costal muscles. Interiorly by the tbcoracie inlet (bvjx) and posteriorly
by the diaphragm.

contents:

1. Lung.
2. Heart.
3. Thoracic part of esophagus and trachea.
4. The aorta.
5. The cranial and caudal venacava, other blood vessel, lymph vessel and
gland.
6. Lymph node.
7. The thymus. (In case of younger animal).

Boundary and content of abdominal cavity: The abdominal cavity is formed

dorsally by the lumbar part of diaphragm, laterally by oblique and transverse
abdominal muscle, the abdominal tunic, aponeurosis of the oblique and transverse
abdominal muscles, the xiphoid cartilage. Anteriorly by by the diaphregm and
posteriorly by the imaginary lined of polvic inlet.
contents:

1) The greater part of the digestive system such as

i. The stomach.
ii. Small intestine.
iii. Most of the large intestine like cecum and colon.
iv. The liver.
v. The gall bladder.
vi. Bile duct.
vii. The pancreas.
2) The greater part of the urinary system such as:
i. Kidneys and upper part of the ureters.
3) The part of the internal genital organ.
4) Numerous blood vessel, nerve vessel, lymph vessel and gland.
5) Duct less gland such as:
i. The spleen.
ii. The adrenal gland.
7. Certain fetal remains.

Boundary and contents of pelvic cavity: Pelvic cavity is formed dorsally by

sacrum and tirst three coccygeal vertebrae, ventrally by pubic and isclial bones,
laterally by the parts of ileum and sacro-ischiatic ligament.

Contents:

1. Some loops of the small intestine.

2. The lower part of large intestine like rectum and anus.
3. The lower part of uretcrs.
4. The urinary bladder.
5. The urethra.
6. Blood vessels and nerves.

It male some organs of reproductive system such as prostate gland, seminal

vesicles. The bulb urethral gland, spermatic cords, duets deferences, ejaculatory
duets etc.

It tamale it contains the utervs, uterine tubes, ovaries and vagina

“Digestive system”

Definition: Digestive system consists of the organs directly concern in the

reception and digestion of food , absorption of the digested food materials through
it wall and expulsion or elimination of solid wastes.

This systems are conveniently grouped under two head such as:-

a. The alimentary canal or Gastro-intestinal tract or G.I. tract or

digestive tract.
b. Accessory organ.
A) Alimentary canal: Alimentary canal or tube is a muscula membranous
strueture which extends from mouth to the anus that is through out the length
of the body. It consists of the consecutive segments
1) The mouth.
2) The pharynx.
3) The oesophagus.
4) The stomach (Horse).

In ruminent stomach is divided into four compartment-

i. Rumen.
ii. Reticulum.
iii. Omasum.
iv. Abomasum.

5.)Intestine: It is divided into two types:

i. Small intestine- It consists of Deudenum, jejunum and ileum

ii) Large intestine- It consists of cecum, colon and rectum.

6)Anus.

B) The Accessory organs: The accessory structures or organs which are indirectly
associated with the alimentary canal helps in digestive process are known as
accessory structure or organs of the digestive system.
These are-

1. Teeth.
2. Tongue.
3. Salivary gland.
4. Liver.
5. Pancreas.
6. Gall bladder.

“Mouth”

Mouth is a elongated cavity at the beginning of the alimentary canal and comprises
of the vestibule of the mouth and mouth cavity proper. The vestibular part is
bounded externally by lips and checks and internally by gums and teeth. The
mouth cavity proper is bounded in front and laterally by alveolar arches, gums and
teeth. It is continuous with the pharynx behind by the orophary ngeal opening. The
roof is formed by the palate and the floor is formed by the mandible, muscles and
mucous membrane mandible, muscles and mucous membrane. The mucous
membrane is continuous anteriorly with that of lips and posteriorly with that of
pharynx.

“The lips”

The lips upper and lower are thick, wide and comparatively immobile (wfRv) by a
clear fluid secreted by the nasolabial glands. The surface is marked by grooves.

“The cheeks”

The cheek is composed of skin, muscle, gland and mucous membrane. Buecal
gland are arranged in 3 rows-(i) Dosal. (ii) Middil. (iii) Ventral with the
musculature. The cheeks formed the lateral wall of the mouth. The skin is
continuous with that of other part of the face. Muscular layer is formed by
Buecinator levator and depressor and muscles of the face.
“The zinziva or gum”

The zinziva (Gum) is composed of a thick layer or dense fibrous tissue which is
cloely attached to the periosteum of the alveoli bearing bones and surrownds the
neck of the teeth.

“Palate”

The palate is divided into two typs:-

1. Anterior portion (Hard palate).

2. Posterior portion (Soft palate).

Hard palate: The hard palate formed the roof of the mouth and is composed of a
dense connective tissue which is covered by mucous membrane. It is attached to
the bony palate that the palatine maxilla and premaxilla. Anterior to the hard palate
there are two dental pad on either side as there is no incisor teeth at the upper jaw
of the animal. Thus dental pad occupy this position by palatinous muscle.

Dental pad: The gum of the region of incisor teeth in upper jaw is flattened into a
hard pad of fibrous tissue covered with a thick honey mucous membrane known as
dental pad by which the incisor teeth of the lower jaw produce their cutting action.
This pads are formed by a thick layer of connective tissue on the body of the pre-
maxilla and covered by corn-fed epithelium. A small triangular area structure, the
papilla incisive is present on the middle between the dental pad and he first
transverse ridge of the hard palate.

A linear groove divides the surface of the hard palate into equal halves. About

15-19 transverse ridges are present in each halt of the hard palate.

“Tongue”

Definition: The tongue is an accessory organ of the digestive system. It a highly

mobile muscular structure and situated on the floor of the mouth between two rami
of the mandible. It is supported mainly by the hyo-glossus and genioglosus
muscles.
Parts of tongue:

The tongue is consist of :-

1. Root of the tongue.

2. Body of the tongue.
3. Apex or tip of the tongue.

Function of tongue:

1. It acts as a prehension organ. (cattle)

2. It plays important role in mastication of food and deglutition.
3. It is also an organ of taste and plays very important role for speech in human
(That is helps in making sounds)

Description part of the tongue:

1. Root of the tongue: The root is very thick and attached to the hyoid bone and
mandible by hyo-glossus and genio-glossus muscles, with the soft palate by
anterior pillar, with the pharynx by muscles and membranes and with the
epiglottis by gloss epiglottis fold. The dorsal surface is free and the most
part of the ventral surface is fixed.
2. body of the tongue: The body has three surfaces-two laterals surfaces and
one dorsal surface. The dorsal surface is free and known as dorum-lingue.
Behind a transverse groove this surface present a raised and prominence area
at the posterior part known as torus lingual. The transverse groove is known
as lingual fossa when the mouth is cloed, dorsal surface remains in contract
with the hard palate.
3. Apex or tip of the tongue: The apex or tip is thin and blunt with a round
border. This part is totally and is highly mobile in action.

Structure of the tongue:

Structurally the tongue consist of:-

1. Mucous membrane.
2. Glands.
3. Muscles.
 4. Nerves and vessels.

1).Mucous membrane: It is trimly attached with the under line muscle by

connective tissue and presents a variety of papillae.

These are:-

1. Filiform papillae.
2. Fungiform. papillae.
3. Lenticular papillae.
4. Circum vallate papillae.
1. Filiform papillae are numerus, fine, thread like protection and are distributed
through out the dorsal. Surface, rostrbl (anterior) to transverse groove and
the sides of the teeth but absent on the root of the tongue.
2. Fungiform papillae: Fungigorm papillae are larger in size and scattered
among the filiformpapillae. The papillae bear the test bud.
3. Lenticular papillae: The mucous membrane of torus lingue present some
rounded leticular paplillae.
4. Vallate or circumvallate papillae: These are large in size and 7 to 8 in
number in each side. Each papilla is encircled by a wall and that is why
called circumvallet. They are arrange in irregular, double rows at the
posterior part of the dorsal surface of the tongue.
5. Lingual glands: Lingual glands are lobulated and small. They are remain
under the mucous membrane and embedded within the muscle. The number
of glands are more at the root. Those glands open at the papillae as gastatory
glands.

Lingual tonsils: The are some aggregations to lymphoid follicle at the root of
the tongue called lingual tonsil.

3. Muscles of the tongue:

Muscles are-

1. Extrinsic muscles.
2. Intrinsic muscles.
i) Extrinsic muscles are skeletal and have attachment out side the tongue.
These are-

a) Styloglossus: Extends from the hyoid bone to the tongue.

b) Palatoglossus: Connects the tongue with the sott palate.
c) Genio-glossus: Attaches the tongue with mandible.

ii)Gntrinsic muscles: The intrinsic muscles consist of bundles of skeletal muscles

which are direvted in longitudinal, transverse and vertical directions. Generally the
longitudinal muscles are disposed in two layers-

a) Superior and.
b) Inferior.
4. Nerves supply: Hypohlosul nerve.
5. And Blood supply: Lingual branch of linguo-facial artery.

Note: mothr: Hypoglosul nerve.

Differences of tongue among horse, ox and sheep/goat.

Traits Horse ox Sheep/Goat

1.Apex Spatula Pointed Slighty pointed

2. Shape long and relatively root and body Narrow in middle

width wider then horse part of the body
root

3.Colour Pinkish variable same as ox

pigmentation

4.vallate papillae 2 or 3 vallate 8 or 17 vallate 14-21 caudally

papillae on the papillae in caudal
dorsum, caudally lateral region

5.Foliate papillae Present near absent absent

anterior pillar of
the soft

6.Surface Relatively smooth Rough rough

characters
“Teeth”

Definition: Teeth are the hardest strveture of the body. The are implanted into the
alveolar sockets of the upper and lower jow bone.

Morphologically teeth are large calcified papillae and functionally the organs of
pretension and mastication and may serve as a weapons.

Parts of teeth: A typical tooth consists of following parts.

i. Body or crown.
ii. Neck.
iii. Root.
1. Body or crown: The exposed portion of a tooth which is covered by very
hard translucent (SKS‡K) materials is known as the body or crown.
2. Neck: The junction between the crown and root is little constricted and is
termed as neck.

Composition of teeth: The bulk of the tooth is formed by the dentin. The dentin is
composed of well organize dentinal tubules within the dentin there is a centrall
canal known as pulp cavity. The cavity is expanded. The canal is narrow at the root
which opens into the apical foramen ft the tip of the root. The pulp canal is lined
by a layer of odontoblast cell. The pulp cavity also contains connective tissue,
arterioles and the cement there is a layer of collage nous tissue which helps in
suspending the tooth into it’s socket known as periodontal membrane.

Classification of teeth: Teeth are classified according to there placement into the
oral cavity:-

1. Incisor teeth or cutting teeth: The incisors are most anterior in position.
The incisors are assent in upper jaw in ox (Ruminant). Their function is
cutting and shearing. In ox they are six in number in lower jaw. In horse 12
in number in both lower and upper jaw.
2. Canine: Next to the incisors are the canine. They are usually absent in
ruminant. It present only in lower jaw. In ox it is 2 in number and in horse. It
is 4 in number. Canine teeth is absent or vestigial in mare. In dog 4 in
 number in both deciduous and permanent stage. The function of this teeth is
tearing and wearing.
3. Check teeth: canines are followed by pre-molar and molar. They are placed
laterally and therefore called cheek teeth. Pre-molar teeth present both
deciduous and permanent stage. In horse and ox 12 in umber.

Molar teeth: Molar teeth present in permanent stage. In ox and horse 12 in

number. Their clef function is to grinding or masticate (wPev‡bv) the food in take

Classification of teeth on the basis of eruption of teeth or early life:

1. Deciduous teeth/milk teeth/temporary teeth.

2. Permanent teeth.
1. Deciduous teeth: The is a temporary set of both and is replaced by
permanent set. These milk teeth are found at birth or within two weeks after
birth.
2. Permanent teeth: The eruption of permanent teeth starts from the age of one
year and become completed by 3 to 4 years.

“Dental formula”

1) ox:

In deciduous

In permanent

2) Horse:

In deciduous

In permanent

3) Dog:

In deciduous

In permanent

“Pharynx”
The pharynx is a muscular membranous sac which belongs to the digestive and
reparatory tract in common. It is some what funnel shape. The large anterior part
joining the mouth at nasal cavity while. The small end is continued by the
esophagus. The pharynx is attached by it’s muscles to the palatine pterigoid and
hyoid cartilages of the larynx.

It principal relations are dorsally the base of the cranium and the guttural pouches
ventrally the larynx, laterally the pterigoid muscle, the great cornice of the hyoid
bone, external carotid and external maxillary arteries, gloss pharyngeal and hypo-
glossul nerves and the mandibular salivary gland.

Opening of the pharynx: There are seven openings are present in the cavity of
pharynx.

1. Poster nares or choanae (2 in number): It communicates dorsally to the nasal

cavity.
2. Pharyngeal orifices of the two Eustachian tubes: Situated on the lateral wall
behind the posterior navies just below the level to the ventral nasal meat us.
3. The isthmus: Is the oral opening. It is closed by the soft palate except during
small owing.
4. The additus laryngis: Occupies the greater part of ventral wall of pharynx. It
is open except during deglutition.
5. additus csphagi: The entrance to the esophag us.

Muscles of the pharynx:

1. The style-pharynges.
2. Palato pharynges.
3. The pterigo- pharynges. karate pharynges.
4. Hyo- pharynges. condor pharynges.
5. The thyro pharynges
6. Crico- pharynges. Constrictor of the pharynges.

Blood supply: carotid, occipital and external maxillary arteries.

Nerve supply: From 9th and 10th nerves and superior cervical ganglio.
Naso-pharynx: The dorsal part of the pharynx above the soft palate is known as
naso-pharynx.

Choarae: The choarae are separated dorsally by the crest of vomar.

Oro-pharynx: The part of the pharynx between the soft palate and the root of the
tongue is known as oro-pharynx.

“Peritoneum”

Definition: The connecting folds of visceral peritoneum are known as mesentery,

Omentum and ligament according to their disposition. They help in transmitting
the vessels and nerves to and from the organ.

Omentum: The fold of peritoneum which is attached to the stomach is known as

omentum. There are two portion of the omentum.

a) Greater omentum.
b) Lesser omentum.
a) Greater omentum: The fold of omentum which connects the greater
curvature of the stomach to the dorsal abdominal wall is termed greater
omentum.
b) Lesser omentum: The fold which connects the lesser curvature of the
stomach to the liver is known as lesser omentum.

Mesentery: The fold of peritoneum which is incited around the wall of the
intestine and attaches the intestine to the dorsal wall of the abdomen is known as
mesentery.

Ligament: Ligaments are the peritoneal folds which pass between the viscera and
are connected which abdominal wall.

Pelvic peritonium: Pelvic peritoneum is continuous with the abdominal

peritonium. It lines the pelvic cavity and reflects the viscera.

Mesorectum: The peritoneal fold which connects the rectum with roof of the
pelvic cavity.
It between the bladder and rectum there is a transverse fold of peritonium which is
attached to the lateral wall of the pelvic cavity is known as genital fold. In male
this ligament encloses vas-deferens and uterus masculine’s. In female this
transverse fold encloses the uterus and fallopian tubes. This ligaments in female is
known broad ligament. The bladder is connected with floor of the pelvic cavity by
middle ligament of bladder.

Functions of peritoneum:

1. It provides slippery surface of free movement of abdominal viscera.

2. The phagocyte cells of peritoneum guard the viscera against infection.
3. The mesothelium absorb fluid and solutes as it acts as a semi permeable
membrane.
4. It helps in healing and admission by trans formation of mesotheliam into
fibroblasts.
5. It acts as storage of fat.

“The stomach”

The ruminant stomach is very capacious. Nearly three fourth of the abdominal
cavity is occupied by stomach. The fill up the whole of the left half and a part of
the right half of the abdomen. In the left side a small part is left by the stomach for
the accommodation of spleen and a portion of intestine.

It has four parts:-

1) Rumen.
2) Reticulum.
3) Omasum.
4) Abomasum.
1. Rumen:

Location: Rumen is situated in the abdominal cavity from the level of 8 th rib to the
pelvic inlet. It occupies most part of the left half and the small part of right half of
the cavity. It has two surfaces, two borders and two ends.
Surfaces:

The surfaces are two types:-

i. Parietal surface.
ii. Visceral surface.
1. Parietal surface: The parietal surface is convex and related to left
abdominal wall diaphragm and spleen. This surface presents left longitudinal
groove.
2. Visceral surface: This surface related to a number of structures, such as-
omasum, abomasaum, liver, intestine, pancreas, lent kidney, adrenal gland,
aorta, posterior venacava etc. This surface presents right longitudinal groove
divided into a donsal and a ventral branch. They usually enclose an
elongated swelling, termed. Insula ruminis.

Borders:

The borders are two types:

1) Dorsal border.
2) Ventral border.
1. Dorsal border: Dorsal border is convex and related to crura of diaphragm
and sub-lumber muscle. This curvature is attached to them by peritoneum
and connective tissue.
2. Ventral border: The ventral border is also comer and related to the floor of
the abdominal cavity.

Ends:

a) Cranial end: The cranial end is divided into two blind sacs by racial
transverse groove. This end is related to the diaphragm. However the dorsal
sac of this end is related and connected to reticulum.
b) Cauelal end: The caudal end is also divided into two blind sacs. by the
caudal transverse groove. This end is reacted to intestine and bladder.

The cavity of the rumen is incompletely divided into a dorsal and a ventral sac.
The longitudinal grooves (left and right) and the trans verse removes (cranial and
caudal) to get her make the outer demarcations between the two sac s. The caudal
and caudal- ventral blind sacs are separated from their original sacs by corers
pending dorsal and ventral coronary grooves. The coronary grooves are prominent
on both parietal and visceral surfaces. Romano-Reticular groove is the eternal
demarcation of the said junction at the cranial end. Here rumen and reticulum from
the atrium ventriculi a done shaped area, on which esophagus joints the stomach.

The inter surfaceof the ruminal wall has a number of infolding two from shelt like
projection which are strengthened by additional muscle fiber. This are known as
pillars. The mucus membrane is heavily studded with large variety of papillae
except at the edges of pillars.

“Retlculum”

It is pyriform sac is the smallest of all other compartments and situated between
the diaphragm and liver and dorsal sac of rumen and omasum behind. It has two
surfaces, two curvatures and two ends.

Surfaces:

The surfaces are two types:

1. Parietal surfaces.
2. Visceral surface.
1) Parietal surfaces: This surface is convert and related to diaphragm and liver.
2) Visceral surface: This surface is related to Diaphragm.

Borders: The borders are two types:-

1. Dorsal border.
2. Ventral border.
i) Dorsal border: The lesser curvature is placed at the rigut dorsal aspect
and is joined with omasam.
ii) Ventral border: The greater curvature is the left ventral border situated at
the level of 7th rib and related to diaphragm.
“Omasum”

Omasum is roughlly oval in shape and laterally compressed. It is situated between

at the level 7th and 11th rib at the right side of the median plane.

This is two surfaces:-

1) Parietal surface.
2) Visceral surface.
1) Parietal surface: The parietal surface or right surface is related to diaphragm
and liver.
2) Visceral surface: The visceral or left surface is related to rumen, reticulum
and abomasums. The later structure of omasum is leaf-like projections in
appearance. There are about 100 Crescent shape folds (laminae) occupying
the cavity of the omasum. The folds are of four or five varieties, arranged
one after another in a chronological manner as shown in diagram. The
largest variety of folds are about 12 in number. They are attached to the wall
of the organ with their greater curvatures. The lesser curvatures remain free.
The surfaces are studded with numerous papillae.

“Abomasum”

It is the true stomach and elongated secular in shape. The abomasums has a
glandular mucous membrane and hence the popularly termed the true stomach. The
abomasums has two parts.

1. Funds and
2. Pylorric.

These are separated in completely by a constriction.

1. Funds and: It is extended along the length of the body and related to the
ventral sac of rumen, reticulum and omasum. It is placed at the xiphoid
region. The right lateral surface is related to liver.
2. Pyloric part: It turns upward along the caudal border of omasum and
becomes continuous with the duodenum. The parietal surface is related to
 the abdominal floor and the visceral surface is related to the rumen and
omasum.

The body is placed more towards the left side of the median plane. The greater and
lesser curvatures are attached to the greater omentum and lesser omentum respect

It the interior of the abomasum three glandular areas are seen. It continuous gastric
gland termed the glandular part.

Cardiac gland: Cardiac gland present in a narrow zone closed the omasum-
abomasum orifices.

Fundic and pyloric gland: These are found at the respect zones of the abomasum.

There are about 12 oblique folds witling the funds which are extended from the
abomasums groove to the greater curvature of the organ.

The mucous membrane of pyloric part is devoid of any fold but wrinkled in
appearance.

The circular muscle fiber of the wall come very thick at the junction between
duodenum and pylorus to form the pyloric sphincter. The circular fold which
covers the pyloric is termed as sphincter is termed as pyloric vale.

Blood supply: Branches of cilice artery. The arterial branches are left ruminal,
right ruminal, roticular, omasom-abomasal and branch of hepatic artery.

Nerve supply: The branches of vegus and sympathetic nerve.

“Intestine”

Intestine is a very long tube which begins at the pyloric end of stomach and
terminates of the anus. Most of it’s parts situated in the right side of the abdominal
cavity.

It is divided into following parts:-

Intestine

Small intestine Large intestine

Duodenum Jejunum Ileum Cecum Colon Rectum

Ascending colon Transverse colon Descending colon

Pratimal loop Spiral loop Distal loop

Centripetal cooil Central flexure Centrifugal coil

1. Small intestine: The total length of the small and large intestines is about 25
times the length of the body in the sheep and goat. The small intestine has an
average length of 25cm in the sheep and goal. The average diameter is about
2 to 3cm in the sheep and goat.

Duodenum: The duodenum is about 1m in length. Beginning at the pylorus

passes dorsally and caudally at the visceral surface of liver and presents as to
shaped curve. The descending part rums dorso-caudally almost to the tuber coxae.

The common bile duct enters the secound curve of the sigmoid a about 0.25 to 40
cm in goat. The orific of the bile and pancreatic duet’s are on papillae or thick
folds.

Jejunum: The jejunum forms numerous close coils attached in a feston around the
border of the mesentery caudally just before it joins the ileum it is prolonged by a
U-shaped series of loops on an extension of the mesentery. The jejunum usually
lies in the supra-mental recess caudal and to the left of the ventral sac of the rumen.

Ileum: The ileum is defined as the terminal pant of the small intestine from the
free edge of the ileocecal fold to the ileocecal orifice. It cranial part is adherent to
the cecum and colon obliquely on the medial surface.

Large intestine: The large intestine is for most of it’s length on greater in diameter
than the small intestine. It has no longitudinal sacculations with the exception of
the free end of cesium the large intestine lies in the supra-supra-mental recess with
the small intestine.
Cecum: The cecum has an average length of 30cm and diameter of 8cm in the
goat. The avcrage capacity is about 1.5L in the small ruminarfs. At the junction of
the ileum with the large intestine the cecum is directly continuous cranially with
the colon. It’s rounded blind end. Commonly lies at the right side of the pelvic
inlet. Dorsally cesium is attached by a short cecocolic fold to proximal loop of the
ileum.

Colon: The colon of the goat is about 4 to 5m in length and it’s diameter
decreases from 8 to 2cm. The terminology of the colon is as follow:-

1. Ascending colon.
a) Proximal loop.
b) Spiral loop.
Centripetal coils.
Centripetal coils.
Centrifugal coils.
c) Distal loop.
2. Trans verse colon.
3. Descending colon.
The proximal loop begins as the discontinuation of the cesium at the
ileoceco orifice, runs forward 5 to 10cm to a point opposite the ventral part
of the last two ribs. It then tarns ventrally and is continued by the first centri-
petal gyros of the spiral loop. In goat the spiral loop is more variable but
there are usually three centripetal and three centrifugal turns. The distal
loops proceeds from the last centrifugal gurus dorsally and is continous with
the short transverse colon. The descending colon runs caudally dorsal to the
ascending duodenum in clines to the right under the right kidney forms a
slight sigmoid flexure near the pelvic inlet and joins the rectum.

Rectum: The rectum consist of a cranial part largely covered by peritoneum and a
wider retro-peritoneal part, the ampalla recti.A short mesorectum. The constriction
and dilatation’s some times seen in fired specimens of the recfus are caused by
variable contraction rings. The muscular coat is thicker than that of colon. The
sphincter ani-enternus is a terminal thickening of the inner circular layer of smooth
muscle. The mucous membrane of the rectum contains intestinal gland. The anal
canal is short and smooth.
“Salivary gland”

There are three pairs of salivary glands:-

1. Parotid gland.
2. Mandibular gland.
3. Sub-lingual gland.
1) Parotid gland: It is triangular long reddish brown gland situated on the
massater muscle along the caudal border of the vertical part of the ramus of
mandible. Average weight is about 100gm. Dorsal end is broad and placed
close to the base of the ear. Ventral end is narrow and directed in front. The
lateral surface is related to zygometaco-auricularis muscle at the base and
parotido-auricularis muscle along the vertical length. The medial surface is
related to parotid lymph gland, stylohyoid bone massater, occipito-hyoideus
and digastrics muscles, external carotid artery, external jugular vein and
superficial temporal nerve.

Blood supply: From external carotid.

Nerrseucpply: From Gloss pharyngeal, facial and sympathetic.

2. Mandibular gland: It is an elongated pale yellow ovulated gland situated

along the medial side of the angle of the mandible. It is longer than parotid
and extends from the level of the wings of atlas to the basihyoid at the
intermandibular space. It weighs about 130 to 150gms. Lateral surface is
related to parotid gland, maxillary is related to parotidgland, maxillary and
facial vein’s lymph nodes, sterno-mandibularis muscle and the angle of the
mandible. The medial surface is related to lymph nodes pharynx, larynx,
carotid artery and loth, 11th and 12th crarial nerves.

Blood supply: Branches of facial and lingual arteries.

Nerve supply: Branch of 7th cranial nerve and from sympathetic.

3. Sub-lingual glands: There are two separate parts in each gland—

a) The superior (Polystomatic).
b) The in fervor (Monostomatic)
 a) The superior: The wuperior is a lobulated pale yellow gland situated under
the mucous membrane of the floor to the mouth and extends from the
mandibular symphysis to the palato glossal arch. Laterally it is related to
mylohyoidevs muscle and medially to stylo-glossys and genioglossus
muscles.
b) The in fervor: The inferior is a pink coloured gland extended from the
mandibular symphy sis to the level of the last pre-molar tooth. It is thicken
and shorter than the superior gland and is situated belowit.

Blood supply: Branch of sub-lingual artery.

Nerve supply: Branches of 7th and 5th cranial nerves.s

“Pancreas”

It is a soft gland situated mostly at the right side of the median plane and is
attached to the mesentery. The cooler of the gland is reddish yellow and the weight
is about 35 to 500gm. It is flat and irregularly quadrilateral in shape and has two
surfaces and four borders. Dorsal surface is attached to diaphragm and liver and
mostly covered by peritoneum. Other that liver and curare of diaphragm, this
surface is related to rigout kidney, abdominal venacava and celiac and mesenteric
arteries. The ventral surface is related to dorsal sac of rumen, colon ,hepatic artery,
portal vein and some lymph flans glands. The borders are anterior, posterior lateral
and medial. Left border is placed to some extent parallel to the duodenum.

Blood supply: Branches of celiac, hepatic and ruminal arteries.

Nerve supply: From celiaco-mesenteric plexus.

“Spleen”

Spleen is a hemo-lymph organ situated obliquely downward and forward direction

in the upper end and left part of the abdomen between the left face of the ramen
and diaphragm. It filtens bood and lymph. The organ forms erythrocytes in fetal
life and lymphocytes after birth.

It presents two ends two surfaces and two borders.

Both the ends are thin and rounded. The dorsal end is situated below the peroxide
end of two left ribs and the ventral end is usually situated below the lower third of
8th and 9th ribs. The position of the ventral end is variable.

Blood supply: Splenic artery.

Nerve supply: From splenic plexus.

Function of spleen:

1. Phagocytosis.
2. Haemopoieses.
3. Immune response. and
4. Storage of RBC.

“Lungs”

Lungs are a pair of main organ of respiration. They occupy most parts of the
thoracic cavity and are separated by mediastinum. Each lang invaginates into the
corresponding pleural cavity and is invested intimatoly by the visceral layer of
pleura except at the hilar area. It is pigk in fesh condition. The organ is sot and
spongy in appearance. It crepitates to the touch and floats on water. In still-born
calf lung ftssve is solid and does not float on water because it did not breath earlier.
Each lung is conical in shape divided into lobes by fissures and presents two
surfaces two borders a base and an apex. The right lung is bigger than the left.

urogenital system: The uro-genital apparatus includes two groups of roans.

The urinary organs.

The genital.

The urinary organs elaborate and remove the chief excretory fluid, the urine.

The genital organs serve for the formation, development and expulsion of the
products of the reproductive.

It the higher independent except of the terminal part, which constitutes a urogenital
tract and includes.
 The vulva in the female and

The greater part of the urethra in male.

Excretory organs in the body are:-

1. The kidney.
2. The lungs.
3. The alimentary trach and
4. The skin.

“Urinary organs/system”

The system excretes waste products from blood and maintain it’s constant
alkalinity and chemical composition.

The organs of this system are:-

1. The two kidneys. (Right and left).

2. The two ureters. (one from each kidney)
3. One urinary bladder.
4. The urethra.

“Kidney”

The kidneys are the glands which secrate the urine they are red-brown in color and
are situated against the dorsal wall of the abdomen being in most animals almost
symmetrically placed on either side of the spine.

Functions:

1. It produces urine.
2. Elimination of wash products of metabolism.
3. Maintenance of acid-base balance.
4. Regulation of body salt contents.
5. Removal of non-volatile for Eigen substances if any.

Note: Kidneys are embedded in a large amount of renal fat termed the capsule
aeliposa weight 600-700gm.
The left kidney is one or two inches shorter bat it’s posterior part is much thicker
than the right one.

“In ox” (kidney)

The kidneys are paired ovulated oval or bean shaped glands-right and left, situated
at the upper cranial part of the abdominal cavity and above peritoneum.
Superficially each kidney is divided into a number of lobes by fissures which
remain filled up by fat.

Location: The right kidney lies ventral to the last rib and first two or three lumbar
transverse processes.

The left kidney: It is variable in position. When the rumen is full it is placed below
and behind the right kidney at the level of the bodies of 3 rd/ 4th and 5th lumbar
vertebrae.

When the rumen is not full it remains at the same level but partly at the left side of
the median plane.

Factors of keeping the kidneys in position are-

1. Renal vessels and urethra of the kidneys attached to the haulm.

2. Distribution of renal fat and disposition of renal fascia.
3. Pressure excreted by the surrounding viscera.

Right kidney:

Location: The right kidney is roughly been shaped. It has an elongated elliptical
oat line and is flattened dorso-ventrally.
Right kidney present for description:

Dorsal.

Two surfaces

Ventral.

Medial

Two borders

Lateral

Anterior (Cranial)

Two extremities/ends

Posterior (caudal)

The dorsal surface is rounded convex and remain in contract to the sub-lumbar
muscles.

The dorsal surface is rounded convex and is related to the liver, pancreas,
duodenum and colon.

The tithilus is situated on the anterior part (cereal) of this surface near the medial
border.

The medial border: The medial border is straight and placed parallel to the
abdominal venacava. The lateral border is convex.

The anterior extremely (cranial and) occupies the renal impression of the liver and
is [capped by the adrenal body] also remains in contract with the right adrenal
gland.

The posterior extremity (caudal end) is free and rounded.

Left kidney:

It has Dorsal

Three surfaces Ventral

Ruminal

Medial

Three borders Lateral

Ventral

Cranial end

Two ends

Caudal ends

The dorsal surface is convex and presents the holus it’s cranial part. Ventral
surface is convex and related to intestine. The ruminal surface is flat and remains is
contact with the rumen.

The ventral border is in between ruminal and ventral surfaces and is convex.
Lateral border is in between the ruminal and dorsal surfaces and is slightly convex.

The medial border is in between the dorsal and ventral surfaces (convex).

The Anterior extremity is small and the posterior is large and rounded.

Cortex: Reddish brown in colour and is granular. It is butted with minute kark
points the renal corpuscles.

Medulla: Presents distinct radial striation. Its central part is pals but the periphery
(the intermediate zone) is deep red-colour.

The main medullary mass consists of 8-18 medullary pyramid. The broad base of
each pyramid is in contact with the cortex and the rounded apex projects into the
minor calyx.
Asa result two or sometimes three pyramides unite to form a single papilla. The top
of the papillary surface presents a serve like appearance.

The area cribrosa, as a result of the presence of 20 to 25 foramina papillary which

are the opening of the uriniterous duet.

The renal pelvis divides into 2 to 3 major calyx and these these divides into 8-14
minor – calyx. Each minor calyx has an expanded area which in indented by renal
papilla.

Note: Renal pelvis absent in ox, sheep/goat, present in horse.

Cortex composed of :-

Convoluted portion’s of renal tubules.

Blood vessels.

lymphatic’s and connective tissue.

Point distributed through out the cortex composed of-

Bowman’s capsule.

Glomerular tuft of bold vessels.

Fixation: The kidneys are held in position chiefly by the presence of adjacent
organs and by the renal fasscia.

Blood supply: Renal arteries arise directly from the abdominal aorta.

Nerve supply: From renal plexces.

Horse: Right kidney heart shaped and the left kidey is bean shaped.

Doge: Both the kidney’s are bean shaped.

“Ureters”

The ureter is the narrow part of the excretery duet of the kidney. [Each begins at
the renal pelvis and terminates at the bladder]
Right ureter originates from hilus at the ventral urface of the right kidney. Left
ureter originates from the hilus of the left kidney at the cranial part of the dorsal
surface.

Each ureter has two part e.g. Abdominal part and pelvic part.

The abdominal part of each ureter emergec ventrally from the hiluus of the kidney
and curves backword and medially toward the lateral, face of the posterior vanacva
(right side) or the abdominal aorta (right side) and enter the pelvic cavity.

The pelvic part passes back word and a little ventrally on the lateral wall of the
pelvic cavity turns medially and pierces the dorsal wall of the bladder near the
neck.

In the male the pelvic part enters the genital fold and crosses the ducts deferens.

In the female the urethra is situated in most of it’s worse in the dorsal part of the
brood ligament of the uterus.

wrinary bladder: It is thick walled muscular sac serves as reservoir for urine.

The shape and size depends upon the amount of urine it contains.

When empty it remains completely in a contracted condition on the floor of the

pelvic cavity.

It becomes oval in form and get’s projected to the abdomen in distended condition.

The cranial rounded blind end is termed the vertex on it’s middle is a mass of
cicatricial tissue, a vestige to the urchins which was the communication between
the fetal and bladder and the allantoids.

Relation: The relation’s of the bladder very according to the degree of fullness of
the organ and also differ in important respects in the two sexes.

The ventral surface is flat in both the sexes and related to the floor of the pelvic
and abdominal cavities in distended condition.
The dorsal surface in the male is related to

The terminal the genital fold.

The terminal parts of the ducts deferens.

The seminal vesicle.

The prostate.

In the female: It is contract with the body to the aterus and ventral surface of
vagina. The verfer of the full bladder has variable relations with coils of the small
intestine, small colon and left parts of the large colon. Urinary bladder is
continuous with the urethra.

Fixation: The urinary bladder is fixed in position by the three peritoneal folds
termed the middle and lateral ligament.

Middle ligament: A peritoneal fold extends from the ventral surface of the bladder
to the ventral wall of the pelvis and abdomen..

In the new-born animal it is extensive and reaches to the umbilicus in the adult, it
is usually much reduced in the length.

The lateral ligament: They connect the lateral aspects of the bladder to the lateral
pelvic wall. Each contains in it’s free edge a round, firm band the round ligament.

The Renal ligament: This is the fetal remnant of the large fetal umbilical artery.

The retro-peritoneal part of the bladder is attached to the surrounding parts by

100sc connective tissue, in apish there is a quantity of fat.

It is evident that the posterior part of the bladder has a definite fixed position while
it’s anterior part is movable.

“Male genital system”

The organs of male genital system are-testicle, vasdeferenss, urethra and penis.
Accessory sex glands. The testicles are suspended in the scrotum by spermatic
cord.
 1. Testes (testicles): The essential reproductive gland which are suspended in a
vertical direction by spermatic cords and are housed in the serotum.
2. Epididymis: Temporary store hoves of spermatozoa and consists of.
i) Head
ii) Body
iii) Tail

Blood supply: Branch of spermatic artery.

Nerve supply: From of spermatic plexus.

3. Ductus defferens/ vas defferens: It propels of the spermatozoa from the

epididymis to the ejaculatory duet in the pelvic urethra.

Blood supply: Branch of urogenital artery which is detached from internal iliac
artery, supply the ampoulle.

Nerve supply: From pelvic plexus.

4. Male urethra: In a canal which transmit the generative semen and urinary
(urine) secretion. It serves as a common passage for urine and semen.
5. Penis: In the male copulatory organ composed mainly erectile tissae.
 Accessory organs:-
i. Seminal vesicle (Paired)
ii. The prostate gland. (single)
iii. Bulbo-urethral gland. (vowpers gland)

“Male genital system”

Scrotum: It is a diverticulum of the skin in which testicles and situated globular in

form the wall of the scrotum has the following layers from outside inwards-

i) The skin: The skin is smooth and covered by small hair.

ii) The dartos: The layer is made up of sub-cutaneous muscle and fibro elastic
tissves. In the skin corrugations are developed due to constriction of this
muscular layer.
 Spermatic fascia

iii) The scrotal fascia

infundibulate form the fascia
iv) The parietal layer of vaginal tunic which is continuous with the parietal
peritoneum of the abdomen of the internal inguinal ring.

Fig. Different layers of the scrotum.

To maintain temperature by thermo regulatory mechanism, the testicles of

mammals become closely adhere to the abdominal wall. The thermoregulatory
mechanism consists to-

i) Dortos.
ii) Cremaster muscle.
iii) Rampani form plexus.

When the scrotum is relaxed and flaccid the testicle is gone to the normal position
from the body cavity.

Blood supply: External pudendal artery and vein.

Nere suppl: Ventral branchs of the 2nd and 3rd lumbar nerves.

General Animal Science: It is a branch of science which refers to the total store of
basic knowledge of animal in relation of feeding, housing, care and management
and the marketing & processing of animal & it is products to acquire scientific
knowledge through practical experience & resecich methed.

Animal Science: it is a branch of Seinee which refers to the total store of

knowledge of animal in relation of feeding, breeding, housing, care and
management and the marketing &processing of animal & it’s products to acquire
scientific know ledge through practical experience & resecich method.

Animal hubandry:- It is a branch of agricultural science which deals with the

feeding, breeding, housing, care and processing of animals and it’s product’s and
by products.

1 milk Sweet
2 Types of Animal Livestock
Animal
Poultry
Livestock: Livestock are those species of animals which are domesticated &
populated under human condition & which have some economic importance to
human.

Poultry: Poultry are those species of birds which are domesticated & populated
under human condition & which have some economic to human.

Eg:- chicken, duck, pigeon, ostrich, quail,

Terminology of various meat:

meat of cattle Beef

meat of sheep Mutton

meat of Goat chevron

meat of Pig Pork

meat of Buffalo Buffen

meat of Deer Version

meat of calf (under 3 moth old) Veal

meat of chicken chicken

meat of Ratite

Terminology of Goat:

Back An adult uncast rated male good used for breeding purpose

Doe An adult female goat used for breeding purpose.

Kid A young goad of either sex not exceeding one year.

Buckling A male goat over one year but below two years old.

Gatling A female goat over one year but below two years old.
Welter/Wedge An adult castrated male goat.

Terminology of sheep:

Ram/Tap An adult uneastrated male sheep used for breeding purpose .

Ewe An adult female sheep used for breeding purpose.

Lamb A young sheep of either sex not exceeding ore year.

Welter/Wedge An adult cas trated male sheep.

Saggy A ram castrated after service.

Gimmer A female sheep between first and second shearing.

Yeld A femal sheep which has not been lambing.

Crone An old broken mouthed ewe which has been retained in a breeding
flock for breeding per pose beyond the normal time because of her excellent
breeding performance.

Jamunapari Grot:

Origin: Between Ganges, Jamuna & Chambal river in Etwah district in hilly area
of utter prudish in Jndia.

Synonym: “Ram Chagol”

Color: Gray, Black, White, Fawn of mixed.

Body weight: Average 58-85 kg.

Leges: Long.

Horn: Short & flat.

Ear: Long & pendulous (25-31 cm).

Udder: Long & well developed.

Height: 70-100 cm.

Skin: Medium quality.

Milk production: 1-3 litter/bay, Mazimum-4.4 litter/day.

Purpose: Milk + Meat.

Prolificacy: Two.

Based on wool, sheep bread is divided in to 6 types:

i) Fine wool type Merino, Rambuillet, Saxony.

ii) Medium wool type Hampshire, Ax ford, Suffolk.
iii) Crossbred wool type Columbia, Panama, Targhee.
iv) Long wool type Leicester, Lincoln, Romney, Manish.
v) Carpet wool type Black faced, Highland, Lahi.
vi) Fur wool type Karakul.

Me Rsa. Haos: K‡i Zvi eÜyi Rb¨ Copta ‰Zix Ki‡jv Ges eÜz Lelir ‡K Avm‡Z
e‡jv| eÜz G‡m hLb †L‡Z em‡e ZLb †m wUwf Ab Ki‡jv| wPwf †P‡bjwU wQj
BHL| gvikv hLb †L‡Z w`j ZLb †m fve‡jv GUv wK‡mi gvsm| Avi ZLbB weGPGj
†P‡b‡j †KvcvZv ‰Zix Kiivi Abyôvb nw”Qj Ges †mB †KvcvZv Karakul Gi
‰Zix wQj| G‡Z Zvi m‡Ün `~i nj|

Characteristics of merino sheep:

Origin : Spain

Introduce: USA

Distribution: Many country of fine wool producing General description:

 Face & legs are white.

 Skin pink color.
 Have skin fold.

Based on skin fold it is divided into 3 types:

i) Type-A
ii) Type-B
iii) Type-C
Type-A Type-B Type-C
(1)Smallest in size (1)Medium in size (1)Largest in size
(2)Greatest development of (2)Poorest development of (2) No skin fold.
skin fold. skin fold.
The skin fold development Mainly at the neck region.
from head to dock
(3)Ewe-weight-40-60 kg (3) Ewe-weight 45-65 kg (3) Ewe-weight 50-70 kg
Ram weight 65-75 kg Ram weight 70-80 kg Ram weight 70-90 kg
Utily: Meat & wool porpoise.
Ewe yield 3-10 kg wool/year.
Ram yield 7-15 kg wool/year.
Wool staple length 5-10 cm.
Wool Inness 10-25 micron.
Different of Holstein Friesian & Shahiwal
Point Holstein Friesiam Shahiwal
origin North Holland &west Friesland Punyab of india
Color Black, White & Mixed Reddish brown
Cow weight 545 kg 409 kg
Bull weight 818 kg 590 kg
Calf-weight 40 kg 22-24 kg
Udder Well developed & pendulous Moderately develop
Milk production 8545 kg/cycle 4660 kg/cycle
Milk fat% 3.5% 5.1%

Terminology of cattle:

Cow A female cattle which has one or more calves or has reached the stage of
advanced pregnancy.

Bull An uncast rated male cattle over two years old used for breeding
purpose.

Calf A young cattle of cither sex below one year’s old.

Bull calf A young cattle of male sex below one year’s old.

Heifer calf A young cattle of female sex below one years old.

Heifer A female cattle over one year below two year, which has no reached
the stage of pregnancy.
Yearling bull An uncast rated male cattle over one years below two
years old.

Stud bull A castrated male cattle which has been castrated before sexual
maturity.

Bullock/ Stag A castrated male cattle which has been castrated after sexual
maturity.

Biller A female cattle over two years old apparently always in oestrus but no
cloves.

Free martin When twin calves of different sexes are born the male calf is
normal but the female calf is sterile & the external genital calf is known as free
martin.

Terminology of Horse:

Mare An adult female horse use for breeding purpose.

Stallion An adult uncast rated male horse use for breeding purpose.

Foal A young horse of female sex below one years old.

Filly foal A young horse of female sex below one years old.

Colt foal A young horse of male sex below one years old.

Filly A young horse of female sex over one year.

Colt A young horse of male sex over one years.

Year ling filly A female horse over one year below two years.

Year ling colt A male horse over one year below two years.

Gelding A castrated male horse of any age.

Stag A castrated male horse which has been castrated after sexual maturity.

Rig/Crypt orchid A male horse in which one testicle remain in the abdomen
then it is called Rig/crypt orchid.
Double rig A male horse in which both testes remain in the abdomen then it is
called Double rig.

Mule A hybrid animal whose mother is mare and father is donkey.

Jennet/Hinny A hybrid animal whose mother is donkey and father is stallion.

Grooming

Grooming is the process of rubbing the external covering of the body of the
animals, so as to removed the waste products and to stimulate the circulation of
cetaceous blood and lymph.

Objectives of Grooming:-

i) To remove the waste products such as skin secretion. Scurf and loose
hairs. Vegetable matters etc.
ii) To increase the circulation of coetaneous blood.
iii) To remove the external parasites. e.g- Tick, lice, mite.
iv) To prepared animal for show.
v) To produce good and clean milk.
vi) To distribute subcutaneous fat all over the body of animal.
vii) To prevent the disease of hair ball.

Tools required for grooming:

i) Body brush.
ii) Dandy brush.
iii) Curry comb.
iv) Wisp.
v) Mane comb.
vi) Hoof picker.
vii) cloth and spurge.

Process of Grooming:
 i) Quarterly.
ii) Use of dandy brush.
iii) Use of body brush.
iv) Use of carry comb.
v) Use of wisp.
vi) Use of hoot picker.
vii) Use of cloth and sponge.

Time of Grooming:

i) Horse: 6 am to 10 am.
ii) Cattle: 7 am to 10 am.
iii) Dairy cow: 2 hours before milking.
1. a) Define General Animal Science & Animal Husbandry. General
Animal science: It is the branch of science which refers to the total store of
basic knowledge of animal in relation of feeding, Breeding, Housing care
and management and the marketing and processing of animal and it’s
products to acquire scientific knowledge through practical experience and
resecich methed.
Animal Husbandry: It is a branch of agricultural science which deals with
the feeding, breeding, and processing of animals and it’s product’s and by
product’s.
milk Sweet.
b) Write the zoological classification of cattle.
Kingdom: Airmail.
Phylum: Chordate.
Class: Mammalian.
Order: Artiodactyls.
Family: Bovina.
Genus: Boos (cattle)
Ovis (Sheep)
Capra (Goat)
Species: Boos tauras
Boos indicus
Ovis aries
Capra hircus
 C) Briefly describe the importance of livestock in Bangladesh.

1. As a source of food: We get milk, meat and egg from livestock. Milk is used for
the preparation of ghee, butter, sweet, Doha tec. Half of the food we get from
livestock.

2. As a source of cloths: We get hide and skin from livestock. Finally hide and skin
convertated in to leather. These leather re used for making of shoes, suitcase,
button, football, footwear’s etc.

3. As a source of power: 80% land is cultivated through livestock. Livestock is also

used sugar cane crushing, threshing of maize, wheat, rice etc and for the purpose of
transportation.

4. As a source of recreation: Livestock is a great source of recreation. for example,

 Bull racing
 Horse racing
 Bull fighting
 Cock fighting
 pet animal (cat, Dog)
 Zoo-animal (Tiger. Lion. Monkey)

5. As a source of medicine and vaccine: Some animals glands, some organs are
used for the preparation of medicine and vaccine.

6. As a source of industrial raw materials: Hide, blood, bone, skin, are used as
industrial row materials.

7. As a source of income and employment: Land les farmer and women can earm
many throw rearing of livestock.

8. As a source of foreign exchange: We can ear foreign for eign money by

exporting skin, hid, leather.

9. As a source of manure and fuel: we get dang and ruing from livestock. These are
used as manure for the fertility of land. Biogas is also produced from dung which
is used as fuel.

10. We can use the inedible part of livestock body, as to concord the edible food.
 a) sine stud bull, veal, venison, chevron & Crypt orchid (oc-17)

Stud bull A castrated male cattle which has been castrated before sexual
maturity.

Veal Meat of calf (under 3 moth old).

Venison Meat of Deer.

Chevron Meat of Good.

Crypt orchid/Rig A male horse is which one testicle remain in the abdomen
then it is called R/C.

b) What are the common vices of an animal.

1. Weaving (moves to & fro for its nervous habit)

2. Crib-biting (Horse swallows air)
3. Biting
4. Gnawing the wall.
5. Sleeping the wall.
6. Sleeping when standing.
7. Catching the stable.
8. Air suckling.
9. Eating own dropping.
10. Eating dung and urine.
11.Shying
12.Thinning the clothing
13.Jibbing in harness (Refuses to move for wards)
2. (c) Differentiate between Bosstaurus & Bos indicus.

Point Boss Taurus boss indices

1.Hump Absent Present
2.Ear Rounded Dropping
3.Head short wide Long & narrow
4.Skin Tight Very loose
5.Skin thickness Thick, 7-8mm Relativity thin (5-6)mm
6.Subcutu nous fat Large amount Small amount
7. Backline Relatively straight Relatively high at
 shoulder low behind
humid
8. Hip bone wide out standing Narrow & armillary
9. Hair fiber Non-modulated modulated
10. leg Short, Slow-moving longer, faster moving
11. Udder long. With flat sole More rounded with a
eurrc sole
12. Mike yield Good milk yield Poor milk yield.
14.Maturity Fast maturity full mount Slow maturity full mount
within years. 1
within 5 years.
2
3. a) Mention the important breeds of goal.
1. British Alpine- USA
2. Anglo Nubian- England-UK
3. Semen- Swigeraland
4. Toggenburg-Sui
5. Barbara- India & Pakistan
6. Beefal-India
7. Kamuri-Pakistan.
8. Bangal good- Bangladesh
9. Jamunapari –India
10. Damani-Pakistan
11. Angora- Sental china
12.Kashmiri- India

b) Briefly Describe the breed characteristics of bangle got.

Origin : Bengal, Asam and bangladesh.

Synoname : Black bangle goat.

Colar : Black, White, Gray or mixed.

Weight : Female-14 kg

male-15 kg

Leg : Short

Ear : short and upright.

Horn : Short and straight.

Udder : Small and poorly developed

Skin : good quality.

Milk Production: 0.4 liter day.

Prolificacy : Highly prolific, twice birth per years 2/4 kids/birth.

Utility : Meat and skin.

c) Enlist the sheep breeds based on wool production:

The re are divided into 6 types.

1. Fine wool type Merino, Rambouillet, Saxony.

2. Mdeium wool type Hampshire, Ax ford, Suffolk.
3. Long wool type Leicester, Lincoln, Rooney.
4. Crossbred wool type Columbia, Panama, Targhee.
5. Carpet wool type Black faced, Highland, loci.
6. Fur wool type Karakul.
4. a) What is breed?

A group of animal having common origin and possessing certain well fixed and
distinctive characteristics which are not common to other member of the same
species.

b) Classify the breeds of cattle with example.

Cattle breeds are divided into 4 type in Bangladesh.

1. Dairy type breed:

Jersey
Guensey
Ayrshire

Brown swiss
Holstein Friesian
Red shindi
 Shahiwal
Red chittagorg.
2. Beef type breeds?
Brahman
Angus
Brongus
Red Angus
Red Brongus
Devon
Beef master
Hereford
3. Draft type breeds?
Hariana
Amritmahal
Lohani
Dhanni
Angola
Ongle
Hallikar
4. Dual type breeds?
Dairy + Beef Red shindhi
Shahiwal
Milking shorthorn
Devon
Dairy + Draft Hariana
Tharparkar

C. Briefly describe the breed characteristics of Holstein Friesian.

Origin : North holand and west friesland

Color : Black/ White/ Mixed.

 Bull Weight : 818 kg

Cow Weight : 54 kg

Calf Weight : 40 kg

Udder : Well developed & pendulous

Milk production: 8545 kg/ 305 days

Milk fat : 3.5%

5. a) What is housing?
Housing: Housing means giving shelter to the animal.

b) What are the advantages of Face-in & face-out housing system.

Advantages of face-in housing system.

1. Easier to feed the animal.

2. Animal make a better showing for visitors when heads are
together.
3. Sun-raise shine in the gutter which this most needed to animal to
readies the spread diseases.
4. It is better for narrow barns.
5. The animal feed easier to enter into their barn an stall

Advantage of face-out housing system.

1. Easier in milking and cleaning of dairy cow.

2. less chance of spreading of disease from one animal to another.
3. Animal can always get more fresh outdoor air.
4. The supervisor can in speed a great number of milk man when
milking.
5. Any king of disease of the hind quarter can be detested easily.

C) Distinguish between River type and swamp type buffalo.

Point Swamp type buffalo River type buffalo

1.General Stocky type animal Massive type animal
Appearances Roundish shape Angular shape
 Ridge is smaller Ridge is longer
2.Horn Semi circular type Circular type
3.Mamory gland Poorly developed Well developed
4. Dark gray with white Dark gray or black
marking on the surface of Some type white marking
neck on the head
5.Maturity Late maturity after 3 yearsEarly maturity withn
2-3 years
6.Body weight Female: 400 kg Female: 650 kg
Male: 500 kg Male: 700 kg
7.Height Female: 130 cm Female: 135 cm
Male: 135 cm Male: 150cm
+ +
8.Gentation period 330 10 days 316 10 days
− −
9.Habitat Like to resident at marshy Like to resident river or
land pond
10.Utility Meat + Draft Milk + meat + Draft

6.a) What do you mean by feed stuffs.

The substances which are used to formulate rations are called feed stuffs.

b) Classify feed stuffs.

Feed Stuss

Roughage Concentrate Mineral Vitamin Feed

C) Narrate the care & management of farm animals.

 1. Proper ventilation in housing.

2. Proper sanitation and cleaning.

3. Disease control.

4. Maintaining proper feeding practices.

5. Suppline balanced ration.

6. Livirg Dry Matter and mineral to the animal.

7. Giving concentrate and protein supplement to the breeding and lactating

animal

8. The kind have to adlib tam colostrums milk.

9. Extra care shout be taken to prevent kid mortality.

10. To increase breeding efface envy heat detection in early in necessary.

11. Prevention of inbreeding.

12. Minting proper braechenation schedule.

13. Proper disease diagnosis.

14. Treatment of sick animal in proper time.

15. Proper disposal of carcass.

7. a) Cruelty to animal.

Animal cruelty can take Many different form. It is clues overt and intenional acts
of violence towards animal.

They maybe-

1. Torturing or beating of animal.

2. Confining.
3. Inappropriate way of transportation.
4. Inadequate feed supply.
5. Failure to provide appropriate living condition.
 6. Branding.
7. Castration.
8. Tail docking.
9. Ear docking.
10.Dehorning.
11.Ear notching.
12.Nose ringing.
13.Tattooing.
14.Teeth cutting.
15.Tusk training
16.Marking.
17.High stocking.

1 a) Define Animal science, Animal Husbandry, Poultry and livestock.

Animal Science: It is a branch of science which refers to the total of knowledge of

animal in relation of feeding, Breeding, housing care and management and the
marketing & management and the marketing & processing of animal and it’s
products to acquire scientific knowledge through practical experience and resecich
method.

Animal Husbandry: Page. No: 01 : Question No01 (a).

Poultry: Poultry are those species of birds which are domesticated and populated
under human condition and which have some economic importance to human.

Eg; Chiken, duck, pigeon, ortrich, quail.

Livestock: Livestock are those species of animals which are domesticated and
populated under human condition and which have some economic importance to
human.

b) Mention the population of livestock & poultry in Bangladesh.

c) Justify the economic importance of livestock in Bangladesh.

Page.No: 03; Question.No: 01(c).

2. a) What do you mean by veal, venison, staid bull & crypt orchid.
Page.No: 05; Question.No: 02(a).

b) Mention the breeds of dairy cow.

Dairy type breeds-

i) Jersey
ii) Guernsey
iii) Ayrshicre
iv) Brown swiss
v) Holstein Friesian
vi) Red shindi
vii) Shahiwal.

c) Briefly describe the breed characteristics of Holstein Friesian.

Page.No: 13; Question.No: 04(c).

3. a) Enumerate the important breeds of goat.

Page.No: 08; Question.No: 03(a).

b) Analyze the behavioral characteristics of Bengal Goat

Page.No: 09; Question.No: 03(b).

c) Narrate the breed characteristics of Galore sheep.

Origin:

Distribution:

General description-

Breed

Color Black, White, Fawn, or brown with black patches.

 Size-Small
 Head-Concave, convex or straitht
  Ear-loge & pendulous. >6 cm
 Medium & erct.< 6-3 cm
 Rudimentary.<3 cm
 Long > 15 cm
 Medium<15-5 cm
 Rudimentary < 5 cm
 Body length-42-53 cm
 Hight – 42-42 cm
 Chart girth-58-65 cm
 Horn- Female are hornles
Male are horned
 Weight-Femal-12 kg
Male-15 kg
 Prolifikesi-

Milk-Production-

Utility-

4.a) What do you mean by housing of animal.

Page.No: 13; Question.No: 05(a).

b) Classify the housing of animal.

Housing

Conventional housing Loose housing

Intensive housing Semi-intensive housing

Single raw Double row Single raw Double row

Face in system Face in system Face in out system face in out system

5.(a) What do you mean by feed stuffs.

Page.No: 16; Question.No: 06 (a).

(b) Classify feed stuffs.

Page.No: 16; Question.No: 06 (b).

(c) Compare between River type and swamp type buffalo.

Page.No: 15; Question.No: 05(c).

6.(a) What are the common vices of animal.

Page.No: 06; Question.No: 02(b).

(b) How will you take care & management of farm animal.

Page.No: 17; Question.No: 06(c).

(c) Analyze the different forms of cruelty

Page.No: 18; Question.No: 7(a).

7.(a) Care of sick animal.

1. When a animal showing symptoms of discuss, it should be isolated and an

immediate step should be taken to diagnose cause of the symptom.

2. Visual examination of body condition coat and skin, mouth, mucous membrane,
Eyes, nose, hear, frees, udder & milk should be mode and any abnormal condition
should be.

3. The animal temperature should be taken and details of terd and previous history
of sick animal should be noted.

4. For parasitic infestation faces should be sent for examination.

5. For sick animal advice of local veterinary services should be sought and
recommendation should be followed.

Dehorning of Animal:
Definition of dehorning: This is a process by which ihe horns o!' annual are ramous
aller hirin nv cnlliiicidcr norn rools.

Advantages of dehorning:

i) Dehoriicd animal u ill need a less spaec in the shed.

ii) Dehoriicd animals are easy io handle.
iii) Caille with horns inlliet bruises on eaeh oilier lhal may resull in heavy
eeonomie losses.

Disadvantages of dehorming.

i) Animals with a nice horn have a style. This some I'imcs is an advantage
in exhibition and ealtle shows.
ii) Some breeds have got an important identification marks fur Hums e.g.
Kankrej, Kangaym etc.
iii) Animals with horn can be identified themselves.

Methods of dehorning: There are three methods of deirorning.

a) Chemical method.
b) Meetanieal method.
c) Eleelrical method.

Procedure of dehorning:

a) Chemical method: The chemical commoniy used is casuticsoda. They come

in a white stick as a dehorning paste.
b) Meetanieal method:
i) clippers and saw: When older cattle are to be dehorned specially
designed eloper and saw are used.
ii) Rubber band : Some farmers have reported successful dehorning of
older cattle by using the rubber method. The chief advantaage is thai
no open wound result when clippers or saw are-used to dehorn the
animal.
iii) Electrical metro : The rod is healed with electricity and has an
automatic control that maintains temperature - at abom(1.0000 F
Applying the electrical dehorner to the horn button for 10 seconds is
sufficient to destroy the horn cells.
DISBUDDING OF ANIMAL
Definition of disbudding: The process of preventing horn growth in calves is
known as disbudding e.g. the removal or killing of the horn-bud or disbudding
means the arrest of horn growth of an early stages when horn enlarge is in the form
of a "bud".
Objectives of disbudding:

i) Disbudded animal will iieed jess space jn sheds.

ii) To make easy handling of animal.
iii) To operate the animal easily.

Methods of disbudding: Disbudding can be done by chemical methods using a (

caustic potash) or hot iron or Surgical removal of the bud. All three methods
destroy the area of specialized epithelium from which the horn develops.

Analyze the factors affecting health of animal.

i) Temperature: Local breed of animal can tolerate excess heat but

foreign cattle cannot tolerate excess heat because excess heat creates hat
stock to animal and thus heat affects the health of animal.
ii) Humidity : Less humidity irritators the mucous membrane and high
humidity premeds the congas infection 40-80% humidity is ideal.
iii) Radiation: Solar radiation affects the heat load of animal and the animal
become stressed so the animal become ill.
iv) Air movement: Dew to lack the air movement the airmail can’t maintain
the heat lose, through evaporation convection, so it reducers the
productivity of animal.
v) Precipitation: Rain can penetrate the for of animal and decrease of
insulation of valu.
vi) Nutrition: Poor retraction can contribute to poor health of animal.
vii) Sound: Excess sound reduces the productivity of animal.
viii) Dust: It carries microbes and can create diseases to animal ultimately it
reduces the productivity of animal.

6 (c) Describe the management procedure of bedding of animal.

 1. Bedding materials should be comfortable.
2. Bedding materials should be used on the basis of availabity and price.
3. Bedding materials should be clean.
4. Bedding materials should be dried in the sun.
5. Dung and soiled bedding materials should be removed.
6. Dung heap should be picked up curly in the morning.
7. Floor should be swep down once in a day with disinfectant.
8. Floor should be hosed up once in a week with water.

Final Examination Preparation

Q:1: Define Histology. Write down the importance of it’s otology,[1st class test Q]

Ans:

Histology:- The word Histology Derived from two Gruel words. The word
“Hiatus” means “Tissue and “Loges means “knowledge/Study”. Thus it is the
study of tissue. Histology is the microscopic study of Gross Anatomy.

Definition: Histology is the branches of pure zoological science, which are discuss
about the location, structure size, shape and activity of different types of tissue in
living organism.

Importance of Histology:

i) Understanding the cell, tissue and organ structure at level only visible
with the aid of microscope at and 3 dimensional relative ships among
their biochemical constituents.
ii) Understanding the relationship between the substructure and the normal
functions of cells, tissue and organs.
iii) Establishing a basis for learning histopathology the relationship between
the abnormal tissue and organ structure and functional defects.
 iv) Providing a basis for treating diseased and injured tissue with medicines
and this is the ultimate goal of studying Histology.

Q: 2: Define Epithelial tissue, write down the classification of Epithelial tissue. [1st
test Q.]

Ans:-

Epithelial tissue:- The epithelial tissue are contain cells called epithelial cells are
closely adjacent held together by a small amount of intercellular substances. The
cells are relatively large and soft, but sometimes classic. So, they continuous
changes their size and shape.

The cell surfaces is smooth or marked by bulges and hollows. In fresh condition,
the cells are light, trans parent, granular or turbid.

The cells possess a free pole and a basal pole. The free surface of the cells are
covered with rod like cite plasmas positions.

Classification of Epithelial tissue:-

The epithelial tissue can be classified as follows:-

a) Simple epithelium tissue

i) Simple squalors epithelium epithelium , tissue.
ii) Simple cubical epithelium, tissue.
iii) Simple columnar epithelium, tissue.
b) Stratified epithelium tissue.
i) Stratified squalors epithelium tissue.
ii) Stratified columnar epithelium tissue.
iii) Transitional epithelium tissue.
c) Pseddostratified epithelium tissus
2. Glandular epithelium tissue.
3. Sensory or Neuro epithelium tissue.

Q:3: Briefly describe the surface Epithelium tissue with neat and clean diagram.
[1st class test Q

Ans:-
The surface epithelium can be classifide into main three classes according to the
morphology and the stratification. They are described bellow:-

1. Simple epithelium:
a) Simple squalors epithelium:
i) Cells are flat, scale like or irregularly polygonal.
ii) Borders are weaver straight and occur in a single layer.
iii) Cytoplasm is homogenous, transparent or rarely granular.
iv) They occur in the rete testis, eye lens, inner wall of membranous
labyrinth of the ear, in the kidney. inner lining of the heart, etc.

b) Simple cubical epithelium:

i) Cells are short and prism like.
ii) Cells are square in section.
iii) Surface is perpendicular and ciliated.
iv) Occurs in the ducts of many glands, eye lens, pigment layer of
retina, thyroid follicle etc.

c) Simple columnar epithelium:-

i) Cells are cylindrical, prismatic and pyramidal.
ii) Cells are higher than wide.
iii) Nucleus are ovoid and found in the basal half.
iv) occurs in the mucosa of GIT, accessory sex glands, gall
bladder,uterus, epididymis, bronchi etc

Fig: Simple columnar epithelium

2. Stratified epithelium:-
a) Stratified squalors epithelium
 i) Cells are flattened, columnar and polyhedral.
ii) Nucleus is oval in basal layer and Spherical in middle layer.
iii) The papillae containy capillary 100p.
iv) Occurs in the skin, digestive tract, cornea, glens penis, vaginal vestibule.

b) Stratified columnar epithelium:

i. Cells are columnar, conical and fussier.
ii. Consists of top cell layer, middle layer and basal layer.
iii. Cells are filling the space between the tapering ends of the supperficial
layer.
iv. Occurs in the large excretory duct of some glands, palpebral conjunctiva
of horses and carnivores.
c) Transitional epithelium:-
i. Cells are cubical and flat like.
ii. Basement membrane are lacing.
iii. Capillaries are present.
iv. Occurs in the excretory passages of urinary tract.
3. Pseudo stratified epithelium:-
i. Cells are lined in a common base.
ii. Cells are ciliated.
iii. Nucleus found in different planes.
iv. Occurs in the nasal cavity, larynx, trachea, bronchi, epididymis etc.

Q:4: Draw and label an ideal neuron.[1st class test Q]

Q:5: Define digestive system, write down the parts of digestive system, [2 nd class
Q]

Ans:

Digestive system:- The system which is concerned with the reception of food, their
digestion, absorphon of food nutrients and rumination of waste materials is termed
as Digestive system.

Parts of Digestive system: The digestive system is divided into two main parts:

1. Alimentary tract.
2. Accessory organs.
1. Alimentary tract:- The Alimentary tract is consists of following parts:-
i. Mouth cavity
Lips
Checks
Soft palate
Hard palate
Tongue
Teeth
ii. Pharynx
iii. Esophagus
iv. Stomach
Rumen,
Reticulum, Talse/Non-glandular stomach
Omasum,
Abomasum. True/Glandular stomach.
v) Small intestine,
Duodenum,
Jesunam,
Ileum,
vi) Large intestine
 Cecum,
colon,
Rectum,
2. Accessory organs: The Accessory organs of the digestive system are:-
i. Tongue,
ii. Teeth,
iii. Salivary gland,
Parotid gland,
Sub-lingual gland,
Sub-maxillary gland,
vii) Liver,
viii) Pancreas,
ix) Gall bladder,

Q:6: Define Connective Tissue. Write down the classification of connective

Tissue.[1st class test Q.]

Ans:

Connective tissue:- Connective tissue is a group of tissue structurally com posed of

three elements:-

Cells, fibers and ground substances derived from largely embryonic mesoderm and
responsible for providing and maintaining form of the body.

Classification of connective Tissue:-

Connective tissues can be classified as follows:-

Embryonic connective tissue

Mesenchyme connective tissue

Gelatinous connective tissue

Adult connective and supportive tissue

Adult connective tissue

 Lease connective tissue
Dense irregular connective tissue
Dense regular connective tissue
Collagen fibers
Elastic fibers
Reticular connective tissue
Adipose tissue
White adipose tissue
Brown adipose tissue
Adult supportive tissue
Cartilage
Hyaline cartilage
Elastic cartilage
Fibro cartilage

Bone
Notochord (chord dorsal is)
Cemented and dentin (teeth)
Q:7: Briefly describe the characteristics of skeletal muscle. [1st class test Q]
Ans:

The characteristics of skeletal muscle:

i. Skeletal muscles are cylindrical and elongated.

ii. It leng1th can be reached up to 50cm and 10-110 le in
Diameter.
iii. Skeletal muscles are multinucleated.
iv. Nucleus is oval shaped and located in the periphery,
v. All cells ore surrounded by trilaminar. Plasma membrane, basal
lamina and reticular fiber.
vi. Mitochondria, myoglobin, sarcoplasmic reticulum, golgi body,
lipid, glycogen etc are present in the skeletal muscle.
vii. Myofibrils are found in each skeletal muscle cells, they are
cylindrical and 1-2 le in diameter.
 viii. The space between two successive zline is known as
macromere. It the cell, the intercellular location and length of a
band is constant and independent to the functional state of the
muscle.
ix. There are two types of my filaments are found-
1. Actin/thin my filament,
2. myosin/thick my filament,

Actin filament is extent from band to band.

Myosin filament is extent from one end to the another end of a band,

Location: Skeletal muscles are associated with skleton.

Q:8: Briefly describe the characteristics of smooth muscle. [Extra. out of class test
and term]

Ans:

The characteristics of smooth muscle:

i. Smooth muscles are in voluntary and non-striated in nature.

ii. It is elongated and spindle shaped.
iii. Smooth muscles length is 22 le-1 mm and diameter is 5-15 le.
iv. Nucleus is single, oval shaped and centrally located.
v. Smooth muscle’s cells are surrounded by basal lamina and fine network of
reticular fibers.
vi. Smooth muscle’s cells or cytoplasm is also surrounded by a trilaminrr
plasma membrane is known as sarcolema.
vii. Smooth muscle’s cell cytoplasm contain some cytoplasm organelles such as-
Mitochondria, lysosme, golgi body, ribosome, RER, diplosome, lip of uschn
granule, my filaments etc. There are two types of my filaments are found-
ii. Actin/Thin my filament 3mm in wide
iii. myosin/Thick my filament 5mm in wide
viii. Smooth muscle’s nucleus is basophilic and cytoplasm is acidophilic.
i. Digestive tract,
ii. Gall bladder,
iii. Respiratory tract,
 iv. Urogenital tract,
v. Eye,
vi. Skin (Teat, Scrotum, erector penis muscle)
vii. Capsule of spleen,
viii. Excretory duct of glands,
ix. Wall of the artery, vein, large lymph vessels etc.

Histology Ans

Define and classify neuron.

Neurons are the struetural and functional units of the nerve as tissue.

Classification of neurons.

i. Unipolar neurons. eg- photoreceptor cells of the retina.

ii. Pseudo unipolar neurons, eg- Spinal ganglia, sensory root ganglia of most
cranial nervosa.
iii. Bipolar neurons, eg- cochlear and vestibular ganglia.
iv. Multipolar neurons eg- Pyramidal cells of the cerebral cortex.

Discuss the glanduler epithelial tissue with their examples

Glandular epithelial tissues from by cells to produce a fluid secretion that differs in
composition from bolld.

 The secretion is composed of substances transferred from the blood to the

lumen of the glands.

Types of gland.

A. On the basic of number of cell

1. Unicellular gland.
2. Multicellular gland.
1. Unicellular gland: Having only one cell. It consists of lining of the small
intestine or respiratory tract.
2. Multicellular gland: Having more than one cell. It is, Eg. Glandular
epithelium cells as in the salivary gland and pancreas.
B. On the basic of type of secration.
 1. Serous gland
2. Mucous gland
3. Mixed gland
1. Serous gland.
The secretion is thin and watery.
Eg. Salivary gland and pancreas
2. Mucous gland.
The secretion is viscous and sly.
Eg. Goblet cell and palatine gland
3. Mixed gland.
Secretes both type of secretions by serous and mucous secretary cells.
Eg. Mandible and sublingual glands

Differentiate between sweat gland and sebaceous gland.

Simple coiled tubular gland Sebaceous gland

1) Simple coiled tubular gland 1) Simple or branched alveolar gland
2) Lined with columnar or gland 2) Lined with polyhedral cells.
3)Merocrisc in nature. On part is 3) Tholocrine in nature, so metines
disinteqrated to from. entire protoplasm is disisteqratod to
form product.
4)No close association with hair follicle Mostly associated with hair folicle.
5)Duct is hired with str. Cubical Duct is hired with str. squ.cpi
epithelium
6)They are not found in the margin of 6)They are found in these reqion
the hips, inner surface of the prepuce
and glens penis
7)jecrction is watery called rweat 7) jecretion is oily called jebum.

Function of blood.

1. Transport of respiratory gases.

2. Transport of nutrients.
 3. Acts as vehicle.
4. Maintenance of acid-base balance.
5. Regulation of water and electrolytes balance.
6. Defensive function.
7. Excretory function.
8. Regulation of blood pressure.
9. Prevent hemorrhage.
10.The blood helps to maintain the body tem premature.

Histology

It is the ranches of pure zoological science. Which discuss the location struture.
size,shape and activity of different tissue in, living organism.
Greek 'Histos' means tissue and 'logos' means knowledge/study. Main difference
between histology and anatomy, histology is microscopic study and anatomy is
gross study.
It is the branch of biology concerned with the composition and structure of plant
and animal tissues in relation to their specialized functions. The terms histology
and microscopic anatomy are sometimes used interchangeably, but a fine
distinction can be drawn between the two studies. The fundamental aim of
histology is to determine how tissues are organized at all structural levels, from
ceils and intercellular substances to organs)Microscopic anatomy, on the other
hand, deals only with tissues as they are arranged in larger entities such as organs
and organ systems (e.g. circulatory
and reproductive systems).

Importance of llistology:

1. Understanding cell, tissue and organ structure at level only visible with the
aid of microscope, including and 3 dimensional relationships among their
biochemical constituents.
 2. Understanding the relationship between the substructure and the normal
functions of cell. Srtissue and organs.
3. Establishing a basis for learning histopathology the relationship between
abnormal tissue and organ structure and functional defects.
4. Providing a basis for treating diseased and injured tissue and organs. In
medicine, this is the ultimate goal.
Classification of Tissue:

Usually separate animal tissues into six groups.

 Epithelial tissue.
 Connective tissue.
 Muscular tissue.
 Nervous tissue.
 Blood.
 Reproductive tissue

Epitliclial tissuc

The cells composing epithelial tissues form a continuous layer or sheet that either
covers the surface of the body or lines some cavity within the body. Thus
protecting the underlying cells from mechanical and chemical injury or from
invasion by microorganisms. Epilhella Ttissue abosorb nutrients and water, secrete
a wide variety of substances, and play a role in the reception of sensory stimuli.
Connective tissue:
The connective tissue bone, cartilage, ligaments and fibrous connective tissues—
support and hold
cells of the body. The cells of the connective tissues secrete large quantities of
nonliving material (matrix) the characteristics of which largely determine the
nature and the function of the specific types of connective tissue; the matrix
secreted by fibrous connective tissue cells. Connective tissue hold skin to muscle,
keeps glands in position, makes up the tough outer walls of the blood vessels, and
forms a sheath around nerve fibers and muscle cells.
Tendons are flexible, cable-like cords of specialized fibrous connective tissue that
join muscles to each other or muscle to bone.
Ligaments are somewhat elastic cords of specialized fibrous connective tissue that
join one bone to another.

Muscular tissue:
Muscular tissues are composed of elongated, cylindrical or spindle-shaped each of
which contains many small fibres called myofibrils Muscle cells perform
mechanical work by contracting that is, by becoming shorter' and thicker. The
three types of vertebrate muscles include the cardiac muscle, which is found only
in the walls of the heart, smooth muscles, which are found in the walls of the
digestive tract and in other internal organs; and skeletal muscle, which make up the
bulk of the muscle masses attached to the bones of the body.
Nervous tissue:
Nerve tissue is made of cells, called neurons, which are specialized to conduct
nerve impulses). Two or more thin hair like fibres, called axons and dendrites,
extend from the enlarged cell body containing the nucleus. The neurons extending
from the spinal cord to the end of an appendage (e.g., arm, leg) may extend to a
mater (about three feet) or more in man and to several meters in an elephant or a
whale.
Blood:
Blood is composed of red cells, which are specialized for the transport of oxygen
and carbon dioxide, and white cells, which engulf bacteria and produce antibodies
proteins formed in response to (foreign substances called antigens). Blood also
contains platelets, small fragments of cells from the bone marrow that play a key
role in initiating the clotting of blood.
Reproductive tissue:
Egg cells in the female and sperm cells in the male are reproductive tissues adapted
for the production of offspring. The egg cell modified by the accumulation of
considerable amounts of yolk and other food reserves. The highly specialized
spermatozoon contains a tail, the beating of which propels it to the egg.
Epithelial tissue:
The epithelia tissue contain cells called epithelial cells are closely adjacent held
together by small amount of mleresllulae Subslaneas. The cells are relatively large
and soft but sane limes size extensible/elastic. So they eontircous changes their size
shape.
The cell surname is smooth or marked by bulges and hallway. In fresh condition,
the cells are hight, transparent granular or turbid.
The cells posses a free pole and a basal pole. The spec surface of the cells covered
with clod like eytoplasmic projections.
Classification of epithelial tissues:
Mainly here types—
1. Surface epithelium/protceliue epithohum.
2. Glandular epithelia tissue.
3. Sensory/Neuroepithelium.
Suitcase/prokeeire:

According to the niorpholagy and the srealification of calls thesc may classified
mto—

1)Simple epithehium—

1) Simple szuamous epilhehium—It comists of slat scale like and irregularly

polygonal cells. Their boresare wavy but sometimes straight and occurs my single
layer. The ectoplasm is homogenous and tronsparcht.

2) Occurrences: Rate testis, inner wall of the membranous labyrinth of the ear,
eye lens parietal layer of. Bowman’s deseeding lirb of flenle sloop lining of
blood vessels and lynzplr vessels, lnner lining of the heart.
3) Simple cuboidal epithelium—
Consists of cells which are short and prisms like. They appear square in
sections, perpendicular to the surface and may be ciliated.

Occurrences: Duels of many glands the eye lens, pigment layer of retina, leens
capsule, surface epithelium of over. Thyrolifo illicit.

4) Simple columnar epithelium:--

Consists of cylindrical, prismatic or pyramidal cells that are higher than
wide. The nucleus is ovoid like hsually found in the basal half of the cells.
Occurrences: Mesa of GIT, kidney, accessory sex glands, gall bladds utctus,
tentacles of soon enclave weal canal in spinal cord. cilia led compare tissue found
in oviduct, heads of the cpididymis, bronchi, par nasal sinuses, uterus etc.

(2) Stratified epithelium: Cue.

a) Stratified squalors epithelium:-- It’s name is duct from the flallened cells of its
surge layer.

The basal layer, lapin the basement membrane is compassed of soft columnar cell
with oval nuctfus.

The cells in the middle layer are. Polyhedral couth spherical nucleus. Upon
isolalion, all cells in the middle layer exhibit fine rod/thrconlike processes of
connection between epithelial cells considelced to be supporting structures.

From cue vascular erective tissue base papilla (Conical protuberances) extend in to
the epithelium church contain capillary loop in pollutant to gene nutrition of the
epithelium.

Occurrences: Skin, digestive tract, cornea, vaginal vestibule, glens penis. Li layer,
underneath are found conical cells, with aper draped towel is the surface suasion
and other forms of cell that sill the spades beam the tapering ands of the superficial
layers.

Occurrences: Larger exclusory duet of some glands, palpebral conjanelive of

houses carnivore.

Transitional epithelium: The surface cells are query extensible and variable in
shape. The deeper layers resemble those of stralisicd coumnar epilhelium in
addition to that there are cuboidal or slatline cell. The height of these cells derends
at the store of dispense of the organs whole they line. The basement membrane cite
lacuing hit his 1 ype of epithelium. Capillaries from the highly vaseular vonnective
the erithelial cells.

Occurrences: Excretory passages of usually tract.

3) Pseudo stratified epithelium: (This type of cells adhere to a common bose

but not exlends to the froc surface. The forms are usually ciliated and their
nuclei lie in different planes) Some cells atce joined to the epithelium by
thrcad like proecses only. It is difficult to differentiable of this type of
epiyhelivm from stratified columnar epithelium.

Occurrences: Nasal cavity, laryra, traehea, bronchi, epididymis,

Sensory/Neuroepitllclum

Occur in the taste buds, Olfactory label, laciness. Its consists of cells as a receptor
for stimuli from outside. They are elongated and stand closely together to their
basset. The cells exhibit a fuse form sealing structure entrain nucleus. The free end
of the cells contain small rods or hairs and the basal end contact wit the nerve
fibers.

All epithelial tissues are decried from all three good layers (Ectoderm, mesoderm
& endoderm).

Glandular Epithelium

Glandular epithelial tissues form by cells to produce a fluid secretion that differs
position in composition from blood or intercellular fluid. This process is
accompanied the intercellular synthesis of macromolecules 'which stored in the cell
in small membrane bound vesicles secretory granules. Glandular epithelial cell
may synthesize, store and secrete protein, lipids, complexes of carbohydrate and
protein. The secretion is composed of substances transferred from the blood to 'he
lumen of the glands. In some cases, a gland may contain active synthesizing cells
in association with cells specializing in connective transport, occurs in mammalian
salivary glands, where secretory acini co-exist with connective transporting
structures called sinatea ducts. All gland ceils produce and expei an extra cellular
products are not use by the cell itself but important for other part of organism.
Glands:

 An organ which secretes specific chemical copvoounds such as enzymes or

hormones.
 Aggregation of into a definite structure for the purpose of carrying on
secretion or excretion is termed as gland. Tne constituent cells are known as
gland cells or glandular epithelial.
 Cell or tissue that removes specific substances from the blood, alters or
concentrates them and then either releases them for further use or eliminates
them. Typically, a gland consists of either cuboidal or columnar epithelium
resting on a basement membrane and is surrounded by a plexus, or
meshvvork. of blood vessels. Endocrine or directly glands (e.g., pituitary,
thyroid, adrenal) secrete substances known as hormones directly into the
bloodstream rather than through ducts. Exocrine glands (e.g., sanvary, sweat,
digestive) discharge discharge their products through ducts.
Types of gland
1. On the basic of number of cells:
1. Unicellular gland
2. Multicellular gland
Unicellular gland
Having only one cell. It consists of a isolated glandular cells.
E.g: Glandular epithelium cells as in the salivary gland and pancreas.
2. On the basic of type of secretion:
1. Serous gland
2. Mucus gland
3. Mixed gland
Serous gland
The secretion is thin and watery.
E.g: Salivary gland and pancreas.
Mucus gland
The secration is viscous and sly.
E.g: Goblet cell and palatine gland.
Mixed gland
Secretes both type of secretions by serous and mucous secretory cells.
E.g. Mandibular and sublingual glands.
3. On the basis of formation of product:
1. Eccrine/Macrocrine gland (Thyroid, Pancreas).
2) Apocrine gland (sweat gland).
3) Holocrine gland (sebaceous gland).
4. On the basic of presence or absence of duct:
1 , Exocrine glands (glands with ducts)
a. Endocrine glands (glands without ducts)
Exocrine glands
This gland retains their connection with surface epithelial from which they
originated.
This connection takes the form of tubular ducts lined with epithelial cells through
which the glandular secretions pass to reach the surface. This is two types:

1.Simpleglsuuls
a) Tubular
i. Straight
II. Coiled
III. Branched
b) Tubuloaveolar (tubuloacinar)
c) Alveolar (acinar, saccular)
2.Compound glands
a) Tubular (kidney, testis)
b) Tubuloaveolar (Parotid, Mandibular, Pancreas)
c) Alveolar (Mammary gland)
Endcerinc glands
This is d ictless and cnnriecled suiface from which Ihev originated during
Development.
Their secretion is transport to the site of action by the blood steam or duct
system.
This is two types:
1. The aggregated ceils from anatomizing cords interspersed between
dilated blood capillaries.
E.g. adrenal gland, parathyroid, anterior lobe of pituitary etc.
2 The cells line a vesicle or follicle filled with non cellular material.
E g. Thyroid gland.
Comective Tissue
Definition of Connective tissue
Tissue which fills spaces and holds the organs together in the animal body. In
vertebrates it consists of a jelly-like substance containing white collagen fibers or
yellow elastic fibers or both.
It is the connecting and supporting tissues to furnish support and security of part of
organ. it is always separates from free surface.
Classification of connective tissue
Mainly connective tissue classified into two: s
Embryonic connective tissue
Adult connective tissue
Again adult connective tissue subdivided into three groups:
 Proper connective tissue
 Cartilage
 Bone
In connective tissue proper, the intercellular substances is soft: in cartilage, it is
firm yet flexible and may be readily cut; in bone it is rigid

Adult connective tissue is divided on tire basis of:

 Relative proportions of the kinds of fibers '
 Compactness and arrangement of fibers
 The matrix
 Type of cell
Embryonic Connective Tissue
Embryonal connective tissue arises from Mesoderm. This tissue is composed of
irregularly shaped cells with processes extending into a relatively homogeneous
intercellular substance. :
It is two types, mesenchyme and mucous. As development progresses, the
mesenchyme gradually assumes the characteristics; of adult connective tissue. The
umbilical cord is a classic example of mucous connective tissue.
Adult Connective Tissue
The following kinds of connective tissue are recognized:
A. Embryonic connective [issue (It io composed by gelatinous and mucous
ground substances).
B. Reticuh.ir connective tissue (Contain wavy collayenous fibers and rounded
ceiis connected by cytoplasm processes).
C . Fibriiigr connective tissue (Febrile intercellular contain huge amount octagon).
D Elastic connective tissue (Umbilical cord, inner ear, supporting lamella in the
comb and wattles of the chickens).
Reticular connective tissue
Ret'cuiar cell forms a wide or narrow-meshed network to form reticular tissue
united in a syncytium. The retiuular cells produced reticular fibers occurs mostly in
the plasmid network, serve to support and lend firmness to the syncytium. The
fiber pass through the cell processes surrounded by cytoplasm, often appear lie on
tne surface.
Occur: Lympn nodes tonsils, spleen bone marrow.
Elastic connective tissue
it forms by elastic fibers which often branch and woven textures forms
characteristics fine or coarse nets by anastomosis. Sometimes found web like
expansion at the intersections where the fibers fuse. Elastic fibers are yellow in
color.
Occur: Ligaments.
Febrile connection tissue
It forms by in intercellular substances with collage nous fibrils predominates over
the
Febrile connective tissue subdivided into four types:
a. Membranous connective tissue
b. Loose /Areola connective tissue –
c. Regular fibrous connective tissue
d. Irregular dense connective tissue
Membranous connective tissue
Different sizes of bundles of fibrils, crossing each other in various directions, are
spread file form membranous connective tissue. The bundles of fibrils also
accompanied closely by elastic fibers. The trabealae is covered by a layer of flat
cells with blood vessels.

Occur: In lamina propel of the serous membranes.

ft is n displaceable substance which forms the gliding, mobile layers of the body,
Loose connective tissue arranged by collage nous trabeouhe, thin arid thick elastic
fibers It invades the organs as interstitial tissue and serves as a filling and
connecting mass between neighboring organs and body pad as well as between Hie
laiger divisions of the organ.
Boles of loose connective tissue
1 . Important to the water economy of the body.
2. Play role in the body defense against noxious substances in the organ
(E.g. histiocyt.es and wandering cells).
3. Plays a role in regeneration.
Boles of loose connective tissue
Loose connective tissue loosely binds structure together and holds them in
position. It acts as padding and serves as a pathway for nerves and vessels.
Regular fibrins connective tissue
It is form under condition of mechanical stress of fibrous intercellular substance,
has tensile strength and arranged by fiber bundles. It has little elastic tissue.
Fibroblast is the main cells of this.
Occur: It forms the ligaments, tendons, aporieurosis and ceiling deep fasciae.
Irregular dense connective tissue
II. forms the remaining fibrous membranes characterized by fibers and
Irabeculae.
Occur: Fasciae periosteum, perichondrium, capsules of many organs, sheaths of
blood vessels and nerves, synovial membranes, blasé. sierra and corium.

Classification of conductive tissue|

Connective Tissue

 Connective Tissue: Connective tissue are a group of tissue strucrirally

camposed of three elements : Cells fibro and group oubotana derived largely
from embryonic mesoderm and responsible for providing and maintaining
form of the body.

Connective tissue cells:

1. Fibroblast of fibroagfe.
2. Macrophages.
3. Mast cells.
4. Plasma cells.
5. Fat cells or adipose cells.
6. Leukocutes
-Eosinophil
-Basophile
-Lymphocyte.

7. Pigment cells.

Connective tissue fibres:

1. Collagen fiber
2. Elastic fiber
3. Reticular fibers
1. Fibroblast:
i. Derived from undifferentiated mesenchymal cells.
ii. There are two quite morphologic types of fibroblast and fibrocystic.
iii. Young fibroblast are large, flat branching cells and shaped in profile.
iv. 1st nucleus in ovoid, large and light.
v. Cytoplasm is ricr is granular endoplasmic reticulum Golgi complex.
Functions:

i. Synthesize cell agent and elastic fibers.

ii. It is impaired in vitamin c deficiency.
iii. Help in healing of wounds.
2. Macrophages:
i. Derive from procwr-oor cells.
ii. Macrophages are spindle shaped or star shaped.
iii. Its nucleus located eccentrically, smaller and more heterochromatic
that that of the fibroblast.
iv. Irregular surface with pleats, protrusims.
v. Cytoplasm contain a well developed Golgi cmpkx many tysosome and
a rag endoplasm mica seticuleor.

Function:

1. Ingestion of particles and their digestion.

2. Secretion of an important array of subtask.
3. Participate in the immune system of the body.
Engulf and digest tissue

3.Mast cells:

i. Large and could

ii. Golem is full of intensively staining basophilic granules.

iii.Nucleus is spherical and centrally situated.

iv. Contains—
Histamine
ECF-A
SRS-A
PAF
v. Found in capsule of liver, blood vermeils, synovial membrane.
Function:

i. Liberate heparin which is anticoagulant in function.

ii. Play an important role in all allergic reactions.
iii. Helps in the formation of hyaluronic acid.
4. Plasma cells:
i. Cells are large could that have a basophilic cytoplasm.
ii. Nucleus eccentric in position.
iii. Russell bodies are present in the cytoplasm.
iv. Found in serous membrane and lymphoid tissue.

Functions

i. Principle function is the preclusion o antibodies.

5. Fat cells/Adipose cells:
i. Aggregations of fat cells camtitvte adipose tissue.(Adipocyfe).
ii. Contains a lathe droplet of fat. Special type to connation.
iii. Thin sum of cytoplasm with an eccentric nucleus.

6. Leukocytes: (Mooneye)
i. These are melanoaytes and melanophores.
ii. Perform their function extravascularly.
iii. They are encountered wither connective tissue there are.
a. Eosinophils 1-2%
b. Basophils 0-8%
c. Lymphoaytes 60-70%
d. Neutrophil 25-30%
e. Monocyte 1-2%

Function: Help in fogocytionin. Any body production.

7. Pigment cells:
i. These are melanoaytes and melanophores.
ii. Cells have irregular cytoplenmic porous.
 iii. Melanoaytes are derived from embryonic neural asset.
iv. Found in corrective tissue of skin in parameter and chore coat of
the eye. Dermot also matins melanoplores.

Function: sselanocytes protect the skin agamid the osmotic

1. Collage nous fibers:

Consist of the pother collage. Appear white thus Teri is white fibro. Derive
from fibroblast and reticular cells. fibers are assigned in numerous straight
or white Buna kilting the bundles, fibers are held together by a mall amount
of mucoproteir. Fibers do not branch and vary from 1-2 mm in diameter.
Kith the EM each collage fiber in seer to be made up to xveral fibrils that are
0.3-0.5mm in diameter. A fibril is composed of incerofibr of a diameter from
45-100 mm average 65mm.The cmstituent protein collagen in made up of
smaller units called tropocollagen, each 1.4 nm wide and 280 nm long.
There are atlas 5 genetically different types of collagen.
2. Reticular fibers:
Derive from fibroblast. There fibers are similar to collagen fiber in chemical
structure. Reticular fiber are extremely thin with a diameter between 0.5 & a.
They form an extensive network organs and association with the reticular
cells, They form reticular ties in the lymphatic organs.
Distribution: Smooth muscle end oneurkium, frame work of spleclymph
nodes red bone marrow, network around liver kidney.
3. Elastic fibers: Derived from fibroblast but rise be formed by smooth muscle
cells. Elastic fibers are them (0.1-0.2) than collagenous fibers. in the fresh
state adult elastic tissue in bulk has a yellowish color. With the EM each
elastic fiber is scar has two components
- an amorphous central component surrounded by as of 10mm.
- tubular myofibrils composed of structural ghycoproton.

Elastin are not affected by hot or color water, clique all or alkali but is digested by
the pancreatic enzyme elastic. Distribution. Blood vase, lanes, vocal carob etc
FEMALE GENITAL ORGANS
Tin: female organs are:
1. The two ovaries - the essential reproductive glands, in which the ova arc
produced.
2. The uterine tubes (Fallopian tube/oviduct - which convey the ova to the
uterus and in which fertilization takes place.
3. The uterus in which the ovum develops.
4. The vagina - a dilatable passage through which the fetus-is expelled from the
uterus.
5. The vaginal vestibule - the terminal segment of the genital tract which open
into the urethra.
6. The vulva - the caudal limit.
7. The clitoris - homologue of the penis and
8. The mammary glands - These are skin glands, but wnich are so closely
associated functionally with the generative organs that they are usually
describe with them.
In ruminants, in spite of a considerable degree of external fusion the common
uterine cavity is very small, the two uteri remaining separated by j thin midline
septum which almost, but not quite, reaches the internal os. On the retire there is
no trace of a median septum and the size of the internal cavity corresponds to the
externally fused part of the "body of the uterus". The definitive appearance of the'
external genitalia of the female depends on the degree of development of the
clitoris, urethra and vaginal vestibule. In mature female carnivores the clitoris
retains its embryonic prominence. It may even contain cartilage (cat). The
vestibule of the vagina may be enclosed by loose skin folds or labia. These are well
developed in carvers, ungulates(walking with hooves) and primates (the labia
minor) only primate possess true labia major.
Bean shaped. They are about 7-8cm long,3-4cm thick and 70-80gm in weight.
The ovaries are situated in the sub lumbar region and are usually yentral to tne
4th/5th lapidary. vertebra. They are usually in contact with the lumbar wall of the
abdomen. The average distance from the ovaries to the vulgar orifice is about 50-
55 cm. (medium size mare).
Each presents 2 surfaces, 2 borders and 2 extremities.
Medial and lateral surfaces-Both smooth and rounded.
The attached or mesovarial border is convex. It is enclosed in a part of the broad
ligament termed the mesovarial, the vessels and nerves reach the gland at this
border.
The free border is marked by a notch which leads into a narrow depression, the
voulation fossea.
The tubal(cranial) extremity - is rounded and is related to the finebriated end of the
uterine tube.
The uterine (caudal) extremity is also round and is connected with the horn of the
uterus by the ovarian ligament. The ovary is attached to the sub lumbar region by
the cranial part of the broad ligament of the uterus; the me ovarian which is about
8-10 cm wide.
The uterine extremity of the ovary is connected with the extremity of the horn of
the uterus by proper ligament of the ovary.
Vessels and Nerves: Ovarian artery sympathetic
Horse ( Mare) Cow DOR' (Bitcl)
Hein shaped Oval shaped Small elongated oval in outline and
flattened
7-8 cm long 3.5- 4 cm long 2 cm long
3-4 cm thick 2.5 cm thick
70-80 gm wt. 15-20 gm.-wt 0.5-1 gm wt
Ovulation fosse No ovulation fosse No ovulation fosse
present
No ovarian bursa Ovarian bursa Ovarian bursa present '
present
Distance from the 40-45 cm 20-25 cm
valve orifice 50-55
cm
Uterine end is ro Pointed at the Pointed at the uterine
rounded(caudal) uterine end end
Situated in the sub On the lateral wall Near caudal pole of kidney below 3/4th
lumbar region of the LV.
ventral to the 4th/5th
lumbar vertebra
pelvic inlet

They are usually in 3road ligament Broad ligament attached in sub lumbar
contact with the attached o flank and region
lumbar wall of the lateral pelvic wall
abdomen. Broad
ligament is attached
in the sub lumbar
region.

FALLOPIAN TUBE/UTERINE TUBE/OVIDUCT

The uterine tube acts as excretion/ ducts of the ovaries. They are two flexuous
tubes 20-30 cm long, which extends from the extremities of the uterine horn to the
ovaries. 'Hoe tube is very small at its uterine end (about 2-3 mm in diameter) but
toward the ovary about 4-8 mm in dialect forming the ampoule.
Each is enclosed in a peritoneal fold derived from the lateral layer of the broad
Ligament, termed the mesosalpinx. This largely covers the lateral aspect of the
ovary and forms with it and the broad ligament a pouch called the ovarian bursa.
The uterine part of the tube communicates with the cavity of the horn by a minute
orifice, the osmium uterinuin tuba.
The ovarian extremity is expanded and somewhat funnel shaped and is therefore,
termed the infudibulam of the uterine lube. The margin of the fujnaabjahurns slit
into irregular processes, tin- fimbriae. About the middle of the infundibulum tubal
uterine by which the tube communicates with the peritoneal cavities. Vessels and
Nerves: - The arteries are derived from the ovarian artery. Nerves -Sym pathetic
nerve
Horse Cow Dog
Flexuous tube Less flexuous than horse Fallopian, tube, is small and
average 5-8 cm in length
20-3lncm long 20-25 cm long 1-3 mm in diameter
The junction with the No abrupt Leis-only slightly flexuous
horn of the uterus 'is
abrupt.
Extremity of horn is Extremity .of horn pointed The fabricated extremity lies -
blunt Chiefly in the ovarian bursa
The tube is very The uterine orifice is The uterine orifice is very
small at its uterine rather large and funnel small
end(about 2-3 mm shaped. Goat: No
diameter) demarcation between
the log tortuous uterine
tube and horn of the uterus.
The rube is very
flexuous near the
infundibulum
UTERUS
The uterus is a hollow musculature organ which is continuous with the uterine
tubes cranially and opens into the vagina caudally it is situated chiefly in the
abdominal cavity but extends a short distance into the pelvic cavity. It is attached
to the sub lumbar region and the lateral wall of the pelvic cavity by two folds of
peritoneum termed the broad ligaments. It-consists of two horns the body and the
cervix or neck.
The horns of the uterus are situated entirely in the abdomen. The appear to vary
considerably in position; commonly they are pressed against the sub lumbar
muscles by the intestine. They are cylindrical when moderately distended and
about 25 cm in length.
The cranial extremity is blunt which receive the uterine tube. The dorsal border is
slightly concave and is attached to the sub lumbar region by the broad, ligament.
The ventral border is convex and free.
Function of cervix:
i. It helps the capability for the contraction & relaxation of close or open the
passage.
ii. It passage the transportation of spermatozoa and selection of spermatozoa.
iii. It is the passage for the explain of fetus.
The body of the uterus - is situated partly in the abdominal, partly in the pelvic
cavity. it is cylindrical, but flattened dorso-ventrally. its average length is 18-20 cm
and its, when moderately distended about 10 cm, its dorsal surface is related to the
cacti and other parts of the intestine. Its-ventral surface is in contact with the
bladder.
The cervix (neck the uterus is the constricted caudal part, which joins the vagina. It
is about 3-7.5 cm in length and 3.3-4 cm in diameter. Part of it projects in to cavity
of vagina. Sphincter like substance form the physiologies bouncer between the
uterus & vagina.
Attachments:- The body and horns are attached to the abdominal and pelvic walls
by the extensive peritoneal folds, the broad ligaments of the uterus. These extend
on either oxide from the sub lumbar region and the lateral pelvic wails to the dorsal
border of the horns and the lateral margin of the body of the uterus. They contain
the vessels and nerves of the uterus and ovaries.
The uterus is situated along their parietal margin. The lateral layer of each gives off
a fold, the round ligament of the uterus.
The cavity of the uterus is largely obliterated in the non-pregnant state by the
contraction of the wall and by folds of the mucous lining. At the extremity of each
horn it communicates with the uterine tube by a minute opening.
The cavity of the neck is termed the cervical canal; it is closed ordinarily by
mucous folds and a plug of mucus. It opens into the vagina by the external uterine
orifice and into the body by the internal uterine orifice.
Vessels and Nerves -The chief arteries are the uterine and the uterine branch of the
ovarian artery which have a flexuous course in the broad ligaments.

There is also a branch from the internal pudenda artery.

The veins form pampiniform plexuses and accompany the arteries.

The lip the progeclce past present a fepvossion, the external of target which the
cortical carol communication art the uaghial

1. Maintenance of pregnancy.
2. It regulates the functional life span of corpus lustrum by secreting PGFZX.
3. It helps the implantation.
4. It helps the transmission the sperm to the tunctimal place of.
The nerves are derived from the sympathetic.
Horse Cow Dog
Length Horn Average 25 3540cm 3-4 cm 10cm 12-25 V-shaped
cm body 18-20 cm 2-3 cm
2.3 cm
cervix 5-7.5 cm
Position Horn Entirely in Almost in , the Entirely within
Body abdomen Parts in abdominal cavities the abdomen
abdomen ant parts
in pelvic cavity
Horns Large, The free part of the The horns are of
uniform diameter horn forming a diameter and
and relatively spiral coil. Horns nearly straight:
straight The united for 3-4 inches They diverge from
anterior extremities near body may the body in the
of the horns is tapers gradually form of a "v"
blunt toward the extremity shaped Not
tapers towards
the extremities
Cervix Project into the Does, .not -project as sleek 1 is very
vagina (2-5 cm) much as mare short
5-7.5 cm in length canal 10 cm project a short
distance into
vagina
cervical canal is canal is spiral
straight
Round short leaches internal passes through a
ligament abdominal ring hort distance of the
inguinal canal
Internally. Mucous membrane Cotyledonary olded and mooth
is smooth and (Longitudinal old)
folded
VAGINA
Vagina is the passage which extends horizontally through the pelvic cavity from
the neck of the uterus to the vulva, It is tubular and is about 15-20cm in length and
when slightly distended about 10-12 cm iri diameter.
No external line of demarcation between the vagina and the uterus or the vulva.
It is related dorsally to the rectum, ventrally to the bladder and urethra and laterally
to the pelvic wall.

The recto genital pouch of the peritoneum commonly extends between the vagina
and rectum for a distance of about 5 cm and ventrally the vesicogenital pouch
passes caudally somewhat further between the vagina and bladder.
The cranial end of the vagina is largely occupied by the intravaginal part of the
neck of the uterus so that the cavities Is here reduced to an annular recess termed
the fornix
The caudal part is directly continuous with the vaginal of demarcation except the
transverse fold which covers the external urethra orifice (In young this fold is
continued on either side forming the hymen: which g the entrance to the vagina)
Vessels and Nerves - The arteries are branches of the internal parental arteries
Nerve- Sympathetic

Horse Cow Dog

15-20 cm in length Larger and more Vagina is relatively
roomy long-104icm
Retro genital pouch It length 30 cm Narrow cranially.
extends caudally - 5 Recto genital and no
cm pouch extends distinct forum
caudally about 12
cm on the dorsal
surface
Distinct Fornix Two longitudinal Mucous
duct (Canal of membrane forms
Gartner) present longitudinal folds
Mucous
membrane
possesses
faint longitudinal
folds
Vaginal vestibule: is the terminal part of the genital tract It is continuous cranially
with the vagina and opens externally at the pudenda rim (vulgar cleft) about 5-7
cm. ventral to the anus. There is no external line of demarcation between the
vagina and the vestibule. The tube is 10-12 cm in length from the external urethra
orifice to the ventral commissural.
Related dorsally rectum and anus
Ventrally - Pelvic floor
Laterally - Broad sacrotuberai ligament, semi membranous and internal pudcudal
artery.
Funcfim of organ:
i. Copulatory organ.
ii. Secretary functim.
iii. Contractive functim.
iv. Absorptive functim.
v. Expulsion of fetus
vi. Panged for the deposition to semen.
VULVA
The external orifice the vulgar cleft has the form of a vertical slit 12.5-15 and is
margined by two prominent rounded lips. The labia meets forming dorsal
commissural (5 cm. ventral to anus). The ventral commissural thick (5 cm caudal
to ischial arch)
When the labia are drawn apart a round body about 2.5 cm wide is occupying a
cavity in the ventral commissural- the clitoris.
FEMALE URETHRA
The female urethra represents that part of the canal of the male which lies between
the internal orifice and the seminal colliculus. Its length-is 5.0-7.5 cm. It lies
centrally on the pelvic floor and is related dorsally to the vagina; The external
orifice is at the cranial end of the vaginal vestibule.
Sub urethra! diverticulum: The external urethra! orifice is about 10 cm from the
ventral commissural. Beneath it is a blind pouch, the sub-urethral diverticulum,
which is about 3.5 cm long and readily admits the end of a finger.
Mammar glands: The mammae are modified coetaneous glands which are so
closely associated functionally with the genital organs. The mammae normally four
in number, are popularly termed the udder. The body of each is somewhat
ellipsoidal in form but flattened trans aversely. Four well developed teats are
present, they average about 7 to 8 cm in length. It is customary to consider the
udder as consisting of four quarters. Each teat has a single lactiferous duc which.
 Urinary system

It consuls of –
Pairs Hackney’s
Urethra
Urinary Bajer
Urethra
Kidney’s
Each kerseys consist a concave medial border. The slum of kidneys serves as a site
oenter and exists of various blood and lymph vessels as well as exacts of orator.
The renal pelvis divided into major calyx called mirror am several small branches
which are arise from major calyx called miror calyx.
Each kidneys divided into cortex am inner medulla. From medulla (medley
pyramids). Medullar roués, penetrate into the cerci.
The functional units of the kidneys are rephrase foam toglther with the medallary
rays.
Renal lobe form as a cortical tisanes in around the metallurgy pyramids which are
divided into renal locals by medullar rays.
Nephrom: Each kidney in composed of 1-4 million of rephrase. Each rephron
consist of a dialated portion called real.
Corpuscles which consist, Proximal coeval added the thin thick

Each renal corpuscles contain a tuff of capillaries called glom rules unrounded by
adoalole, walled epithelial cop sale called Bowman’s capsule.

External layer of Bowman’s capsules called parietal lyre of B.C an the visceral
layers envelops the capillaries of glomerulm. Parietal layers ar lined by simple
squamowl epithelium supported by basalt lamina and a thin layer of reticular
fibers. Each renal corpuscle has a uaserlor pale, where the afferent arteriole orders
and the oftenest arterioles soaves an a urinary poi, whet proximal convoluted
tubules begins. Urinary pole is hired by simple columnar epithelium.

 Proximal ovulated tubule: It is larger than distal convoluted at the urinary

pole of seal corpuscle. The apex of the epithelia cells have numeras
microvillus which form a brush border. It have wide lamer and surnamed by
peritubhlar capillbires.
 Loop of heal: It is U-shaped structure consisting of a third descending limb
have structural senilities with proximal Conn lasted at the urinary pole of
neural corpuscle. The lumen of this semi of the nelson are with toe to lined
by squab, epic. cells are short brash border. The thin limbs ensemble as
blood capillaries.
 Distal convulsed tubule:It is the -----------------------------------------------------
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loop perpetrates the cortex, it berceuses for flow celled distal convoluted
tubule. Proximal and distal copulated tables are found in cortex but the cells
of proximal contend are larger that. There the cells of distal C.T, shish they
have broader where D.C.T. Cells lax. The lamer of D.C.T. are Lars due to
flat and small cells that of P.C.T. The cells of D.C.T. Becomes columnar at
the guxtaglomerular region.
 Collecting atlases and ducts: Uric passes fro the Distal C.T. collecting
tabules the join each other to jorum larger, sail collecting nutty, approach
the tips of the pyramids.
 In the cortex, the collecting table are lined with caboodle epithiham and
wheat peretssate deeper into the medulla, their increased in sleight and
becomes columnar.
From the medulla, the collecting ducts constituent a nag or conponcat of the
urine- concentrating mechanisms.
 Good vessels: Each kidney receive blood, from renal cartel.
 Function of the kidneys: The kidney regulates the chemical composition of
the internal cantonment by a uahplex process.
i. Filtration.
ii. Absorption.
iii. Secretion.

The orangery selfsame

Urethra: The wall of urethra consists of three coats the issuer mucous, muscular
and outer gibbous.

The my coca of the urethra in lined by transitional epithet Liam which varies in
thickness depending on the state of distention of the urethra. In the collapsed stake,
the cells of basal layer concoct of caboodle almost columnar. The xaperticial layer
consist of large colloidal cells with lighter cytoplasm, of the containing two or nor
nuclei. The basement membrane in not distinct sometimes the lymphatic tissue
takes the form of small nodule. The sabmiucosa is not conspicuous. The mascularis
in consists of an infer longitudinal land outer circular layer. In the loader part a
discontinuous longitudinal layer in added. The fibroses consists of loosely arranged
conductive. Tissue and may larger blood vessels.