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MAGNETISM
A magnet is a material or object that produces a magnetic field. This magnetic field
is invisible but is responsible for the most notable property of a magnet: a force that
pulls on other ferromagnetic materials, such as iron, and attracts or repels other
magnets.
• Placing the item in an external magnetic field will result in the item retaining
some of the magnetism on removal.
• Heating a magnet past its Curie temperature; the molecular motion destroys
the alignment of the magnetic domains. This always removes all
magnetization.
• Placing the magnet in an alternating magnetic field with intensity above the
material's coercivity and then either slowly drawing the magnet out or slowly
decreasing the magnetic field to zero. This is the principle used in commercial
demagnetizers to demagnetize tools and erase credit cards and hard disks
and degaussing coils used to demagnetize CRTs.
Plastics, wood, and most insulating materials are virtually transparent to magnetic
forces.
Conducting metals, like aluminum, also allow magnetic forces to pass through, but
may change the forces.
The strength of a magnet is concentrated at the ends, called north and south “poles”
of the magnet.
Cut a bar magnet-you get two smaller magnets (no magnetic monopoles).
Magnetic Field Lines The field lines are closely spaced near the poles, where
the magnetic field B is most intense. In addition, the lines form closed loops that
leave at the north pole of the magnet and enter at the south pole.
Iron filings that have oriented in the magnetic field produced by a bar magnet
Magnetic Field
Lines
𝐵2 𝐴
𝐹= NO DERIVATION REQD.
2𝜇0
F is force (SI unit: newton)
A is the cross section of the area of the pole in square meters
B is the magnetic induction exerted by the magnet
The force of attraction and repulsion between poles is due to interaction of the
magnetic fields.
A simple apparatus demonstrates that something wierd happens when charges are
in motion: If we run currents next to one another in parallel, we find that they are
attracted when the currents run in the same direction; they are repulsed when the
currents run in opposite directions. This is despite the fact the wires are completely
neutral: if we put a stationary test charge near the wires, it feels no force.
Furthermore, experiments show that the force is proportional to the current. If you
double the current in one of the wires, you double the force. Double the current in
both wires, and you quadruple the force.
What we say is that some kind of Magnetic Field ‘B’ arises from the current. The
interaction of two magnetic fields produces an attraction or repulsion force.
Right Hand Rule : With a flat right hand, point thumb in direction of velocity v,
fingers in direction of B field. The flat hand pushes in the direction of force F.
F v sin
2.5 Magnitude of the Magnetic Force on a charge. Experimental observations
show the following:
F
F qv sin or constant
qv sin
By choosing appropriate units for the constant of proportionality, we can now define
the B-field as:
A magnetic field intensity of one tesla (T) exists in a region of space where a charge
of one coulomb (C) moving at 1 m/s perpendicular to the B-field will experience a
force of one newton (N).
2.7 Magnetic Field of a Current Carrying Coil. Arranging wire in a coil and
running a current through produces a magnetic field that looks a lot like a bar
magnet.
2.8 Determining Direction of Magnetic Field of a Coil. If you wrap your fingers
around the coil in the direction of the current, your thumb points north.
2.9 Representing Currents/ Magnetic Fields.
2.11 Lorentz Force. If we have both electric and magnetic Fields, the total
force that acts on a charge is of course given by
Where c is the speed of light. The appearance of c in this force law is a hint that
special relativity plays an important role in these discussions.
The separation will stop when FB experienced by the current carrier is balanced
by the force FH caused by the E Field set up by the separated charges.
Hence there will be a voltage set up across the conductor ie between top surface
and bottom surface.
3. MAGNETIC FORCE ON CURRENTS.
n= no of charges / volume
Vd= L/t
i=nqLA/t
The production of this force is known as the motor effect, because this force is
used in electric motors and the same phenomena is used for electrical
indicating instruments.
3.2 Flemings Left Hand Rule. Rule for predicting the direction of force on
a current carrying conductor in magnetic field
3.3 Determination of Force Direction on Current carrying Conductors in Magnetic
Field can also be done using magnetic field lines.
Magnetic fields that are in the same direction make the combined fields
stronger. Magnetic fields that are in opposite direction make the combined
fields weaker.
3.4 The Force Between Two Parallel Wires. If we place two current carrying wires
held parallel to each other, they always attract or repel each other. The direction of
force of attraction is given by the Fleming’s left hand rule. According to the Fleming’s
left hand rule, if we stretch our fore finger , middle finger and the thumb of left hand
so that they are mutually perpendicular to each other, then the fore finger indicates
the direction of produced magnetic field due to the another wire, middle finger
indicated the direction of current in the wire and the thumb indicates the direction of
force.
IaB IaB
b b b b
max F2 F4
2 2 2 2
max IaB b
max IAB
If the field makes an angle with a line perpendicular to the plane of the loop:
a a
F1 sin F3 sin
2 2
a a
IbB sin IbB sin IabB sin
2 2
IAB sin
4. PHENOMENA OF INDUCED CURRENT.
4.1 Magnetic Flux and Flux Density. Consider the figure below. Each field line
represents a magnetic flux Φ and Magnetic Flux Density Flux through a unit
perpendicular area.
B=Φ/A (The unit of flux density is the Weber per square meter)
4.2 Faraday’s Law. Michael Faraday found experimentally that the magnitude
of the induced emf is proportional to the rate at which the magnetic flux changed.
Faraday’s law can be written as,
N ; B A.
t
where N is the number of turns in the loops, A is the area of one loop, ξ is the
induced emf, and B is the magnetic flux density is the perpendicular
component of the magnetic field.
The SI unit for the induced emf is the volt, V. The minus sign in the above
Faraday’s law of induction is due to the fact that the induced emf will always oppose
the change. It is also known as the Lenz’s law.
4.3 Lenz’s Law. Russian Physicist Heinrich F.E. Lenz, in 1834 based on
experimental observations deduced what is called the Lenz’s Law which states that
The direction of the induced current is such that the induced magnetic field
always opposes the change in the flux”.
4.4 Self and Mutual Inductance. The phenomenon of self-induction was first
recognized by the American scientist Joseph Henry. He was able to generate large
and spectacular electric arcs by interrupting the current in a large copper coil with
many turns. (While a steady current is flowing in a coil, the energy in the magnetic
field is given by 1/2Li2. If both the inductance L and the current i are large, the amount
of energy is also large. If the current is interrupted, as, for example, by opening a
knife-blade switch, the current and therefore the magnetic flux through the coil drop
quickly and the resulting electromotive force induced in the coil craetes a large
potential difference is developed between the two poles of the switch. The energy
stored in the magnetic field of the coil is dissipated as heat and radiation in an
electric arc across the space between the terminals of the switch).
4.4.1 Self Inductance. When a time-dependent i.e. a varying current flows
through a coil, the flux through the coil ( due to the magnetic field produced by
current in it) will keep on changing. Hence an induced e.m.f. will be produced in it.
This process is called self induction.
When a current i1 flows in circuit 1, i1 produces a magnetic field B1; the magnetic flux
through circuit 1 due to current i1 is Φ11. Since B1 is proportional to i1, Φ11 is as well.
The constant of proportionality is the self-inductance L1 of the circuit. It is defined by
the equation
4.4.2 Mutual Inductance. If a second circuit is present, some of the field B1 will
pass through circuit 2 and there will be a magnetic flux Φ 21 in circuit 2 due to the
current i1. This phenomena is described as Mutual Inductance.
Self-Inductances” are L1 and L2
The voltage induced in one circuit is related to the time-varying current in the other
circuit.
1
2
1
Check the signs of Induced emfs.
4.5 Eddy Currents. Eddy currents are created through a process called
electromagnetic induction. When alternating current is applied to the conductor,
such as copper wire, a magnetic field develops in and around the conductor. This
magnetic field expands as the alternating current rises to maximum and collapses as
the current is reduced to zero. If another electrical conductor is brought into the
proximity of this changing magnetic field, the reverse effect will occur. Magnetic field
cutting through the second conductor will cause an “induced” current to flow in this
second conductor. Eddy currents are a form of induced currents.
4.5.1 Thus Eddy Currents are closed loops of induced current circulating in planes
perpendicular to the magnetic flux. They normally travel parallel to the coil's winding
and the flow is limited to the area of the inducing magnetic field. Eddy Currents
concentrate near to the surface adjacent to an excitation coil and their strength
decreases with distance from the coil i.e. Eddy Current density decreases
exponentially with depth.
5. ANALOG INSTRUMENTS
5.1 An analog device is one in which the output or display is a continuous function
of time and bears a constant relation to its input.
5.2.1 Absolute Instruments. These instruments give the value of the electrical
quantity in terms of absolute quantities (or some constants) of the instruments and
their deflections. In this type of instruments no calibration or comparison with other
instruments is necessary. They are generally not used in laboratories and are
seldom used in practice by electricians and engineers. They are mostly used as
means of standard measurements and are maintained by national laboratories and
similar institutions. Some of the examples of absolute instruments are Tangent
galvanometer, Raleigh current balance, Absolute electrometer.
5.2.2 Secondary Instruments. They are direct reading instruments. The quantity
to be measured by these instruments can be determined from the deflection of the
instruments. They are often calibrated by comparing them with either some absolute
instruments or with those which have already been calibrated. The deflections
obtained with secondary instruments will be meaningless until it is not calibrated.
These instruments are used in general for all laboratory purposes. Some of the very
widely used secondary instruments are: ammeters, voltmeter, wattmeter, energy
meter (watt-hour meter), ampere-hour meters etc.
Principle of
Dynomometer
Instruments
Note: Generally the magnetic effect and the electromagnetic induction effect
are utilized for the construction of the commercial instruments.
(a) Deflecting Torque The deflecting torque, causes the moving system
of the instrument to move from its zero position. It may be produced by
utilizing any one of the effects of current or voltage in the instrument such as
magnetic effect, electromagnetic induction effect, heating effect, electrostatic
effect etc. The actual method of producing a deflecting torque depends upon
the type of the instruments. The deflecting torque has to provide the following
torque components present in the system:-
(i) The torque required to overcome the torque due to the inertia of
the moving system.
(i) It limits the movement of the moving system and ensures that the
magnitude of the deflections always remains the same for a given
value of the quantity to be measured.
(ii) It brings back the moving system to its zero position where the
quantity being measured is removed or made zero.
At Equilibrium
Td = TC
Or
I= (Ks/K) * θ
This equation shows that the current is directly proportional to the deflection
and is a linear relation The scale with spring controlled instrument for
deflecting torque will be uniform throughout the scale.
When the control weight is in vertical position, the controlling torque is zero
and hence the pointer must read zero. However, if the deflecting torque lifts
the controlling weight from position A to B as shown such that the spindle
rotates by an angle θ, then due to gravity a restoring (or controlling) torque is
exterted on the moving system.
Tc = Wl sin θ= kg sin θ
I= (Kg/K) * Sin θ
This relation shows that current I is proportional to sin θ and not θ . Hence in
gravity controlled instruments the scale is not uniform. It is cramped for the
lower readings, instead of being uniformly divided, for the deflecting torque
assumed to be directly proportional to the quantity being measured.
(e) Damping Torque We know that the moving system of the instrument
will tend to move under the action of the deflecting torque. But on account of
the control torque, it will try to occupy a position of rest when the two torques
are equal and opposite. However, due to inertia of the moving system, the
pointer will not come to rest immediately but oscillate about its final deflected
position as shown in Fig. below and takes appreciable time to come to steady
state.
To overcome this difficulty a damping torque is to be developed by using a
damping device attached to the moving system. The damping torque is
proportional to the speed of rotation of the moving system, that is
Depending upon the degree of damping introduced in the moving system, the
instrument may have
any one of the following conditions :-
2. Over damped condition: The response is sluggish and it rises very slowly
from its zero position to final position.
In practice, the best response is slightly obtained when the damping is below
the critical value i.e., the instrument is slightly under damped.
PIVOTING SUPPORT
(c) Pointers and Scales. It is essential that the pointer must be light
and must have small inertia constant so as to reduce the load in the bearing
of the moving system and to avoid high degree of damping. Its outline must
be bold with sharp pointer in the first type. We often use aluminium strip on
tube for the pointer. The scale of an instrument of first category is mostly
printed on the enamelled surface of a metal plate, or on paper or card-board
cemented rigidly to a metal backing plate.
5.6 Torque/Weight Ratio. In order to reduce the load on the bearings and to
reduce the frictional torque (proportional to the pressure on the bearing surface), the
weight of the moving should be made as small as possible. The ratio of the
deflecting torque (in Nm, when it acts at a radius of 1 metre) to produce full scale
deflection to the weight of the moving system in kg should always be more than 0.1.
This ratio is influenced by whether the axis of moving system is vertical or horizontal.
6.1 The basic analog instruments for measuring electrical entities are
a) Moving Iron Instrument.
b) Permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC).
c) Electro-dynamometer type.
d) Hot wire type.
e) Thermocouple type.
f) Induction type.
g) Electrostatic type.
h) Rectifier type.
6.1.1 All the above mentioned instruments are used for measuring current, voltage,
power or energy by introducing some modifications to the basic instruments. Also the
phenomena of operation of these instruments makes them desirable to be used in
AC or DC sources. Not all instruments mentioned above can be used for
measurement of AC electrical entities. A brief summary of usage of the above
instruments is enumerated below. The principle on account of which their
applicability to different current sources is possible will be discussed subsequently.
6.2 Moving Iron Instrument In moving –iron instruments the movable system
consists of one or more pieces of specially-shaped soft iron, which are so pivoted as
to be acted upon by the magnetic field produced by the current in coil. There are two
general types of moving-iron instruments namely (i) Repulsion (or double iron) type
(ii) Attraction (or single-iron) type. The brief description of different components of a
moving-iron instrument is given below.
(a) Moving element: a small piece of soft iron in the form of a vane or rod.
(b)Coil: to produce the magnetic field due to current flowing through it and also
to magnetize the iron pieces.
(c) In repulsion type, a fixed vane or rod is also used and magnetized with the
same polarity.
At equilibrium i.e. for steady deflection, Deflecting torque = Controlling torque. If the
instrument is gravity controlled then control torque is related component of weight.
i.e TD = TC
KI = Kg Sinθ
I = (Kg / K) Sinθ
This relation shows that current I is proportional to sin θ and not θ. Hence in gravity
controlled instruments the scale is not uniform. It is cramped for the lower readings,
instead of being uniformly divided, for the deflecting torque assumed to be directly
proportional to the quantity being measured.
6.2.4 Full Scale Deflection. For a given moving-iron instrument the ampere-turns
necessary to produce full-scale deflection are constant. The range of current for full
scale deflection is 1μA- 10mA. One can alter the range of ammeters by providing a
shunt coil with the moving coil.
6.2.5 MI as Ammeter. To use a MI instrument as an ammeter, we have to
connect a very very low resistance called the shunt resistance in parallel with MI
instrument and the whole MI setup with shunt is to be connected in series with the
current being measured.
Moving Iron Instrument
Rm MI as Ammeter
Rsh
MI Ammeter Circuit
I Im
MI Multirange Ammeter
V I m ( Rs Rm )
V I m Rm V
Rs Rm
Im Im
V
Rs Rm
Im
Advantages:
• The instruments are suitable for use in a.c and d.c circuits because
whatever may be the polarity of the applied current, the soft iron (Movable)
will always be attracted to the magnetic field created.
• The instruments are robust, owing to the simple construction of the
moving parts.
• The stationary parts of the instruments are also simple.
• Instrument is low cost compared to moving coil instrument.
• Torque/weight ration is high, thus less frictional error.
Errors/ Disadvantages:
Errors due to temperature variation.
Errors due to friction is quite small as torque-weight ratio is high in
moving-iron instruments.
Stray fields cause relatively low values of magnetizing force produced
by the coil. Efficient magnetic screening is essential to reduce this
effect.
Error due to variation of frequency causes change of reactance of the
coil and also changes the eddy currents induced in neighboring metal.
Deflecting torque is not exactly proportional to the square of the current
due to non-linear characteristics of iron material.
6.3.1 Principle of operation. It has been mentioned that the interaction between
the induced field and the field produced by the permanent magnet causes a
deflecting torque, which results in rotation of the coil.
6.3.2 Torque Expression. It is assumed that the coil sides are situated in a uniform
radial magnetic field of flux density B W/m2, let the length of a coil side (within the
magnetic field) be l (meter), and the distance from each coil side to the axis be r
(meter).
Deflecting Torque TD α Current I
TD = KI
Controlling Torque TC = KS θ
Where KS = Spring Constant
θ = Spring Deflection
At equilibrium i.e. for steady deflection, Deflecting torque = Controlling torque.
i.e TD = TC
KI = KS θ
I = (KS / K) θ
This relation shows that current I is proportional to θ. Hence in Spring controlled
instruments the scale is uniform.
In order to achieve a final steady state deflection without any oscillations about the
final value of deflection, a damping torque is provided in the system. It is provided by
the induced currents in a metal former or core on which the coil is wound or in the
circuit of the coil itself. As the coil moves in the field of the permanent magnet, eddy
currents are set up in the metal former or core. The magnetic field produced by the
eddy currents opposes the motion of the coil. The pointer will therefore swing more
slowly to its proper position and come to rest quickly with very little oscillation.
Electromagnetic damping is caused by the induced effects in the moving coil as it
rotates in magnetic field, provided the coil forms part of closed electric circuit.
On other side, the coil resistance increases with an increase in temperature. These
changes lead to make the pointer read low for a given current with respect to
magnetic field strength and coil resistance. Use of manganin resistance (known as
swamping resistance which has a temperature coefficient practically zero) in series
with the coil resistance can reduce the error due to the variation of resistance of the
moving coil.
The swamping resistance (r) is usually three times that of coil thereby reducing a
possible error of, say, 4% to 1%. A multirange ammeter can be constructed simple
by employing several values of shunt resistances, with a rotary switch to select the
desired range. Figure below shows the circuit arrangement.
Multirange PMMC Ammeter
When an instrument is used in this fashion, care must be taken to ensure shunt does
not become open-circuited, even for a very short instant. When the switch is moved
from position ‘B’ to ‘C’ or moved to any positions, the shunt resistance will remain
open-circuited for a fraction of time, resulting a very large current may flow through
the ammeter and damage the instrument. To avoid such situation, one may use the
make-before-break switch as shown below
The wide-ended moving contact gets connected to the next terminal to which it is
being moved before it loses contact with the previous terminals. Thus, during the
switching time there are two resistances are parallel with the instrument and finally
the required shunt only will come in parallel to the instrument.
Advantages:
• The scale is uniformly divided
• The power consumption can be made very low (25Wμto 200μW).
• The torque-weight ratio can be made high with a view to achieve high
accuracy.
• A single instrument can be used for multi range ammeters and
voltmeters.
• Error due to stray magnetic field is very small.
Limitations:
• They are suitable for direct current only.
• The instrument cost is high.
• Variation of magnet strength with time.
Proper pivoting and balancing weight may reduce the frictional error.
Suitable aging can reduce the magnetic decay.
Use of manganin resistance in series (swamping resistance) can nullify the
effect of variation of resistance of the instrument circuit due to temperature
variation.
The stiffness of spring, permeability of magnetic core (Magnetic core is the
core of electromagnet or inductor which is typically made by winding a coil of
wire around a ferromagnetic material) decreases with increases in
temperature.
Current flow through the stationary (fixed) coils sets up a magnetic field. Current flow
through the moving coils sets up an opposing magnetic field. With two magnetic
fields opposing, the pointer deflects to the right. If the current reverses direction, the
magnetic fields of both sets of coils will be reversed. With both fields reversed, the
coils still oppose each other, and the pointer still deflects to the right. Therefore, no
rectifying devices are required to enable the electrodynamometer meter
movement to read both ac and dc. Rectifying devices are required for the
D’Arsonval-type meter
movement to enable it to be used for measuring ac voltages and currents.
Electrodynamometer: Generation of Field
θ α I2
θ α V2
Thus whether used for measuring current or voltage the scale is uneven being
crowded near zero.
Deflection in Dynamometer with Current Direction
Electrodynamometer as Ammeter
Electrodynamometer as Voltmeter
These instruments are free from errors due to frequency, wave form and external
magnetic fields when used on ac and so can be used for measurement of current at
frequencies above the range of moving-iron and dynamometer type instruments.
Hot-wire ammeters were very popular in the last decade of the nineteenth century
and in the first two decades of the present century but because of their inherent
draw-backs they have been largely superseded by thermo-couple instruments and
are not used extensively now-a-days. However, owing to their good transfer
characteristics at high frequencies, they are employed for determination of the
differences of indications of other types of instruments on ac and dc and in special
measurement applications.
The Seebeck effect is fairly linear; that is, the voltage produced by a heated junction
of two wires is directly proportional to the temperature. This means that the
temperature of the metal wire junction can be determined by measuring the voltage
produced. Thus, the Seebeck effect provides for us an electric method of
temperature measurement.
When a pair of dissimilar metals are joined together for the purpose of measuring
temperature, the device formed is called a thermocouple. Thermocouples made for
instrumentation use metals of high purity for an accurate temperature/voltage
relationship (as linear and as predictable as possible).
Thermocouple Instrument
Advantages
Disadvantages
The primary circuit consists of an ac generator and a pure inductance (we consider a
negligible resistance for the coil). Then the average power dissipated in the primary
coil is zero. The magnetizing current in the primary coil and the voltage drop across
the primary coil are out of phase by 90º.
6.6.2 The current or voltage being measured acts on the primary winding of the
transformer; the secondary (step-down) winding is connected to measuring
instruments and protective relays.
Current Transformer
6.6.4.1 Examples of Current Transformers. Some examples of current
transformers in regular use are described below:-
(a) Clamp on Clip on C.T. This is a C.T., in which the core can be
opened with the help of a clamp and the conductor (whose current is to
measured) can be inserted into the core. This conductor acts as a primary
winding. The secondary winding is wound on the laminated core. A low range
ammeter is connected across the secondary, which measures current of the
conductor. It is a portable instrument, which can be used in laboratories.
(b) Bar type C T. A bar type C T has a circular ring type core, over
which secondary winding is wound, across which a direct reading ampere
meter is connected. When a bar conductor or a Bus bar whose current, is to
be measured is inserted in to the ring, the ampere meter reads the current .
This C.T. is used with the instrument (Ammeter) placed on the switch
board/panel board. This type of C.T. is also used with protective relays.
They are used also to operate protective relays and devices, and for many other
applications, since they are used in a monitoring capacity, they generally require
much greater accuracy in design.
Voltage Transformer
(i) The potential transformers are used as the high voltage voltmeters, as
the ordinary voltmeters. The current transformers are used in place of the
ordinary ammeters, to measure the high values of the currents in the high
voltage power applications.
(ii) There are several different windings of the primary in the potential
transformer. But in the current transformer, there is only the single winding i.e.
the main live line.
(iii) PT is used to step-down the higher magnitudes of the power
transmission voltages, stepping-up the current. On the other hand, the CT
steps-down the high values of currents and steps-up the voltage at the same
time.
(iv) There is one potential transformer required for the three phase
transmission line. But for the same three phase line, three current
transformers are needed, one on each phase.
With the normal 50 Hz or higher supply frequencies, the damping mechanisms and
the inertia of the meter movement prevent the pointer from following the changing
instantaneous levels of the signal.
The instruments pointer settles at the average value of the current flowing through
the moving coil which is zero.
The frequency of a.c signal is defined as the number of cycles traversed in one
second. Thus the time duration of one cycle per second for a.c signal is known as
the period (T). Where the complete variation of a.c signal before repeated itself is
represent one cycle.
6.7.2.1 Average Values. It is found by dividing the area under the curve of
the waveform in one period (T) by the time of the period.
Average value= Algebraic sum of the areas under the curve / Length of the curve
OR
6.7.2.1 Root Mean Square (RMS) Values. The rms value of an ac signal
is its effective value which represents the power capability of an ac signal. It is refer
to the effective value of a.c signal because the r.m.s value equal to the value of a d.c
signal which would deliver the same power if it replaced with a.c signal.
If f(t) = Vm Sinθdθ
6.7.3 Diode. The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass
in one direction (called the diode's forward direction), while blocking current in the opposite
direction (the reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be viewed as an electronic version of a check
valve. This unidirectional behavior is called rectification, and is used to convert alternating current to
direct current, including extraction of modulation from radio signals in radio receivers—these diodes
are forms of rectifiers.
+ -
6.7.5 Full Wave Rectifier. A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input
waveform to one of constant polarity (positive or negative) at its output. Full-wave
rectification converts both polarities of the input waveform to DC (direct current), and
yields a higher mean output voltage. Two diodes and a center tapped transformer, or
four diodes in a bridge configuration and any AC source (including a transformer
without center tap), are needed.
Vav 2 * ( 1
2 VmSind )
0
The average and root-mean-square no-load output voltages of an ideal single-phase
full-wave rectifier are:
6.7.6 D’arsonval Meter Movement Used With Half Wave Rectification. The
D’Arsonval meter movement can be used to measure alternating current by the use of a
diode rectifier to produce unidirectional current flow.
VP Vp 2 Vrms
Vrms Vave V dc 0.318V p Vave 0.45Vrms
2
In case of a half wave rectifier, if given input voltage, Ein = 10 Vrms, then:
Therefore, the pointer will deflect for a full scale if 10 Vdc is applied and only
4.5 V when a 10 Vrms sinusoidal signal is applied.
The polarities in circles on the transformer secondary are for the positive half cycle.
Since current flows through the meter movement on both half cycles, we can expect the
deflection of the pointer to be greater than with the half wave cycle, which allows current to
flow only on every other half cycle; if the deflection remains the same, the instrument using
full wave rectification will have a greater sensitivity.
In case of a Full wave rectifier, if given input voltage, Ein = 10 Vrms, then:
Therefore, we can see that a 10Vrms voltage is equivalent to 9Vdc for full-scale
deflection.
This means an ac voltmeter using full wave rectification has a sensitivity equal
to 90% of the dc sensitivity
Advantages
Disadvantages
6.8 AC Power Meters. Power in an electric circuit is the rate of flow of energy
past a given point of the circuit. In alternating current circuits, energy storage
elements such as inductance and capacitance may result in periodic reversals of the
direction of energy flow. The portion of power that, averaged over a complete cycle
of the AC waveform, results in net transfer of energy in one direction is known as
real power. The portion of power due to stored energy, which returns to the source in
each cycle, is known as reactive power.
6.8.4 AC Power. As in the case with DC power, the instantaneous electric power
in an AC circuit is given by P = VI, but these quantities are continuously varying.
Almost always the desired power in an AC circuit is the average power, which is
given by:
where φ is the phase angle between the current and the voltage and where V and I
are understood to be the effective or rms values of the voltage and current. The term
cos φ is called the "power factor" for the circuit.
6.8.5 Active, Reactive & Apparent Power. When a circuit has resistive and
reactive parts, the resultant power has 2 parts:
The first is dissipated in the resistive element. This is the active power, P .
The second is stored and returned by the reactive element. This is the reactive
power, Q , which has units of volt amperes reactive or var.
While reactive power is not dissipated it does have an effect on the system as it
increases the current that must be supplied and increases losses (I2R) with cables.
Apparent Power S = VI VA
S2=P2+Q2
In a three-phase system, three circuit conductors carry three alternating currents (of
the same frequency) which reach their instantaneous peak values at one third of a
cycle from each other. Taking one current as the reference, the other two currents
are delayed in time by one third and two thirds of one cycle of the electric current.
This delay between phases has the effect of giving constant power transfer over
each cycle of the current and also makes it possible to produce a rotating magnetic
field in an electric motor.
6.8.7 Three Phase Generator. The three-phase generator has three induction
coils placed 120° apart on the stator. The three coils have an equal number of turns,
the voltage induced across each coil will have the same peak value, shape and
frequency.
6.8.8. Three Phase Circuit Configuration. There are two basic three phase
configurations: delta or wye(star). With Delta you get lower voltage but more amps.
In star you get higher voltage but less amps.
6.8.8.1 WYE (STAR) Configuration. By commoning the "starts" of each
phase together a Three or four wire-system (three "line" voltages or phases, and a
neutral conductor) can be created. The net current flowing into or out of the star point
is zero because each phase uses the other two for its return path. The net voltage is
also zero at the star point.
For a balanced system, the angles between the phases is 120o and the magnitudes
are all equal. Thus the line voltages would be 300 leading the nearest phase voltage.
Calculation will easily show that the magnitude of the line voltage is √3 times the
phase voltage.
Therefore
ZΔ = 3 * ZY
6.8.9. Three Phase Power. For a balanced star connected load with line
voltage VL and line current IL,
For a balanced delta connected load with line voltage Vline and line current Iline
It is worth noting here, that although the currents and voltages inside the star
connected load and the delta connected loads are different, the expressions for
apparent power, active power and reactive power are the same for both types of
loads when expressed in terms of the line quantities.
Thus for a three phase system (in fact we do not even have to know whether it is a
load or not, or whether it is star-connected or delta-connected)
Inside the wattmeter are two coils: a current-sensing coil and a voltage-sensing coil.
In this example, we assume for simplicity that the impedance of the current-sensing
coil ZI is zero and that the impedance of the voltage-sensing coil ZV is infinite. In
practice, this will not necessarily be true; some correction mechanism will be
required to account for the impedance of the sensing coils. A wattmeter should be
connected so as to provide both current and voltage measurements. We see that the
current-sensing coil is placed in series with the load and that the voltage-sensing coil
is placed in parallel with the load.
P2-P1 = 𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 sin 𝜃
𝑄 𝑃2 −𝑃1
tan 𝜃 = 𝑃𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = √3 𝑃2 +𝑃1
(Power Factor)
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
6.8.9.3 AC Energy Meters. An electric meter or energy meter is a device that
measures the amount of energy consumed by a residence, business, or an electrically
kilowatt hour is most commonly known as a billing unit for energy delivered to consumers by
electric utilities. A unit of energy, especially electrical energy, equal to the work done by one
watt acting for one hour and equivalent to 3,600 joules.