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1,000,000
Purchased cost, $
y = 103.92x0.7096
100,000
10,000
1000
100 1000 10,000 100,000
Weight, kg
FIGURE A1
Vertical and horizontal pressure vessels. Material factors: Table 19.5.
831
832 Appendices
10,000,000
y = 8380.1x0.5378
Purchased cost, $
10,00,000
Floating roof
y = 1226.9x0.7154
10,000
100 1000 10,000
Volume, m3
FIGURE A2
Storage tanks. Material factors: coating 1.1–1.3, SS clad 1.5.
80,000 100,000
1–5 bar 1.05 m
90,000
5–15 bar
70,000 1.05 m
Purchased cost, $
Purchased cost, $
80,000
60,000
0.9 m 70,000
50,000 60,000 0.9 m
0.75 m
40,000 50,000 0.75 m
0.6 m 40,000
30,000 0.6 m
0.45 m 30,000 0.45 m
20,000
0.3 m 20,000
10,000 0.3 m
10,000
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Packed height, m Packed height, m
FIGURE A3
Packed columns purchased cost.
2,000,000 3,000,000
1–5 bar 5–15 bar 6m
6m
2,500,000
Purchased cost, $
Purchased cost, $
1,500,000
2,000,000
4.5 m
4.5 m
1,000,000 1,500,000
3m 1,000,000 3m
500,000
1.5 m 500,000 1.5 m
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Number of trays Number of trays
FIGURE A4
Sieve-tray columns purchased cost.
Appendices 833
2,000,000 3,000,000
1–5 bar 6m 5–15 bar 6m
1,800,000
2,500,000
Purchased cost, $
Purchased cost, $
1,600,000
1,400,000 4.5 m 2,000,000
1,200,000 4.5 m
1,000,000 1,500,000
800,000 3m
1,000,000
600,000 3m
1.5 m
400,000
500,000
200,000 1.5 m
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Number of trays Number of trays
FIGURE A5
Valve columns purchased cost.
Horizontal
evaporator
1,000,000 Vertical
evaporator
Purchased cost, $
100,000
Air cooler
Spiral plate
10,000
1 10 100 1000 10,000
Area, m2
FIGURE A6
Heat exchangers purchased cost.
Purchased cost, $
10,000
Reciprocating
duplex
1000
10 100 1000 10,000 100,000
Capacity, l/min
FIGURE A7
Pumps purchased cost.
100,000
Purchased cost, $
2 stages
10,000
1 stage
1000
100 1000 10,000
Capacity, l/min
FIGURE A8
Vacuum pumps purchased cost.
Purchased cost, $
10,000,000
1,000,000
9 stages
4 stages
100,000 100,000
1 10 100 1000 10,000 1 100 10,000
3
Capacity, m /min Capacity, m3/min
FIGURE A9
Compressors purchased cost.
Table A2 Purchased Equipment Cost for Some Plant Equipment Items
Equipment Unit for Size Size a b n
Filters
Plate and frame Capacity (m3) 0.4–1.4 128,000 89,000 0.5
Vacuum drum Area (m2) 10–180 73,000 93,000 0.3
Furnaces
Cylindrical Duty (MW) 0.2–60 80,000 109,000 0.8
Box Duty (MW) 30–120 43,000 111,000 0.8
Packings
304 Raschig rings m3 0 8000 1.0
Ceramic Intalox saddles m3 0 2000 1.0
304 SS Pall rings m3 0 8500 1.0
PVC structured packing m3 0 5500 1.0
304 SS structured packing m3 0 7600 1.0
Pressure vesselsa
Vertical, CS Shell (kg) 160–250,000 11,600 34 0.85
Horizontal, CS Shell (kg) 160–5000 10,200 31 0.85
Vertical, 304 SS Shell (kg) 120–250,000 17,400 79 0.85
Horizontal, 304 SS Shell (kg) 120–50,000 12,800 73 0.85
Pumps and drivers
Single stage centrifugal Flow (l/s) 0.2–126 8000 240 0.9
Explosion proof Power (kW) 1–2500 1100 2100 0.6
Condensing steam turbine Power (kW) 14,000 1900 0.75
Reactors
Jacketed, agitated Volume (m3) 0.5–100 61,500 32,500 0.8
Jacketed, agitated, glass lined Volume (m3) 0.5–25 12,800 88,200 0.4
Tanks
Floating roof Capacity (m3) 100–10,000 113,000 3250 0.65
Cone roof Capacity (m3) 10–4800 5800 1600 0.70
Trays
Sieve trays Diameter (m) 0.5–5.0 130 440 1.8
Valve trays Diameter (m) 0.5–5.0 210 400 1.9
Bubble cap trays Diameter (m) 0.5–5.0 340 640 1.9
Utilitiesb
Cooling tower and pumps Flow (l/s) 100–10,000 170,000 1500 0.9
Mechanical refrigeration Duty (kW) 50–1500 24,000 3500 0.9
Water ion exchange plant Flow (m3/h) 1–50 14,000 6200 0.75
a
Not including heads, ports, brackets, internals, and so on. Wall thickness calculation in Section 20.2.3.
b
Field assembled.
Appendices 837
in which Cs is the cost per unit amount of steam, Pe the cost per unit of energy (GJ/tonne), Hs the energy
needed to generate the unit amount of steam (GJ tonne fuel), the efficiency of converting energy in
steam and CBFW the cost of boiling feed water (BFW) for make-up and treatment. Hs includes the en-
ergy for BFW pre-heating and the heat of vaporization for saturated steam, as well as the heat for super-
heating and reheat in the case of steam for combined heat and power generation. These data are
available from steam tables, as given in Appendix D. The input data are the cost of energy, steam pres-
sure, BFW and superheating temperatures.
Alternatively, the cost of steam can be determined from the amount of fuel used, obtained in turn by
dividing the energy used for steam generation by the low heating value (LHV).
Hs
Cs ¼ Pf + CBFW (B-2)
LHV
in which Pf is the price of fuel per unit of sales. Table B1 illustrates the combustion characteristics of
some fuels (International Energy Agency, wds.iea.org). The table contains density, net calorific heat
(LHV), gross calorific heat (HHV) and carbon intensity.
A common unit in energy in USA is BOE (barrel oil equivalent) based on of 5.88 106 Btu or 6.1 GJ
(1 Btu ¼ 1.055 kJ). Note that 1 barrel is 42 gallon or 0.159 m3. Heating fuel oils are No.1 fuel (35 API
or 850 kg/m3) similar to kerosene or No.2 fuel (30 API or 876 kg/m3) comparable to diesel.
As simple example, let us consider the generation of saturated steam at 40 bar and 250 C with
BFW at 220 C. From Appendix D, one gets:
H s ¼ ðHl, 250 Hl, 220 Þ + DHv, 250 ¼ ð1086 944Þ + 1716 ¼ 1858MJ=t ¼ 1:858GJ=t:
For energy conversion, one may consider an overall efficiency of 0.80. If the price of energy is, for
example, 10 $/GJ, then the cost of steam is Cs ¼ 10 1.858/0.80 ¼ 23.2 $/tonne.
where Ct,ww is the cost of treatment in $ per unit of waste, IC the Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index
(CEPCI) and PE the price of energy per GJ.
Coal 1 short tonne ¼ 19.86 106 Btu ¼ 21.28 GJ ¼ 0.907 metric tonne
Electricity 1 kW h ¼ 3412 Btu ¼ 3.6 MJ ¼ 800 kcal
Natural gas 1000 ft3 ¼ 1.023 106 Btu ¼ 1.084 GJ ¼ 28.317 m3
Crude oil 1 bbl ¼ 5.8 106 Btu ¼ 6.12 GJ ¼ 0.1364 metric tonne ¼ 0.159 m3
Diesel and heating oil 100 gal ¼ 13.87 106 Btu ¼ 14.633 MJ ¼ 0.3192 metric tonne ¼ 0.3785 m3
Gasoline 100 gal ¼ 12.42 106 Btu ¼ 13.11 MJ ¼ 0.2791 metric tonne ¼ 0.3785 m3
Note: The conversion from mass and volume units to energy follows the average composition of fuels in USA in 2013.
Appendices 839
Natural gas a
38 E/MW h 10–5 $/ft3; 35–17 $/100 m3 std
10.6 E/GJ 9.2–4.6 $/GJ
Fuel oil 450–500 E/tonne 3–2 $/gal; 793–528 $/m3
4 E/GJ 20.7–13.9 $/GJ
Steamb
HP distribution 35 E/tonnec 31–15 $/tonne, 42 bar, 400 C/BFW, 130 C
Electricity 0.130 E/kW h public 0.11 $/kW h public
0.066 E/kW h industry 0.07 $/kW h industry
Process waterd 0.15 E/m3 0.10 $/m3
Cooling water (tower)d 0.025–0.05 E/m3 0.02–0.03 $/m3
Chilled water (10 C)d 0.15–0.30 E/m3 0.2 $/m3
Demineralised waterd 1.0–1.5 E/m3 0.5–0.9 $/m3
Compressed air (9 bar)d 0.01 E/m3 0.50 $/100 Nm3
Refrigerationd 12–15 E/GJ
Biodegradationd 20–30 E/tonne 200–500 $/tonne organics
Landfilld 62 E/tonne 50 $/tonne
a
The trend in USA over 2008–2012 shows a strong fall in energy prices due to shale gas.
b
The cost of steam considers the cost of energy supplied by burning natural gas per 1 GJ heat used for steam generation: BFW
pre-heating 22%, vaporisation 63%, 15%.
c
Price overestimated since higher cost of energy. Onsite cost may drop significantly when using lower cost fuels.
d
Compilation from various sources.
Sources: www.eia.org and www.epp.eurostat.ec.europe.eu
Wastewater treatment consists in primary (filtration), secondary (plus activated sludge) and tertiary
(plus chemical cleaning) processing. The cost ($/m3) equations are:
• Primary treatment: Ct,ww ¼ (0.0001 + 2 107q1)IC + 0.002PE
• Secondary treatment: Ct,ww ¼ (0.0007 + 2 106q1)IC + 0.003PE
• Tertiary treatment: Ct,ww ¼ (0.0001 + 2 104q1)IC + 0.1PE
where q is total water capacity (m3/s), in the range 0.001 < q < 10 m3/s.
Wastewater treatment by membrane technology removes the solids by ultrafiltration. The cost can
be estimated by the following equations:
• Concentration of solids 2–4% w/w: Ct,ww ¼ (0.0015 + 6 105q0.6)IC + 0.13PE
• Concentration of solids 0.5–2% w/w: Ct,ww ¼ (0.0015 + 5 105q0.6)IC + 0.08PE
• Concentration of solids up to 0.5% w/w: Ct,ww ¼ (0.0015 + 4 105q0.6)IC + 0.02PE
Gaseous emissions can be treated by endothermic flaring and catalytic incineration or as waste fuel.
The cost ($/Nm3) equations are:
• Endothermic flaring: Ct,ww ¼ 1 106Q0.23 + 0.004PE
• Thermal or catalytic incinerator: Ct,ww ¼ 1 105Q0.23 + 0.002PE
• Combustion as fuel: Ct,ww ¼ 3.0 105(LHV)0.77Q0.23 6.0 104(LHV)
• Combustion with flue gas cleaning: Ct,ww ¼ 5.0 105(LHV)0.77Q0.23 5.0 104(LHV)
840 Appendices
in which Q is the gas flow rate in Nm3/s and LHV the lower calorific value in MJ/s. Note the negative b
coefficient meaning that the waste fuel burning returns credit.
Waste incineration cost can be evaluated by the equations:
• Supplementary fuel: Ct,ww ¼ 3.0 105(HHV)0.77m0.23 5.0 104(HHV)
• With gas cleaning: Ct,ww ¼ 5.0 105(HHV)0.77m0.23 5.0 104(HHV)
where m is the waste’s flow rate in kg/s and HHV the higher calorific value in MJ/s.
4. Neutral waters
a. Freshwater supply, slow moving or turbulent.
b. Seawater, low moving or turbulent.
5. Gases
a. Steam, dry or wet.
b. High-temperature (furnace) gases with oxidising effect.
c. Hydrogen-rich gases with pitting effect.
d. Halogens and halide acids.
Besides fluid corrosion, a particular attention has to be given to extreme temperature conditions in
which the equipment should work or ensure safety operation. Temperatures higher than 600 C require
special high-temperature steels. The same is valid for cryogenic conditions, where material still should
have good toughness at low temperatures. The mechanical strength of steels degrades significantly with
increasing temperature, particularly near to the creep limit.
When wall thickness is calculated, care should be given to correct estimation of the tensile strength
(stress) at the design temperature. This aspect is important when selecting high-alloy and special steels
that are much more expensive than carbon steel and mild alloy (see Table C1). Note that the thermal
conductivity of stainless steels is considerably lower than of carbon steel, implying much higher heat
transfer resistance. For example, thermal conductivity of carbon steel is about 50 W/m K, but only
10–15 W/m K for stainless steels.
Common metallic materials of constructions are discussed briefly below. Specific information
about properties and applications can be found in quality standards practiced in each country, as for
example, SAE, AISI, ASTM (USA), BS (UK), DIN (Germany), NF (France), UNI (Italy), and
NEN (The Netherlands).
Among different types of stainless steels, the most used in process industries are of austenitic
types. The main are briefly described.
1. Type 18Cr/8Ni SS type (304 in USA, 801B in UK and by X5CrNi18-9 in Germany) is the most used
in process industry. It is suitable for most of the applications except furnace gases, static seawater
and pitting media. It has a fair to good resistance to acidic solutions. The low-carbon variant 304L is
recommended for thicker welded parts. The version 321 stabilised with titanium is more suitable for
higher temperatures.
2. Type 18Cr/8Ni/2Mo (316 in USA, 845B in UK, X5CrNiMo18-12) where molybdenum has been
added to improve the resistance to reducing media, and dilute acid solutions, is almost an universal
steel. However, mechanical processing is more difficult. For welding thick parts, the low-carbon
version 316L is more suitable.
Table C1 shows some typical values for the stress that may be considered in mechanical design
calculation as function of temperature. It can be seen that a safety factor of about five is taken into
account at higher temperatures compared with the nominal tensile strength. Although the
corrosion resistance of standard steels 304 and 316 types is good, their thermal resistance above
600 C is not satisfactory. Heat-resistant steels for furnaces and cracking units are discussed in
Ullmann (2005).
Vl Vv Hl DHv Hv Sl DSv Sv
T ( C) P (kPa) (m3/kg) (m3/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg K) (kJ/kg K) (kJ/kg K)
Vl Vv Hl DHv Hv Sl DSv Sv
T ( C) P (kPa) (m3/kg) (m3/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg K) (kJ/kg K) (kJ/kg K)
340 14,599 0.001637 0.0108 1593.7 1028.6 2622.2 3.6572 1.6775 5.3347
350 16,527 0.001740 0.0088 1669.8 894.27 2564.0 3.7744 1.4351 5.2094
360 18,668 0.001895 0.0069 1760.9 720.17 2481.1 3.9133 1.1374 5.0507
370 21,052 0.002219 0.0049 1895.5 438.99 2334.5 4.1202 0.6826 4.8028
374 22,090 0.003155 0.0031 2099.3 0 2099.3 4.4298 0 4.4298
Methane Ethane
Propane n-Butane
n-Pentane n-Hexane
n-Heptane n-Octane
n-Decane Benzene
Toluene Xylene
Ethylbenzene Ethylene
Propylene 1-Hexene
1-Pentene 1-Butene
1,2-Butadiene 1,2,3-Trimethylbenzene
100
Vapour pressure, bar
10
1
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700
Temperature, K
Appendices 845
10
1
300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750
Temperature, K
Length
in. m 2.5400 102
ft m 0.3048
Mass
lb kg 0.45359
Force
lbf N 4.4482
kgf N 9.81
Temperature
C K C + 273.15
F K ( F + 459.67)/1.8
R K R/1.8
Pressure
in. of water (60 F) Pa 2.4884 102
atm Pa 1.0133 105
psi Pa 6.8948 103
torr (mmHg, 0 C) Pa 1.3332 103
Volume
ft3 m3 2.8317 102
in.3 m3 1.6387 103
gal m3 3.7854 103
bbl (42 gal) m3 0.15899
Density
lb/in.3 kg/m3 2.7680 104
lb/ft3 kg/m3 16.018
Energy
Btu J 1.0544 103
Btu/lb J/kg 2.3244 103
Btu/lb/ F J/kg/K 4.1840 103
kcal J 4186.8
Power
HP (550 ft lbf/s) W 7.457 102
Btu/h W 0.2931
kcal/h W 1.1622
tonne of refrigeration kW 3.517
Heat transfer coefficient
Btu/h/ft2/ F W/m2/s 5.6783
kcal/h/m2/ C W/m2/K 1.162
Pressure drop
psi/ft kPa/m 2.2621 101
Appendices 847
REFERENCES
Green, D.W., Perry, R.H., 2008. Chemical Engineer’s Handbook, eighth ed. McGraw-Hill.
Loh, H.P., Lyons, J., White, C.W., 2002. Process Equipment Cost Evaluator. Department of Energy, Pittsburgh
(PA), USA.
Moran, M., Shapiro, H., 2000. Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics, fourth ed. Wiley.
Towler, G., Sinnott, R.K., 2013. Chemical Engineering Design: Principles, Practice and Economics
of Plant and Process Design, second ed. Butterworth-Heinemann (Elsevier).
Ullmann’s Encyclopaedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2005, seventh ed. Wiley-VCH.
Ulrich, G., Vasudevan, P.T., 2007. Predesign for pollution prevention and control. Chem. Eng. Prog. 53–60.