INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF YOGA THERAPY — No.
14 (2004) 23
Yoga and Psychoneuroimmunology
Scott Blossom, L.Ac.
Abstract
Research in the field of psychoneuroimmunology
has helped to build confidence among members of the
conventional medical community regarding the concrete
positive effects that stress management, counseling, medi-
tation, and Hatha-Yoga can play in treating disease and
promoting health. The “discoveries” in this field are
echoing a major theme in yogic scriptures—that the
mind plays a central role in healing and wellness. In
essence, Yoga is designed to optimize an individual’s
psychoneuroimmunological functioning by a) address-
ing the roots of negative, unconscious conditioning and
b) prescribing a multidimensional practice for positive
transformation.
Introduction
A Yoga therapy client of mine recently told me that
his drug of choice these days is Yoga âsana practice.
“Yoga makes me feel happier, and it makes my back
stronger for a couple of days after I practice. And if I do
it every other day I sort of stay that way.” James had
come to me because of obesity, lower back problems,
and a history of depression and drug addiction. He had
been sober for a couple of years before we started work-
ing together, but he still had bouts of anxiety and
depression for which he received weekly psychological
counseling. He was also taking the drug Effexor. After
two years of doing a weekly âsana practice along with
Ayurvedic diet therapy, he had learned to maintain a vir-
tually pain-free lower back, dropped over sixty pounds,
and discontinued his medication. As he put it, “I just
don’t do the same things I used to when I’m stressed
out. I choose Yoga instead of sugar and I nurture myself
instead of acting wild. I’m not even attracted to the
same kind of guys!”
I still remember the first time I assisted James into a
handstand. When he came down after the last one he
burst into tears and later explained that he never thought
he would ever be able to do a handstand because of his
weight. When I saw him the next week he told me that
he had been euphoric the rest of the day and that his
mood was elevated for the rest of the week. This kind of
story is not uncommon when people start a committed
Yoga practice. Things change inside and out, sometimes
gradually and sometimes suddenly. While it is well
known that Yoga has many positive effects for “body, mind,
and spirit” the process is now being studied and “proven”
by research in fields such as psychoneuroimmunology.
The field of psychoneuroimmunology, simply put,
is the scientific study of how the nervous system and the
mind influence the immune system. For example,
research in the field includes studies of how meditation
influences the ability to heal such ailments as cancer,
AIDS, and heart disease.1,2 Such research has helped to
build confidence among members of the conventional
medical community regarding the concrete positive
effects that stress management, counseling, meditation,
and Hatha-Yoga can play in treating disease and pro-
24 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF YOGA THERAPY — No. 14 (2004)
moting health. The “discoveries” in
this field are echoing a major theme
in yogic scripture—that the mind
plays a central role in healing and
wellness. Modern science is just
beginning to verify the wisdom
revealed in the Vedic texts (c.
2500–1500 B.C.E), in Patanjali’s
In essence, Yoga is
designed to optimize
an individual’s psy-
choneuroimmunological
functioning.
classical Yoga-Sûtra (c. 200 C.E.),
and in Tantric literature (c. 100
C.E.).3 In essence, Yoga is designed
to optimize an individual’s psy-
choneuroimmunological (PNI) func-
tioning by a) addressing the roots of
negative, unconscious conditioning
and b) prescribing a multidimen-
sional practice for positive transfor-
mation.
Let us first take a look at the
nervous system. The Autonomic
Nervous System (ANS), which is
composed of the sympathetic and
parasympathetic branches, mediates
our stress responses and is the cor-
nerstone to our PNI functioning.
The function of every cell, tissue,
and organ system of the body is
affected when we experience height-
ened stress (sympathetic response)
or relaxation (parasympathetic re-
sponse).4 The ANS enables us to
cope with stress and is essential for
survival; if, however, the sympa-
thetic branch of the ANS is over-
stimulated by chronic physical or
mental stress, it results in depression
of the physiological and immune
functions.5
The master gland of the ANS is
the hypothalamus, which is located
in the core of the brain. Not only
does the hypothalamus gland con-
trol the activation of both the sym-
pathetic and parasympathetic re-
sponses, it also is part of what is
called the limbic system in the brain.
The limbic system is pertinent to our
discussion namely because it func-
tions as the storehouse of our emo-
tional memory, influencing our
immediate perceptions and therefore
coloring our expectation of our cur-
rent experience as pleasant or
stressful, desirable or undesirable.
Researchers such as Jon Kabat-
Zinn have described the limbic sys-
tem as the “seat of our emotions.”
For instance, consider the saying,
“Beauty is in the eye of the
beholder.” This articulates what we
all know through experience, name-
ly that what is attractive and excit-
ing to some may be repulsive and
boring to others.
The limbic system also con-
nects directly to the conscious (cere-
brum) and unconscious (brain stem
and cerebellum) functional centers
of the brain. This means that our
emotional reactions affect our inter-
nal physiologic and motor-sensory
functioning, as well as shape our
memories, thought processes, inten-
tional behaviors, values, and emo-
tional drives.6 What the limbic
system does not do is keep track of
the passage of time in the way our
rational mind does. This is one
reason why psychotherapeutic treat-
ment can take years to heal emo-
tional traumas that occurred in just a
few moments. Some psycho-emo-
tional syndromes such as post-trau-
matic stress syndrome (PTSS) can
produce a terrifyingly vivid emo-
tional memory that dates back
decades and which, unfortunately,
proves often to be incurable.
We all carry emotional wounds
and conditioning in varying degrees
that contribute to our perception of
stress. The limbic system houses our
deepest emotional issues, which can
manifest in any way, shape, or form
in the mind-body complex.7 Thus
our brain chemistry, as well as our
personal history, enculturation, edu-
cation, diet, and genetics influence
the unique emotional responses to
our life experiences.8 Science is map-
ping out what is intuitively obvious:
emotions play a major role in the
health of the body.
The Vedic Teachings: Been
There, Done That
In order to understand how vast
and complex the influence of the
limbic system is, we need to start
with an all-encompassing map of the
human being. The yogic tradition
may, in fact, provide such a map. In
the Taittirîya-Upanishad, which is
found in the Yajur-Veda, we find the
first recordings of what is called the
panca-maya-kosha (five illusory
sheaths of being). This ontological
system served as a foundation for the
development of a yoga9 that could
attend to negative conditioning at
the so-called five layers of being:
the 1) physical, 2) energetic, 3) men-
tal/emotional, 4) substrate con-
sciousness,10 and 5) blissful. For
example, in Ayurveda, the ancient
Vedic medical system, the appropria-
tion of the panca-maya-kosha model
is reflected in the lifestyle practices
and therapies it prescribes. Ayurveda
instructs that through skillful appli-
cation of diet therapy, medicinal
herbs, aromatherapy, color therapy,
Hatha-Yoga, mantra, devotional
music, and service, negativity can be
transformed to promote a positive,
balanced state of well-being that
serves as a basis for spiritual
growth.11
In Ayurveda, healthy PNI func-
tioning can be likened to the bal-
anced qualities (sattva) of the
body/mind, and diseased PNI func-
tioning can be likened to the dis-
turbed qualities (rajas or tamas) of

the body/mind. The powerful drives
of desire (râga) and repulsion (dve-
sha), whether conscious or uncon-
scious, always underlie negative
attitudes and emotions such as
obsession, anger, greed, delusion,
jealousy, arrogance, fear, and anxi-
ety, which disturb the vital energies
(prâna) and the mind (citta).12
My client James had been in a
repetitive cycle of choosing drugs
and re- lationships that, while tem-
porarily satisfying his desires, ulti-
mately resulted in increased
suffering. Through Yoga he learned
how to satisfy his physical and emo-
tional needs in a different, more pos-
itive way. He also was at a point in
his life where he was open to the
spiritual aspects of Yoga. His physi-
cal and emotional healing caused
him to strengthen his commitment
to spiritual health as well.
The Classical Yoga of
Patanjali
Patanjali’s Yoga-Sûtra offers
perhaps the most direct instruction
for limbic transformation by outlin-
ing practical techniques to bring
about true spiritual maturation,
which, in Patanjali’s view, is the
attainment of samâdhi (meditative
absorption). In 1:12 he affirms that
abhyâsa (practice) and vairâgya
(dispassion) are the two practical
requirements for “restricting the
fluctuations of consciousness,”13
which are antithetical to samâdhi. In
the second chapter, as Patanjali
begins to delineate ashtânga Yoga
(Yoga of eight limbs), he gives
another reminder, “For the repelling
of the [unwholesome] notions (vi-
tarka), [the yogin should pursue] the
cultivation of [his] opposite” (2:33).
That is, if you feel hatred, cultivate
loving-kindness; if you feel attach-
ment, cultivate dispassion. Patanjali
adds that one’s practice must be
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF YOGA THERAPY — No. 14 (2004) 25
“cultivated properly and for a long
time uninterruptedly” (1:14). This is
important because consistent and
repetitive practice heightens our
ability to self-reflect on what is
changing and what is staying the
same in our mind/body from day to day.
Patanjali’s Yoga-Sûtra
offers perhaps the most
direct instruction for
limbic transformation.
Dispassion, meaning conscious
detachment or “non-thirsting” for
the objects of our conditioned
desires, prepares the mind to be
more interested in what is actually
happening rather than in what we
would like to happen. And most
importantly, Patanjali instructs us to
cultivate “wholesome” alternative
attitudes and behaviors to resolve
our suffering. This strategy is essen-
tial for making fundamental changes
to our limbic “wiring,” because the
limbic system does not diagnose or
self-correct; all it does is feel. The
way that we retune our limbic reso-
nance is by repetitive, prolonged
experiences that reinforce a positive
alternative to our conditioning.14 For
example, when James practices
âsana, some of the postures trigger a
stress response inside of him. In lim-
bic terms, stress is stress. The con-
text in which it is triggered does not
matter. In the environment of a Yoga
therapy session, however, James is
guided by the use of breath to con-
sciously observe and relax into the
experience that would previously
have initiated a “fight or flight”
response. By practicing this on a
weekly basis for years he has honed
a totally different set of attitudes and
behaviors that have replaced his
older, less effective ones. Further-
more, repetitive experiences of posi-
tive states in the face of stress are
deposited in James’s limbic memory
bank and will then influence his per-
ceptions and reactions in any future
stressful event.
Tantra
Both the Vedas and Classical
Yoga provide some of the ontologi-
cal and philosophical roots that find
unique flowering in Tantra begin-
ning around the first and second
centuries of the Common Era.
Under the vast umbrella of Tantric
literature, we find a classic Hatha-
Yoga text entitled the Hatha-Yoga-
Pradîpikâ (Light on Hatha-Yoga) by
Svâtmârâma (fourteenth century). It
begins with the assertion that the
practice of Hatha-Yoga culminates
in the realization of Raja-Yoga
(royal Yoga) and that Raja-Yoga is
not possible without Hatha-Yoga. In
this text, Hatha-Yoga encompasses
regulation of the vital energies
(prâna) and Raja-Yoga encom-
passes regulation of the mind (citta)
for the purpose of meditation and
spiritual realization.15 The implica-
tion of Svâtmârâma’s assertion mir-
rors the insights of quantum
physicists and PNI researchers
about the interconnectedness of all
phenomena: when we make changes
on the physical level (anna-maya-
kosha) of our being, there will be a
corresponding change on the subtle
levels (prâna-maya-kosha and mano-
maya-kosha) and vice versa. A good
example of this correspondence is
James’s strong emotional response
after doing a handstand, which,
from an outside perspective, could
be viewed as merely a challenging
physical exercise.
It is also interesting to note that
the practice of conscious breathing
found in âsana, prânâyâma, and
meditation techniques has a direct
effect on the olfactory lobe of the
26 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF YOGA THERAPY — No. 14 (2004)
TABLE 1: INTEGRATIVE YOGA THERAPY MODEL
Following are practices that work with our conditioning on all five levels of being:
1) physical, 2) energetic, 3) mental/emotional, 4) substrate consciousness, and 5) blissful.
Kosha (Sheath)
Anna-maya-kosha (physical)
Prâna-maya-kosha (energetic)
Mano-maya-kosha
(mental/emotional)
Vijnâna-maya-kosha
(substrate consciousness)
Ânanda-maya-kosha (blissful)
Practice
• Healthy diet choices and herbal medicines to
balance one’s constitution
• Panca-karma to purify the digestive and
nervous systems
• Âsana and related somatic therapies, such
as osteopathy, chiropractic, martial arts,
Feldenkrais, Pilates, dancing, and bodywork,
change neuromuscular, connective tissue,
and somato-emotional conditioning patterns
Herbal rejuvenation to tonify the supply
of prâna, tejas, and ojas
• Prânâyâma to balance and tonify the flow
of prâna
• Prânâyâma for nervous, mental, and
emotional imbalance
• Langhana techniques for hyperactive disorders
• Brahmana techniques for depressive disorders
• Mudra for the prâna-vâyus and cakras
• Mantra to train concentration and listening
skills and interrupt mental/emotional habits
• Practices to develop positive, loving mental/
emotional states
• Psychotherapeutic/psychiatric modalities
• Relationship/sexual therapies
• Reading yogic scriptures for education
and inspiration
• Inquiry meditation on thoughts/attitudes/
emotions
• Studying the cakra system to enhance
self-understanding
• Setting intention to be in integrity with
one’s highest values
• Meditation to hone skills of non-doing
and mindfulness
• Intensive meditation sâdhana for the
discovery of the subtle nature of the mind
and trans-mental states of consciousness
• Prayer: sincere asking for guidance,
compassion, etc.
• Ritual: creating a spiritual shrine,
recognizing the sacred elements of mundane
actions such as preparing food, work, parenting
• Kîrtana: singing for joy
• Service work: volunteer work with children,
the environment, Hospice, etc., creates a
sense of compassion, love, interconnect-
edness, and self-worth
• Sangha: celebrating spiritual joy in community
• Dedication of practice to the highest good
brain, which is associated with the
sense of smell. The olfactory lobe is
intimately linked to the limbic sys-
tem and our sense of memory.
Breath control is viewed in the
Understanding how to
classify modalities that
are not derived directly
from the Yoga tradition
is essential to refining
our skills.
Shiva-Svarodaya, a several-hun-
dred-year-old work, as “the fore-
most means of achieving or
maintaining well-being and for
gaining occult knowledge and pow-
ers, as well as wisdom and even lib-
eration.”16 This is an indication that
the rishis (seers) of Vedic times
understood the powerful link
between working with the breath
and healing deep mental/emotional
conditioning. This is not to say that
it is easy. Anyone who has practiced
intensively has been humbled by the
tenacity of negative habits. To use
an Ayurvedic analogy, the process is
like trying to grasp and harness the
wind.17 As Ken Wilber puts it, “Yoga is
born in the fire of direct experience.
It must be engaged, lived, and prac-
ticed. It must come from the head
but equally from the heart.”18
The core of the yogic purpose is
to produce a quality of awareness
that is calm, alert, and sponta-
neously present. From the nondual-
ist perspective of Tantra, there are
two fundamental illusions that give
rise to our negative emotional states:
1) “I am the doer” (aham), and 2) “it
is for me” (mâma). These attitudes
can be healed by their opposites,
namely, “not for or by me” (na-
mâma).19 In terms of psychoneu-
roimmunology, a destructive or
excessive stress response always
involves the “I am doing” or “it is

for me” mindset. This mindset can
be neutralized by conscious non-
doing and the experience of interde-
pendence. From this perspective, we
can see how our mind creates the
experience of misunderstanding,
separation, and suffering on the one
hand, and the experience of healing
and unity consciousness on the other.
We discover that we have a choice.
Using the panca-maya-kosha
(five sheaths of being) of the Upan-
ishads as a backbone we can view
the various yogic therapies as an
incomparably eloquent and compre-
hensive method for multidimen-
sional healing. Table 1 outlines an
integrative Yoga therapy model.
In America, where Yoga is regu-
larly reduced to âsana and where
physical health is seen as the final
goal, the Yoga therapist has a special
challenge to employ a multidimen-
sional approach. Undoubtedly, the
potential for healing is magnified by
this type of approach. The most
important thing is to be aware of
when to refer clients to practitioners
who specialize in other modalities
that would be more appropriate for
them. All therapies have particular
foci that will influence one or more
of the koshas more specifically. For
example, the potential contribution
that a skilled psychotherapist can
make toward healing the mano-
maya-kosha cannot be understated.
Understanding how to classify
modalities that are not derived
directly from the Yoga tradition,
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF YOGA THERAPY — No. 14 (2004) 27
such as psychotherapy, Judeo-Chris- stein, The Shambhala Encyclopedia of Yoga,
tian prayer, or conventional medi- [Boston: Shambhala Publications, 1997, p.
327]). This “layer” (kosha) of consciousness
cine, is essential to refining our enables us to understand what we experience
skills and fulfilling the spiritual mentally and physically. It has the quality of
intention of Yoga therapy. lucidity described as “witness” consciousness.
11. Kraftsow, op. cit., p. 304.
Endnotes 12. Svoboda, Robert. Hidden Secret of
Ayurveda. Albuquerque, N.M.: The Ayur-
1. Benson, Herbert. Timeless Healing. New vedic Press, 1980, p. 7.
York: Fireside Books, 1997, pp. 146–147. 13. Feuerstein, Georg. The Yoga Tradition:
2. Kabat-Zinn, Jon. Full Catastrophe Living. Its History, Literature, Philosophy, and
New York: Delta Books, 1990, pp. 175–178. Practice. Prescott, Ariz.: Hohm Press,
2001, p. 218.
3. Depending upon one’s source, dates for
such texts will inevitably differ due to the 14. Schillinger, Liesl. The head and the
heart. The New Yorker, 2 Feb 2000, 7(1):11.
lack of concrete historical data. Here, I have
drawn from Georg Feuerstein’s The Yoga 15. Feuerstein, op. cit., p. 423.
Tradition: Its History, Literature, Philoso- 16. Ibid., pp. 85–86.
phy, and Practice (Prescott, Ariz.: Hohm
Press, 2001). 17. Svoboda, op. cit., pp. 7–8.
4. Benson, op. cit., p. 131. 18. Feuerstein, op. cit., p. xiii.
19. Kraftsow, op. cit., p. 305.
5. Kraftsow, Gary. Yoga for Wellness. New
York: Penguin/Arkana, 1999, pp. 303–306.
6. Kabat-Zinn, op. cit. © Scott Blossom 2004
7. Ibid.
8. Kraftsow, op. cit., p. 303. Scott Blossom, L.Ac.
680 Spruce Street
9. As many of us know, Yoga is much more
than mere physical exercises. In this context, Berkeley, CA 94707
it can also be translated as a set of tech- Tel.: 510-526-2636
niques or practices that lead one to spiritual Cell: 805-896-6655
transformation. One’s “yoga” may consist of Email: scott@shunyatayoga.com
a ritual such as a fire offering to bring about
auspicious circumstances, wholesome cook-
ing for good health, or simply brushing
one’s teeth for better hygiene. Of course, in
the yogic context, the traditional Yoga tech-
niques all aspire toward the same ultimate
goal: union with one’s true self or Brahman.
10. The term “substrate consciousness” is
just one translation of the Sanskrit term
vijnâna. Vijnâna is generally translated as
“secular knowledge” or “intellectual under-
standing,” but in some contexts may also
denote “ultimate wisdom” (see Georg Feuer-