UNIT 8 MATRICES I1 -

Structure'
8.1 Introduction
Objectives
8.2 Rank of a Matrix
8.3 Elementary Operations
Elementary Operations on a Matrix
Row-reduced Echelon Mawices '

8.4 Applications of Row-reduction

Inverse of a Mamx
Solving a System of Linear Equations
8.5 Summary
8;6 SolutionsIAnswers

8.1 INTRODUCTION

In Unit 7 we introduced you to a mamx and showed you how a system of linear equations
can give us a matrix. An important reason for which linear algebra arose is the theory of
simultaneous linear equations. A system of simultaneous linear equations can be translated
into a matrix equation. and solved by using matrices.
The study of the rank of a matrix is a natural forerunner to the theory of simultaneous linear
equations. Because, it is in terms of rank that we can find out whether a simultaneous system
of equations has a solution or not. In this unit we start by studying the rank of a matrix. Then
we discuss row operations on a matrix and use them for obtaining the rank and inverse of a
matrix. Finally, tlz apply this knowledge to determine the nature of solutions of a system of
linear equations. method of solving a system of linear equations that we give here is by
"successi~eelimination of variables". It is also called the Gaussian elimination process.
With this u d t we finish Block 2. In the next block wewill discuss concepts that are
intimately related to matrices.

Objectives
After reading this unit, you should be able to
obtain the rank of a matrix;
reduce a matrix to the echelon form;
obtain the inverse of a matrix by row-reduction;
solve a system of simultaneous linear equations by the method of successive elimination
of variables.

8.2 RANK OF A MATRIX

. Consider any m x n matrix A, over a field F. We can associate two vector spaces with it. in a
very natural way. Let us see what they are. Let A = [ai$ A has m rows, say, R,, R,,...., Rm,
where R, = (a,,, a,, ,..., a,,,), R, = (a,,, 4,. . . . , . . .Rm= (a;,. a,,,,. . . . ,a,,,,,).

The subspace of F generated by the row vectors R,,..., R,,, of A, is called the row space of
A, and is denoted by RS (A).

Example 1: If A = [b i] . does (0.0.I) E RS ( ~ j ?

 I inear Transformations and Solution : The row space of A is the subspace of R3 generated by ( I , 0, 0) and (0, 1, 0).
Matrices
Therefore. RS (A) = {(a,b, O)I a, b E R ) . Therefore (0.0, I ) E KS (A).
The dimension of the row space of A is called the row rank of A, and is denoted by p, (A).
p iz ltw Grcek letter 'ho'
Thus, pr(A) = maximum number of linearly independent rows of A.
In Example I, p i A ) = 2 = number of rows of A. But consider the next example.

[:3
Example 2: If A = 0 1 ,find pr (A).

Solution: The row space of A is the subspace of R2generated by (1.0). (0.1) and (2.0). But
(2.0) already lies in the vector space generated by (1.0) and (0,l):since (2.0) = 2 (1.0).
Therefote, the row space of A is generated by the linearly independent vectors (1.0) and
(0,l). Thus, pr (A) = 2.
So, in Example 2 ,pr (A) < number of rows of A.
In general, for any m x n matrix A, RS (A) is generated by m vectors. Therefore, pr (A) I m.
min cm. n) denotes 'the mtntmum of
Also, RS (A) is a subspace of F"and dim p= n. Therefore, p, (A) I a
the numbers of m and n'.
Thus, for any m x n matrix A, 0 5 p, (A) I min (m, n).
E E l ) Show that A = 0 w pr (A) = 0.

r
Just as we have defined the row space of A, we can define the column space of A. Each
column of A is an m-tuple, and hence belongs to F.We denote the columns of A by
C,,..,C,. The subspace of F"generated by (C,,...,C,) is called the column space of A and is
denoted by CS (A). The dimension of CS (A) is called the column rank of A, and is
denoted of pc(A). Again, since CS (A) is generated by n vectors and is a subspace of F, we
get 0 I p, (A) 5 min (m, n).

E E2) Obtain the column rank and row rank of A =

r---

In E2 you may have noticed that the row and column ranks of A are equal. In fact, in
Theorem 1, we prove that pr (A) = pc(A), for any matrix A. But first, we prove a lemma.
Lemma 1:Let A, B be two matrices over F such that AB is defined. Then
a) CS (AB)s CS (A),
b) RS (AB)E RS (B).
Thus, PC(ABK PC(A), P, (AB)s Pr (B).
Proof: (a) Suppose A = [a,$ is an m x n matrix and B = [b,J is an n x p matrix. Then, from
Sec. 7.5, you know that the jth column of C = AB will be
 =C b
I
.
11
+...+ C " b nJ '
where C , , ....,Cn are the columns of A.
Thus, the columns of AB are linear combinations of the columns of A. Thus, the columns of
A 9 E CS(A). So. CS(AB) S CS(A).
Hence, pc(AB)5 pc(A).
b) By a similar argument as above. we get RS(AB) E RS(B), and so, p r ( A B ) I p$B).

E E3) Prove (h) of Lemma I .

We will now use Lemma 1 for proving the following theorem.

Theorem I: p , ( ~ = , any. matrix A over F
) ~ J A )for
Proof: Let A E M,, ..(F) Suppose pr(A)= r and pc(A) = t.
Now, RS(A) = [ ( R , , R ?,..,R m ) ] ,where R,,K?,...,R", are the rows of A. Let ( e , , e,,....e , ) be a
basis of RS(A). Then Ri is a linear combination of e ,,....er, for each i=l ...,m. Let
r
R i = x b U e J ,i = 1 . 2 ,.... m . w h e r e b , , ~F f o r l l i l n t . I l j l r .
j=l

We can write these equations in matrix form as

So, A = BE, where B = [b,,] is an m x r matrix and E is the r x n matrix with rows e,.e,,.... er.
(Remember, e, e Fn,for each i = 1 , ..., r.)
So, t = p,(A) = pL(BE) < pL(B),by Lemma 1.
I min (m,r,)
Ir
Thus, t _< r.
Just as we got A = B E above, we get A = [f ,,...,f,]D, where ( f ,,...,t , \ is a basis of the column
space of A and D jc a t x n matrix. Thus, r = pr(A) < pc (D) 5 t, by Lemma 1.
S o we get r I t and t 5 r. This gives us r = t.
Theorem 1 allows us to make the following definition.
Definition: The inte@r pc(A) I=pr(A)) is called the rank of A, and is denoted by p(A).
You will see that Theorem 1 is very helpful if we want to prove any fact about p(A). If it is
1,inear Transformations and easier to deal with the rows of A we can proye the fact for pr(A). Similarly, if it is easier to
Matrices
deal with the columns of A, we can prove the f a c ~for p (A). While proving Theorem 3 we
have used this facility that Theorem 1 gives us.
Use Theorem i to solve the following exercises.

E E4) If A,B are two matrices such that AB is defined then show that
p(AB) 5 min (p(A), p(B)).

E E5) Suppose c + 0 E M,,,,,(F). and R z0 E MIX,(F), then show that the rank of the
m x n matrix CR is I . (Hint: Use E4).

Does the term 'rank' seem familiar to you? Do you remember studying about the rank of a
linear transformation in Unit 5? We will now see if the rank of a linear transforniation is
related to the rank of its matrix. The fdllowing theorem brings forth the precise relationship.
(Go through Sec. 5.3 before going further.)
Theorem 2: Let U.V be vector spaces over F of dimensions n and m, respectively. Let B, be
a basis of U and B, be a basis of V. Let T E L(U.V).
Then R(T) = CS (IT],,, R 2 1.
Thus. rank (TI = rank of IT I & , ,:.
Proof: Let 0 , = Ie,.e ,.....enI apd 9,= I f,,f,.....fmI.As in the proof of Theorem 7 of Unit 7,
8:V + M,,,(F): 8(v) =coordinate vector of v with respect to the basis B2,is an
isomorphism.
Now. R(T) = I 1 T(e,).T(e:),....T(en!I]. Let A = IT]\,,: have C,.C ,....., Cnas its columns.
Then CS(A)= I IC,.C,.....C,,)1. Also. 8(T(e,))= C , W = I .... n.
Thus. O:R(T) '-,CS(A) is an isomorphism. :. R(T)= CS(A).
In particular. dim R(T) = dim CS(A) = p (A).
That is. rank (T) = p(A).
Theorem 2 leads us to the following corollary. It says that pre-multiplying or post-
multiplying a matrix by invertible matrices does not alter its rank.
Corollary 1: Let A be an m x n matrix. Let P,Q be m x m and n x n invertible matrices,
respectively.
Then p (PAQ) = p(A).
Proof: Let T E L(U,V) be such that [TI4. B2=,A.We are given matrices Q and P - I .
Therefore, by Theorem 8 of Unit 7 , 3 bases BI and 8; of U and V, respectively, such that
~ = ~ : a n d ~ - M$.
l-
Then, by Theorem 10 of Unit 7., -
Matrices r l

PI,,
Bi= M: pi4.B 2 ~ : : = PAQ
In other words, we can change the bases suitably so that the matrix of T with respect to the
new bases is PAQ.
So, by Theorem 2, p(PAQ) = rank (T)= p(A). Thus, p (PAQ) = P(A).

and show that p(PAQ) = p(A).

Now we state and prove another corollary to Theorem 2.-This corollary is useful because it
transforms any matrix into a very simple matrix,.namely, a matrix whose entries are 1 and 0
only.

Corollary 2:- Let A-be an m x n matrix with rank r. Then 3 invertible matrices P and Q such

Pnw,k Let T E L(U,V) be such that [TI. = A. Since p (A) = r, rank (T) = r. ;. nullity (T)
-
= n r (Unit 5, Theorem 5).
h. 62

Let (u,,u, ,...,u, j be a basis of Ker T. We extend this to form the basis
Bj r (ul,u2,... uW,u ,,.., u, I of U.Then (T(u,,) ,..,T(uJ 1 is a basis of R(T) (See Unit 5,
proof of T h e o ~ m5). Extend this set to form a basis Bi of V, say B; =
(T(u,,.., T(un),vI....,vrn.,l. Let us reorder the elements of B; and write it as
B; = ( u-,.... ~un.ul.-...u~l.

1
r 9

Then, by definition, P]
Ir - O~x(n-r)
B; .Bi =
O(m-r)xr o(m-r)x(n-r
matrix of size sm. (Remember that u ,,...,u,-, E Ker T.)
Hence, PAQ =

where Q = M h8; a n d P = M BB l; , byTheorem 1 0 d U n i t 7 .

Note: '
0 0
1' isa
l
. the a r m a ~form of the matrix A.
Consider the following example, which is the converse of E5.
E ~ ~ p l e 3 : A i s a n m x n m a h i x o f r a n l,showthat3C#OinM,,(F)andR#O
k in
M
, (F)such that A = CR.
S o l ~ t h xBy Corollary 2 (above), 3 P, Q such that
Linear Transformations and
Matrices

E E7) What is the normal form of diag ( 1 , 2, 3 ) ?

The solution of E7 is a particular case of the general phenomenon: the normal form of an
n x n invertible matrix is In.
Let us now look at some ways of transforming a matrix by playing around with its rows. The
idea is to get more and more entries of the matrix to be zero. This will help us in solving
systems of linear equations.

8.3 ELEMENTARY OPERATIONS

Consider the following set of 2 equations in 3 unknowns x, y and z:

How can you express this system of equations in matrix form?

One way is
- -

In general, if a system of m linear equations in n variables, xI,...,xn, is

, + ... + amnxn= bm
. a mxl + am2x2
where aij,b, E F v i = I , ..., m and j = 1,....n, then this can be expressed as
AX = B,

In this section we will study methods of changing the matrix A to a very simple form so that
we can obtain an immediate solution to tlle system of linear equaiions AX = B. For this
purpose, we will always be multiplying A on the left or the right by a suitable matrix. In
effect, we will be applying elementary row or column operations on A.
 r

8.3.1 Elementary Operations on a Matrix -

Matrices 11

Let A be an rn x n matrix. As usual, we denote its rows by R,......R,, and columns by

C,,.. ..C,,. We call the following operations elementary row operations:
I ) Interchanging R,and R,, for i # j.

2 ) Multiplying R, by some a E F, a # 0.
3) Adding aR, to R,, where i #j and a E F.
We denote the operation ( I ) by R,,. (2) by R,(a), (3) by R,,(a).

For exaniple. if A =
[b 1.
then R,,(A) = O (interchanging the two rows).
[I 2 31
2
Also R2(3)(A) =
, ,
and R,,(2)(A)=
I 2

E E8) If A = 1

a) RJA)
:3
0 0 . what is
b) R,, 0 R,, (A) c) R,?(-I )(A)?

Just as we defined the row operations, we can define the three column operations as follows:
I ) Interchanging C, and CI for i ;t j. denoted by CU.
2 ) Multiplying C, by a E F.a # 0. denoted by C,(a).
3) Adding aCIto C,, where a E F,denoted by Cu(a).

then C,,(lO)(A =
[' "I
24

31 3
and $ , ( 1 0 ) ( ~ , ) =[42 4]
We will now prove a theorem which we will use in Sec. 8.3.2 for obtaining the rank of a
matrix easily.
Theorem 3: Elementary operations on a matrix do not alter its rank.
Proof: T'he way we will prove the statement is to show that the row space remains
unchanged under row operations and the column space remains unchanged under column
Linear Transformi~tionsand opcr:~rion\.f h i . I I ~ c ; I !\:'I:
! ~ ' . i l i ~ ' ~ . ( i ' . ;l&ti:L ~ 1 1 1 r[!it'
l colurii~irank remain uncha~iged.This
Matrices
r ~ ? l ~ n ~ ~ i r>IIoL\'\
; ~ t t ' ~ li!
) . Tlj<:,;i.:v?: I . I[- !!,c :.a!~kof thc niatrix remains unchanged.
1:

I x r R ! .....R ,, hc the row.; ot a matrix

No\\. Icl 114 5110\1 111111 ti:: ~.o\\\I);ICC' I . C I ~ ~ ; I I ~111;1ltel.~'d.
I~\
A. Then ~ h cow \l';~c't of A i.; :_.e~icr;~tcd h~ ( K .... R ,.... R , ...R,,,}.On applying R,,to A. the
l . 0 ~ 50 1 A remain thc. ,an:c. 0;;Iy their 01.i1t.v changed. Thcret'ore. ~ l l rrow p a c e of
K , , ( A )is ~ h \:ullt.
c .I\ IIIC rou. \pacix 01'.4.

If we apply R,(a),for a e F, a # 0, then any linear comb~nationof R ,,....R, I F a,Rl +... t an,R,,,
a
= a l R + .....+.-LaR, + .. + a,,,Rm,which is a linear combination of R ,.....aR ,,...,Rm.
a 4
Thus, [ ( R,,...,R,,...,RmI]= [ I R ,,..,aR,,...,R,,)]. That is. the row space of A is the same as the 4 I
row space of R, (a) (A).
If we apply RZJ(a), for a E F, rhen ar,y I!nex itlh..>>vi~on
q *
blRl + ...+b,R, + ...+ b,R, + .. + b,R, = h I R l+ . + b,\R,+ aR,) + .. + (bJ-b,a)R, + ...+b,R,
Thus, [ ( R,,...,R,]] = [(RI,...P., + aR,. .... R ,....,R m ) ] .
Hence, the row space of A rernalns unaltered under any elementary row operations.
We can similarly show thai the cc.iuriln space remains unaltered under elementary column
operations.
Elementary operations lead us to the fo!!wing deficition.
Definition: A matrix obtained by subjecting I n to an elementary row or column operation is
called an elementary matrix.

For example. C12(l,)= c is an elementary matrix.

I2

Slnce there dre !.*Y :*lms of dementary operations, we get SIT types of elementary matkices,
but no4 all of them .j'C.i<n~

E E9) Check that R;,iI,. I- C,,(I,I, R {2Ml,, = CZ(2)(1,)and RIZ(3)(1,)= C,,(3)(I,)

In general, R,I(!-, - C,(ln). R,(a)(In)= C,(a)(ln)for a # 0, and R,,(a)(In)= CJ,(a)(In)for i # and

a E F.
.I.
Thus, thew are r?n!y thme types of elementary matrices. We denote
RII(I)= C,,(I) by E,.
Rl(a)(I) = C,(a)(I). (if a # 0) by E,(a) and
R,(a)(l) = CJ,(a)(I)by Eij(a)for i *j. a E F.
EIJ,Eja) and El,(a) are called the elementary matrices corresponding to the pairs RIJand c,,,
R,(a) and Cl(a). R,,(a) and C,ja). respectively.
Caution: Eij(a)corresponds to C,, (a),and not Cij(a).
Now, see what happens to the mamx

if we multiply it on the left by

 Similarly, AE,, = C,,(A).

Again. consider E, (2)A =

,
Similarly. AE,(2) = C3(2)(A)

= T3(5)(A)

=C3,f5MA)
What you have just seen are examples of a general pheilomcnon. We will now state this
general result farmal!y. (Its proof is slightly technical, and so. we skip it.)
Theorem 4: For any rr.a$J;.xA
a) RtJ(AZ= E,,A

i
I
b) Rl(a)(A) = E,(a)A, for a t 0.
C) Rll(a)(A)= Ell(a)A
d) CIJ(A)= AEIJ
e) Cl(a)(A) = AEl(a), for a # 0
9 Cll(a)(A)= AEp(a)
In (9note the change of indices i and j.
An immediate corollary to this theorem shows that all the elementary matrices are invertible
(see Sec. 7.6).

Corollary: An elementary mabix is invertible. In fact,

a) EijEij= I,
b) Ei(a-I) €(a) = 1. for a # 0.
C) €I(-a) E,i(a) = I.
Pro& We prove (a) only and leave the rest to you (set E10).
Now, from Theorem 4,
EijEij= RiJEii) = Rii(Rij(I))= 1, by definition of Rij.

E EIO) Rove (b) and (c) of the corollary above.

k inverse of .a
The corollary tells us that the dcwatary matrices are iavertibk and t
dewat8ry lMMxisaho.aekwatary a v t r i x o f t b e ~ t y p e .
dnrnr Transtormations and
M.t&s
E F 1 1) Actually multiply the two 4 x 4 mawices E,,(-2) and El,(2) to get I,.
--
r- 1
i

And now we will introduce you to a very nice type of matrix, which any matrix can be
transformed to by applying elementary operations.

8.3.2 Row-reduced Echelon Matrices i'i

1
Consider the matrix **

In this matrix the three non-zero rows come before the zero row, and the first non-zero entry
in each non-zero row is 1. Also, below this 1, are only zeros. This type of matrix has a
special name, which we now give.
An echelon matrix is so-cdled Definition: An m x n mamx A is called a row-reduced echelon matrix if
becam of the steplike structure of its
m-D~D
rows. a) the non-zero rows come before the zero rows,
b) in each non-zero row, the first non-zero entry is 1, and I '

C) the first non-zero entry in every non-zero row (after the first row) is to the right of the
first non-zero entry in the preceding row.

Is [b : @ a row-reduced echelon matrix? Yes. It satisfies all the conditions of the

definition. On the otbr hand, [: :Y] [i P][Y ! y]

, or
echelon matrices, since they violate conditions (a), (b) and (c), respectively.
are not row-reduced

The matrix
0 3 4 9 7 8 0 -1 0 1
0 0 - f 611 5 6 10 '2 0 0
0 0 0 0 ~ 3 - 0 1 1 7 012
0 0 0 0 0 0 0'-0--07 lo
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0'3-3
~ 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0
is a 6 x 1 1 row-reduced echelon matrix. The dotted line in it is to indicate the step-like
structure of the non-zero rows.
But, why bring in this type of a matrix? Well the following theorem gives us one good
reason.
Theorem 5: The rank of a row-reduced echelon matrix is equal to the number ofitsanon-
zero rows.
Proof: Let R,,R,,....Rr be the non-zero rows of an m x n row-reduced echelon-matrix,E.
....
Then RS(E) is generated by R,,....Rr.We want to show that R,, R, are linearly independent.
Suppose R, has its first non-zero entry in column k,, R, in column k,, and so on. Then, for
any r scalars c ,,...,c, such that,c,R, + c,R, + ...+ cIRIt 0, we immediately get

+C2 [0.....................0 , l . * ,......,*, ......*I

.. . -
. . .
[O,.. ...............................O,l, *,. .... *I
-+- . [O,.
CI
....................................... 01 ...a,,.
where * denotes various entries that we aren't bothering to calculate.
This equation gives us the following equations (when w e equate the kith entries, the kzth
entries , ...., the k,th entries o n both sides of the equation):
o c , ( * ) + c , ( * ) + ...+ c r J * ) + c r = 0 .
c , = o , ~ , ( * ) + C , = ,...,
On solving these equations we get
c = 0 = c,= ...= cr. :. R ,,....Rr are linearly independent :. p (E) = r.
Not only is it easy to obtain the rank of an echelon matrix, one can also solve linear
equations of the type AX = B more easily if A is in echelon form.
Now. here is some goocl news!
Every matrix can be transformed to the row echelon for111by a series o f elementary row
operaticms. We say that the matrix is reduced to the row echelun form. Consider thc
I'ol lowing exiumpk.
0 0 0 0 0 I-
0 1 7 -1 -1 I
Kxaiiiple 4: Let A = 0 I 2 0 3 1
0 0 0 1 4 1
-0 r 4 1 10
Reduce A to the row echelon form
Solution: The first column of A is zero. The second colu~nnis non-zero. The ( 1.2)th
element is 0. We want I at this position. We apply R,, t o A and get
- -
0 1 2 - 1 -1 1
0 0 0 0 0 1
A , = O l 2 0 3 1
, 0 0 0 I 4'1
-0 2 4 1 10 2-
The ( 1,2)th entry has become I . Now, we subtract multiples of the first row from other rows
s o that the (2.2)th. (3,2)th, (4.2)th and (5.2)th entries become Lero. So we apply R,,(- I ) , and
KT,(-2), and get

Now, beneath the entries of the first row we have zeros in the first 3 columns, and in the
fourth column we find non-zero entries. We want 1 at the (2,4)th position, s o we interchange
the 2nd and 3rd rows. We get

We now subtract suitable multiples of the 2nd row from the 3rd, 4th and 5th rows so that the
(3,4)th, (4,4)th and (5,4)th entries all become zero. :..

H
Now we have zeros below the entries of the 2nd row. except for the 6th column. The (3,6)th A-B I n e m that on applying the
element is 1. We subtract suitable multiples of the 3rd row from the 4th and 5th rows so that operation to A we get the mitrix
R.
the (4,6)'th. (5,6)th elements become zero. :. ,
Linear 'i'ransformations and
\latrices

And now we have ach~eveda row echelon matrix. Notice that we applied 7
elementary operations to A to obtain this matrix.
In general, we have t t k following theorem.
Theorem 6: Every matrix can be reduced to a row-reduced echelon matrix by a finite
sequence of elementary row operations.

The proof of this result is just a repetition of the procesh that you went through in Example 1.
For practice, we give you the following exercise.

E
!: :I:
El 2 ) Reduce the matrix 0 1 0 to echelon form.

Thcorern 6 leads us to the h)llowing definition.

Ilefinition: If n matrix A is reduced lo a row-reduced tchelon mariix E hy n finite sequetice
of elementary row oper;~tionsthen E is called a row-reduced echelon form (or. the row
echelon form) of A. We now give a useful ~ t s u l that
t immediately fo!lows fro111 Theorems 3'
and 5.
Theorem 7: Let E be a row-reduced echelon fomi of A. Then the ranh af A = umber of
non-/.era row5 of E.

Proof: We obtain E fro111 A by applyiilg elementary operations. Therefore. by Theorem 3.

p(A) =p(E). Also. p(E) = the number of non-zero rows of E. by Theorem 5.
Thus. we Ii,rvr proved the theorem.
Let u 4 looh at \ome example., to actually see how the echelon forin ot n matrix simplifie4
m;ltters.
Example 5: . Find p(A). where

by reducing it to its row-reduced echelon form.

which is the desired row-reduced echelon form. This has 2 non-zero rows. Hence, p(A) = 2.
E E13) Obtain the row-rediuced echelon form of the matrix
 Hence determine the rank ot'the matrix.
-. ---- - - ..---

'I
i

B!. no\\ you must have got u4ed to obtaining row echelon forms. Let u\ dihcuss some ways
ot' ;ippl! Ing thi4 reduction.

8.4 APPLICATIONS OF ROW-REDUCTION -

.

In this section we shall see how to ut~liserow-reduction t'or o h t ~ ~ i n i nthe

g In\ c r w ot'a
matrix. and for sol; Ing a system of linear equations.
8.4.1 Inverse of a M a t r i x
In Theorem 4 you discovered that applying a row transformation to a m a r r i \i i \ the \awe
as multiplying i t on the left hy a suitable elementar! matrix. Thus. applying a \erie\ of rou
transformations to A is the same as pre-multipl! ing A by a serie4 of elementar!. matriceh.
This means that. after the nth row transformat~onwe obtain the'matrix E,,E,,, ... E,E,A.
where E l , E,. .....En,are elementary matrices.
Now, how do we use this knowledge for obtaining the inverse of an ini'ertible matrix'!
Suppose we have an n x n invertible matrix A. We know that A = IA. where I = I,,. N o u . u e
apply a series of elementary row operations El. .... E8to A s o that A gets transformed to In.
Thus,
... E,E,A = E,E,. ,... E.El (IA)
I = E<E<-,
= (E,E,_,.... E,E,I)A = BA
where B = E, .... Ell. Then. B is the inverse of A!
Note that we are reducing A to 1. and not only to the row echelon form.
W e illustrate this below.
Example 6: Determine if the matrix

is invertible. If it is invertible. find its inverse.

r Solution: Can we transform A to I? If so. then A will be ~ n v e r t ~ b l e
I 0 0 'I 2 3 1
i No&. A = iA = 1 0 1 J ; 1 2 3 1 1
LO 0 ri 13 1 21
T o transform A we will be pre-multiplying it by elenientary matrices. W e will also be pre-
I multiplying IA by these matrices. Therefore. as A is transformed to I, the same
transformations are done to 1 on the right hand side of the matrix equation given above. Now
L

A (applying R?,(-2) and R,, (-3) to A )

t
* [I0 ' 1] [I-:
1 5 =
0 5 7 ~3 0 -I
:IA iappyingR_I-l)andR,(-I))
Linear Tru~isfur~nar~~bns
Maliirt~
and

-[. :][I:-I
1 0
I
0 0 -18
= A
]!- (applying Rl,(-2) and R,:(-5))

A (applying R, (-1118))

*
[I 0 1
0 1 O =
[-5/l8
1/18
1/18 7"8]
7/18 -5/18A (applyingRl,(7)andR,,(-5))
0 0 1 - 7/18 -5118 1/18

Hence, A is invertible and its inverse is B = 1 11

To make sure that we haven't made a careless mistake at any stage, check the answer by
multiplying B with A. Your answer should be I.

E
[I.1 I:
E l 4 ) Show I ~ ; I I 2 3 5 i\ invertible. Find its inverse.

Let us now look at another application of row-reduction.

8.4.2 Solving a System of Linear Equations

Any system of m linear equations, in n unknowns x,....,x,,, is

.=[bll
where all the a,,and b, are scalars.
This can be written in matrix form as

AX = B. where A = [aij], X = [ r. 1 \

If €3 = 0. the syhtem is called homogeneous. In this situation wq are in a position to say how
many linearly independent solqtions the system of equations has.
 Theorem 8: The number of linearly independent solutions of the mairix equation AX = 0
is n - r. where A is an m x n matrix and r = p(A).
Proof: In Unit 7 you studied that given the.matrix A. we can obtain a linear transformat~on
T: F" + F"'suck that IT],,,. = A. where B and B' are bases of P a n d Fm,respectively.

Now, X = I x '1
7

I1
-7

is a solution of AX = 0 if and only if it iies in ~ eT r(since T(x{= AX).

Thus. the number of linearly independent solutions is dim Ker T = nullity (T) = n -
rank (T) (Unit 5. Theorem 5.)
Also. rank (T) = p(A) (Theorem 2 )
Thus, the number of linearly independent solutions is n - p(A).
This theorem is very useful for finding out whether a homogeneous system has any non-
trivial"solutions or not.

Example 7: Consider the system of 3 equations in 3 unknowns:

How many solutions does it have which are linearly independent over R?

Solution: Here our coefficient matrix, A = I

[:-I -3
A -[a 0 0
Thus. p(A) = 3.
-:I,
Thus, n = 3. We have to find r. For this, we apply the row-reduction method. We obtain

l
which is in echelon form and has rank 3.

Thus. the number of linearly independent solutions is 3 - 3 = 0. This means that this system
of equation has no non-zero solution.
In Example 7 the number of unknowns was equal to the number of equations, that is, n = m.
What happens if n > ma!
A system of m homogeneous equations in n unknowns has a non-zero solution if n > m.
Why? Well. if n > m. then the rank of the coefficient matrix is less than or equal to m, and
hence. less than n. So, n - r > 0. Therefore, at least one non-zero solution exists.
Note: If a system AX = 0 has one solution, X,,. then it has an infinite number of solutions
of the form cX,,,c E F. This is because AX,,= 0 * A(cXo) = 0 Vc E F.

E E15) Give a set of linearly independent solutions for the system of equations
x+2y+3z=o
2x+4y+ z=O
I.inear Transformations and
\latrices
A $ystem of equations is calletl
consistent 11' it has a wlution.
Now consider the general equation A X = B. where A is an m x n matrix. We form the
augmented matrix [A B]. This is an m x (n + I ) matrix whose last column is the matrix B.
Here, we also include the case B = 0.
Interchanging equations, multiplying an equation by a non-zero scalar, and adding to any
equation a scalar times some other equation does not alter the set of solutions of the system
of equations. In other words, if we apply elementary row operations on [A B] then the
solution set does not change.
The following result'tells us under what conditions the system A X = B has a solution.
Theorem 9: The system of linear equations given by the matrix equation AX = B has a
solution if p(A) = p([A B]).
Proof: A X = B representsthe system
This is the same as
:I=
which is represented by [ A
of IA B J [- 0. and vice
0. Therefore, any solution of A X = B is also a solution
Theorem 8. this system has a solution if and on1.y if
Now. if the rc. 1
equation [ A B J
I:-[ = 0 has a solution, say , then c , C l + c2C2+ .....+ cnCn= B, where
C , . ...C,, are the columns of A. That is. B is a linear combination of the C,'s:., RS ([A B]) =
RS (A).:.. p ( A ) = p ( ( A B J ) .
Conversely. if p ( A ) = p ( [ A B ] ) , then the number of linearly independent columns of A and ..
( A B ( are the same. Therefore. B must be a linear combination of the iolumns C,, ....,Cn
of A.
L e t B = a , C , + ...+ a,,C,,. a , € F Y i.
Then a solution of AX = B is X =
Thu?;. A X = B ha\ a solution if and only if p(A) = p([A BJ).
Remark: If A is invertible then the system A X = B has the unique solution X = A-I B.
Now. once we know that the system &en by A X = B is consistent, how do we find a
solution? We utilise the method of successive (or Gaussiali) elimination. This method is
attributed to the famous German mathematician, Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855) (see
Fig. I ). Gauss was called the "prince of mathematicians" by his contemporaries. He did a
great amount of work in pure mathematics aS well as in the probability theory of errors,
geodesy. mechanics, electro-magnetism and optics.
To apply the method of Gaussian elimination, we first reduce [A B] to its row echelon form,
E. Then, we write out the equations = 0 and solve them, which is simple.
Let us illustrate the method.
Example 8: Solve the following system by using the Gaussian elimination process.
x+2y+3z= I
2x+4y.+ z = 2 .
 S o l ~ t i o n :The given system is the same as -
Matrices II
r 7

We first reduce the coefficient matrix to echelon form.

This gives us an equivalent system of equations, namely,

x + 2y + 3 z = I and z = 0.

These are. again. equivalent to x = 1 -2y and z = 0.

Fig. 1: Carl Friedrich Galas
We get the \olut~onin term\ of a parameter. Put y = a . Then x = 1 - 2 a , y = a , z = 0 is a
4olution. for any acalar a. Thus. the solution set is ( ( 1 - 2a, a , 0) I a E R ) .
'Vou let n\ look at an example where B = 0, that is, the system is homogeneous.
Kvample 9: Obtain a \olut~on\et of the simultaneous equations
\+9y +St = O
j - I x + y +77 +6t = O

- ..
, I x + S y + 7 r + 16t=O
Solution: The matrix of coefficients is

The given \:,\tern i \ equivalet~tto AX = 0. A row-reduced echelon form of this matrix is

Z."f
b . lo 0 0 0 1
Then the given \y\tem I\ equ~valentto

wh~chI \ the \elution in term\ of I and t. Thus, the solution set of the given system of
I p
equation\. 111term\ of two par;uiieter\ a and p. is
.i'
{((-14/3)a- ( 7 / 3 ) P . ( 7 / 3 ) ~ - ( 4 / 3 ) P . ~ . P ) l ~ .RPJ~.
I

This is a two-dimensioni~lvector subspace of R4with basis

I(-1413. 713. I . 0 ) . (-71.3. -413. 0, I ) ) .
.'
. ..
F:orpractice wegive you thc following exercise.
E E 16) Use the Gaussian method to obtain solution sets of the fbllowing system of equations.
4~,-3x,+ x,-7=0
x, -2x,-2x,-3=0
3x, - x, + 2x, + 1 = 0
~..

i
Linear Transformatlons and
Matrices

And now we are near the end of this unit.

8.5 SUMMARY
In this unit we covered the following points.
1 ) We defined the row rank, column rank and rank of a matrix, and showed that they are
equal.
2) We proved that the rank of a linear transformation is equal to the rank of its matrix.
3) We defined the six elementary row and column operations.
4) We have shown you how to reduce a matrix to the row-reduced echelon form.
5) We have used the echelon form to obtain the inverse of a matrix.
6) We proved that the number of linearly independent solutions of a homogeneous system nf
equations given by the matrix equation AX = 0 is n- r, where r = rank of A, n = number of
columns of A.
7) We proved that the system of linear equations given by the matrix equation AX = B is
consistent if and only if p (A) = p([A B]).
8) We have shown you how to solve asystem of linear equations by the process of successive
elimination of variables, that is, the Gaussian method.

El) AisthemxnzeromatrixoRS(A)={O~.opr(A)=O.
E2) The column space of A is the subspace of R2 generated by (1,O). (0,2), ( 1,l). Now
dim,CS(A)< dim ,R1 = 2. Also (1 .O) and (0,2),are linearly independent.
:. { ( I ,0), (0. 2)) is a basis of CS(A), and pc(A)= 2.
The row space of A is the subspace of R' generated by ( 1.0, I ) and (0,2,1). These vectors
are linearly independent, and hence, form a basis of RS (A). :. p$A) = 2.
E3) The ith row of C = AB is

=a,, [b,,b12:.. b,p] +ai2[b?,b2?...b2pl+ ...+ a,,,[b,, bn2..bop],alinearcombination of the

:.
rows of B. RS.(AB)G RS(B)':. pr (AB) Ipr (B).
E4) By Lemma I , p(AB)gpc(A)=p(A)
Also NAB) s pr(B)= p(B).
:. p(AB) < min @(A), p(B)).
 -
Matrices I1

Since C # 0, ai # 0, for some i. Similarly, bj # 0, for some j. :. aibj# 0. :. CR # 0,

:. p (CR) # 0. :. p(CR) = 1.
[
E6) PAQ = - 3O -2-4 -2].
-3 The rows of PAQ are linearly independent. :.p(PAQ) = 2. Also
the rows of A are linearly independent. :. .(A) = 2. :. p(PAQ) = p(,A ).

Then p(A) = 3. :. A's normal form is

b, K32°R21(A)=R;2[[::

O+Ox(-I)
1 0 0

O+Ix(-1)
j]=[: 0 1 0

]+Ox(-])
0 0
1 0
[I 0 0 01

E10) El (a-I) E,(a) = R,(a-') (E,(a)) = R,(a-I) R, (a) (I) = I.

This proves (b).
Eii (-a) Eii (a) = Rii (-a) (Eii (a)) = Rii (-a) (R, (a) (I)) = I, providing (c).
Linear Transformationsand
Matrices

2
A (applying R,(-1/2), Rz,(-3) and R,, (2))

A i s invertible. and A - = [:%I! - 9/4

2

314 - 11
E15) The given system is equivalent to

Now, the rank of [: :]is 2. :..

' :

thenumber of linearly independent solutions is

3 - 2 = I. :. , any non-zero solution will be a linearly independent solution. Now, the
given equations are equivalent to
x + ~ Y = - ~ . . .z. . (1)
2 x + 4 y = - z ..... (2)
(-3) times Equation (2) added to Equation ( I ) gives -5x - 10y = 0.
:. x =-2y. Then (1) gives z = 0. Thus, a solution is (-2, 1, O), :. , a-set of linearly
independent solutions is ((-2, 1,O) I.
Note that you can get several answers to this exercise. ~ u t ' a nsolution
~ will be
a (-2, 1, O), for some a E R.
E16) The augmented matjx is [A B]

4 -3 1
= [,
-2
3 -1
-2
2 - 1
i] . Its row-reduced echelon form is

-2 -2

Thus, the given system of equations is equivalent to

X , - 2x, - 2x, = 3

x, + (915) x,
=-1
= 5.
X3
We can solve this system to get the unique solution x, = -7, x, = -10, x, = 5.