010103 VU An Introduction to Old Norse Myths and Religions WS 2017

Hannah Burrows Staudacher Veronika

Seminar Paper a6802339
MA Religionswissenschaft 066 800

Minor Mythology:
About Giants, Elves, Dwarfs and Dísir

Content

1. Introduction.......................................................................................................... 2
2. Giants – Trolls - Oger .......................................................................................... 3
2.1 Trolls - Thurs ................................................................................................ 4
2.2 Oger ............................................................................................................. 4
3. Elves – Álfar ........................................................................................................ 4
4. Dwarfs – Gnomes - Landvættir............................................................................ 6
4.1 Gnom ........................................................................................................... 7
4.2 Landvættir .................................................................................................... 8
5. Mythological Women – Norns - Dísir - Valkyries ................................................. 8
5.1 Dísir .............................................................................................................. 9
5.2 Fylgjur - Hamingjur ....................................................................................... 9
5.3 Norns...........................................................................................................10
5.4 Valkyries ......................................................................................................10
6. Resume ............................................................................................................. 12
7. References ........................................................................................................ 13
1. Introduction

Similar to the other Scandinavian countries Christianisation took place in Iceland

during the first millennium. But interestingly not earlier than the Althing in the year
1000 we learn that Christianity had to be accepted in the entire country, but the
population was allowed to practice their pagan rituals at the same time. The special
treaty made it possible for pagan myths and traditions to survive in the Christian
environment. Although only texts from the 13th century document Icelandic cosmolo-
gy and ancient mythology we still get a vivid impression of beliefs and rituals of that
time.1

As Norse mythology does not only include narratives about Germanic (Scandinavian)
gods and goddesses, their lives and their influence and intermixture with humans, we
also hear about unearthly beings of the so called minor (“niedere”) mythology. They
are non-gods, but also have great influence in everyday life. They live in nature and
are worshiped there, they can be helpful or frightening to humans. Some are said to
have been in existence before the gods. As Christian church did not consider them
as dangerous to their believers they could survive till today in popular believe. 2

In Scandinavian mythology the leading roles of their gods are divided among two
groups, the Æsir (ON æsir) and the Vanir (ON vanir). To the Æsir belong e.g. Odin,
Thor and Tyr, within the Vanir group we read about Njord, Frey and Freya. Besides
these divine groups (Snorri lists a hierarchy of twelve gods and goddesses) we read
about demonic or spiritual beings listed in old texts: alfr, elves, dwarfs, giants, norns,
disir, valkyries, trolls, ogres, jötnar, fylgja, huldufölk - just to list a number of them.3

In the following chapters we want to group and describe the various types of afore
mentioned higher beings, where possible. To understand their place in mythology
over centuries we will describe their activities and their influence on traditional
believes. Although most of the sources from the late medieval times are influenced

1 Betz 2009, vol. V, „Germanic religion“, p. 377 – 378; Müller 1987, p. 358 – 359.
2 Krause 2010, „Mythologie“, „Niedere Mythologie“, p. 186, 198.
3 Dumézil, p. 3 – 4; Simek 2006, p. 87; Betz 2009, p. 378.

2
by Christian traditions, we can derive their original attributes and characteristic
mythological importance.4

2. Giants – Trolls - Oger

In Norse mythology the giants (ON jötunn, pl. jötnar) are older than the gods and
often more powerful and often wiser and are therefore asked to share their
knowledge with the gods as is told in the Völuspá. Odin even gives one eye in
exchange to omniscience of the giant Mimir.5

The primal giant is Ymir who, after he was killed, gave birth to all beings. Giants live
in Jötunheimr, somewhere in the East or North, separated from the Midgard by rivers
and woods. Especially female giants can be supporters or lovers of heroes or even
gods (e.g. Odin falls in love with Gunnlöd, Loki with Angurboda giving birth to
Fenriswolf, Midgard Snake and Hel).6

They all have names denoting their characteristics: being loud (Thrymr – the noise,
Skrikja - squaller), being stupid (dumbr – the stupid), being ugly (Amr – the grotty,
Hrökkvir – the warped) or other negative names (skrymir – the bragger). Their
traditional responsibility has to do with fire and ice7

Most of the giants are seen as dangerous what comes true when they cause the
doom of the world at Ragnarök. They are said to either aid the gods as well as the
humans or they interfere with positive or negative intents. In the Middle Ages and
under Christian influence all giants in Germanic mythology are demonised or at least
become negative connotations as we can read in heroic epics.8

4 Simek 2006, p. 87.

5 Brednich 2004, „Riese“, col. 668 – 674.
6 Simek 2006, p. 89; Krause 2010, „Riesen“, p. 227 – 228; Holzapfel 2010, p. 362.
7 Simek 2006, p. 87 – 88.
8 Krause 2010, „Riesen“, p. 227.

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2.1 Trolls - Thurs

In Scandinavian texts trolls as well as thurs are malicious types of giants (ON demon,
fiend). They bring illness and damage to humans. In popular belief they are very ugly
monsters and cannibals who live in the mountains. In Late Medieval times “troll”
could also denote a witch as well as a ghost.9

2.2 Oger

Instead of the word “giant” we find “Oger” in English and in Roman languages
denoting a special type of giants. Their main characteristics are extra strength and
size as well (e.g. he looks like a mountain, is strong like 12 men; their snoring and
sneezing can be heard for miles). A giantess can carry her breasts on her shoulder,
on her horse she can cross valleys flying in the air. Giantesses are always courted by
gods, e.g. Skaði was married to the god Njörðr.10

Like giants the ogers are dangerous, but dull creatures who were made to devils by
Christian influence in the Middle Ages. They live in the mountains and throw huge
lumps of rocks towards the churches, when the church bells are ringing.11

3. Elves – Álfar

In Germanic mythology elves (ON álfr, pl. álfar, OE ælf, ælfen) are human-shaped,
but spiritual beings. They have supernatural power and are helping or hindering
human beings in everyday life. In the myths about gods in the Elder Edda we hear
that elves celebrated together with the Æsir, what brings them close to the gods.12

9 Krause 2010, „Riesen“, p. 288; Brednich 2010, „Troll“, col. 965 – 966; Jakobsson 2015, p. 217.
10 Brednich 2004, „Riese“, col. 668 – 670.
11 Brednich 2004, „Troll“, col. 965 – 966.
12 Krause 2010, „Alben“, p. 14; Simek 2006, p. 94.

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Snorri Sturluson grouped them according to their manifestations: the ljósálfar “Licht-
Alben”, lat. “albus” - white) living in Alfheimr, the dökkálfar (“Dunkel-Alben”) and the
svartálfar (“Schwarz-Alben”) dwelling in Schwarzalfenheim inside the earth. Sturluson
was most probably influenced by Christian imaginations, because the ljósálfar are
similar to angels in their appearance and their behaviour, whereas the others are
related to the devils. Another note describes the svartálfar as being dwarfs living in
caverns under the earth. 13

To make the elves well-disposed towards them the people made sacrifices (álfablót)
what was not the case with dwarfs or giants at all. Sometimes the name álf appears
in old (e.g. Norwegian) royal genealogies like Àlfr, Gandálfr and Àlfhild showing a
high mythological meaning, most probably in connection with valued ancestors. In
North-Germanic sources the álfr (German Alb(en), Elb(en)) are rather affiliated with
the dead ancestors who became demons. They live dreaming or awake in tumuli,
from where they interfere with their descendants.14

One of the mythical Swedish kings from the dynasty of the the Yngling, Olaf, was
called Oláfr Geirstáðaálfr, and his tumulus was venerated for fertility and good ruling.
The consideration that elves could be spirits of the dead bringing welfare and fertility
would explain their demonization in the Middle Ages in Christian context. 15

According to the activities or their competences the elves can be nature spirits living
in the mountains as “bergælf” (Bergalbe) or as “feldæalf” (Feldalb) in the fields or
near the water as “waterælf”. Accordingly, they are venerated for bringing fertility in
the fields or caring for clear waters and so on. But we also hear about familiar spirits
living together with their clan and caring for the well-being of the family members.16

The tradition of elves (Elben) or álfar (Alben) is spread all over the Germanic regions,
where later on “fairy” became a synonym, especially in popular belief. There are
regional differences, whether elves are seen more or less as demons, showing
themselves as wicked or frightening, or they are benevolent to the humans. Usually
they have a human-like body the females are fair and beautiful and dance in the

13 Simek 2006, p. 94; Krause 2010, „Alben“, p. 14 – 15; Holzapfel 1993, „Elben“, p. 116.
14 Holzapfel 1993, „Alfr“, p. 42.
15 Simek 2006, p. 95; Krause 2010, „Alben“, p. 14.
16 Simek 2006, p. 95.

5
moonlight or sit in the sun. 17, But any contact with them is ambivalent: They protect
their mortal friends, reward good will and dauntlessness, but punish the villains. They
mislead young men and after falling in love and having a dance both of them disap-
pear. But this is only one narration of the many passed down in folk songs and fairy-
tales, myths and sagas.18

Until now, Icelanders are said to believe in huldufólk ("hidden people"), their regional
worshiped álfur (Icelandic, Faroese), a “variety of paranormal others…superior to
humans”, as Jakobsson calls them. They are described as “beings resembling
humans, who are usually invisible to the waking mind, and who have their houses in
rocks and hills”19.

Polls from the 1990ies in Iceland report “that approximately fourty-eight to seventy
per cent of Icelanders have some kind of belief (sometimes simply acknowledging the
possibility) in the existence of elves”20. But the meaning and imagination of the álfur
today is very different from the old medieval and pre-medieval belief. Newspapers
reported the story of Erla Stefánsdóttir, who claimed “to be a medium who sees and
feels small flower fairies, hidden people who are smaller versions of humans, and
very tall mountain elves”. Tolkien’s fairies and Gústafsson’s elves as aliens from
space are modern transformations, only using the term álfar. Based on these devel-
opments the increase of followers of Ásatrú, a new religious movement of old Nordic
pagan believers, is not a surprise.21

4. Dwarfs – Gnomes - Landvættir

In general, we do not have many references or narrations in Scandinavian texts

about dwarfs. But we know from the sagas that they were born from the body of the

17 Holzapfel (1993, „Alben“, p. 166) describes them as small as dwarfs.

18 Ranke 1981, „Elf, Elfen“, col. 1328 f.; Holzapfel 1993, „Elben“, p. 166.
19 Heijnen 2013, p. 84.
20 Jakobsson 2015, FN 13, p. 221 - 222.
21 Jakobsson 2015, p. 215 – 222;

6
primal giant Ymir like gods and humans. They are said to live underground and
therefore usually invisible, and only show themselves during night.22

Dwarfs (ON dvergr, OHG zwerc, gitwerg) are smaller than humans and have a cloak
of invisibility, which helps them to be keep a treasure better than anyone else.
Etymologically names often have a negative connotation like “wrongdoer” or “demon-
ic spirit” or even “phantom”.23

In Snorri Sturluson’s reports that the dark elves “svartálfar” are dwarfs living in
caverns under the earth. Their contribution in prehistoric times to carry the world
could be visible in names like Ái (Stammvater), Álfr (Albe) or Álfrigg (the mighty
Alb).24

Dwarfs are related to martial episodes as their names like “Thráinn” (the threatening)
or “Thrasir” (the furious) show, and in this context said to be skilful blacksmiths and
as thus have forged in particular the hammer of Thor. There seem to have existed no
female dwarfs. A very important function is attributed to four dwarfs in mythology who
are carrying the firmament which was erected from the scalp of Ymir.25

4.1 Gnom

The word is more or less a synonym of dwarf, as the Encyclopaedia Britannica

defines them as “dwarfish, subterranean goblins or earth spirits who guard precious
treasures hidden in the earth”.26

22 Simek 2006, p. 92.

23 Holzapfel 1993, „Zwerge“, p.452; Krause 2010, „Zwerge“, p. 320 – 321.
24 Simek 2006, p. 94; Krause 2010, „Alben“, p. 14 – 15; Holzapfel 1993, „Elben“, p. 116.
25 Simek 2006, p. 93; Krause 2010, „Zwerge“, p. 320 – 321.
26 Encyclopaedia Britannica, „gnome“, https://www.britannica.com/art/gnome, March 5,
2018.

7
4.2 Landvættir

Simek (2006) mentions landvættir (Landwichte) together with dwarfs and huldrefolk
known from recent folk traditions in Iceland, but classifies them as dark elves as well.
They are definitely nature spirits having an influence on humans who offer them a
cup of milk for the night to make them well-disposed.27

They are land spirits which were e.g. frightened by approaching ships bearing a
dragon head. Being afraid they would go away from the land bringing misfortune. For
example, in the city of Hafnafjörðu are said to live “more than 20 types of dwarfs, four
types of gnomes and all manners of elfin beings”.28

5. Mythological Women – Norns - Dísir - Valkyries

In general, the female spirits in Norse mythology are connected with fate be it good
or bad. They might be reincarnated spirits of women or ancestors who have to be
worshiped because they interfere in everyday life. Their functions can overlap. 29

In archaic communities women had their own deities or spirits they worshiped
according to their special needs in everyday life, especially related to birth and caring
for the children. Nevertheless, women played their roles in armed encounters and in
defending their homes.30

27 Simek 2006, p. 96.

28 Hafnarfjörður Hidden Worlds Map 1993, cited in Heijnen 2013, p. 158; Encyclopaedia
Britannica, “Guardian Spirits”, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Germanic-religion-and-
mythology/Mythology#ref533298, March 1, 2018.
29 Lindow 2002, “Dísir”, p. 95 – 97.
30 Motz 1993, p. 56 - 57.

8
5.1 Dísir

The dísir (sg. dís, pl. dísir) do not appear too often in the mythological sources. They
are a group of female spirits mentioned in connection with danger of death. They
have to be venerated because they take care of the well-being of the family, espe-
cially that of women.

The special sacrifice, the dísablót, is mentioned e.g. in Snorri´s Ynglinga Saga,
where it is included in a narration about a king´s death:

“King Adils was riding around the dísarsal, “hall of the dís”, when his horse stumbled
and threw him. The king´s head struck a rock in such a way that his skull was split
31
and his brain spilled onto the rock, and that was his death.”

This group of ghosts or spirits are similar to the fylgjur, valkyries and norns in Norse
mythology and their roles are overlapping. In local traditions, the dísir are seen as
female guardian spirits venerated in holy places. Sometimes they are included in
ancestor worships in remembrance of their dead female ancestors, and are said to
decide over the death.32

5.2 Fylgjur - Hamingjur

Like the dísir the fylgjur (sg. fulgja - fetch) – or similar the hamingjur - are protecting
the humans as guardian spirits. They accompany a person through his/her life like an
alter ego, as his/her soul spirit. This spirit may detach in sleep or trance and assume
the shape of an animal for some time. These aspects allude to the tradition of animal
ancestors of an antic community on the one side, but also to the belief that the soul
spirit may pass over to another person within the clan, when its “owner” has died,
mainly from father to son.33

31 Encyclopaedia Britannica, “guardian Spirits”, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Germanic-

religion-and-mythology/Mythology#ref533298, March 1, 2018; Lindow 2002, “dísablót”, p.
94; Simek 2006, p. 84.
32 Simek 2006, p.
33 Encyclopaedia Britannica, “guardian spirits”, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Germanic-
religion-and-mythology/Mythology#ref65414 , March 1, 2018; Motz 1993, p. 72 - 73.

9
5.3 Norns

The norns are described as forces of destiny (sometimes also called dísir), they
come to the new-born child, determine, how long it will live, and shape its faith. At the
same time they are aiding the mother when giving birth to a child. Concerning the first
aspect they correspond to the Greek Morai or the Roman Parcae, who were usually
depicted as three women spinning or weaving the fate of men. Their most famous
names in Norse mythology narration are Urd (perhaps meaning past), Verdandi
(present) and Skuld (future), but supposedly there are a great number of these
women being responsible for human fate. They descend from gods or elves or dwarfs
and can be benevolent or maleficient. In younger sagas from the Late Middle Ages
the norns seem to be identical with witches (völvas). 34

The norns dwell beneath the cosmic tree Yggdrasil and determine human fate, be it
painful or fortunate. In this function they are often listed among the wise women in
traditional heroic sagas and myths, because they knew the fate of the cosmos as a
whole and not only in parts as the gods of ancient times.35

5.4 Valkyries

The valkyries (ON valkyrja - choosers of the slain), are always associated with armed
encounters. It was the “task of the battlemaid to […] decide on triumph and defeat” as
well as to select those slains who were worthy of a place in Valhalla. In this role
perhaps they were originally demons causing death.36

Riding to the battle field the valkyries themselves wore helmets and shields, some-
times they also rode through the air. They are said to have the power to cause the
death of warriors they did not favour, and to protect others from death. Some narra-

34 Encyclopaedia Britannica, “norn”, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Norn, March 10,

2018; Motz 1993, p. 122; Krause 2010, p. 201.
35 Motz 1993, p. 72 – 73; Holzapfel 1993, p. 295; Dumézil, p 104.
36 Encyclopaedia Britannica, „valkyrie“, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Valkyrie-Norse-
mythology, March 10, 2018; Motz 1993, p. 73.

10
tions describe them as supernatural beings, others as human valkyries using their
supernatural powers and even falling in love with human heroes.37

"Nacht ward's im Gehöfte;

die Nornen kamen,

die unserem Helden

das Schicksal schufen -

geboten, er solle

der Fürsten berühmtester

werden, als bester

der Herrscher gelten."

[1. Lied von Helgi Hundingstöter ]38

37 Encyclopaedia Britannica, „valkyrie“, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Valkyrie-Norse-

mythology, March 10, 2018
38 Häny 1987, p. 74.

11
6. Resume

Although the earliest Germanic myths were first recorded only in the 13th century we
find enough evidence for the indigenous Scandinavian religious traditions. If we
unshell the Christian influence from the heroic sagas and the mythological texts great
authors like Sturluson or many others have left behind, we might get an overwhelm-
ing impression how people developed their believes and worshiped their gods or
spirits, who helped them to manage everyday life. Although there has never been the
uniform “Norse mythology” as such, we can trace some common traditions.

Graphic depictions of gods in bracteates and figurines from the 5 th century let us
assume that there emerged a new ideology in Scandinavia, parallel to political and
sociological changes. But the following Christianisation in the North, in Iceland as late
as about the year 1000, covered or even demonised the old belief, so that texts and
narrations passed down to us have to be read with a filter.39

Even nowadays, the old Norse texts are useful to understand recent folk customs or
to interpret traditions and folkways still common in Scandinavian countries.

39 Betz 2009, „Germanic Religion“, p. 376 – 377.

12
7. References

“Alben” in: Krause, Arnulf: Reclams Lexikon der germanischen Mythologie und
Heldensagen, Philipp Reclam jun. GmbH: Stuttgart 2010, 14 – 15.

„Alfr“ in: Holzapfel, Otto: Lexikon der abendländischen Mythologie. Herder: Freiburg-
Basel-Wien 2010, 42.

Betz, Hans Dieter et al. (Eds.): Religion Past & Present. Encyclopedia of Theology
and Religion, vol. V, Brill: Leiden-Boston 2009.

Brednich, Wilhelm et al. (Eds.): Enzyklopädie des Märchens, Handwörterbuch zur

historischen und vergleichenden Erzählform, vol. 11, Walter de Gruyter: Ber-
lin-New York 2004.

Brednich, Wilhelm et al. (Eds.): Enzyklopädie des Märchens, Handwörterbuch zur

historischen und vergleichenden Erzählform, vol 13, Walter de Gruyter: Berlin-
New York 2010.

Dumézil, Georges: Gods of the Ancient Northmen. Univ. of California Press: Berkely-
Los Angeles-London 1973.

Encyclopaedia Britannica, “Guardian Spirits”,

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Germanic-religion-and-
mythology/Mythology#ref533298, March 1, 2018.

Encyclopaedia Britannica, “Gnome”, https://www.britannica.com/art/gnome, March 5,

2018.

Encyclopaedia Britannica, “norn”, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Norn, March 10,

2018.

Encyclopaedia Britannica, „valkyrie“, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Valkyrie-

Norse-mythology, March 10, 2018.

“Elben” in: Holzapfel, Otto: Lexikon der abendländischen Mythologie. Herder:

Freiburg-Basel-Wien 2010, 116.

„Elf, Elfen“ in Ranke, Kurt (Ed.): Enzyklopädie des Märchens, vol. 3, Walter de
Gruyter: Berlin-New-York 1981, 1328 - 1339.

„Germanic Religion“ in: Betz, Hans Dieter et al. (Eds.): Religion Past & Present.
Encyclopedia of Theology and Religion, vol. V, Brill: Leiden-Boston 2009, 376
– 379.

Häny, Arthur: Die Edda, Götter- und Heldenlieder der Germanen, Manesse: Zürich
1987.

13
Heijnen, Adrienne: The Social Life of Dreams: A Thousand Years of Negotiated
Meanings in Iceland, LIT Verlag: Wien-Zürich-Berlin 2013.

Holzapfel, Otto: Lexikon der abendländischen Mythologie. Herder: Freiburg-Basel-

Wien 2010.

“Island” in: Müller, Gerhard et al. (Eds.): Theologische Realenzyklopädie, vol. XVI,
Walter de Gruyter: Berlin-New York 1987, 358 – 365.

Jakobsson, Ármann: Beware of the Elf! A Note on the Evolving Meaning of Álfar.
Folklore 126 (August 2015), 215 – 223.

Krause, Arnulf: Reclams Lexikon der germanischen Mythologie und Heldensagen,

Philipp Reclam jun. GmbH: Stuttgart 2010.

Lindow, John: Norse Mythology: A Guide to Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs,
Oxford University Press: Cary, US 2002.

Motz, Lotte: The Beauty and the Hag. Female Figures of Germanic Faith and Myth,
Fassbaender: Wien 1993.

Müller, Gerhard et al. (Eds.): Theologische Realenzyklopädie, vol. XVI, Walter de

Gruyter: Berlin-New York 1987.

“Muspellssöhne” in: Krause, Arnulf: Reclams Lexikon der germanischen Mythologie

und Heldensagen, Philipp Reclam jun. GmbH: Stuttgart 2010, 186.

“Mythologie” in: Krause, Arnulf: Reclams Lexikon der germanischen Mythologie und
Heldensagen, Philipp Reclam jun. GmbH: Stuttgart 2010, 186.

„Niedere Mythologie“ in: Krause, Arnulf: Reclams Lexikon der germanischen Mytho-
logie und Heldensagen, Philipp Reclam jun. GmbH: Stuttgart 2010, 198.

“Nornen” in: Krause, Arnulf: Reclams Lexikon der germanischen Mythologie und
Heldensagen, Philipp Reclam jun. GmbH: Stuttgart 2010, 201.

„Nornen“ in: Holzapfel, Otto: Lexikon der abendländischen Mythologie. Herder:

Freiburg-Basel-Wien 2010, 295.

Ranke, Kurt (Ed.): Enzyklopädie des Märchens, vol. 3, Walter de Gruyter: Berlin-New
York 1981.

“Riese, Riesin” in: Brednich, Wilhelm et al. (Eds.): Enzyklopädie des Märchens,
Handwörterbuch zur historischen und vergleichenden Erzählform, vol. 11,
Walter de Gruyter: Berlin-New York 2004, 668 – 682.

„Riesen“ in: Krause, Arnulf: Reclams Lexikon der germanischen Mythologie und
Heldensagen, Philipp Reclam jun. GmbH: Stuttgart 2010, 227 - 228.

„Riesen“ in: Holzapfel, Otto: Lexikon der abendländischen Mythologie. Herder:

Freiburg-Basel-Wien 2010, 362.

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Simek, Rudolf: Götter und Kulte der Germanen. C.H.Beck: München 20062. (also
https://books.google.at/books?id=I19R24OO-
v0C&pg=PA87&lpg=PA87&dq=niedere+mythologie&source=bl&ots=C3BNaHkoGB&sig=NrN4n-fj78faRN2y9Kin4-
SJFdE&hl=de&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjV2cK9_NfZAhXCLVAKHWxYCdAQ6AEIZTAN#v=onepage&q=elfen&f=false,
Dec 28, 2017.)

„Troll“ in: Krause, Arnulf: Reclams Lexikon der germanischen Mythologie und
Heldensagen, Philipp Reclam jun. GmbH: Stuttgart 2010, 288.

„Troll“ in: Brednich, Wilhelm et al. (Eds.): Enzyklopädie des Märchens, Handwörter-
buch zur historischen und vergleichenden Erzählform, vol. 13, Walter de Gruy-
ter: Berlin-New York 2010, 965 – 969.

„Zwerge“ in: Krause, Arnulf: Reclams Lexikon der germanischen Mythologie und
Heldensagen, Philipp Reclam jun. GmbH: Stuttgart 2010, 320 – 322.

„Zwerge“ in: Holzapfel, Otto: Lexikon der abendländischen Mythologie. Herder:

Freiburg-Basel-Wien 2010, 452.

15