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EFFICIENCY OF SWALE AND DRY POND

FOR STORMWATER MANAGEMENT

by

ASNOL ADZHAN BIN ABD. MANAP

Thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements


for the degree of
Master of Science

AUGUST 2009
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First, I would like to express my appreciation and my sincere gratitude to my main

supervisor Prof. Dr. Aminuddin Ab. Ghani for overseeing the project and keeping on

track. His inspiration, enthusiasm and encouragement have made this research

successful. I am also thankful to Prof. Dr. Nor Azazi Zakaria as my co-supervisor,

without his constant support and help this thesis could not have been completed.

My sincere grateful also goes to River Engineering and Urban Drainage

Research Centre (REDAC), Universiti Sains Malaysia especially staff who involved in

this project for helping me in data collection and providing necessary information. I also

would like to thank the Department of Drainage and Irrigation (DID) Malaysia for

helping me in providing data and necessary information.

Last but not least, my sincere thanks and appreciations also goes to my

employer, Department of Drainage and Irrigation Malaysia for giving me a study leave

and Public Service Department for awarding me a scholarship and sponsoring my

degree. Without them, this research could not be successful.

I am deeply conscious of the importance in my family, without them, I would not

have completed this research. I would like to show my appreciation to my parents who

gave me a priceless education. Special thanks also due to my loving wife, Siti Zarina

Md. Naziri who has been a constant source of encouragement. Last but not least; I

thank my sons, Muhammad Danish Imran, Muhammad Syahmi Zafran and Muhammad

Mizan Adli those who missed their father a lot during this study period.

i
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS i
TABLE OF CONTENTS ii
LIST OF TABLES v
LIST OF FIGURES vii
ABSTRAK xi
ABSTRACT xiii

CHAPTER ONE : INTRODUCTION 1

1.0 Introduction 1
1.1 Background of Research 3
1.2 Objective of Research 4
1.3 Scope of Research 4
1.4 Significance of Research 5
1.5 Thesis Summary 6

CHAPTER TWO : LITERATURE REVIEW 8


2.1 Stormwater Management in Malaysia 8
2.2 Overseas Studies on Stormwater Management 11
2.3 Stormwater Management Modelling 22
2.4 Quran as a guide 29
2.5 Summary 29

CHAPTER THREE : METHODOLOGY 30

3.0 Introduction 30
3.1 Study Area 30
3.2 Description of BIOECODS components 31
3.3 Main features of BIOECODS 32
3.4 Study Components 34
3.4.1 Swale 34
3.4.2 Dry Pond 37
3.4.3 Wetpond 38

ii
3.4.4 Detention pond 40
3.4.5 Wetland 41
3.4.6 Recreational pond 43
3.5 BIOECODS design dimension 44
3.6 Research framework 44
3.7 Data collection 46
3.7.1 Rainfall data 47
3.7.2 Flow data 48
3.7.3 Water level data 49
3.7.4 Infiltration data 50
3.8 Data analysis 51
3.8.1 Rainfall 51
3.8.2 Swale 55
3.8.3 Dry pond 56
3.8.4 Wetpond 60
3.8.5 Detention pond 62
3.8.6 Wetland 62
3.8.7 Recreational pond 64
3.8.8 Loss Rate 67
3.9 Summary 67

CHAPTER FOUR : HYDROLOGIC AND HYDRAULIC ANALYSIS 68


4.0 Introduction 68
4.1 Hydrologic Parameters and Design Method 68
4.1.1 Minor and Major System 68
4.1.2 Average Recurrence Interval (ARI) 69
4.1.3 Time of Concentration 70
4.1.4 Rainfall Intensity 74
4.1.5 Rainfall Temporal Pattern 75
4.1.6 Loss 76
4.2 Hydrologic and Hydraulic Analysis 78
4.2.1 Hydrologic Analysis 79
4.2.2 Hydraulic Analysis 81
4.3 Summary 86

iii
CHAPTER FIVE : HYDROLOGIC AND HYDRAULIC MODELLING 87
USING SWMM 5

5.0 Introduction 87
5.1 SWMM 5 Model 87
5.1.1 Model Background 87
5.1.2 Model development for BIOECODS 88
5.1.3 Model Calibration 95
5.1.4 Model Validation 98
5.2 SWMM 5 Applications 101
5.2.1 Design Data 101
5.2.2 SWMM 5 simulation 102
5.3 Summary 105

CHAPTER SIX : CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 106


6.0 Conclusions 106
6.1 Recommendations for future research 107

BIBLIOGRAPHY 108

iv
LIST OF TABLES

Page

2.1 Detention Volume using the Analytical Probabilistic Approach 23


(Guo, 2001)

2.2 Comparison of Flood Control Detention Volume Requirements 24


Determined Using Different Methods (Guo, 2001)

3.1 Observed flow measurement points 47

3.2 Sieve analysis result at study area for Surface Soil (Depth less 50
than 0.3 m) (DID, 2004)

3.3 Sieve analysis result at study area for Subsurface Soil (Depth 50
between 0.3 and 0.6 m) (DID, 2004)

3.4 Infiltration test result for sub-catchment area (DID, 2004) 51

3.5 Summary on observed rainfall data (October 2003 – December 52


2008)

3.6 Detailed analysis on observed data at location 1 (inlet 53


wetpond)

3.7 Detailed analysis on selected observed data at swale Type B 56


(AERO)

3.8 Observed level, velocity and flow for event on 15 July 2007 at 60
inlet and outlet wetpond

3.9 Observed level, velocity and flow for event on 22 July 2007 at 61
inlet and outlet wetpond

3.10 Computed rating curve at outlet wetpond 61


3.11 Observed level, flow and velocity at detention pond at almost 62
the highest velocity

4.1 Design Storm ARIs for Urban Stormwater Systems (DID,2001) 70

4.2 Fitted coefficients for IDF curves (30 ≤ t ≤ 1000 min) 74


(DID,2001)

4.3 Values of FD (DID, 2001) 75

4.4 Temporal Patterns for West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia 76


(DID, 2001)

4.5 Recommended Loss Models and Values (DID, 2001) 78

4.6 Flow Control Performance Criteria for Detention and Retention 81


(DID, 2001)

v
4.7 Example of spreadsheet application for the infiltration rate of 83
flow through the surface swale

4.8 Sample of Spreadsheet Application On Level Pool Routing in 86


Wetpond

5.1 Data input for hydrologic parameter for school, administration, 92


hostel and recreational subcatchment using SWMM 5

5.2 Value for N-Perv and N-Imperv (McCuen, et. al., 1996) 94

5.3 Recommended value for Depression Storage (ASCE, 1992) 94

5.4 Value for Horton Method 94

5.5 Observed rainfall depth, duration and intensity for different ARI 95

5.6 Data input for conduit 95

5.7 Comparison of peak and predicted flows for swale Type B 98


(AWAM)

5.8 Comparison of peak and predicted flows for swale Type B 98


(AERO)

5.9 Comparison of peak and predicted flows for swale Type B 101
(AWAM)

5.10 Comparison of peak and predicted flows for swale Type B 101
(AERO)

5.11 Design rainfall depth, duration and intensity for 10-year ARI 102

5.12 Simulated difference for concrete and swale systems 103


5.13 Simulated difference with and without dry ponds 104

vi
LIST OF FIGURES

Page

2.1 Typical Cross Section for Grassed Swale (Lau et al., 2004) 10

2.2 Typical Cross Section for Detention Storage (Lau et al., 2004) 10

2.3 Side View of Dry Pond (Lau et al., 2004) 10

2.4 Detention basin outlet configurations (Nehrke and Roesner, 12


2004)

2.5 Effects of flood detention and extended detention basins in 13


(a) Fort Collins and (b) Atlanta (Nehrke and Roesner, 2004)

2.6 Effects of detention and four-orifice extended detention basins 14


in (a) Fort Collins and (b) Atlanta (Nehrke and Roesner, 2004)

2.7 Effects of multiple extended detention basins configuration in 15


(a) Fort Collins and (b) Atlanta (Nehrke and Roesner, 2004)

2.8 Effects of extended detention basin designed to historical 16


levels in (a) Fort Collins and (b) Atlanta (Nehrke and Roesner,
2004)

2.9 Effects of extended detention basin designed to 1 - 4 year 17


historical levels in Fort Collins (Nehrke and Roesner, 2004)

2.10 Idealized cross-section of modeled grassed waterways (Fiener 18


and Auerswald, 2006)

2.11 Potential grassed waterways (GWWs) in the Lauterbach 19


watershed under predominantly arable land use in all sub-
watersheds and diversified land use (Fiener and Auerswald,
2006)

2.12 Modeled reduction of runoff volume (left) and peak discharge 20


(right) for 24-h storms for a predominantly arable land use
[grassed waterways assumed in all sub-watersheds; note: for
summer storms recurrence times of 10–50-yr (no runoff in case
of 2-yr storms), while for winter events recurrence times of 2–
10-yr are presented; winter storms >10-yr are excluded due to
unknown vegetation behavior (Fiener and Auerswald, 2006)]

2.13 Modeled reduction of runoff volume (left) and peak discharge 21


(right) for 24-h storms for a diversified land use [grassed
waterways assumed where ever possible due to topography
and land use; note: for summer storms recurrence times of 10–
50-yr (no runoff in case of 2-yr storms), while for winter events
recurrence times of 2–10-yr are presented; winter storms >10-
yr are excluded due to unknown vegetation behavior (Fiener
and Auerswald, 2006)]

vii
2.14 Comparison of Stormwater Management Model Simulation and 25
Analytical Probabilistic Results (Guo, 2001)

2.15 Comparison of Design Storm Modelling and Analytical 25


Probabilistic Results for the Test Catchment without Flood
Control (Guo, 2001)

2.16 Comparison of Design Storm Modelling and Analytical 26


Probabilistic Results for the Test Catchment Serviced by a
Flood Control Detention Pond (Guo, 2001)

2.17 Comparison of TSS CDFs of observed and two-model 28


predicted washoff loads (Behera et al., 2006)

3.1 Study Area at USM Engineering Campus, Pulau Pinang, 30


Malaysia

3.2 Flow Chart of Bio-Ecological Drainage Systems (BIOECODS) 33


(Ab. Ghani et al., 2004)

3.3 Swale constructed at USM Engineering Campus, Nibong 35


Tebal, Pulau Pinang

3.4 Swale cross sections 36

3.5 Dry pond constructed at USM Engineering Campus, Nibong 38


Tebal, Pulau Pinang

3.6 Dry pond cross section 38

3.7 Wetpond constructed at USM Engineering Campus, Nibong 39


Tebal, Pulau Pinang

3.8 Wetpond cross section 39

3.9 Detention pond constructed at USM Engineering Campus, 40


Nibong Tebal, Pulau Pinang

3.10 Detention pond cross section 41

3.11 Wetland constructed at USM Engineering Campus, Nibong 42


Tebal, Pulau Pinang

3.12 Wetland cross section 43

3.13 Present research framework 45

3.14 Layout of the measurement points 46

3.15 Rain gauge at USM Engineering Campus, Nibong Tebal, 48


Pulau Pinang

3.16 SIGMA 950AV Area Velocity Flow Module to measure flow in 48


swale

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3.17 Location of flow meter SIGMA 950 AV installed at inlet 49
wetpond

3.18 ISCO 4120 Submerged Water Level Probe 49

3.19 Relationship of effective rainfall depth and runoff depth for 54


subcatchment school and administration

3.20 Flow rating curve and Manning’s n for Swale Type B (Bong, 55
2006)

3.21 Layout of the dry ponds A to N 57

3.22 Water level in Dry Pond E on 8 December 2006 58

3.23 Water level in Dry Pond H on 8 December 2006 58

3.24 Water level in Dry Pond E on 22 July 2007 59

3.25 Water level in Dry Pond H on 22 July 2007 59

3.26 Water level in Wetland on 21 – 25 July 2007 63

3.27 Water level in Wetland on 7 – 9 September 2006 63

3.28 Water level at outlet recreational pond on 21-25 July 2007 64

3.29 Water level at outlet recreational pond on 7-9 September 2006 65

3.30 Flow at outlet recreational pond on 21-25 July 2007 66

3.31 Flow at outlet recreational pond on 7-9 September 2006 66

4.1 Minor and Major System Design Concepts (DID, 2001) 68

4.2 Systems diagram of the runoff process at local scale (Ward, 77


1975)

4.3 Impact of Flow Depth on Hydraulic Roughness (Barling and 82


Moore, 1993)

4.4 Preliminary Estimate of Required Storage (DID, 2001) 85

5.1 Water profile in surface and subsurface swale at same note 88


and time

5.2 Modelling Schematic Procedure 89

5.3 Detail layout for administration area 89

5.4 Detail layout for recreational area 90

5.5 Calibration result at swale Type B (AWAM) for 23 December 96


2008 (5-year ARI)

ix
5.6 Calibration result at swale Type B (AERO) for 23 December 96
2008 (5-year ARI)

5.7 Calibration result at swale Type B (AWAM) for 6 September 97


2008 (2-year ARI)

5.9 Validation result at swale Type B (AWAM) for 8 October 2008 99


(5-year ARI)

5.10 Validation result at swale Type B (AERO) for 8 October 2008 99


(5-year ARI)

5.11 Validation result at swale Type B (AWAM) for 25 August 2008 100
(2-year ARI)

5.12 Validation result at swale Type B (AERO) for 25 August 2008 100
(2-year ARI)

5.13 Simulated hydrographs for a 10-year ARI event 103

5.14 Simulated hydrographs with and without dry ponds 104

x
KEBERKESANAN SALURAN BERUMPUT DAN
KOLAM TAKUNGAN KERING BAGI PENGURUSAN AIR RIBUT

ABSTRAK

Perlaksanaan tata pengurusan terbaik sistem saliran baru melalui aplikasi “Stormwater

Management Manual For Malaysia” atau lebih dikenali sebagai Manual Saliran Mesra

Alam (MSMA), yang memfokuskan saluran berumput dan kolam takungan kering di

Malaysia telah dikaji.

Kajian ini dijalankan ke atas Sistem Saliran Bio-Ekologi (BIOECODS) di

Kampus Kejuruteraan, Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Nibong Tebal, Pulau Pinang,

yang terletak dalam Lembangan Sungai Kerian. Di samping mengkaji keberkesanan

saluran berumput dan kolam takungan kering ke atas hidrograf masukan bagi satu siri

kolam takungan (“wetpond”, “detention pond”, “wetland” dan kolam rekreasi atau

ECOPOND) dalam mengurus kuantiti air ribut bagi kawasan pembangunan, faktor-

faktor yang mempengaruhi keberkesanan saluran berumput dan kolam takungan

kering menggunakan permodelan hidrologi dan hidraulik turut dikenalpasti dan

dianalisa.

Data-data lapangan yang diambil di USM seperti data hujan, luahan, aras air,

masa pengosongan dan kadar penyusupan mulai Oktober 2003 hingga Desember

2008 dianalisa menggunakan model SWMM 5. Simulasi hidrograf bagi saluran

berumput, kolam takungan kering dan kolam takungan dibandingkan dengan luahan

yang direkodkan di lapangan. Model SWMM 5 didapati menghasilkan kejituan

sehingga 30% dalam menyelakukan hidrograf yang dicerap.

Saluran berumput dan kolam takungan kering yang direkabentuk bagi

BIOECODS mampu mengecilkan luahan puncak berbanding sistem saliran konkrit.

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Model SWMM 5 menunjukkan pengecilan luahan puncak sebanyak 121.4%.

Peningkatan luahan puncak dijangkakan sekiranya kolam takungan kering sediada

digantikan dengan pembangunan. Hasil kajian ini akan memacu ke arah pemahaman

yang lebih mendalam bagi peranan saluran berumput sejajar dengan iklim dan

suasana di Malaysia.

xii
EFFICIENCY OF SWALE AND DRY POND FOR
STORMWATER MANAGEMENT

ABSTRACT

The implementation of the Best Management Practices (BMPs) in a drainage system

through the Stormwater Management Manual For Malaysia or better known as Manual

Saliran Mesra Alam (MSMA), focusing on constructed swale and dry pond, was

studied.

The study was carried out on the Bio-Ecological Drainage System (BIOECODS)

at Engineering Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Nibong Tebal, Pulau Pinang,

located in Kerian River Basin. Besides the implication of the swale and dry pond toward

the inflow hydrograph of a series of ponds (detention pond, wetland and recreational

pond known as ECOPOND) in managing stormwater quantity in development area,

factors that affect the effectiveness of the swale and dry pond using hydrologic and

hydraulic model were also identified.

The collected data such as rainfall, flow, water level, emptying time and

infiltration rate from October 2003 until December 2008 at USM were analysed using

SWMM 5 model. The simulated hydrographs for swale, dry pond, wetpond, detention

pond, wetland and recreational pond were compared with recorded flow at the sites.

The modeling shows that the SWMM 5 model has the accuracy up to 30% in simulating

the observed hydrographs.

The integrated swale and dry pond as designed for BIOECODS has attenuated

the peak flow compared to that of a concrete drain system. The SWMM 5 model shows

that there is a reduction of 121.4% in peak flow. Also, the increase in peak flow is

expected if several of the existing dry ponds are to be replaced for new development

xiii
purposes. These results can lead to better understanding of the role of swale and dry

pond that suit the Malaysia climate and environment.

xiv
CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction

Water play as an important entity on the earth and for human need. The

important of water is proved by Quran verses meaning “Have not those who disbelieve

known that the heavens and the earth were of one piece, then We parted them, and we

made every living thing of water? Will they not then believe?” (Anbiya’, 30). But, if we

failure to manage the water wisely, the impact of our failure will worsen our life as

stated in Quran “And weigh with the true balance. Wrong not mankind in their goods,

and do not evil, making mischief, in the earth” (Asy-Syu’ara’, 182 - 183).

The world is changing, the higher and more intense precipitation has already

been observed in many warmer globe areas. This change includes in the terrestrial

environment (hydrological systems and ecosystems) (Kundzewics and Menzel, 2005)

or changes in climate: including an increasing atmospheric holding capacity for water

vapour.

For the flood, the occurrence generally due to change of catchment hydrology

via an increase in the impervious area and reduction in catchment storage (Schueler,

1987). Roesner et al. (2001) also mentioned that the effect of a reduction in the

catchments response time due to development was to the increase in the maximum

rate of flow discharge by a factor of 2 to more than 10 into the conventional drainage

system thus increases the frequency of significant floods. Depressional storage in

urban areas can be reduced by a factor of 5 to 10 depending on the original state of the

watershed and the degree of imperviousness generated from the urbanization

(Viessman and Lewis, 1996).

1
The importance on determining the timing and the depth of flooding is also

mentioned by Collier and Fox (2003) with the amount and distribution of rainfall in

space and time are the prime factors. Ward and Robinson (2000) stated that besides

heavy rainfall, flood flows maybe intensified by factors associated either with the

catchment itself, or with the configuration of the drainage network and stream

channels.

By referring on the pre and post development hydrographs, Schueler (1987)

described that the increased in peak flows are two to five times higher than pre-

urbanisation conditions. A moderately developed watershed can produce over twice

the runoff volume as compared to pre-urbanisation conditions. If extensive ‘drainage’

improvements are made in an urbanizing watershed, time of concentration can be

decreased by a factor of 2. Land use modification can either reduce lag time or flow

travel time (as in urbanization) or increase lag time or flow travel time (as for retention/

detention or infiltration).

For an engineered system, the successful operation usually depends more on a

non-engineering analysis (e.g., economic and social analyses) as a sound engineering

design (Chin, 2000). Therefore, a design of the hydraulic structures in urban area and

river basin need knowledge and understanding of hydraulic and hydrology with

experiment and engineering judgement besides creative thinking and manipulation of

the input (including subjectives parameters) and output used in the design (for selected

methods and tools) to satisfy site condition (Plate, 1996; Nakato and Ettema, 1996).

Looking at the frequency and intensity of rainfall in Malaysia, which are much

higher than in most countries, especially those with temperate climates, design

methods, which have been developed in other countries, may not always be suitable

for application in Malaysia (DID, 2001). Besides that, every rainfall event is unique,

2
varies in space and time according to general pattern of atmospheric circulation and

according to local factors (Chow et al., 1988).

Study by Nehrke and Roesner (2004) on the outflow hydrograph where in their

study that although the predevelopment curve can be reproduced in the developed

state, but the flow verses time curve for the developed state must shift to the right. This

will lead to water flowing from site impact the downstream due to increase of volume

cause by the outflow hydrograph that not the exact shape and volume of the

hydrograph for pre-development conditions (Glazner, 2006).

Thus, understanding on how to minimize the effect of development when

practicing MSMA by maintained at pre-development flow or basin flow limit although

the upper catchment is developed is a must. With establishing an environmental flow

(Shirakawa and Tamai, 2003), waterway can be managed and rehabilitated by “giving

room to river” (Sponge, 2001). This will lead to a better water-resources engineering

which is concerned with the analysis and design of system to control the quantity,

quality, timing, and distribution of water to meet the needs of human habitation and the

environment (Chin, 2000).

1.1 Background of Research

There are many masterplans had been carried out by government agencies

such as DID related to drainage system and river basin. In the masterplans, many

stormwater facilities had been proposed are based on priority and phase. When the

budget is not enough, selection on implementation of the masterplans towards the

effectiveness rate and the implication of not implementing the masterplans are needed

to analysis further.

3
In designing a stormwater facilities using MSMA, there are many parameters

that can be used and analyzed by a designer using reliable data and based on certain

principle and accepted formulation. Due to the effect of the parameters such as time of

concentration, tc and runoff coefficient, C that relates to losses and percent of pervious

and impervious area in the design, a study need to be carried out on implication and

the sensitivity of these parameters.

1.2 Objective of Research

The objectives of research are:

• To verify the flow attenuation due to an integrated swale and dry pond

system in comparison with a concrete drain system, and

• To predict the effects of storage due to dry ponds in attenuating peak

flow.

1.3 Scope of Research

The scope and limitations of research are as follows:

(a) The recorded data i.e. rainfall, flow discharge and water level are used from

October 2003 until December 2008. These data were measured

automatically at several locations along BIOECODS.

(b) The SWMM 5 model was applied in the study to evaluate the dynamic

behavior of BIOECODS.

4
1.4 Significance of Research

Generally, research need to be carried out as Quran had mentioned that “Read:

In the name of thy Lord Who createth” (Alaq, 1) and “Lo! In the creation of the heavens

and the earth and (in) the difference of night and day are tokens (of His Sovereignty)

for men of understanding” (Al-E-Imran, 190). Hence, by investigating and studying the

creation in this world, leads to a better understanding on why the creation is formed.

This study was carried out because there have been a very few studies on

combined performance of BMPs for humid tropic country. Although Ainan (2003) and

Sidek (2005) had carried out a study on Bio-Ecological Drainage System (BIOECODS)

to prove that BMPs can control stormwater, but detailed study on hydrologic analysis

on hydrologic parameters has not been carried out due to lack of collected data for

minor and major storm events.

MSMA had highlighted on importance of the storage and conveyance oriented

approach in managing the stormwater. Besides, most of the design criteria and method

adopted in MSMA refers from other countries manuals. Therefore, there is a need in

studying the adopted design criteria to seek their suitability under tropical conditions.

This study will lead in giving a clear and precise method to engineers and agencies

especially in managing, designing and implementing actions (Dorge and Windolf, 2003)

in developed area in a river basin.

Series of testing need to be done as proposed by Gibson (1908) and given by

Knight (1985) that the best that can be done is to discuss each phenomenon on

assumption that the fluid in motion is perfect. In order to achieve it, one of the easy way

to gain is by doing many design and modeling. Besides that, the engineer or modeler

would know and understand the use and important of subjective talents of an

5
experienced modeler with the models, mathematical nuances and the watershed

(League and Freeze, 1985).

Collier and Fox (2003) said that there are a need of research into how such

precipitation forecasts can be effectively presented to hydrologists and how they can

be used in combination with hydrological models to provide indications of future flows.

Johnson (2000) has pointed out that generalized procedures are needed for dealing

with the influence of uncertainty on hydrologic forecast. However the effectiveness and

usability of these procedures needed to be established.

1.5 Thesis Summary

This thesis discusses on effectiveness and factors that affect the BMPs as a

system such as grass swale and dry pond in hydrologic field to control a stormwater

quantity in MSMA application.

The thesis is divided into six chapters. Chapter 1 discusses the background of

the study, significance of the research and the objectives of the study. Chapter 2

elaborates the detail on literature review of stormwater management in other countries

and scenario of current stormwater management practices in Malaysia. Besides that,

the urbanization effect on stormwater, stormwater management facilities and relevant

software that had been used to model the drainage network also is discussed.

Chapter 3 discusses on the study area and the concept and design of swale

and dry pond. In addition, a discussion on research methodology in carried out the

studies such on equipment for experimental set up, monitoring and collection of data in

the field together with analysis on data collection is also highlighted in this chapter.

6
Meanwhile, Chapter 4 is designed to elaborate on hydrologic fundamental and

design methods that will be used to derive the designed parameter that is used in a

hydrologic and hydraulic model for studying the BMPs.

Chapter 5 describes on stormwater model and the input data in SWMM 5 model

used in developing the hydrologic and hydraulic model. Elaboration on how the

sensitivity analysis, calibration and validation are also further described. The hydrologic

model which represents the BIOECODS system will be analyzed, calibrated and

validated based on the collected results. Result and discussion from the modeling

together with the simulation using design rainfall is being presented in this chapter.

Finally, Chapter 6 concludes the findings from the study which discusses on the

outcome of the study and recommendations for future research related to stormwater

management practices in Malaysia.

7
CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Stormwater Management in Malaysia

Since 1975, Malaysia has been using the DID Manual “Planning and Design

procedures No.1: Urban Drainage Design Standards and Procedures for Peninsular

Malaysia” in designing drainage system. The approach used is based on conveyance-

oriented or known as rapid disposal.

Due to new technological developments in urban drainage and more conscious

on environment, on 1 January 2001, the Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID)

Malaysia had introduced Stormwater Management Manual for Malaysia or better

known as Manual Saliran Mesra Alam (MSMA). The new approach, combination of

conveyance and storage-oriented approach, provide temporary storage of stormwater

runoff at or near its point of origin with subsequent slow release to the downstream

stormwater system or receiving water (detention), or infiltration into the surrounding soil

(retention) through Best Management Practices (BMPs) so as to reduce the nuisance

problems of flash flood and river pollution (DID, 2001).

Definition of urban stormwater management as produced by DID (2001), simply

stated as everything done within a catchment to remedy existing stormwater problems

and to prevent the occurrence of new problems. It involves the development and

implementation of a combination of structural and non-structural measures to reconcile

the conveyance and storage function of stormwater systems within the space,

development and implementation of a range of measures or Best Management

Practices (BMPs) to improve the quality of urban stormwater runoff prior to its

8
discharge to receiving waters (DID, 2001) and related needs of an expanding urban

population.

MSMA introduces a combination of storage and conveyance oriented including

quantity control as a system by dealing and constructing natural measures,

(Kundzewics and Menzel, 2005). This concept states that post development peak

discharge, Qa must be less or equivalent to pre-development peak discharge (DID,

2001). In Poland, MSMA concept can be regarded similiar to Dynamic Slow Down

concept where the flows are slowed (continuity of flow is always maintained) wherever

possible and at relevant point in the catchment, and providing the temporary storage

(Christine et al., 2005).

In Malaysia, one of the projects that implement MSMA concept was a

construction of a new building for the forensic ward of Tanjung Rambutan Hospital on

the area of approximately 1.5 hectares in Ipoh, Perak Darul Ridzuan. The original

condition of this area was cultivated field. For the proposed project, more than 60 % of

the total area has been developed into impervious area such as paved road and car

park, sheltered walkway and utilities other than the building.

The project used drainage system which is known as Bio-ecological Drainage

System (BIOECODS) comprises of grassed swale, detention storage and dry pond

components to focus on the control of both the quantity and quality of urban runoff for

both minor and major system. The BIOECODS components were shown in Figures 2.1

to 2.3.

9
Figure 2.1: Typical Cross Section for Grassed Swale (Lau et al., 2004)

Figure 2.2: Typical Cross Section for Detention Storage (Lau et al., 2004)

Figure 2.3: Side View of Dry Pond (Lau et al., 2004)

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2.2 Overseas Studies on Stormwater Management

Stormwater Management is defined as the integrated management of

stormwater to control the quantity and quality of stormwater runoff using a multi-

disciplinary approach in applying appropriate technology to preserve the natural

environment, enhance living standards and improve the quality of life. Stormwater

management practices are used to delay, capture, store, treat, or infiltrate stormwater

runoff (Urbonas, 1994; Strecker et al., 2001).

The integrated approach of comprehensive Best Management Practices

(BMPs) for stormwater management is becoming a very popular topic for urban

drainage in developed countries. Stormwater BMP’s are widely used in drainage

planning in United Kingdom (Bettes, 1996), United States (Stahre & Urbanos, 1995;

Nehrke and Roesner, 2004), Germany (Fiener and Auerswald, 2006), Australia (Argue

and Pezzanti, 1998), Japan (Akagawa et al., 1997) and Guo (2001). It is also

mentioned (Mohd Sidek, 2005) that in order to control the increase in peak discharge

for urban development, most of the urban communities require the use of stormwater

detention ponds.

A number of studies with regards to the performance of detention basins have

been conducted. Involving an area of 9.7 ha, a study was undertaken in Fort Collins,

Colorado and Atlanta, Georgia by Nehrke and Roesner (2004) using 50 years of hourly

rainfall data. Fort Collins represents an arid climate receiving relatively low amounts of

annual rainfall (335 mm/year), while Atlanta represents a wetter climate (1,262

mm/year)

The study is carried out to examine the effects of the state of practice of

quantity and quality controls for urban flow control by combining flood control (for large

11
storms) and pollutant removal devices (for small storms) affecting the post

development flow frequency curve. In code of practice, for the quantity control, the flow

target low-frequency events (storm equal to or larger than 2-year ARI event) rather

than higher-frequency events. For quality control, the removal of pollutants in urban

runoff has targeted control of high-frequency event (smaller than 2-year ARI storm).

This study is carried out on a detention ponds using variety of orifices sized for

peak-flow control using traditional and innovative methods. Storm Water Management

Model (SWMM) was used to develop the model. The model was not calibrated, but the

values used are typical for urban systems.

The simulation is carried out by modelling the detention basin as stacked orifice

system shown in Figure 2.4 with the smallest orifice on the bottom and additional

orifices progressively larger with increasing elevation.

Figure 2.4: Detention basin outlet configurations (Nehrke and Roesner, 2004)

During the simulation, surcharged is assumed not occuring. The volume and

discharge rate of detention basin is sized to ensure that the peak flow discharged from

the basin for the specified return interval storm does not exceed the predevelopment

peak flow for the same storm. Results as shown in Figures 2.5 to 2.9 at different

scenarios are evaluated on how well the post-development flow frequency curve

matches the pre-delopment curve.

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Figure 2.5: Effects of flood detention and extended detention basins in
(a) Fort Collins and (b) Atlanta (Nehrke and Roesner, 2004)

13
Figure 2.6: Effects of detention and four-orifice extended detention basins in
(a) Fort Collins and (b) Atlanta (Nehrke and Roesner, 2004)

14
Figure 2.7: Effects of multiple extended detention basins configuration in
(a) Fort Collins and (b) Atlanta (Nehrke and Roesner, 2004)

15
Figure 2.8: Effects of extended detention basin designed to historical levels in
(a) Fort Collins and (b) Atlanta (Nehrke and Roesner, 2004)

16
Figure 2.9: Effects of extended detention basin designed to 1 - 4 historical levels in Fort
Collins (Nehrke and Roesner, 2004)

The preceeding figures show that for both Fort Collins and Atlanta, flow control

alone is effective for storms larger than smallest design storm, but for smallest design

storms, the flow-frequency curve wanders back toward the uncontrolled curve, showing

that runoff from very frequent storms is essentially uncontrolled. Better control by

showing attenuation in peak flows for the higher-frequency storms than the flood

control only when the BMP orifice is placed. The BMP was sized to capture 85% of the

annual runoff volume with drowdown time of the 24 h. Generally, the combination of

stacked orifice was capable of controlling the peak flows over the range of design

storms.

From the results, it seemed that 100/2/BMP configuration might be sufficient to

achieve the desired control of the postdevelopment flow frequency curve to match the

predelopment curve. Although the predevelopment curve can be reproduced in the

developed state, the flow –duration curve for the developed state must be shifted to the

right. However, it is believed by Nehrke and Roesner (2004) that through the

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appropriate use of runoff controls and properly designed BMPs can control the urban

runoff and protect urban headwater streams geomorphically and ecologically.

For swale, Fiener and Auerswald (2006) had mentioned that the efficiency of

grassed waterways (GWWs) in reducing runoff has been investigated only in few

studies. Thus, they had carried out a study on GWWs using a model at the Lauterbach

watershed, an area of approximately 16.7 km2, located in North Rhine-Westphalia,

Germany.

The study area was modeled according to a modified SCS curve number (CN)

technique according to SCS standard procedures by calculating runoff travel time and

replacing the empirical equation for shallow concentrated flow along drainage lines by

proposed Manning’s equation and using the graphical discharge method. The idealized

cross-section of GWW was shown in Figure 2.10.

Figure 2.10: Idealized cross-section of modeled grassed waterways


(Fiener and Auerswald, 2006)

The approach was modified to take into account: (i) the seasonal variation in

runoff generation in draining fields and (ii) the location of a GWW in a watershed as

well as its high infiltration capacity and hydraulic roughness, which prolongs runoff

travel time after the end of a rain event. The model was tested under two land use as

shown in Figure 2.11 (land use dominated by arable lines and diversified land use).

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Figure 2.11: Potential grassed waterways (GWWs) in the Lauterbach watershed under
predominantly arable land use in all sub-watersheds and diversified land use (Fiener
and Auerswald, 2006)

The simulation used two summers period (one prior to and one after small grain

harvest) and one winter condition at recurrence times of 2, 10, 20 and 50-year ARI.

The results were shown in Figures 2.12 and 2.13.

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Figure 2.12: Modeled reduction of runoff volume (left) and peak discharge (right) for
24-h storms for a predominantly arable land use [grassed waterways assumed in all
sub-watersheds; note: for summer storms recurrence times of 10-50-yr (no runoff in
case of 2-yr storms), while for winter events recurrence times of 2-10-yr are presented;
winter storms >10-yr are excluded due to unknown vegetation behavior (Fiener and
Auerswald, 2006)]

20
Figure 2.13: Modeled reduction of runoff volume (left) and peak discharge (right) for
24-h storms for a diversified land use [grassed waterways assumed where ever
possible due to topography and land use; note: for summer storms recurrence times of
10-50-yr (no runoff in case of 2-yr storms), while for winter events recurrence times of
2-10-yr are presented; winter storms >10-yr are excluded due to unknown vegetation
behavior (Fiener and Auerswald, 2006)]

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From Figures 2.12 and 2.13, GWWs show a large reduction in runoff volume

and peak discharge in a pre-dominantly small area arable land use, but the efficiency

had no remarkable effect on runoff reduction with an increasing watershed size of

similar GWWs area.

Besides that, reduction in the runoff and peak discharge decreased with higher

storm size due to high amounts of inflow into the GWWs. Other than watershed size

and type of storm, a proper designed and well managed of GWWs especially to keep

their vegetation in good condition and to shape and maintain their cross section flat-

bottomed are of major importance (Fiener and Auerswald, 2006).

2.3 Stormwater Management Modelling

To a greater understanding on the modeling, Guo (2001) had carried out a

study at Chigago, Illinois on the hydrologic design of the flood control detention ponds

with 35% of 250 ha is an urban catchments area. Using a 50-year hourly historical

rainfall record (1948-1997) from Midway Airport in Chigago (excluded data from

November through March each year), the study assumed that the statistical

characteristics of the rainfall remain the same in the future. The approaches using: (1)

design storm approach; (2) continuous simulation approach; and (3) analytical

probabilistic approach.

The design storm approach for various durations are developed through

statistical analysis shows peak discharges which extremely sensitive to storm duration.

In continuous simulation approach, the historical rainfall data are used directly in

Stormwater Management Model (SWMM) (Huber and Dickinson, 1988). For the

analytical probabilistic approach, Guo and Adam (1998) assumed that exponential

distributions were well approximated to the observed frequency distributions. The

22
exponential probability for rainfall event, volume, duration and inter-arrival time can be

used to represent the complete spectrum of future rainfall condition. Thus, for rainfall

data, only the statistical analysis in supporting the analytical probabilistic approach is

used. Spreadsheet application is used by Guo and Adam (1998) as an alternative for

the hydrologic design of the flood control detention ponds.

The results are presented by showing a comparison between two approaches;

(1) analytical probabilistic and continuous simulation; and (2) analytical probabilistic

and design storm modeling. In design, it is important to determine the storage volume

generated using the approaches adopted. The results are shown in Tables 2.1 and 2.2.

Table 2.1: Detention Volume using the Analytical Probabilistic Approach (Guo, 2001)

23
Table 2.2: Comparison of Flood Control Detention Volume Requirements Determined
Using Different Methods (Guo, 2001)

Detention volume required Detention volume required


Approach used to satisfy level 1 control to satisfy level 2 control
(X 1000 m3) (X 1000 m3)
SWMM with 3-h storm 170 144
peaking at 1st quartile
SWMM with 3-h storm 178 155
peaking at 2nd quartile
SWMM with 6-h storm 173 144
peaking at 1st quartile
SWMM with 6-h storm 211 184
peaking at 3rd quartile
SWMM with 24-h storm 113 26
peaking at 3rd quartile
HEC-HMS with 3-h storm 211 185
peaking at 1st quartile
HEC-HMS with 3-h storm 226 207
peaking at 2nd quartile
HEC-HMS with 6-h storm 212 186
peaking at 1st quartile
HEC-HMS with 6-h storm 254 229
peaking at 3rd quartile
HEC-HMS with 24-h storm 136 49
peaking at 3rd quartile
Analytical Probabilistic 175 154
Approach

From Tables 2.1 and 2.2, the storage volume determined using the design

storm approach can vary significantly depending on which model and design storm are

used. When excluded the results from the 24-h storms, the design storm approach with

storm durations of 3 or 6 hours shows that for control level 1, the maximum difference

can be 41% of the average value; while for control level 2, the maximum difference can

be 47% of the average value. Generally, the storage volume determined from the

analytical probabilistic approach is within the range determined from the design storm

approach with storm durations of 3 or 6 hours (Guo, 2001). The study on the peak

discharge simulated, the results are shown in Figures 2.14 to 2.16.

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