Ecolibrium

JULY 2018 · VOLUME 17.6

RRP $14.95
PRINT POST APPROVAL
NUMBER PP352532/00001

Natural
selection
The benefits of
biophilic design.
 FORUM
P EER - R E V I E W ED T ECH N I C A L PA P ER S

Simulating the effect of a

building fire on ventilation systems
Ulf Johansson, senior fire engineer RED Fire Engineers

ABSTRACT
Typically fire safety design of ventilation systems use fire and smoke dampers on ducts to each fire compartment or separate
ventilation systems for each fire compartment. These solutions are generally referred to as prescriptive solutions (also known
as deemed-to-satisfy solutions under the National Construction Code).

Less known are analytical methods that use simulations to allow a designer to predict the fire’s effect on the building’s ventilation
system. These methods predict the flow and temperature of hot gases entering the ventilation system. This allows a ventilation
system design with the fan(s) operating during a fire and where the operation of the fan is able to prevent fire and smoke spread
in the building via the ventilation system.

This paper uses a case study for a single-storey building to demonstrate how such simulations were used to justify the omission
of smoke and fire dampers from the ventilation system design. The construction cost savings associated with the engineered design
was approximately $200–$300K.

1. INTRODUCTION
A building is typically divided into multiple fire compartments.
Different fire compartments are separated from each other using
fire-resistant construction intended to maintain the structural
adequacy, integrity and insulation. Ventilation systems that serve
multiple fire compartments also need to be adequately protected
against fire and smoke spread. Typically, this is achieved by
fire and/or smoke dampers fitted to the ducts to each fire
compartment that close upon detection of fire and stopping
the fan(s) during a fire.
via leakage in the façade and internal walls. The ratio of the
fire-induced flow being pushed into the ducts, leakage or other
paths will depend on the pressure drop (resistance) for each
of the components. The part that is pushed into the ducts
is called the fire flow.
The fire-induced flow for compartments up to 200m2 can
be calculated using Equation 1 (Backvik, Fagergren, & Jensen,
2008):
q f  = 0.0081 ∙ a0.4231 ∙ A0.5009 ∙ h1.0394 (1)

Although less known, alternative methods to adequately where:

protect against fire and smoke spread exist. Such methods
typically involve maintaining fans operating throughout
a fire instead of installing fire/smoke dampers. In order to
verify that smoke and fire does not spread during a fire scenario,
a model of the ventilation system can be created and the effects
of the fire can be modelled. This paper will briefly describe the
fire science relevant to ventilation systems, what acceptance
criteria are typically applied to a fire engineering design of
a ventilation system and the tools that may be used to simulate
the fire-induced effects on the ventilation system.
2. THEORY
qf Fire-induced flow [m3/s]
a Fire growth rate [W/s2]
A Floor area of fire compartment [m2]
h Ceiling height of fire compartment [m]
In the early phase of a fire, temperatures are generally
low because the fire has not reached flashover. The Swedish
guidelines for engineering assessments related to ventilation
systems recommend that a maximum temperature of 350°C
may be used to approximate the room temperatures in the early
phase of a fire (Boverket, 2013).

2.1 The effects of fire – Early, pressurised phase 2.2 The effects of fire

A fire in a room will generate heat which in turn causes
volumetric expansion. This is called the fire-induced flow.
If the room is enclosed and relatively air tight, this will cause
the pressure to rise in the room. This is why the early stages
of a fire is sometimes referred to as the pressurised phase.
The increased pressure will lead to the air/smoke mixture
in the room being pushed out via ventilation ducts and
– Late phase (fully developed fire)
The late phase of an enclosure fire is characterised by greatly
elevated temperatures, often in the range of 800°C–1,200°C
(Karlsson & Quintiere, 2000). This is often referred to as
a fully developed fire which means the fire has gone through
a transition called flashover where all combustible material
in the room becomes involved in the fire.

50 ECO L I BR I U M  •  J U LY 2018

In the late phase, pressure relief of the room where the fire
has originated has occurred. This typically happens because
of window breakage due to the greatly elevated temperatures.
2.3 Smoke spread via ventilation systems
The conditions required to cause smoke spread will differ for
supply and exhaust systems. For supply systems, smoke will
spread downstream through the ductwork when the fire flow
causes the pressure in the room to be equal to the pressure drop
between the main supply duct and the room. E.g., if the pressure
drop between the main supply duct and the room is 100Pa, the
fire needs to create at least a pressure of 100Pa before smoke is
spread via the supply system. It is possible for a fire to create
pressures up to 1,000–2,000Pa (Backvik, Fagergren, & Jensen,
2008; Kallada Janardhan & Hostikka, 2017). Therefore, the
supply air system typically needs to be protected by backflow
protection dampers or by placing the supply air openings near
floor level or by installing a sprinkler system in the building.
BASIC-1, 4
BRANDCELL SCHAKT
Figure 1:  Illustration with solution using backflow prevention damper.
Used with permission from Hagab.
Backflow prevention dampers are a special type of
“passive” damper that allow air to flow in one direction
but automatically close when the airflow changes direction
(see Figure 1). Because this is the major risk for the supply air
ducts in the pressurised phase, such dampers provide protection
against smoke spread.
The Swedish design guide for ventilation systems suggests
that by placing the top of supply air openings a maximum
of 50mm above the floor level provides adequate protection
against smoke spread (Backvik, Fagergren, & Jensen, 2008).
However, the justification for the 50mm criteria appears
to be lacking. In a recent research report using 1:2 scale tests,
it was demonstrated that low level supply openings appear
to provide protection against smoke spread (Nyman & Ingason,
2014). For tests involving low level supply air openings without
any fan connected to the opening, it could be demonstrated
FORUM
that for openings with the top part of the opening being located
a maximum of 360mm above floor level (scale 1:1), negligible
amounts of smoke were spread. When a fan (19Pa positive
pressure) was connected to the supply air opening, negligible
smoke spread was observed up to 800mm above floor level
(scale 1:1).
For exhaust systems, a conservative criterion for avoiding
smoke spread is to maintain at least 0Pa in branches between
ducts serving different fire compartments (for example, see
Point A in Figure 2) (Bengtson, Jönsson, & Frantzich, 2005).
If the pressure in this point is 0Pa or less, it is physically
impossible for smoke to spread between the different
compartments. The criteria is conservative because in reality
the pressure in the branching between fire compartments must
be greater than the dynamic pressure generated at this point.
Swedish guidelines for engineering assessments related to
ventilation systems suggest that a maximum volume of smoke
spread equivalent to 1% of the receiving fire compartment’s
volume is acceptable for occupancies with sleeping occupants
(Boverket, 2013).
A
Figure 2:  Point A illustrates branching between different
fire compartments. Used with permission from Hagab.
2.4  Fire spread via ventilation systems
The risk of fire spread is mainly concerned with the late phase
of the fire when temperatures are greatly elevated.
Because ducts are passing through fire resistant construction
and not fitted with fire dampers (which protect against heat
transfer between fire compartments), metal ducts may be heated
in the room of fire origin and conduct heat to the parts of the
duct in another fire compartment. Because hot gases also are
entering and being transported away from the room of fire
origin, the temperature inside a duct far from the room of fire
origin may be sufficient to cause fire spread. Depending on the
temperatures inside the ducts, the ducts will need to be provided
with fire rated insulation.
3. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
AND ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA
The design of the ventilation system must demonstrate
the following:
• The spread of smoke between different fire compartments
is less than 1 % of the receiving compartment’s volume
when exposed to the worst credible fire.
• Mixing temperatures at the fan does not exceed
the fan’s temperature rating.
• The provided fire rated insulation is appropriate for
the calculated/simulated mixing temperatures in the ducts
to prevent fire spread.
J U LY 2018 • ECO L I BR I U M 51
 FORUM
• The negative pressures generated in the building
do not cause door opening forces to exceed accepted
values (typically this is in the order of 110 to 150N).
In addition to the above, systems utilising fans operating
through the fire scenario will require:
• Metal ducts with appropriate seals that maintain
their integrity at temperatures above 1,000°C
• Fans required to operate during a fire must be located
in a separate fire compartment. Such a fire compartment
may not be served by the fan(s) or must be provided
with fire and/or smoke dampers.
• The power supply to the fan(s) required to operate
during a fire must be adequately protected. Essential
switchboards, etc., must be located in a fire compartment
not served by the fan or protected with fire and smoke
dampers. Power supply cables must be protected when
located in areas served by the fans.
4.  CASE STUDY
4.1 The building and its ventilation system
This case study involves a single storey Class 3 building where
the ventilation system serves each Sole-Occupancy Unit (room).
The eight rooms are provided with mechanical supply and
exhaust. The airflows to the rooms were as follows:
• Normal sized room (9m2): 95L/s
• Accessible room (14m2): 135L/s
For the supply and exhaust system, the lowest pressure drop
between the main duct and a room is 10Pa.
The exhaust fan is able to operate for a minimum of 60 minutes
when exposed to temperatures up to 200°C.
Each room is a fire compartment. Under the prescriptive
regulations of the NCC, the room would have to be fitted with
smoke dampers as well as fire dampers. The engineered solution
allows the omission of both the smoke and fire dampers from
the supply and exhaust ducts to the rooms.
A smoke-detection system in the building forces the
ventilation system(s) in the building to operate in “fire mode”.
For this particular case study, the exhaust fans were to ramp
up to maximum speed. The exhaust fans are designed to
have a 10% additional capacity to what is required for normal
operation. The supply air fan is set to operate at a speed that
provides the nominal airflows in “fire mode” but operating
at a fixed fan speed (no variable speed drive permitted).
4.2  Protection of supply system
Protection of smoke spread via the supply air system is
achieved by locating the topmost part of the supply air opening
at 250mm above the fixed floor level. As the supply air fan
produces a minimum of 10Pa positive pressure from the main
duct, research illustrates that a negligible amount of smoke may
spread via the supply air duct at this height (Nyman & Ingason,
2014). Adequate protection against spread of smoke and fire
via the supply air system is therefore achieved.
52 ECO L I BR I U M  •  J U LY 2018
4.3  Protection of exhaust system
To ensure that no smoke spread occurs, a simulation of
the ventilation system was carried out using the modelling
software Program Flow System (PFS) (Jensen, 2015). A model
of the network of ducts was created for the ventilation system.
Fans were described by pressure altering elements within PFS.
The model is used to adjust the pressures within the system
to achieve the minimum 10Pa pressure drop between the
main duct and the room located furthest from the exhaust fan.
Using the equation for maximum fire-induced flow,
the maximum values were calculated using the actual floor
and ceiling heights for the different types of rooms and using
a “fast” fire growth rate which is recommended by the Swedish
guidelines for such engineering assessments (Boverket, 2013).
The maximum fire-induced flow was determined as follows:
• Normal sized room (9m2): 390L/s
• Accessible room (14m2): 500L/s
Leakage from the rooms to the outside was assumed to be
10L/s at 15Pa pressure difference based on recommendations
from the mechanical design engineer.
A simulation of the nominal operation of the ventilation
system using PFS is shown in Figure 3 (located in Appendix A).
It can be seen that the pressure drop over between the main
duct and “Room 8” is approximately 10Pa. The simulation
shows that the fan must be able to generate a pressure of at
least 69Pa at 760L/s to achieve the 10Pa pressure drop between
the main duct and “Room 8”.
In Figure 4 (located in Appendix A), the early, pressurised
phase of a fire is simulated in “Room 7” which is the worst
case scenario for the ventilation system. The fire-induced flow
is introduced into “Room 7”. The temperature of the hot gases
in “Room 7” is assumed to be 350°C. The ratio of flow of ambient
temperature air into the supply duct and hot gases into the
exhaust duct is solved by iterating the fire-induced pressure
within the room.
The simulation shows that a positive pressure of about 7Pa
occurs in the branch between fire compartments, however,
no smoke is spread. The model is adjusted for the fan’s operation
in fire mode as the total flow at the fan is 830L/s (less than
10% increase from 760L/s) and is calculated to 69Pa by
adjusting the fan’s ability to increase the pressure for the
mixing temperature. No smoke spread occurs due to the
dynamic pressure in this point created by the flow. As such,
the ventilation system is able to prevent smoke spread between
fire compartments. The pressure generated by the fan has been
converted to account for the mixing temperature at the fan.
The maximum mixing temperature at the fan in the early
phase is 71°C which does not exceed the fan’s temperature
rating. As such, the fan will not fail due to elevated temperatures
in the early phase.
In Figure 5 (located in Appendix A), the late, flashover phase
of a fire is simulated in “Room 7”. The temperature in the
fully developed phase is conservatively assumed to be 1,200°C.
The simulation shows that the mixing temperature at the fan is
calculated to approximately 75°C which does not exceed the fan’s
temperature rating. As such, the fan will not fail due to elevated
temperatures in the late fully developed fire phase.

The fan will therefore maintain the integrity between
the fire compartments throughout the fire.
The mixing temperature is calculated in different parts
of the main ductwork for the late phase in the simulation.
The temperature decreases closer to the fan as more ambient
temperature air is mixed with the hot gases. Based on the worst
credible mixing temperatures, the main duct and associated
insulation was provided with a Fire Resistance Level (FRL)
of -/30/30 which will limit the surface temperature to 160°C
and prevent fire spread to the degree necessary (Backvik,
Fagergren, & Jensen, 2008). Ducts serving a single room
was provided with an FRL of -/60/60.
The simulations illustrate only one out of several similar
ventilation systems for the case study building. In total, the
case study building had 70 rooms. The engineered method
allowed fire and smoke dampers to be omitted from each
room. Based on indicative pricing from manufacturers, this
results in a cost savings of approximately $200K–$300K for
the construction of the building. Fire and smoke dampers
require ongoing maintenance and replacement for the lifetime
of the building. The engineered assessment leads to significantly
lower costs for maintenance for the case study building.
5. CONCLUSION
The available fire science related to fire development and
behaviour of ventilation system components allows modelling
of the effects from fire on a building’s ventilation system.
By applying fire safety engineering methods and tools, it is
possible to justify designs where fire and smoke dampers are
omitted and replaced by fans that operate through during a
fire. The cost savings associated with such engineered designs
for the construction phase are significant and result in reduced
maintenance for fire safety systems over the building’s lifetime.  ❚
FORUM
REFERENCES
Backvik, B., Fagergren, T., & Jensen, L. (2008). Installationsbrandskydd:
ventilation, rör, el. Stockholm: Brandskyddslaget.
Bengtson, S., Jönsson, R., & Frantzich, H. (2005). Brandskyddshandboken:
en handbok för projektering av brandskydd i byggnader. Lund: Wallin & Dalholm.
Boverket. (2013). The Swedish National Board of Housing, Building and
Planning’s general recommendations on the analytical design of a building’s
fire protection, BBRAD 3. Karlskrona: Swedish National Board of Housing,
Building and Planning.
Jensen, L. (2015). PFS++ Reference Manual. Lund: Lund University.
Kallada Janardhan, R., & Hostikka, S. (2017). Experiments and Numerical
Simulations of Pressure Effects in Apartment Fires. Fire Technology, 53,
1353–1377.
Karlsson, B., & Quintiere, J. (2000). Enclosure Fire Dynamics. Boca Raton,
FL: CRC Press.
Nyman, H., & Ingason, H. (2014). Rumsbrand med lågt placerade
ventilationsdon – modellskaleförsök. Borås: SP Fire Research.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
A Chartered Professional Engineer, Ulf Johansson has over
five years of experience as a consulting fire safety engineer
in both Australia and Sweden. He is also a registered building
practitioner (RBP) in the category of engineer – fire safety.
One of Johansson’s passions is alternative fire safety designs
of ventilation and smoke-control systems. He has used
engineering methods to carry out analytical fire safety design
of ventilation systems for numerous projects, including
apartment buildings, offices, hospitals, aged care and heritage
buildings. He is also a specialist in performance-based
assessments such as advanced smoke spread modelling
(e.g., CFD), egress modelling and structural fire assessments.