Repair and Rehabilitation of Structures

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PROFESSIONAL ENGINEERS CONSULTANCY
REPAIR & REHABILITATION

OF STRUCTURES
08.806.8 Elective-IV
KERALA UNIVERSITY
PROFESSIONAL ENGINEERS CONSULTANCY, CONTACT 9747348902

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MODULE 2
REINFORCED CONCRETE
Reinforced concrete is a combination of concrete and steel. Alone concrete is very

strong in compression but very weak in tension. Since concrete bonds firmly to
steel reinforcement the combination acts as one material which offers high
compressive strength, high tensile strength and high shear strength. Reinforcement
in concrete also helps to control cracking such as shrinkage and surface cracking.
There are two main types of reinforcement: deformed bars (i.e. with grooves) and
mesh sheets, such as rectangular mesh, square mesh and trench mesh. The position
of reinforcement is always shown on drawings. Steel reinforcement must be
securely fixed in the right position. To ensure that the correct concrete cover over
the reinforcement is being achieved, plastic bar chairs or concrete blocks should
be used at the specified distance from the forms. Timber, bricks or stones should
not be used. Reinforcement may be bent, hooked or lapped to suit design
requirements and improve the bond between the steel and the concrete. The
reinforcement must be clean and free from grease, dirt or flaky 3rust. It is
necessary to have enough room to place and compact the concrete around the steel.
Congested reinforcement will make compaction using internal vibrators difficult
and may result in voids. Reinforced concrete is used for concrete slabs, decks,
concrete pavements, columns, walls, concrete bridges, retaining walls etc.

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INTRODUCTION -VISUAL INSPECTION
Visual testing is probably the most important of all non-destructive tests. It can
often provide valuable information to the well trained eye. Visual features may be
related to workmanship, structural serviceability, and material deterioration and it
is particularly important that the engineer is able to differentiate between the
various signs of distress which may be encountered. These include for instance,
cracks, pop-outs, spalling, disintegration, colour change, weathering, staining,
surface blemishes and lack of uniformity. Extensive information can be gathered
from visual inspection to give a preliminary indication of the condition of the
structure and allow formulation of a subsequent testing programme. The visual
inspection however should not be confined only to the structure being investigated.
It should also include neighbouring structures, the surrounding environment and
the climatic condition. This is probably the most difficult aspect of the whole
structural investigation or any diagnostic works since what appears obvious to one
may not be so to another. The importance and benefits of a visual survey should
not be underrated. Often the omission of what appears to be insignificant evidence
can lead to a wrong conclusion being made. The advantage of a trained eye is best
described by Sherlock Holmes when he wrote: ―I see no more than you but I have
trained myself to notice what I see.‖
TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT FOR VISUAL INSPECTION
An engineer carrying out a visual survey should be well equipped with tools to
facilitate the inspection. These involve a host of common accessories such as
measuring tapes or rulers, markers, thermometers, anemometers and others.
Binoculars, telescopes, borescopes and endoscopes or the more expensive fibre
scopes may be useful where access is difficult. A crack width microscope or a

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crack width gauge is useful, while a magnifying glass or portable microscope is

handy for close up examination. A good camera with the necessary zoom and
micro lenses and other accessories, such as polarized filters, facilitates pictorial
documentation of defects, and a portable colour chart is helpful in identifying
variation in the colour of the concrete. A complete set of relevant drawings
showing plan views, elevations and typical structural details allows recording of
observations to be made.
GENERAL PROCEDURE OF VISUAL INSPECTION
Before any visual test can be made, the engineer must peruse all relevant structural
drawings, plans and elevations to become familiar with the structure. Available
documents must also be examined and these include technical specification, past
reports of tests or inspection made, construction records, details of materials used,
methods and dates of construction, etc.
The survey should be carried out systematically and cover the defects present, the
current and past use of the structure, the condition of adjacent structures and
environmental condition. All defects must be identified, the degree classified,
similar to those used for fire damaged concrete and, where possible, the causes
identified. The distribution and extent of defects need to be clearly recognized. For
example whether the defects are random or appear in a specific pattern and
whether the defect is confined to certain locations of members or is present all over
the structure. Visual comparison of similar members is particularly valuable as a
preliminary to testing to determine the extent of the problems in such cases. A
study of similar structures or other structures in the local area constructed with
similar materials can also be helpful in providing ‗case study‘ evidence,
particularly if those other structures vary in age from the one under investigation.

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There is a need to identify associated or accompanying defects, especially which

particular defect predominates
Segregation or excessive bleeding at shutter joints may reflect problems with the
concrete mix, as might plastic shrinkage cracking, whereas honeycombing may be
an indication of a low standard of construction workmanship. Lack of structural
adequacy may show itself by excessive deflection or flexural cracking and this
may frequently be the reason for an in situ assessment of a structure. Long term
creep defections, thermal movements or structural movements may cause
distortion of doorframes, cracking of windows, or cracking of a structure or its
finishes.
Material deterioration is often indicated by surface cracking and spalling of the

concrete and examination of crack patterns may provide a preliminary indication
of the cause. Systematic crack mapping is a valuable diagnostic exercise when
determining the causes and progression of deterioration. Observation of concrete
surface texture and colour variations may be a useful guide to uniformity. Colour
change is a widely recognized indicator of the extent of fire damage. Visual
inspection is not confined to the surface but may also include examination of
bearings, expansion joints, drainage channels and similar features of a structure.
Any misuse of the structure can be identified when compared to the original
designed purpose of the structure.
An assessment may also need to be made of the particular environmental

conditions to which each part of the structure has been exposed. In particular the
wetting and drying frequency and temperature variation that an element is
subjected to should be recorded because these factors influence various
mechanisms of deterioration in concrete. For example, in marine structures it is

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important to identify the splash zone. Settlement of surrounding soil or

geotechnical failures need to be recorded. Account must also be taken of climatic
and other external environmental factors at the location, since factors such as
freeze thaw conditions may be of considerable importance when assessing the
causes of deterioration. A careful and detailed record of all observations should
be made as the inspection proceeds. Drawings can be marked, coloured or shaded
to indicate the local severity of each feature. Defects that commonly need
recording include
cracking which can vary widely in nature and style depending on the causative
mechanism
 surface pitting and spalling
 surface staining
 differential movements or displacements
 variation in algal or vegetative growths
 surface voids
 honeycombing
 bleed marks
 constructional and lift joints
 exudation of efflorescence.

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Classification of the degree of damage or condition requires experience and

engineering judgement but guides are available. Where a large structure is to be
examined it may be appropriate to produce a plan or a series of plans indicating
‗climate exposure severity‘ to overlay the engineer‘s plans of the structure.
PULL OUT TEST
A pull-out test measures, with a special ram, the force required to pull from the
concrete a specially shaped steel rod whose enlarged end has been cast into the
concrete to a depth of 3 in. (7.6 cm). The concrete is simultaneously in tension and
in shear, but the force required to pull the concrete out can be related to its
compressive strength. The pull-out technique can thus measure quantitatively the
in-situ strength of concrete when proper correlations have been made. It has been
found, over a wide range of strengths, that pull-out strengths have a coefficient of
variation comparable to that of compressive strength.
Limitations and Advantages. Although pullout tests do not measure the interior
strength of mass concrete, they do give information on the maturity and
development of strength of a representative part of it. Such tests have the
advantage of measuring quantitatively the strength of concrete in place. Their main
disadvantage is that they have to be planned in advance and pull-out assemblies set
into the formwork before the concrete is placed. The pull-out, of course, creates
some minor damage. The test can be non-destructive, however, if a minimum pull-
out force is applied that stops short of failure but makes certain that a minimum
strength has been reached. This is information of distinct value in determining
when forms can be removed safely.
There are two options for the pullout test:

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 DANISH LOK TEST which requires that the head be cast into the concrete at
the time of construction. This test gives a good indication of near surface
compressive strength.
 Building Research Establishment, UK (BRE) PULLOUT involves drilling a
hole and inserting a ―fixing‖ which is pulled out. The advantage of this test is that
it does not require a head to be cast into the concrete during construction. The
disadvantage is that the test really measures tensile strength and is then calibrated
to compressive strength. The pullout test is a test that falls in the transition area
between a destructive test and a non-destructive test. It is destructive in the sense
that a relatively large volume of the concrete is damaged but non-destructive
because the damaged can be repaired. The pullout test measures the force required
to pull an embedded metal insert with an enlarged head from a concrete specimen
or a structure. Fig. illustrates the configuration of a Danish Lok pullout test. The
insert is pulled by a loading ram seated on a bearing ring that is concentric with
the insert shaft. The bearing ring transmits the reaction force to the concrete.
Frustum geometry is controlled by the inner diameter of the bearing ring (D), the
diameter of the insert head (d), and the embedment depth (h). The apex angle (2α)
of the idealized frustum is given by:
The pullout test is widely used during construction to estimate the in-place strength
of concrete to help decide whether critical activities such as form
removal,application of post tensioning, or termination of cold weather protection
can proceed. Since the compressive strength is usually required to evaluate
structural safety, the ultimate pullout load measured 15during the in-place test is

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converted to an equivalent compressive strength by means of a previously

established correlation relationship. As the insert is pulled out, a conical shaped
fragment of concrete is extracted from the concrete mass. The idealized shape of
the extracted conic frustum is shown in Fig..
Unlike some other tests that used to estimate the in-place strength of concrete, the
pullout test subjects the concrete to a slowly applied load and measures an actual
strength property of the concrete. However, the concrete is subjected to a complex
three dimensional state of stress, and the pullout strength is not likely to be related
simply to uniaxial strength properties. Nevertheless, by use of correlation curves
the pullout test can be used to make reliable estimates of in-place strength. An
important step in implementing the method is choosing the locations and number
of pullout tests in a given placement of concrete. The inserts should be located in
the most critical portions of the structure and there should be a sufficient number
of tests to provide statistically significant results. Additional inserts are

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recommended in the event that testing begins too soon, and the concrete has not
attained the required strength. The use of maturity meters along with the pullout
tests is encouraged to assist in selecting the correct testing times and in
interpreting possible low strength results. The BRE pullout test was developed to
permit testing in an existing construction by drilling a hole and inserting some
type of expansion anchor. The results of these tests are difficult to interpret if a
correlation curve does not exist for the concrete used in the construction.
ULTRASONIC PULSE VELOCITY METHOD
ultrasonic pulse velocity method is the only one of this type that shows potential
for testing concrete strength in situ. It measures the time of travel of an ultrasonic
pulse passing through the concrete. The fundamental design features of all
commercially available units are very similar, consisting of a pulse generator and a
pulse receiver. Pulses are generated by shock-exciting piezo-electric crystals, with
similar crystals used in the receiver. The time taken for the pulse to pass through
the concrete is measured by electronic measuring circuits.
Pulse velocity tests can be carried out on both laboratory-sized specimens and
completed concrete structures, but some factors affect measurement:
1. There must be smooth contact with the surface under test; a coupling medium
such as a thin film of oil is mandatory.
2. It is desirable for path-lengths to be at least 12 in. (30 cm) in order to avoid any
errors introduced by heterogeneity.

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3. It must be recognized that there is an increase in pulse velocity at below-

freezing temperature owing to freezing of water; from 5 to 30°C (41 – 86°F)
pulse velocities are not temperature dependent.
4. The presence of reinforcing steel in concrete has an appreciable effect on pulse

velocity. It is therefore desirable and often mandatory to choose pulse paths
that avoid the influence of reinforcing steel or to make corrections if steel is in
the pulse path.
Applications and Limitations: The pulse velocity method is an ideal tool for
establishing whether concrete is uniform. It can be used on both existing structures
and those under construction. Usually, if large differences in pulse velocity are
found within a structure for no apparent reason, there is strong reason to presume
that defective or deteriorated concrete is present.

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REBOUND HAMMER TEST(SHMIDT HAMMER TEST)
A handy non-destructive testing instrument should be cheap, easy to operate and

should have reproducibility for, fairly accurate results. In 1948, a Swiss Engineer,
Ernst Schmidt developed a test hammer for measuring the hardness of concrete by
the rebound principle.
Inspite of its popularity, this testing has not been standardized in any country till
1970 except in Bulgaria. In 1971 the British Standards Institution Standardized this
test in recommendation for ―Non-Destructive Methods of Test for Concrete‖ part 4
surface hardness methods (BS 4408 : part 4 : 1971). ASTM issued a tentative
standard in 1975 ―Tentative Method of Test for Rebound Number of Hardened
Concrete‖ (ASTM C 805 : 75 T), and in 1979 ASTM standard of this test was
issued ―Test for Rebound Number of Hardened Concrete‖ (ASTM : C805-1979).
Bureau of Indian Standard did not published any standard for this test upto 1991.
In 1992 they published IS: 13311 (Part 2) for this test. IS: 456-2000 specified the
Non-destructive tests are used to obtain estimation of the properties of concrete in
the structure, the methods adopted include Rebound Hammer. CPWD
specifications 77 vo. 1 specified that in case the concrete cubes fails, concrete test
hammer may be used to arrive at strength of the concrete Laid. Revised CPWD
specifications 2002 page 104 specified that for the purpose of payment (Rebound
Hammer) hammering test results only shall be the criteria.
According to A.M. Neville, in the book Properties of Concrete (Fourth Edition) on

page 626, the rebound hammer is useful in the assessment of uniformity of
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concrete with in a structure. The test can also be used to establish whether the
rebound number has reached a value known to correspond to the desired strength.
This is of the help in deciding when to remove false work or to put the structure
into service.
IS: 13311 (part 2): 1992 specified, the rebound hammer method could be used for
assessing the likely compressive strength of concrete with the help of suitable co-
relations between rebound index and compressive strength.
IRC Special Report – 17 on page 5 specified that rebound hammer test when
properly calibrated on site with cubes, can be useful for measuring in structure
magnitude and variability of strength. It is most commonly used due to its
simplicity and low cost.
OBJECT
The rebound hammer method could be used for (IS: 13311 Part 2-1992):
a) assessing the likely compressive strength of concrete with the help of suitable
co-relations between rebound index and compressive strength.
b) assessing the uniformity of concrete.
c) assessing the quality of the concrete in relation to standard requirements, and
d) assessing the quality of one element of concrete in relation to another.
Note: The rebound hammer method can be used with greater confidence for
differentiating between the questionable and acceptable parts of a structure or for
relative comparison between two different structures.
DESCRIPTION
The hammer consists of a spring controlled mass that slides on a plunger within a
tubular housing. When the plunger is pressed against, the surface of concrete, it

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retracts against the force of the spring. When completely retracted the spring is
automatically released. On the spring controlled mass rebound, it takes the rider
with it along the guide scale. By pushing a button, the rider can be held in position
to allow readings to be taken.
CALIBRATION
Each hammer is furnished with a calibration chart supplied by the manufacturer.
This calibration chart can be used only when material and testing conditions are
similar to those in effect when the calibration of the instrument was carried out.
Each hammer varies considerably in performance and needs calibration for use on
concrete made with aggregates produced from a specific source. A practical
procedure for calibration of the hammer for use on a job in progress is outlined
below:
• Prepare a number of cubes covering the strength to be encountered on the job.
Use the same cement and aggregates as are to be used on the job. The cubes should
be preferably as large a mass as possible in order to minimize the size effect on the
test results of a full scale structure. 150 mm cube specimens are preferred. The
cube size must be increased with the increase of hammer impact energy. For
hammer impact energy of 0.225 kgm, 150 mm cubes size will be quite sufficient,
but for hammer of 3 kgm impact energy the cube size shall not be less than 300
mm.
• The cubes shall be cast and cured as laid down in IS: 516:1959.
• After the curing period the cubes should be removed from wet storage to the
laboratory atmosphere for about 24 hours before testing. It may be noted that the
strength of wet-tested cubes will be normally 10% lower than that of dry tested
cubes.

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• After cleaning the faces of the cubes they should be gripped in the compression
testing machine under a load of 7 N/mm2 (15.75 Tonnes for 150 mm cubes), when
the impact energy of the hammer is about 2.2 Nm. The load should be increased
for calibration rebound hammer of greater impact energy and decreased for
caliberating rebound hammer of lesser impact energy.
• Atleast nine hammer readings should be taken on each of the two vertical faces
accessible in the compression testing machine. The points of impact on the
specimen should not be nearer on edge than 20 mm and should be not less than 20
mm from each other. The same points must not be impacted more than once.
• Immediately after taking the hammer readings, the cube should be tested to its
ultimate load.
• Repeat this procedure for all cubes.
• After discarding the extreme values, average the reading of all the individual
cubes and call this the rebound number.
• The values of rebound numbers and cube compressive strength should be plotted
by fitting a curve or line by method of least squares.
The accuracy of the hammer reproducibility should be ascertained from time to
time using a standard anvil, particularly before the testing of structure.

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rebound hammer test
REBOUND NUMBER

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PENETRATION PROBE (WINDSOR PROBE)
Basically, the test consists of firing a standard probe into the concrete with a
standard cartridge. The extent of the penetration is measured and is related to the
concrete strength The strength results are based on predetermined correlation
between the type of aggregates used in the concrete and the penetration depth.
Main applications It can be used for estimating compressive strength,

uniformity and quality of concrete. It can also be used for estimating the same
properties of mortars.
User expertise Expertise required is low. Execution is fast and can be operated
by field personnel.
Advantages The equipment is easy to use and does not require surface
preparation prior to testing. It is good for determining in situ quality of concrete.
The results are not msubject to surface conditions, moisture content or ambient
temperature.
Limitations It requires minimum edge distance and member thickness. It slightly

damages small area. Calibration by manufacturers does not give precise
prediction of strength for concrete older than 5 years and where surface is
affected by carbonation or cracking. Calibration based on cover is necessary for
improved evaluation.

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Windsor probe
PENETRATION RESISTANCE OR WINDSOR PROBE TEST
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE
The Windsor probe, like the rebound hammer, is a hardness tester, and its
inventors‘ claim that the penetration of the probe reflects the precise compressive
strength in a localized area is not strictly true. However, the probe penetration
does relate to some property of the concrete below the surface, and, within limits,
it has been possible to develop empirical correlations between strength properties
and the penetration of the probe.
EQUIPMENT FOR WINDSOR PROBE TEST

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The Windsor probe consists of a powder-actuated gun or driver, hardened alloy

steel probes, loaded cartridges, a depth gauge for measuring the penetration of
probes, and other related equipment. As the device looks like a firearm it may be
necessary to obtain official approval for its use in some countries. The probes have
a tip diameter of 6.3 mm, a length of 79.5 mm, and a conical point. Probes of 7.9
mm diameter are also available for the testing of concrete made with lightweight
aggregates. The rear of the probe is threaded and screws into a probe driving head,
which is 12.7 mm in diameter and fits snugly into the bore of the driver. The probe
is driven into the concrete by the firing of a precision powder charge that develops
energy of 79.5 m kg. For the testing of relatively low strength concrete, the power
level can be reduced by pushing the driver head further into the barrel.
GENERAL PROCEDURE FOR WINDSOR PROBE TEST
The area to be tested must have a brush finish or a smooth surface. To test
structures with coarse finishes, the surface first must be ground smooth in the area
of the test. Briefly, the powder-actuated driver is used to drive a probe into the
concrete. If flat surfaces are to be tested a suitable locating template to provide
178 mm equilateral triangular pattern is used, and three probes are driven into the
concrete, one at each corner. A depth gauge measures the exposed lengths of the
individual probes. The manufacturer also supplies a mechanical averaging device
for measuring the average exposed length of the three probes fired in a triangular
pattern. The mechanical averaging device consists of two triangular plates. The
reference plate with three legs slips over the three probes and rests on the surface
of the concrete. The other triangular plate rests against the tops of the three probes.
The distance between the two plates, giving the mechanical average of exposed

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lengths of the three probes, is measured by a depth gauge inserted through a hole
in the centre of the top plate. For testing structures with curved surfaces, three
probes are driven individually using the single probelocating template. In either
case, the measured average value of exposed probe length may then be used to
estimate the compressive strength of concrete by means of appropriate correlation
data.
The manufacturer of the Windsor probe test system has published tables relating
the exposed length of the probe with the compressive strength of the concrete. For
each exposed length value, different values for compressive strength are given,
depending on the hardness of the aggregate as measured by the Mohs' scale of
hardness. The tables provided by the manufacturer are based on empirical
relationships established in his laboratory. However, investigations carried out by
Gaynor, Arni, Mallotra, and several others indicate that the manufacturer's tables
do not always give satisfactory results. Sometimes they considerably overestimate
the actual strength and in other instances they underestimate the strength.
It is, therefore, imperative for each user of the probe to correlate probe test results
with the type of concrete being used. Although the penetration resistance
technique has been standardized the standard does not provide a procedure for
developing a correlation. A practical procedure for developing such a relationship
is outlined below.
(1) Prepare a number of 150 mm × 300 mm cylinders, or 150 mm3 cubes, and
companion 600 mm × 600 mm × 200 mm concrete slabs covering a strength range
that is to be encountered on a job site. Use the same cement and the same type and
size of aggregates as those to be used on the job. Cure the specimens under

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standard moist curing conditions, keeping the curing period the same as the
specified control age in the field.
(2) Test three specimens in compression at the age specified, using standard
testing procedure. Then fire three probes into the top surface of the slab at least
150 mm apart and at least 150 mm in from the edges. If any of the three probes
fails to properly penetrate the slab, remove it and fire another. Make sure that at
least three valid probe results are available. Measure the exposed probe lengths
and average the three results.
(3) Repeat the above procedure for all test specimens.
(4) Plot the exposed probe length against the compressive strength, and fit a curve
or line by the method of least squares. The 95% confidence limits for individual
results may also be drawn on the graph. These limits will describe the interval
within which the probability of a test result falling is 95%
ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF WINDSOR PROBE TEST
The advantages are:
 The test is relatively quick and the result is achieved immediately provided an
appropriate correlation curve is available.
 The probe is simple to operate, requires little maintenance except cleaning the
barrel and is not sensitive to operator technique.
 Access is only needed to one surface.
 The correlation with concrete strength is affected by a relatively small number

of variables.
The limitations are:

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 The minimum acceptable distance from a test location to any edges of the
concrete member or between two test locations is of the order of 150 mm to 200
mm.
 The minimum thickness of the member, which can be tested, is about three
times the expected depth of probe penetration.
 The distance from reinforcement can also have an effect on the depth of probe
penetration especially when the distance is less than about 100 mm.
 The test is limited to <40 Mpa and if two different powder levels are used in an
investigation to accommodate a larger range of concrete strengths, the correlation
procedure becomes complicated.
 The test leaves an 8 mm hole in the concrete where the probe penetrated and, in
older concrete, the area around the point of penetration is heavily fractured.
 On an exposed face the probes have to be removed and the damaged area
repaired.
OTHER METHODS OF NDT
ACOUSTIC EMISSION
Acoustic emissions are microseismic activities originating from within the test
specimen
when subjected to an external load. Acoustic emissions are caused by local
disturbances such as microcracking, dislocation movement, intergranular friction,
etc. An acoustic signal travels to a number of piezoelectric transducers, which
convert the acoustic signals (mechanical waveforms) to electric signals. A digital

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oscilloscope captures the electric signals. The time of arrival of the signal at each
transducer depends on the distance of the transducer from the AE source. The
source, frequency and amplitude of the AE events have been used to quantify the
nature of microfracture in various materials. AE sources are determined by
calculating the difference in time taken for the wave to arrive at the different
transducers. The velocity of the waves in the specimen is determined using the
ultrasonic pulse velocity method.
. HALF-CELL ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL METHOD
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE
The method of half-cell potential measurements normally involves measuring the

potential of an embedded reinforcing bar relative to a reference half-cell placed on
the concrete surface. The half-cell is usually a copper/copper sulphate or
silver/silver chloride cell but other combinations are used. The concrete functions
as an electrolyte and the risk of corrosion of the reinforcement in the immediate
region of the test location may be related empirically to the measured potential
difference. In some circumstances, useful measurements can be obtained between
two half-cells on the concrete surface. ASTM C876 - 91 gives a Standard Test
Method for Half-Cell Potentials of Uncoated Reinforcing Steel in Concrete

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A copper-copper sulphate half-cell.
APPLICATIONS OF HALF-CELL ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL TESTING

METHOD
This technique is most likely to be used for assessment of the durability of

reinforced concrete members where reinforcement corrosion is suspected.
Reported uses include the location of areas of high reinforcement corrosion risk in
marine structures, bridge decks and abutments. Used in conjunction with other
tests, it has been found helpful when investigating concrete contaminated by salts.

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MODULE 3
MANIFESTATION OF CONCRETE DETERIORATION
3.1.1 Cracking
Cracking is a common manifestation of concrete deterioration which can be

caused by a variety of factors. Cracks which are found in bridges and overpasses
are generally described as structural or nonstructural. Structural cracks are caused
by both dead and live load stresses, which can lead to eventual failure of the
structure. Flexure structural cracks are vertical and begin in areas of maximum
tension or moment. Shear structural cracks are diagonal and are usually found in
the web of a member. They may begin at the bottom and move diagonally toward
the center of the member. Nonstructural cracks can be caused by thermal
expansion and contraction of concrete, contraction of the concrete during the
curing process, or temperature gradients within massive sections of concrete.
Also, the presence of rust stains around nonstructural cracks normally indicates
corrosion of steel reinforcements in a concrete member. These cracks generally
do not affect the load-carrying ability of a member, but may lead to higher
susceptibility to other types of deterioration.

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Non-structural cracking due to thermal expansion and contraction
Scaling
Gradual loss of surface mortar and aggregate over an area is known as scaling.
Scaling is classified as light, medium, heavy, and severe. Light scale is the loss of
surface mortar up to ¼ inch deep exposing coarse aggregates. Medium scale is the
loss of surface mortar from ¼ inch to ½ inch deep with mortar loss between the
coarse aggregates. Heavy scale is the loss of surface mortar from ½ inch deep to 1
inch deep clearly 53 exposing coarse aggregates. Severe scale is the loss of surface
mortar greater than 1 inch deep where coarse aggregate particles are lost and
reinforcing steel is exposed.
Light scale
Delamination
Delamination is the separating of concrete layers at or near the outermost layer of

reinforcing steel. Delamination is caused by the expansion of corroding
reinforcing steel and can lead to severe cracking. Rust can occupy up to ten times
the volume of the corroded steel which it replaces.

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Delamination and spall (due to corrosion)
Spalling
Spalling occurs when a delaminated area completely separates from a member.

The roughly circular or oval depression left is known as a spall. Friction from
thermal movement can also cause spalling in addition to corrosion.
Efflorescence
Efflorescence is the result of hydrolysis of cement paste components in concrete.

Efflorescence is indicated by the presence of white deposits on the concrete,

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usually on the underside of bridges and overpasses. Efflorescence indicates that

the water used in the concrete mixing process was contaminated
Efflorescence
Construction Defects
This includes consolidation issues such as rock pockets, honeycomb voids, bug
holes, and sand streaks which may result from improper vibration, dry mix without
Super P‘s, over-watered mix, improper rebar spacing, or improper aggregate
selection. Hollow spaces or voids within concrete are known as honeycombs.
They are caused during construction when improper vibration results in the
separation of coarse aggregates from the fine aggregates and cement paste.
Examples of construction defects

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Another source of construction defects is related to insufficient concrete cover

which may be caused by shift or cage shift, improper fabrication of steel, or
improper placement of forms
Example of construction defects (insufficient concrete cover)
Pop-Outs .Pop-outs are a result of alkali-silica reactions taking place in concrete.

Conical fragments break out of the surface of the concrete leaving small holes.
Shattered aggregate particles will usually be found at the bottom of the hole.
Pop-outs

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Wear .Vehicular traffic causes wear on bridge decks throughout the life of the
structure.
Mechanism & Causal Factors of Concrete Deterioration
Corrosion
Steel reinforcement is added to concrete to increase its tensile strength. Steel is a

product of naturally-occurring iron ore. A great amount of energy is required to
convert iron ore to steel. Without proper protection, the process reverses, and
oxidation occurs. Corrosion is simply the process by which steel tends to return to
its natural, oxidized state
Forms of iron in nature
Due to the chemistry of concrete mix, reinforcing steel embedded in the concrete
is normally protected from corrosion. The high alkaline environment of concrete
should cause a tightly adhering film to form on the steel

31
Diagram of passivation of steel in concrete under normal conditions
However, the intrusion of chlorides, which enables water and oxygen to attack the
reinforcing steel, eliminates the protective layer. Rust (iron oxide) is formed as a
result. The passivating layer over the reinforcement is, however, broken when
carbon dioxide enters the concrete and reaches the steel-concrete interface. This is
called carbonation. Once this happens, steel starts rusting.
Another powerful destroyer of the steel passivating layer is the chloride salt. With
sufficient chloride present in concrete, the reinforcement is unprotected against
corrosion. Moisture and oxygen, important elements in the corrosion process,
usually penetrate through the concrete cover
Chloride ions are introduced into the concrete by marine spray, industrial brine,
deicing agents, and chemical treatments. These chloride ions can reach the
reinforcing steel by diffusing through the concrete or by penetrating cracks in the
concrete
Corrosion of steel in concrete is an electrochemical process. Therefore,

electrochemical potential must be generated to form corrosion cells. This can
occur when two dissimilar metals are embedded in concrete, such as steel rebars

32
and aluminum conduit pipes, or significant variations exist in surface

characteristics of steel
Also, when differences in concentration of dissolved ions in the vicinity of steel

exist, such as alkalis, chlorides, or oxygen, electrochemical potential may be
generated. As a result of these instances, one of the two metals, or a part of the
metal if only one is present, becomes anodic and the other cathodic

33
The steel is oxidized or ionized at anode and attracts the hydroxyl ions forming at
the cathode. The oxidized steel combines with hydroxyl ions to form ferrous
hydroxide or rust
The rust occupies a much larger volume than the original steel and causes the
build up of bursting forces at the surface of the reinforcement .Because concrete is

34
weak in tension these bursting forces quickly cause the concrete to crack parallel
to the reinforcement direction and eventually, to spall away from rebars
GUIDELINE FOR THE SELECTION OF SUITABLE REPAIR MATERIALS
AND METHODS
Concrete structures are inherently durable and usually, if properly designed and
constructed, require minimum repair and maintenance. However, if concrete is
placed in a harsh environment then it will deteriorate with time which will require
remedial treatment and repair. The excessive deterioration of concrete structures
in aggressive environments opens a potential field for the usage of repair
materials. A whole range of resinous and cementitious repair materials and
several relatively new repair techniques have been proposed by materials
manufacturers and construction contractors and are being aggressively promoted
for usage in the market. However, neither the repair materials nor the application
of repair techniques to concrete structures has been adequately investigated,
especially in aggressive climatic conditions
The goal of a concrete repair is to make a successful repair, which means

restoring the deteriorated area to near original condition and all of this must be
done with as little delay to traffic as possible. It is preferable to use a repair
material that is identical to that of the original concrete, however this is not
possible and the repair material will differ from concrete. This being said, the
concrete repair area will act as a composite system. This composite system
consists of three components:
1. The original concrete substrate.

35
2. An interface between the original substrate and the new repair material.
3. The new repair material
Preparation for Concrete Repairs
Preparation for repairs is unanimously regarded as the most important step and
several repair failures have been traced to inadequate preparation
This phase involves:
(a) removal of all deteriorated concrete,
(b) cleaning of steel reinforcement of all corrosion products, and
(c) preparing the concrete surface for priming treatment.
(a) Removal of Deteriorated Concrete
Removal of spalled and loose concrete is carried out using scrabbles, chisels and
hammers or any other suitable mechanical means, manual or pneumatic. Use of
high frequency chipping pneumatic or electric hammers of less than 10-pound
capacity may be used without shattering sound concrete. Heavy duty pneumatic
hammers are not favored. Defective and contaminated concrete is also removed by
the use of percussion tools, grit blasting (wet or dry) or high velocity water jetting.
Perkins considers that high velocity water jetting offers the best chance for a quick
and clean job in terms of concrete removal provided the presence of water is
accepted. Thermic lance can also be used with considerable efficiency and success
if cutting through reinforcement is acceptable. For repair of small concrete spalls,
it is recommended that concrete be cut to a depth consistent with the type of repair.
In a review article, ―Taking the tedium out of cutting‖ Sclippa describes a whole
36
range of diamond tipped tools and devices for grinding, safety grooving, large-
radius cuts and flame cutting of concrete.
Cleaning of Steel Reinforcement
Cleaning of reinforcement follows the removal of all loose and defective concrete.
The exposed bars should be cleaned of rust and corrosion products. This operation
is particularly important in the case of chloride-afflicted concrete, where chlorides
will be present in the rust. The required degree of cleaning has not been
completely defined. Throughout the literature, grit blasting is considered one of
the most effective methods of cleaning the steel and has the advantage of being
able to reach the back of the bars. Wire brushing is not a very effective method
and tends to polish rather than remove scale.
(c) Preparing Concrete Surfaces for Priming and Bonding
Concrete surfaces to be repaired or on which primer coating is to be applied

should be newly exposed parent concrete free of loose unsound materials.
Grinding is a useful way to clean small areas, particularly if the cleaned surface
must be smooth. Scarifies will remove thick overlays of dirt or weakened concrete
but they usually leave the surface somewhat rough. They may also weaken some
of the aggregate by impact and consequently have to be followed by water blasting
or vacuum cleaning to remove the loosened particles.
Probably the best way to remove laitance, dirt, efflorescence and weak surface
material is to clean by wet or dry sandblasting or high pressure water jet followed
by vacuum cleaning. The air compressor for sandblasting is usually equipped with
efficient oil and water traps so that the sand is free of oil particles. Only clean
water should be used for wet sandblasting. Blast cleaning should continue until all
weak surface particles are removed, leaving small aggregate particles exposed.
37
When mechanical abrasion 84 cannot be used due to dust hazards or other

environmental limitations, the surface may be etched with acid.
Concrete Repair Techniques
The present state of the art on repairing and strengthening existing structures
employs systems which have largely been developed through experience and these
are empirical in nature. The types of deterioration and repair work relevant to
Mississippi have been identified and a review of the possible repair techniques and
systems related to the identified problems has been carried out.
Replacing or Adding Reinforcing Steel
Rebar that has been excessively corroded has to be replaced. This is generally
accomplished by removal of the damaged portions and replacing with new steel
welded in place. Generally full penetration butt welding is preferred though lap
welding may be used in some cases. In some cases, conventional lap joints are
made and in those cases where the reinforcing is in tension only, standard
mechanical splices need to be used. In cases where sections to be strengthened are
interrupted by existing columns or beams, continuing the new reinforcing in holes
drilled through the existing element is desirable. If the reinforcement is depleted
only partially, new bars are sometimes added along the length of the old cleaned
bars.
Where it is not possible to penetrate the element such as in corners or at termini,

or where additional shear resistance is required, reinforcing steel dowels are
secured in drilled holes. Dry pack, non-shrink cementitious grout and epoxy resin
materials need to be used for this purpose. The epoxy resin materials have been
proven most suitable as they require a smaller hole, minimizing possible
interference with existing reinforcing, as well as being more economical. Tests
38
have shown that epoxy set dowels properly installed will retain their full yield
capacity when embedded approximately ten times their diameter.
Small Spall Repair
Relatively minor spalls are routinely repaired by shotcrete, epoxy-sand mortar,

non-shrink cementitious grouts, or standard cement-sand mortar or dry-pack .
Where non-shrink grout or cement-sand mortars are used, bonding agents of
moisture compatible epoxy, polymer emulsion, or neat cement-water paste are
sometimes used. It is important that all loose material is removed from such areas
and the surface properly roughened and free of contaminants prior to patching.
Several repair and material systems may be used for the reinstatement of the
concrete section after the removal of unsound spalled concrete. The replacement is
either made with sprayed concrete, resin or polymer modified concrete,
conventionally poured concrete, or pre-placed aggregate concrete.
(i) Sprayed concrete (Shotcrete): Sprayed concre has been used in a number
of repair situations; however, the nature of the method is such that the
original surface finish and profile will not usually be produced.
Basically, two systems exist; the wet method where all mix constituents
including the water are premixed and transported to the gun via
compressed air, and the dry method where the dry constituents are
transported to the ejection nozzle at which point water is injected. The
latter method is the more widely used. Normally low water contents are
used and compaction is achieved by the velocity of the particles, control
of the water content rests entirely with the operator and hence the
method is particularly sensitive to the skill, or otherwise, of this person.

39
Where heavily reinforced sections are to be repaired, care needs to be

taken to avoid shadowing in the lee of the spray gun.
The advantages of this system are that high strength low permeability
concrete can be produced without formwork, which is particularly
important for repair of the underside of beams and slabs. The original
profile of the beam or slab can be restored by passing a screed wire over
the applied concrete.
(ii) Conventional Concrete: Conventional concrete may be successfully
used to replace defective concrete especially where the areas of defective
concrete are significant. The composition of cast-in-place –concrete is
more uniform than that of gun-applied mixes. With the use of
superplasticizers, the w/c can be reduced to 0.38 with excellent
workability. The greatest drawback of conventional pours is that the
uppermost space, for example, a beam located under a slab, cannot be
filled by gravity. These spaces must later be injected with epoxy
compounds.
(iii) Polymer Modified Concrete/Mortar: Replacing up to 33 percent of
mixing water of a conventional concrete mix by a latex emulsion imparts
many improved properties to the modified concrete. These include
improved strength, excellent bond with old concrete, reduced shrinkage
and reduced permeability. The modifying admixture can be added to a
low slump mix to give very high workability without the normally
associated problems of low strength and high permeability. Styrene
butadiene rubber(SBR), acrylic and modified acrylic latexes are all
widely used as admixtures in repair concrete/mortars.
(iv) Epoxy Modified Concrete/Mortar: Unlike cement based repair
systems, whose high alkalinity helps prevent steel reinforcement
40
corrosion by passivation, the protection afforded by resin

concretes/mortars is achieved by encapsulating the steel reinforcement
with an impermeable ‗macro‘ coating which exhibits excellent adhesion
to both the steel and concrete substrate. This protective mortar/coating
will give good long-term protection of steel reinforcement at thicknesses
far less than is possible with cementitious repair materials. Epoxy resin
concretes/mortars are most widely used in concrete repairs. Polyester
resin and acrylic resin based mortars are also used, generally for small
area repairs where their very rapid development of strength is required.
Comments have been made that epoxy resin mortar repairs have not
always proved durable even in the short term. It is, therefore, most
important to understand that the generic name epoxy resin covers a very
diverse range of chemically and physically different polymers. To
achieve good durable repairs, careful selection of the resin composition,
and grading of the fillers appropriate to the application and service
conditions is essential.
(v) Pre-placed Aggregate in Concrete: Pre-placed aggregate in concrete is a

variation of the concrete repair system which has the advantage that the coarse
aggregate is in inter-particle contact, thereby eliminating segregation and
settlement and minimizing drying shrinkage of the concrete. This method also
requires no vibration during placement. It possesses the added advantage of
being suitable for use under water where the injected grout displaces the water,
saving dewatering costs or the need for watertight formwork. The principal
disadvantage of the method is that the injected cement paste itself can be prone to
bleeding, which will manifest itself as water lenses mbeneath the aggregate

41
particles and at the concrete interface above, destroying bond at that point and
providing a route for attack by the environment. This is usually overcome by using
non-shrink grout mixes which are formulated to be workable but not to bleed
Bonding Coats
The effectiveness of any repair method will largely depend upon its ability to
achieve an effective bond with existing concrete. When applying conventional
concrete, sprayed concrete or sand/cement repair mortars, bond is often a problem.
In particular, where the repairs are to be carried out at high ambient temperatures,
water loss at the interface between the repair material and the prepared concrete
may prevent proper hydration of the cement matrix at this interface. The use of an
epoxy resin or polymer latex bonding aid can assist in achieving a reliable bond.
With an epoxy bonding system, specifically formulated for bonding green uncured
concrete to cured concrete, a bond is 89 achieved which is significantly greater
than the shear strength of good quality concrete or mortar. In Europe, polymer
latex bonding aids which are applied to the prepared concrete either as neat coats
of latex or as slurries with cement are widely used since they are simpler to use
than epoxy resin bonding aids and give a good tough bond. Cement/SBR mixes
are traditionally and most widely used to bond fresh concrete to mature old
concrete and this particular repair usage is well documented.
Crack Repair
Perhaps the number one consideration in any remedial treatment is the repair of
existing cracks. This is a technique which is rather well documented including the
most comprehensive report entitled ―Causes, evaluation and repair of cracks in
concrete structures‖ by ACI Committee. This document also contains an extensive
bibliography.

42
Cracks in concrete represent one of the most difficult problems in the repair and
maintenance of concrete. Cracks often form as unintended movement joints, and
designers frequently want to seal them and make them invisible. It is important to
be quite clear why it is required that a particular crack should be treated:
(a) to prevent water penetration,
(b) to protect the reinforcement,
(c) to prevent staining from material leached out, and
(d) to conceal the crack
In many cases, more than one reason will apply. However, the importance of
achieving the desired result must be considered against the difficulties. Cracks tend
to vary in width with thermal and moisture changes, even when variations in
applied loadings are not involved. Weathering tends to accentuate differences in
surface absorption, which are inevitable at cracks. Cosmetic disguising of cracks
has been attempted with varying degrees of success by rubbing or brushing into
the surface a mixture of cement and fine sand gauged with a clear polymer
emulsion, for example an acrylic emulsion. Provided that subsequent movements
are very small, an acceptable result may be obtained, although there is always the
danger that careless workmanship will actually make matters worse, rather than
better.
If prevention of water penetration at cracks is the requirement, the following

methods are available: injecting chemically curing resins (e.g., epoxy resins);
pouring in latex emulsions; cutting a surface chase and sealing with a mastic or
sealant; and sticking a ‗bandage‘ over the crack and painting the surface to try to
conceal it. Each of these methods has its drawbacks.

43
Resins can be injected into relatively fine cracks, using techniques now available.
Cracks down to 0.1 mm can be filled. Restoration of full structural properties is
possible, provided that the causes of cracking have been removed. If they have not,
fresh cracking is likely adjacent to the old. Latex emulsions build up a latex deposit
in the crack. If the crack does not subsequently move by more than about + 10%
of the width when filled, they can provide a measure of protection against water
penetration. However, cracks frequently move by 91 +50% or more and most
material will have great difficulty in accommodating such movement.
Chasing and sealing cracks is usually technically satisfactory, but it clearly has
acute aesthetic drawbacks. Cracks often do not form neat straight lines, which can
make the chasing process very difficult. ‗Bandaging‘ is usually only used when
major concrete maintenance is required. It
too has visual disadvantages. It should be clear from this brief review of the
difficulties of repairing cracks that there is considerable scope for research in this
field. Before new techniques are devised work should only be undertaken when it
is absolutely essential. The recent investigations of the influence of crack widths
on reinforcement corrosion should lead to a reduction in the extent to which crack
repairs are undertaken solely to protect reinforcement.
Honeycombs and Voids
Poorly consolidated concrete, resulting in a patch of ‗honeycomb‘ is usually cut

out and replaced, but sometimes a more immediate restoration may be required to
avoid delaying subsequent operations. Patching with cementitious or resin mortars
is often advocated, but is only likely to be satisfactory if the fault is confined to
the surface. If there are deeper voids around the reinforcement, this surface
patching will afford little protection and the long term result is likely to be rusting

44
of the steel with resultant staining and possibly spalling of the concrete. Resin
injection can provide an effective repair if there is good connection between the
voided areas. It will not only protect the steel but can upgrade the weak
‗honeycomb‘ material to the strength of dense concrete.
Strength With Bonded Reinforcement
If a structure requires strengthening, a technique which will cause minimum

disruption and minimum change of profile is the external bonding of steel plate
reinforcement . This technique has been in use for nearly four decades but has not
been very widely accepted. Earlier work in the U.K has quantified the increase in
strength attainable as 100 percent the load required to produce the first visible
crack, 40 percent in maximum load and an increase in stiffness of 190 percent, all
related to the original performance of the beams as cast. Benefits of a similar order
were obtained by plate-reinforcing beams which had already been cracked by
overloading. Coupled with crack injection this offers a formidable and elegant
means of restoring and upgrading a damaged structure.
Concrete Replacement with Fiber Reinforced Concrete/Mortar
The important shortcomings of cementitious materials are brittleness and low

tensile strength. These inherent disadvantages can be considerably improved by
incorporation of fibers The introduction of fibers into a cementitious matrix forms
a material which exhibits higher tensile strength and toughness than those of the
matrix alone. The fibers used in concrete and mortars include steel, glass and more
recently, polymeric fibers. Steel fiber reinforced concrete exhibits a higher
flexural strength and fracture toughness than conventional concrete. Use is
limited by the minimum thickness of application, 1.1/2-2 in., (about 45 mm) and
difficult surface finishing. Fibers are introduced into the concrete by mixing either

45
on site or in a plant and the concrete is placed by using standard placement

techniques.
Polymeric fibers added to concrete can replace the secondary steel reinforcement
in concrete slabs and provide some degree of fracture toughness. They may also
control plastic and drying shrinkage-induced cracking. The low modulus of
elasticity of polymeric fibers cannot provide any significant improvement of
tensile or flexural strengths. Standard concrete placement techniques are
employed with polymer fiber reinforced concrete.
The premix process introduces the fiber by mixing it with a cement mortar, which
is then applied by trowelling, screening, spraying, or casting. The small quantities
of fibers (typically ½ to 2 percent of the fiber by volume) control drying
shrinkage-induced cracking by forming microcracks within the structure of the
material. The small amounts of glass fiber also improve the fracture toughness and
tensile strength of the cementitious mortar, thus allowing thin layer applications
(typically 1/8 to ½ in.). Water tightness, resistance to chloride penetration,
hardness, and abrasion resistance are properties primarily controlled by the
composition of the cementitious matrix and, therefore not fully dependent on the
presence of the fibers. mA thin layer, waterproofing characteristics, breathability,
compatibility with concrete, high abrasion resistance and long-term durability of
suitably formulated glass fiber reinforced mortars make this group of materials
particularly suitable for thin toppings on concrete slabs, bridge and parking decks,
industrial concrete floors, and in waterproofing of concrete structures and other
concrete repair. The use of glass fiber reinforced cement has been reported as a
repair material both by patching and spraying techniques.

46
Rehabilitation and strengthening of deteriorated concrete with Fiber

Reinforce Polymer (FRP).
Fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) materials are being used increasingly to retrofit
concrete bridges and many DOT‘s have implemented or will be implementing
several field projects. Retrofits on beams, pier caps, and decks typically involve
bonding of FRP to concrete, and integrity of the bond is crucial for success.
However, moisture and salt ingress into rehabilitated components has the potential
to degrade the bond between FRP and concrete due to continued corrosion within
the concrete or delamination of the FRP during freeze/thaw cycles.
Surface Treatment with Protective Coatings and Penetrating Sealers
At the end of a repair, it is often desirable to apply a sealing coat to seal both the
repaired areas and the remainder of the structure for aesthetic reasons and for
reducing the diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide which accelerate the
corrosion of reinforcement. In reinforced concrete structures, where chlorides are
already present throughout the concrete (above 0.04% chloride on cement
content), there are no practical methods of totally arresting reinforcement
corrosion. However, the use of coatings which reduce the ingress of oxygen and
moisture have been found in many instances to reduce the rate of deterioration to
an extent that further corrosion/spalling could be dealt with on a regular
maintenance basis .When applying protective coatings, it is essential that concrete
surfaces are thoroughly clean and sound. The choice of the protective coating
system is quite wide and various compositions have been used to coat concrete
including bituminous coatings, chlorinated rubber, polyvinyl copolymers and
terpolymers, acrylics (reactive, solvent based and water based), polyurethanes and
epoxy resins. Such coatings, if free from defects (crack, pinholes, etc.) prevent the

47
passage of water or aqueous salts in liquid or mist form and have low permeability
to water vapor, carbon dioxide and oxygen. Long term durability depends upon a
number of factors including chemical composition of the binder, precise
formulation of the coating, total thickness and application techniques. Penetration
sealers which reduce chloride ingress include acrylic resin solutions, water
repellent silicone resins and certain types of silane resins, epoxies and
polyurethanes. Providing the materials have filled the pores within the surface of
all of the concrete as intended, they should give good long term durability.
However, conventional silicone resin types which function purely by making the
pores water repellent seldom last more than a few years. The alkyl silanes
function in the same manner and they are more durable than silicone resins. The
molecular size or silane penetrants are important as it significantly influences the
depth of penetration into the surface of the concrete.
Repair Material
There are many concrete repair materials in today‘s market that are very capable of
producing successful concrete repairs. However, before a successful repair can be
made a general material selection process is needed to insure that the best repair
material is selected. This selection process first involves determining the project
objectives. These objectives are:
Causes of deterioration:
Determining the causes of deterioration is the first step in selecting the proper
material for the repair. The information for this section will come from the other
paper on concrete deterioration.

48
METHODS OF REPAIR OF CRACKS
CATAGORIS OF REPAIRS
Repairs for earthquake damaged concrete buildings fall in to three generic

categories
 Cosmetic Repairs:- They are those repairs that improve the visual
appearance of component damage. These repairs may also restore the non-
structural properties of the component, such as weather protection. (e.g.:-
routing, sealing, and painting of cracks in concrete)
 Structural repairs:- They address component damage directly, with the intent
of restore structural properties. Examples include injection of cracks or the
replacement of fractured reinforcing bars
 Structural Enhancement:- They are repairs that comprise supplemental

addition, or removal and replacement of existing damaged components.
They also include the addition of new components in the structure not
necessarily at the site of existing damaged components. In this case, the
intent is to replace structural properties of damaged components rather than
to restore them. Examples include the application of concrete overlays to
damaged elements.
1. COSMETIC REPAIRS
a. COSMETIC PATCHING:
 Cosmetic patch consists of applying a surface coating on the surface of the
concrete or masonry wall to conceal the surface projection of cracks.
 Various materials can be used, choice depend on the functional and
architectural requirements. Paints can be used to conceal fine cracks, Dry-

49
wall taping compound can be used to fill cracks, Organic polymer materials
can be used to fill cracks, Portland cement plaster can be applied, coatings
and sealers can be used on exterior surface cracking.
b. CRACK INJECTION METHOD:
 In good quality concrete, cracks as narrow as 0.075mm in vertical or
horizontal plan can be sealed with epoxy compounds, pressure injection is
required to sealing the cracks.
Procedure:

50
Before crack After sealing

was sealed the crack

51
c. ROUTING AND SEALING:
 This method is used on the cracks that are dormant and of no significance.
The method involves enlarging the crack along its exposed face and sealing
it with crack fillers.
 The method consists of preparing a groove on the surface that is sufficiently

large to receive sealant having a minimum surface width of 6mm.The
surface of the routed joint is to be cleaned and dried before placing the
sealant.
Routing and Sealing
d..STITCHING:
 This method is to be used when tensile strength is to be re-established across

major cracks. It tends to stiffen the structure and stiffening may accentuate
the overall structural restraint, causing a concrete to crack elsewhere. So,
strengthening of adjacent section is also necessary.

52
 Stitching will not going to close a crack but, it prevents propagation
 The stitching procedure consists of drilling holes on both sides of the crack,
cleaning the holes, and anchoring the legs of the staples in the holes, with
either a non shrink grout or an epoxy resin-based bonding system.
Stitching with steel bars
e. DRY PACKING:
 Dry packing is the hand placement of a low water content mortar followed
by tamping or ramming of the mortar into place, producing intimate contact

53
between the mortar and the existing concrete. Because of the low water-
cement ratio of the material, there is little shrinkage, and the patch remains
tight and can have good quality with respect to durability, strength, and
water tightness.
 Dry pack can be used for filling narrow slots cut for the repair of dormant
cracks. The use of dry pack is not advisable for filling or repairing active
cracks.
PROCEDURE:
 Before dry packing, the portion of crack should be widened to a slot about
25mm wide and 25mm deep. The slot should be undercut so that the base
width is slightly greater than the surface width.
 To minimize shrinkage, the mortar should stand for 1/2 hour after mixing
and then should be remixed prior to use. The mortar should be placed in
layers about 10 mm thick.
Each layer should be thoroughly compacted over the surface using a blunt stick or
hammer, and each underlying layer should be scratched to facilitate bonding with
the next layer. The repair should be cured by using either water or a curing
compound

54
Dry packing of crack
f..GROUTING:
 Wide cracks, may be repaired by filling with Portland cement grout. This
method can not structurally bond cracked sections.
PROCEDURE:
 Remove loose mortar and concrete. The cracks are flushed with water and
then filled with pre-hydrated mortar. Injection holes are to be drilled,
although not entering any air space. The holes are flushed with water. Grout
is mixed and then pumped into the holes. Injection should start at the bottom
and work upwards. Grout is injected at a port until grout flows from the
adjacent holes.

55
However, the water-cement ratio should be kept as low as practical to

maximize the strength and minimize shrinkage. After the crack is filled, the
pressure should be maintained for several minutes to insure good penetration.
STRUCTURAL REPAIR
SPALL REPAIR:
 Spalls are small sections of element or wall that become loose or dislodged.
The missing material is replaced with a suitable patch. The material used for
the patch must have structural and thermal properties similar to the existing
material. The materials and procedures for the patch will also depend on the
size and location of the spall.
 Portland cement and latex-modified cement or epoxy and polyester mortar

mix materials can be used.
PROCEDURE:
 Remove all loose material with chipping hammers
 Remove concrete to provide sufficient clearance around the bar
 The perimeter of the spall to be cut to create an edge perpendicular to the

original surface
 For large patches, new steel dowels should be set in to the substrate with
epoxy.
 The mortar is applied with a trowel in lift.
 The surface is finished
 The patch is then cured

56
Spall Repair of Column
Spall Repair of Beam

57
REBAR REPLACEMENT:
 This method is used when the structural element is damaged and fractures
have occurred in reinforcing bars, or where conventional lapped bar splices
have failed. The method consist of replacing the bars. Mechanical
connections can be used to connect or splice two pieces of reinforcing bar.
Structure or element is to be supported carefully before removing damaged
portion.
PROCEDURE:
 Support the structure with formwork
 Remove all loose material with chipping hammers
 Remove concrete to provide sufficient clearance around the bar
 Cut out the old steel
 The perimeter of the spall to be cut to create an edge perpendicular to the

original surface
 Clean the surface
 New steel should be set in to the substrate with epoxy.
 The mortar is applied with a trowel in lift, or shotcrete is to be done for

large scale work or dry packing can be done
 The surface is finished
 Required curing is to be done

58
Rebar Replacement of column
Rebar Replacement of Beam

59
Rebar Replacement of Beam
STRUCTURAL ENHANCEMENT
STRUCTURAL OVERLAY - CONCRETE AND STEEL:
 This method is used to improve the seismic performance of a damaged

structure to a level better than that of the pre-event structure. Overlay can be
of steel and concrete both.
 Overlay concrete is applied pneumatically or as cast in place layers. The

concrete is reinforced and attached to the existing structure to enable the
concrete to provide supplement strength.
 In steel overlay steel angles, plates and flats are used. They are welded as
per technique adopted.

60
PROCEDURE:
 Prepare surface by removing loose or damaged materials
 The surface is to be chipped or scarified to avoid abrupt changes in

dimension.
 Reinforcing steel is to be installed and securely anchored in to existing

element using dowels set in epoxy.
 Before applying shotcrete, surface is to be pre-wetted
 Shotcrete the surface
 Shotcrete is applied in several passes, on vertical surface starting from base
 Finish the surface
 Cure the surface
Concrete Overlay on beam

61
Concrete Overlay on beam
Concrete overlay on beam and slab

62
Concrete overlay on column
Concrete overlay on column

63
Concrete overlay on slab
Adding steel member on each side of an existing concrete beam

64
Adding steel member on an existing concrete beam
Adding steel member on each side of an existing concrete beam

65
Adding steel member on top and bottom of an existing concrete

beam
Steel overlay on existing concrete column
Steel jacketing Steel cage technique Steel plates

using steel straps

66
Adding steel angle on each side of an existing concrete column
REPAIR OF STEEL STRUCTURES

67

68

69

70
STRENGTHENING OF EXISTING STRUCTURES, GUNITING,

JACKETING.
Strengthening of existing buildings
The seismic behaviour of old existing buildings is affected by their original
structural inadequacies, material degradation due to time, and alterations carried
out during use over the years such as making new openings, addition of new parts
inducing dis- symmetry in plan and elevation, etc. The possibility of substituting
them with new earthquake resistant buildings is generally neglected due to
historical, ar- tistic, social and economical reasons. The complete replacement of
the buildings in a given area will also lead to destroying a number of social and
human links. There- fore seismic strengthening of existing damaged or
undamaged buildings can be a defi- nite requirement in same areas. Strengthening
is an improvement over the original strength when the evaluation. of the building
indicates that the strength available before the damage was insuffi-cient and
restoration alone will not be ad-equate in future quakes.The extent of the
modifications must be determined by the general principles and design methods
stated in earlier chapters, and should not be limited to increasing the strength of
members that have been damaged, but should consider the overall be-haviour of
the structure. Commonly, strengthening procedures should aim at one or more of
the following objectives:
(i) Increasing the lateral strength in one or both directions, by reinforcement or by

increasing wall areas or the number of walls and columns.
(ii) Giving unity to the structure by providing a proper connection between its
resisting elements, in such a way that inertia forces generated by the vibration of
the building can be transmitted to the members that have the ability to resist them.
Typical important aspects are the connections between roofs or floors and walls,
between intersecting walls and between walls and foundations.
(iii) Eliminating features that are sources of weakness or that produce concen-
trations of stresses in some members. Asymmetrical plan distribution of resisting
members, abrupt changes of stiffness from one floor to the other, concentration of
large masses, large openings in walls without a proper peripheral reinforcement are
exam-ples of defect of this kind.

71
(iv) Avoiding the possibility of brittle modes of failure by proper reinforcement

and connection of resisting members. Since its cost may go to as high as 50 to 60%
of the cost of re- building, the justification of such strengthening must be fully
considered.
SHOTCRETE OR GUNITING
Shotcrete is a method of applying a combination of sand and portland cement

which mixed pneumatically and conveyed in dry state to the nozzle of a pressure
gun, where water is mixed and hydration takes place just prior to expulsion. The
material bonds perfectly to properly prepared surface of masonry and steel. In
versatility of appli-cation to curved or irregular surfaces, its high strength after
application and good physical characteristics, make for an ideal means to achieve
added structural capa- bility in walls and other elements. There are some minor
restrictions of clearance, thickness, direction of application, etc
JACKETING
Jacketing is the most popularly used method for strengthening of building

columns. The most common types of jackets are steel jacket, reinforced concrete
jacket, fibre reinforced polymer composite jacket, jacket with high tension
materials like carbon fibre, glass fibre etc. The main purposes of jacketing are:
1. To increase concrete confinement by transverse fibre reinforcement, especially

for circular cross-sectional columns,
2. To increase shear strength by transverse fibre reinforcement,
3. To increase flexural strength by longitudinal fibre reinforcement provided. They

were anchored at critical sections. Transverse fibre should be wrapped all around
the entire circumference of the members possessing close loops sufficiently
overlapped or welded in order to increase concrete confinement and shear
strength. This is how members with circular cross-section will get better
confinement than member with rectangular cross-section. Where square or
rectangular cross-sections are to be jacketed, circular/oval/ elliptical jackets are
most oftenly used and the space between the jacket and column is filled with
concrete. Such types of multi-shaped jackets provide a high degree of
confinement by virtue of their shape to the splice region proving to be more

72
effective. Rectangular jackets typically lack the flexural stiffness needed to fully
confine the concrete. However, circular and oval jackets may be less desirable
due to:
Need of large space in the building potential difficulties of fitting in the jackets
with existing partition walls, exterior cladding, and non-structural elements and
Where an oval or elliptical jacket has sufficient stiffness to confine the concrete
along the long dimension of the crosssection is open to question. The longitudinal
fibers similar to longitudinal reinforcement can be effective in increasing the
flexural strength of member although they cannot effectively increase the flexural
capacity of building frames because the critical moments are located at beam-
column ends where most of the longitudinal fibers are difficult to pierce through
to get sufficient anchorage.
USE OF CHEMICALS
Epoxy resins
Epoxy resins are excellent binding agents with high tensile strength. There are
chemical preparations the compositions of which can be changed as per
requirements. The epoxy components are mixed just prior to application. The

73
product is of low viscosity and can be injected in small cracks too. The higher
viscosity epoxy resin can be used for surface coating or filling larger cracks or
holes. The epoxy mixture strengthis dependent upon the temperature of curing
(lower strength for higher temperature) and method of application.
Epoxy mortar
For larger void spaces, it is possible to com- bine epoxy resins of either low
viscosity or higher viscosity, with sand aggregate to form epoxy mortar. Epoxy
mortar mixture has higher compressive strength, higher tensile strength and a
lower modulus of elasticity than Portland cement concrete. Thus the mortar is not a
stiff material for replacing reinforced concrete. It is also reported that epoxy is a
combustible material. Therefore it is not used alone. The sand aggregate mixed to
form the epoxy mortar provides a heat sink for heat generated and it provides
increased modulus of elasticity too.
STRUCTURAL OVERLAY – COMPOSITE FIBERS:
 In this method thin glass or carbon fibres woven into a fabric sheet are
applied to the surface of the element to enhance the stiffness and strength of
the element. The fibres are generally applied to surface using an epoxy resin
binder.
 The composite fibres are used as tension reinforcing for member
 PROCEDURE:
 Prepare surface by removing loose or damaged materials
 Repair cracks and spalls
 Prepare surface by lightly sandblasting
 Apply a thin epoxy primer coat on the surface

74
 The composite fibres are saturated in epoxy and are pressed into the binder
epoxy with a roller
 Number of layers and orientation of the layers depends on the design

requirement
 The epoxy is then allowed to cure for at least 24hrs.
 Non structural coating is to be done (Paint, Plaster, etc.)

75
COMPARISON BETWEEN OVERLAYS

METHOD CONCRETE STEEL FRP SHEETS
JACKETING JACKETING
Merit  Concrete is durable.  Has been used widely  FRP sheet is non-
 Has been used  Steel plate is lighter corrosive and
widely than concrete durable.
 Processing is easy,
requires no crane
& access space.
Demerits  Deadweight  Steel plate is heavy and  When temperature
increase (minimum requires crane is under 5 C
thickness of (minimum thickness of requires heating.
concrete is 25cm) concrete is 6mm for
 Requires access for welding procedure)
concreting  Require welding
machine
Working Long Moderate Short
period
EFFECT OF REPAIR ON MEMBERS

METHOD DEFICIENCY EFFECT ON
TYPE MEMBER
Injection of cracks Shear or shear-flexural Flexural strength and stiffness
cracks restoration. Shear strength is
regained in concrete-to concrete joints
Shotcrete (Gunite) Extensive crack patterns Reinstatement of the original

at concrete members or characteristics of the element
masonry; converting for repair; increase in force
non-structural to structural demand if applied as a
walls retrofitting option
Steel jacketing (plate Insufficient shear strength and Jacketing: Deformation

Adhesion) ductility due to old type of capacity is increased
detailing (sparse confinement Plate adhesion: Shear and
reinforcement, flexural strength enhancement
insufficient lap splicing)

76
EFFECT OF RETROFIT ON MEMBERS Cont…
METHOD DEFICIENCY EFFECT ON

TYPE MEMBER
FRP jacketing Insufficient shear strength Columns: Deformation capacity
and ductility due to old type is enhanced
of detailing (sparse Beams: Shear and flexural
confinement reinforcement, strengthening
insufficient lap splicing) Beam–column joints: Shear failure
is eliminated in connections
RC jacketing Insufficient lateral strength, If the jacket is applied at floor level,
insufficient deformation capacity both axial and shear strength of the
and stiffness column are improved, while flexural
discontinuity between strength and strength of the beam–
successive floors column joints
remain the same
FERROCEMENT
The term ferrocement is most commonly applied to a mixture of Portland

cement and sand applied over layers of woven or expanded steel mesh and closely
spaced small-diameter steel rods rebar. It can be used to form relatively thin,
compound curved sheets to make hulls for boats, shell roofs, water tanks, etc. It
has been used in a wide range of other applications including sculpture and
prefabricated building components. The term has been applied by extension to
other composite materials including some containing no cement and no ferrous
material. These are better referred to by terms describing their actual contents.
APPLICATION
Applications

77
Fe r rocement construction has come into widespreaduse only in the last 20 years
and application of this new construction material is still in its infancy. Not enough
long - term experience with ferrocement stru c t u res has been accumulated and
analyzed to assess the success of the structures already built. The main applications
that have been made of ferrocement construction can be classified in three
categories: (1) boats, (2) silos and tanks and (3) ro o f s.
Fe r rocement construction can be divided into four phases :
• fabricating the skeletal framing system
• applying rods and mesh
• plastering
• curing
Note that special skills are re q u i red for Phases 1 and 3
while Phase 2 is very labor intensive, a possible shortcoming for industrially

developing countries but an advantage for countries where unskilled labor is relat
ively abundant. Ferrocement has ve ry high tensile strength - t o –weight ratio and a
superior cracking behavior.

78
MODULE 1
CORROSION OF STEEL REINFORCEMENT
The high pH in concrete offers a protective environment to the corrosion of steel.

In such an environment, steel oxidizes to form Fe(OH)2 first. Part of the oxide
will further react to form FeO.OH. With pH > 11.5, and in the absence of
chloride ions, both oxides are stable. They form a thin protective film on top of
the steel surface to prevent further corrosion. Steel is said to be ‗passivated‘ under
such a condition. The initiation of steel corrosion is usually due to either
carbonation of the concrete, or the penetration of chloride ions. Carbonation is the
reaction between carbon dioxide in the air, and calcium hydroxide in the hardened
cement to form calcium carbonate. With calcium hydroxide removed by this
reaction, the pH drops to below 11.5. When carbonation proceeds to the level of
the steel reinforcement, the protective layer is no longer stable. Steel is then
‗depassivated‘ and significant rusting will start. In this case, relatively uniform
rusting occurs on the steel. In cities near the ocean, such as Hong Kong, or in
cold regions where salt is used for deicing of road pavements, the penetration of
chloride ions is a major cause for steel corrosion. When the chloride
concentration at the steel level reaches a critical value (0.6 to 0.9 kg/m of
concrete for pH value of 12-13), it will react with the Fe(OH)2 (the remaining
ferrous oxide that has not converted into FeO.OH) to form a water soluble
compound. The protective surface is hence destroyed. Since the part of the
surface covered with FeO.OH is not affected, corrosion only occurs at isolated
spots where the Fe(OH)2 formerly exists. This type of corrosion is referred to as
‗pitting‘ corrosion, and it is more dangerous than uniform corrosion, as large
reduction in steel cross section can occur locally with little loss in total mass.
Once steel is depassivated, corrosion occurs through an electrochemical process,

consisting of both oxidation and reduction reactions. Four components must be
present for corrosion to occur. The four components include anode, cathode,
electrolyte and metallic path. The anode is the electrode at which oxidation occurs.
Oxidation involves the loss of electrons and formation of metal ions. Hence,
material is lost at the anode. The cathode is the electrode where reduction occurs.
Reduction is the gain of electrons in a chemical reaction. The electrolyte is a
chemical mixture, usually liquid, containing ions that migrate in an electric field.

79
A metallic path between anode and cathode is essential for electron movement
between the anode and cathode. For steel corrosion in concrete, the anode and
cathode are both on the steel and the steel itself is the metallic path. The electrolyte
is the moisture in concrete surrounding the steel. The specific reactions are given
below.
As steel oxidizes, the corrosion products occupy a higher volume. The unit volume
of Fe can be doubled if FeO is formed. The unit volume of the final corrosion
product, Fe(OH)3 3H2O, is as large as six and a half times of the original Fe.
Expansion leads to cracking and surface spalling of concrete. Once the concrete
cover spalls and steel is exposed to the atmosphere, the corrosion rate will increase
significantly. Eventually, the excessive loss of steel area, if left unnoticed, can
lead to collapse of the structure.
Corrosion can also be controlled through chemical means, through the

incorporation of corrosion inhibitors. The most common corrosion inhibitor is
calcium nitrite. Its presence facilitates the conversion of Fe(OH)2 to FeO.OH. In
other words, it is competing with chloride ions for Fe (II) ions. If the
nitrite/chloride concentration is high, the chloride cannot react with Fe(OH)2 to
turn it into a water soluble compound. Therefore, pitting will not occur.
DESIGN ERROR

80
Design errors may be divided into two general types: those resulting from
inadequate structural design and those resulting from lack of attention to relatively
minor design details. Each of the two types of design errors is discussed below.
(1) INADEQUATE STRUCTURAL DESIGN.
(a) Mechanism. The failure mechanism is simple-- the concrete is exposed to

greater stress than it is capable of carrying or it sustains greater strain than its strain
capacity.
(b) Symptoms. Visual examinations of failures resulting from inadequate structural

design will usually show one of two symptoms. First, errors in design resulting in
excessively high compressive stresses will result in spalling. Similarly, high
torsion or shear stresses may also result in spalling or cracking. Second, high
tensile stresses will result in cracking. To identify inadequate design as a cause of
damage, the locations of the damage should be compared to the types of stresses
that should be present in the concrete. For example, if spalls are present on the
underside of a simple-supported beam, high compressive stresses are not present
and inadequate design may be eliminated as a cause. However, if the type and
location of the damage and the probable stress are in agreement, a detailed stress
analysis will be required to determine whether inadequate design is the cause.
Laboratory analysis is generally not applicable in the case of suspected inadequate
design. However, for rehabilitation projects, thorough petrographic analysis and
strength testing of concrete from elements to be reused will be necessary.
(c) Prevention. Inadequate design is best prevented by thorough and careful review
of all design calculations. Any rehabilitation method that makes use of existing
concrete structural members must be carefully reviewed.
(2) POOR DESIGN DETAILS.
While a structure may be adequately designed to meet loadings and other overall
requirements, poor detailing may result in localized concentrations of high stresses
in otherwise satisfactory con-crete. These high stresses may result in cracking that
allows water or chemicals access to the concrete. In other cases, poor design
detailing may simply allow water to pond on a structure, resulting in saturated

81
concrete. In general, poor detailing does not lead directly to concrete failure;
rather, it contributes to the action of one of the other causes of concrete
deterioration described in this chapter. Several specific types of poor detailing and
their possible effects on a structure are described in the following paragraphs. In
general, all of these problems can be prevented by a thorough and careful review of
plans and specifications for the project. In the case of existing structures, problems
resulting from poor detailing should be handled by correcting the detailing and not
by simply responding to the symptoms.
REMAINING PORTIONS—REFER CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY, MS

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1

PROFESSIONAL ENGINEERS CONSULTANCY

REPAIR & REHABILITATION

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Reinforced concrete is a combination of concrete and steel. Alone concrete is very

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INTRODUCTION -VISUAL INSPECTION

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT FOR VISUAL INSPECTION

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crack width gauge is useful, while a magnifying glass or portable microscope is

GENERAL PROCEDURE OF VISUAL INSPECTION

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There is a need to identify associated or accompanying defects, especially which

Material deterioration is often indicated by surface cracking and spalling of the

An assessment may also need to be made of the particular environmental

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important to identify the splash zone. Settlement of surrounding soil or

 surface pitting and spalling

 differential movements or displacements

 variation in algal or vegetative growths

 constructional and lift joints

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Classification of the degree of damage or condition requires experience and

PULL OUT TEST

There are two options for the pullout test:

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converted to an equivalent compressive strength by means of a previously

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ULTRASONIC PULSE VELOCITY METHOD

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3. It must be recognized that there is an increase in pulse velocity at below-

4. The presence of reinforcing steel in concrete has an appreciable effect on pulse

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REBOUND HAMMER TEST(SHMIDT HAMMER TEST)

A handy non-destructive testing instrument should be cheap, easy to operate and

According to A.M. Neville, in the book Properties of Concrete (Fourth Edition) on

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• Repeat this procedure for all cubes.

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rebound hammer test

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PENETRATION PROBE (WINDSOR PROBE)

Main applications It can be used for estimating compressive strength,

Limitations It requires minimum edge distance and member thickness. It slightly

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PENETRATION RESISTANCE OR WINDSOR PROBE TEST

EQUIPMENT FOR WINDSOR PROBE TEST

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The Windsor probe consists of a powder-actuated gun or driver, hardened alloy

GENERAL PROCEDURE FOR WINDSOR PROBE TEST

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(3) Repeat the above procedure for all test specimens.

ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF WINDSOR PROBE TEST

The advantages are:

 Access is only needed to one surface.

 The correlation with concrete strength is affected by a relatively small number

The limitations are:

OTHER METHODS OF NDT

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The method of half-cell potential measurements normally involves measuring the

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