Music in the Bible and Music on the Radio:

A Biblical Theology of Music Applied to the Contemporary Music Styles Debate

[an earlier version of this paper was delivered at the 50th annual meeting of the Evangelical
Theological Society in Orlando, November 1998]

(Revised January 2000)

Gregg Strawbridge, Ph.D.

All Saints' Presbyterian Church, Lancaster, PA, Pastor

ABSTRACT

As an analysis of music style, this paper offers a succinct theological synthesis of the Biblical information
on music. The writer summarizes a mini-theology of music and addresses a current issue relevant to
evangelical worship, ministry programs, missiology, and cultural impact: contemporary music styles. The
paper argues that an exegetical and Biblical theology of music and a familiarity with the issues
surrounding ethnomusicology are the foundation for any specific musical-genre critique. Moreover, some
reflection on the larger issue of the relationship between Christ and culture are a necessary counterpart to
this discussion. To accomplish this, the paper is divided into three sections: (1) a Biblical survey of
music, (2) a dialogue with current critiques of contemporary music styles, and (3) directions and
recommendations for Christian musicians.

"Why should the devil have all the good music?" - Martin Luther

 A SURVEY OF BIBLICAL MUSIC

o A Brief Biblical Theology of Music

The Scriptures (1) recognizes music as a means for praise (Acts 16:25; Rom 15:9 [originally sung]), a
means of expressing joy (Jam 5:13), thanksgiving (Psa 92:1-3), sorrow for sin (Is. 16:10), a means of
prayer (1Co 14:15; Psa 72:20), and a means of teaching and spiritual communication (Col 3:16; Eph
5:19). Biblical music makers are professional (1Ch 15:22; 25:7; Is. 5:11-12; Ez. 33:32), as well as
nonprofessional (Psa 100; 1Ki 1:39-40; 1Co 14:26; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). There are those who direct music
(Psa 4:1, 5:1, 6:1, etc.; Neh. 12:8) and teach music (1Ch 15:22). The people of the Bible overflow with
music in every circumstance, including cultural uses placed in positive (1Sa 18:7) and negative terms
(Eze 33:32). Music sounded in every aspect of life--work, play, celebration, and even war (Is. 16:10; Jer
48:33; Mat 11:17; Luk 15:25; Gen 31:27; Exo 32:17-18; Ecc 2:8; Jdg 11:34-35; 2Sa 19:35). Jewish
musicologist Abraham Idelsohn says, "As many references in the Bible to the music performed in secular
life testify, Israel enjoyed life through music both vocal and instrumental, and associated music with
dance and wine in which men and women participated" (p. 21).

A study of the Psalms alone yield an impressive role for music in the life of Biblical people. The extolling
of Yahweh through music is spoken of as congregational (149:1), individual (42:8) and for every situation
(74:21). Music is used to praise God joyfully, loudly (47:1), melodically (98:5), and with a variety of
instruments (150:3-5), from chordophones (lyres, harps, kinnors), to membranophones (timbrels), to
aerophones (flutes, shofars, pipes), to metalophones (cymbals). (2) Such praise is associated with bodily
movement and common expressions of joy and gladness, such as dancing (30:11, 149:3, 150:4). The
psalmists command praise with skill (47:7, 33:3), to "make His praise glorious" (66:2). They frequently
call the nations to make the sounds of praise (67:4, 22:27, 117:1, 108:3). A fitting close to the Psalter is
the call for all that has breath to hymn the worth of their Maker (150:6).

The use of music in the worship of the New Testament church has indisputable Biblical support (Mat
26:30; 1Co 14:19, 14:26; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Heb 2:12). The primary church music texts in the New
Testament (Col 3:16 & Eph 5:19) are commands, not primarily to sing or make music, but to "teach" and
"speak" with "psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs."

o Music and Language

In the Biblical-times music, (3) there is no strong dichotomy between speaking and singing. In Scripture
language is generally connected to the life of the person. For example, Isaiah confesses sinfulness by
saying "I am a man of unclean lips, and I live among a people of unclean lips" (6:5). Jesus says, "You
brood of vipers, how can you, being evil, speak what is good? For the mouth speaks out of that which fills
the heart" (Mat 12:34). "Not what enters into the mouth defiles the man, but what proceeds out of the
mouth, this defiles the man. . . But the things that proceed out of the mouth come from the heart, and
those defile the man" (Mat 15:11-18). The concept of the mouth expressing the heart and the words of a
person being taken as the essence or heart of a person is ubiquitous in Scripture. Likewise, it is
the Word of God which is the instrument of regeneration (1Pe 1:23), the building block of faith (Rom
10:17), and the standard of sanctification (2Ti 3:16). Jesus teaches, "It is written, 'Man shall not live on
bread alone, but on every word that proceeds out of the mouth of God'" (Mat 4:4; also Psa 19, 119).

On the basis of what Scripture teaches about the words of man and the words of God, it is not surprising
that there are no strict separations between praise and prayer which is spoken, sung, and shouted. All
verbal activity manifests the heart and the Word of God changes the heart. The fruit of the lips is the
result. (4) Therefore, the "redeemed of the Lord" "say so" in a continuum of verbal expression from simply
speaking, to speaking loudly, to singing, to shouting. In fact in some cases it is difficult to tell exactly
what act the words are referring to (merely speaking, or singing, chanting, speaking loudly, etc.).
Consider the Biblical parallels:

Psalm 33:3 Sing to Him a new song; Play skillfully with a shout of joy.
Psalm 65:13 The meadows are clothed with flocks, And the valleys are covered with grain;
They shout for joy, yes, they sing.

Psalm 95:2 Let us come before His presence with thanksgiving; Let us shout joyfully to Him with
psalms.

Psalm 71:23 My lips will shout for joy when I sing praises to Thee; And my soul, which Thou hast
redeemed.

Psalm 75:9 But as for me, I will declare it forever; I will sing praises to the God of Jacob.

Psalm 81:1 (For the choir director; on the Gittith) Sing for joy to God our strength; Shout joyfully to the
God of Jacob.

Psalm 95:1 O come, let us sing for joy to the Lord ; Let us shout joyfully to the rock of our salvation.

Psalm 96:2 Sing to the Lord, bless His name; Proclaim good tidings of His salvation from day to day.

Psalm 98:4 Shout joyfully to the Lord, all the earth; Break forth and sing for joy and sing praises.

Psalm 105:2 Sing to Him, sing praises to Him; Speak of all His wonders.

The rigid distinction between singing and other verbal activity in our Western contemporary use of
language was not so distinct to the people of the Bible.

 CRITICAL ARGUMENTS AGAINST CONTEMPORARY MUSIC STYLES

Having briefly considered the representative Biblical data regarding music. Now we shall consider the
current debate. Is music style neutral? Are musical compositions and styles inherently good or bad? This
issue is addressed in terms of the "neutrality of music." Popular preacher John Blanchard (1983) says,
"When music is composed, it is not composed into a neutral nothing, but into a positive something--a
form that is definite and meaningful, with colour and character." (p. 81). Blanchard goes on to cite an
impressive number of thinkers to support the contention that "music has moved man in a hundred
different ways" (p. 83). Leonard Seidel says, "The evidence is clear from history, music theory and
Biblical examples-music is not neutral. Cynthia Maus has said it so eloquently: 'Music soothes us, stirs us
up; it puts noble feelings into us; it melts us to tears, we know not how. It is a language by itself just as
perfect in its way of speech, as words; just as divine, just as blessed.'" (p. 27)

It will be important here to define the question more sharply. The status questionis (state of the question)
is not whether music, given certain conditions, "moves us" or "soothes us," - rather, the question is
whether a particular music style or genre (such as rock, country, rhythm-and-blues) is intrinsically good,
bad, or neutral. (5) There is no question that music creates powerful connotations, a reality continually
exploited in advertising. The issue I am seeking to address is not one of connotations or associations, but
of the ontology of music.

Two primary types of arguments emerge against contemporary music styles (hereafter, CM): aesthetic
arguments and ethical-metaphysical arguments. Aesthetic arguments focus on the quality of the music and
dismiss it as bad art, though not necessarily inherently evil. Though I will touch on this, my main concern
is the ethical-metaphysical arguments. Ethical-metaphysical arguments focus on the inherent qualities of
particular music genres. I am limiting my analysis to the style-genre, not the typical lyric content. The
critical arguments cited have been addressed toward all forms of CM (including country and jazz genres),
but especially popular rock styles.

 The Natural Law Argument

Bill Gothard (1986), a well-known critic of CM says, "There is no such thing as amoral music." He
diagrams an analogy between other disciplines and music. "The following disciplines illustrate how the
purity of an item can be corrupted by adding even a small amount of another element" (p. 124).

CHEMISTRY LANGUAGE MATH

H2O + CN Truth + Lie Solution +1
= Poison = Untruth = Incorrect

[What follows on the next page is the analogy to art and music.]

ART MUSIC
Figure + Nudity Rhythm + Imbalance
= Pornography = Acid Rock

However impressive this line up is on first glance, this presentation actually begs the question; it assumes
what must be proven. Namely, it has not yet been shown that "acid rock" music style (whatever it is) is, in
fact, evil. The illustrated argument rests on an analogy between different disciplines. "Accurate evaluation
of music is only possible as we integrate it with the related disciplines of mathematics, science, history,
and medicine. The laws of these disciplines act as an authoritative reference to confirm that the musical
expression is either following or violating established principles....Just as there is a balance of power in
the three branches of United States government, so the laws of related disciplines provide checks and
balances for music" (p. 123). The perceptive reader will note that until one can prove that a music style is
analogous to poison, falsehood, mathematical inaccuracy, or pornography, the indicting conclusion is
fallacious. The fallacy is called the fallacy of false analogy.

There are a number of reasons why such analogies should not be persuasive. (1) Contrary to what is
asserted, unless the analogies are Biblically supported they cannot be "authoritative" (sola Scriptura). (2)
The analogies themselves do not really have the impact intended upon further analysis. Poison in large
quantities may be medicine in small quantities; the truth or falsity of a statement must rest on the
intention of the author; mathematical inaccuracies are quantitative not qualitative (as music is); figure
plus mere nudity does not equal pornography, cf. medical text books and some art (e.g., David,
Michelangelo). (3) "Imbalance" in the last of the series (rhythm + imbalance = acid rock) must be
defined. If "imbalance" essentially means CM, the argument has not advanced beyond circularity. If
imbalance can be defined so as to prove a particular music style is morally evil, then it must rest on
Biblical implication.

 The Bad Emotions Argument

Garlock and Woetzel in Music in the Balance really do a much better job of arguing their case. I am
especially glad that they spell-out their arguments. The issue is addressed on page three. It is given in an
informal syllogism. "Since music is an emotional language, and since some emotions are wrong for the
child of God, then some music is wrong for the Christian" (from Tame, 1984, p. 151). However, the
syllogism, as a syllogism, is invalid. It contains four terms (rather than three, a requirement for logical
validity): (1) "music" (2) "emotional language" (3) "wrong" and (4) "emotions." Therefore, the syllogism
either has four terms (making it invalid) or the terms "emotional language" and the "emotions" must be
taken as meaning precisely the same. Second, the inductive fallacy of hasty generalization (since the
premise must be inductively proven) is evident. Unless all emotions are expressed in music, the
conclusion that "some music is wrong," would not follow. It is logically possible that only the moral
emotions are expressed in music.

A better formulation of this argument in a valid syllogism, keeping the same intention as the authors,
would look like this:

(1) All emotions are (in) music.

(2) Some emotions is sinful.
(3) Therefore, some music is sinful.

The substantial difficulties can be seen more clearly now. How is one to prove the first
premise, all emotion is in music? An even more difficult problem arises in the second premise, a problem
to which the original writer of the argument (Tame) alludes: "Hate, when directed at sin, is good and
acceptable....Anger is unacceptable except when the one who is angry is not sinning. An emotion like lust
is never right" (p. 3). Defining the ethical content of an emotion is difficult. How much more difficult
when the emotion is represented in musical expression! The fact is, the Bible represents the same
emotion, described with the same word, as in some situations good and in others evil. (See the
Appendix: Emotions in the Bible)

Apparently, the same basic emotions can be sinful or acceptable, given the purpose and motivation. Thus,
the syllogism is incomplete until the music critic can identify the specific content of the emotion in the
music.One is hard pressed to identify the specific content of a CM style (especially apart from the lyric
content of a song) with a specific sinful emotion. Certainly the emotional argument has not proven that
any CM style isinherently evil.

 The Beat
The thrust of many CM critiques is to demonstrate the sinfulness of "the beat." Lawhead (1981) wittily
titles this discussion, "Invasion of the Body Snatchers."

Some suggest that when the beat becomes the main focus of the music, overwhelming all other
components, that is when the trouble begins. The pulsating beat assaults the mind and puts it to sleep, so
to speak, opening it to evil invasion while the listener is off guard. That is the assertion. But how is such a
statement to be proven? Or disproven? The argument at that point moves from the realm of the concrete
to the metaphysical. And metaphysical arguments cannot be settled in the laboratory. (p. 69)

Bill Gothard has even used the exact term, "metaphysical," to refer the power of music. He says listening
to Christian rock is "fellowship with demons." (6) Explaining the biological phenomenon, Gothard
information on the subject asserts rock music causes "a mix-up in the alpha waves between the two
hemispheres of the brain, resulting in what some researchers call 'switching.' 'Switching' is a phenomenon
which occurs in adult schizophrenics to produce regression to infantile, reptilian locomotion (where
crawling is done with the same, rather than the opposite, arms and legs)" (Cannon & Cannon, p. 12). This
booklet comes complete with a picture of a crawling baby adjacent to an alligator.

Much of the behavioral research to which the above Gothard-endorsed authors refer is based on the
behavioral kinesology of Psychiatrist John Diamond. Diamond says that the anapestic beat ("da da DA")
found in some rock music causes muscle weakening, even up to a reduction of two-thirds (Cannon &
Cannon; Miller, 1993, p. 12ff). An example of this beat is that fine specimen of popular music, "Southern
Nights" by Glenn Campbell. Miller (1993) is right in questioning these conclusions. As for a refutation,
suffice it to say that at every Golds Gym, Diamond et al is constantly being refuted. An instant autonomic
reduction of strength is de facto not occurring as iron-pumping people are bench-pressing to anapestic
back beats.

Garlock and Woetzel (1992) focus on the inherent immoral qualities of rhythm-dominant music (pp. 79-
80). "The emphasis of most of contemporary sacred and secular music is on the rhythm. Rhythm is that
part of music which elicits a physical response. Therefore, most of today's music, secular and sacred,
feeds and satisfies the self-seeking, self-centered, and self-worshiping part of man" (cf. p. 67). Here is
another example of demonstrably fallacious reasoning. Either the argument is invalid because of
equivocating on terms "physical response" and "self-seeking, self-centered, and self-worshiping part of
man" - or, the authors are guilty of serious theological error in equating the physical part of man with the
sinful part of man.

Even if we overlook the fact that many of the Church's greatest theologians have taught that man is
dichotomous (comprised of a body and soul, the soul including all the non-material part of man), the
conclusion does not follow from the premises, unless the physical part of man is the sinful part of man.
But, the physical part of man cannot be equated with the sinful nature since, the sinless Son of God was
made flesh (1Jo 4:2). Further, the first man and woman were initially sinless, though incarnate. And we
shall ever be sinfully incarnate after the Resurrection. Passages which use "flesh" (sarx) to refer to
sinfulness (Rom 6-7, Gal 3, etc.) are not referring to merely the physical body, but the inherent sinfulness
of fallen human nature which permeates every facet of man, body, soul, spirit, mind, heart, bowels, and
spleen. Of the 147 times "flesh" (sarx) is used in the New Testament, only a small minority of passages
have the sense of "sinful nature" (NIV). "Flesh" (sarx) is used in a number of ways both positively (Rom
1:3, 2Co 4:11), and negatively (Gal 5:17). Fatal to the argument above, is the clear teaching that the
regenerate spirit of man is also sinful. "Therefore, having these promises, beloved, let us cleanse
ourselves from all defilement of flesh and spirit, perfecting holiness in the fear of God" (2Co 7:1).
Finally, it is simply metaphysically false to imply that evil is to be equated with embodiment, since the
devils are not physical but are evil. To connect sinfulness with physicalness is the Gnostic heresy and is a
flat contradiction to the redemptive enterprise of the incarnate Jesus.

Let us suppose that Garlock and Woetzel really mean that rhythm appeals to the "sinful nature" ("flesh").
By this they would avoid a theological error of no small proportion; however, if rhythm appeals to the
sinful part of man, it follows necessarily that good music should have no rhythm at all! But of course, this
is not possible, since all music involves sound in time.

Note well: what the Bible almost explicitly teaches about rhythm in music is irreconcilable to the above
critics of CM. Scripture does not condemn the appeal to bodily movement and rhythm in music. This is
indicated by the correlation of dancing with the use of music and especially percussion instruments such
as timbrels and cymbals.

And Miriam the prophetess, Aaron's sister, took the timbrel in her hand, and all the women went
out after her with timbrels and with dancing. And Miriam answered them, "Sing to the Lord, for
He is highly exalted; The horse and his rider He has hurled into the sea." (Exo 15:20-21)

Let them praise His name with dancing; Let them sing praises to Him with timbrel and lyre. (Psa
149:3)

Praise Him with timbrel and dancing; Praise Him with stringed instruments and pipe. (Psa 150:4)

It is predictable the above authors of a CM critiques do not bother with extracting Biblical principles from
such passages (or even mention them for that matter).

 The Origin of the Beat

If the reader tends to agree with the premise that rhythm dominant music is inherently sinful, the
implications are grave - since, the music of many cultures (Latin America, Caribbean, African) is
"rhythm-dominant." Perhaps someone will even be willing to argue that the "beat" is evil because it was
derived from pagan tribalism and brought to America via slavery. This is what some call the African
Connection. One proponent of this view says,

It is irrefutable that rock and roll music owes some of its roots to the tribes of Africa....To declare that
these are the only roots of rock music is to mislead and to be less than honest. A careful study of rock
music reveals it to be more complex than that; however, to deny that an African connection to the rock
rhythms of our day does not exist, is to be equally misleading and dishonest. To declare that a certain
rhythm or beat is 'evil' cannot be proved entirely. What is far more important is the historical revelation
that demonic activity has been observed in connection with rituals where drums and rhythmic beats have
been the catalyst. (Leonard J. Seidel, Face the Music: Contemporary Church Music on Trial, 1988, p.
41)

I appreciate the understated, but fatal admission, "To declare that a certain rhythm or beat is 'evil' cannot
be proved entirely." In response: (1) The historical evidence that the "beat" came via demonic Africa is
quite dubious. Steve Lawhead has argued the point strongly. Most were from areas where the drum (and
therefore, "the beat") was not a significant instrument. After all, "Drums were almost never heard in black
American music until well into the twentieth century." The rock beat actually developed more from
country-western music, "The Saddlemen." "As for the charge that rock's rhythm is demon inspired, most
people overlook the fact that in other places where New World slaves landed (Jamaica, Haiti, the islands
of the West Indies) nothing close to rock ever evolved" (1981, pp. 57-58).

(2) Unless someone can first show that the "beat" is evil, a proponent of the African Connection is simply
committing the genetic fallacy. A bad origin for something does not necessarily make it bad. The devil
can make a cogent argument. In music, arguing from origins is problematic since "Jubal..was the father of
all those who play the lyre and pipe" (Gen 4:21). And Jubal was in the ungodly line of Cain. In fact, the
reveller, Lamech was Jubal's father.

(3) If music origins are translated into ethical norms, even the music of the Bible cannot clear itself from
charges. Old Testament scholar Ronald B. Allen has rightly noted the Biblical use "the devil's
instruments." He explains, such instruments have "a long history of (mis)use in pagan circles before it
became so dearly associated with the making of music to the Lord in ancient Israel." (7) Psalm 93 was
"written with a conscious attempt both to glorify God and to debunk Baal. The manner of singing would
be very similar to the manner of singing in the worship of Baal. But the point of the song was opposed to
all that Baal was supposed to represent."(8)

 Aesthetic Standards and Music

When a CM critic develops criteria for "good music," what is its basis? In what sense can it be Biblical?
The description of good music in Garlock and Woetzel, Cannon and Cannon, and the Gothard ministry
generally clearly reads Common Practice Period (1600-1900) Western art music (hereafter, WCPP) back
into the Bible. It is, thus, anachronistic. This can be illustrated from the often used threefold division of
music (e.g. Garlock and Woetzel, p. 55): "Music is also considered to have three primary parts: melody,
harmony, and rhythm." Perhaps a starting place for evaluation is to see whether Biblical-times music
could even be identified with the features of WCPP music. Certainly the descriptions of Biblical-times
musical style, given by learned experts, cannot be understood as depicting "godly music," according to
the standard of the authors (see the Appendix: Ancient Near Eastern Music). Consider what Vida
Chenoweth and Darlene Bee explain,

Christianity has certainly influenced the course of Western musical development; some of our greatest
music has been inspired by a strong Christian faith. Nevertheless, we cannot say that our Western musical
tradition is the same as the Christian musical tradition. It is not the musical idiom of the New Testament;
the founders of our faith would have been ill-at-ease in it. There was no musical notation at the time of
Christ so we will never know what melodies were sung by Jesus and His disciples. What we do know
about their musical style is that it was Near Eastern. Our modern hymns are also different from Hebrew
and Greek music, even though the gospel reached us through the cultural matrix of these societies. Our
Western hymns are a heritage which we rightly cherish, but they belong to our faith through our culture.
(1968, see pp. 211-212) (9)
The music which emerged in the WCPP, though grand and beautiful to us, is anachronistic to Biblical-
times music.

Garlock and Woetzel, et al (above) go further though. Their aesthetic turns out to be a metaphysic. They
describe godly music as a hierarchy of melody, harmony, rhythm with a steady pulse (pp. 64-66). They
relate their anachronistic standard, metaphysically, to a trichotomist anthropology (man is body, soul,
spirit). "The part of music to which the spirit responds is the melody" (p. 57). "The part of music to which
your mind responds is the harmony" (p. 58). "The part of music to which your body responds is the
rhythm" (p. 59). The fact that the Bible does not teach this musical metaphysic (exegesis will not yield
anything like these claims) in no way impedes the critics from developing an entire musical ethic. What
follows from this? No rock, no jazz, no beat, no back beat, and I guess dancing is out too.

Even apart from the fact that Biblical-times music does not correspond to their description of Biblical
music, there are more difficulties. For example, if it is true that the spirit of man (assuming the
trichotomist's view of man) - responds to the melody, what are we to say for the music of percussion
instruments? (10) Is it metaphysically possible to praise Him with timbrels, loud cymbals, and resounding
cymbals (Psa 150) since those percussion instruments make no melody (and God is a spirit)?
Percussionists are apparently doomed to the basement of the physical, sub-spiritual? I am only hinting at
the ridiculous nature of these criticisms of CM. It has been said, "A little clarity goes a long way." And a
little knowledge of Biblical-times music would prevent an ethnocentric standard from being disguised as
a Biblical standard.

 CHRISTIANITY, CULTURE AND MUSIC

This leads to a consideration of one primary weakness in many criticisms of CM, the lack of
consideration of music anthropology - ethnomusicology. Ethnomusicology is the study of music within
different cultures and subcultures. Music develops within culture and culture transforms music. Music
and culture are reciprocally and symbiotically related.

The larger issue in the entire discussion of CM is Christ and culture. How are we to see the basic
relationship between the people of God and cultures in the world? To put it in Biblical terms, what are the
full implications of being "in the world but not of the world" (Joh 17) and doing all things to the glory of
God (1Co 10:31). Moreover, where do the Biblical principles of accommodation function - "And to the
Jews I became as a Jew . . . I have become all things to all men, that I may by all means save some." (1Co
9:20-22)?

 A Reformed View

For my own commitments here, I believe that Christ will largely transform culture. The Biblical support
for this Calvinistic view may even be drawn in several distinct categories:
1. Missiologically, we have both the imperative and prophetic forms of world discipleship which implies
that Christ will transform culture to some extent (Mat 28:19-20 (11) & Psa 22:27).

2. Eschatologically, Christ's second advent is sequenced by reigning at the right hand of God "until He
has put all His enemies under His feet," the last of which is death which is demonstrably overcome at the
resurrection (1Co 15:25, 54-55). Hence those of His enemies which have cultural manifestations shall be
affected in the present progressive reign of Christ.

3. Culturally, the music of the redeemed shall flow from all ethne, loosely stated, from all cultures. For
example, Isaiah speaks the word of the Lord saying, "Sing to the Lord a new song, sing His praise from
the end of the earth! (Isa 40:10). "Sing to the Lord a new song; sing to the Lord, all the earth" (Psa 96:1).
Notice that "new songs" are being commanded from other nations. The New Testament indicates that
worship from other nations is a climactic hope in the drama of redemption. God desires for "the Gentiles
to glorify God for His mercy; as it is written, 'Therefore I will give praise to thee among the gentiles, and I
will sing to Thy name' and again he says... 'praise the Lord all you gentiles, and let all the peoples praise
Him'" (Rom 15:9-11). "And they sang a new song . . .Thou wast slain, and didst purchase for God with
Thy blood men from every tribe and tongue and people and nation'" (Rev 5:9-10). Therefore, we are as
much as told that the nations will use their music to glorify God.

4. Developmentally, Scripture itself recognizes change in cultural mediums of communication and allows
for cultural differences and changes within time. Proof of this might be developed from observing the
linguistic references throughout Scripture. "And they read from the book, from the law of
God, translating to give the sense so that they understood the reading" (Neh 7:8, see also Mat 1:23, Mar
15:34). Cultural diversity and change is factually depicted and assumed throughout the Old Testament
and New Testament. Moreover, the revelation of the Messiah is brought through the medium of the
Greco-Roman language and culture with Judaistic roots rather than the language Abraham, Moses, or
David eras - remembering their were vast differences lingustically/culturally between even these
patriarchs. When this is coupled with the "sing a new song" prescriptions, linked to ethnic groups (Psa
96:1-2; Isa 42:10-11) and that redemption is intended for "every tribe and language and people and
nation," the ethnomusical implications are strong. The cultures of the world will and do in fact use their
languages and musical expressions for praise! Hallelujah! - this is a universal word of praise.

o Culture and the Heart-Language

If music changes interactively with culture, whatever the musical heart-language of people is, is the best
for expression of heart-truth. As Chenowith and Bee say, "When a people develops its own hymns with
both vernacular words and music, it is good evidence that Christianity has truly taken root" (p. 212). Like
it or not, a country bumpkin, harmonically impoverished with the sounds of Nashville, will not sing "I
love you" to his fiance in the style of John Dowland's renaissance Lute songs (a sixteenth century court
musician of Queen Elizabeth).

Adequate reflection on the issues here will prevent us from adding to Scripture our pseudo-absolutes. We
will not be as quick to condemn the musical mediums of other cultures and subcultures by imposing an
ethnocentric standard. Our North American culture certainly is not an authoritative standard by which we
can judge other cultures. We have no more right to impose a North American or Western European
style of music on other cultures than we do to make them have their services in Latin. (And we'd be
probably be better off to impose Latin rather than our current cultural norms.)
As Protestants we all believe "the holy scriptures are to be translated out of the original into vulgar
languages" (Larger Catechism 156) and prayer is to be "if vocal, in a known tongue" (Westminster
Confession 21:3). But people also need the "vulgate," of music in their common tongue, do they not?
Some level of intelligibility is required (1Co 14:7-9, observe Paul's very illustration). The irrelevance and
ineffectiveness of the church is often fostered by an unreflective stance against the new. On all sides our
shared concern should be for the communication of meaning and truth. Our music styles must comport
with this. Calvin Johansson, though no friend of CM, has acknowledged the need for cultural and
subcultural relevance in his stimulating book, Music and Ministry: A Biblical Counterpoint (1984).

Relevancy in church music is neither a matter of popularity nor of intrinsic worth, but a matter of
identification with music. That is to say, the music must have something about it which is recognizable
and ordinary, both in the configuration of the various musical elements and in its total impact...One must
also pay attention to the peculiar musical culture of the congregation. (p. 39)

Music is a manifestation of culture, like language, which changes. Though we must not fail to distinguish
Biblical absolutes from cultural relatives, this is not ethical relativism. The one individual who made the
term "absolutes" part of the current Christian vocabulary, Francis Schaeffer (Art and the Bible, 1973)
said, "Let me say firmly that there is no such thing as a godly style or an ungodly style" (p. 51). "And as a
Christian adopts and adapts various contemporary techniques, he must wrestle with the whole question,
looking to the Holy Spirit for help to know when to invent, when to adopt, when to adapt and to not use a
specific style at all. This is something each artist wrestles with for a life time, not something he settles
once and for all" (p. 55).

Music makers make sounds with the particular instrument-technology available. Further refinements
culturally and technologically necessitate different musical sounds. Before the technology to make valves
for brass instruments or hinged keys for woodwind instruments was available, wind instruments had a
different sound with limitations in range and technique. It may surprise people who are fond of the
"tyranny of the organ" to realize that no Biblical-times music in any recognizable way resembled the
sounds they call "sacred." These sorts of technological changes alone account for vast transformations,
much less the profound philosophical, religious, and linguistic changes affecting musical-stylistical
developments. My twentieth century harmony professor, composer Luigi Zaninelli, used to take exception
to the idea that music has "progressed." He would say it has simply "evolved" (i.e., no value judgment).
Given the Biblical view of history, though, I would assert that music has progressed in the sense that it is
intertwined with the unfolding plan of redemption and the advance of Christ's kingdom. Moreover, music
has become more complex and intricate, being the occupation of the intelligence, feeling, ambition, and
purposes of more and more people made in the image of God.

When new sounds are made and development takes place the result is change in some aspect of that
music. Eventually such changes make the music different enough to warrant the description that it has
become a new style. For a distinctly Christian artist, new musical styles should be molded for the glory of
God. As Schaeffer (1973) has said, "To demand the art forms of yesterday in either word systems or art is
a bourgeois failure" (p. 49).
Toward a Truly Christian Aesthetics of Music
The Biblical Foundations. As has been demonstrated, music in the Bible is both emotive and fluidly
connected to language. Yet Scripture strongly indicates the role of music in life and ministry, even apart
from the function of the propositional word. (12) The beauty of skillful music itself can remind us of the
beauty of the Lord. Beauty without utility was ordained by God in worship (Exo 28ff.). In fact, the first
person recorded as being filled with the Holy Spirit is not filled to give a verbal message in prophecy or
teaching, but to create works of art (Bazelel, Exo 35:30ff.). The Psalmist reminds us, "Out of Zion, the
perfection of beauty, God has shone forth" (50:2). The beauty we perceive in this fallen world is merely a
dim reflection of the "perfection of beauty, God." The Psalter's term, "Selah," seems to even indicate
times for musical, non-lyrical, expression. Thus, music as a non-verbal art can minister (1Sa 16:15-23)
and can reflect the beauty of God (Psa 27:4).

The Aesthetic Problem. Throughout much of the history of music in the church, music has been
harnessed to a mere expression of the spoken word. The watershed in church music history was when
plainchant moved from being Syllabic (on note per syllable) to Melismatic (multiple notes per
syllable). (13) As soon as music is freed from the constraint of directly corresponding to the spoken word (a
non-intrinsic property to music), the floodgates are open. Music, like the drive of life in the film, "Jurassic
Park," will find a way to transgress such boundaries. Most of church history (excluding Biblical-times
music) illustrates the attempt to beat music into conformity to the propositional word (lyrics). Certainly
music is a powerful transport for the propositional word and such usage is clearly sanctioned in Scripture
(Col 3:16, Eph 5:19). The power of music to carry words into our memories is undisputed. But there is no
Biblical reason to confine music to that role. Popular criticisms of CM and even traditional church music
often focus on the semantic correspondence of music to the meaning of the text. E.g, a hymn is bad when
the sense of the lyric is not (somehow) conveyed in the music. Conversely, Christians rejoice in the artful
delivery of truth in music in which words and their meaning wedded musically (e.g., insert you favorite
hymn here _____________). The difficulty is not with music's conformity to the propositional word - but
with confining music exclusively to such a role. Evangelicals tend to relegate music to this closet.

Jeremy Begbie insists we need a "complementation" model, rather than a "conformance" model. Music,
as complimentary, is freed from being merely the beast of burden for "the words." Music can, as Begbie
says (in technical Cambridge language, no less), "fill in the gaps" and interact with words. Does this
purpose of music have any Biblical support? Actually, I think that may very well be intended by the
musical term, "Selah." The term is found 74 times in the Old Testament (71 in the Psalms and 3 in
Habakkuk). Among other possibilities, it may mean "the lifting up of instrumental music in an interlude
or postlude." (14) Observing its usage seems to affirm this point.

The Lord shall count when He registers the peoples, "This one was born there." Selah. Then those who
sing as well as those who play the flutes shall say, "All my springs of joy are in you." (Psa 87:6-7, see
also Psa 3:2, 4, 8)

Music's interaction with the spoken word need not merely be Syllabic or Neumatic (more than one note
per word, but not florid movement). Music need not compete for the place of words. Nothing about music
and words are mutually exclusive. Music, freed from its confinement to direct word-support, emerges in a
myriad of relations to words - representative, illustrative, parallel, analogical, contrasting, dialogical, and
who knows what else.
The Theological Solution. Upon theological reflection, Christian musicians must have a paradigm of
equality for both unity and diversity. And it is the unique Christian view of God as Trinity which provides
a philosophical basis for the equal ultimacy of unity and diversity. It might even be argued that non-
Trinitarian world and life views will be unable to even account for the "one and the many" in thought, art,
and experience. (15) The application of this truth to aesthetics is transforming, to say the least. Thinking
Christianly about music and its aesthetic dimensions will provide the foundation of a non-
competitive complementation model.

If music abstractly expresses the aesthetic realities which are grounded in the beauty of the Triune Lord,
music is thus inherently valuable within a Christian world and life view. In my opinion, evangelicals are
in great need of an aesthetic overhaul. It ought not be the case that those who have the truth of the gospel,
lack a worldview inclusive of beauty and goodness - or worse, only accommodate art as a tool of shallow
propaganda. The observant student will notice a larger role for music in Scripture than mere conformance.
The reflective theologian will envision a grander and deeper basis for music's value. And the imaginative
musician will certainly demand a greater part for their cherished art. Music, under a sovereign, supremely
incomprehensible Lord, Triune and wondrous, is to be an aural prism of truth, beauty, and goodness.

 Concluding Suggestions for Contemporary Musicians

What follows practically for CM? How would we recreate a 21st Century Johann Sebastian Bach
musically? Remember that Bach had several advantages: (a) He lived at a time when Protestant
worldview Christianity saturated his culture; (b) all his family before him were diligent musicians
("Bach" was nearly synonymous with music); (c) the music that surrounded him, from which he gained
his beginning and even advanced skills, required high standards of dexterity, artistry, and robust in
harmonic contrapuntal development (many melody lines woven for the harmony); (d) he was in a church
which breathed Protestant orthodoxy (both in Lutheran areas and the Calvinist court of Cothen); (e) and
he was personally committed to glorifying God with his musical gifts as his entire life ambition.

Since this inevitably arises, the following are a few suggestions for young and aspiring musicians who
wish to be both contemporary and Christian -

1. CM musicians as Christians should make themselves accountable to Biblically sound, spiritually

vibrant,s local churches in which the elders of the church can shepherd and oversee the individual
spiritual growth of the musicians, ministry activities, the doctrinal content of the songs, and the
effectiveness of music ministry.

2. CM musicians as ministers (servants) should develop a Biblical philosophy of ministry under the
oversight of the leadership of the local church. This kind of study could yield a purpose statement for a
particular CM artist/ministry, if they are to use their talent for such purposes, which would be both
theologically challenging and practical in clarifying the direction of the CM musicians.

3. CM musicians as musicians should develop a Biblical theology of music, that is, the comprehensive
way all the Scripture's teaching relates to music. As a result, the music, message, and purpose of the CM
musician(s) could be brought into conformity to the Biblical teaching; thus, clarifying what is absolute
from that which is changeable. As a Biblical study, one should work through the musical implications of
the Psalms and historical church music.

4. CM musicians as visible/public representatives of the Christian community should develop a

comprehensive and articulated Christian worldview, relating music and its purposes to other areas of life.
A fully Christian view of music will be at least as comprehensive as our Elder Brethren in the Old
Testament. Then, music's role was much larger than a vehicle for the propagation of religious sentiments.

5. CM musicians as servants of God should seek to serve in excellence, always being diligent to perform
as well as possible to the glory of God. The growth of a musician in excellence is greatly facilitated by an
appreciation and study of the great musicians/music of the past. Christian musicians of the highest caliber
should be fluent in the great musical achievements of Western art music. Irrelevance is most often the
result of historical ignorance.

CONCLUSION

Many criticisms of CM, especially in its "pop music" manifestations, may valid or even purifying.
Ferreting the merits of such criticisms have not been the scope of this paper. The musical styles of the
modern world are expressions of the modern world. Some kinds of expressions are rough and unsuitable
for certain occasions. The Bible, a comprehensive display of human life, reminds us, "There is an
appointed time for everything....[even] a time to dance.....He has made everything appropriate in its time"
(Ecc 3:1, 4, 11). Christian musicians must be called to a more diligent pursuit of (1) a thorough exegetical
and Biblical theology of music, (2) an adequate consideration of the cultural ramifications of music or
ethnomusicology, and (3) a well developed view of the larger issues of the relationship between Christ
and culture.

References t o Music in the Bible

Characteristics of the Church

 Local Church Basics

 Outline of Characteristics
 The Work of the Church
 Offices of the Church
 Autonomy of the Local Church
 The Organization of the Church
 The Name of the Church
 Worship of the Church
o Lord's Supper
o Prayer
o Worship through Music
 o Teaching and Preaching
o Contribution
 Various Teachings Endorsed by the Local Church

Introduction

The best way to understand God's will on any point is to survey the Scriptures, looking for any
clue referring to God's preference on the question. However, the task becomes increasingly
challenging, if it is mentioned frequently throughout the Bible. Although the bulk of passages
may help to make a conclusion more sure, it also makes it harder to consider every passage
fairly, which increases the chance that a significant point may be overlooked.

Unfortunately, music is referenced many times throughout the Scriptures. Over 1150 verses in
the Bible reference a form of the following words, which may be related to music:

 music
 melody
 song
 hymn
 instrument
 sound
 play
 blow
 noise
 psalm
 harp
 lyre
 timbrel
 trumpet
 horn
 voice

The context for some of these occurrences is not related to music, allowing the list to be trimmed
down to less than half of the original references. For your reference, and to serve as a foundation
for studying questions related to musical praise of God, the remaining references were
analyzed and grouped into the following categories.

Vocal Praise t o God

The primary purpose of this analysis is to separate references to vocal praise from those
mentioning musical accompaniment. This first category contains all the references of worship to
God, which contained only vocals. If instruments of music were actually used in the following
passages, there is no reference to it in the context:

Exodus 15:1-18 ; Numbers 21:17 ; Deuteronomy 31:19-32:44 ; Judges 5:1-12 ; II

Samuel 22:1 ; II Samuel 22:50 ; I Kings 4:32 ; I Chronicles 6:31-33 ; I
Chronicles 9:33 ; II Chronicles 23:18 ; II Chronicles 35:15 ; II Chronicles 35:25
; Ezra 2:41 , 65 , 70 ; Ezra 7:7 , 24 ; 20:24 ; Nehemiah 7:1 , 44 , 67 , 73
; Nehemiah 10:28 , 39 ; Nehemiah 11:22-23 ; Nehemiah 13:5 , 10 ; Job 35:10
;Isaiah 5:1 ; Isaiah 12:2 , 5 ; Isaiah 24:14 , 16 ; Isaiah 26:1 ; Isaiah 35:10
; Isaiah 42:10-11 ; Isaiah 44:23 ; Isaiah 48:20 ; Isaiah 49:13 ; Isaiah 51:3 , 11
; Isaiah 52:8-9 ; Jeremiah 20:13 ; Jeremiah 31:7 ; Jeremiah 31:12 ; Jeremiah
33:11 ; Ezekiel 40:44 ; Amos 8:3 , 10 ; Jonah 2:9 ; Zephaniah 3:14 , 17
; Zechariah 2:10 ; Matthew 26:30 ; Mark 14:26 ; Acts 16:25 ; Romans 15:9 ; I
Corinthians 14:15 ; I Corinthians 14:26 ; Ephesians 5:19 ; Colossians 3:16
; Hebrews 2:12 ; James 5:13

Although many of the Psalms note accompaniment of musical instruments, many reference
singing with no mention of instruments. These references are provided below:

Psalm 7:17 ; 9:2 , 11 ; 13:6 ; 18:1 , 49 ; 21:13 ; 27:6 ; 28:7 ; 30:1 , 4 , 12

; 32:7 ; 34:1 ; 35:1 ; 40:3 ; 42:8 ; 51:14 ;59:16 ; 61:8 ; 65:13 ; 66:2-4
; 69:12 , 30 ; 77:6 ; 89:1 ; 95:1 ,2 ; 96:1 , 2 ; 100:2 ; 101:1 ; 104:12 , 33
; 105:2 ; 118:14 ; 119:54 ; 126:2 ; 135:3 ; 138:1 , 5 ; 145:7 ; 146:2

Instrumental Prai se to God

It cannot be denied that instruments of music have been rightfully used to praise the Creator,
neither should it be. If God saw fit to authorize mechanical instruments of music, then His
wisdom should not be questioned. Likewise, His judgment must not be questioned if He later
changed His mind, "for we walk by faith, not by sight" (II Corinthians 5:7 ).

Exodus 15:20-21 ; I Samuel 10:5 ; II Samuel 6:5 , 15 , 21 ; I Kings 10:12 ; II

Kings 12:13 ; I Chronicles 13:8 ; I Chronicles 15:16-29 ; I Chronicles 16:5-9 , 23
, 42 ; I Chronicles 23:5 ; I Chronicles 25:1-7 ; II Chronicles 5:12-13 ; II
Chronicles 7:6 ; II Chronicles 9:11 ; II Chronicles 15:14 ; II Chronicles 20:19-28
; II Chronicles 29:25-30 ; II Chronicles 30:21 ; II Chronicles 34:12 ; Ezra 3:10
; Nehemiah 12:8-47 ; Isaiah 5:12 ; Isaiah 30:29 ; Isaiah 38:20 ; Amos 5:23
; Amos 6:5 ; Habakkuk 3:19 ; Revelation 5:8-9 ; Revelation 14:2-3 ; Revelation
15:2-3

Many of the Psalms have ancient subscripts, mentioning how they were to be sung, or played.
Many of these titles include references to instruments, such as "string instruments", "flutes",
and "harps". Others mention mechanical instruments specifically in the Psalm itself. Psalms
with references to musical accompaniment include:

Psalm 4:1 ; 5:1 ; 6:1 ; 8:1 ; 12:1 ; 33:2 , 3 ; 43:4 ; 47:5-7 ; 49:4 ; 54:1
; 55:1 ; 57:7-9 ; 61:1 ; 67:1 ,4 ; 68:4 , 25 , 32 ; 71:22-23 ; 76:1 ; 81:1-3
; 84:1 ; 87:7 ; 92:3 ; 98:1 , 4-6 ; 108:1-3 ; 137:2-4 ; 144:9 ; 147:1 , 7 ; 149:1
, 3 , 5 ; 150:3-4

Merriment and Be reavement

Whether it be a marriage feast (Jeremiah 7:34 ) or a funeral (II Samuel 1:17-27

; Matthew 9:23 ), music is often referenced as an expression of intense joy or sorrow. In each
of these passages, the context is not religious. Often the context is social, like a marriage feast.
These passages were separated from others, because they do not directly relate to the form of
musical praise to God, although they provide intriguing knowledge to the place of music in the
culture of the ancients.

Genesis 31:27 ; Exodus 32:18 ; Judges 11:34 ; I Samuel 16:16-23 ; I Samuel

18:6-10 ; I Samuel 19:9 ; I Samuel 21:11 ; II Samuel 1:18 ;I Kings 1:40 ; Job
21:12 ; Job 29:13 ; Job 30:9 ; Job 30:31 ; Psalm 75:9 ; Proverbs 25:20
; Proverbs 29:6 ; Ecclesiastes 2:8 ;Ecclesiastes 7:5 ; Song of Solomon 2:12
; Isaiah 14:7 , 11 ; Isaiah 16:10 , 11 ; Isaiah 23:15 , 16 ; Isaiah 24:8 , 9
; Isaiah 26:19 ;Isaiah 30:32 ; Isaiah 35:2 , 6 ; Isaiah 54:1 ; Isaiah 55:12
; Jeremiah 7:34 ; Jeremiah 16:9 ; Jeremiah 25:10 ; Jeremiah 30:19 ;Jeremiah
51:48 ; Lamentations 5:14 ; Daniel 3:5-15 ; Daniel 6:18 ; Hosea 2:15 ; Matthew
9:23 ; Matthew 11:17 ; Luke 7:32 ; Luke 15:25 ; Revelation 18:22-23

The Message of Horns

Trumpets and horns were used in musical praise; however, they were often used in relation to
sounding a battle communication. The blast of a trumpet was used to signal everything from the
anointing of a new king (II Samuel 15:10 ) to the call to battle (Judges 3:27 ), and from
welcoming a holy feast day (Leviticus 23:24 ) to instructing the host of Israel to begin
marching (Numbers 10:2-10 ). In the absence of megaphones, the sound of trumpets could
travel long distances, conveying important messages to large numbers of people. These
references are separated, because they deal with the sounds of communication - not the melody
of worship.

Leviticus 23:24 , 25:9 ; Numbers 10:2-10 ; Numbers 29:1 ; Numbers 31:6

; Joshua 6:4-20 ; Judges 3:27 ; Judges 6:34 ; Judges 7:8-22 ; I Samuel 13:3 ; II
Samuel 2:28 ; II Samuel 15:10 ; II Samuel 18:16 ; II Samuel 20:1 , 22 ; I Kings
1:34 ; I Kings 1:39-45 ; II Kings 9:13 ; II Kings 11:14 ; II Chronicles 13:12 , 14
; II Chronicles 23:13 ; Nehemiah 4:18 , 20 ; Job 39:24 ; Job 39:25 ; Isaiah 18:3
; Isaiah 58:1 ; Isaiah 65:14 ; Jeremiah 4:5 , 19 , 21 ; Jeremiah 6:1 , 17
; Jeremiah 51:27 ; Ezekiel 7:14 ; Ezekiel 26:13 ;Ezekiel 33:3-6 ; Hosea 5:8
; Hosea 8:1 ; Joel 2:1 , 15 ; Amos 2:2 ; Amos 3:6 ; Zephaniah 1:16 ; Matthew
6:2 ; I Corinthians 13:1 ; I Corinthians 14:7-8

The Trumps of God

Trumpets and horns are often associated with God's royal presence and power. Like the horns of
war, these trumpets also convey a message - they signify the entrance of the King. However,
sometime they are associated with the King's work in judgment. Although these might be
considered in the above category, because of the association with battle, references that
associate trumpets with God's judgment are grouped in their own special category.

Exodus 19:13-19 , 20:18 ; Isaiah 27:13 ; Zechariah 9:14 ; Matthew 24:31 ; I

Corinthians 15:52 ; I Thessalonians 4:16 ; Hebrews 12:19 ; Revelation 8:2-9:14
; 10:7 ; 11:5 ;

A Horn of Exaltation

Closely related with the blowing horns of victory, which would have been heard bellowing across
the battlefield, horns were associated with victory and exaltation. Additionally, since they were
often used to carry anointing oils, they are also associated with the glory of election. Although
not directly related to music, these references to horns are significant, and are therefore worthy
of their own category:

I Samuel 2:1 , 10 ; I Samuel 16:1 , 13 ; II Samuel 22:3 ; I Kings 1:39 ; Psalm

75:4 , 5 , 10 ; Psalm 89:24 ; Ezekiel 29:21 ; Luke 1:69
 Miscellaneous

Including mention of the father of stringed instruments (Genesis 4:21 ), miscellaneous

references to music and its instruments are sprinkled throughout the Scriptures. Although these
may be important to another topic, they are not relevant to understanding the nature, purpose,
or form of God's desired musical praise. These references include:

Genesis 4:21 ; Genesis 4:23 ; Exodus 28:31-35 ; II Samuel 19:35 ; II Samuel

23:1 ; II Kings 3:15 ; Ecclesiastes 12:4 ; Song of Solomon 1:1 ; Isaiah 25:5
; Isaiah 27:2 ; Jeremiah 48:36 ; Lamentations 3:63 ; Ezekiel 33:32 ; Zephaniah
2:14 ; Revelation 1:10 ; Revelation 4:1

Observations

Scriptures contain many passages referring to various forms of music. However, many of these
passages do not relate to our immediate question of determining the appropriate form
of modern worship of God through music. The Old Testament, especially after the time of
David, contains numerous references to musical praise, both vocal and instrumental. However,
the frequency of similar references is much lower for the New Testament. Also, it is fairly low for
the time preceding the Davidic reign. Is this significant? God is not a weak parent, who might be
ignored, because of his desperate requests and numerous, empty threats. Our respect for God
and His Word should require God's communication one time. Therefore, the implications of
these passages that should be studied carefully, which is the purpose of the following articles:

 Worship through Music

 The History of Musical Worship, including an analysis of God's direction through
the ages
 Answering Arguments for Instrumental Music

If you have questions or feedback after considering the above articles, please either post your
thoughts on our forums, or email the author with your questions, comments, or feedback.

History of music in the biblical period

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
David Playing the Harp by Jan de Bray, 1670.

Knowledge of the biblical period is mostly from literary references in the Bible and post-biblical
sources. Religion and music historian Herbert Lockyer, Jr. writes that "music, both vocal and
instrumental, was well cultivated among the Hebrews, the New Testament Christians, and
theChristian church through the centuries." [1] He adds that "a look at the Old Testament reveals
how God's ancient people were devoted to the study and practice of music, which holds a
unique place in the historical and prophetic books, as well as the Psalter."

The music of religious ritual was first used by King David, and, according to the Larousse
Encyclopedia of Music, he is credited with confirming the men of the Tribe of Levi as the
"custodians of the music of the divine service."[2] Historian Irene Hesk notes that of the twenty-
four books of theOld Testament, the 150 Psalms in the Book of Psalms ascribed to King David,
have served as "the bedrock of Judeo-Christian hymnology," concluding that "no other poetry
has been set to music more often in Western civilization."[3]

The study of ancient musical instruments has been practiced for centuries with some
researchers studying instruments from Israel/Palestinedating to the "biblical
period."[4]:145 Archaeological and written data have demonstrated clearly that music was an
integral part of daily life in ancient Israel/Palestine. Figurines and iconographic depictions reveal
that people played chordophones and frame drums, and that the human voice was essential as
women and men sang love songs along with laments for the deceased. Data also describes
outdoor scenes of music and dancing in sometimes prophetic frenzies, often with carefully
orchestrated and choreographed musicians and singers within specially built structures.[4]:106
 According to ancient music historian Theodore Burgh, "If we were able to step into the . . .
biblical period, we would find a culture filled with music . . . where people used music in their
daily lives."[4] "Such music was capable of expressing a great variety of moods and feelings or
the broadly marked antitheses of joy and sorrow, hope and fear, faith and doubt. In fact, every
shade and quality of sentiment are found in the wealth of songs and psalms and in the diverse
melodies of the people."[1]:X

Contents
[hide]

 1 Cultural influences
o 1.1 Egypt
o 1.2 Sumer and Bablylonia
 2 Ancient Israel
o 2.1 Babylonian exile
o 2.2 Second Temple destruction
 3 Christian period
 4 Musical instruments
o 4.1 String instruments
o 4.2 Wind instruments
o 4.3 Percussion instruments
 5 Singing
 6 Dance
 7 Musical traditions
o 7.1 Purposes of music
o 7.2 Music training
o 7.3 Types of music
o 7.4 Written notation
 8 Influence on later music
 9 Notes

[edit]Cultural influences

[edit]Egypt

Egypt was among the oldest cultures of the Near East and had a highly developed musical
culture dating back to around 3000 BC. Egyptian sources, however, include only pictorial relics,
some instruments, and a few literary records concerned with performance practices. On various
pieces of sculpture there are reliefs of harpists and flutists taking part in religious ceremonies
and social entertainments.

A number of instruments have been identified as being used in Egypt, including the lyre, a type
of harp, an oboe-like instrument, the lute, various drums from Asia, and
the sistrum (rattle). Muralsshowing singers and instrumentalist performing have also been
found. According to music historian Homer Ulrich, it is likely that Egypt influenced the
"educational and ethical aspects of Greek music."[5]:10

[edit]Sumer and Bablylonia

Main article: Music of Mesopotamia

Although records are minimal, it is known that between 3000 and 2300 BC organized temple
music with singers existed in Sumer and Babylonia, the oldest cultural groups in Mesopotamia.
Excavations have uncovered several musical instruments, including harps, lutes, double oboes,
and a few others.

Because of the political interrelations between the Hebrews and the Semitic nations of
Babylonia, Assyria, and the Hittite empire, there were similarities between the Hebrew music of
the Judeanpeople and the others. Jewish music began in the early years of tribal life, and the
"references to music in the Bible are numerous," writes Ulrich.[5]:11 After the Hebrews
established a kingdom inIsrael, their musical activities were to increase substantially.

[edit]Ancient Israel

18th century painting, "The Song of Miriam," by Paulo Malteis, Italy. Celebration after crossing
the Red Sea from Egypt

According to music historian Abraham Schwadron, "probably the most important musical
contribution of the ancient Hebrews was the elevation of the status of liturgical music in union
with ritual ceremonies." He notes the "high degree of musico-liturgical organization" from the
descriptive accounts of King Solomon's Temple, such as the 24 choral groups consisting of 288
musicians which took part in 21 weekly services.[6]

Despite the similar instruments used by the Hebrews which were also used in neighboring
cultures, including Phoenicia, Egypt, Assyria, and Greece, Schwadron writes that "it would be
accurate to state that . . . it is in the particular uses of music—sacred and secular, ethical and
aesthetical—that ancient Jewish music made a unique contribution.[6]

Music historian John Stainer notes that the earlier relationship between Abraham and
the Canaanites "in all probability influenced future Hebrew music," and which probably caused
his posterity to carry a certain amount of Assyrian music or musical instruments into Egypt. He
adds that a stay of four centuries "in so civilized a culture as Egypt must have largely added to
their knowledge of the art."[7]:5

[edit]Babylonian exile

The musical traditions of the Temple were rudely broken by the destruction of the First
Temple and the exile of the Jews in Babylon during the 6th century BC. Hindley notes that most
of the psalms seem to have been written in the years after the return of the Jews to Jerusalem.
At this time too the practice of antiphonal singing between the cantor and the congregation
seems to have become common.[2]

The music of ancient Israel represents almost fourteen centuries of change, roughly from 1300
BC to 70 AD, when Titus's siege of Jerusalem took place. Stainer points out the lack of many
artifacts during this period. He concludes that the "sad lack of national monuments relating to
the Jews is not surprising, when it is remembered that Jerusalem stood about seventeen
sieges, each of which was accompanied by more or less destruction, and that, too, at the hands
of victors who seemed to take a malicious delight in effacing the national characteristics of those
they conquered."[7]:9

[edit]Second Temple destruction

However, after the fall of the First Temple, Werner states that the fabric of dreams spun about
its earlier music included reminiscences, visions, and fantasies, as the Rabbis took pains to
eradicate both its choral and instrumental traditions. "Their time had arrived, and their ideas on
liturgy and music were radically different from those of the Temple priests." Werner finds it
paradoxical that modern day rabbis continue to praise the instrumental music of the Temple but
prohibit any and all instrumental music in their synagogues today.[8]:18
The destruction of the Second Temple in 70 AD led to the collapse of the Hebrew nation and the
beginning of the Diaspora (dispersion or exile) of Jews to other lands, such as Spain, Italy, and
the Rhineland. In these places, the synagogue would replace the destroyed Temple, with new
liturgical services, prayers, and rabbinical writings oriented to mourning the loss of both the
Temple and personal freedom.[6]

[edit]Christian period

Fresco of angel playing a lute by Melozzo da Forlì.

Very little is known about primitive Christian music, notes Whitcomb, because like most of the
ancient, it was unwritten. As a result, as songs passed from generation to generation, they grew
very different from the original. However, she notes that "much of this early music derived its
beauty from theGreeks and its holiness from the Hebrews."[9] According to Ulrich, Hebrew music
"was of direct and immediate influence on the musical practices of the early Christian
church."[5] He cites Werner in noting that "the connections between Hebrew and
Christian chant have been scientifically investigated and proved."[8]

The musical art of the Levites, the Temple musicians who were named after their historic
ancestors, was lost by the end of the 1st century. In 70 AD the Second Temple was destroyed
by the troops of the Emperor Titus and in the years following the Levites along with the majority
of Jews fled fromPalestine. As a result, the synagogue music of the Dispersion lost the joyful
character of that of the Temple and the large instrumental forces were dispensed with.[2]
The New Testament was not written until centuries later than the old and the music had attained
much higher development, according to music historian Ida Whitcomb. As it related to Christ, it
is called Christian music. However, there are but few allusions to it in three of the Gospels: in
theGospel of Luke, there are the "Angels' Song," Mary's "Magnificat," and Zacharias's "Song."
In Acts, Paul and Silas sing behind prison-bars: the prison is shaken, the doors fly open, and
they are free. In the Epistles, there are but few references to music, but in Ephesians there is a
"beautiful one," in which Paul exhorts the churches to sing "Psalms" and "spiritual songs." [9]

Hindley adds that antiphonal chants between cantor or priest and the congregation was
originated by the Hebrews' worship methods. At its peak around the beginning of the Christian
era, the elaborate music of the Temple was performed by a large choir of highly trained men
singers, with boys sometimes added, and during this period many instruments also were used
by the Temple orchestra.[2]

Whitcomb adds that many of our noblest Church hymns have been suggested by the Psalms,
which she notes was "the first hymn-book of the Hebrew nation and remains today not only the
[9]
hymn-book of the Hebrew Temple, but also of the Christian Church."

[edit]Musical instruments

Among the earliest pictographic signs found have been of a boat-shaped harp found on
a Sumerian clay tablet dating back to 3000 BC, and an earlier depiction of this harp was also
found in modern southwest Iran dating around 3200 BC.[1]:45

Bar Kochba coinage showing trumpets and a lyre, c. 132 AD

Many relics of musical instruments have been found in Palestine dating from the Hellenistic
age giving details about the state, character, and practice of liturgical music.[8] In other cases,
many musical instruments of the Hebrews mentioned in the Bible are identified by analogy with
similar instruments found in other nearby cultures, such as Egypt and Babylonia. An example of
some instruments mentioned in the bible can be found in Daniel 3:5:
that when you hear the sound of the horn, pipe, lyre, trigon, harp, bagpipe, and every kind of
music...

According to Jewish historian Josephus Flavius, all details of the First Temple, including its
musical instruments, were made and viewed as "symbols of the universe," especially
instruments like the kithara or lyre. In his Antiquities of the Jews, Josephus explains that the
musical instruments, along with other matters of Jewish religion, represent a perishable "image"
of the cosmos, or of "a cosmic Temple."[8]:1

[edit]String instruments

Lockyer notes that according to the Scriptures, Jubal was the father of harpists and organists
(Gen. 4:20-21). He points out that the harp was among the chief instruments and the favorite
ofDavid, and its use is found more than fifty times in the Bible. It was used at both joyful and
mournful ceremonies, and its use was "raised to its highest perfection under David" (1 Sam.
16:23). Lockyer adds that "It was the sweet music of the harp that often dispossessed Saul of
his melancholy (1 Sam. 16:14-23; 18:10-11).[1]:46 When the Jews were captive in Babylon they
hung their harps up and refused to use them while in exile, earlier being part of the instruments
used in the Temple (1 Kgs. 10:12).

Another stringed instrument of the harp class, and one also used by the ancient Greeks, was
the lyre. A similar instrument was the lute, which had a large pear-shaped body, long neck, and
fretted fingerboard with head screws for tuning. Coins displaying musical instruments, Bar
Kochba Revolt coinage, were issued by the Jews during the Second Jewish Revolt against the
Roman Empire of 132-135 AD

Arch of Titus with silver trumpets

In addition to those, there was the psaltery, another stringed instrument which is referred to
almost thirty times in Scripture. According to Josephus, it had twelve strings and was played
with a quill, not with the hand. Another writer suggested that it was like a guitar, but with a flat
triangular form and strung from side to side.[1]:49
[edit]Wind instruments

Among the wind instruments used in the biblical period were

the cornet, dulcimer, flute, horn, organ, pipe, and trumpet.[1]:50

There were also silver trumpets and the double oboe. Werner concludes that from the
measurements taken of the trumpets on the Arch of Titus in Rome and from coins, that "the
trumpets were very high pitched with thin body and shrill sound." He adds that in War of the
Sons of Light Against the Sons of Darkness, a manual for military organization and strategy
discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls, these trumpets "appear clearly capable of regulating
their pitch pretty accurately, as they are supposed to blow rather complicated signals in
unison."[8]:2

Whitcomb writes that the pair of silver trumpets were fashioned according to Mosaic law and
were probably among the trophies which the Emperor Titus brought to Rome when he
conquered Jerusalem. She adds that on the Arch raised to the victorious Titus, "there is a
sculptured relief of these trumpets, showing their ancient form. (see photo)[9]

The flute was commonly used for festal and mourning occasions, according to Whitcomb. "Even
the poorest Hebrew was obliged to employ two flute-players to perform at his wife's funeral."[9]

The shofar (the horn of a ram) is still used for special liturgical purposes such as the Jewish
New Year services in orthodox communities. As such, it is not considered a musical instrument
but an instrument of theological symbolism which has been intentionally kept to its primitive
character. In ancient times it was used for warning of danger, to announce the new moon or
beginning ofSabbath, or to announce the death of a notable. "In its strictly ritual usage it carried
the cries of the multitude to God," writes Werner.[8]:12

[edit]Percussion instruments
Miriam and women celebrate the crossing of the Red Sea; Tomić Psalter, 1360/63

Among the percussion instruments were bells, cymbals, sistrum, tabret, hand drums,
and tambourines. Percussion instruments are those producing tones by being struck in various
ways and have been used by bands and orchestras throughout history.[1]:59

The tabret, or timbrel, was a small hand-drum used for festive occasions, and was considered a
woman's instrument. In modern times it was often used by the Salvation Army. According to the
Bible, when the children of Israel came out of Egypt and crossed the Red Sea, "Miriam took a
[1]
timbrel in her hands; and all the women went out after her with timbrels and with dance."

[edit]Singing

Whitcomb writes that "much of the most beautiful music of the Bible is contained in the Psalms,"
and the word "psalm" comes from the Greek word meaning "to sing or strike the lyre." The
psalter or psaltery was one of the instruments which accompanied the Psalm.[9] The psalms
were sung antiphonally or responsively, perhaps by the priest and congregation, or by two
choruses.

According to Shiloah, most of the customs and ceremonies mentioned earlier, such as
weddings or other celebrations, were accompanied by music made by women and attests to the
importance of women's songs. But there were many instances where women sang alone or with
friends and family. "The woman fortifies her spirit by singing to herself, and perhaps to her
infant, who hears and absorbs the mother's confessions, longings, complaints, and dreams."
There were also "mother-songs, soldier-songs, grass-widow-songs, orphan-songs, and
woman's-trade-songs." According to some, writes Shiloah, women's songs existed because of
the need to compensate for the ban against public participation of women in synagogue
rituals.[10]

Ancient music historian Joachim Braun notes that Philo had mentioned ritualist vigils near
Alexandria, that included a meal and the singing of hymns by a double chorus as
accompaniment to the processions and libations.[11]

[edit]Dance

According to biblical historian Amnon Shiloah, dance was directly associated with music and
was an important aspect of various events, although the actual dance movements are nowhere
described in detail. There is meager evidence about dance when compared with a wider variety
found in Egypt. However, there are many biblical descriptions of occasions that inspired dancing
in biblical times.[10]:209

In the Bible, Mishnah, and Talmud, dance is referred to in various contexts, and in Megido, the
Negev, and other sites in Israel, recently found iconographic remnants show dancing figures. In
Judg. 21:21, a festival is described during which it was customary to dance in the vineyards.
Dancing was also associated with celebrations of military victories and for welcoming home
heroes. In Exod. 15:20, Miriam and the other women burst into song and dance accompanied
by drums to mark the parting of the Red Sea which saved the people of Israel; Jephtah's
daughter danced to meet her father returning from victorious battles (Judg. 11:34); the women
of Israel came out to dance before Saul and David upon their return from fighting the Philistines
(1 Sam. 18:6); the king and his subjects were also inspired to dance when the Ark of the
Covenant was brought up to Jerusalem (2 Sam. Ch. 6).[10]:210

[edit]Musical traditions

[edit]Purposes of music

The Bible mentions many uses of music including songs of praise, songs of victory, songs of
mourning, and above all the Psalms. Dances were also a common music expression along with
the combination of singing with instrumental music. During later times there was also a purely
vocal music which prevailed for a period.[5] According to Ulrich, music played an important part
in both the secular and the religious life of the Hebrews. Kings and other leaders of the people
were customarily acclaimed in songs and fanfares, and very elaborate musical services in the
Temple, described in the Bible, were important parts of worship. There are, for instance,
descriptions in the Bible of an orchestra consisting of nine lutes, two harps, and a cymbal.[5] In
other parts there are accounts of all-women choirs combined with singing and dancing to the
men's percussion accompaniment. Werner adds that the choir's repertoire consisted of psalms,
canticles, and other poetic passages from Scripture, although it may have contained some
noncanonical texts. The choice of psalms is said to have been determined by God's activities on
the first seven days of creation, and the verses which allude to them.[8]:13

Werner writes that "unique in the history of music is the firm belief in the purifying and sin-
atoning power of the Temple's music, ascribed to both chant and instruments."[8] The music had
to be free from blemish or fault, and avoided magical elements. Even the High Priest's garment
had symbolism: (Exod. 28:34-35): "a golden bell and a pomegranate, round about on the skirts
of the robe . . . and its sound shall be heard when he goes into the holy place before the Lord . .
. " According to Philo and Josephus, the bells represented symbols of cosmic harmony.[8]:10
[edit]Music training

According to the text of the Mishna, the early musicians, both singers and instrumentalists, were
strictly trained to be professional musicians with their average training lasting five years. Bible
historian Alfred Sendrey notes a "sudden and unexplained upsurge of
large choirs and orchestras, consisting of thoroughly organized and trained musical groups,
which would be virtually inconceivable without lengthy, methodical preparation." This has led
some scholars to believe that the prophet Samuel was the patriarch of a school which taught not
only prophets and holy men, but also sacred-rite musicians. This public music school, perhaps
the earliest in recorded history, was not restricted to a priestly class—which is how the shepherd
boy David appears on the scene as a minstrel to King Saul." :"[12]

[edit]Types of music

Different types of music were also defined:[5]

 Cantillation. Used when parts of the Bible were read during the service and parts of the text
were sung or chanted.

 Antiphony (also referred to as responsorial singing). Since Hebrew poetry is based on

parallelism (the expression of one thought in two different ways), several types of
performances were possible: either by two separate alternating choruses, or by a soloist
alternating with the chorus. At its peak around the beginning of the Christian era, antiphonal
music was performed by a large choir of highly trained men singers, with boys sometimes
added. According to Hindley, "Antiphony is among the debts owed by Christian music to its
Jewish predecessor."[2]

 Hymn songs. Within the service they were performed by either a soloist, called the cantor,
or by groups. Some of the hymns were freely organized with groups of melodic motives with
their variants connected to create a continuous melodic chant.

 Orchestration. Werner writes that "the sound of the Temple's orchestra consisted of never
less than twelve instruments and rarely exceeded thirty-six." The trumpets were never
mixed with the rest of the orchestra—being used for signals exclusively. One pair of
cymbals were used in Temple rituals also as a signal instrument, "not unlike the gong in the
modern theatre."[8]
[edit]Written notation

Musical notation in the modern sense did not exist during this period. However, the Hebrew
alphabet allows for special symbols to indicate how the music was to be performed. The
alphabet consists of consonants and half-consonants, and vowels are indicated by dots and
dashes above and below letter symbols. In addition to the vowel signs, a number of other signs,
called "masoretic," refers not to single notes but to "melodic particles or groups," writes Ulrich.
These particles were handed down by oral tradition among singers for centuries and were first
codified in the 16th century. Ulrich notes that the "Dead Sea Scrolls contain signs similar to
those in the liturgical script of early Christian sects . . . strengthening the conjecture that a
common musical heritage is shared by the people of related cultures . . ."[5]

[edit]Influence on later music

Music historian William Smoldon notes that despite the fact that instrumental music was not
revived and used in the synagogue after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 AD,
(excluding the symbolic Shofar still used in orthodox communities,) "the chant continued, and of
late years research has made it increasingly clear that many of the forms and even melodic
patterns of theByzantine and Western Christian chants were adaptations from the music of the
synagogues." [13]

He also notes that after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the "one steadfast feature
was the Western Christian Church" which was "respected by the barbarians." He adds that
there seems "little doubt that the worship-music of the early Church, i.e. at such centres
as Jerusalem, Damascus, Antioch and Alexandria, grew from materials . . . of Greek and Syrian
origins, together with the service-chants of the Jewish synagogue."[13]:20

Psalms

The Psalms have been sung through all the ages up to the present. Whitcomb describes the
importance of the Psalms:

"the Crusader has chanted them as he ascended the Hill of Zion; and the victorious
general was welcomed on his return by a hallelujah chorus. The sailor on the dark night
at sea, the shepherd on the lonely plain, the little waif upon the street, have alike been
cheered by the music of the Psalms. They have enlivened the vintage-feast, the
boatman on the Rhine, the soldier by his camp-fire have been softened and the sad
have been cheered by these sweet inspirations to faith, penitence, thanksgiving, and
adoration."[9]
Lockyer writes that Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor and champion of the pope,
requested passages from his favorite psalm, Ps. 90, be read to him as he lay on his
deathbed in September 1558. In that psalm, "Moses contrasts the eternity of God with the
transience of human life, and Moses ends his song with a prayer for God's forgiveness and
favor."(Ps 90:1-6)[1]:21