Power System Stability

Stability: The stability of a system refers to the ability of a system to return back to its steady state
when subjected to a disturbance.

Power System Stability: The power system stability is the property of the system which enables
the synchronous machines of the system to respond to a disturbance from a normal operating
condition so as to return to a condition where their operation is again normal.

The electrical power is generated by synchronous generators that operate in synchronism with the
rest of the system. A generator is synchronized with a bus when both of them have same frequency,
voltage and phase sequence. We can thus define the power system stability as the ability of the
power system to return to steady state without losing synchronism.

Classification of Power System Stability

Depending upon the nature and order of magnitude of the disturbance, power system stabilities are
three types: Transient stability, dynamic stability, and steady-state stability.

Transient Stability: Transient stability involves the study of the power system following a major
disturbance.
Transient stability studies constitute the major analytical approach to the study of power system
electro-dynamical dynamic behavior.
Transient stability studies are aimed at determining if the system will remain in synchronism
following major disturbances such as transmission system faults, sudden load changes, loss of
generating units, or line switching.
Following a large disturbance the alternator (synchronous generator) power (load, or torque) angle
changes due to sudden acceleration/deceleration of the rotor shaft. Thus, the amin objective of the
transient stability study is to ascertain whether or not the load angle returns to a steady value
following the clearance of the disturbance.

Transient Stability problems can be subdivided into

(i) First-swing stability problem: This is based on a reasonably simple generator model without
representation of control systems. Usually the time period under study is the first second following
a system fault. If the machines of the system are found to remain synchronism within the first
second, the system is said to be stable.
(ii) Multiswing stability problem: This stability problems extend over a longer study period and
therefore must consider effects of generator control systems which affect machine performance
during the extended time period.

Dynamic (or small-signal) Stability: The ability of a power system to maintain stability under
continuous small disturbances is investigated under the name of dynamic stability (also known as
small-signal stability). These small disturbances occur due random fluctuations in loads and
generation levels.

Steady-State Stability: Steady state stability studies are restricted to small and gradual changes in
the system operating conditions. In this we basically concentrate on restricting the bus voltages
close to their nominal values. We also ensure that phase angles between two buses are not too large
and check for the overloading of the power equipment and transmission lines.

The dynamic and steady-state stability problems are same in nature. They differ only in the degree
of detail used to model the machines.
In the dynamic stability studies, the excitation system and turbo-governing system are represented
along with synchronous machine models which provide for flux-linkage variation in the machine
air-gap.
In the steady-state stability problems use a vary simple generator model which treats the generator
as a constant voltage source.

In all stability studies, the main objective is to determine whether or not the rotors of the machine
being perturbed return to constant speed operation.

The Swing Equation

The relation between the mechanical angular velocity, ωm(t) (in rad/s), and the mechanical rotor
angular position, θm(t) (in rad), with respect to a stationary axis is given by:
dθ (t )
ω m (t ) = m rad/s
dt

The equation governing rotor motion of a synchronous machine is based on the elementary
principle in dynamics which states that accelerating torque is the product of the moment of inertia
of the rotor times its angular acceleration. In the MKS (meter-kilogram-second) system of units this
equation can be written for the synchronous generator in the form
dω m (t ) d 2θ m (t )
Jα m (t ) = J =J = Tm − Te = Ta N − m
dt dt 2
Where the symbols have the following meaning
J: The total moment of inertia of the rotor mass, in (Kg-m2).
αm: The mechanical rotor angular acceleration (in rad/s2).
Tm : The mechanical or shaft torque supplied by the prime mover less retarding torque due to
rotational loss, in (N-m).
Te: The electrical torque that accounts for the total three-phase electrical power output of the
generator, plus electrical losses, in (N-m).
Ta : The net accelerating torque, in (N-m)
t: Time in seconds (s)

Tm and Te are positive for generator operation. In steady-state, Tm equals Te, the accelerating torque,
Ta, is zero as well as the rotor acceleration, αm, is zero.
When Tm is greater than Te, Ta is positive and αm is therefore positive resulting in increasing rotor
speed.
When Tm is less than Te, Ta is negative and αm is therefore negative resulting in decreasing rotor
speed.

It is convenient to measure the rotor angular position with respect to a synchronously rotating
reference axis instead of a stationary reference axis. Accordingly we define:
θ m (t ) = ωm ,syn + δ m (t )
dθ m (t ) d [ωm , syn + δ m (t )] dδ m (t )
ω m (t ) = = =
dt dt dt
d 2θ m (t ) d 2 δ m (t )
=
dt 2 dt 2
ωm,syn: synchronous angular velocity of the rotor (in rad/s)
δm: The angular position with respect to a synchronously rotating reference axis, (in rad)

Thus the previous equation becomes

 d 2δ m (t )
J = Tm − Te = Ta N−m
dt 2

It is also convenient to work with power rather than torque, and to work in per-unit rather than in
actual units. Accordingly, the previous equation is multiplied by ωm(t) and divided by Srated, the
three-phase voltampere rating of the generator:
Jω m (t ) d 2δ m (t ) ω m (t )Tm ω m (t )Te ω m (t )Ta
= − =
S rated dt 2 S rated S rated S rated
Defining per-unit rotor angular velocity, mechanical power, electrical power and accelerating power
ω (t ) ω (t )Tm ω (t )Te ω (t )Ta
ω pu (t ) = m , Pm, pu = m , Pe , pu = − m , Pa , pu = m
ω m, syn S rated S rated S rated

Jω m , syn d 2δ m (t )
ω pu (t ) = Pm , pu − Pe , pu = Pa , pu
S rated dt 2
Where,
Pm,pu: The mechanical power supplied by the prime mover minus mechanical losses, per-unit
Pe,pu: The electrical power output plus electrical losses, per-unit
Pa,pu: The accelerating power, per-unit

Finally, it is convenient to work with a normalized inertia constant, called the H constant, which is
defined as
Stored kinetic energy at synchronous speed KE
H= =
Generator voltampere rating S rated
(1 / 2) Jω m2 ,syn
H= J/VA or per − unit − second
S rated

The H constant has the advantage that is falls within a fairly narrow range, normally between 1 and
10 pu –s, whereas J varies widely depending on the generator unit size and type.

Using H constant, the previous equation becomes

2H d 2δ m (t )
ω pu (t ) = Pm, pu − Pe , pu = Pa , pu
ω m, syn dt 2

For a synchronous generator with P poles, the electrical angular acceleration α, electrical radian
frequency ω, power angle δ, and the synchronous electrical radian frequency ωsyn are
P P P P
α (t ) = α m (t ) , ω (t ) = ω m (t ) , δ (t ) = δ m (t ) and ω syn (t ) = ω m, syn (t )
2 2 2 2
The per-unit electrical frequency is
ω (t ) ω (t )
ω pu (t ) = m =
ω m , syn ω syn

Thus, the previous equation becomes

2H d 2δ (t )
ω pu (t ) = Pm, pu − Pe, pu = Pa , pu
ω syn dt 2
Frequently the previous equation is modified to also including a term that represents a damping
torque anytime the generator deviates from its synchronous speed, with its value proportional to the
speed deviation
2H d 2δ (t ) D dδ (t )
ω pu (t ) = Pm , pu − Pe, pu − = Pa , pu
ω syn dt 2
ω syn dt
Where D is either zero or a relatively small positive number with typical values between 0 and 2.
The units of D are per-unit power divided by per-unit speed deviation.

The previous equation is called the per-unit swing equation, is the fundamental equation that
determines rotor dynamics in transient stability studies.

In practice the rotor speed does not vary significantly from synchronous speed during transients i.e.
ωpu(t) = 1.0.

The previous equation can be written as

dδ (t )
= ω (t ) − ω syn
dt
2H dω (t ) D dδ (t )
ω pu (t ) = Pm , pu − Pe, pu − = Pa , pu
ω syn dt ω syn dt
The previous two equations are two first-order differential equations.

When the swing equation is solved, the expression of δ is as a function of time. Thus, the curve of δ
as function of time (t) is called swing curve.

Solutions of Swing Equation

d 2δ (t ) ω syn
=
2 Hω pu (t )
(Pm, pu − Pe, pu )
dt 2
ω syn t ω syn
∫( ) ( )
dδ (t )
= Pm, pu − Pe, pu dt = Pm, pu − Pe, pu t
dt 2 Hω pu (t ) 0 2 Hω pu (t )
ω syn
δ (t ) =
4 Hω pu (t )
(Pm, pu − Pe, pu )t 2 + δ 0
Problem 1: A 50 Hz, 4 pole turbo-generator rated 200 MVA, 11 kV has an inertia constant of 6.0
MJ/MVA. (i) Find the stored energy in the rotor at synchronous speed, (ii) If the generator rotates at
synchronous speed and the mechanical input is suddenly raised to 300 MW for an electrical load of
100 MW, find the rotor acceleration neglecting the mechanical and electrical losses. (iii) If the
initial torque angle is 22.5o and the acceleration calculated in part (ii) is maintained for 4 cycles,
find the change in torque angle, and the torque angle at the end of this period.

Solution: f = 50 Hz, P = 4; Srated = Sbase = 200 MVA, H = 6.0 MJ/MVA.

ωsyn = 2πf = 2 × 3.14 × 50 = 314 rad
Stored kinetic energy at synchronous speed KE
(i) H = =
Generator voltampere rating S rated
KE = H × S rated
MJ
KE = 6 × 200 MVA = 1200 MJ
MVA
 300 100 ω(t ) ωsyn
(ii) Pm,pu = = 1.5 ; Pe,pu = = 0.5 ; ω pu (t ) = = =1
200 200 ωsyn ωsyn
d 2 δ (t ) ωsyn
The rotor acceleration: 2
= ( Pm,pu − Pe,pu )
dt 2 Hω pu (t )
d 2 δ (t ) 314
= (1.5 − 1.0) = 13.1
dt 2
2 × 6 ×1

4
Time t = 4 cycle = = 0.08 s
50
dδ (t ) ωsyn
(iii)The change in torque angle: = ( Pm,pu − Pe,pu ) t
dt 2 Hω pu (t )
dδ (t )
= 13.1t = 13.1× 0.8 = 1.048
dt
π × 22.5°
δ (t = 0) = = 0.3925 ≈ 0.4
180°
ωsyn
The torque angle: δ (t ) = ( Pm,pu − Pe,pu ) t 2 + δ (t = 0)
4 Hω pu (t )
13.1
δ (t ) = × (0.08) 2 + 0.4 = 0.442 rad = 25.34°
2

Example 13.1
A three-phase, 60 Hz, 500 MVA, 15 kV, 32 pole hydroelectric generating unit has an H constant of
2.0 pu-s and D =0. (i) Determine ωsyn and ωm,syn. (ii) Give the per-unit swing equation for this unit.
(iii) The unit is initially operating at Pm,pu = Pe,pu = 1.0, ω = ωsyn, ωpu(t)=1.0, and δ=10o when a
three-phase-to-ground bolted short-circuit at the generator terminals causes Pe,pu to drop to zero for t
≥ 0. Determine the power angle 3 cycles after the short-circuit commences. Assume Pm,pu remains
constant at 1.0 pu.

Solution: H = 2.0 pu-s

(i) ωsyn = 2πf = 2 × 3.14 × 60 = 377 rad
2 2
ωm ,syn = ωsyn = × 377 = 23.56 rad
P 32
(ii) The swing equation:
2H d 2 δ (t )
ω pu (t ) = Pm,pu − Pe,pu
ωsyn dt 2
4 d 2 δ (t )
ω pu (t ) = Pm,pu − Pe,pu
377 dt 2
π × 10°
(iii) Pm,pu = 1.0, Pe,pu =0.0, ω = ωsyn, ωpu(t)=1.0, δ (t = 0) = 10° = = 0.1745 rad ,
180°
dδ (t = 0)
= 0 , t = 3 cycles = 3/60 = 0.05 sec
dt
4 d 2 δ (t )
=1
377 dt 2
Integrating twice and using the above initial conditions,

dδ (t ) ⎛ 377 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟t + 0
dt ⎝ 4 ⎠
⎛ 377 ⎞ 2
δ (t ) = ⎜ ⎟t + 0.1745
⎝ 4 ⎠
⎛ 377 ⎞
δ (t = 0.05) = ⎜ ⎟(0.05) + 0.1745 = 0.2923 rad = 16.75°
2

⎝ 4 ⎠

The Swing Equation for Coherent Machine

Machines which are swing together are called coherent machines.
In a stability study for a large system with many machines geographically dispersed over a wide
area it is desirable to minimize the number of swing equations to be solved. This can be done if the
transmission - line fault, or other disturbance on the system, affects the machines within a power
plant so that their rotors swing together. I n such cases the machines with in the plant can be
combined into a single equivalent machine just as if their rotors were mechanically coupled and
only one swing equation must be written for them. Consider a power plant with two generators
connected to the same bus which is electrically remote from the network disturbances. The swing
equations on the common system base are:

2H1 d 2 δ1 (t )
ω1 pu = Pm1,pu − Pe1,pu (16.18)
ωsyn dt 2
2H 2 d 2 δ2 (t )
ω2 pu = Pm 2 ,pu − Pe 2 ,pu (16.19)
ωsyn dt 2

Since they are swing together let ω1 pu = ω2 pu = ω pu , δ1 (t ) = δ 2 (t ) = δ (t )

2H d 2 δ (t )
Adding the equations together: ω pu = Pm,pu − Pe,pu (16.20)
ωsyn dt 2

Where, H = H1 + H2, Pm,pu = (Pm1,pu + Pm2,pu), and Pe,pu = (Pe1,pu + Pe2,pu).

The Swing Equation for Noncoherent Machines

Machines which are not swing together are called noncoherent machines.
From equations (16.18) and (16.19) we can write
2 d 2 δ1 (t ) ⎛ Pm1,pu − Pe1,pu ⎞
ω1 pu = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
ωsyn dt 2 ⎝ H1 ⎠
2 d 2 δ 2 (t ) ⎛ Pm 2 ,pu − Pe 2 ,pu ⎞
ω2 pu = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ let, ω1 pu = ω2 pu = ω pu
ωsyn dt 2 ⎝ H2 ⎠
2ω pu ⎛ d δ1 (t ) d δ 2 (t ) ⎞ ⎛ Pm1,pu − Pe1,pu Pm 2 ,pu − Pe 2 ,pu ⎞
2 2
⎜ − ⎟=⎜ − ⎟⎟
ωsyn ⎜⎝ dt 2 dt 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ H1 H2 ⎠

Multiplying each side by [H1H2/( H1+ H2)] and rearranging, we find that
2ω pu H 1 H 2 d 2 [δ1 (t ) − δ2 (t )] H 1 H 2 ⎛ Pm1,pu − Pe1,pu Pm 2 ,pu − Pe 2 ,pu ⎞
= ⎜ − ⎟⎟
ωsyn H 1 + H 2 dt 2
H 1 + H 2 ⎜⎝ H1 H2 ⎠
 2ω pu H 1 H 2 d 2 [δ1 (t ) − δ 2 (t )] ⎛ Pm1,pu H 2 − Pm 2 ,pu H 1 Pe1,pu H 2 − H 1 Pe 2 ,pu H 1 ⎞
= ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟
ωsyn H 1 + H 2 dt 2 ⎝ H1 + H 2 H1 + H 2 ⎠
H1 H 2 Pm1,pu H 2 − Pm 2 ,pu H 1
Let, δ12 (t ) = δ1 (t ) − δ 2 (t ) , H 12 = , Pm12 ,pu = ,
H1 + H 2 H1 + H 2
Pe1,pu H 2 − H 1 Pe 2 ,pu H 1
Pe12 ,pu = , thus simple form of above equation can be written as:
H1 + H 2
2ω pu d 2 δ12 (t )
H 12 = Pm12 ,pu − Pe12 ,pu (16.23)
ωsyn dt 2

In a two machines system having only one generator (machine one) and a synchronous motor
(machine two) connected by a network of a pure reactances. Whatever changes occurs in the
generator output is thus absorbed by the motor, and we can write
Pm1,pu = − Pm 2 ,pu = Pm,pu
Pe1,pu = − Pe 2 ,pu = Pe,pu
Then, Pm12 ,pu = Pm,pu , Pe12 ,pu = Pe,pu
2ω pu d 2 δ12 (t )
H 12 = Pm,pu − Pe,pu
ωsyn dt 2

Example 13.2
A power plant has two three-phase, 60 Hz generating units with the following ratings:
Unit 1: 500 MVA, 0.85 power factor, 32 poles, H1 = 2.0 pu-s, D1 = 0.
Unit 2: 300 MVA, 0.90 power factor, 16 poles, H2 = 2.5 pu-s, D2 = 0.
Give the per-unit swing equation of each unit on a 100 MVA system base.
If the units are assumed to “swing together,” that is δ1(t) =δ2(t), combine the two swing equations
into one equivalent swing equation.

Solution:
If the per-unit powers on the right-hand side of the swing equation are converter to the system base,
then the H constant on the left-hand side must be converted. That is,
S
H new = H old old pu - s
S new
S 500
H 1new = H 1old 1old = 2.0 × = 10 pu - s
S1new 100
S 300
H 2 new = H 2 old 2 old = 2.5 × = 7.5 pu - s
S 2 new 100
The per-unit swing equations on the system base are then
2 H 1new d 2 δ1 (t ) 2 × 10 d 2 δ1 (t )
ω1 pu = ω1 pu = Pm1,pu − Pe1,pu
ωsyn dt 2 2π × 60 dt 2
2 H 2 new d 2 δ 2 (t ) 2 × 7.5 d 2 δ2 (t )
ω2 pu = ω = Pm 2 ,pu − Pe 2 ,pu
2π × 60
2 pu
ωsyn dt 2 dt 2
Letting
ω1 pu = ω2 pu = ω pu , δ1 (t ) = δ 2 (t ) = δ (t ) , H = H1 + H2 = 10+7.5 =17.5, Pm,pu = (Pm1,pu + Pm2,pu), and
Pe,pu = (Pe1,pu + Pe2,pu)
Adding the equations together:
 2 × 17.5H d 2 δ (t )
ω pu = Pm,pu − Pe,pu
ωsyn dt 2
2 × 17.5 d 2 δ (t ) 35.0 d 2 δ (t )
ω pu = ω = Pm,pu − Pe,pu
2π × 60
pu
dt 2 377 dt 2

Where, H = H1 + H2, Pm,pu = (Pm1,pu + Pm2,pu), and Pe,pu = (Pe1,pu + Pe2,pu).

Power or Load or Torque or Rotor or Internal Machine Angle Equation

Fig. 16.3 schematically represents a generator supplying power through a transmission system to a
receiving-end system at bus (1). The voltage E1′ represents the transient internal voltage of the
generator at bus (1). The voltage E2′ at the receiving-end is regarded here as that of an infinite bus
or as the transient internal voltage of a synchronous motor whose transient reactance is included in
the network.

The bus admittance matrix for the network reduced to two nodes is:
⎡Y Y12 ⎤
Ybus = ⎢ 11 ⎥
⎣Y21 Y22 ⎦

Fig. 16.3 Schematic diagram for stability

studies. Transient reactances associated with E1′
and E2′ are including in the transmission
network.

The power expression at bus (1)

[
S1 = P1 + jQ1 = E1' I 1* = E1' Y11 E1' + Y12 E 2' ]
*
[ ]*
[
= E1' Y11 E1' + E1' Y12 E 2' ]
*

Let, E1' = E1' ∠δ 1 , E 2' = E 2' ∠δ 2 , Y11 = G11 + jB11 , Y12 = Y12 ∠θ12

[ ]
*
[
P1 + jQ1 = E1' ∠δ 1 (G11 + jB11 )( E1' ∠δ 1 ) + E1' ∠δ 1 ( Y12 ∠θ12 )( E 2' ∠δ 2 ) ]
*

2
P1 = E1' G11 + E1' E 2' Y12 cos(δ 1 − δ 2 − θ12 )
2
Q1 = − E1' B11 + E1' E 2' Y12 sin(δ 1 − δ 2 − θ12 )
π
Let, δ = δ 1 − δ 2 , γ = θ12 − , the real power equation can be written as follows:
2
2
P1 = E1' G11 + E1' E 2' Y12 sin(δ − γ )

The above equation may be written more simply as

Pe = Pc + Pmax sin(δ − γ )
2
Pc = E1' G11 , Pmax = E1' E 2' Y12
The above equation is called the
power-angle equation. The
curve of power as function of δ
is called power-angle curve.

When the network is considered

without resistance (i.e. G11 = 0,
γ= 0, Y12=1/X), the power-angle
equation is simply as:
Pe = Pmax sin δ
Where, Pmax = E1' E 2' / X and X
is the transfer reactance between
E1′ and E2′. Power-angle curve

Simplified Synchronous Machine Model

Fig. 13.2 shows a simplified model of a
synchronous machine, called the classical
model, that can be used in the transient stability
studies.
Eg′ is internal voltage behind its direct axis
transient reactance Xd′.
The model is based on the following
assumptions:
1. The machine is operating under balanced Fig. 13.2 Simplified circuit of a synchronous
three-phase positive-sequence conditions. motor.

2. Machine excitation is constant

3. Machine losses, saturation, and saliency are neglected.

The power angle equation of the simplified synchronous machine model is

E g' Vt E g' Vt
Pe = sin δ = Pmax sin δ , where, Pmax =
X d' X d'
δ is called phase angle, or rotor angle, or power angle, or torque angle, or load angle, or internal
machine angle.

System Equivalent
In transient stability programs, more detailed models can be used to represent exciters, losses,
saturation, and saliency. However, the simplified model reduces model complexity while
maintaining reasonable accuracy in stability calculations.
Each generator in the model is connected to a system consisting of transmission lines, transformers,
loads, and other machines.
To a first approximation the system can be
represented by an “infinite bus” behind a
system reactance. An infinite bus is an ideal
voltage source that maintains constant
voltage magnitude, constant phase and
constant frequency.
Fig. 13.3 shows a synchronous generator
connected to a system equivalent.
The phase angle δ of the internal machine
voltage is the machine power angle with
respect to the infinite bus.
The current of system equivalent circuit is
E g' e jδ − Vbus
Fig. 13.3 System equivalent circuit.
I=
jX eq
where, X eq = X d' + X

And the complex power delivered by the generator is

E g' e − jδ − Vbus Vbus E g' (cos δ − j sin δ ) − V 2
* bus
S = Pe + jQe = Vbus I = Vbus =
− jX eq − jX eq

jVbus E g' (cos δ − j sin δ ) − jV 2

bus
Pe + jQe =
X eq

Vbus E g' sin δ Vbus E g' cos δ − V 2

bus
Pe + jQe = + j
X eq X eq

Vbus E g' sin δ Vbus E g' cos δ − V 2

bus
Pe = ; Qe =
X eq X eq
The power angle equation of the simplified synchronous machine model is
E g' Vbus
Pe = Pmax sin δ where, Pmax =
X eq

Example 13.3 Figure 13.3 shows a single-line diagram of a three-phase, 60-Hz synchronous
generator, connected through a transformer and parallel transmission lines to an infinite bus. All
reactances are given in per-unit on a common system base. If the infinite bus receives 1.0 per unit
real power at 0.95 pf lagging, determine (i) the internal voltage of the generator and (ii) the equation
for the electrical power delivered by the generator versus its power angle, δ.

Figure 13.3 Single-line

diagram for Example 13.3

Solution:
(i) The equivalent circuit shown in
Figure 13.5 from which the equivalent
reactance between the machine internal
voltage and infinite bus is
X eq = X d' + X TR + X 12 //( X 13 + X 23 )
X eq = 0.3 + 0.1 + 0.2 //(0.1 + 0.2)
X eq = 0.52 pu
The current into the infinite bus is
P
I= ∠ cos −1 ( pf ) Figure 13.4 Equivalent circuit for Example 13.3
Vbus × pf
1.0
I= ∠ cos −1 (0.95) = 1.05263∠ − 18.195° pu
1.0 × 0.95
And the machine internal voltage is
E ' = Vbus + jX eq I = 1.0∠0° + ( j 0.52)(1.05263∠ − 18.195°) = 1.1709 + j 0.52 = 1.2812∠23.96°
(ii) The equation power is
Vbus E g'
(1.0)(1.2812)
Pe = sin δ = sin δ = 2.4638 sin δ pu
X eq 0.52

Equal-Area Criterion
Equal-Area Criterion is a technique by which the stability of a single machine connected to a
infinite bus can be examined under transient condition without solving swing equation.
The objective of equal area criteria is to try to determine whether a system is stable or not without
having to completely integrate the system response.

Equal-area criterion is suitable only for single machine system that means it is not suitable for
multimachine system.

This method cannot determine the system’s stability where multi-machine is present. This method is
only applicable for single machine system.
Consider a synchronous generation unit connected through a reactance to an infinite bus. The power
angle curve is shown in Fig. 13.6.

Initially operating in steady-state at Pe = Pm0 and δ.=δ0.

Let, the step change of mechanical power Pm is occurred from Pm0 to Pm1 at t=0.
Due to the rotor inertia, the rotor position cannot changed instantaneously, thus the electric power
Pe is also cannot change instantaneously.

Since initially Pm>Pe, the rotor accelerates and load angle δ increases.
When δ reaches δ1, Pm=Pe and (d2δ/dt2) becomes zero. However, dδ/dt is still positive and δ
continue to increase, overshooting its final steady-state operating point at δ = δ2.
Since now δ (greater than δ and less than or equal δ2) greater than δ1, Pm is less than Pe, the rotor
decelerates, and δ swings back toward δ1.
Damping due to mechanical and electrical losses causes δ to stabilize at its final steady-state
operating point δ1.
If the power angle exceeded δlimit=δ3, then Pm would exceed Pe and the rotor would accelerate
again, causing a further increase in δ and loss of stability.

In Fig. 13.6, Pm is greater

than Pe, during the interval
δ0<δ<δ1, and the rotor is
accelerateing. The shaded
area A1 is called the
accelerating area.
During the interval δ1<δ<δ2,
Pm is less than Pe, and the
rotor is decelerateing. The
shaded area A2 is called the
decelerating area.
At both initial value δ=δ0,
and the maximum value δ=δ2,
dδ/dt = 0. The equal-area
criterion states that A1= A2.

Fig. 13.6 Pe and Pm versus δ.

Derive the Equal-Area Criterion Using Swing Equation

To derive the equal-area criterion for one machine connected to an infinite bus, assume ωpu(t) = 1 in
swing equation. Thus swing equation becomes:
2 H d 2δ (t )
= Pm, pu − Pe, pu (13.3.1)
ω syn dt 2
Multiplying by dδ/dt in both sides, Eq. (13.3.1) becomes
2 H dδ d 2δ (t ) dδ
ω syn dt dt 2
(
= Pm, pu − Pe, pu )
dt
H ⎡ dδ d 2δ (t ) ⎤ dδ
⎢2 2 ⎥
ω syn ⎣ dt dt ⎦
(
= Pm, pu − Pe, pu
dt
)

2
H d ⎡ dδ ⎤ dδ
⎢ ⎥
ω syn dt ⎣ dt ⎦
( )
= Pm, pu − Pe, pu
dt
2
d ⎡ dδ ⎤ ⎡ dδ d 2δ (t ) ⎤
Q ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢2 2 ⎥
dt ⎣ dt ⎦ ⎣ dt dt ⎦
2
H d ⎡ dδ ⎤ dδ
⎢
ω syn ⎣ ⎦
dt dt ⎥ (
= Pm, pu − Pe, pu)dt
(13.3.2)

Multiplying Eq. (13.3.2) by dt and integrating from δ0 to δ,

δ ⎡ dδ ⎤ 2 δ
∫ ( )
H
∫ d⎢ ⎥ =
ω syn δ 0 ⎣ dt ⎦ δ0
Pm, pu − Pe, pu dδ
 2
δ
δ
∫δ 0 (Pm, pu − Pe, pu )dδ
H ⎡ dδ ⎤
Or = (13.3.3)
ω syn ⎢⎣ dt ⎥⎦
δ0
Since, at both δ=δ0 and δ=δ2, dδ/dt = 0, the left side of Eq. (13.3.3) equals zero and
δ
∫ (
δ0
Pm, pu − Pe, pu dδ = 0 ) (13.3.4)

Separating this integral into positive (accelerating) and negative (decelerating) areas. We arrive at
the equal-area criterion
δ1 δ2
∫ (
δ0
Pm, pu − Pe, pu dδ + )
δ1 ∫ (
Pm, pu − Pe, pu dδ = 0 )
or
δ1 δ2
∫ (
δ0
Pm, pu − Pe, pu dδ =
1444424444
)
δ1 ∫ (
Pe, pu − Pm, pu dδ
3 14444244443
) (13.3.5)

A1 A2
In practice, sudden change in mechanical power usually do not occur, since the time constants
associated with prime-mover dynamics are on the order of seconds. However, stability phenomena
similar to that described above can also occur from sudden changes in electrical power, due to
system faults and line switching.

Transient Stability in a Single (or One) - Machine Infinite Bus System

The following figure shows the one-line diagram and equivalent circuit of a single-machine Infinite
bus (SMIB) system at steady state condition. In this situation the mechanical, Pm, equals electrical
power, Pe. The electrical power is given by:
Vbus E g'
Pe = sin δ where, X 1 = X s + X L1 // X L 2
X1

Before fault at steady state condition

When fault is occurred at line 2 the terminal of alternator is short-circuited as shown in the
following figure. In this situation, the electrical power becomes zero (i.e. Pe=0). Thus, the
mechanical power, Pm, is greater that the electrical power, Pe. Therefore, the machine accelerates
and the load angle, δ, is increased from its initial value.
 After fault

When fault is cleared as shown in the following figure, the electrical power equation is given as:
Vbus E g'
Pe = sin δ where, X 2 = X s + X L1 > X 1
X2

After clearing fault

The electric power, Pe, becomes greater than the mechanical power, Pm. The machine is decelerates
but the rate of change of load angle is positive so the load angle, δ, still increases and reaches to it’s
a maximum value when the momentum gained during the fault is exhausted.
Since Pe>Pm the load angle, δ, decreases.
The load angle,δ, is oscillates around δ1, until damping and electrical losses settle its to a steady
state value. Finally, the load angle,δ, reaches to a final value which depends on the loss of electrical
machine and the damping of mechanical system.

Power versus load angle curve in different Direction of changing of load angle in
situations different situations
Example 13.4
The synchronous generator shown in Figure 13.4 is initially operating in the steady-state condition
given in Example 13.3, when a temporary three-phase-to-ground bolted short-circuit occurs on line
1-3 at bus 1, shown as point F in Figure 13.4. Three cycles later the fault extinguishes by itself. Due
to a relay misoperation, all circuit breakers remain closed. Determine whether stability is or is not
maintained and determine the maximum power angle. The inertia constant of the generating unit is
3 pu-sec on the system base. Assume Pm remains constant through out the disturbance. Also assume
ωpu(t) = 1.0 in the swing equation.

Solution: Plots of Pe and Pm versus δ are

shown in Figure 13.7. From Example 13.3
the initial operating point is Pe(t)=Pm=1.0 pu
and δ (0)= δ0=23.95o= 0.4179 radian.
At t=0, when the short-circuit fault occurs,
Pe instantaneously drops to zero and
remains at zero during the fault since power
cannot be transferred past faulted bus 1.
From swing equation with ωpu(t) = 1.0:
2 H d 2δ (t )
= Pm, pu 0 ≤ t ≤ 0.05 s
ω syn dt 2
Figure 13.7 Power versus angle curve for Example
13.4
Integrating twice with initial condition δ (0)= δ0=23.95 = 0.4179 radian and dδ (0)/dt=0.
o

dδ (t ) ω syn Pm, pu
= t
dt 2H
ω syn Pm, pu 2
δ (t ) = t + δ0
4H
At t=3 cycles = 0.05 seconds
2 × π × 60 × 1.0
δ1 = (0.05) 2 + 0.4179 = 0.4964 radian = 28.44°
4×3
The accelerating area A1, Shaded in Figure 13.7 is

δ1 δ
∫δ 0 (Pm, pu − Pe, pu )dδ = ∫δ 0 (1.0)dδ = (δ1 − δ 0 ) = 0.4964 − 0.4179 = 0.0785
1
A1 =

At t = 0.05 s the fault extinguishes and Pe instantaneously increases from zero to the sinusoidal
curve in Figure 13.7. δ continue to increase until the decelerating area A2 equals A1. That is,
δ2 δ2
A1 =
∫ (
δ1
)
Pmax sin δ − Pm, pu dδ =
∫
0.4964
(2.4648 sin δ − 1)dδ = A1 = 0.0785
Integrating, 2.4648[cos(0.4964) − cos δ 2 ] − (δ 2 − 0.4964) = 0.0785
2.4648δ 2 + δ 2 = 2.5843
The above nonlinear algebraic equation can be solved iteratively to obtain
δ 2 = 0.7003 radian = 40.12°

Since the maximum angle δ2 does not exceed δ3=180o-δ0=156.05o=2.7236, stability is maintained.
In steady-state, the generator returns to its initial operating point Pess=Pm=1.0 pu and δss=δ0=23.95o.
Critical Clearing Angle and Critical Clearing Time
There is a critical angle for clearing the fault in order to marginally satsfy the requirement of the
equal area criterion for stability. This angle is called Critical Clearing Angle (δc, δcr).
The corresponding critical time for removing the fault is called the Critical Clearing Time (tc, tcr).
Let, initially the mechanical power Pm
equals electrical power Pe at an initial load
angle δ0. When fault is occurred the
electrical power becomes zero (i.e. Pe = 0)
and during the fault the electrical power
kept zero. When fault is cleared at load
angle δ=δcr, the electrical power is Pe =
Pmaxsinδ.
During the fault, the accelerating area is
obtain as follows:
δ cr
A1 =
∫ (
δ0
Pm, pu − Pe, pu dδ)
δ cr δ
=
∫δ 0 Pm dδ = [Pm ] cr
δ0
= Pmδ cr − Pmδ 0
After clearing the fault, the decelerating area is obtained as follows:
δ max δ max
A2 =
∫ (
Pe, pu − Pm, pu dδ =) ∫ (Pmax sin δ − Pm )dδ
δ cr δ cr
δ max δ max
A2 = Pmax
∫
δ cr
sin δdδ −
∫
δ cr
Pm dδ

δ δ
A2 = − Pmax [cos δ ] max − [Pm ] max = − Pmδ max + Pmδ cr − Pmax cos δ max + Pmax cos δ cr
δ cr δ cr
A1 = A2

Pmδ cr − Pmδ 0 = − Pmδ max + Pmδ cr − Pmax cos δ max + Pmax cos δ cr
− Pmδ 0 = − Pmδ max − Pmax cos δ max + Pmax cos δ cr
Pmax cos δ cr = − Pmδ 0 + Pmδ max + Pmax cos δ max
Pmax cos δ cr = Pm (δ max − δ 0 ) + Pmax cos δ max
P
cos δ cr = m (δ max − δ 0 ) + cos δ max
Pmax
δ max = π − δ 0
P
cos δ cr = m (π − δ 0 − δ 0 ) + cos(π − δ 0 )
Pmax
⎡ P ⎤
δ cr = cos −1 ⎢ m (π − δ 0 − δ 0 ) + cos(π − δ 0 )⎥
⎣ Pmax ⎦
Initially, Pm = Pmax sin δ 0 thus
⎡P sin δ 0 ⎤
δ cr = cos −1 ⎢ max (π − δ 0 − δ 0 ) + cos(π − δ 0 )⎥
⎣ Pmax ⎦
−
δ cr = cos [(π − 2δ 0 ) sin δ 0 − cos δ 0 ]
1
Equal-area criterion applied to fault clearing when power is
transmitted during the fault

Fig. 16.11 Equal-area criterion

applied to fault clearing when
power is transimitted during the
fault. Areas A1 and A2 are equal.

The electrical power at steady-state condition is: Pe = Pmax sin δ

The electrical power during the fault is: Pe = r1Pmax sin δ
The electrical power after clearing the fault is: Pe = r2 Pmax sin δ

δ cr δ
∫δ 0 (Pm, pu − Pe, pu )dδ = ∫δ 0 (Pm − r1Pmax sin δ )dδ
cr
A1 =

δ cr δ cr
A1 =
∫δ 0 Pm dδ − r1Pmax
∫δ 0 sin δdδ

δ δ
A1 = [Pm ] cr + r1Pmax [cos δ ] cr = Pmδ cr − Pmδ 0 + r1Pmax cos δ cr − r1Pmax cos δ 0
δ0 δ0

δ max δ max
A2 =
∫δ cr (Pe, pu − Pm, pu )dδ = ∫ (r2 Pmax sin δ − Pm )dδ
δ cr
δ max δ max
A2 = r2 Pmax
∫δ cr sin δdδ −
∫δ cr Pm dδ

δ δ
A2 = − r2 Pmax [cos δ ] max − [Pm ] max
δ cr δ 0cr
= − Pmδ max + Pmδ cr − r2 Pmax cos δ max + r2 Pmax cos δ cr
A1 = A2
Pmδ cr − Pmδ 0 + r1Pmax cos δ cr − r1Pmax cos δ 0
= − Pmδ max + Pmδ cr − r2 Pmax cos δ max + r2 Pmax cos δ cr
− Pmδ 0 + r1Pmax cos δ cr − r1Pmax cos δ 0 = − Pmδ max lim − r2 Pmax cos δ max + r2 Pmax cos δ cr
r2 Pmax cos δ cr − r1Pmax cos δ cr = − Pmδ 0 − r1Pmax cos δ 0 + Pmδ max + r2 Pmax cos δ max
(r2 Pmax − r1Pmax ) cos δ cr = Pm (δ max − δ 0 ) + r2 Pmax cos δ max − r1Pmax cos δ 0
P (δ − δ 0 ) + r2 Pmax cos δ max − r1Pmax cos δ 0
cos δ cr = m max
(r2 Pmax − r1Pmax )
(P / P )(δ − δ 0 ) + r2 cos δ max − r1 cos δ 0
cos δ cr = m max max
r2 − r1
δ max = π − δ 0
 ( Pm / Pmax )(π − δ 0 − δ 0 ) + r2 cos(π − δ 0 ) − r1 cos δ 0
cos δ cr =
r2 − r1
(P / P )(π − 2δ 0 ) − r2 cos δ 0 − r1 cos δ 0
cos δ cr = m max
r2 − r1
(P / P )(π − 2δ 0 ) − (r2 + r1 ) cos δ 0
cos δ cr = m max
r2 − r1
Initially, Pm = Pmax sin δ 0 thus
(π − 2δ 0 ) sin δ 0 − (r2 + r1 ) cos δ 0
cos δ cr =
r2 − r1

Critical Clearing Time

The swing equation is
2H d 2δ (t )
ω pu (t ) = Pm, pu − Pe, pu
ω syn dt 2
d 2δ (t ) ω syn
2
=
2 Hω pu (t )
(
Pm, pu − Pe, pu )
dt
ω syn t ω syn
∫( ) ( )
dδ (t )
= Pm, pu − Pe, pu dt = Pm, pu − Pe, pu t
dt 2 Hω pu (t ) 0 2 Hω pu (t )
ω syn
δ (t ) =
4 Hω pu (t )
(Pm, pu − Pe, pu )t 2 + δ 0
At critical angle, δ (t ) = δ cr ; Pe, pu = 0; t = t cr
ω syn 2 +δ
δ cr = Pm, pu t cr 0
4 Hω pu (t cr )

2 = 4 Hω pu (t cr )
t cr (δ cr − δ 0 )
ω syn Pm, pu
4 Hω pu (t cr )
t cr = (δ cr − δ 0 )
ω syn Pm, pu

Example 13.5
The synchronous generator shown in Figure 13.4 is initially operating in the steady-state condition
given in Example 13.3, when a temporary three-phase-to-ground bolted short-circuit occurs on line
1-3 at bus 1, shown as point F in Figure 13.4. The short circuit lasts longer than 3 cysles calculate
(i) the critial clearing angle and (ii) critical clearing time. The inertia constant of the generating unit
is 3 pu-sec on the system base. Assume Pm remains constant through out the disturbance. Also
assume ωpu(t) = 1.0 in the swing equation.
Solution: At the critical clearing angle, denoted δcr, the fault is extingushed. The power angle then
increases to a maximum value δmax=π-δ0
=156.05o
=2.7236 radians, which gives the maximum decelerating area. Equating the accelerating and
decelerating areas:
 δ cr δ max δ max
A1 =
∫δ 0 Pm dδ = A2 =
∫δ cr (Pe − Pm )dδ =
∫δ cr (Pmax sin δ − Pm )dδ
δ cr δ max
∫0.4179 (1.0)dδ =
∫δ cr (2.4638 sin δ − 1.0)dδ

Fig. 13.8 Power angle curve for Example 13.5

Solving for δcr:

(δ cr − 0.4179) = 2.4638[cos δ cr − cos(2.7236)] − (2.7236 − δ cr )
2.4638 cos δ cr = 0.05402
δ cr = cos −1 (0.05402 / 2.4638) = 1.5489 radians = 88.74°
Or
Pm 1 .0
cos δ cr = (δ max − δ 0 ) + cos δ max = (2.7236 − 0.4179) + cos(2.7236)
Pmax 2.4638
cos δ cr = 0.02193
δ cr = cos −1 (0.02193) = 1.5489 radians = 88.74°
Or
δ cr = cos −1[(π − 2δ 0 ) sin δ 0 − cos δ 0 ] = cos −1[(π − 2 × 0.4179) sin(0.4179) − cos(0.4179)]
δ cr = 1.5489 radians = 88.74°

4 Hω pu (t cr ) 4 × 3 ×1
t cr = (δ cr − δ 0 ) = (1.5489 − 0.4179)
ω syn Pm, pu (2 × π × 60) × 1.0
t cr = 0.1897 sec = 11.38 cycles

If the fault is cleared before t=tcr=11.38 cycles, stability is maintained. Otherwise, the generator
goes out of synchronism with the infinite bus; that is, stability is lost.

Example: A 60 Hz generator having H=6.0 MJ/MVA is delivering power of 1.0 p.u to an infinite
bus through a purely reactive network when the occurrence of three phase fault reduces the
generator output power to zero. The maximum power that could be delivered is 2.5 p.u. When the
fault is cleared, the original network condition again exists. Find the critical clearing angle and
critical clearing time.
Solution: Under normal condition, Pm=Pe=1.0; Pmax=2.5
We know that, Pe = Pmax sin δ 0
2.5 sin δ 0 = 1
δ 0 = 0.4115 radian = 23.58°
δ cr = cos −1[(π − 2δ 0 ) sin δ 0 − cos δ 0 ] = cos −1[(π − 2 × 0.4115) sin(0.4115) − cos(0.4115)]
δ cr = 1.5598 radians = 89.37°
Assume ωpu(t) = 1.0 in the swing equation.
4 Hω pu (t cr ) 4 × 6 ×1
t cr = (δ cr − δ 0 ) = (1.5598 − 0.4115)
ω syn Pm, pu (2 × π × 60) × 1.0
t cr = 0.27 sec = 16.2 cycles

Problem: If a 50 Hz generator having H=10.0 MJ/MVA is delivering power of 1.0 p.u to an infinite
bus through a purely reactive network when the occurrence of three phase fault reduces the
generator output power to zero. The maximum power that could be delivered is 3 p.u. When the
fault is cleared, the original network condition again exists. Find the critical clearing angle and
critical clearing time.

Example 13.6
Figure 13.3 shows a single-line diagram of a three-phase, 60-Hz synchronous generator, connected
through a transformer and parallel transmission lines to an infinite bus. All reactances are given in
per-unit on a common system base. At steady-state the infinite bus receives 1.0 per unit real power
at 0.95 pf lagging. (The synchronous generator in Fig. 13.3 is initially operating in the steady-state
condition given in Example 13.3). A permanent three-phase-to-ground bolted short-circuit occurs
on line 1-3 at bus 3. The fault is cleared by opening the circuit breakers at the ends of line 1-3 and
line 2-3. These circuit breakers then remain open. Calculate the critical clearing angle. As in
previous examples, H = 3.0 pu-s, Pm= 1.0 pu and ωpu(t) = 1.0 in the swing equation.
Solution:

Figure 13.3 Single-line diagram for Example 13.6

 Figure 13.4 Equivalent circuit for Example 13.3

Fig. 13.9 (a) Faulted network

Fig. 13.9 (b) Thevenin equivalent of faulted

network
Fig. 13.9 (c) Postfault condition

Fig. 13.9 (d) Power angle curve

Fig. 13.9

From Example 13.3, E ' = 1.2812∠23.96° and the equation for the prefault electrical power,
denoted Pe1 here, Pe1=2.4638sinδ pu. The faulted network is shown in Fig. 13.9 (a), and the
Thevenin equivalent of the faulted network, as viewed from the generator internal voltage source, is
shown in Fig. 13.9 (b). The Thevenin equivalent reactance is
X Th = 0.4 + 0.2 // 0.2 = 0.4666 pu
And the Thevenin voltage source is
 ⎡ X 13 ⎤ ⎡ 0 .1 ⎤
VTh = 1.0∠0°⎢ ⎥ = 1.0∠0°⎢ ⎥ = 0.3333333∠0° pu
⎣ X 13 + X 12 ⎦ ⎣ 0 .3 ⎦
From Fig. 13.9 (b), the equation for the electrical power delivered by the generator to the infinite
bus during the fault, denoted by Pe2, is
E 'VTh 1.2812 × 0.3333
Pe2 = sin δ = sin δ = 0.9152 sin δ pu
X Th 0.46666
The postfault network is shown in Fig. 13.9(c), where circuit breakers have opened and removed
lines 1-3 and 2-3. From this figure, the equivalent reactnce Xeq3=0.4+0.2=0.6, and the postfault
electrical power delivered, denoted by Pe3, is
E 'VTh 1.2812 × 1.0
Pe3 = sin δ = sin δ = 2.1353 sin δ pu
X eq3 0.6
The power angle curve as well as the accelerating area A1 and decelerating area A2 corresponding to
critical clearing are shown in Fig. 13.9(d). Equating A1 and A2:

δ cr δ max
A1 =
∫δ 0 (Pm − Pe2 )dδ = A2 =
∫δ cr (Pe3 − Pm )dδ
δ cr δ max
∫δ 0 (Pm − Pmax 2 sin δ )dδ =
∫δ cr (Pmax 3 sin δ − Pm )dδ
δ cr 2.7236
∫0.4179 (1.0 − 0.9152 sin δ )dδ =
∫
δ cr
(2.1353 sin δ − Pm )dδ
Solving for δcr:
(δ cr − 0.4179) + 0.9152(cos δ cr − cos 0.4179)
= 2.1353(cos δ cr − cos 2.7236) − (2.7236 − δ cr )
δ cr − 0.4179 + 0.9152 cos δ cr − 0.9152 cos 0.4179
= 2.1353 cos δ cr − 2.1353 cos 2.7236 − 2.7236 + δ cr
0.9152 cos δ cr − 2.1353 cos δ cr
= 0.9152 cos 0.4179 + 0.4179 − 2.1353 cos 2.7236 − 2.7236
− 1.2163 cos δ cr = 0.4822
cos δ cr = −0.4822 / 1.2163 = −0.39645
δ cr = −0.4822 / 1.2163 = π − cos −1 (0.39645)
δ cr = 1.97845 radians = 113.35°

OR,
At steady State condition: Pe1=2.4638sinδ Pe1 = 2.4638 sin δ = Pmax sin δ pu thus Pmax = 2.4638
During fault: Pe2 = 0.9152 sin δ = r1Pmax sin δ pu thus r1Pmax = 0.9152 ;
r1 = 0.9152 / Pmax = 0.9152 / 2.4638 = 0.3715
At postfault: Pe3 = 2.1353 sin δ = r 2 Pmax sin δ pu thus r 2 Pmax = 2.1353 ;
r 2 = 2.1353 / Pmax = 0.9152 / 2.4638 = 0.8666
(P / P )(δ − δ 0 ) + r2 cos δ max − r1 cos δ 0
cos δ cr = m max max
r2 − r1
(1.0 / 2.4638)(2.7236 − 0.4179) + (0.866) cos(2.7236) − (0.3715) cos(0.4179)
cos δ cr =
0.8666 − 0.3715
cos δ cr = −0.39414
δ cr = π − cos −1 (0.39414)
δ cr = 1.976 radians = 113.35°

OR,
(π − 2δ 0 ) sin δ 0 − (r2 + r1 ) cos δ 0
cos δ cr =
r2 − r1
(3.1416 − 2 × 0.4179) sin(0.4179) − (0.8666 + 0.3715) cos(0.4179)
cos δ cr =
0.8666 − 0.3715
0.936 − 1.1310 − 0.195
cos δ cr = = = −0.39433
0.8666 − 0.3715 0.4945
δ cr = π − cos −1 (0.39433)
δ cr = 1.976 radians = 113.35°
If the fault is cleared before δ = δ cr = 1.976 radians = 113.35° , stability is maintained. Otherwise,
stability is lost.

Example 14.3
The single-line diagram of Fig. 14.4 shows
a 60 Hz generator connected through
parallel transmission lines to a large
metropolitan system considered as an
infinite bus. The machine is delivering 1.0
pu power and both the terminal voltage and
the infinite bus voltage are 1.0 pu. Numbers
on the diagram indicate the values of the Fig. 14.4 One-line diagram for Example 14.3 and
reactances on a common system base. 14.4. Point P is at the center of the line.
The transient reactance of the generator is 0.2 pu as indicated. Determine the power-angle equation
and swing equation for the given system operating condition. Take H= 5 MJ/MVA and ωpu(t) = 1.0
in the swing equation.

Solution:
 Fig. 14.5 Reactance diagram (a) for prefault network and (b) and (c) for the faulted network, (d)
Thevenin equivalent of faulted network.

The reactance diagram for the system is shown in Fig.14.5. The series reactance between the
terminal voltage and the infinite bus is
X eq1 = 0.1 + 0.4 // 0.4 = 0.3 pu
And therefore the 1.0 pu power output of the generator is determined by:

Vt Vbus 1.0 × 1.0

Pe = sin δ = sin δ = 1.0 pu
X eq1 0.3
δ = sin − 1(0.3) = 17.458°
So that the terminal voltage is
Vt = 1.0∠17.458° = 0.954 + j 0.3 pu

V − Vbus 0.954 + j 0.3 − 1.0

I= t = = 1.0 + j 0.1535 = 1.012∠8.729° pu
j 0.3 j 0.3
The transient internal voltage is then found to be
E ' = Vt + ( j 0.2) I = (0.954 + j 0.3) + ( j 0.2)(1.0 + j 0.1535) = 0.923 − j 0.5 = 1.05∠28.44° pu
The power angle equation related the transient internal voltage and the infinite-bus voltage is
determined by the total series reactance:
X eq 2 = 0.2 + 0.1 + 0.4 // 0.4 = 0.5 pu
Hence, the power-angle equation is
E ' Vbus 1.05 × 1.0
Pe = sin δ = sin δ = 2.1sin δ pu
X eq1 0.3
The swing equation is:
 2H d 2δ (t )
ω pu (t ) = Pm, pu − Pe, pu
ω syn dt 2
2 × 5 d 2δ (t )
= 1.0 − 2.1sin δ
ω syn dt 2
10 d 2δ (t )
= 1.0 − 2.1sin δ
ω syn dt 2

Example 14.4 The system of Example 14.3 is operating under the indicated conditions when when
a three-phase fault occurs at point P of Fig. 14.4. Determine the power-angle equation for the
system with for the system with the fault on and the corresponding swing equation. Take H= 5
MJ/MVA and ωpu(t) = 1.0 in the swing equation.

Solution:
The faulted network is shown in Fig. 14.5 (b), and the Thevenin equivalent of the faulted network,
as viewed from the generator internal voltage source, is shown in Fig. 14.5 (d). The Thevenin
equivalent reactance is
0.4 × 0.2
X Th = 0.3 + 0.4 // 0.2 = 0.3 + = 0.43333 pu
0.4 + 0.2
And the Thevenin voltage source is
⎡ 0.2 ⎤ ⎡ 0.2 ⎤
VTh = 1.0∠0°⎢ ⎥ = 1.0∠0°⎢ ⎥ = 0.3333∠0° pu
⎣ 0.2 + 0.4 ⎦ ⎣ 0.6 ⎦
From Fig. 13.9 (b), the equation for the electrical power delivered by the generator to the infinite
bus during the fault, denoted by Pe2, is
E ' VTh 1.05 × 0.3333
Pe = sin δ = sin δ = 0.808 sin δ pu
X Th 0.43333

The swing equation is:

2H d 2δ (t )
ω pu (t ) = Pm, pu − Pe, pu
ω syn dt 2
2
2 × 5 d δ (t )
= 1.0 − 0.808 sin δ
ω syn dt 2
10 d 2δ (t )
= 1.0 − 0.808 sin δ
ω syn dt 2

Example 14.5 The fault on the system of Example 14.4 is cleared by simultaneous opening of the
circuit breakers at each end of the affected line. Determine the power-angle equation and the swing
equation for the postfault period.
Solution:
The postfault network is shown in Fig. 14.5.1,
where circuit breakers have opened the faulted
line. From this figure, the equivalent reactnce
Xeq3=0.3+0.4=0.7, and the postfault electrical
power delivered, denoted by Pe3, is
E ' VTh
Pe3 = sin δ
X eq3
1.05 × 1.0
Pe3 = sin δ
0.7
Pe3 = 1.5 sin δ pu Fig. 14.5.1 Postfault network

The swing equation is:

2H d 2δ (t )
ω pu (t ) = Pm, pu − Pe, pu
ω syn dt 2
2
2 × 5 d δ (t )
= 1.0 − 1.5 sin δ
ω syn dt 2
10 d 2δ (t )
= 1.0 − 1.5 sin δ
ω syn dt 2

Example 14.7 Calculate the critical clearing angle and the critical clearing time for the system of
Fig. 14.8 when the system is subjected to a three-phase fault at point P on the short transmission
line. The initial conditions are the same as those in Example 14.3, and H= 5 MJ/MVA and ωpu(t) =
1.0 in the swing equation.

Solution:
In Example 14.3 the power-angle equation
and initial rotor angle are
Pe = Pmax sin δ = 2.1sin δ pu
δ = 28.44° = 0.496 radians

Mechanical power Pm = 1.0 pu.

Fig. 14.8 One-line diagram of the system of Fig. 14.4

We know with the additional of a short transmission line.
δ cr = cos −1[(π − 2δ 0 ) sin δ 0 − cos δ 0 ] = cos −1[(π − 2 × 0.496) sin(0.496) − cos(0.496)]
δ cr = 1.426 radians = 81.697°
We know
4 Hω pu (t cr ) 4 × 5 ×1
t cr = (δ cr − δ 0 ) = (1.426 − 0.496)
ω syn Pm, pu (2 × π × 60) × 1.0
t cr = 0.222 sec = 13.3 cycles
Example 14.8 Determine the critical clearing angle for the three-phase fault described in Example
14.4 and 14.5 when the initial system configuration and prefault operating conditions are described
in Example 16.3.

Solution:
The power-angle equations obtained in the previous examples are
Before the fault: Pe1 = Pmax sin δ = 2.1sin δ
During the fault: Pe2 = r Pmax sin δ = 0.808 sin δ
1
After the fault: Pe3 = r 2 Pmax sin δ = 1.5 sin δ
0.808 1.5
Hence, r1 = = 0.385 ; r2 = = 0.714
2.1 2.1
δ = 28.44° = 0.496 radians
After clearing the fault, we obtain the maximum angle is
⎡1.0 ⎤
δ max = 180° − sin −1 ⎢ ⎥ = 138.19° = 2.412 radians
⎣1.5 ⎦
We know that
(P / P )(δ − δ 0 ) + r2 cos δ max − r1 cos δ 0
cos δ cr = m max max
r2 − r1
(1.0 / 2.1)(2.412 − 0.496) + 0.714 cos(2.412) − 0.385 cos(0.496)
cos δ cr = = 0.127
0.714 − 0.385 − r1
Hence
δ cr = 82.726°

References
[1] Willaim D. Stevenson, Elements of Power System Analysis, Fouth Edition, McGraw-Hill
International Editions, Civil Engineering Series, McGraw-Hill Inc.
[2] John J. Grainger, William D. Steevnson, Jr., Power System Analysis, McGraw-Hill Series in
Electrical and Conputer Engineering, McGraw-Hill Inc.
[3] J. Duncan Glover, Mulukutla S. Sharma, Thomas J. Overbye, Power System Analysis and
Design, Fouth Edition (India Edition), Course Technology Cengage Learning
[4] Hadi Saadat, Power System Analysis, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited
[5] I J Nagrath, D P Lothari, Modern Power System Analysis, Second Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill
Publishing Company Liited
[6] V. K. Mehta, Rohit Mehta, Principles of Power System, Multicolor Illustrative Edition, S.
Chand and Company Limited