J.C. Gomez, M.M.

Morcos

Flicker Measurement
and Light Effect
F licker is a phenomenon
that is very difficult to
characterize due to the hu-
eye/brain system when the il-
lumination was rapidly
changing (approximately at
man factors involved. How- 30 Hz). Several devices have
ever, in order to study flicker been developed (mainly in
effects, it was necessary to England, France, Germany,
develop flicker units and and Japan); all detect voltage
magnitudes that would al- fluctuations in the range
low its measurement. When 0.5–30 Hz and estimate a
voltage fluctuations exist on weighted average of such
a power system, the problem fluctuations, which provides
is usually not so much to an assessment of the dosage
measure the size of the fluc- of flicker that would be an-
tuations themselves as to de- noying. The concept of
termine the effect on various flicker quantity was usually
types of lamps and to esti- defined as the integrated
mate the probability that flicker over a period of time,
they will cause complaints and it uses the percentile
of light flicker. For a given probability that a voltage
amplitude of flicker, the fluctuation limit has been ex-
opinions of many observers ceeded [2].
differ widely, and the limit Maximum sensitivity is
(or tolerable) level on a sys- presented between frequen-
tem must be one that only cies of 6 and 10 Hz, as the
very few consumers find in- range of interest is from 1 to
tolerable. Calibration of any 25 Hz. Isolated and frequent
particular meter in terms of voltage changes are also an-
consumer complaints is, noying, as the brain remem-
therefore, likely to be diffi- bers the previous perturba-
©DIGITAL VISION, LTD

cult. The flicker meter tion and immediately relates

should be designed to repre-
sent the physiological and
psychological processes in-
volved in the perception and
toleration of flicker [1].
Flicker Meters
The measuring devices previously developed were designed to
detect voltage fluctuations and their processing in order to indi-
cate the impression of visual observer. In this way, the devices
considered the limited visual repetition sensitivity and the effect
of thermal time-constant of incandescent lamps. Also, the de-
vices had built-in image fusion that was carried out by the
J.C. Gomez is with the Electric Power System Protection Institute, Rio Cuarto
National University, Rio Cuarto, Cordoba, Argentina. M.M. Morcos is with the
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Kansas State University,
it with the new one. In this
case, the variation in magni-
tude and time interval be-
tween two successive
perturbations should be con-
sidered. Due to the different weightings given to the voltage
fluctuation component as well as the different interpretations
used to define the flicker dose, the previously used flicker me-
ters did not give consistent readings on common data.
The International Union for the Application of Electricity
(UIE), which was formerly known as the International Union for
Electroheat, adopted a standard assessment methodology that is
based on the previously developed flicker meters proposed in
1979, taking into account the following facts:
● Specification of the design and function characteristics of
the measurement device (flicker meter)
● Specification of the statistical assessment of the flicker

Manhattan, Kansas, USA. phenomenon

IEEE Power Engineering Review, November 2002 0272-1724/02/$17.00©2002 IEEE 11
 Block 3
Block 1 Block 2
From Detector dB
Demodulator 0 1
Input and Gain with
Control Squaring
Trans- Voltage Multiplier
former Adapter
0.05 35 Hz
Figure 1. Functional block diagram of the UIE flicker meter
● Estimation of the short- and long-term flicker severity.
To the authors’ knowledge, there is no American standard re-
lated to flicker meter. The International Electrotechnical Com-
mission (IEC) standardized a flicker meter that incorporates
weighting curves that represent the response of the human eye to
light variations produced in a 60 W, 230 V, 50 Hz, double-coiled
filament incandescent lamp. The output of the meter is given as
per-unit flicker voltage, where one per unit is the level that
should cause noticeable and annoying light flicker, with the per-
ception threshold for 50% of the human population. Flicker is
defined in terms of incandescent lamps because of their com-
mon usage and sensitivity to voltage changes. Flicker is also ob-
served with fluorescent lamps.
The European flicker measurement standards are IEC Stan-
dard 868 (initially presented in 1986), IEC Standard 868
Amendment 1 (1990), and IEC Standard 61000-4-15 (1997),
which are under continuous revision in order to include the nec-
essary changes for their application to 120 V, 60 Hz lamps, for
instance [3], [4]. The instrument is a specialized ampli-
tude-modulation (AM) analyzer in which the carrier frequency
is the main frequency (50 or 60 Hz), having post-detection
band-pass filtering to emulate the response characteristic of the
lamp-eye-brain system [5].
IEC Standard 868 was drafted for an analog flicker meter
designed during the 1970s. For the last 15 years, analog flicker
meters have been replaced gradually by digital versions that
emulate each analog function. The major parts of the flicker
meter are the input, the lamp-eye-brain response, and the out-
put processing.
Flicker Meter Implementation
Figure 1 shows a block diagram for the complete flicker meter
instrument described in the IEC standards. The main character-
istics of each of the five blocks are described as follows.
There is an input transformer before block 1; its function is
the insulation and adaptation of the instrument input circuit to
the level of the measured signal, allowing nominal input volt-
ages from 55 to 415 V at line frequency.
Input Voltage Adapter
The primary function of the input voltage adapter (block 1) is to
provide a normalized rms voltage to the input of the demodulator
(block 2). An automatic gain control circuit with a 10 to 90%
step-response characteristic of 1 minute provides the necessary
functionality. Besides, it possesses two filters to eliminate dc
components and double-frequency ripple. This circuit emulates a
well-known characteristic of the human perception for which
moderate-level, constant stimuli to the senses gradually become
imperceptible. Block 1 includes a calibration generator.
Demodulator
Block 2 specifies the use of a squaring multiplier as a demodu-
lator. The purpose of this block is to recover modulating signals
12
Block 4 Block 5
Squaring Statistical
Range and Evaluation
Selector Smoothing of Flicker
Level
8.8 Hz
and simultaneously suppress the main-frequency carrier signal
via filtering, as these signals are the only desired output.
Weighting Filters
Block 3 includes three filters connected in series and a rang-
ing circuit. The first filter is a first-order high-pass filter with
the cut-off frequency set to 0.05 Hz. The second is a sixth-or-
der Butterworth low-pass filter with a corner frequency of 35
Hz. These filters remove the dc component and the 100 Hz
doubled carrier, with its associated sidebands, from the signal
output by block 2. The third filter gives a band-pass response
centered at 8.8 Hz, providing a very specific weighting func-
tion within the frequency band of interest (0.05 to 35 Hz),
simulating the response of the lamp-eye-brain system for the
average observer.
The lamp-eye-brain characteristic is obtained from a mathe-
matical derivation of:
● Response of a lamp to a supply voltage variation
● Perception ability of the human eye
● Memory tendency of the human brain.
The filters are precisely specified by means of the required
transfer function in the complex frequency domain. The ranging
function that is required for instruments using certain types of
statistical classifiers resides inside block 3. Full-scale ranges
corresponding to voltage change from levels of 0.5 to 20% are
defined with the requirement of minimum resolution.
Squaring Multiplier and First-Order Sliding Mean Filter
Block 4 implements the remainder of the lamp-eye-brain
model. The squaring operator simulates nonlinear eye/brain
response characteristics, while the first-order filter emulates
perceptual storage effects in the brain with the time constant of
300 ms. When the instrument gain is properly set, modulation
levels corresponding to the mean human threshold for flicker
sensation will generate values of 1 at the output of this block.
The output of block 4 is called instantaneous flicker sensation,
denoted by PF5.
Statistical Classifier
Block 5 emulates human irritability due to flicker stimulation; it
is a sampling A/D converter followed by a statistical classifier.
This classifier translates the output of the previous block into
short-term flicker severity index (Pst) and long-term flicker se-
verity index (Plt). Pst is a statistical quantification of the instan-
taneous flicker sensation and is derived from a time-at-level
analysis of the PF5. It consists of a weighted sum of percentiles
of the cumulative probability distribution of the flicker sensa-
tion, with the purpose of providing objective information on the
flicker severity level independently of the type of voltage fluctu-
ation, time variation law, and evolution.
While much work remains to be done in order to properly
model the flicker sensitivity of various lamps, it is very probable
that the IEEE will adopt the IEC 868 flickermeter specifications.
IEEE Power Engineering Review, November 2002
In February 1998, the IEEE P1453 Flicker Task Force voted
unanimously to embrace and enhance the IEC flicker meter mea-
surement protocol for the IEEE Recommended Practice [6], [7].
Regulations or Flicker Limits
IEEE Approach
Flicker curves were unified and included in IEEE Standard
141-1993 and IEEE Standard 519-1992. The subject is ad-
dressed briefly in the IEEE standards. In IEEE Standard 141,
both the borderline of irritation and borderline of visibility of
flicker are given, which were extracted from a handbook pub-
lished in 1960. On the other hand, IEEE Standard 519 presented
similar information taken from different sources, offered just as
a guide for planning. The curves from the two standards are not
precisely equivalent; the general tendency is similar, but IEEE
Standard 519 borderlines are more demanding than IEEE Stan-
dard 141 in voltage fluctuation for maximum sensitivity fre-
quency (at approximately 8.8 Hz).
The IEEE flicker curves have served the industry well for
many years, but the status of electric power systems is becom-
ing much more complex than anticipated due to the presence
of new types of lamps and also to new phenomena, such as
multiple frequency dosage, flicker modulation, inter-
harmonics, and subharmonics. This means that IEEE flicker
curve methodology urgently needs to be updated, taking into
account the fact that new powerful techniques are now avail-
able. Cooperative efforts between the IEC, UIE, Electric
Power Research Institute (EPRI), and IEEE allow the IEC
standard to be modified for a variety of lighting technologies
and system voltages. This effort promoted one universal stan-
dard for voltage flicker [8].
It should be indicated that IEC and EN standards are of wide-
spread application in Europe, being adopted by most of the Eu-
ropean countries, and also by many countries outside of Europe.
Values of Pst and Plt are directly available from the IEC flicker
meter, and it is then possible to define flicker limits based on
these values for equipment that are already in service. In many
instances, however, it is necessary to evaluate the flicker emis-
sions of a potential customer before service is provided.
IEC Approach
Due to the wide variety of equipment, operating voltages, and
service designs, the IEC has established three different catego-
ries of limits for:
● Low-voltage equipment with rated current less than 16 A
(IEC Standard 61000-3-3)
● Low-voltage equipment with rated current greater than 16
A (IEC Standard 61000-3-5)
● Medium and high voltage equipment (IEC Standard
61000-3-7).
Limits are given for both of the statistical parameters (Pst and
Plt) as well as maximum rms voltage deviations. The following
explanation of the relevant IEC standards are intended to show
how to use the Pst and Plt concepts in comparison with the flicker
curves methodology.
IEC Standard 61000-3-3. This standard provides limits and
evaluation procedures for low-voltage equipment with current
ratings less than 16 A. The individual emission limits (Pst = 1, Plt
= 0.65) should be measured on the supply point through refer-
ence impedance values. The defined impedance values corre-
spond to the 90% system impedance on single-phase European
low-voltage systems. Furthermore, this equipment should not
produce a maximum voltage fluctuation of more than 4% [5].
IEEE Power Engineering Review, November 2002
The different possible methods for evaluating Pst for limit
compliance evaluations are:
● Direct measurement using the flicker meter measurement
procedure, which is most appropriate for loads already
connected to the supply
● Computer simulation, if the rms voltage variation wave-
form U(t) is known
● Defined “shape factors” to estimate Pst analytically, if the
waveform U(t) is not known but the potential load is
known to produce rms voltage variations of a certain type.
IEC Standard 61000-3-5. This standard provides limits
and evaluation procedures for low-voltage equipment with
current ratings greater than 16 A. The limits are those given in
IEC Standard 61000-3-3. It is recognized, however, that lower
supply impedance will be needed to meet these requirements
for larger equipment. Low-voltage equipment with a current
rating greater than 75 A should be evaluated based on the ac-
tual supply impedance at the connection point. Pst can be esti-
mated then based on the relative size of the load and the supply
transformer rating. It should be noted that IEC Standard
61000-3-3 and IEC Standard 61000-3-5 are equipment stan-
dards by which manufacturers of low-voltage equipment can
design their products [8].
IEC Standard 61000-3-7. This standard gives limits and
evaluation procedures for equipment connected to medium volt-
age (1 to 35 kV) and high voltage (35 to 230 kV) supply sys-
tems. Specific limits that must be followed are not given,
recognizing that the limit values for Pst and Plt will vary among
utilities depending on the specifics of the loads served and the
supply network characteristics.
Indicative planning levels, which are the quality targets of a
supplying utility, are given in table format. Planning levels ap-
ply throughout a supply system; the aggregate effects of all fluc-
tuating loads must be taken into account. Emission limits for
individual loads must be set so that the combined effects do not
exceed the planning levels.
Affected Devices
The main effect of voltage fluctuations is on illumination (pre-
cisely on electric lamps) resulting in light flicker, which has
been a cause of engineering concern since the start of the electric
power industry. The light flicker problem is now a very hot issue
due to the current increasing voltage distortion in medium and
low voltage systems. Near rated voltage, the percentage varia-
tion of light output from incandescent filament lamps is on aver-
age 3.8 times the percentage voltage change causing it, which
varies only between 4.1 and 3.4, for lamps rated between 15 and
1,500 W. Illumination relative fluctuations (RI), measured by a
photometer adapted to the human eye response, have been intro-
duced. The relation between the percentage of light variation
and the percentage of voltage change is usually called gain fac-
tor (or lamp amplifying characteristic).
The corresponding value for fluorescent lamps is of the order
of unity. Consequently, filament lamps are inherently more sen-
sitive to voltage fluctuations than fluorescent lamps. The per-
centage variation for high-pressure mercury vapor lamps and
sodium vapor lamps is from 2.8 to 3.3, and it is 0.5 for low-pres-
sure sodium lamps [1].
Incandescent Lamps
Incandescent Lamp with Sinusoidal Voltage. The heat trans-
fer behavior of an incandescent lamp can be studied using the
analog circuit shown in Figure 2. The filament is represented by
13

T frequency, ranging from nearly 1 for 25 Hz (invisible perturba-
P Rt Ct
Figure 2. Incandescent lamp thermal equivalent circuit
the thermal resistance Rt in parallel with the thermal capacity Ct.
The filament temperature rise T above the ambient is repre-
sented by the voltage across the resistance Rt. The current source
(P) supplying the resistive and capacitive loads is equal to the
power dissipated by the filament [9].
The luminous flux produced by the lamp is a nonlinear func-
tion of the filament temperature, physical characteristics, and
geometry. Typical 120 V incandescent lamps, with power be-
tween 45 and 200 W, have thermal time constants between 10
and 200 ms [1], [9]. The time constant of a 230 V lamp is equiva-
lent to that of a 120 V lamp having nearly half power due to the
reduction in the filament thickness in order to have the same
rated power.
Incandescent Lamp with Nonsinusoidal Voltage. The in-
stantaneous power has quite a complicated expression, which
yields a cumbersome equation for the filament temperature.
Only interharmonics with order smaller than 1.5 for 60 Hz and
1.67 for 50 Hz are visible. A recurrent flicker is produced only
when the voltage waveform contains noninteger harmonics with
frequencies in the range of 25 to 90 Hz [9].
Voltage with Square-Wave Modulation. This is the most
common form of voltage flicker. It is characteristic in situations
when large loads are recurrently switched on and off. This type
is most likely to produce light flicker complaints.
Following the analysis in [9], the component of filament tem-
perature that is causing visible light fluctuation can be found.
Analytical and graphical study of the relative change of illumi-
nation for square-wave modulation (as a function of voltage
fluctuation), lamp thermal time-constant, and fluctuation fre-
quency have shown the following.
● Higher wattage lamps that have larger thermal time-con-
stant cause less annoyance.
● As the frequency of voltage fluctuation increases, for the
same fluctuation magnitude, the irritation decreases.
● For the same lamp thermal time-constant, the luminous
flux variation (and then annoyance) increases almost lin-
early with the voltage fluctuation magnitude.
Voltage with Sine-Wave Modulation. Sinusoidal modula-
tion causes lesser relative illumination fluctuation and smoother
changes than the square-wave modulation. The lamp thermal
time-constant effect is less noticeable and the illumination fluc-
tuation decreases faster, when the frequency increases, than for
square-wave modulation.
Use of Incandescent Lamp Dimmers. The wide-spread use
of lamp dimmers are believed to play a role in the increased
number of flicker-related complaints. The use of incandescent
dimmers in homes substantially increases lamp susceptibility to
voltage changes, due to the conduction-angle change of the elec-
tronic control principle. A typical electronic dimmer would
nearly double the change in light output for a typical voltage
change compared to the same lamp with no dimmer. The flicker
14
gain factor depends on the attenuation setting and perturbation
tion) to a maximum of 8 at very low frequency. The gain factor
reaches the value of 6 for 75% attenuation and maximum sensi-
tivity frequency (8.8 Hz) [8]. Dimmer behavior is highly af-
fected by interharmonics existence.
Gaseous-Discharge Lamps
Fluorescent and other forms of discharge lighting are much less
sensitive to voltage magnitude fluctuations than the incandes-
cent type, with gain factors of about 1.2 versus 2.7, which is
practically nonvariable with the fluctuation frequency [10]. Dis-
charge lamps having virtually no energy storage respond in-
stantly to changes in voltage (time-constant is less than 5 ms)
[11]. Recent tests and reported problems show how
interharmonics and phase-shifting on the power line can cause
fluorescent lamps to flicker at locations far away from the dis-
ruption source [12].
Most of the existing voltage fluctuation (or light flicker) stan-
dards are based on observations of annoyance caused by incan-
descent lamps. The physical mechanism of electric energy
conversion between the incandescent and fluorescent lamps dif-
fers drastically.
● Incandescent lamps use the Joule heating process, their volt-
age/current characteristic is linear, and the filament average
temperature is proportional to the squared rms voltage.
● Fluorescent lamps belong to the electric discharge lamp
family; they convert the electric energy into light by trans-
forming electric energy into kinetic energy of moving elec-
trons and ions. The voltage/current characteristic is
nonlinear, and the arc voltage remains nearly constant dur-
ing each half-cycle.
The average power produced in the discharge lamp is a func-
tion of the ignition angle: the larger the angle, the smaller the
current and power. Besides, the angle depends on the waveform
and magnitude of the supply voltage. For the same rms voltage,
a flat waveform will produce a small angle and a bell-shaped
waveform will increase the angle. Integer harmonics will not
cause light flicker, since the voltage waveform remains the same
every half-cycle. Noninteger harmonics will cause continuous
change of voltage distortion from one half-cycle to the next.
Such variations do not have an effect on the incandescent lamp,
but they may significantly affect the fluorescent lamp perfor-
mance [11].
Arc-discharge lamps will gradually replace incandescent
lamps, and voltage distortion is going to remain as an acute
power quality problem for many years, which means that proper
research and quantification of this type of flicker is necessary.
The annoyance curves obtained for incandescent lamps may not
be useful for fluorescent lamps; more research work is needed in
this area.
Conclusions
From the present analysis, the following can be concluded.
● Voltage fluctuation limits cannot be simply related to
flicker-caused annoyance.
● Flicker meter capability of being easily emulated or PC
implemented allows the quick study of problems in its
early level.
● Application of flicker curves does not give a clear and
complete idea for flicker problem assessment.
● Flicker meter specifications have not reached the final stage
yet due to new types of lamps and lighting requirements.
IEEE Power Engineering Review, November 2002
 ● Possible flicker-caused problems should be completely an-
alyzed from the system design point of view.
● Determination of flicker limits requires a thorough analy-
sis in order to allow the proper system exploitation.
References
[1] P.G. Kendall, “Light flicker in relation to power-system voltage
fluctuation,” Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng., vol. 113, no. 3, pp. 471-479,
1966.
[2] J.D. Lavers and P.P. Biringer, “Real-time measurement of electric
arc-furnace disturbances and parameter variations,” IEEE Trans.
Ind. Applicat., vol. 22, no. 4, pp. 568-577, 1986.
[3] IEC Flickermeter Functional and Design Specifications, IEC Stan-
dard 868, 1986.
[4] IEC Electromagnetic Compatibility—Part 4: Testing and Measure-
ment Techniques, sec. 15, “Flickermeter: Functional and design
specifications,” IEC Standard 61000-4-15, 1997.
[5] J. McKim, “The UIE flickermeter demystified,” Compliance Engi-
neering, vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 60-71, 1999.
[6] IEEE Flicker Task Force, P1453 draft. Available:
http://grouper.ieee.org/groups/1453.
[7] S. Caldara, S. Nuccio, and C. Spataro, “Digital techniques for
flicker measurement: Algorithms and implementations analysis,” in
Proc. IEEE Instrumentation and Measurement Conf., 1999, pp.
656-661.
[8] M. Halpin, L. Conrad, and R. Burch, Tutorial on Voltage Fluctua-
tions and Lamp Flicker in Electric Power Systems, IEEE Power En-
gineering Society publication 01TP151, 2001.
[9] L. Peretto and A.E. Emanuel, “A theoretical study of the incandes-
cent filament lamp performance under voltage flicker,” IEEE Trans.
Power Delivery, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 279-288, 1997.
[10] M.K. Walker, “Electric utility flicker limitations,” IEEE Trans.
Ind. Applic., vol. 15, no. 6, pp. 644-655, 1979.
[11] A.E. Emanuel and L. Peretto, “The response of fluorescent lamp
with magnetic ballast to voltage distortion,” IEEE Trans. Power De-
livery, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 289-295, 1997.
[12] B. Bhargava, “Arc furnace flicker measurements and control,”
IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 400-410, 1993.

2003 IEEE PES General Meeting

Call for Papers
Online submissions: November 2002 through 13 January 2003
The IEEE Power Engineering Society (PES) 2003 meeting will be held at the Sheraton Centre in Toronto, Canada from
13-18 July 2003. This power engineering conference will bring together practicing power engineering engineers and ac-
ademics from around the world. The aim of the conference is to provide, share, and discuss various issues and develop-
ments in the field of electric power engineering.
Themes and Preferred Topics: The theme of the meeting is “Empowering Ideas.” Preferred topics for the meeting are as
follows.
● Track 1: Asset Management, covering such topics as: optimizing the use of assets (including operation, maintenance,

refurbishment, upgrading, replacement, etc); maintenance philosophies and implementation strategies; system capa-
bility enhancements; life-cycle management strategies; managing assets for customer satisfaction impact of aging as-
sets on system and investment planning; benefits of wide area control for improving power system dynamic
performance.
● Track 2: Risk Management, covering such topics as: security of IT systems; asset physical security; control centers,

distributed vs. centralized; contingency capability; managing the financial risks of performance-based rates; risk-cost
tradeoff in transmission and/or in distribution system design.
● Track 3: Telecommunication, Information, and Control covering such topics as: online system security assessment;

communications systems; communications protocols; transmission and distribution dispatch and/or control systems
(changes needed to provide maximum value in a wholesale/retail open access environment) wide area stability and con-
trol.
● Track 4: Industrial Power Distribution, covering such topics as: power quality and conditioning; load management; Hi

Del – Internet Hotels (telco Hotels, Web hosting sites); DG interconnection microturbines; custom power equipment.
● Track 5: Developments in Power Engineering Technologies, covering such topics as: solutions to minimize environ-

mental impacts; functional specification and solution evaluation criteria; development in power applications of super-
conductivity; developments in diagnostic techniques; innovative protection and/or control technologies and methods;
developments in communications and information technology for power system applications developments in load
management and controls; power electronic controllers/devices (PECs or FACTS) for power system applications.
Manuscript Submission: Complete manuscripts are to be submitted electronically via the PES General Meeting 2003 Web
site, which will be linked to the PES home page, http://www.ieee.org/power. The site will be available for submissions begin-
ning early November 2002 and ending 13 January 2003. Authors will be notified of the decision regarding their papers by the
end of February 2003. The site’s URL will be announced at a later date. Please check the PES Web site and the PES Author’s
Kit for manuscript formatting and preparation instructions and more information about submission as it becomes available.

IEEE Power Engineering Review, November 2002 15