The study of

interference, diffraction Learning Outcome:

and polarization of
light.
light Light is treated as
waves rather than as 23.1 Huygen’s principle (½ hour)
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www.kmph.matrik.edu.my
rays. At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

State Huygens’
Huygens’ principle.
 Include spherical and plane wave fronts.
CHAPTER 23:
Sketch and explain the wave front of light after passing
Physical optics through a single slit and obstacle using Huygens’
Huygens’
principle.
(6 Hours)

1 2

23.1 Huygen’s principle Type of wave fronts

Circular wave fronts as shown in Figure 23.2 are produced by
23.1.1 Wave fronts
a point source generates two-dimensional waves.

is defined as a line or surface, in the path of a wave motion,
on which the disturbances at every point have the same circular wave front
phase.
phase

Figure 23.1 shows the wavefront of the sinusoidal waves. λ
wavefront ray
A D
B v
E
C F point source

Figure 23.1 λ
 Line joining all point of adjacent wave, e.g. A, B and C or
D,E and F are in phase Figure 23.2
 Wave front always perpendicular to the direction of wave3 4
propagation.

Spherical wave fronts as shown in Figure 23.3 are produced
Plane wave fronts as shown in Figures 23.4a and 23.4b are
by a point source generates three-dimensional waves. produced by a point source generates three-dimensional waves
at large distance from the source.
spherical wave fronts

plane wave front

rays
point source

plane wave front Figure 23.4a : (3-

(3-D)

rays
rays

Figure 23.3 5 Figure 23.4b : (2-

(2-D) 6

Ray  divergent beam, e.g. a lamp near you (shown in Figure 23.6b)

is defined as a line represents the direction of travel of a
wave.
wave

It is at right angle to the wave fronts as shown in Figure 23.5.

ray

Figure 23.6b
Wave λ
front  convergent beam as shown in Figure 23.6c.
Figure 23.5
Beam of light

is a collection of rays or a column of light.
light
 parallel beam, e.g. a laser beam (shown in Figure 23.6a)

Source of light
from infinity
Figure 23.6a
7 Figure 23.6c 8
 Application of Huygens’
Huygens’ principle
23.1.2 Huygens’ principle
a. Construction of new wave front for a plane wave

states that every point on a wave front can be considered as
a source of secondary wavelets that spread out in the
If the wave speed is v, hence in
forward direction at the speed of the wave. The new wave time t the distance travels by the
front is the envelope of all the secondary wavelets - i.e. the A wavelet is s = vt.
P1 A’ Q
tangent to all of them.
them 1

From Huygens’ Principle, points
P2 Q2 P1, P2, P3 and P4 on the wave
secondary wave front front AB are the sources of
P3 Q3 secondary wavelets.

From the points, draw curves of
P4 s Q4 radius s.
B’
B
wavelets
Then draw a straight line A’B’
which is tangent to the curves at
points Q1,Q2,Q3 and Q4
Figure 23.8

Hence, line A’B’ is the new wave
Figure 23.7 9
front after t second. 10

b. Construction of new wave front for a circular wave c. Diffraction of wave at a single slit

Huygens’ principle can be used to explain the
A’ Q1
Explanation as in the diffraction of wave.
construction of new wave
front for a plane wave front.
Each of the point in Figure 23.10, acts as a
A secondary source of wavelets (red circular
Q2
But the wave front A’B’ is a
P1 s arc)
P2 curve touching points
Q1,Q2,Q3 and Q4.
The tangent to the wavelets from points 2, 3
source and 4 is a plane wave front.
P3
The curve A’B’ is the new
(circular) wave front after t
But at the edges, points 1 and 5 are the last
P4 points that produce wavelets.
B Q3 second.

Huygens’ principle suggest that in conforming
to the curved shape of the wavelets near the
B’ Q4
edges, the new wave front bends or diffracts
around the edges - applied to all kinds of
ray Figure 23.10 waves.
Figure 23.9
11 12
 Learning Outcome: 23.2 Constructive interference and
23.2 Constructive interference and destructive destructive interference
interference (½ hour) 23.2.1 Interference of light
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At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

Light wave is an electromagnet waves (emw).

Define coherence.

It consists of varying electric field E and varying magnetic

State the conditions to observe interference of light.
field B which are perpendicular to each other as shown in

State the conditions of constructive and destructive Figure 23.11.
interference.

Figure 23.11
Electric field: E = E0 sin (ωt-kx)
Magnetic field: B = B0 sin (ωt-kx)
13 14

Interference is defined as the effect of interaction between 23.2.2 Conditions for permanent interference
two or more waves which overlaps or superposed at a point
and at a particular time from the sources.
sources
Permanent interference between two sources of light only take

For light the Interference is occurred when two light waves meet place if they are coherent sources. It means
at a point, a bright or a dark region will be produced in  the sources must have the same wavelength or frequency.
frequency
accordance to the Principle of superposition.  the sources must have a constant phase difference

Principle of superposition states the resultant displacement between them.
at any point is the vector sum of the displacements due to
the two light waves.
The light waves that are interfering must have the same or
waves
approximately of amplitude to obtain total cancellation at

Constructive interference is defined as a reinforcement of
minimum or to obtain a good contrast at maximum.
amplitudes of light waves that will produce a bright fringe
(maximum).
(maximum)
The distance between the coherent sources should be as

Destructive interference is defined as a total cancellation of small as possible of the light wavelength ( ≤ λ).
amplitudes of light waves that will produce a dark fringe
(minimum).
(minimum)

Monochromatic light is defined as a light of a single
wavelength or freqency.
freqency

15 16
 Interference of two coherent sources in phase
23.2.3 Path difference, ∆L

Path difference for constructive interference

is defined as the difference in distance from each source
 S1 and S2 are two coherent sources in phase
to a particular point.
point
S1 x1
P P (maximum)
x1
S2 x2
S1 x2
Figure 23.12

S2 screen
∆L + =

Path difference, ∆L = |S2P − S1P|

= |x2 –x1| 17 Figure 23.13 18

 A bright fringe is observed at P thus
Path difference for destructive interference

∆φ = 2mπ where m = 0,±1,±2,...  S1 and S2 are two coherent sources in phase

 At P, E1P = E0 sin(ωt − kx1 ) x1

Q (minimum)
E2 P = E0 sin(ωt − kx2 )
then S1
∆φ = (ωt − kx2 ) − (ωt − kx1 )
x2
∆φ = k ( x1 − x2 ) since k = 2π and ( x1 − x2 ) = ∆L
2π λ S2
∆φ = ∆L order
λ 2π
therefore 2mπ = ∆L ∆L = mλ
 Note : λ + =
When where m = 0,±1,±2,.....
m=0 Central bright fringe λ : wavelength
(zeroth order bright)
m = ±1 1st bright fringe (1st order bright)
m = ±2 2nd bright fringe (2nd order bright) 19
Figure 23.14 20
  A dark fringe is observed at Q thus
Interference pattern for two coherent sources in phase
( )
∆φ = 2m + 1 π where m = 0,±1,±2,...
 At P, E1P = E0 sin(ωt − kx1 ) Fringe ∆φ m ∆L
E2 P = E0 sin(ωt − kx2 ) 2ndbright 4π 2 2λ
3
then 2nddark 3π 1 2
λ
∆φ = (ωt − kx2 ) − (ωt − kx1 ) st
1 bright 2π 1 λ
1
S1 1st dark π 0 λ
∆φ = k ( x1 − x2 ) 2
Central bright 0 0 0
2π
∆φ = ∆L 1st dark π 0 1
2
λ
λ 2π  1 S2 1st bright 2π −1 λ
therefore (2m + 1)π = ∆L ∆L =  m + λ 2nd dark 3π −1
3
λ
 Note : λ  2
2nd bright 4π −2
2

2λ
When where m = 0,±1,±2,.....
screen
m=0 1st dark fringe (zeroth order dark)
m = ±1 2nd dark fringe (1st order dark) Figure 23.15

m = ±2 3rd dark fringe (2nd order dark)

21 22

Interference of two coherent sources in antiphase  A bright fringe is observed at P thus

Path difference for constructive interference ∆φ = 2mπ where m = ±1,±2,...
 S1 and S2 are two coherent sources in antiphase  At P, E1P = E0 sin(ωt − kx1 )
P (maximum)
x1 E2 P = E0 sin(ωt − kx2 − π )
then
∆φ = (ωt − kx2 − π ) − (ωt − kx1 )
S1 ∆φ = k ( x1 − x2 ) − π
x2
 2π 
∆φ =  ∆L  − π
S2  λ 
 2π   1
therefore 2mπ =  ∆L  − π ∆L =  m + λ
 Note :  λ   2
+ = When where m = 0,±1,±2,.....
m=0 1st bright fringe (zeroth order bright)
m = ±1 2nd bright fringe (1st order bright)
m = ±2 3rd bright fringe (2nd order bright)
23 24
Figure 23.16

Path difference for destructive interference  A dark fringe is observed at Q thus
 S1 and S2 are two coherent sources in antiphase ( )
∆φ = 2m + 1 π where m = 0,±1,±2,...
S1 x1  At P, E1P = E0 sin(ωt − kx1 )
Q (minimum)
E2 P = E0 sin(ωt − kx2 + π )
then
∆φ = (ωt − kx2 + π ) − (ωt − kx1 )
S2 x2 ∆φ = k ( x1 − x2 ) + π
 2π 
∆φ =  ∆L  + π
 λ 
therefore (2m + 1)π = 
 2π 
∆L  + π ∆L = mλ
+ =  Note :  λ 
where m = 0,±1,±2,.....
When
m=0 Central dark fringe (zeroth order dark)
m = ±1 1st dark fringe (1st order dark)
Figure 23.17 m = ±2 2nd dark fringe (2nd order dark)
25 26

Interference pattern for two coherent sources in antiphase
Table 23.1 shows the summary of chapter 23.2.3.
Two Coherent
Bright fringe Dark fringe
Fringe ∆φ m ∆L sources
2nd dark 5π 2 2λ  1
2nd bright 4π 1
3
λ ∆L = mλ ∆L =  m +  λ
 2
2
1st dark 3π 1 λ In phase m = 0,±1,±2,...
S1 1st bright 2π 0 1
λ m = 0,±1,±2,...
2 ∆φ = 2mπ ∆φ = (2m + 1)π
Central dark π 0 0 m = 0,1,2,...
2π 1
λ
m = 0,1,2,...
1st bright 0 2

S2 1st dark 3π −1 λ
 1 ∆L = mλ
2nd bright 4π −1
3
2
λ ∆L =  m +  λ
2nd dark 5π −2 2λ  2 m = 0,±1,±2,...
Antiphase
screen m = 0,±1,±2,...
∆φ = 2mπ ∆φ = (2m + 1)π
Figure 23.18 m = 1,2,... m = 0,1,2,...

27
Table 23.1 28
 Learning Outcome: 23.3 Interference of transmitted light
23.3 Interference of transmitted light through through double-slits
double-slits (1 hour) 23.3.1 Methods of obtaining two coherent sources
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At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

Division of wave front

Use

A slit S is placed at equal
mλD distance from slits S1 and S2 as
ym = for bright fringes (maxima) shown in figure.
d
S S1
Light waves from S that arrived

xm =
(m + 12 )λD for dark fringes (minima),
at S1 and S2 are in phase.
monochromatic S2
d
Therefore, both slits S1 and S2
light source are two new coherent sources,
where m = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, … . e.g. in Young’s double slit
single double
λD slit slits
experiment

Use expression ∆y = and
d Figure 23.19
explain the effect of changing any of the variables. 29 30

Division of amplitude 23.3.2 Young’s double-slit experiment

Figure 23.21 shows the schematic diagram of Young’s double-

The incident wave front is divided slit experiment. Intensity
incident ray 1 2 into two waves by partial
reflection and partial
transmission. Max m=2
partial reflection

Both reflected waves 1 and 2 are Min
air
coherent and will result in Max m=1
partial interference when they Min
film t S1
transmission superpose. S Max m=0

e.g. Newton’s ring, air wedge monochromatic S2 Min
air fringes and thin film interference. light beam Max m = −1
Min
Figure 23.20 single double
slit slits Max m = −2

Picture 23.1 Figure 23.21 interference

screen
31
pattern
32
Explanation of Young’
Young’s double-
double-slit experiment by using Derivation of Young’
Young’s double-
double-slit equations
Huygens’
Huygens’ principle
Equation for separation between central bright fringe and

Wave front from light source falls on a narrow slit S and

mth bright fringe
M (m+1)th bright
diffraction occurs. ∆y

Every point on the wave front that falls on S acts as sources of
P
mth bright
secondary wavelets that will produce a new wave front that
propagate to slits S1 and S2 .
θ ym ym+1

S1 and S2 are produced two new sources of coherent waves in
phase because they originate from the same wave front and their S1
distance from S are equal.
θ

An interference pattern consisting of bright and dark fringes is d Q
O
Central bright
formed on the screen as shown in Figure 23.21. N

The bright fringes are occurred when the light from slits S1 and S2 mλ
S2 superposes constructively.

The dark fringes are occurred when the light from slits S1 and S2 D
superposes destructively. screen
double-slit
33 Figure 23.22 34

 Suppose P in Figure 23.22 is the mth order bright fringe, thus  Therefore, the separation between central bright and mth
S2 P − S1P = mλ bright fringes, ym is given by
 Let OP = ym = distance from P to O . mλD
 In practice d is very small (<1mm) and D>>d, then S1N
ym = (23.1)
meets PQ at right angle. Hence
d

NP = S1P then S2N = S2P− NP = mλ . where m : order = 0,±1,±2,...
λ : wavelength

angle PQO = angle S2S1N = θ
From the figure,
D : distance between double - slits and the screen

S N mλ d : separation between double - slits
∆S2S1N sin θ = 2 =
S2S1 d  Note: For bright fringes
PO ym m=0 Central bright fringe (Zeroth
Zeroth order maximum)
∆PQO tanθ = =
QO D m = ±1 1st bright fringe (1
1st order maximum)
Since θ is small, thus
sinθ = tanθ m = ±2 2nd bright fringe (2
2nd order maximum)

mλ y m m = ±3 3rd bright fringe (3

3rd order maximum)
=
d D 35 36

Equation for separation between central bright fringe and  Suppose R in Figure 23.23 is the mth order dark fringe, thus
mth dark fringe  1
S2 R − S1R =  m + λ
R mth order dark  2
 Let OR = xm = distance from R to O .
∆y
(m−1)th order dark
(m−  In practice d is very small (<1mm) and D>>d, then S1N
meets RQ at right angle. Hence,
θ xm  1

NR = S1R then S2 N = S2 R − NR =  m + λ
S1

angle RQO = angle S2S1N = θ
 2
θ From the figure,
d Q
O
Central bright 
S2 N  1λ
N ∆S2S1N sin θ = = m + 
 1 S2S1  2 d
S2  m + λ RO xm
 2 ∆RQO tanθ = =
D QO D
Since θ is small, thus
double-slit screen  1λ x
sinθ = tanθ m +  = m
Figure 23.23
37
 2d D
38

 Therefore, the separation between central bright and mth
Equation for separation between successive (consecutive)
order dark fringes, xm is given by bright or dark fringes, ∆y (Figure 23.22)
 1  λD  is given by
mλD λD
xm =  m +  (23.2)
∆y = ym +1 − ym where ym = and ym +1 = (m + 1)
 2 d d d
m : order = 0,±1,±2,... λD mλD
where
∆y = (m + 1) −
 Note: For dark fringes d d
m=0 1st dark fringe (Zeroth
Zeroth order minimum)
λD
m = ±1 2nd dark fringe (1
1st order minimum) ∆y = (23.3)
d
m = ±2 3rd dark fringe (2
2nd order minimum)
where ∆y : separation between consecutive bright
m = ±3 4th dark fringe (3
3rd order minimum) or dark fringes
λ : wavelength
D : distance between double - slits and the screen
d : separation between double - slits
39 40
Appearance of Young’
Young’s double-
double-slit experiment  if a source slit S (Figure 23.21) is widened the fringes

From the equation (23.3),
(23.3) gradually disappear. The slit S then equivalent to large
λD number of narrow slits, each producing its own fringe system
∆y = at different places. The bright and dark fringes of different
d systems therefore overlap, giving rise to a uniform

∆y depends on : illumination.
 the wavelength of light, λ  if one of the slit, S1 or S2 is covered up, the diffraction
fringes pattern appear.
 the distance apart, d of the double slits,
 if the source slit S is moved nearer the double slits, ∆y is
 distance between slits and the screen, D unaffected but their intensity increases.

Explanation for the above factors:  if the experiment is carried out in a different medium, for
 if λ is short and thus ∆y decreases for fixed D and d. The example water, the fringe separation ∆y decreased or
interference fringes are closer to each other and vice-versa. increased depending on the wavelength, λ of the medium.
 if the distance apart d of the slits diminished, ∆y increased  if white light is used the central bright fringe is white, and the
for fixed D and λ and vice-versa. fringes on either side are coloured. Violet is the colour nearer
to the central fringe and red is farther away as shown in
 if D increases ∆y also increases for fixed λ and vice-versa. Figure 23.24.
41 42

Example 23.1 :
A double-slits pattern is view on a screen 1.00 m from the slits. If
the third order minima are 25.0 cm apart, determine
a. the ratio of wavelength and separation between the slits,
Figure 23.24 b. the distance between the first order minimum and fourth order

Table 23.2 shows the range of wavelength for colours of visible maximum on the screen.
light.
Solution :
Colour Range of λ/ nm
λ
Violet 400 – 450 = 3.57 ×10 − 2
d
Blue 450 – 520
Green 520 – 560
∆d = 8.93 ×10 −2 m
Yellow 560 – 600
Orange 600 – 625
Red 625 - 700

Table 23.2 43 44
 45 46

Example 23.2 :
a. How would you expect the interference pattern of a double-slit
experiment to change if white light is used instead of
monochromatic light?
b. Describe the changes that would be observed in a double-slit
interference pattern if the entire experiment were submerged in
water.
(Physics, 3rd edition, J. S. Walker, Q4&Q6, p.963)
Solution :

47 48
Example 23.3 :
In a Young’s double-slit experiment, when a monochromatic light of
wavelength 600 nm shines on the double slits, the fringe
separation of the interference pattern produced is 7.0 mm. When
another monochromatic light source is used, the fringe separation
is 5.0 mm. Calculate the wavelength of the second light.
Solution :
λ2 = 429 × 10 −9 m

49 50

Example 23.4 : A
λ = 520 ×10 −9 m
S1
1.2 mm ∆y = 1.08 ×10 −3 m
S2
2.5 m ∆x = 8.15 ×10 −4 m

Figure 23.25 B
Figure 23.25 shows two coherent sources (S1 and S2) of light in
phase. The separation of S1 and S2 is 1.2 mm and the screen is
2.5 m from the sources.
a. The frequency of the light is 5.77 × 1014 Hz. Calculate
i. the wavelength of the light used
ii. the separation between two consecutive bright fringes if the
experiment is carried out in air.
b. If the experiment is carried out in water of refractive index 1.33,
calculate the separation of two consecutive dark fringes.
(The speed of light in vacuum, c = 3.00 × 108 m s−1) 51 52
 Exercise 23.1 :
1. Young’s double-slit experiment is performed with 589-nm light
and a distance of 2.00 m between the slits and the screen.
The tenth interference minimum is observed 7.26 mm from the
central maximum. Determine the spacing of the slits.
(Physics for scientists and engineers,6th edition,Serway&Jewett,
edition,Serway&Jewett,
Q37.5, p.1198)
ANS. : 1.54 mm
2. A Young’s interference experiment is performed with
monochromatic light. The separation between the slits is
0.500 mm, and the interference pattern on a screen 3.30 m
away shows the first side maximum 3.40 mm from the centre
of the pattern. What is the wavelength?
(Physics for scientists and engineers,6th edition,Serway&Jewett,
edition,Serway&Jewett,
Q37.2, p.1197)
ANS. : 515 nm

53 54

Learning Outcome:
3. A coherent light that contains two wavelength, 660 nm (red)
and 470 nm (blue) passes through two narrow slits separated 23.4 Interference of reflected light in thin films
by 0.3 mm and the interference pattern is observed on a (1 hour)

www.kmph.matrik.edu.my
screen 5.00 m from the slits. Determine the distance between At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
the first order bright fringes for each wavelength.
Identify the occurrence of phase change upon reflection.
(University physics,11th edition, Young&Freedman,
Young&Freedman, Q35.14,
Explain with the aid of a diagram the interference of light
p.1362) in thin films at normal incidence.
ANS. : 3.17 mm  For reflected light with no phase difference (non-
(non-
reflective coating):
4. A monochromatic light of wavelength 560 nm passes through
a Young’s double-slit system of unknown slit separation. After Constructive interference : 2nt = mλ
that, the slits is illuminated by a monochromatic light of Destructive interference : 2nt = (m + ½ )λ
unknown wavelength. It was observed that the 4th order  For reflected light of phase difference π rad
minimum of the known wavelength light overlapped with the (reflective coating):
5th order maximum of the unknown wavelength light on a Constructive interference : 2nt = (m + ½ )λ
screen. Calculate the wavelength of the unknown wavelength Destructive interference : 2nt = mλ
light. where m = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, …
ANS. : 504 nm
55 56
 23.4 Interference of reflected light in 23.4.1 Phase changes due to reflection

A light wave travelling in a medium of lower refractive index
thin films (n1) when reflected from a medium’
medium’s surface of higher

Interference due to reflected waves is observed in many
everyday circumstances such as bright colours reflected from oil refractive index (n2) undergoes a π radian phase change as
film on water and soap bubble. shown in Figure 23.26a.
π radian phase change

The reflected waves can change their phase in two ways:
incident wave incident pulse
 The phase changes in proportion to the distance of the
waves travel.
travel
 The phase changes as a result of the reflection process
itself. n1 n2

Optical path is defined as the product between a distance
travelled by light and the refractive index of the medium transmitted pulse
reflected wave transmitted wave
OR
L = nl Note:
where L : optical path ∆φ = π rad reflected pulse
n1 n2
n : refractive index of a medium λ
l : distance travelled by light in the medium ∆L = Figure 23.26a Figure 23.26b: string analogous
57
2 58

A light wave travelling in a medium of higher refractive index 23.4.2 Interference from thin films on a denser
(n2) when reflected from a medium’
medium’s surface of lower medium
refractive index (n1) undergoes no phase change as shown in
Figure 23.28 shows the light waves reflected from the upper and
Figure 23.27a. lower surfaces of a thin film (refractive index, n) on a denser
no phase change medium. π rad phase π rad phase
incident wave change change
incident pulse
E F
A

n2 n1 1 2
n1 = 1.0
reflected wave transmitted wave transmitted pulse B D
n = 1 .5
t : thickness of
Note: thin film
∆φ = 0 reflected pulse C
n2 n1
∆L = 0 n 2 = 3 .5
Figure 23.27a Figure 23.27b: string analogous
59 Figure 23.28 60

When an incident ray falls on a thin film surface almost normal
The optical path difference between rays 1 and 2 is given by
to the surface (point B) ∆L = ABCDF − ABE
 division of amplitude occurs, ∆L = BC + CD
 part of ray are reflected (ray 1→ ray ABE),
∆L = nt + nt ∆L = 2nt
 part of ray are refracted and reflected (ray 2→ ray ABCDF),  Constructive interference:
 point D very close to B (BC and CD become straight line). where

At B, 2 nt = mλ λ : wavelength of light in vacuum
m = 0,±1,±2,...
 the reflected ray (ray 1) undergoes π radian phase change.
change  Destructive interference:
 because the ray 1 reflected from a surface of higher
refractive index (denser medium).
medium)  1  where
2nt =  m + λ m = 0,±1,±2,...

At C,  2
 the reflected ray (ray 2) undergoes π radian phase change.
change
Example of thin film on a denser medium:

Therefore both rays 1 and 2 are two coherent sources in phase  Non-reflective (anti-reflective) coating
because the phase difference, ∆φ is  Oil film on water and etc…

∆φ = π − π = 0
and meet at a point produces interference pattern. 61 62

23.4.3 Interference from thin films on a less dense
When an incident ray falls on a thin film surface almost normal
medium to the surface (point B)

Figure 23.29 shows the light waves reflected from the upper and  division of amplitude occurs,

lower surfaces of a thin film (refractive index, n) in a less dense  part of ray are reflected (ray 1→ ray ABE),
medium.  part of ray are refracted and reflected (ray 2→ ray ABCDF),
π rad phase no phase
change  point D very close to B (BC and CD become straight line).
change
E F
At B,
A
 the reflected ray (ray 1) undergoes π radian phase change.
change
1 2  because the ray 1 reflected from a surface of higher
nair = 1.0 refractive index (denser medium).
medium)

At C,
B D
n = 1.33
t : thickness of  the reflected ray (ray 2) undergoes no phase change.
change
thin film
Therefore both rays 1 and 2 are two coherent sources antiphase
C because the phase difference, ∆φ is
nair = 1.0 ∆φ = π − 0 = π rad
and meet at a point produces interference pattern.
Figure 23.29 63 64

The optical path difference between rays 1 and 2 is given by Example 23.5 :
∆L = ABCDF − ABE A non-reflective coating of magnesium fluoride of refractive index
λ 1.38 covers the camera lens of refractive index 1.52. The coating
∆L = BC + CD + prevents reflection of yellow-green light of wavelength in vacuum
λ 2 λ 565 nm. Determine the minimum non zero thickness of the
∆L = nt + nt + ∆L = 2nt + magnesium fluoride.
2 2
 Constructive interference: (Physics,7th edition, Cutnell&Johnson,
Cutnell&Johnson, Q48, p.886)
where Solution :
λ  1
2nt + = mλ 2nt =  m + λ m = 0,±1,±2,... t min = 1.02 ×10 −7 m
2  2
 Destructive interference:

λ 1 where
2 nt = mλ m = 0,±1,±2,...
2nt + =  m + λ
2  2

Example of a thin film on a less dense medium:
 Soap bubbles
 Reflective coating and etc…

65 66

Example 23.6 :
White light is incident on a soap film of refractive index 1.30 in air.
The reflected light looks bluish because the red light of wavelength
670 nm is absent in the reflection.
a. State the condition for destructive interference.
b. What is the minimum thickness of the soap film?
(Physics,3rd edition, J.S.Walker,
J.S.Walker, Q26, p.966)
Solution :

t min = 2.58 ×10 −7 m

67 68
 Learning Outcome:
23.5 Interference of reflected light in air wedge
and Newton’s rings (1 hour)

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At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

Explain with the aid of a diagram the interference in air
wedge.

Use for air wedge
 2t = (m + ½)λ for bright fringes (maxima)
 2t = mλ for dark fringes (minima),
where m = 0, 1, 2, 3, …

Use diagram to explain qualitatively the formation of
Newton’
Newton’s rings and the centre dark spot.

69 70

23.5 Interference of reflected light in air
Ray S falls almost normal to the surface of a glass slide.
wedge and Newton’s ring
At point O, Ray S is
 partially reflected (ray OL)
23.5.1 Air wedge S L Q
 partially refracted (OB) and then reflected at B (ray BPQ)

The two reflected rays (OL and BPQ) are coherent since both
have originated from the same source O.
travelling
microscope air
OL and BPQ produces interference pattern if it is brought
O P t T together as shown in Figure 23.32.
α
X B Y
Since the incidence is nearly normal (point P very close to O),
l the path difference between the rays at O (ray OL and ray
L OBPQ) is given by,
monochromatic
glass plate Figure 23.31 path difference, ∆L = OB + BP = nt + nt = 2nt
light source
m= 0 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 where n is refractive index of air = 1.0
glass slide
At X, t = 0 and thus the path difference = 0 and a bright fringe
thin foil is expected, but a dark fringe is observed at X. This is due to
1st dark the phase change of π radian for ray BPQ (reflected on a
fringe denser medium at B).
Figure 23.30: Apparatus setup Figure 23.32 71 72
∆x

Hence, ray BPQ is in antiphase with ray OL and when brought
From equation (23.4),
together (by the retina or lens) to interfere, a dark fringe is When
obtained.
m = 0; t = 14 λ 1st bright fringe (Zeroth
Zeroth order maximum)
 Constructive interference (bright fringe):
1 m = 1; t = 34 λ 2nd bright fringe (1
1st order maximum)
2t = mλ + λ
2 m = 2; t = 54 λ 3rd bright fringe (2
2nd order maximum)
 1 i.e. bright fringes are formed when the thickness of
2t =  m + λ (23.4)
 2 air film, t = 14 λ , 34 λ , 54 λ ,.......
where m = 0,1,2,...
From equation (23.5),
 Destructive interference (dark fringe): When
m = 0; t = 0 1st dark fringe (Zeroth
Zeroth order minimum)
2t = mλ (23.5)
m = 1; t = 12 λ 2nd dark fringe (1
1st order minimum)
Note: where m = 0,1,2,... m = 2; t = λ 3rd dark fringe (2
2nd order minimum)
A phase change of π radian is equivalent to a path i.e. dark fringes are formed when the thickness of
difference of ½ λ air film, t = 0, 12 λ , λ , 32 λ ,.......
73 74

Equation for separation between the 1st dark fringe and
Equation for separation between the 1st dark fringe and
the mth order dark fringe, l the mth order bright fringe, l
 From Figure 23.31,
Rearrange eq. (23.4):t =
(m + 12 )λ
substitute into eq.
T t t 
tan α = = l= (23.6) 2 (23.6)
L l tan α (m + 12 )λ
mλ l= (23.8)
 Rearrange eq. (23.5):t = substitute into eq. (23.6)
2 tan α
2
where m : order = 0,1,2,...
mλ Equation for separation between adjacent dark fringes or
l= (23.7)

2 tan α bright fringes, ∆x

where  Put m = 1 into eq. (23.7),
m : order = 0,1,2,...
λ : wavelength of light in vacuum λ
α : angle of inclination of glass slide ∆x = (23.9)
2 tan α
75 76
 C
23.5.2 Newton’s ring
Ray S falls almost normal to the surface of a plano-convex.

At point O, Ray S is
Figure 23.34  partially reflected (ray OL)
L
travelling Q partially refracted (OB) and then reflected at B (ray BPQ)
R R −t

S
microscope
The two reflected rays (OL and BPQ) are coherent since both
have originated from the same source O.
monochromatic
OL and BPQ produces interference pattern if it is brought
A Y
light source P together as shown in Figure 23.35.
t O
glass plate X B
The pattern is a series of circular interference fringes called
d Newton’s ring. This because of a curved piece of glass with a
spherical cross section.
plano-convex
Since the incidence is nearly normal (point P very close to O),
lens the path difference between the rays at O (ray OL and ray
glass block
OBPQ) is given by,
path difference, ∆L = OB + BP = nt + nt = 2nt
where n is refractive index of air = 1.0
Figure 23.33: Figure 23.35:
Apparatus setup Newton’
Newton’s ring 77 78

At X, t = 0 and thus the path difference = 0 and a bright spot is
Relationship between diameter of ring, d and thickness of
expected, but a dark spot is observed at X. This is due to the
air gap, t
phase change of π radian for ray BPQ (reflected on a denser
medium at B).  From Figure 23.34,

Hence, ray BPQ is in antiphase with ray OL and when brought C  By using the Phytogorean theorem,
together (by the retina or lens) to interfere, a dark spot is thus the distance AY is
obtained. AY 22 = AC2 − YC 2
 Constructive interference (bright ring): d 
  = R − (R − t )
2 2
1
2t = mλ + λ R R −t
2 2
 1 d2
2t =  m + λ (23.8) = 2 Rt + t 2
A Y 4
 2
d Since t is very thin thus t2 ≈ 0
where m = 0,1,2,...
 Destructive interference (dark ring): 2 d2
= 2 Rt (23.10)
2t = mλ (23.9) 4
where m = 0,1,2,... 79 80

Equation for diameter of dark ring
Equation for diameter of bright ring

 Rearrange eq. (23.9):t =

mλ
substitute into eq. (23.10)  Rearrange eq. (23.9):t =
(m + 12 )λ
substitute into eq.
2 2 (23.10)
d2  (m + 12 )λ 
d2  mλ  2 = 2R  
= 2 R  d = 4 Rmλ (23.11) 4  2 
4  2 
where m : order = 0,1,2,... d 2 = 4 R(m + 12 )λ (23.12)
When
m = 0; t = 0 Central dark spot where m : order = 0,1,2,...
zeroth order minimum), d = 0
(zeroth When
m = 1; t = 12 λ 1st dark ring (1
1st order minimum) m = 0; t = 14 λ 1st bright ring (zeroth
zeroth order
maximum)
m = 2; t = λ 2nd dark ring (2
2nd order minimum) m = 1; t = 34 λ 2nd bright ring (1
1st order maximum)

m = 3; t = 32 λ 3rd dark ring (3

3rd order minimum) m = 2; t = 54 λ 3rd bright ring (2
2nd order maximum)

m = 3; t = 74 λ 4th bright ring (3

3rd order maximum)
81 82

From Figure 23.35, Example 23.7 :

An air wedge is formed by placing a human hair between two glass
 The rings become more closely spaced as one moves slides of length 44 mm on one end, and allowing them to touch on
farther from the centre of the Newton’s ring. the other end. When this wedge is illuminated by a red light of
 The reason is that the convex surface of the lens moves wavelength 771 nm, it is observed to have 265 bright fringes.
away from the lower glass block at a progressively Determine
faster rate therefore the thickness of air film increases a. the diameter of hair,
rapidly.
rapidly b. the angle of air wedge,

Newton’s ring can be used to test the accuracy with which a c. the thickness of the air film for 99th dark fringe to be observed,
lens has been ground.
ground d. the separation between two consecutive bright fringes.
 The rings are not circular if the surface is not spherical Solution :
(or the glass block is not flat).
flat) d = 1.02 × 10 −4 m
α = 0.13

t = 3.78 ×10 −5 m
∆x = 1.70 × 10 −4 m
83 84
 85 86

Example 23.8 :
a. Explain why the central spot in Newton’s ring is dark.
b. In a Newton’s ring experiment, the radius of the qth bright ring
is 0.32 cm and the radius of the (q+19)th dark ring is 0.67 cm.
Determine the radius of curvature of the plano-convex used in
the experiment if the wavelength of light used is 589 nm.
Solution :
R = 3.01 m

87 88
 Exercise 23.2 :
1. A thin film of gasoline floats on a puddle of water. Sunlight falls
almost perpendicularly on the film and reflects into your eyes.
Although the sunlight is white, since it contains all colours, the
film has a yellow hue, because destructive interference has
occurred eliminating the colour of blue (λ=469 nm) from the
reflected light. If the refractive indices for gasoline and water are
1.40 and 1.33 respectively, Calculate the minimum thickness of
the film.
ANS. : 168 nm
2. White light is incident normally on a thin soap film (n =1.33)
suspended in air.
a. What are the two minimum thickness that will constructively
reflect yellow light of wavelength 590 nm?
b. What are the two minimum thickness that will destructively
reflect yellow light of wavelength 590 nm?
(Physics,3rd edition, J.S.Walker,
J.S.Walker, Q34, p.966)
ANS. : 110 nm, 330 nm ; 220 nm, 440 nm ;
89 90

3. Two plane glass plates which are in contact at one edge are Learning Outcome:
separated by a piece of metal foil 12.5 cm from that edge.
Interference fringes parallel to the line of contact are observed 23.6 Diffraction by a single slit (1 hour)
in reflected light of wavelength 546 nm and are found to be 1.50
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

www.kmph.matrik.edu.my
mm apart. Determine the thickness of the foil.
2.27×10−5 m
ANS. : 2.27×
Define diffraction.
4. Newton’s rings are formed by reflection between an biconvex
Explain with the aid of a diagram the diffraction of a
lens of focal length 100 cm made of glass of refractive index single slit.
1.50 and in contact with a glass block of refractive index 1.60.
Use:
Use:
Calculate the diameter and thickness of air film for fifth bright
ring using light of wavelength 6000 Å . nλ D
Given 1 angstrom (Å) = 10−10 m yn = for dark fringes (minima)
ANS. : 3.28 mm; 1.35 µm µm
a
5. Newton’s rings are formed with light of wavelength 589 nm
between the plano-convex lens of radius of curvature 100 cm yn =
(n + 12 )λD
and a glass block, in perfect contact. for bright fringes (maxima),
a
a. Determine the radius of the 20th dark ring from the centre.
b. How will this ring move and what will its radius become if where n = ±1, ±2, ±3, ...
the lens and the block are slowly separated to a distance
apart 5.00 × 10−4 cm?
91 92
ANS. : 3.43 mm; inwards, 3.07 mm
 23.6.2 Diffraction by a single silt
23.6 Diffraction by a single slit
Figure 23.37 shows an apparatus setup of diffraction by a single
slit.
23.6.1 Diffraction of light

is defined as the bending of light waves as they travel around 3rd minimum
obstacles or pass through an aperture or slit comparable to 2nd maximum
the wavelength of the light waves.
waves 2nd minimum
θ1 1st maximum

Figures 23.36a, 23.36b and 23.36c show the bending of plane 1st minimum
wavefront. θ2
λ λ λ Central
maximum
S θ2
1st minimum
θ1 1st maximum
2nd minimum
2nd maximum
3rd minimum
intensity
single slit
Figure 23.36a: Figure 23.36b: Figure 23.36c: screen
obstacle Figure 23.37
slit, a > λ slit, a ≈ λ
93
where θ : angle of diffraction 94

Explanation of single slit diffraction experiment Derivation of single slit diffraction equations

Wavefront from light source falls on a narrow slit S and diffraction
Equation for separation between central maximum (bright)

occurs. and nth minimum (dark) fringes P nth minimum

Every point on the wavefront that falls on S acts as sources of
secondary wavelets and superposed each another to form an
interference pattern on the screen as shown in Figure 23.37.

The central fringe is bright (maximum) and widen compare to yn
other bright fringes. rip
st st
1

The central fringe has the highest intensity compare to the
a A θ1 nd strip
other bright fringes.
2 θ1 2

The intensity of bright fringes reduce as the distance a aE Central
a C sin θ1 Q maximum
increase from the central bright fringe. 2
2
B

Other rays with angle θ2 and θ1 will produce minimum and a
sin θ1
maximum on both sides of the central maximum. 2
D
where a : slit width
screen
D : distance between single slit and screen
95 Figure 23.38 96
 A single slit is split into two equal parts, AC and CB. A,C and  For the 2nd minimum and 3rd minimum,
minimum AB is split into 4
B are new sources of secondary wavelets. (Huygen’s equal parts, 6 equal parts and so on as shown in Figures
principle) 23.39 and 23.40.
When the wavelets from A, C and B superpose, interference p

t ri p
will occur at P. t r ip st s stri
1
st s 1 nd trip
 As AB is very small,
small thus
a
nd s
trip a 2 rd s rip
3 th st rip
4 2 ip 6

AE is perpendicular to CP and AP = EP, EP rd s t r 4 th st trip
a 3 h trip a 5 th s
t s 6

the outgoing rays are considered parallel,
parallel 4

and therefore the path difference at P between ray AP θ2 θ3
and CP is : a
∆L = CE = sin θ1 2λ 3λ
2
 Consider two narrow strips as shown in Figure 23.38, for the
two strips superposed destructively thus both strip of light 2nd minimum a λ 3rd minimum a λ
must in antiphase to each another which is equivalence to a sin θ 2 = sin θ 3 =
(2nd order 4 2 (3rd order 6 2
path difference of ½λ. minimum) minimum)
a sin θ 2 = 2λ a sin θ 3 = 3λ
 If the 1st minimum (1st order minimum) is at P, hence :
a λ Figure 23.39 Figure 23.40
∆L = sin θ1 = a sin θ1 = λ
2 2 97 98

 In general, for minima (dark fringes)
Equation for separation between central maximum (bright)
and nth maximum (bright) fringes
a sin θ n = nλ
where n : order = ±1,±2,±3,.. R nth maximum
 If the distance of single slit to the screen is D, and D>>a
then: yn
sin θ n = tan θ n =
D yn
 Therefore the distance of nth minimum from central st st
rip
1 d strip
maximum is: a A θ1 2n trip
nλD rd s
y  3 C aE 3 θ1
a  n  = nλ yn = a
a
sin θ
Central
Q maximum
D a 3
a D 3 1

 When 3 B
n = ±1 1st minimum fringe (1st order minimum) a sin θ1

n = ±2 2nd minimum fringe (2

2nd order minimum) D
screen
n = ±3 3rd minimum fringe (3
3rd order minimum)
99 Figure 23.41 100
 A single slit is split into three equal parts, AC,CD and DB.  For the 2nd maximum and 3rd maximum,
maximum AB is split into 5
A,C,D and B are new sources of secondary wavelets. equal parts, 7 equal parts and so on as shown in Figures
(Huygen’s principle) 23.42 and 23.43.
 When the wavelets from A,C,D and B superpose, rip
t st rip
1 nd sttrip
s
interference will occur at R. st st
rip
a 1 nd strip a 2 rd s tripp
3 th s tri p
As AB is very small, thus 2 r ip
rd st

5 p 7 4 th sstri p

AE is perpendicular to CP and AP = EP,
3 th stri 5 th tri
a 4 th strip a 6 th s

the outgoing rays are considered parallel,
7
5

and therefore the path difference at P between ray AP θ2 θ3
and CP is : a
∆L = CE = sin θ1 5λ 7λ
3
 Consider three narrow strips as shown in Figure 23.41, the 2 2
first two strips (pair) superposed destructively at which the 2nd maximum a λ 3rd maximum a λ
sin θ 2 = sin θ 3 =
path difference is ½λ and leave the third strip.
strip The 3rd strip (2nd order 5 2 (3rd order 7 2
produces the maximum (bright) fringe at R. maximum) 5λ minimum) 7λ
a sin θ 2 = a sin θ 3 =
 If the 1st maximum (1st order maximum) is at R, hence : 2 2
a λ 3λ Figure 23.42 Figure 23.43
∆L = sin θ1 = a sin θ1 =
3 2 2 101 102

 In general, for maxima (bright fringes)
Equation for central maximum (bright) fringe

 1  where
a sin θ n =  n + λ n = ±1,±2,±3,..
 2 D
 If the distance of single slit to the screen is D, and D>>a 1st minimum
then: y
sin θ n = tan θ n = n θ1 y1
D a Q Central
 Therefore the distance of nth maximum from central
θ1 y1 maximum
maximum is: 1st minimum
y   1
=
(n + 12 )λD single slit Figure 23.44
a  n  =  n + λ yn
D  2 a
 When A
n = ±1 1st maximum fringe (1st order maximum) C
D screen
n = ±2 2nd maximum fringe (2
2nd order maximum) E
B
n = ±3 3rd maximum fringe (3
3rd order maximum)
103 Figure 23.45 104
  Figure 23.45 shows five sources of Huygen’s wavelets and  The width of central maximum, w is given by
the screen is to be so far from the slit (D>>a) thus the w = 2 y1 and y1 : separation of 1st minimum and
rays from each source are nearly parallel.
parallel central maximum
 All the wavelets from each source travel the same distance λD
to the point Q (Figure 23.44) and arriving there in phase.
phase
y1 =
a
 Therefore, the constructive interference is occurred at the  λD 
central of the single slit diffraction pattern.
pattern w = 2 
 a 
 The angular width of central maximum, θw is given by

Note:
θ w = 2θ1 and θ1 : 1st minimum diffraction angle
λ  To calculate the maximum number of orders observed,
observed
θ1 = sin −1 take the diffraction angle,θ = 90°
90°.
a
 From both equations for minima and maxima, we obtain
 λ
θ w = 2 sin −1  sin θ n ∝ λ and yn ∝ λ
 a
 By using this two relations, the changes of single slit
105 diffraction pattern can be explained. 106

Example 23.9 :
A sodium light of wavelength 580 nm shines through a slit and
produces a diffraction pattern on a screen 0.60 m away. The width
of the central maximum fringe on the screen is 5.0 cm. Determine
a. the width of the slit,
b. the angular width of the central maximum fringe,
c. the number of minimum that can be observed on the screen.
Solution :
a = 1.39 ×10−5 m
θ w = 4.78

46 fringes

107 108
Example 23.10 :
a. State the similarities and differences of double-slit interference
and single slit diffraction patterns.
b. How many bright fringes will be produced on the screen if a
green light of wavelength 553 nm is incident on a slit of width
8.00 µm?
Solution :
27 fringes

109 110

Exercise 23.3 : Learning Outcome:

1. Monochromatic light of wavelength 689 nm falls on a slit. If the
angle between first bright fringes on either side of the central
maximum is 38°, calculate the slit width. 23.7 Diffraction grating (2 hours)

www.kmph.matrik.edu.my
(Physics for scientist & engineers ,3rd edition, Giancoli,
Giancoli, Q4, p.913) At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
ANS. : 3.2 µm
Explain with the aid of a diagram the formation of
2. Light of wavelength 633 nm from a distant source is incident on diffraction.
a single slit 0.750 mm wide, and the resulting diffraction pattern
Apply formula,
is observed on a screen 3.50 m away. Determine the distance
1
between the two dark fringes on either side of the central bright d sinθn = nλ where d=
fringe. N
(University physics,11th edition, Young&Freedman,
Young&Freedman, Q36.4, p.1396)
ANS. : 5.91 mm
3. A screen is placed 1.00 m behind a single slit. The central
maximum in the resulting diffraction pattern on the screen is
1.60 cm wide. What is the distance between the two second
order minima?
(Physics,3rd edition, J.S.Walker,
J.S.Walker, Q45, p.967)
ANS. : 3.20 cm 111 112

If there N lines per unit length, then slit separation, d is given
23.7 Diffraction grating by: 1

is defined as a large number of equally spaced parallel slits.
slits d=
N

Diffraction grating can be made by ruling very fine parallel
lines on glass or metal by a very precise machine.
machine e.g. if a diffraction grating has 5000 lines per cm, then
The untouched spaces between the lines serve as the slits as 1 1


d= = d = 2 ×10−4 cm
shown in Figure 23.46. N 5000 cm −1
d

Light passes through the slit because it is
The light that passes through the slits are coherent .
transparent.
The Interference pattern is narrower and sharper than double-
slits.

The spaces between the lines are the slits,
for example : if there are four lines then we
There are two type of diffraction grating which are
have 3 slits.  transmission grating (usual diffraction grating)
 reflection grating e.g. CD and DVD

Diffraction grating is used in spectrometer to determine the
lines slit wavelength of light and to study spectra.
spectra
Figure 23.46
113 114

23.7.1 Explanation of diffraction by using Huygen’s
Using Huygens’ principle, each maximum is located by taking the
principle for diffraction grating tangent of the wavelets from the slits.

Figure 23.47 shows an incident lights fall on the transmission
If the wavelets from each of the slits are drawn and a tangent AB
diffraction grating. C first order wavefront is drawn, a plane wavefront parallel to the diffraction grating is
A
source of secondary obtained. This represents the zeroth-order maximum (n = 0).
wavelets
If the wavelets are grouped such that the first wavelet from one
E slit is combined with the second wavelet from the next slit, the
second order wavefront third wavelet from the third slit and so on, the tangent CD will
represent the first-order maximum (n =1).

For the second-order maximum, the wavelets are grouped are
incident lights such that the second wavelet of one slit is combined with the
third order wavefront
fourth wavelet of the next slit, the sixth wavelet from the third slit
D and so on. (tangent EF)EF
F
Similarly, the third-, fourth-,…. order maximum may be obtained.
grating
zeroth order wavefront

Figure 23.47 B 115 116

 23.7.2 Equation of diffraction grating
The maximum (bright) fringes are sometimes called the principal

Figure 23.48 illustrates light travels to a distant viewing screen
maxima or principal fringes since they are placed where the light
from five slits of the grating.
first order maximum intensity is a maximum.
(n = 1)
Since the screen is far so that the rays nearly parallel while the
light travels toward the screen as shown in Figure 23.49.
incoming plane
In reaching the place on the screen while the 1st order maximum
central or zeroth order is located, light from one slit travels a distance of one wavelength
wavefront of light
maximum (n = 0) farther than light from adjacent slit.

Therefore the path difference for maximum fringe (constructive
first order maximum interference) is given by
(n = −1) d sinθn = nλ
diffraction grating
Figure 23.48 d sin θ where n : order = 0,±1,±2,±3,..

When
θ n : n th order of diffraction angle
d θ n=0 Central maximum fringe (0th order maximum)
θ n = ±1 1st maximum fringe (1
1st order maximum)
Figure 23.49
117 n = ±2 2nd maximum fringe (2
2nd order maximum)
118

The maximum fringes produce by a grating are much narrower
Figures 23.51 shows the diffraction grating pattern.
and sharper than those from a double-slit as the intensity graph
in Figures 23.50a and 23.50b.
second-order
n=2 maximum
Parallel beam of
monochromatic light
first-order
Figure 23.50a θ2 n = 1 maximum
θ1 zero-order
n=0
n = −2 maximum
−1 0 1 2
n = −1first-order
maximum
Figure 23.50b grating
n = −2 second-order
maximum
n = −2 −1 0 1 2 Figure 23.51
119 120

If the white light is falls on the grating, a rainbow colours would
Note:
be observed to either side of the central fringe on the screen  To calculate the maximum number of orders for bright
which is white as shown in Figure 23.51. This because the white observed take the diffraction angle,θ = 90°
fringes observed, 90°.
light contains wavelengths between violet and red. red Therefore
n = −2 −1 0 1 2 d sin 90 = nmaxλ

d
nmax =
Rainbow Rainbow white Rainbow Rainbow
λ
where nmax : maximum number of orders that can be
observed.
 From the equation for maxima, we obtain

sin θ n ∝ λ 1
and sin θ n ∝
d
 By using this two relations, the changes of diffraction grating
White pattern can be explained.
light
Figure 23.51 121 122

Example 23.11 :
A monochromatic light of unknown wavelength falls normally on a
diffraction grating. The diffraction grating has 3000 lines per cm.
If the angular separation between the first order maxima is 35°.
Calculate
a. the wavelength of the light,
b. the angular separation between the second-order and third-
order maxima.
Solution :
λ = 1.00 ×10−6 m
∆θ 23 = 27.4

123 124
 125 126

Example 23.12 :
The second-order maximum produced by a diffraction grating with
560 lines per centimeter is at an angle of 3.1°.
a. What is the wavelength of the light that illuminates the grating?
b. Determine the number of maximum can be observed on a
screen.
c. State and giving reason, what you would expect to observe if a
grating with a larger number of lines per centimeter is used.
Solution :
λ = 4.83 × 10 −7 m
73 fringes

127 128
Exercise 23.4 :
1. The first-order maximum line of 589 nm light falling on a
diffraction grating is observed at an angle of 15.5°. Determine
a. the slit separation on the grating.

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b. the angle of diffraction for third-order maximum line.
(Physics for scientist & engineers ,3rd edition, Giancoli,
Giancoli, Q32, p.914)
ANS. : 2.20 µm; 53.4°
53.4°
2. A diffraction grating has 6000 lines per cm. Calculate the angular
separation between wavelengths 589.6 nm and 546.1 nm
respectively after transmission through it at normal incidence, in
the first-order spectrum (maximum line). Next Chapter…
ANS. : 1.60°
1.60°
3. When blue light of wavelength 465 nm illuminates a diffraction
CHAPTER 24 :
grating, it produces a 1st order maximum but no 2nd order
maximum.
Quantization of light
a. Explain the absence of 2nd order maximum.
b. What is the maximum spacing between lines on this grating?
(Physics,3rd edition, J.S.Walker,
J.S.Walker, Q65, p.968)
ANS. : 930 nm 129 130