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CHAPTER 18:
Electric current and direct-
current circuits
(7 Hours)

1
 Learning Outcome:

18.1 Electrical conduction (1 hour)

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At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

Describe microscopic model of current.

Define and use electric current formulae,

dQ
I =
dt

2
18.1 Electrical conduction
18.1.1 Electric current, I

Consider a simple closed circuit consists of wires, a battery and
a light bulb as shown in Figure 18.1.
r
Fe

r
E Area, A I

Figure 18.1
3

From the Figure 18.1,
 Direction of electric field or electric current :
Positive to negative terminal
 Direction of electron flows :
Negative to positive terminal
 The electron accelerates because of the electric force
acted on it.

is defined as the total (nett) charge, Q flowing through the
area per unit time, t.
Mathematically,
Q
I= average current
t
OR
dQ
I= instantaneous current
dt 4

It is a base and scalar quantities.

The S.I. unit of the electric current is the ampere (A).

1 ampere of current is defined as one coulomb of charge
passing through the surface area in one second.second
OR

1 coulomb
1 ampere = = 1 C s −1
1 second
Note:
If the charge move around a circuit in the same direction
at all times,
times the current is called direct current (dc),
(dc) which is
produced by the battery.
battery

5
18.1.2 Current density, J

is defined as the current flowing through a conductor per
unit cross-sectional area.
area
Mathematically,
I
J=
A
where I : electric current
A : cross - sectional area of the conductor

It is a vector quantity.
quantity

Its unit is ampere per squared metre (A m−2)

The direction of current density, J always in the same
direction of the current I. e.g. in Figure 18.2.
Area, A I
r r
J =0 J max
Figure 18.2 6
 18.1.3 Electrical conduction in metal

In metal the charge carrier is free electrons and a lot of free
electrons are available in it.

They move freely and randomly throughout the crystal lattice
structure of the metal but frequently interact with the lattices.

When the electric field is applied to the metal,
metal the freely
moving electron experience an electric force and tend to
drift with constant average velocity (called
( drift velocity)
towards a direction opposite to the direction of the field as
shown in Figure 18.3.
Note: I
The magnitude of the r r
drift velocity is much vd vd
smaller than the r
random velocities of E
the free electron. Figure 18.3

Then the electric current is flowing in the opposite direction
of the electron flows.
flows 7
18.1.4 Drift velocity of charges, vd

Consider a metal rod of length L and cross-sectional area A,
which is applied to the electric field as shown in Figures 18.4.
L I
r r
vd A vd
r
E
r
J
Figure 18.4

Suppose there are n free electrons (charge carrier) per unit
volume in the metal rod, thus the number of free electron, N is
given by N
n = and V = AL
V
N
n= N = nAL
AL
8

The total charge Q of the free electrons that pass through the
area A along the rod is
Q = Ne
Q = (nAL )e

The time required for the electron moving along the rod is
L L
vd = t=
t vd
Q Definition

Since I = then the drift velocity vd is given by
t
I=
(nAL )e
= nAevd vd =
I J
OR vd =
L nAe ne
  I
v
 d and =J
A
where n : number of free electron Density of the
(charge carrier) per unit volume free electron
e : charge of the electron 9
Example 18.1 :
A silver wire carries a current of 3.0 A. Determine
a. the number of electrons per second pass through the wire,
b. the amount of charge flows through a cross-sectional area of the
wire in 55 s.
(Given charge of electron, e = 1.60 × 10−19 C)
Solution : I = 3.0 A
Ans; a) N
= 1.88 × 1019 electrons s −1
t
b) Q = 165 C

10
Example 18.2 :
A copper wire of radius 900 µm carries a current of 17 mA. The wire
contains 8.49 × 1028 free electrons per cubic meter. Determine
a. the magnitude of the drift velocity in the wire,
b. the current density in the wire.
(Given charge of electron, e = 1.60 × 10−19 C)
−6
Solution : r = 900 × 10 m; I = 17 × 10 −3 A; n = 8.49 × 10 28 m −3
Ans; a. vd = 4.92 × 10 −7 m s −1
3 −2
b. J = 6.68 × 10 A m

11
Example 18.3 :
A high voltage transmission line with a diameter of 3.00 cm and a
length of 100 km carries a steady current of 1500 A. If the conductor
is copper wire with a free charge density of 8.49 × 1028 electrons m-3,
calculate the time taken by one electron to travel the full length of the
line. (Given charge of electron, e = 1.60 × 10−19 C)
Solution : d = 3.00 × 10 −2 m; L = 100 × 103 m; I = 1500 A;
n = 8.49 × 10 28 m −3
Ans: t = 6.41×108 s

12
Example 18.4 :
Explain how electrical devices can begin operating almost
immediately after you switch on, even though the individual
electrons in the wire may take hours to reach the device.
Solution :

13
 Learning Outcome:

18.2 Resistivity and Ohm’s law (½ hour)

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At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

Define and use resistivity,

RA
ρ=
l

State and use Ohm’s law.

V = IR

14
 18.2 Resistivity and Ohm’s law
18.2.1 Resistance, R

is defined as a ratio of the potential difference across an
electrical component to the current passing through it.
Mathematically, V
R= (18.1)
I
where V : potential difference (voltage)
I : current

It is a measure of the component’s opposition to the flow of
the electric charge.
charge

It is a scalar quantity and its unit is ohm (Ω ) or V A−1

In general, the resistance of a metallic conductor increases
Note: with temperature.
temperature
If the temperature of the metallic conductor is constant hence its
resistance also constant.
constant
15
18.2.2 Resistivity and conductivity
Resistivity, ρ

is defined as the resistance of a unit cross-sectional area per
unit length of the material.
material
Mathematically,
RA
ρ= (18.2)
l
where l : length of the material
A : cross - sectional area

It is a scalar quantity and its unit is ohm meter (Ω m)

It is a measure of a material’s ability to oppose the flow of
an electric current.
current

It also known as specific resistance.
resistance

Resistivity depends on the type of the material and on the
temperature.
temperature

A good electric conductors have a very low resistivities and
good insulators have very high resistivities.
resistivities 16

From the eq. (18.2), the resistance of a conductor depends on
the length and cross-sectional area.
area

Table 18.1 shows the resistivity for various materials at 20 °C.
Material Resistivity, ρ ( Ω m)
Silver 1.59 × 10−8
Copper 1.68 × 10−8
Aluminum 2.82 × 10−8
Gold 2.44 × 10−8
Glass 1010−1014
Table 18.1
Conductivity, σ

is defined as the reciprocal of the resistivity of a material.
Mathematically,
1
σ= (18.3)
ρ

It is a scalar quantity and its unit is Ω−1 m−1. 17
Example 18.5 :
Two wires P and Q with circular cross section are made of the same
metal and have equal length. If the resistance of wire P is three times
greater than that of wire Q, determine the ratio of their diameters.
Solution : ρP = ρQ = ρ; lP = lQ = l
Ans;
dQ d 1
= 3 OR P
=
dP dQ 3

18
Example 18.6 :
When a potential difference of 240 V is applied across a wire that is
200 cm long and has a 0.50 mm radius, the current density is
7.14 × 109 A m−2. Calculate
a. the resistivity of the wire,
b. the conductivity of the wire.
Solution : V = 240 V; l = 2.00 m; r = 0.50 × 10 −3 m;
J = 7.14 × 109 A m −2
Ans; a. ρ = 1.68 × 10 −8 Ω m
b. σ = 5.95 ×10 7 Ω −1 m −1

19
18.2.3 Ohm’s law

States that the potential difference across a metallic
conductor is proportional to the current flowing through it if
its temperature is constant.
Mathematically,
V ∝ I where T = constant
Then
V = IR (18.4)

where R : resistance of a conductor

Ohm’s law also can be stated in term of electric field E and
current density J.
 Consider a uniform conductor of length l and cross-sectional
area A as shown in Figure 18.5.
l
A I
Figure 18.5 r 20
E
 A potential difference V is maintained across the conductor
sets up by an electric field E and this field produce a current
I that is proportional to the potential difference.
 If the field is assumed to be uniform, the potential difference
V is related to the field through the relationship below :
V = Ed V = El
 From the Ohm’s law,
ρl
V = IR where I = JA and R =
A
 ρl 
El = JA 
 A

E = ρJ OR J = σE (18.5)

and
1
ρ=
σ 21

Figures 18.6a, 18.6b, 18.6c and 18.6d show the potential
difference V against current I graphs for various materials.
V V

Gradient, m
=R

0 0
I I
Figure 18.6a : metal Figure 18.6b : semiconductor

22
 V V

0 0
I I
Note: Figure 18.6c : carbon Figure 18.6d : electrolyte

Some conductors have resistances which depend on the
currents flowing through them are known as Ohmic conductors
and are said to obey Ohm’s law.
law

Meanwhile, non-ohmic conductors are the conductors where
their resistance depend only of the temperature.
temperature
23
Example 18.7 :
A copper wire carries a current of 10.0 A. The cross section of the
wire is a square of side 2.0 mm and its length is 50 m. The density of
the free electron in the wire is 8.0 × 1028 m−3. Determine
a. the current density,
b. the drift velocity of the electrons,
c. the electric field intensity between both end of the wire,
d. the potential difference across the wire,
e. the resistance of the wire.
(Given the resistivity of copper is 1.68 × 10−8 Ω m and charge of
electron, e = 1.60 × 10−19 C)
−3 28 −3
Solution : I = 10.0 A; a = 2.0 × 10 m; n = 8.0 × 10 m ;
l = 50 m6
Ans; J = 2.5 ×10 A m −2
vd = 1.95 × 10 −4 m s −1
E = 0.042 N C −1 V = 2.1 V R = 0.21 Ω

24
Exercise 18.1 :
1. A block in the shape of a rectangular solid has a cross-
sectional area of 3.50 cm2 across its width, a front to rear
length of 15.8 cm and a resistance of 935 Ω. The material of
which the block is made has 5.33 × 1022 electrons m−3. A
potential difference of 35.8 V is maintained between its front
and rear faces. Calculate
a. the current in the block,
b. the current density in the block,
c. the drift velocity of the electron,
d. the magnitude of the electric field in the block.
(Fundamentals of Physics,6th edition, Halliday, Resnick &
Walker, Q24, p.631)
ANS. : 3.83 × 10−2 A; 109 A m−2; 1.28 × 10−2 m s−1; 227 V m−1

25
2.

Figure 18.7

Figure 18.7 shows a rod in is made of two materials. Each

conductor has a square cross section and 3.00 mm on a side.
The first material has a resistivity of 4.00 × 10–3 Ω m and is
25.0 cm long, while the second material has a resistivity of
6.00 × 10–3 Ω m and is 40.0 cm long. Determine the
resistance between the ends of the rod.
(Physics for scientists and engineers,6th edition,Serway&Jewett,
Q24, p.853)
ANS. : 378 Ω

26
3. A 2.0 m length of wire is made by welding the end of a 120 cm
long silver wire to the end of an 80 cm long copper wire. Each
piece of wire is 0.60 mm in diameter. A potential difference of
5.0 V is maintained between the ends of the 2.0 m composite
wire. Determine
a. the current in the copper and silver wires.
b. the magnitude of the electric field in copper and silver
wires.
c. the potential difference between the ends of the silver
section of wire.
(Given ρ (silver) is 1.47 × 10−8 Ω m and ρ (copper) is 1.72 ×
10−8 Ω m)
(University physics,11th edition, Young&Freedman, Q25.56,
p.976)
ANS. : 45 A; 2.76 V m−1, 2.33 V m−1; 2.79 V
27
 Learning Outcome:
18.3 Variation of resistance with temperature
(1 hour)
www.kmph.matrik.edu.my

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

Explain the effect of temperature on electrical resistance
in metals and superconductors

Define and use temperature coefficient of resistivity,α.
∆ρ
α=
ρ0 ∆ T

Apply resistance :

R = R 0 [1 + α (T − T0 )]

28
18.3 Variation of resistance with
temperature
18.3.1 Effect of temperature on resistance
Metal

When the temperature increases,
increases the number of free
electrons per unit volume in metal remains unchanged.
unchanged

Metal atoms in the crystal lattice vibrate with greater
amplitude and cause the number of collisions between the
free electrons and metal atoms increase.
increase Hence the resistance
in the metal increases.
increases
Superconductor

Superconductor is a class of metals and compound whose
resistance decreases to zero when they are below the
critical temperature Tc.

29

Table 18.2 shows the critical temperature for various
superconductors.

Material Tc( K)
Lead 7.18
Mercury 4.15
Tin 3.72
Aluminum 1.19
Zinc 0.88
Table 18.2

When the temperature of the metal decreases,
decreases its resistance
decreases to zero at critical temperature.
temperature

Superconductor have many technological applications such as
 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
Video 18.1
 magnetic levitation of train
 faster computer chips Video 18.2
 powerful electric motors and etc… 30
18.3.2 Temperature coefficient of resistivity, α

is defined as a fractional increase in resistivity of a
conductor per unit rise in temperature.
temperature
OR
∆ρ
α= (18.6)
ρ0 ∆ T
where ∆ρ : change in the resistivity
∆T : temperature change = T − T0
ρ0 : initial resistivity

Since ∆ρ = ρ−ρ0 then

ρ = ρ0 (1 + α∆T ) (18.7)

where ρ : final resistivity

The unit of α is °C−1 OR K− 1.

From the equation (18.7), the resistivity of a conductors
varies approximately linearly with temperature.
temperature 31

From the definition of resistivity, thus
ρ∝R
then the equation (18.7) can be expressed as

R = R0 (1 + α∆T ) (18.8)

where R0 : initial resistance

R : final resistance

Table 18.3 shows the temperature coefficients of resistivity for
various materials.
Material α (°C−1)
Silver 4.10 × 10−3
Mercury 0.89 × 10−3
Iron 6.51 × 10−3
Aluminum 4.29 × 10−3
Copper 6.80 × 10−3
Table 18.3 32

Figures 18.8a, 18.8b, 18.8c and 18.8d show the resistance R
against temperature T graphs for various materials.
R R

R0

0 T 0 T
Figure 18.8a : metal Figure 18.8b : semiconductor
R R

0 Tc T 0 T
Figure 18.8c : superconductor Figure 18.8d : carbon33
Example 18.8 :
A copper wire has a resistance of 25 mΩ at 20 °C. When the wire is
carrying a current, heat produced by the current causes the
temperature of the wire to increase by 27 °C.
a. Calculate the change in the wire’s resistance.
b. If its original current was 10.0 mA and the potential difference
across wire remains constant, what is its final current?
(Given the temperature coefficient of resistivity for copper is
6.80 × 10−3 °C−1)
Solution : R0 = 25 × 10 −3 Ω; T0 = 20 o C; ∆T = 27 o C
Ans; ∆R = 4.59 × 10 −3 Ω I = 8.45 × 10 −3 A

34
 Learning Outcome:
18.4 Electromotive force (emf), potential
difference and internal resistance (½ hour)
www.kmph.matrik.edu.my

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

Define emf, ε

Explain the difference between emf of a battery and
potential difference across the battery terminals.

Apply voltage,

V = ε − Ir

35
18.4 Electromotive force (emf), potential
difference and internal resistance
18.4.1 Emf, ε and potential difference, V

Consider a circuit consisting of a battery (cell) that is connected
by wires to an external resistor R as shown in Figure 18.9.
R

I Battery (cell) I
A
ε r B

Figure 18.9
36

A current I flows from the terminal A to the terminal B.

For the current to flow continuously from terminal A to B, a
source of electromotive force (e.m.f.), ε is required such as
battery to maintained the potential difference between point A
and point B.

Electromotive force (emf),ε is defined as the energy provided
by the source (battery/cell) to each unit charge that flows
through the external and internal resistances.
resistances

Terminal potential difference (voltage), V is defined as the work
done in bringing a unit (test) charge from the negative to
the positive terminals of the battery through the external
resistance only.
only

The unit for both e.m.f. and potential difference are volt (V).

When the current I flows naturally from the battery there is an
internal drop in potential difference (voltage) equal to Ir. Thus
the terminal potential difference (voltage), V is given by

37
 V = ε − Ir (18.9)

and V = IR

then
ε = I (R + r ) (18.10)

where ε : e.m.f.
V : terminal potential difference (voltage)
Ir : internal drop in potential difference OR Vr
R : total external resistance
r : internal resistance of a cell (battery)

Equation (18.9) is valid if the battery (cell) supplied the
current to the circuit where
V <ε

For the battery without internal resistance or if no current
flows in the circuit (open circuit),
circuit) then equation (18.9) can be
written as
V =ε
38
18.4.2 Internal resistance of a battery, r

is defined as the resistance of the chemicals inside the
battery (cell) between the poles and is given by

Vr when the cell (battery) is used.

I
where Vr : potential difference across internal resistance
I : current in the circuit

The value of internal resistance depends on the type of
chemical material in the battery.

The symbol of emf and internal resistance in the electrical circuit
are shown in Figures 18.10a and 18.10b.

ε r r ε
OR

Figure 18.10a Figure 18.10b 39

Example 18.9 :
A battery has an emf of 9.0 V and an internal resistance of 6.0 Ω.
Determine
a. the potential difference across its terminals when it is supplying a
current of 0.50 A,
b. the maximum current which the battery could supply.
Solution : ε = 9.0 V; r = 6.0 Ω
Ans; V = 6.0 V I = 1.5 A
max

40
Example 18.10 :
A car battery has an emf of 12.0 V and an internal resistance of
1.0 Ω. The external resistor of resistance 5.0 Ω is connected in series
with the battery as shown in Figure 18.11.
V

r ε

Figure 18.11
Determine the reading of the ammeter and voltmeter if both meters
are ideal.
Ans; 2.0A, V=10V 41
 Learning Outcome:

18.5 Electrical energy and power (½ hour)

www.kmph.matrik.edu.my

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

Apply electrical energy,

W = VIt
and power,
power

P = VI

42
18.5 Electrical energy and power
18.5.1 Electrical energy, E

Consider a circuit consisting of a battery that is connected by
wires to an electrical device (such as a lamp, motor or battery
being charged) as shown in Figure 18.12 where the potential
different across that electrical device is V.
Electrical device
A B

I V I

Figure 18.12 43

A current I flows from the terminal A to the terminal B, if it flows
for time t, the charge Q which it carries from B to A is given by
Q = It

Then the work done on this charge Q from B to A (equal to the
electrical energy supplied)
supplied is
W = QV
W = E = VIt (18.11)

If the electrical device is passive resistor (device which

convert all the electrical energy supplied into heat),
heat the heat
dissipated H is given by

H = W = VIt
OR

H = I 2 Rt (18.12) 44
18.5.2 Power, P

is defined as the energy liberated per unit time in the
electrical device.
device

The electrical power P supplied to the electrical device is given
by W VIt
P= =
t t
P = IV (18.13)

When the electric current flows through wire or passive resistor,

hence the potential difference across it is
V = IR
then the electrical power can be written as

P=I R 2 OR V2 (18.14)
P=
R

It is a scalar quantity and its unit is watts (W). 45
Example 18.11 :
r ε

Figure 18.13
In Figure 18.13, a battery has an emf of 12 V and an internal
resistance of 1.0 Ω. Determine
a. the rate of energy transferred to electrical energy in the battery,
b. the rate of heat dissipated in the battery,
c. the amount of heat loss in the 5.0 Ω resistor if the current flows
through it for 20 minutes.
Ans; P = 24 W P = 4.0 W H = 2.4 × 10 4 J
46
 18.5.3 Combination of cells
Cells in series

Consider two cells are connected in series as shown in Figure
18.14.
ε1 r1 ε2 r2

Figure 18.14

The total emf, ε and the total internal resistance, r are given by
ε = ε1 + ε2 (18.15)
and

Note:
r = r1 + r2 (18.16)

If one cell, e.m.f. ε2 say, is turned round ‘in opposition’

opposition to the
others, then ε = ε1 − ε 2 but the total internal resistance remains
unaltered.
unaltered
47
 Cells in parallel

Consider two equal cells are connected in parallel as shown in
Figure 18.15. ε1 r1

ε1 r1

Figure 18.15

The total emf, ε and the total internal resistance, r are given by
ε = ε1 (18.17)
1 1 1
and = + (18.18)
Note:
r r1 r1
If different cells are connected in parallel,
parallel there is no simple
formula for the total emf and the total internal resistance where
Kirchhoff’s laws have to be used. 48
Exercise 18.2 :
1. A wire of unknown composition has a resistance of 35.0 Ω
when immersed in the water at 20.0 °C. When the wire is
placed in the boiling water, its resistance rises to 47.6 Ω.
Calculate the temperature on a hot day when the wire has a
resistance of 37.8 Ω.
(Physics,7th edition, Cutnell & Johnson, Q15, p.639)
ANS. : 37.8 °C
2. a. A battery of emf 6.0 V is connected across a 10 Ω resistor.
If the potential difference across the resistor is 5.0 V,
determine
i. the current in the circuit,
ii. the internal resistance of the battery.
b. When a 1.5 V dry cell is short-circuited, a current of 3.0 A
flows through the cell. What is the internal resistance of the
cell?
ANS. : 0.50 A, 2.0 Ω; 0.50 Ω
49
3. An electric toy of resistance 2.50 Ω is operated by a dry cell of
emf 1.50 V and an internal resistance 0.25 Ω.
a. What is the current does the toy drawn?
b. If the cell delivers a steady current for 6.00 hours, calculate
the charge pass through the toy.
c. Determine the energy was delivered to the toy.
ANS. : 0.55 A; 1.19 × 104 C; 16.3 kJ
4. A wire 5.0 m long and 3.0 mm in diameter has a resistance of
100 Ω. A 15 V of potential difference is applied across the
wire. Determine
a. the current in the wire,
b. the resistivity of the wire,
c. the rate at which heat is being produced in the wire.
(College Physics,6th edition, Wilson, Buffa & Lou, Q75, p.589)
ANS. : 0.15 A; 1.40 × 10−4 Ω m; 2.30 W
50
 Learning Outcome:

18.6 Resistors in series and parallel (1 hour)

www.kmph.matrik.edu.my

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

Deduce and calculate effective resistance of resistors in
series and parallel.

51
18.6 Resistors in series and parallel
18.6.1 Resistors in series

The symbol of resistor in an electrical circuit can be shown in
Figure 18.16.
R R
OR
Figure 18.16

Consider three resistors are connected in series to the battery
as shown in Figure 18.17.
R1 R2 R3

V1 V2 V3
I I
V
Figure 18.17 52
Characteristics of resistors in series

The same current I flows through each resistor where

I = I1 = I 2 = I 3

Assuming that the connecting wires have no resistance,
resistance the
total potential difference, V is given by

V = V1 + V2 + V3 (18.19)

From the definition of resistance, thus

V1 = IR1 ;V2 = IR2 ;V3 = IR3 ;V = IReff
Substituting for V1, V2 , V3 and V in the eq. (5.19) gives
IReff = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
Reff = R1 + R2 + R3 (18.20)

where Reff : effective (equivalent) resistance

53
18.6.2 Resistors in parallel

Consider three resistors are connected in parallel to the battery
as shown in Figures 18.18a and 18.18b.

R3 I I3
I3
I1 I2
V3
I2 R2 R2
V1 V3 R3
V R1 V2
V2
I1 R1

V1 I
I I
V Figure 18.18b

Figure 18.18a
54
Characteristics of resistors in parallel

There same potential difference, V across each resistor
where
V = V1 = V2 = V3

conserved therefore the total current I in the
The charge is conserved,
circuit is given by
I = I1 + I 2 + I 3 (18.21)

From the definition of resistance, thus

V V V V
I1 = ; I 2 = ; I3 = ; I =
R1 R2 R3 Reff
Substituting for I1, I2 , I3 and I in the eq. (18.21) gives
V V V V
= + +
Reff R1 R2 R3
1 1 1 1
= + + (18.22)
Reff R1 R2 R3 55
 Example 18.12 :
4.0 Ω 12 Ω

2.0 Ω

8.0 V

Figure 18.19
For the circuit in Figure 18.19, calculate
a. the effective resistance of the circuit,
b. the current passes through the 12 Ω resistor,
c. the potential difference across 4.0 Ω resistor,
d. the power delivered by the battery.
The internal resistance of the battery may be ignored.
Ans: Reff = 1.78 Ω I 2 = 0.50 A V1 = 2.0 V P = 36.0 W
56
 Example 18.13 : 20 Ω
A

10 Ω
10 Ω 5.0 Ω

Figure 18.20 5.0 Ω

B
For the circuit in Figure 18.20, calculate the effective resistance
between the points A and B.
Solution : R1 = 5.0 Ω; R2 = 5.0 Ω; R3 = 10 Ω; R4 = 20 Ω;
R5 = 10 Ω
Ans; Reff = 7.14 Ω

57
Exercise 18.3 :
1. Determine the equivalent resistances of the resistors in
Figures 18.21, 18.22 and 18.23.
2. 0 Ω 6. 0 Ω
2. 0 Ω
2. 0 Ω 10 Ω
4. 0 Ω
2. 0 Ω 6. 0 Ω
8.0 Ω
Figure 18.21 Figure 18.22
16 Ω 20 Ω
16 Ω

9.0 Ω
Figure 18.23 6.0 Ω
18 Ω
ANS. : 0.80 Ω; 2.7 Ω; 8.0 Ω 58
2.
1.0 Ω 7.1 Ω

4.5 Ω 3.2 Ω

r 12 V 5.8 Ω

Figure 18.24
The circuit in Figure 18.24 includes a battery with a finite
internal resistance, r = 0.50 Ω.
a. Determine the current flowing through the 7.1 Ω and 3.2 Ω
resistors.
b. How much current flows through the battery?
c. What is the potential difference between the terminals of
the battery?
(Physics,3th edition, James S. Walker, Q39, p.728)
59
ANS. : 1.1 A, 0.3 A; 1.4 A; 11.3 V
3.
R R
ε
R R

Figure 18.25
Four identical resistors are connected to a battery as shown in
Figure 18.25. When the switch is open, the current through
the battery is I0.
a. When the switch is closed, will the current through the
battery increase, decrease or stay the same? Explain.
b. Calculate the current that flows through the battery when
the switch is closed, Give your answer in terms of I0.
(Physics,3th edition, James S. Walker, Q45, p.728)
ANS. : U think 60
 Learning Outcome:

18.7 Kirchhoff’s laws (1½ hours)

www.kmph.matrik.edu.my

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

State and use Kirchhoff’s Laws.

61
18.7 Kirchhoff’s laws
18.7.1 Kirchhoff’s first law (junction or current law)

states the sum of the currents entering any junctions in a
circuit must equal the sum of the currents leaving that
junction.
junction
OR
∑I in = ∑I out (18.23)

For example : I4
I1
I3 I3
A B
I2 I5
Figure 18.26
I1 + I 2 = I 3 I3 = I 4 + I5
∑I in = ∑I out
62
18.7.2 Kirchhoff’s second law (loop or voltage law)

states in any loop, the sum of emfs is equal to the sum of
the products of current and resistance.
resistance
OR In any loop,

∑ ε = ∑ IR (18.24)

Sign convention

For emf, ε:
direction of loop direction of loop

ε ε
- + + -
+ε −ε
63

For product of IR:
direction of loop direction of loop

R R
+ IR − IR
I I
18.7.3 Problem solving strategy (Kirchhoff’s Laws)

Choose and labeling the current at each junction in the circuit
given.

Choose any one junction in the circuit and apply the
Kirchhoff’s first law.
law

Choose any two closed loops in the circuit and designate a
direction (clockwise OR anticlockwise)
anticlockwise to travel around the
loop in applying the Kirchhoff’s second law.
law

Solving the simultaneous equation to determine the unknown
currents and unknown variables.

64

For example, Consider a circuit is shown in Figure 18.27a.
I ε1 R1 I
E 1 1 F

Loop 1 I1
I1 ε2
I2 R2 I2
D A
Loop 3
I3 Loop 2 I 3
R3
ε3
C I3 I3 B
Figure 18.27a
 At junction A or D (applying the Kirchhoff’s first law) :
∑I in = ∑I out

I1 = I 2 + I 3 (1)
65
 For the closed loop (either clockwise or anticlockwise), apply
the Kirchhoff’s second law.

From Loop 1 FEDAF
I1 ε1 R1 I1 F
E

I1
I1
Loop 1
I2 ε2 R2 I2
D A

Figure 18.27b

∑ ε = ∑ IR
ε1 + ε 2 = I 2 R2 + I1 R1 (2)

66

From Loop 2 ABCDA

I2 ε2 R2 I2
D A
I3 Loop 2 I3
R3 ε3
C I3 I3 B

Figure 18.27c

∑ ε = ∑ IR
ε2 − ε3 = I 2 R2 − I 3 R3 (3)

67

From Loop 3 FECBF
I1 ε1 R1 I1 F
E
Note:
From the calculation,
sometimes we get
I1
I1
negative value of
current. This negative Loop 3
sign indicates that
the direction of the
I3 I3
actual current is
R3
ε3
opposite to the
direction of the C
current drawn.
drawn
I3 I3 B
Figure 18.27d
ε1 + ε3 = I 3 R3 + I1 R1 (4)
 By solving equation (1) and any two equations from the
closed loop,
loop hence each current in the circuit can be
determined. 68
Example 18.14 :

8.50 Ω 11.5 V, 2 Ω

15.0 V, 4 Ω 6.22 Ω

15.1 Ω

Figure 18.28

For the circuit in Figure 18.28, Determine the current and its direction
in the circuit.
Ans; I = 0.74 A (anticlockwise)

69
Example 18.15 :

3.9 Ω 6.7 Ω

12 V 1.2 Ω 9.0 V
I1 9.8 Ω I I2

Figure 18.29

For the circuit in Figure 18.29, determine

a. the currents I1, I2 and I,
b. the potential difference across the 6.7 Ω resistor,
c. the power dissipated from the 1.2 Ω resistor.
Ans: I1 = 0.72 A; I 2 = 1.03 A; I = 1.75 A
70
V = 6.90 V P = 3.68 W
Exercise 18.4 :
1. For a circuit in Figure 18.30,
ε1
I1
R1
ε2 R2
I2

R3
I Figure 18.30
Given ε1= 8V, R2= 2 Ω, R3= 3 Ω, R1 = 1 Ω and I = 3 A.
Ignore the internal resistance in each battery. Calculate
a. the currents I1 and I2.
b. the emf, ε2.
ANS. : 1.0 A, 4.0 A; 17 V
71
2. 4.0 Ω

4.0 Ω 5.0 V
5.0 V

10 V 4.0 Ω

Figure 18.31
Determine the current in each resistor in the circuit shown in
Figure 18.31.
(College Physics,6th edition, Wilson, Buffa & Lou, Q57, p.619)

ANS. : 3.75 A; 1.25 A; 1.25 A

72
 Learning Outcome:

18.8 Potential divider (½ hour)

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At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

Explain the principle of a potential divider.

Apply equation of potential divider,
divider

 R1 
V1 =  V
 R1 + R 2 

73
18.8 Potential divider

A potential divider produces an output voltage that is a fraction
of the supply voltage V. This is done by connecting two
resistors in series as shown in Figure 18.32.
V

I I
R1 R2

V1 V2
Figure 18.32

Since the current flowing through each resistor is the same,
same
thus V
I= V
Reff I=
R1 + R2
and Reff = R1 + R2 74

Therefore, the potential difference (voltage) across R1 is given
by
 R1 
V1 = IR1 V1 =  V (18.25)
 R1 + R2 

Similarly,
 R2 
V2 =  V (18.26)
 R1 + R2 

Resistance R1 and R2 can be replaced by a uniform
homogeneous wire as shown in Figure 18.33.
V

I I
l1 l2
A C B
Figure 18.33 V1 V2 75

The total resistance, RAB in the wire is
ρl
RAB = RAC + RCB and R=
A
ρl1 ρl2
RAB = +
A A
ρ
RAB = (l1 + l2 )
A

Since the current flowing through the wire is the same,
same thus
V
I=
RAB
V
I=
ρ
(l1 + l2 )
A

76

Therefore, the potential difference (voltage) across the wire with
length l1 is given by  
 V  ρl1 
V1 = IRAC V1 =    
 (l1 + l2 )  A 
ρ
A 
 l1 
V1 =  V (18.27)
 l1 + l2 

Similarly,
 l2 
V2 =  V (18.28)

Note:
 l1 + l2 
From Ohm’s law,
 ρl 
V = IR = I  
 A
V ∝l 77
Example 18.16 :

8000 Ω

12 V

4000 Ω Vout

Figure 18.34
For the circuit in Figure 18.34,
a. calculate the output voltage.
b. If a voltmeter of resistance 4000 Ω is connected across the output,
determine the reading of the voltmeter.
Ans; Vout = 4.0 V ,2.4V
78
 Learning Outcome:

18.9 Potentiometer and Wheatstone bridge (½ hour)

www.kmph.matrik.edu.my

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

Explain principles of potentiometer and Wheatstone
Bridge and their applications.

Use related equations such as

R1 R3
=
R2 Rx

Rx lx
=
R l

79
18.9 Potentiometer and Wheatstone bridge
18.9.1 Potentiometer

Consider a potentiometer circuit is shown in Figure 18.35.
V (Driver cell -accumulator)

I I
I C I
A B

G Jockey
+
Vx-
Figure 18.35

The potentiometer is balanced when the jockey (sliding contact)
is at such a position on wire AB that there is no current
through the galvanometer.
galvanometer Thus
Galvanometer reading = 0 80

When the potentiometer in balanced, the unknown voltage
(potential difference being measured) is equal to the
voltage across AC.
AC

Vx = VAC

Potentiometer can be used to
 compare the emfs of two cells.
 measure an unknown emf of a cell.
 measure the internal resistance of a cell.
Compare the emfs of two cells

In this case, a potentiometer is set up as illustrated in Figure
18.36, in which AB is a wire of uniform resistance and J is a
sliding contact (jockey) onto the wire.

An accumulator X maintains a steady current I through the wire
AB.

81
 X

I l2 I
l1
C D I
A B
I J

ε1
(1)
S
G
ε2 (2)
Figure 18.36

Initially, a switch S is connected to the terminal (1) and the
jockey moved until the emf ε1 exactly balances the potential
difference (p.d.) from the accumulator (galvanometer reading is
zero) at point C. Hence
82
 ε1 = VAC
ρl1
where VAC = IRAC and RAC =
A
then  ρI 
ε1 =  l1 (1)
 A

After that, the switch S is connected to the terminal (2) and the
jockey moved until the emf ε2 balances the p.d. from the
accumulator at point D. Hence
ε2 = VAD
ρl 2
where VAD = IRAD and RAD =
A
then  ρI 
ε 2 =  l2 (2)
 A
83

By dividing eq. (1) and eq. (2) then
 ρI 
 l1
ε1  A  ε1 l1
= = (18.29)
ε2  ρI  ε2 l2
 l2
 A
Measure an unknown emf of a cell

By using the same circuit shown in Figure 18.36, the value of
unknown emf can be determined if the cell ε1 is replaced with a
standard cell.

A standard cell is one in which provides a constant and

emf Thus the emf ε2 can be calculated by

accurately known emf.
using the equation (18.29).

84
Measure the internal resistance of a cell

Consider a potentiometer circuit as shown in Figure 18.37.
ε

I I
l0 I
C
A B
I J

ε1 r
G

S
R
Figure 18.37
85

An accumulator of emf ε maintains a steady current I through
the wire AB.

Initially, a switch S is opened and the jockey J moved until the
emf ε1 exactly balances the emf ε from the accumulator
(galvanometer reading is zero) at point C. Hence
ε1 = VAC
ρl0
where VAC = IRAC and RAC =
A
then  ρI 
ε1 =  l0 (1)
 A

After the switch S is closed, the current I1 flows through the
resistance box R and the jockey J moved until the galvanometer
reading is zero (balanced condition) at point D as shown in
Figure 18.38.

86
 ε

I I
l D I
A B
I J

I1 ε1 r I1
G
I1
I1
S
I1 R
Figure 18.38

87

Hence
V = VAD
ρl
where VAD = IRAD and RAD =
A
then  ρI 
V =  l (2)
 A

From the equation of emf,
ε1 = V + I1r
ε1 − V V
r= and I1 =
I1 R
 ε1 − V 
r = R (3)
 V 

88

By substituting eqs. (1) and (2) into the eq. (3), we get
 l0 − l 
r = R
 l 
 l0 
r =  − 1 R (4)
l 

The value of internal resistance, r is determined by plotting
the graph of 1/l against 1/R .
 Rearranging eq. (4) :

1 r1 1
=   +
l  l0  R l0

Then compare with y=m x+ c

89
 Therefore the graph is straight line as shown in Figure 18.39.

1
l

r
Gradient, m =
l0
1
l0
1
0 R
Figure 18.39

90
 Example 18.17 :
Cells A and B and centre-zero galvanometer G are connected to a
uniform wire OS
A using jockeys X and Y as shown in 18.40.
The length of the uniform wire OS is
1.00 m and its resistance is 12 Ω.
When OY is 75.0 cm, the
X galvanometer does not show any
O Y
S deflection when OX= 50.0 cm. If Y
touches the end S of the wire, OX =
62.5 cm when the galvanometer is
B balanced. The emf of the cell B is 1.0
G V. Calculate
Figure 18.40
a. the potential difference across OY when OY = 75.0 cm,
b. the potential difference across OY when Y touches S and the
galvanometer is balanced,
c. the internal resistance of the cell A,
d. the emf of cell A.
Ans;VOY1 = 1.53 V VOY2 = 1.56 V r = 0.65 Ω ε A = 1.64 V 91
18.9.2 Wheatstone bridge

It is used to measured the unknown resistance of the
resistor.
resistor

Figure 18.41 shows the Wheatstone bridge circuit consists of a
cell of emf ε (accumulator), a galvanometer , know resistances
(R1, R2 and R3) and unknown resistance Rx.
ε
I C I1 I
R1 R2
I1
A G =0 B
I2
R3 I Rx
D 2
Figure 18.41

The Wheatstone bridge is said to be balanced when no current
flows through the galvanometer.
galvanometer 92

Hence I AC = I CB = I1 and I AD = I DB = I 2
then
Potential at C = Potential at D

Therefore VAC = VAD and VBC = VBD
Since V = IR thus
I1 R1 = I 2 R3 and I1 R2 = I 2 Rx
Dividing gives
I1 R1 I 2 R3
=
I1R2 I 2 Rx

 R2 
R x =   R 3 (18.30)
 R1 

93

The application of the Wheatstone bridge is Metre Bridge.
Bridge

Figure 18.42 shows a Metre bridge circuit.
(Unknown
Rx resistance) R (resistance box)
Thick copper
strip I1 I1
0= G Jockey
A B
I2 J
I l1 l2 I
ε
Wire of uniform Accumulator
resistance Figure 18.42

The metre bridge is balanced when the jockey J is at such a
position on wire AB that there is no current through the
galvanometer Thus the current I1 flows through the resistance
galvanometer.
Rx and R but current I2 flows in the wire AB. 94

Let Vx : p.d. across Rx and V : p.d. across R,
 At balance condition,
Vx = VAJ and V = VJB
By applying Ohm’s law, thus
I1 Rx = I 2 RAJ and I1 R = I 2 RJB
Dividing gives
I1 Rx I 2 RAJ ρl1 ρl2
= where RAJ = and RJB =
I1 R I 2 RJB A A
 ρl1 
 
Rx  A 
=
R  ρl2 
 
 A 
 l1 
R x =   R (18.31)
 l2  95
Example 18.18 :
An unknown length of platinum wire 0.920 mm in diameter is placed
as the unknown resistance in a Wheatstone bridge as shown in
Figure 18.43.

Figure 18.43

Resistors R1 and R2 have resistance of 38.0 Ω and 46.0 Ω

respectively. Balance is achieved when the switch closed and R3 is
3.48 Ω. Calculate the length of the platinum wire if its resistivity is
10.6 × 10−8 Ω m.
96
Ans; l = 26.4 m
 Exercise 18.5 :
1. In Figure 18.44, PQ is a uniform wire of length 1.0 m and
resistance 10.0 Ω. ε1 is an accumulator of emf 2.0 V
S1 and negligible internal resistance.
ε1 R1 R1 is a 15 Ω resistor and R2 is a
5.0 Ω resistor when S1 and S2
open, galvanometer G is balanced
when QT is 62.5 cm. When both S1
and S2 are closed, the balance
T
Q P
length is 10.0 cm. Calculate
a. the emf of cell ε2.
ε2 b. the internal resistance of cell ε2.
G c. the balance length QT when S2
is opened and S1 closed.
d. the balance length QT when S1
R2 Figure 18.44 is opened and S2 closed.
S2
97
ANS. : 0.50 V; 7.5 Ω; 25.0 cm; 25.0 cm
2. The circuit shown in Figure 18.45 is known as a Wheatstone
bridge.

Figure 18.45
Determine the value of the resistor R such that the current
through the 85.0 Ω resistor is zero.
(Physics,3th edition, James S. Walker, Q93, p.731)
ANS. : 7.50 Ω
98
3. A potentiometer with slide-wire of length 100 cm and
resistance of 5.0 Ω, is connected to a driver cell of emf 2.0 V
and negligible internal resistance. Calculate
a. the length of the potentiometer wire needed to balance a
potential difference of 1.5 V,
b. the resistance which must be connected in series with the
slide-wire to give a potential difference of 7.0 mV across
the whole wire,
c. the emf ε of a dry cell which is balanced by 80 cm of the
wire, setup as in part (b).
ANS. : 75.0 cm; 1424 Ω; 5.6 mV

99
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Next Chapter…
CHAPTER 19 :
Magnetic field

100