Bull Eng Geol Environ (2016) 75:163–191
DOI 10.1007/s10064-015-0724-y
ORIGINAL PAPER
The role of engineering geology in the route selection, design
and construction of a road across the Blue Nile gorge, Ethiopia
Gareth James Hearn • Geoffrey Stanley Pettifer
Received: 10 October 2014 / Accepted: 4 February 2015 / Published online: 8 March 2015
 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015
Abstract The role of engineering geology in the final de-
sign and construction of a road crossing the Blue Nile (Abay)
gorge in Ethiopia is described. This new road between
Mekhane Selam and Gundewein is a strategic link in the
Ethiopian road network and encounters very steep and diffi-
cult terrain that poses significant engineering geological
challenges. Remote sensing, landscape modelling, reference
condition classification, and conventional field mapping have
been applied to assist in the finalisation of the alignment, the
prediction of ground conditions for earthworks design, and the
implementation of slope and drainage protection works. The
approach adopted serves as a blueprint for other road con-
struction and improvement projects in the region though
limitations exist with respect to the prediction of variable
volcanic rock sequences at depth without the benefit of ground
investigation boreholes. Although ground conditions differ-
ent from those predicted have been exposed along 15 % of the
alignment, these have been of relatively minor significance
and have necessitated unanticipated remedial action affecting
less than 2 % of the alignment in the gorge. Thus far, the main
damage to the road from geohazards has been caused by road-
related effects, including the concentration of road drainage
below culverts and seepages from broken and blocked side
drains. The susceptibility of the terrain to uncontrolled runoff
Gareth James Hearn was formerly with Scott Wilson and URS
Infrastructure & Environment UK Ltd.
G. J. Hearn (&)
Hearn Geoserve Ltd, 23 Little Paddocks, Ferring, Worthing,
West Sussex, UK
e-mail: garethhearn@talktalk.net
G. S. Pettifer
83 Langdale Avenue, Mitcham, Surrey CR4 4AJ, UK
e-mail: geoff.pettifer@gmail.com
is such that preventative and reactive maintenance will be
required throughout the lifetime of the road.
Keywords Road design
Construction
Blue Nile gorge

Ethiopia
Remote sensing
Landscape models
Reference
conditions
Engineering geology
Introduction
Mekhane Selam and Gundewein are two small rural towns
in central Ethiopia, each located at approximately 2,660 m
asl. In terms of the local economy and local access, there
was no particular reason to connect them by road, but in
doing so a highly strategic link has been added to the
Ethiopian road network. The total road length between
Mekhane Selam and Gundewein is 129 km, and its con-
struction was one of Ethiopia’s most challenging transport
projects in recent years. The road forms the western section
of the 260-km-long Kombolcha to Gundewein road project
(Fig. 1), completed in 2014, and funded by the Ethiopian
Roads Authority (ERA). By any global comparison, it is a
truly mountainous road, and yet the road is not located
within any mountain area shown on published maps. In-
stead it is located in the Central Highlands of the country
and links two extensive areas of gently undulating plateau
that are separated by the deep, steep-sided gorge of the
Blue Nile. The cumulative rise and fall of the alignment in
the gorge is more than 2,500 m over a route length of
approximately 58 km and a straight line distance of 21 km.
There are four other roads in Ethiopia that cross this gorge
and the most important of these, located approximately
96 km downstream between Dejen and Gohatsion (Fig. 1),
encounters extensive landslides (Gezahen 1998; Ayalew
2000; Ayalew et al. 2009; Yamada et al. 2013) that pose
123
164 G. J. Hearn, G. S. Pettifer

Fig. 1 Location of the Mekhane Selam to Gundewein road across the Blue Nile gorge, Central Highlands, Ethiopia

continuing challenges for the maintenance of access. While constructing this new road presented significant engineer-
the new road is not intended to replace the existing heavily ing geological challenges that are common to most other
trafficked crossing, it represents a critical new link in the escarpment roads in the region, and the approaches adopted
country’s expanding federal road network. Designing and might serve as a useful blueprint for future projects.

123
The role of engineering geology in route selection, design, and construction
The Blue Nile basin
Topography and climate
The Blue Nile basin is located in the Central Highlands of
Ethiopia to the west of the Main Ethiopian Rift (Fig. 1).
From its source at Lake Tana at 1,788 m asl to its con-
fluence with the White Nile at Khartoum, the Blue Nile is
1,450 km in length and has an average gradient of about
0.1 %. Of the 850 km or so located in Ethiopia, slightly
less than half flows through a gorge that has been cut to a
depth of up to 1,600 m deep below the surrounding pla-
teau. The plateau has an elevation of between 2,000 and
2,500 m asl, and is predominantly flat to gently rolling with
inliers of higher ground forming mesas and more extensive
hills and high-level terraces that are the remnants of eroded
lava flows. In Ethiopia, the Blue Nile basin covers an area
of over 365,000 km2 (Woodward et al. 2007) and accounts
for slightly [50 % of the annual runoff of the entire
country (Gebremeskel 2011).
The average annual rainfall in the Blue Nile basin is
1,421 mm, approximately 70 % of which falls between
June and September (Conway 2000). However, the lower
elevations of the floor and adjacent side slopes of the Blue
Nile gorge and its tributaries probably receive significantly
less than this. Temperature is also elevation-dependent.
Sima et al. (2009), for example, describe how average
annual temperatures vary between about 23 C at 1,500 m
asl and 12 C at 3,000 m asl in the southeast of the basin.
Geological evolution
The drainage basin of the Blue Nile is the product of a
complex geological history that took place between the
initiation of the break-up of the Gondwanaland supercon-
tinent in the Early Jurassic and the present day. During the
Mesozoic, the proto-Blue Nile flowed southeastwards
through central Ethiopia from the present Lake Tana area
(Fig. 1) towards the Ogaden region in the Horn of Africa,
and was located within a NW–SE trending graben con-
trolled by Precambrian basement structures (e.g. Gani et al.
2009). This graben was gradually infilled by a succession
of Mesozoic fluvial and marine deposits approximately
1,400 m thick. The Arabian and African plates began to
separate in the Eocene, initiating the Red Sea Rift. This
process intensified during the Oligocene, from about
30 Ma (million years BP). It was associated with domal
uplift due to the rising Afar mantle plume and with wide-
spread eruption from fissures of up to 2,000 m thickness of
flood basalts and associated pyroclastic deposits. These
eruptions occurred in pulses and buried a gently undulating
early Tertiary (Paleocene–Eocene) landscape, forming the
Ethiopian plateau. Changes in flow direction and incision
165
of the Blue Nile and other regional drainage systems were
initiated during the Late Oligocene under predominantly
hot and humid climatic conditions. Towards the end of the
Miocene several large alkaline basaltic shield volcanoes
erupted from central vents on the plateau and this phase
continued into the Pliocene. The newly formed plateau was
then bisected by the NE–SW trending Main Ethiopian Rift
(MER).
Significant regional uplift occurred in Oligocene–Mio-
cene times, but there were further periods of uplift and
renewed fluvial incision during the Late Pliocene and
Pleistocene, resulting in the present superimposed drainage
network (Woodward et al. 2007; Gani et al. 2009).
Woodward et al. (2007), for example, report 2,000 m of
uplift during the last 8 Ma. Gani et al. (2009) observed that
the Mesozoic sedimentary rocks were affected by sets of
NW–SE and NE–SW trending extensional (normal) faults
and fractures. They found that the former were dominant in
the lower part of the succession and were probably related
to rifting of Gondwanaland while the latter were dominant
in the younger rocks, extending into the overlying basalts,
and were probably related to the initial opening of the
MER. They also recognised WNW–ESE, NW–SE, N–S,
and E–W trending fractures and faults which were prob-
ably related to various Quaternary tectonic events. Sultana
and Abdelsalam (2003), Woodward et al. (2007), Gani
et al. (2009), and Kebede (2013) found that the courses of
the Blue Nile and adjacent rivers are partly controlled by
major faults, joints, dykes, and stratigraphic boundaries.
This structural control on the course of the Blue Nile is
illustrated clearly on the published 1:250,000 scale regional
geological map (Chumburo 2009).
It seems likely that a combination of regional uplift,
extensional faulting, diversion of the Blue Nile around
shield volcanoes and a change from forest to grassland
vegetation would have generated widespread slope insta-
bility and soil erosion by the Late Pliocene. The rate of
Blue Nile incision would have increased once erosion had
extended down into weak and fractured Mesozoic strata.
Fluvial incision and river course adjustment continued
during the Pleistocene, accompanied by high erosion rates
and extensive slope failures (Ayalew and Yamagishi 2004;
Woodward et al. 2007), exacerbated by periods of peri-
glacial activity at elevations above 3,000 m asl (Nyssen
et al. 2004). However, the last glacial maximum
(19,000–26,000 BP, Clark et al. 2009) was a period of
aggradation in the Blue Nile with significantly lower and
more seasonal runoff, high rates of erosion due to a much
reduced vegetation cover, and the contribution of large
quantities of periglacially derived debris to the valley floor
(Woodward et al. 2007). Large-scale landslides, including
slow, deep-seated sackung types of failure induced by
normal faulting, would have been prominent features in the
123
166
Blue Nile basin at that time. Although Ayalew and
Yamagishi (2004) consider that phases of renewed slope
activity took place during the wetter episodes of the
Holocene, reduced rates of both uplift and seismic activity
during this period have probably resulted in an increase in
slope stability with limited opportunity for the develop-
ment of new large and deep-seated landslides. None of the
authors that have commented on the landslides of the Blue
Nile basin (for example Ayalew and Temesgen 1995;
Ayalew and Yamagishi 2004; Ayalew et al. 2009; Sima
et al. 2009; Abebe et al. 2010; Kuwano et al. 2013; Ya-
mada et al. 2013) mention seismicity as a significant
landslide trigger. Although the Blue Nile basin is currently
an area of low seismic hazard (EBCS 1995), seismicity
may have played a major role in destabilising large rock
masses during the Pleistocene. Rainfall-triggered mass
wasting is considered to predominate at present, compris-
ing shallow debris/earth slides and flows, deep rotational
slides, gully erosion, and rock falls/slides on steep slopes
(Ayalew 1999; Woldearegay 2013).
Geomorphology
The valley sides of the Blue Nile and its tributaries fre-
quently contain the following:
• Vertical cliffs formed in basalt and pyroclastic deposits,
sandstone, and limestone
• Toppling rock masses with separation cracks tens of
metres back from cliff faces
• Extensive and deep deposits of talus and rafted rock
masses
• Slopes covered in variable thicknesses of taluvium and
colluvium, locally unstable
• Ancient deep-seated ([10 m) landslides, locally
unstable
• Recent shallow and localised rock falls/slides and
debris/earth slides
• Topographic benches covered with expansive ‘black
cotton’ soils (rich in smectite clay minerals)
• Complex hydrogeology, including seasonal perched
water tables
• Karst features, including cavities within limestone rock
masses and taluvium deposits
• Seepage erosion in taluvial and colluvial deposits
• Slope erosion and gullying
• Stream and river bank erosion and shifting stream
channels on active flood plains
• Transportation of large quantities of debris through
surface drainage systems and its ultimate deposition in
debris fans.
It appears that the majority of present-day ground
movements relate to the reactivation of existing landslide
123
G. J. Hearn, G. S. Pettifer
deposits and the gradual regression of head scarps associ-
ated with extremes of rainfall, land use change, and stream
and river erosion. Fresh rock fall deposits are also occa-
sionally observed below rock cliffs following periods of
very heavy rainfall. Small debris flows are also common
from steep slopes and channels formed in closely-jointed
basalt and basalt debris.
The project area
The project area is located approximately 160 km (200 km
river length) to the southeast of Lake Tana. The elevation
of the river at the new bridge crossing is 1,150 m asl, and
the average river gradient upstream to Lake Tana is
0.32 %. The gorge is almost 1,300 m deep (Fig. 2) and
narrows to a gorge-top width of 1,700 m in places.
The stratigraphic succession exposed in the vicinity of
the project site and neighbouring areas is shown in Table 1.
This table describes the broad geological classification
system in use at the time the project commenced (Tefera
et al. 1996a, b) compared with the later system (Chumburo
2009) which subdivides the Ashangi Formation. The ap-
proximate outcrop pattern in the project area and the lo-
cation and orientation of fault structures are shown in
Fig. 3. Table 2 summarises the engineering geological
characteristics of the rocks listed in Table 1.
In the lower levels of the gorge, thickly-bedded Late
Jurassic Antalo Limestone forms prominent vertical cliffs.
Below these cliffs the Antalo Limestone is closely in-
terbedded with weak marl (calcareous mudstone or clay)
and is largely concealed by taluvium. There are generally
no natural exposures of in situ rock on these lower slopes
apart from two localities on the eastern side of the gorge in
isolated cliffs alongside the Difarsa and Blue Nile rivers.
Gani et al. (2009) describe the Antalo Limestone as the
Upper Limestone, with a thickness of 400 m, which is
underlain by the Middle Jurassic Lower Limestone and
Gypsum, or Gohatsion Formation, comprising 450 m of
interbedded limestone, gypsum, and mudstone/shale. Ap-
proximately 45 km downstream from the project area, this
formation (referred to as the Abay Formation by JICA/GSE
2012) crops out in the vicinity of the Dejen–Gohatsion
road, where it has probably played a significant role in the
initiation of extensive slope instability. The Gohatsion/
Abay Formation is underlain by the Early Jurassic Adigrat
Sandstone which, according to the 1:250,000 scale geolo-
gical map (Chumburo 2009), has an upper unit of blue
mudstone, approximately 40 m in thickness. This material
may also have contributed to slope instability in the Dejen–
Gohatsion area. The outcrop of the Adigrat Sandstone is
shown by Chumburo (2009) as extending to a point 10 km
downstream of the new Blue Nile crossing. With an
The role of engineering geology in route selection, design, and construction
Fig. 2 Typical topography of
the Blue Nile gorge in the
project area with fault-
controlled river alignment in the
middle of the photograph
average river gradient of 0.32 % the top of the Adigrat
Sandstone might be extrapolated to a depth of 30 m or so
below bed level at the new bridge. Drilling investigations
for bridge pier foundations encountered a buried channel
up to 45 m deep infilled mainly with basalt gravel, cobbles,
and boulders and underlain by weak olive-green mudstone
(probably the upper unit of the Adigrat Sandstone).
Geomorphology of the road corridor
The geomorphology of each of the three main rock types
exposed in the gorge is outlined in Table 2. On the eastern
side of the gorge, the Difarsa River has eroded an elongate
catchment, orientated ENE–WSW that is approximately
17 km in length and up to 3 km wide, and the majority of
the alignment on this side of the gorge is located within this
catchment (Fig. 1). With an average gradient of over 4 %
the Difarsa River has cut through the volcanic and
sedimentary sequences and has developed relatively wide
benches separated by basalt and limestone cliffs. These
benches offer relatively easy terrain for long lengths of
alignment (see long profile in Fig. 1), though they are often
mantled by extensive deposits of colluvial/taluvial debris.
These deposits are considered likely to be derived from
ancient landslides, probably associated with movement
along layers of weathered tuff/ash within the volcanic se-
quence, and marl or mudstone within the limestone, and
have been exposed to depths of over 10 m in cut slopes.
The intervening cliffs are often formed in open-jointed
rocks, posing slope stability and bearing stability problems
in excavations and foundations.
167
On the western side of the gorge, the majority of the
alignment is located primarily on the northeastern side of
an approximately NW–SE orientated spur defined by the
Blue Nile River to the east and a similarly orientated
deeply incised tributary valley to the west (Fig. 1). The
upper slopes of the spur comprise benched topography
(Fig. 4) incised at intervals by steep-sided re-entrant val-
leys in basalt and volcaniclastic rocks (defined later). The
gullies that drain these valleys convey large volumes of
sediment during the wet season, mostly in the form of
debris flows. Valley side regression has formed thick de-
posits of talus and taluvium on the underlying slopes.
Below the volcanic outcrop, the Blue Nile valley side is
dominated by vertical cliffs in sandstone and limestone
(Figs. 5, 6). The road alignment avoids these by crossing to
the southwestern side of the spur where the cliffs are less
prominent and often ‘hidden’ beneath taluvial materials.
The floor of the Blue Nile gorge either side of the river
is made up of thick aprons of gently sloping taluvium and
colluvium, which in places rest on river terrace deposits.
Recent rock fall deposits derived from the overlying
limestone cliffs occupy the margins of the valley floor and
there are older debris fans and debris flow deposits that
extend down to the river, especially on the western side.
There is no apparent natural outcrop along this 7–8 km
section of road corridor except for a small exposure of
thinly interbedded limestone and marl at the left bank
abutment of the Blue Nile bridge. There is one large and
probably fairly recent deep-seated landslide located be-
tween the river and the alignment, probably triggered by
toe erosion.
123
168
Table 1 Stratigraphic succession
Previous classification (Tefera et al 1996b)
Agea Map Description of mapped unit
symbol
Tarmaber Gussa Formation (basaltic
Late PNtb shield volcanoes with minor trachyte
Oligocene- and phonolite)
Miocene
Ashangi Formation (basalt flows with
intercalations of pyroclastic rocks)
Upper part of formation more
P2a
tuffaceous, locally with fluvio-
Oligocene
lacustrine sediments between basalt
flows, some of which contain seams
of lignite
Amba Aradom Formation
Cretaceous Ka (sandstone, conglomerate and
shale)
Antalo Formation (limestone with
Late
Jt thin beds of marl and calcareous
Jurassic
shale)
a
Geological epoch indicated by Chumburo (2009)
b
These strata have been identified in the vicinity of Debre Markos
Project implementation
Route selection and road design
The Mekhane Selam to Gundewein road is a Design Class
5 Link Road, catering for an anticipated AADT (average
annual daily traffic) of 300–1,000 and a design speed of
50 kph for escarpment terrain. According to the ERA
Geometric Design Manual (ERA 2011) the maximum
permissible gradient is 9 % and the minimum curve radius
is 80 m. Because of the extreme nature of the terrain, the
constructed road has a 12 % gradient over an aggregate
distance of 430 m and a 10 % gradient over an aggregate
distance of slightly more than 4 km. Consequently, the
maximum permissible gradient is exceeded over almost
8 % of the alignment in the gorge. There are curve radii at
12, 13, and 20 m and five at 30 m, i.e. considerably less
than specified. The carriageway width in the gorge is 6 m
plus curve widening and the nominal formation width is
10 m, which includes the carriageway, shoulders, and side
drains. The pavement comprises 200 mm subbase, 200 mm
base course, and 25–30 mm of DBST (double bituminous
surface treatment). The minimum required subgrade
strength equates to a CBR (California bearing ratio) of 4.
The design phase of the Mekhane Selam to Gundewein
road took place between late 1996 and early 2005. Design
documents contained descriptions of the route selection,
123
G. J. Hearn, G. S. Pettifer
New classification (Chumburo 2009)
Map Description of mapped unit Remarks
symbol
Lumame Basalt, with interlayered pyroclastic Highest part of plateau between
Tv4
tuff locally Gundewein and Mertole Mariam
Tpb2 Pyroclastic tuff Not mapped in this area b
Highest part of plateau near
Tva Anferfira Shield Volcano Basalt
Mekhane Selam
Debre Markos Basalt, with occasional Plateaux east of Mertole Mariam
Tv3
interlayered pyroclastic tuff and west of Mekhane Selam
Tpb1 Pyroclastic tuff. Ignimbrite at the base locally
Not mapped in this area b
Tsp Sandstone
Yejube Basalt, with interlayered pyroclastic Upper slopes of gorge on both
Tv2
tuff. Ignimbrite at the top locally sides of Blue Nile
Tss Sandstone. Cut by basalt dykes Not mapped in this area b
Arero Gidabo Basalt, with interlayered
Middle slopes of gorge on both
Tv1 pyroclastic tuff. Volcanic breccia at the top
sides of Blue Nile
locally
Upper Sandstone, with lenses of
Muss
conglomerate, siltstone and shale
Lower slopes of gorge on both
Limestone, with occasional interbedded sides of Blue Nile
Mls black shale, impure limestone and
sandstone
the development of the preliminary design, including its
horizontal and vertical alignment and cross-sections, and
an environmental impact assessment. Stereo aerial pho-
tographs from the 1960s at a scale were used with pub-
lished 1:50,000 scale topographical maps and a 1:2 million
scale geological map (Tefera et al. 1996a) to review
alignment options. The selected route corridor succeeded in
avoiding the most difficult terrain.
Construction
The work undertaken by the authors and their colleagues
formed part of the construction supervision and com-
menced in March 2006 with the last visit to site taking
place in February 2015. Despite the earlier design
documentation used by the ERA to procure a construction
contract, it became apparent in early 2006 that engineering
geological fieldwork had played a relatively minor role in
its development and that there was considerably more work
to be done before a final design could be constructed. Even
then, hitherto unrecorded geological hazards revealed
themselves as late as 2013, requiring emergency remedial
action. It was decided at the outset to embark on a pro-
gressive assessment of the geomorphology and engineering
geology of the terrain as part of a design review and final
design exercise that maximised the use of remote sensing,
landscape modelling, field mapping, and monitoring.
The role of engineering geology in route selection, design, and construction
Fig. 3 Extract redrawn and
modified from Gani et al. (2009)
showing the general outcrop
pattern and inferred fault
structures in the project area
(including faults shown by
Chumburo 2009)
The total geology approach to final design
and construction
The brief given to the geo-team in 2006 was to review
the alignment, suggest local alternatives to it where ap-
propriate, and embark on a programme of desk study and
field investigations that would allow a final design to be
developed. Furthermore, provision was made for engi-
neering geologists to be present at key periods during
construction and, therefore, a formal set of geo-mapping
documents needed to be established that could be utilised
and built upon throughout the construction period. To
achieve this the methodology adopted followed a total
engineering geological approach based on the concept
that ‘…site conditions should be viewed as the result of
the complete geological and geomorphological history
and that an understanding of that history has to be well
developed at the earliest possible opportunity in any
project for it to be successfully engineered’ (Fookes et al.
2000).
169
As for many projects located in remote areas, sources of
existing geo-data were limited, and comprised the small
scale geological and topographical maps and aerial pho-
tographs referred to above. A set of larger scale (ap-
proximately 1:10,000) photographs flown in 1998, with
incomplete cover and some scale variations that prevented
full stereo interpretation, were made available later in the
assessment process, and, despite their poorer flight path
control, they allowed significantly greater interpretation of
key features along the alignment and local realignment
options. This included the recognition of fault and persis-
tent joint lineations, tension cracks, grabens associated
with ancient mass movement, scarps within taluvial de-
posits indicative of recent movement, drainage patterns,
stream erosion, and sediment transport.
Landscape modelling
Landscape models have proved extremely useful in helping
to interpret and characterise the evolution, underlying
123
170 G. J. Hearn, G. S. Pettifer

Table 2 Main rock types and geomorphology encountered in the gorge (some of the structural information is from Gani et al. (2009))
Rock type and Lithological description Structural geology Geomorphology
outcrop
thickness along
the road
East West East West

Ashangi flood Mostly aphanitic, SW–MW, strong
basalts to very strong. Amygdaloidal
930 m 700 m texture where calcite and quartz
are locally present. Weathering
and jointing vary within and
between basalt flows with
preferential weathering and
residual soils at flow boundaries,
forming weaker horizons.
Springs often emerge at these
boundaries and especially
between the basalt and the
underlying sedimentary rocks.
Pyroclastic and fluvio-volcanic
rocks are also common and are
also preferentially weathered
Amba Aradom Medium to coarse-grained, SW–
sandstone MW, strong. Slightly calcareous
None 100 m with distinct pebble horizons.
Medium to thickly bedded
(0.4–3 m). No groundwater
seepages of any significance are
evident
Antalo Fine-grained, SW–MW, strong.
limestone Horizontally bedded or slightly
350 m 400 m dipping (1–4) to the NW. Beds
are typically 0.3–0.5 m thick,
though some are up to 1.5 m.
Secondary CaCO3 is often
precipitated on the lowermost
sections of cliff faces and along
joint surfaces exposed in cliffs
and road cuts. Bedding surfaces
are commonly planar to slightly
undulating, rough, partly open to
open and commonly infilled with
silt-sized weathering products
SW, MW, HW, and CW, respectively, refer to slightly, moderately, highly, and completely weathered rock
Normal faults mostly trending NE,
occasionally NW, with throws up
to 50 m, and rarely to 400 m.
Fault zones up to 50 m wide.
Typically closely jointed, but
locally medium to widely spaced
columnar jointing. NE, NNE,
NW, and ESE trending master
joints
NW and NE trending normal faults
with throws of up to 80 m and
fault zones up to 10 m in width.
Regular and persistent vertical
joints which, with the bedding,
typically produce equi-
dimensional, tabular or prismatic
blocks of various sizes. N
trending master joints common
NW and NE trending faults with
fault zones up to 50 m wide.
There are two very persistent
widely spaced vertical joint sets:
one set parallel to cliff faces, the
other approx. perpendicular.
Joints are usually linear,
undulating and rough, with or
without infill. They typically
form very large blocks with the
bedding. N trending master joints
common
Differential weathering and erosion of lava flows
and pyroclastic rocks have created a marked
stepped slope profile (Fig. 4). Cliff recession has
accompanied the incision of the gorge, depositing
large quantities of failed material on the slopes
below. Rock fall and scour of jointed basalt are
significant hazards and debris flows are common
in re-entrant valleys and on talus/taluvium slopes.
Very high sediment yields from streams
Crops out on the Forms a well-defined
eastern side of the bench, mantled by basalt
gorge above the taluvium and residual
road, terminating soil. In the gorge it
against a fault of forms 40–50 m high
possible Early cliffs with large ‘towers’
Cretaceous age and detached blocks
(Fig. 5)
Cliffs typically 40–50 m high, posing the greatest
challenge to road construction. They are divided
into three units: upper, middle, and lower. Wide
cliff-parallel joints (sometimes open [1 m) often
occur as tension cracks, creating large elongated
topples or detached blocks. The prominence of
these cliffs varies, with large sections of cliff
often ‘hidden’ by failed materials derived from
the cliffs above. Cavities occur both within the
limestone and the failed debris. Marl beds
between limestone beds are generally obscured
by colluvium/taluvium

geology, geomorphology, and potential geohazards of a Geotechnical reference condition mapping

given area and between different climate zones (see, for
example, Fookes et al. 1985; Selby 1993; Fookes 1997a;
Griffiths and Stokes 2008; Griffiths et al. 2012; Hearn et al.
2012; Ruse et al. 2013; and Fookes et al. in press). Land-
scape models were constructed for the present project area
as an aid to the initial engineering geological interpretation
and as a background to the development of geotechnical
reference condition mapping (see below). Figures 7 and 8
show two models for the eastern and western sides of the
gorge, respectively.
Geotechnical reference conditions are identified as
groups of geological materials, landforms, and geomor-
phological processes with similar engineering character-
istics and implications for design and construction. They
are assigned to sections of the alignment to indicate
conditions that might be reasonably anticipated in each
case.
Reference conditions were developed for the following
reasons:

123
The role of engineering geology in route selection, design, and construction 171

Fig. 4 Benched topography

formed in basalt and pyroclastic
rocks towards the top of the
gorge

Fig. 5 Sandstone cliffs below

the alignment on the western
side of the gorge

• As a means of communicating the distribution and
nature of anticipated ground conditions and geohazards
to site supervision staff;
• To assist in the assessment and checking of the design
cross sections and the need for additional slope support
and protection, where appropriate;
• To assist in the checking and review of the Bill of
Quantities in relation to ground conditions (for exam-
ple, likely excavation conditions);
• To provide the basis for identifying suitable design
modifications, where required as ground conditions
were exposed during construction (i.e. use of the
‘observational method’);
• For use as a basis for recording the as-built ground
conditions, which, if the need arose, might later be
referred to when assessing any claims in relation to
ground conditions;

123
172
Fig. 6 Unstable blocks and
turrets of limestone cliff
Fig. 7 Landscape model for the eastern gorge area
• As a preliminary means of determining whether
designed cutting angles might need to be steepened or
flattened in any particular circumstance due to the need
to reduce spoil quantities or cater for any ground
conditions, topography, or land use/environmental
123
G. J. Hearn, G. S. Pettifer
factors that might not have been considered in the
original design, or might have changed since the design
was prepared;
• As a means of enabling the ERA to gain a rapid
assessment of the terrain and ground conditions along
The role of engineering geology in route selection, design, and construction
Fig. 8 Landscape model for the western gorge area
the alignment and the issues that govern ground
behaviour and the stability of the alignment, its
construction, and operation.
The exercise commenced with a field reconnaissance
of the alignment corridor to identify the main material
types exposed, their weathering grades and strength
characteristics. A total of 34 different geotechnical ref-
erence conditions were identified: 17 for in situ rock, ten
for transported materials, six for different landslide types,
and one for faults and other tectonic features. The main
rock and soil reference condition classes are shown in
Table 3.
Engineering geological descriptions, material strengths,
RQDs, rock mass quality, and GSI values were derived for
each material type, based primarily upon observations and
estimates made during engineering geological inspections
of surface exposures. The descriptive term ‘volcaniclastic’
has been used to describe a clastic rock comprising grains
and/or fragments of volcanic rock set in a finer-grained
matrix, regardless of its origin (Brown 2007). This classi-
fication system is especially suited to borehole logging and
reconnaissance field mapping where the origin of materials
is uncertain. It includes both pyroclastic materials, such as
tuff/ash and agglomerate, and epiclastic materials resulting
from the weathering of volcanic rocks, such as tuffaceous
siltstones and sandstones, and allows for specific descrip-
tive terms to be added as more detailed information be-
comes available.
173
Rock mass strength and geotechnical parameters for
rock masses were estimated using the Hoek–Brown
strength criterion, though it was made explicit that jointing
systems exposed during excavation would be the ultimate
control on rock slope stability and cutting angles. Soil
parameters were also estimated based on field observations
and empirical data. Materials and mass properties were
considered likely to vary with depth in response to lithol-
ogy, weathering profiles and jointing patterns, and the
lower end of the anticipated strength range for each ref-
erence condition was adopted in each case. The anticipated
maximum cut slope angles were derived using stability
charts for circular failure with estimated cohesion and
friction values for the poorest quality rock mass anticipated
and factors of safety generally in the order of 1.3. However,
for cuttings through colluvium and talus, computed factors
of safety were \1.3, typically 1.1–1.2 for the assumed
parameters. The following details and recommendations
were tabulated for each reference condition:
• Lithology
• Landform
• Material descriptions
• Engineering geological considerations
• Preferred cross-section
• Embankment foundation stability
• Cut slope stability
• Anticipated maximum cut slope against height
• Expected excavation techniques.
123
174 G. J. Hearn, G. S. Pettifer

Table 3 Summary of rock and soil reference condition classes derived for the project area

Primary
Origin Rock/soil type Landscape
classification
Spur and ridge lines
Slightly to moderately weathered Cliffs and steep slopes
(SW-MW) Cliffs with turrets or towers
Knolls
Basalt
Highly to completely weathered
Gentle slopes
(HW-CW)
Volcanic Residually Granular soils Plateaux and benches
weathered Black cotton soil
Volcaniclastic Tuff/ash
(including Agglomerate
In situ Rock
pyroclastic) rocks Volcanic breccia Benches and slopes
with or without Scoriaceous basalt
interlayered basalt Tuffaceous sandstone/siltstone
Benches and slopes
Sandstone
Cliffs
Benches and slopes
Limestone
Sedimentary Cliffs
Benches and slopes
Interbedded limestone and marl
Cliffs
Marl Gentle slopes
Colluvium/ Volcanic material
Taluvium Limestone/marl material
Volcanic material
Transported Talus Benches and slopes
Limestone material
soils and
Volcanic material
mass Debris flows
Limestone material
movement
deposits Rock
Large rock fragments Lower slopes and terraces
avalanches
Differentiated according to source material and
Landslides Mainly on steep slopes
mechanism
Terraces/fans Fine and coarse material
Fluvial River terraces and valley
Flood plains
deposits floors
Point bars Coarse material

The alignment in the gorge was subdivided into over 150
sections according to reference condition. This allowed the
site supervision team to look up the anticipated ground con-
ditions and geohazards for each section and confirm cross-
sections, cut slope angles and anticipated founding conditions
in advance of earthworks. Figure 9 shows an example of the
mapping used to subdivide the alignment on the basis of
reference condition. The base mapping was developed from
perspective views of the terrain using digitised published
contours in Autocad and then annotated using data from aerial
photo interpretation and field mapping.
soon abandoned because the quality of available drilling
equipment and lack of experience of the contractor resulted
in very poor core recovery in coarse-grained soils and
highly variable and often weathered and closely jointed
rocks. Instead, the reference condition mapping combined
with a limited amount of trial pitting became the principle
means of earthworks design.
Testing the reference condition mapping against design
and construction outcomes

Ground investigations
Ground investigation borehole data should be an important
contributor to the delineation of rock and soil types, the
determination of geotechnical parameters and the devel-
opment of reference conditions. Unfortunately, although
provision had been made in the construction contract for
drilling investigations, these were undertaken in very lim-
ited areas, concentrating on the Blue Nile and Difarsa
River bridge sites. Boreholes had been scheduled for deep
cuts, retaining walls, and tunnel sections, but these were
The reference condition mapping was used to help refine
the alignment and several local route realignment options
were considered. Recommendations resulting from the
mapping exercise were incorporated into the development
of the final horizontal and vertical alignment. These related
principally to realignments to avoid tunnel sections, the
preferred route across or through cliffs on both sides of the
gorge, route options alongside the Blue Nile river, crossing
points for both the Blue Nile and the Difarsa rivers, and
realignments to avoid landslides and difficult side-long
ground conditions.

123
The role of engineering geology in route selection, design, and construction
Fig. 9 Extract of reference condition mapping (Hearn 2011)
In order to facilitate a comparison between (1) predic-
tions and recommendations made by the reference condi-
tion classification and (2) actual design and construction
outcomes, the alignment of the road through the gorge was
divided into 26 sections based on similarities of geology,
geomorphology and alignment (Figs. 7, 8). Table 4 sum-
marises the findings of the reference condition classifica-
tion for each of these sections and compares them to the
final outcome, i.e. the design and post construction con-
dition. As Table 4 shows, the predicted ground conditions,
in terms of exposed rock and soil types, were very similar
to the conditions encountered during construction, and the
anticipated geohazards of slope stability, erosion and
sediment transport reflected very closely the problems that
have been encountered. The main departures relate to:
(a) An approximate 3 km section where black cotton
soil and landslide debris were not predicted, and
neither was the presence of layers of plastic clay
derived from completely weathered volcaniclastic
siltstone or ash that led to ground movements
affecting the road at two main locations;
(b) Approximately 5 km of alignment where thin seams
of marl within limestone were not predicted (though
175
these have had no bearing to date on road stability or
performance);
(c) A 350-m section where the local presence of thinly
bedded limestone and marl beneath taluvium was not
predicted (though the presence of this material has
probably led to an increase in slope stability
compared to overlying and adjacent taluvium);
(d) A 700-m section where cavities and seepage erosion,
leading to small collapse features in approximately
six locations, were not predicted.
A total of approximately 15 % of the alignment in the
gorge, therefore, encounters ground conditions that contain
materials or potential geohazards that were not predicted.
In these areas failures in cut slopes, deeper-seated ground
movements, and cavity collapse have damaged the road
over a total length of approximately 1 km, i.e. \2 % of the
alignment in the gorge. With regard to (a) and (b) above,
the presence of black cotton soil and the seam(s) of marl
within the limestone might have been predicted upon closer
inspection during the mapping. However, the presence of
plastic clay at depth within the interlayered volcanic se-
quence would have been be very difficult to foresee,
without the aid of good quality drill core. In the case of (c),
123
 Table 4 Comparing the reference condition predictions with the final outcome
Section no. Length Reference conditions (RC) description
(Figs. 7, 8) (km)
123
1 0.85 Descent from plateau (HW–CW basalt)
across cliffs comprising fresh basalt
underlain by interlayered lava and
breccia with local talus/taluvium
2 2.90 Mostly gentle slopes forming wide bench
underlain by colluvium and residually
weathered granular soils overlying
interlayered basalt lava and breccia
3 2.50 Hairpin stack on linear slope. Basalt
colluvium/taluvium overlying
interlayered basalt lava and breccia on
upper slopes, with tuff and other
volcaniclastic (VC) rocks on lower
slopes
4 0.30 Deep and active landslide on the side
slope of an incised gully
5 2.60 Side-long ground (SLG). Weathered tuff
forms gentle slopes and benches and
steep slopes in volcanic rocks and
taluvium above. BCS, shallow slides on
gully sides, channelized debris flows
(CDFs), and fans
6 2.60 SLG across steep slopes and re-entrant
valleys formed in tuff over interlayered
lava and breccia. Colluvium, taluvium,
and CDFs, including a large old debris
fan
176
RC recommended Actual slope Outcome Conclusions
slope design (V:H) design (V:H)
Cuts in HW–CW Cuts in HW–CW Closely jointed basalt, breccia and tuff in The RC mapping was proven largely
basalt 1:1.75, SW– basalt 1:1.5 cut slopes, some minor rock falls, correct
MW basalt 1:0.25 Cuts in SW–MW runoff erosion from plateau drainage,
(to 15 m high) basalt erosion, and re-deposition of
talus/taluvium
Cuts in landslide Cuts in landslide Colluvium and taluvium/landslide debris The RC mapping did not predict
debris/taluvium 1:1 debris/taluvium 1:1 containing failed blocks of columnar- landslide debris or BCS. Two deep
(\15 m) (12 m high), BCS jointed basalt overlain by black cotton seated failures have affected the
1:1–1:1.5 for BCS 1:1.5 (up to 10 m soil (BCS) and transported BCS with road, both probably failing along
(\5 m) high) cobbles and boulders. Significant road an unforeseen weak tuff horizon at
runoff erosion, scour of side drains and depth
stream channels, shallow landslides in
BCS in cut slopes and deeper ground
movement along unforeseen CW tuff
layers within basalt/breccia sequence in
deep box cut and in slopes bordering
eroded stream channel
Cuts in basalt Cut in basalt Excavations exposed deep basalt The RC mapping was proven largely
colluvium/taluvium colluvium/taluvium taluvium and BCS colluvium. correct; slopes cut steeper than
1:1 (to 15 m high), at 1:1–1:1.5 (up to Ravelling, mudflows, and planar slides recommended have failed
1:1.75 (15–20 m) 20 m high) have occurred. Locally clayey
colluvium has had to be cut to 1:1 for
daylighting reasons and slopes have
failed requiring retaining walls. Basalt
is exposed in cuttings in the lower
portion of the stack
None None Extensive erosion below the culvert in the RC mapping was proven correct
gully in landslide materials and fill/
spoil. Road has undergone slight
deformation to approx. half road width
Cuts in tuff 1:1 (\5 m Cuts in weathered tuff Stable cuts excavated in very weak tuff RC mapping was proven correct. Cut
high),1:1.25 at 1:1.4 and agglomerate, overlain by basalt slopes excavated to less steep
(5–10 m high), taluvium with BCS colluvium. Friable angles than RC recommended
taluvium 1:1 tuff ravelling in cuts, erosion below
culverts, and debris fans from streams
above
Cuts in tuff 1:1 Cuts in tuff and Up to 3 m of basalt taluvium overlying RC mapping was proven correct. Cut
(\5 m), interlayered interlayered basalt/ alternating very weak tuff and closely slopes excavated to higher angles
basalt and breccia breccia at jointed basalt. Scour below culvert than recommended, stable but
1:1 1:0.6–1:0.4 outlets, ravelling in cut slopes. Large ravelling
debris fan filled culvert and blocked
road by 1 m in 2013. Cuts ravelling
with blocked side drains
G. J. Hearn, G. S. Pettifer
 Table 4 continued
Section no. Length Reference conditions (RC) description RC recommended slope Actual slope Outcome Conclusions
(Figs. 7, 8) (km) design (V:H) design (V:H)

7 3.10 Hairpin stack on narrow spur between two Cuts in interlayered Cuts in HW Open cuts and box cuts 15 m deep expose RC mapping was proven largely
incised drainage lines. Spur formed in basalt/breccia 1:1 interlayered shallow colluvium, HW basalt/tuff/ correct, though final cut slopes
HW interlayered basalt and breccia with basalt/breccia to agglomerate and less weathered rock dependent upon weathering
thin colluvial cover 1:1.3, SW–MW below. Ravelling and blockage to side grade—not differentiated in
interlayered drains recommendations
basalt/breccia to
1:0.6
8 0.70 Alignment crosses mostly river terraces. None None As predicted RC mapping was proven correct
Up to 4 m alluvium overlying HW–CW
basalt and interlayered basalt and
breccia. Terraces incised by gullies
9 2.70 Steep SLG in basalt taluvium overlying, Cuts in interlayered Cuts in MW–HW As predicted RC mapping was proven
weathered interlayered basalt, and HW– basalt and scoriaceous interlayered correct; however, exposed
CW scoriaceous basalt basalt 1:1 basalt and rock is HW and cut slope
agglomerate 1:1.3 angles are much lower than
recommended
10 5.00 Gentle slopes and terraces above limestone Cuts in limestone to 1:0.3 Cut in interbedded As predicted, though cuts through RC mapping was proven
cliffs underlain by subhorizontally (up to 15 m high), in limestone/marl to limestone also contain marl. Route correct, though limestone also
bedded limestone. Tension cracks have interbedded 1:0.3–1:0.25 aligned away from cliff edge. Cuts in contains marl horizons. Cuts
developed behind the cliff face below limestone/marl to 1:0.5 interbedded limestone/marl expose are steeper than recommended
and sections of cliff are overhanging/ (to \5 m high), 1:1 solution features and infilled joints. for limestone/marl and have
undercut (5–15 m high) Toppling failures from over-steep cuts failed
The role of engineering geology in route selection, design, and construction

11 2.00 Upper portion of hairpin stack located on
spur. Route cuts through limestone cliff
(referred to above) and then climbs down
slopes of talus, failed cliff blocks,
limestone/marl colluvium, and
transported BCS. Slope is underlain by
interbedded limestone/marl with an
inactive fault inferred from air photos. A
hidden cliff is also interpreted beneath a
taluvial/colluvial cover
Cuts in interbedded Cuts in Following the initial cut through the RC mapping was proven
limestone/marl 1:0.5 limestone/marl to limestone cliff the alignment crosses correct. Cuts are much steeper
(\5 m high),1:1 [1:0.5 and locally shallow taluvium and BCS with failed than recommended and are
(5–15 m high) [1:0.25 cliff blocks overlying interbedded unstable
limestone/marl. The marl is often thickly
bedded with subordinate limestone. The
limestone is open-jointed with
solution/calcite features. The distribution
of cuts through rock generally reflects the
location of the hidden cliff. Rock falls
and mudflows have occurred in cut slopes
and seepages occur at the soil/rock
interface. Retaining walls have been
required to support some slopes in deeper
soil. Field evidence for the inferred fault
was not found
177

123
 Table 4 continued
Section no. Length Reference conditions (RC)
(Figs. 7, 8) (km) description
123
12 0.72 Lower portion of the same hairpin
stack. There is a hidden cliff, large
displaced cliff sections, and rock
masses are closely-jointed and
highly dilated. The alignment is
located at the head of a large
(ancient?) slope failure with failed
cliff blocks transported downslope
13 0.98 SLG traverse across deep and 38–40
talus/taluvium, with large recent
blocks from limestone cliffs above.
Also, limestone/marl colluvium.
Outcrop unexpected
14 1.40 There are two main river terraces and
SLG across limestone/marl
colluvium underlain by interbedded
limestone and marl that forms cliffs
above and below the alignment. A
landslide, 100 m wide, has its toe in
the river bank of the Difarsa R and
its head in a failed cliff section
above the road. A landslide and
inferred inactive fault were mapped
at the right bank abutment of the
proposed Difarsa bridge site
178
RC recommended Actual slope Outcome Conclusions
slope design (V:H) design (V:H)
Cuts in interbedded Cuts in interbedded As predicted. Excavations expose The RC mapping was proven
limestone/marl limestone/marl to 1:0.25, interbedded limestone and marl of correct. The potential for
1:0.5 (\5 m high), cuts in landslide variable bedding thicknesses with open seepage erosion and cavity
1:1 (5–15 m high), debris/taluvium to 1:0.7. joints and calcite deposition. Cut slopes collapse hazards was not
cuts in landslide Locally 8–10 m of dense have been blast damaged, but the natural predicted. Cuts are much steeper
debris/taluvium taluvium cut almost rock mass is highly dilated due to stress than recommended and are
1:1.5 vertically relief. Grabens created by mass unstable
movement of cliff sections are filled with
taluvium and transported BCS. There are
back-tilted limestone rafts and a deep
failure scarp exposed in excavation
approximates to the extent of movements
shown on the RC mapping. Frequent
rock falls from over-steep cut slopes
have punctured side drains and caused
ponding. Small cavity collapse features
have developed in several locations,
aligned approximately with the hidden
cliff from which cliff detachments have
taken place. These may also be fault-
controlled
Cuts in taluvium Cuts in taluvium to 1:1 (up As predicted, but thinly bedded, closely The presence of rock, albeit
1:1.5 (up to 20 m to 25 m high) jointed and very weak limestone/marl is highly disturbed and very weak,
high), 1:1.75–1:1.5 exposed in approx. 350 m of the was not anticipated. Cuts are
([20 m high) excavation. Some cuts contain steeper than recommended and
transported BCS, others are voided of have locally failed
fines due to seepage erosion. Ravelling
and shallow failures have caused damage
to rock trap walls
Cuts in Cuts in 6 m colluvium As predicted. The main issues concern the The RC mapping was proven
limestone/marl above limestone/marl to stability of the deep cut slopes in correct. Cuts are steeper in
colluvium 1:1.5, [1:1, cuts in closely colluvium overlying interbedded overlying colluvium than
interbedded jointed, thinly bedded limestone/marl that was excavated too recommended and have failed
limestone/marl limestone and marl to steeply. The landslide has not moved
1:0.5 (\5 m high), 1:1.1–1:1 below the road, but above the road the
1:1 (5–15 m high) rock mass has failed further. Seepage
erosion and cavity collapse have
occurred in the vicinity of the landslide.
Toppling failures have occurred in over-
steep limestone cut slopes. Large
limestone blocks were encountered in
the slope at the right bank bridge
abutment, supporting the interpretation
of an ancient landslide, and displaced
river terrace sediments were indicative
of faulting
G. J. Hearn, G. S. Pettifer
 Table 4 continued
Section no. Length Reference conditions (RC) description
(Figs. 7, 8) (km)
15 7.50 Blue Nile ‘valley floor’ traverse. Low level
river terrace remnants and higher level
colluvial terraces, with debris fans and
lobes of ancient landslides and debris
flows from the limestone/marl cliffs
above. Failed cliff sections and localised
landslides alongside the river. Recent
rock falls and localised river scour
16 1.40 Climb across limestone and marl colluvial
slopes with a hidden cliff in interbedded
limestone/marl
17 1.16 Very steep ascent of taluvial slopes and
hidden cliff formed in limestone
18 0.60 Bench or terrace, underlain by limestone,
but covered in colluvium
19 0.90 Climb through steep slopes comprising
boulders and blocks of failed limestone
cliff with 40–50 m high limestone cliffs
above. Large toppled and slumped
blocks define the cliff face. Cut through
limestone cliffs at top of slope
123
RC recommended Actual slope Outcome Conclusions
slope design (V:H) design (V:H)
Cuts in limestone/marl Cuts in Cuts have exposed large boulder taluvium The RC mapping was proven
colluvium 1:1.5 colluvium/taluvium to in a silt/clay matrix, 4–5 m exposed correct
1:1.3 thickness. Folded/faulted interbedded
limestone/marl exposed in excavations at
the Blue Nile bridge left bank abutment.
Localised rock falls from the cliffs
above, though distant from the road.
Fans of fine-grained debris have
developed from tributary streams, though
these are minor. Scour has occurred
beneath culverts and some fill slopes
have undergone movement due to the use
of sub-standard fill materials
Cuts in limestone/marl Cuts in limestone/marl As predicted. Major erosion below side The RC mapping was proven
colluvium 1:1.5, colluvium and v weak drain turnout. Some fill slopes have correct. Cuts in colluvium
interbedded interbedded undergone movement due to the use of excavated to slightly steeper
limestone/marl 1:0.5 limestone/marl to sub-standard fill materials angles than recommended,
(\5 m high), 1:1 1:1.2 (c. 5 m high though mostly stable
(5–15 m high) beneath colluvium)
None None Some displacements have occurred to the The RC mapping was proven
high, steep fills necessitating local correct
replacement with clean rockfill and
The role of engineering geology in route selection, design, and construction
gabion revetment (see text)
None None As predicted The RC mapping was proven
correct
Cuts in limestone cliff Cut in limestone with The RC mapping was used to design an The RC mapping was proven
of 1:0.25–1:0.2 (up thin marl seam(s) up alignment comprising a high fill slope correct though the thin
to15 m high) to 1:0.2 (approx. 10 m beneath the cliffs and a box cut through (unforeseen) marl seams may
high) the cliffs gradually daylighting on the play a significant role in long
plateau above. Excessive blasting caused term cliff and cut slope
movement of some of the cliff blocks stability
along sub-horizontal bedding. The
limestone contains thin seams of marl.
The long-term stability of parts of the
cliff face is suspect, and the design
provided for their removal. To date, this
has not been implemented. There have
been localised movements to the high fill
slope
179
 Table 4 continued
Section no. Length Reference conditions (RC)
(Figs. 7, 8) (km) description
123
20 1.45 Wide benches and gentle slopes
formed in sandstone with steeply
incised gully heads on flanks
21 2.08 SLG across HW–CW basalt and
volcaniclastic rocks overlying
sandstone, the latter forming
benches with failed cliffs below
22 2.65 Steep SLG and ridge top in talus
overlying interlayered columnar-
jointed basalt, chloritic breccia and
volcaniclastic rocks
23 2.35 SLG across interlayered basalt and
volcaniclastic rocks, gullies and
channelized debris streams and
flows
24 1.90 SLG across benches formed in tuff/
breccia with steep slopes in basalt/
volcaniclastic rocks above, talus
and colluvium. Potential for rock
falls from undercut cliffs and
CDFs. Eroding gully heads below
road
180
RC recommended Actual slope Outcome Conclusions
slope design (V:H) design (V:H)
Cuts in sandstone Cuts in M-HW mudstone As predicted, though a thin mudstone The RC mapping was proven largely
1:0.3–1:0.25 (up and sandstone to1:1.1 up horizon is present between limestone and correct. Cuts are less steep than
to10 m high) to 10 m high) sandstone. The alignment was modified recommended and undergoing
to avoid gully heads, though fill slope some erosion
movement has occurred due to erosion in
a gully head that could not be avoided
Cuts in interlayered Cuts in MW–HW As predicted. Small failures have occurred The RC mapping was proven
basalt/breccia/ interlayered basalt/ in cut slopes in weathered volcaniclastic correct. Cuts are steeper than
scoriaceous basalt breccia/scoriaceous rocks recommended and have failed
1:1 basalt to 1:0.8 locally
Cuts in interlayered Cuts in v weak to weak, As predicted, though basalt is the more The RC mapping was proven
basalt/breccia/ MW interlayered basalt/ common material encountered. The RC correct. Cuts are slightly less steep
scoriaceous basalt breccia/scoriaceous mapping was used to modify sections of than recommended, but still suffer
1:1, 1:0.25 in basalt basalt to 1:1.2 (10 m alignment by reducing steep side-long from small rock falls. The RCs
(15 m high), high), in closely jointed open cut in weathered in interbedded contained shallower recommended
1:0.5–1:0.3 in basalt to 1:0.25 (15 m basalt/breccia/scoriaceous basalt and angles for sheared or very closely
volcanic breccia high) increasing box cut through ridge top jointed basalt (1:1 for \5 m, 1:1.2
basalt. Gravel and cobble-sized rock fall for 5–10 m)
due to closely jointed rock. The cut
slopes may therefore be too steep for
these materials
Cuts in interlayered Cuts in MW–HW Minor ravelling from 1:1 cuts, rock falls The RC mapping was proven correct
basalt/breccia/ interlayered basalt and from higher, steeper cuts. Erosion of
scoriaceous basalt mostly volcaniclastic volcaniclastic rocks is undermining
1:1 rocks to 1:1 (10 m high) basalt flows, causing them to fail
and 1:0.6 (40 m high)
Cuts in Cuts in talus/colluvium to As predicted. Fans of basalt talus material The RC mapping was proven correct
talus/colluvium 1:1–1:1.4, in up to 6 m deep. Tuff is v weak to weak,
1:1.5 (\5 m high), interlayered basalt/ open jointed with ash layers. Differential
1:1 in interlayered breccia/scoriaceous erosion and undercutting. Ravelling of
basalt/breccia/ basalt and tuff to 1:1.2 cut slopes in weathered tuff and rock fall
scoriaceous basalt from cut slopes and gullies in
interlayered basalt/breccia/scoriaceous
basalt. Debris hazards to road and
drainage system
G. J. Hearn, G. S. Pettifer
The role of engineering geology in route selection, design, and construction 181

steeper than recommended and

hidden cliffs had been anticipated elsewhere along the

correct. Cuts in volcaniclastic

The RC mapping was proven

The RC mapping was proven

rocks and some basalts are
alignment, and so, with the benefit of hindsight, the pos-
sible presence of rock at locally shallow depth within the

are subject to rock fall

taluvium slope might have been predicted. It is noteworthy,
however, that boreholes drilled after the reference condi-
tion mapping also failed to identify this locally shallow
Conclusions

rockhead due to the thinly bedded and closely jointed

correct
condition of the rock mass and the very poor quality of
drilling services available at the time on site. Finally, in the
case of (d), the cavity collapses might have been pre-

over agglomerate and tuff. Ravelling, minor

volcaniclastic rocks with tuff, ash and buried

of check dams in stream courses. Short-span

rock falls, and shallow slides from cut slopes

culvert outlets requiring extensive protection

erosion beneath culvert outlets, outflanking

As described. Thin BCS and BCS colluvium

red-brown palaeosols. Ravelling and scree

BCS black cotton soil, CDF channelized debris flows, SLG side long ground, SW, MW, HW, CW slightly, moderately, highly, and completely weathered
bridges across re-entrant valleys partially
dictable in general terms. So far they have occurred en-

in agglomerate and tuff, erosion beneath

closely jointed basalt and volcaniclastic
from weathered tuff and rock fall from

rocks. Up to 7 m deep talus/taluvium,

tirely within limestone and marl taluvium/colluvium and

As predicted. Closely jointed basalt,

especially around large failed blocks within these deposits.

They have been mostly initiated where road runoff has
works. Failing spoil slopes
entered the slope as a result of blocked or broken side
drains and will no doubt recur in the future unless the
blocked with debris

drainage system is regularly inspected, cleared and repaired

as necessary.
Outcome

Recommended cut slope geometry

volcaniclastic rocks (up
locally to 1:0.5 in basalt

With respect to cut slope design, there is a general trend in

basalt and agglomerate

MW basalt and tuff to

to 1:1.2 (60 m high),
Cuts in closely jointed

1:1 (10–30 m high)

Table 4 suggesting that where slopes have been cut more

Cuts to approx. 1:1,

steeply than recommended for the reference condition en-

and to 1:0.7 in

to 30 m high)
design (V:H)

countered they have failed. There are also cases where cut
Actual slope

slopes have been excavated to shallower angles than rec-

ommended for the reference condition encountered. This is
primarily due to the unforeseen occurrence of higher
weathering grades and weaker horizons within the volcanic
multi-slope design
slope design (V:H)

Cuts in all rocks to

slope design may

RC recommended

1:1, but a multi-

may be required
Cuts to 1:1, but a

sequence. Nevertheless, the reference condition tables did

be required

indicate that recommended cutting angles were maximum

and that multi-slope profiles would probably need to be cut
to accommodate varying material strengths with depth.
Ayalew et al. (2009) developed a set of recommended
‘threshold’ cut slope geometries (angle against height)
Moderate to gentle slopes underlain by

breccia/scoriaceous basalt. CDFs and

breccia, and tuff. CDFs and ravelling
Steep SLG and steep-sided valley re-
entrants across talus and colluvium

from an empirical study of various materials exposed along

transported BCS derived from
basalt and interlayered basalt/

the Gohatsion–Dejen road, further downstream. These

overlying interlayered basalt,

of basalt debris from slopes

Reference conditions (RC)

values have been compared with cut slope angles recom-

mended in the project reference condition classification for
the Mekhane Selam to Gundewein road and observations of
the post-construction earthworks condition in order to
plateau areas

produce a final set of recommended cut slope angles related

description

to the depth of the cutting (Table 5).

Slope angles in Table 5 generally accord with those
proposed by Ayalew et al. (2009), but there are some dif-
ferences related to terminology and the nature of the ma-
Length
(km)

3.30

3.60

terials exposed. In comparison with the recommendations

Table 4 continued

contained in the project reference conditions, Table 5

places greater emphasis on the importance of weathering in
Section no.
(Figs. 7, 8)

interlayered volcanic sequences. This is based on condi-

tions revealed during construction of the road that could
25

26

not have been reliably predicted from the surface. Cut

123
182
slope angles for mudrocks and gypsum of the Gohatsion/
Abay Formation, which are not exposed in the project area,
have been modified from those in Ayalew et al. (2009) on
the basis of experience of similar materials in other parts of
the world, while those for black cotton soil are based on
discussions with Ethiopian road engineers during the
course of site work. The range of angles has been smoothed
to avoid sudden ‘jumps’, and represents a continuum be-
tween weak rocks and soils. Slope gradients are expressed
in terms of 1V:xH so that they can be readily converted to
the xH:1V ratios commonly used in Ethiopia.
The recommendations in Table 5 can be used as a first
approximation for new road works and in helping to assess
the stability of existing cut slopes. In strong, blocky rock
masses, stable slope angles will be determined by the ori-
entation of persistent discontinuities, while in subhorizon-
tally bedded strata with widely spaced discontinuities a
stepped profile formed on discontinuity surfaces can give a
natural appearance and minimise damage caused by bulk
blasting. In very steep terrain, space constraints may pre-
clude high cut slopes at some of the angles specified in
Table 5, and, if excavation angles cannot be safely in-
creased, minor adjustments to the horizontal and vertical
alignment may reduce the height of cut required. Final
designs will need to be based on site-specific observations
of exposed soil and rock profiles and confirmatory slope
analysis.
Depending upon ground conditions and space available,
designers can select either a continuous, compound, or
benched slope profile. For example, a continuous slope
using an overall slope angle for the entire slope height
would be appropriate where the strength of the exposed
materials does not vary significantly with depth. A com-
pound slope, comprising flatter and steeper sections, may
be designed where the strength of the exposed materials
does vary with depth, though without borehole investiga-
tions these variations can be very difficult to predict in
advance of excavation. If the land take and the cut line are
based on a cutting angle suitable for slope materials ex-
posed at the surface and weaker materials are encountered
at depth then the cut slope cannot be adjusted very easily
and measures to strengthen, retain, or protect these mate-
rials may need to be considered. Cut slopes may be ben-
ched at vertical intervals of 5–10 m, but in this case, the
recommended slope angle–slope height relationships in
Table 5 refer to the entire cut slope and not to each bench
face. Unless the overall angle of benched cut slopes is
reduced from those recommended in Table 5, thus incur-
ring increased excavation volumes and greater land take,
failures can be expected from individual bench faces.
Hearn (2011) cautions that benches should not be formed
in colluvium/taluvium and that cuts in highly to completely
weathered rock or residual soil should not be benched
123
G. J. Hearn, G. S. Pettifer
unless they are provided with adequate drainage systems
that can be properly maintained.
Review of reference conditions
An independent review of the performance of the reference
condition classification was undertaken by Gregg (2009).
This review reached the following main conclusions:
• Using the Schmidt hammer hardness test to assess
empirically UCS and a revised GSI for the materials
actually exposed in excavations, the strengths of the
more competent rocks (mainly limestone) were found
to be lower than had been assigned in the reference
condition classification. Conversely, the less competent
materials (mainly weathered basalt) were found to be
stronger. These discrepancies may have been due to the
effects of blasting in the former case and the adoption
of a conservative approach in the latter.
• The reference condition classification needed to be
expanded to include geotechnical parameters for (a) con-
glomeratic sandstone, (b) sand (weathering product),
and (c) highly weathered basalt with corestones.
• Some of the deeper excavations exposed multiple
reference conditions (up to four in some cases) and
these proved very difficult to predict from surface
mapping alone. The stability of the entire slope may be
controlled by the weakest material present (for example
scoriaceous and highly weathered basalt).
With respect to the last point it should be noted that deep
excavations in volcanic sequences have often been cut to
angles appropriate for materials exposed at the surface and
this has led to ravelling in underlying weaker rock and
eventual rock fall due to undermining of the overlying
more competent material. This is most prevalent where
basalt overlies weathered tuff or agglomerate. Another
consideration is that, in some locations, the steepness and
height of the terrain prevented application of the slope
angles prescribed in the reference condition classifications.
For example, in at least one section of alignment, 20-m-
high slopes in well-jointed basalt overlying moderately
weathered agglomerate cut at 80 (c. 1V:0.2H) have been
subject to rock fall, necessitating the construction of gabion
rock trap protection alongside the road side drain. At other
locations, excavations up to 35 m high cut at much shal-
lower angles (average 55—c. 1V:0.7H) in the same ma-
terials, but steeper than the original reference condition
recommendation of 1:1, have also been subject to minor
ravelling and rock fall. By contrast, multiple and complex
sequences of basalt, tuff, and agglomerate cut to depths of
40 m at slopes of 60 (c. 1V:0.6H) have remained stable,
and slopes cut entirely in agglomerate to depths of 20 m
The role of engineering geology in route selection, design, and construction 183

Table 5 Recommended cutting angles (V/H) for different materials and slope heights in the Blue Nile basin
General class of Typical rock and soil typesa Cut slope angle related to slope height
material
Up to 5–10 m 10–15 m 15–20 m Over
5m high high high 20 m
high high

Strong, blocky, rock Fresh-SW basalt, limestone, or well-cemented sandstone with 1V:0.3H–1V:0.2H (72–79) 1V:0.5H–1V:0.4H
mass (GSI 55–75) widely spaced discontinuities/fractures (including bedding (63–68)
planes and joints) (rock mass condition/discontinuity survey Depends on rock properties: the angle selected may be higher
required at accessible locations; a stepped slope profile than that indicated if the structure is very favourable or lower
formed on discontinuity surfaces may be appropriate where if it is unfavourable
bedding is subhorizontal)
Weak or partially SW interlayered basalt and volcaniclastic rocks (including 1V:0.4H 1V:0.5H 1V:0.6H 1V:0.7H 1V:0.8H
disturbed rock mass scoriaceous basalt, volcanic breccia, agglomerate, and tuff); (68) (63) (60) (56) (51)
(GSI 35–55) MW basalt, limestone, or sandstone with closely spaced, open
discontinuities (discontinuity survey may be appropriate)
SW interbedded limestone and marl or mudstone, shale, and 1V:0.5H 1V:0.7H 1V:0.8H 1V:1H 1V:1.25H
gypsum; poorly cemented sandstone; MW interlayered basalt (63) (56) (51) (45) (39)
and volcaniclastic rocks
Very weak or SW tuff/ash or tuffaceous siltstone; MW or highly fractured 1V:1H 1V:1.25H 1V:1.5H 1V:1.75H 1V:2H
fragmented rock mudstone or marl; HW, sheared or very closely jointed basalt, (45) (39) (34) (30) (27)
mass (GSI 15–35) with or without interlayered volcaniclastic rocks
MW-HW tuff/ash or tuffaceous siltstone; HW marl, mudstone 1V:1H 1V:1.5H 1V:1.75H 1V:1.2H 1V:2.5H
or shale; (45) (34) (30) (27) (22)
CW interlayered basalt and volcaniclastic rocks
Transported soils Compact matrix-supported colluvium or taluvium 1V:1H 1V:1.25H 1V:1.5H 1V:1.75H 1V:2H
(excluding (45) (39) (34) (30) (27)
transported BCS) Moderately compact matrix-supported colluvium or taluvium 1V:1.5H 1V:1.75H 1V:2H 1V:2.5H 1V:3H
(34) (30) (27) (22) (18)
Talus Talus (limestone and basalt typically reposed at 38o, 1V:1.28H) 1V:1.5H–1V:1.25H (34–39) Cuttings rarely higher
depending on angle of repose than 15 m;
Black cotton soils In situ or transported black clay soils 1V:2H 1V:2.5H 1V:3H buttressing or
(BCS) (27) (22) (18) excavate and replace,
drainage and erosion
control measures may
be required,
especially in BCS
a
SW, MW, HW, and CW, respectively, refer to slightly, moderately, highly, and completely weathered rock
Horizontal components of slopes steeper than 1:1 are given to one decimal place. Cutslope designs may be either continuous, compound, or
benched
Many interlayered volcanic sequences contain thin sub-horizontal tuff or ash layers as well as weak materials associated with sub-vertical fault
zones. These materials can have much lower strength parameters than the surrounding materials and therefore need to be protected and/or
stabilised by methods such as buttressing and revetments.
This table does not include reference to red-brown residual soils because they are of limited occurrence within the project area. For further
information on these soils please refer to Fookes (1997b).

have remained stable at 70 (c. 1V:0.4H). These angles are
significantly steeper than cutting angles for these materials
in both the original and revised recommendations and il-
lustrate the difficulty in prescribing cut slope angles for
highly variable volcanic rocks.
From field observations made in 2014, 65 (slightly
steeper than 1V:0.5H) appears to be the maximum cutting
angle for blocky, strong basalt in deep excavations without
incurring significant rock fall. This is consistent with the
recommendations in Table 5. Figure 10 illustrates the case
where failures have occurred at slope heights less than this
where jointing is adverse.
Specific construction issues
Earthworks versus structural engineering solutions
The preliminary design had made provision for the use of
six cut and cover tunnels and extensive road fill retaining
walls. There were also several ‘viaducts’ or short-span
bridges scheduled to cross the re-entrant valleys in the
incised basalt topography on the western side of the gorge.
Finding sufficient width and foundation for constructing
some of the tunnels would have been difficult and it was
found that minor realignments and adjustments to the cross

123
184
Fig. 10 Rockslide in basalt
(65 cut angle/15 m cut height)
with adverse jointing
section, combined with the use of rock trap walls, repre-
sented a cheaper earthworks solution. The tunnels were,
therefore, removed from the final design. Generally, the
spans of the viaducts were reduced by adjusting the
horizontal alignment in the re-entrant valleys. This made
the alignment more sinuous and increased the excavation
quantities on the re-entrant valley sides. Long lengths of
road fill retaining wall were also avoided by realigning the
cross-section into the hillside to create a greater amount of
cut and a reduced requirement for fill. Furthermore, fill
embankments were used in some sections where fill re-
taining walls had previously been proposed.
One outcome of the earthworks-based approach was the
generation of large quantities of spoil material, i.e. excess
of excavation over fill requirements. This was exacerbated
by the contractor’s reluctance to haul large volumes of
material to areas of fill deficiency. Consequently, spoil
slopes were constructed in areas that had not been pre-
selected during the reconnaissance surveys and this re-
sulted in the development of slope instability and erosion
problems in some areas.
Deep-seated ground movements in the Difarsa valley
In Section 2 of the alignment shown in Fig. 7 and sum-
marised in Table 4, ground movements manifested them-
selves in the form of apparent heave to the road surface by
up to 100 mm over a road length of approximately 30 m
in 2012. The section of road affected had been constructed
123
G. J. Hearn, G. S. Pettifer
in box cut (Fig. 11), with the road formation level exca-
vated to approximately 15 m beneath the topography on
either side. There was no clear reason for the heave at the
time, and no evidence for ground movement could be
found on the slopes either side. In 2013 very heavy rain on
the eastern side of the gorge resulted in flash flooding and
extensive scour in a stream channel close to the area of
heave. This scour exposed a thin seam of plastic clay that
was interpreted to be completely weathered volcaniclastic
siltstone. The slope between the eroded stream bank and
the road above failed and gave rise to road subsidence
over a distance of approximately 20 m (Fig. 11). Trial pits
excavated for retaining wall foundation alongside the road
in the subsided area revealed the same plastic clay at
approximately 8 m below original road level. It was
concluded, therefore, that slope failure had occurred
within this material and that it conceivably extended into
the area of the box cut at an unknown depth beneath road
level. The heave to the road in the box cut could therefore
be due to the movement of the slope above into the box
cut, partially along the surface of or within the plastic
clay. The fact that the plastic clay is not exposed in the cut
slope means that movement along or within it is not en-
tirely kinematically feasible, giving rise to very slow rates
of creep that were eventually manifested as heave in the
road surface. Subsequent observations have confirmed the
presence of tension cracks on the slopes almost 100 m
above the road, thus supporting the mass movement
interpretation.
The role of engineering geology in route selection, design, and construction
Fig. 11 Slope failure and road
subsidence
Negotiating failed limestone cliffs on the eastern side
of the gorge
Figure 12 shows the detailed landscape model developed
for the selection and design of a hairpin stack through the
limestone cliffs on the eastern side of the gorge above the
Difarsa bridge site. Three main options were considered
for negotiating these cliffs as shown on the model and
described in Hearn (2011). Option 1 was selected based
on stability and cost considerations, although concerns
remained over the potential reactivation of previously
failed ground. Failure of the limestone cliffs, which may
have been partly fault-controlled, had resulted in an
overall reduction of slope angle and the creation of
taluvial slopes upon which an alignment could be more
easily designed.
An extract of the reference condition mapping for this
section of alignment (Fig. 13) shows the geomorphology of
the area and the failed sections of cliff. The solid red line is
the approximate alignment that was finally adopted. This
alignment was designed in such a way as to minimise the
undercutting of failed and dilated rock masses and to avoid
crossing the lower slope that was considered to be a large
slope failure (Fig. 13). The post-construction condition of
this section of alignment (Sections 11 and 12 in Fig. 7 and
in Table 4) is affected by rock falls and slides from un-
finished cut slopes in interbedded limestone and marl,
shallow slides in black cotton soil colluvium and taluvial
185
soils, and the occurrence of collapse features in side drains
and the adjacent pavement (Fig. 14). The unstable cut
slopes can be rectified by finishing slope works to the
original design or introducing mitigation measures, such as
shotcrete facings and rock trap walls. The collapse features
were associated with cavities that appeared to have de-
veloped beneath the road since its construction. They were
up to 5–6 m wide, though mostly much smaller, and tended
to occur preferentially along the boundary between dis-
placed rock and adjacent taluvial/colluvial soils. They
usually occurred at locations where the side drain had been
broken by rock fall from adjacent cut slopes or where side
drains had become blocked by fallen debris. In both
situations, side drain runoff would have seeped, and in
some cases flowed, into the subgrade leading to erosion of
the silt/clay matrix.
The stability of high fill slopes
On the western side of the gorge, in Sections 16 and 17 of
the alignment in Fig. 8 and in Table 4, the steepness and
configuration of the topography combined with the appar-
ent lack of outcrop led to the design of a five-bend hairpin
stack that was constructed predominantly in fill. The
middle limestone cliff was anticipated to be beneath an
extensive deposit of taluvium (limestone) and colluvium
(marl) debris, but its exact location and depth was not
known. The presence of a wide natural bench at the foot of
123
186
Fig. 12 Landscape model developed for detailed route selection
the slope provided sufficient room for the construction of
a rock fill embankment that allowed a road to be de-
signed to the required geometric specification. The final
configuration (Fig. 15) comprised rock fill in the lower
portion of the stack, a combination of rock fill and lo-
calised masonry retaining walls in the middle of the
stack and predominantly full cut and box cut through
limestone in the upper part of the stack. The maximum
height of fill required in any one cross-section was 25 m.
The design of the fill slopes was based on a rock fill
with a nominal phi angle of 45 and a fill slope angle of
40. Because of the steepness of the site and the con-
figuration of the alignment finally required, the con-
structed slope angles for the fill slopes were up to 50 in
places, i.e. too steep for the fill materials used. Conse-
quently, localised failure of the fill slope face occurred.
This was addressed through the reconstruction of the
affected fill slopes using well-graded and compacted rock
fill with a higher friction angle and employing a 3-m-
wide gabion revetment to provide additional strength and
protection to the fill slope surface.
123
G. J. Hearn, G. S. Pettifer
Discussion
Design and construction in remote ‘mountainous’
locations
Apart from the use of boreholes for bridge abutment and
pier foundation design at the Blue Nile and Difarsa rivers,
the geotechnical design and construction of this new road
across the Blue Nile gorge has relied entirely on methods
of surface engineering geological assessment and slope
stability analyses based on predicted ground conditions and
strength parameters from field observation. Aerial pho-
tograph interpretation and field mapping techniques, to-
gether with the use of reference condition classifications,
formed the basis of this assessment. Overall, the approach
has been very successful, but there have been some cases
where ground conditions and geohazards encountered
during construction had not been predicted. A compre-
hensive programme of ground investigation to international
standards might have allowed these unpredicted outcomes
to be foreseen and catered for in the final pre-construction
The role of engineering geology in route selection, design, and construction
Fig. 13 Extract from the reference condition mapping for the hairpin stack through the limestone cliffs
design, especially with respect to the sequencing of vol-
canic strata in deep excavations. That said, it would have
been very difficult to gain access for drilling rigs to many
locations within the gorge prior to the construction of the
pioneer track. For environmental reasons the pioneer track
more or less followed the approximate centre-line of the
designed alignment and cut slopes had to be excavated to
facilitate this. One of the problems faced during con-
struction in some areas was the fact that these deep ‘tem-
porary’ cuts effectively became part of the permanent
works because of access difficulties and health and safety
concerns that arose when trying to modify their geometry
after they had been excavated.
Enhanced geological knowledge and the total geology
approach
The increasing coverage of 1:250,000 scale regional geo-
logical maps in Ethiopia has significantly improved the
quality of information on ground conditions available at
187
project planning and design stages. This is a reflection not
only of mapping scale, but also advances in academic
knowledge. In the project area, for example, recent geo-
logical mapping (Chumburo 2009) and research (e.g. Gani
et al. 2009) have identified major faults. The Ashangi
volcanic sequence has been subdivided into several pulses
of basaltic lava eruption separated by episodes of pyro-
clastic activity and quiescent periods during which eroded
materials were re-deposited as sediments at some locations
(see Table 1) while palaeosols developed at others (see
Table 2). Weak materials contained in fault zones or in
layers formed during quiescent periods are likely to affect
groundwater flow and destabilise cut slopes.
Figure 16 shows interlayered basalt and volcaniclastic
rocks revealed in a sidelong cutting on the upper slopes of
the gorge on the western side of the Blue Nile (Section 25
in Table 4 and on Fig. 8). A distinctive layer of very weak
clay-rich ‘white tuff’ towards the base of the cut slope is
underlain by coarse volcaniclastic deposits and overlain in
turn by yellowish grey, moderately weathered basalt, grey
123
188 G. J. Hearn, G. S. Pettifer

Fig. 14 Typical collapse

feature affecting side drains and
adjacent pavement

Fig. 15 High fill slopes with

localised failures on over-steep
sections

tuff, and grey slightly weathered basalt. The ‘white tuff’, pyroclastic flow altered by hydrothermal processes. X-ray
which disintegrated to flakes in jar slake tests, may be rich diffraction analysis would reveal the clay’s mineralogy and
in kaolin clay and is possibly a late-stage rhyolitic might assist in confirming its origin. Superimposing strata

123
The role of engineering geology in route selection, design, and construction
Fig. 16 Cut slopes in volcanic
strata containing a prominent
layer of very weak ‘white tuff’
boundaries from the new geological map (Chumburo 2009)
onto the site location map (Fig. 1) indicated that this layer
may correlate with unit Tpb1 between major basalt units
Tv2 and Tv3 (Table 1). This is important because it would
have been very difficult to predict the presence of the
‘white tuff’ before construction commenced, but similar
weak materials can now be anticipated elsewhere at the
same horizon. Moreover, strata revealed in excavations are
likely to provide invaluable data for geological research
and for updating the regional maps.
One criticism that might be levelled at the ‘total geology
approach’ applied to the Mekhane Selam to Gundewein
road is the fact that the reference condition classifications
and their field designations were not updated for each
section of the road as construction proceeded. Instead,
large scale engineering geological field maps, cross-sec-
tions, and site-specific engineering geological reports were
prepared that addressed ground conditions exposed at in-
dividual sites with recommendations for detailed design or
design revision. These assessments were made by visiting
specialists of the geo-team and their recommendations
were largely adopted by the full-time site supervision staff.
The fact that the reference condition documents were not
methodically updated is a weakness in the overall
geotechnical approach, but is not considered to have been a
constraint on the design and construction of the road be-
cause of the frequency and detail with which specialist
engineering geological assessments and reporting were
carried out during construction. The foresight of the ERA
189
to include sufficient provision for specialist inputs during
construction was a key factor in allowing this to happen.
One further point worthy of mention is the exposure of
steeply dipping limestone in cut slopes through the wide
natural bench at the foot of the hairpin stack shown in
Fig. 15. There is no known structural reason as to why
fairly massive limestone beds with this orientation might
be present at this location. Deep-seated slope instability
originating on the cliffs above might be one explanation.
There is a progressive change in the steepness and orien-
tation of the bedding with distance from a hypothetical
centre-line of movement that would be consistent with a
rotational mechanism of failure. However, there is no to-
pographic evidence for a large deep-seated failure at this
location and the exposure might be the remnant of an an-
cient mass movement with a topography that has long since
been removed. If this were the case it would serve to limit
the extent to which such features could be identified or
anticipated from geomorphological evidence alone.
Landscape fragility and road construction impacts
The main geohazards to affect the road to date have re-
sulted largely from the effects of stream erosion and
seepage erosion in colluvial/taluvial deposits, both of
which have been significantly exacerbated by the effects of
road runoff. There is a limit to the extent to which these
effects can be prevented through proactive design as they
occur in response to cloud bursts and the effects of
123
190
temporary blockages and damage to drainage structures.
The latter are brought about by erosion and rock fall from
cut slopes and changes to the runoff regime associated with
road drainage and, to a lesser extent in the project area,
land use change. The engineering response to these geo-
hazards has been to reinstate sections of affected road and
to reconstruct side drains, clear blocked culverts and install
gabion checkdams to help control the flow of water and
reduce the volume of sediment entering culverts. Another
important issue to consider is the fact that the processes
involved in road construction, including blasting, tempo-
rary drainage works, stockpiling, and spoil disposal, often
result in a very different environment to that observed
during design that may require a significant revision to the
contract design at a particular location. This usually has the
effect of increasing quantities and hence the final con-
struction cost. In the case of the Mekhane Selam to Gun-
dewein road, while these additional costs were incurred,
they were more than compensated for by the savings made
in the avoidance of tunnels and the reduction in retaining
wall requirements.
Conclusions
The ‘total geology approach’ applied to the design and
construction of the Mekhane Selam to Gundewein road is
not truly total because it is not supported by borehole data.
Nevertheless, it serves as a useful ‘blueprint’ for future
projects (Hearn and Hunt 2013) and for the improvement
and maintenance of existing roads in the region. It does
require an intensive input of engineering geological ex-
pertise, especially during the early planning and pre-
liminary design phases, followed by regular inspections,
field mapping and reassessment of ground conditions dur-
ing construction (Hearn and Massey 2009). Despite the fact
that almost 9 years have been dedicated to trying to get the
engineering geology right, it is still very early days in the
life of the Mekhane Selam to Gundewein road, and the
effects of climate (including possible climate change—
Hearn 2014), land use, and construction are expected to
require a continued maintenance commitment. The ‘total
geology approach’ even where it is total and not partial, is
not a panacea and maintenance authorities should expect
and anticipate the need to invest in preventative and re-
active maintenance during the life-time of roads such as
this.
Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the Ethiopian
Roads Authority and URS Infrastructure and Environment UK Ltd for
permission to publish this paper. The contributions of the following to
remote sensing, field mapping, analysis, design, and construction
supervision are gratefully acknowledged: Darryn Wise; Jonathan
Hart; Colin Chant; Sarah D’Agostino; Phil Talbot; Solomon Kuliche,
123
G. J. Hearn, G. S. Pettifer
Lulseged Ayalew; Mesfin Teshome; Seyoum Belew, Kirti Bahadur
Thapa; Solomon Assefa; and many others. Drawings were prepared
by Karen Finlay. The Mekhane Selam–Gundewein road was con-
structed by CGCOC (CGC Overseas Construction Group, Beijing).
The pre-construction design was undertaken by Renardet. SA/SABA
Engineering and their efforts to identify the optimum road corridor
formed an important contribution to the final design. Tim Hunt pro-
vided comments on the final draft of this paper.
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