The Lowdown on Low-Resistivity Pay

Austin Boyd Evaluating low-resistivity pay requires interpreters to discard the notion
Harold Darling
that water saturations above 50% are not economic. Various tools and
Jacques Tabanou
Sugar Land, Texas, USA techniques have been developed to assess these frequently bypassed
zones, but there are no shortcuts to arriving at the correct petrophysi-
Bob Davis
Bruce Lyon cal answer.
New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
Lamination of beds Shale clasts Clay-lined burrows
Charles Flaum ■ Clays are the pri-
mary cause of low-
Ridgefield, Connecticut, USA resistivity pay and
can form during
James Klein and after deposi-
ARCO Exploration and tion. They are dis-
tributed in the for-
Production Technology mation as laminar
0.5 in
Plano, Texas shales, dispersed
clays and struc-
Pore fillings Pore linings Clay grains tural clays. Other
Robert M. Sneider
Robert M. Sneider Exploration, Inc. causes of low-resis-
tivity pay include
Houston, Texas small grain size, as
in intervals of
Alan Sibbit igneous and meta-
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia morphic rock frag-
ments, and con-
ductive minerals
Julian Singer Burrowed sand Ash shards Conductive pyrite
like pyrite.
New Delhi, India

For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Jay

Tittman, consultant, Danbury, Connecticut, USA; Bar-
bara Anderson, Ian Bryant, Darwin Ellis, Mike Herron,
Bob Kleinberg, Raghu Ramamoorthy, Pabitra Sen,
Chris Straley, Schlumberger-Doll Research, Ridgefield,
Connecticut; David Allen, Kees Castelijns, Andrew Kirk-
wood and Andre Orban, Schlumberger Wireline & Test-
ing, Sugar Land, Texas, USA; Steve Bonner and Trevor
Burgess, Anadrill, Sugar Land, Texas; Dale Logan,
Schlumberger Wireline & Testing, Roswell, New Mexico,
USA; and Pierre Berger, GeoQuest, Bangkok, Thailand.
0.25 mm
When Conrad and Marcel Schlumberger
invented the technique of well logging, low-
resistivity pay was, practically speaking, a
contradiction in terms. Their pioneering
research hinged on the principle that gas- or
oil-filled rocks have a higher resistivity than
water-filled rocks. Through the years, how-
ever, low-resistivity pay has become recog-
nized as a worldwide phenomenon, occur-
ring in basins from the North Sea and
Indonesia to West Africa and Alaska. With
low oil prices driving the reexploration of
mature fields, methods of interpreting low-
resistivity pay have proliferated.
This article examines the causes of low-
resistivity pay in sands, then explores the
tools and techniques that have been devel-
oped to evaluate such zones. A case study
shows how log/core integration helps pin-
point the causes of low-resistivity pay in the
Gandhar field in India.
Generally, deep-resistivity logs in low-
resistivity pay read 0.5 to 5 ohm-m. “Low

4 Oilfield Review

Leveed channel
complex
B as smectite, has a CEC of 80 to 150
Transgressive
marine sands
C Resistivity Well Logs
Alluvial
Distributary
channel channel
D Spectrometry tool), Phasor, RAB (Resistivity-at-the-Bit
contrast” is often used in conjunction with
low resistivity, indicating a lack of resistivity
contrast between sands and adjacent shales.
Although not the focus of this article, low-
contrast pay occurs mainly when formation
waters are fresh or of low salinity. As a
result, resistivity values are not necessarily
low, but there is little resistivity contrast
between oil and water zones.
Because of its inherent conductivity, clay,
and hence shale, is the primary cause of
low-resistivity pay (previous page ).1 How
Autumn 1995
Lowstand basin
floor fan complex
Overbank
deposits
Overbank
■ The most com- The cation exchange capacity, or CEC,
mon depositional expressed in units of milliequivalent3 per
environments for
100 grams of dry clay, measures the ability
low-resistivity pay:
A) Lowstand basin of a clay to release cations. Clays with a
floor fan complexes high CEC will have a greater impact on low-
B) Deep water ering resistivity than those with a low CEC.
levee-channel For example, montmorillonite, also known
complexes and
overbank deposits
C) Transgressive- meq/100 g whereas the CEC of kaolinite is
marine sands only 3 to 15 meq/100 g.
D) Lower parts Clays are distributed in the formation
(toes) of delta front
three ways:
deposits and lami-
nated silt-shale- • laminar shales—shale layers between
sand intervals in sand layers
the upper parts of • dispersed clays—clays throughout the
alluvial and dis- sand, coating the sand grains or filling the
tributary channels.
(Adapted from Dar- pore space between sand grains
ling HL and Sneider • structural clays—clay grains or nodules in
RM: “Productive Low the formation matrix.
Laminar shales form during deposition,
of the Offshore Gulf
Delta front “toes” and interspersed in otherwise clean sands (left ).
shingled turbidites of Mexico: Causes
and Analysis,” in In the Gulf Coast, USA, finely layered sand-
reference 1.) stone-shale intervals, or thin beds, make up
In this article, AIT (Array Induction Imager Tool), ARC5
(Array Resistivity Compensated), CBT (Cement Bond
Tool), CDR (Compensated Dual Resistivity tool), CMR
(Combinable Magnetic Resonance tool), CNL (Compen-
sated Neutron Log), DLL (Dual Laterolog Resistivity),
ELAN (Elemental Log Analysis), EPT (Electromagnetic
Propagation Tool), FMI (Fullbore Formation MicroIm-
ager), Formation MicroScanner, GeoFrame, GLT (Geo-
chemical Logging Tool), Litho-Density, IPL (Integrated
Porosity Lithology), MicroSFL, NGS (Natural Gamma Ray
tool), SFL (Spherically Focused Resistivity), SHARP
(Synergetic High-Resolution Analysis and Reconstruction
clay contributes to low-resistivity readings for Petrophysical Parameters) and TDT (Thermal Decay
depends on the type, volume and distribu- Time) are marks of Schlumberger. Sun is a mark of Sun
Microsystems, Inc.
tion of clay in the formation.
1. Moore D (ed): Productive Low Resistivity Well Logs
Clay minerals have a substantial negative of the Offshore Gulf of Mexico. New Orleans,
surface charge that causes log resistivity val- Louisiana, USA: Houston and New Orleans Geologi-
cal Societies, 1993.
ues to plummet. 2 This negative surface
2. Scala C: “Archie III: Electrical Conduction in Shaly
charge—the result of substitution in the clay Sands,” Oilfield Review 1, no. 3 (October 1989):
lattice of atoms with lower positive valence 43-53.
—attracts cations such as Na+ and K+ when 3. One milliequivalent equals 6 x 1020 atoms.
the clay is dry. When the clay is immersed
in water, cations are released, increasing the
water conductivity.
5
 Evaluated Gas Pay Potential Gas Pay Spherically Focused Density Porosity
Short Normal
Resistivity MDEN=2.68
Depth, m
Resistivity 60 0
Spontaneous Potential
0.2 ohm-m 20 -160 40 0.2 ohm-m 20
Spontaneous Potential Compensated
6FF40 Induction Total Gamma Ray Deep Induction Neutron Porosity
-160 40 0.2 20 0 GAPI 150 0.2 ohm-m 20 60 p.u. 0

X100

X200

■ Left: Induction Electrical Survey logs run in 1960 in a thinly bedded, gas-bearing section of the Vicksburg formation in south Texas,
USA. Net pay is 7 ft. Right: Conventional triple combo—neutron, density and gamma ray tools—run in 1993 in a well offset 100 ft
from the original 1960 well. Net pay is 14 ft.

about half the low-resistivity zones.4 Many
logging tools lack the vertical resolution to
resolve resistivity values for individual thin
beds of sand and shale. Instead, the tools
give an average resistivity measurement over
the bedded sequence, lower in some zones,
higher in others.
Intervals with dispersed clays are formed
during the deposition of individual clay par-
ticles or masses of clay. Dispersed clays can
result from postdepositional processes, such
as burrowing and diagenesis. The size differ-
ence between dispersed clay grains and
framework grains allows the dispersed clay
grains to line or fill the pore throats between
framework grains. When clay coats the sand
grains, the irreducible water saturation of
the formation increases, dramatically lower-
ing resistivity values. If such zones are com-
pleted, however, water-free hydrocarbons
6 Intervals of igneous and metamorphic rock
can be produced (see “Low-Resistivity Pay
in the Gandhar Field,” page 8).
Structural clays occur when framework
grains and fragments of shale or claystone,
with a grain size equal to or larger than the
framework grains, are deposited simultane-
ously. Alternatively, in the case of selective
replacement, diagenesis can transform
framework grains, like feldspar, into clay.
Unlike dispersed clays, structural clays act
as framework grains without altering reser-
voir properties. None of the pore space is
occupied by clay.
Other causes of low-resistivity pay include
small grain size and conductive minerals
like pyrite. Small grain size can result in low
resistivity values over an interval, despite
uniform mineralogy and clay content. The
increased surface area associated with finer
grains holds more irreducible water, and, as
with clay-coated grains, the increasing
water saturation reduces resistivity readings.
fragments—all fine grained— mimic the log
signature of clays, featuring high gamma ray,
low resistivity and little or no spontaneous
potential (SP). Unlike thin beds, this type of
low-resistivity pay can vary in thickness
from millimeters to hundreds of meters.
Finally, sands with more than 7% by vol-
ume of pyrite, which has a conductivity
greater than or equal to that of formation
water, also produce low-resistivity readings.5
This type of low-resistivity pay is considered
rare.
The challenge for interpreting low-resistiv-
ity sands hinges on extracting the correct
measurement of formation resistivity, esti-
mating shaliness and then accurately deriv-
ing water saturation, typically obtained from
some modification of Archie’s law. 6
Improved vertical resolution of logging
tools and data processing techniques are
helping to tackle thin beds. Nuclear mag-
Oilfield Review
 Potential Gas Pay
2 ft [0.6 m] and 4 ft [1.2 m]. The FMI tool
images the borehole with an array of 192
button sensors mounted on four pads and
Spontaneous Potential
four flaps.8 It has a vertical resolution of
-160 MV 40 0.2 in. [5 mm].
Successive improvements in resolving thin
APS Capture Density Porosity beds are strikingly visible in a series of logs
Depth, m

Cross-Section ( SIGF ) MDEN=2.68 ( DPO)

10 c.u. 40 60 p.u. 0
made 33 years apart in adjacent wells in the
south Texas Vicksburg formation (previous
HNGS Potassium Content AIT Resistivities Neutron Porosity page and left ).9 In 1960, induction/ short
( HFK ) 10-90 in. Sandstone ( APSC)
p.u. ohm-m p.u.
normal logs indicated 7 ft of net gas pay and
0 5 0.2 20 60 0
only two beds with resistivity greater than 2
HNGS Thorium Content Differential Caliper ohm-m. In 1993, a new well was drilled
( HTHO)
within 100 ft [30 m] of the original well and
0 ppm 45 -20 20
logged with conventional wireline tools.
The induction/SFL Spherically Focused
X100 Resistivity logs doubled the estimated pay
to 14 ft [4.3 m], with seven beds above 2
(continued on page 11)

4. Thin beds have a thickness of 5 to 60 cm [2 in. to 2

X200
■ AIT Array Induction Imager Tool and IPL Integrated Porosity Lithology logs run
in the same well as conventional triple combo on previous page. The improved
vertical resolution of AIT logs and the enhanced sensitivity of the IPL-derived
neutron porosity have increased net pay to 63 ft.
netic resonance (NMR) logging shows
promise for assessing irreducible water satu-
ration associated with clays and reduced
grain size (see “Nuclear Magnetic Reso-
nance Imaging—Technology for the 21st
Century,” page 19 ). And because the most
opportune time to measure resistivity occurs
during drilling, when invasion effects are
minimal, resistivity measurements at the drill
bit also play an important role in diagnosing
low-resistivity pay.
Thin Beds
Autumn 1995
One obvious method for resolving the resis-
tivity of thin beds is to develop logging tools
with higher vertical resolution, deeper depth
of investigation, or both. Two logging
devices that have proved especially helpful
in evaluating thin beds are the AIT Array
Induction Imager Tool and the FMI Fullbore
Formation MicroImager tool. The AIT tool
uses eight induction-coil arrays operating at
multiple frequencies to generate a family of
five resistivity logs.7 The logs have median
depths of investigation of 10, 20, 30, 60 and
90 in. and vertical resolutions of 1 ft [0.3 m],
ft] and laminae are less than 1-cm [0.4-in.] thick,
commonly 0.05 to 1 mm [0.002 to 0.004 in.].
Bates RL and Jackson JA (eds): Glossary of Geology.
Falls Church, Virginia, USA: American Geological
Institute, 1987.
Dictionary of Geological Terms. New York, New
York, USA: Doubleday & Co., 1984.
5. Clavier C, Heim A and Scala C: “Effect of Pyrite on
Resistivity and Other Logging Measurements,”
Transactions of the SPWLA 17th Annual Logging
Symposium, Denver, Colorado, USA, June 9-12,
1976, paper HH.
6. In 1942, Gus Archie proposed an empirical relation-
ship linking a rock’s resistivity, Rt , with its porosity,
φ , and water saturation Sw :
Rw
Rt= .
φ m S wn
Other terms in the equation are the formation water
resistivity Rw , and the cementation and saturation
exponents, m and n. For further reading:
“Archie’s Law: Electrical Conduction in Clean,
Water-Bearing Rock,” The Technical Review 36,
no. 3 (July 1988): 4-13.
“Archie II: Electrical Conduction in Hydrocarbon-
Bearing Rock,” The Technical Review 36, no. 4
(October 1988): 12-21.
For a discussion on the numerous versions of
Archie’s law that have been developed to handle a
variety of shaly sand environments:
Worthington PF: “The Evolution of Shaly-Sand Con-
cepts in Reservoir Evaluation,” The Log Analyst 26
(January-February 1985): 23-40.
7. Barber TD and Rosthal RA: “Using a Multiarray
Induction Tool to Achieve High-Resolution Logs with
Minimum Environmental Effects,” paper SPE 22725,
presented at the 66th SPE Annual Technical Confer-
ence and Exhibition, Dallas, Texas, USA, October
6-9, 1991.
Hunka JF, Barber TD, Rosthal RA, Minerbo GN,
Head EA, Howard AQ Jr and Hazen GA: “A New
Resistivity Measurement System for Deep Formation
Imaging and High-Resolution Formation Evaluation,”
paper SPE 20559, presented at the 65th SPE Annual
Technical Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans,
Louisiana, USA, September 23-26, 1990.
8. FMI* Fullbore Formation MicroImager. Houston,
Texas, USA: Schlumberger Educational Services,
1992.
9. Olesen J-R, Flaum C and Jacobsen S: “Wellsite
Detection of Gas Reservoirs with Advanced Wire-
line Logging Technology,” Transactions of the
SPWLA 35th Annual Logging Symposium, Tulsa,
Oklahoma, USA, June 19-22, 1994, paper Y.
7
 Low-Resistivity Pay in the Gandhar Field

The Gandhar field, on the western coast of India,

is the largest on-land field in the country (left).

iver
Most hydrocarbon production comes from deltaic
Khambhat R
aga
M a h is sands of the Hazad member, three of which con-
tain low-resistivity pay.
Dabka
One of these sands, called GS-11, has resistiv-
r ity values of 2 to 6 ohm-m, but contains wells
ve
r Ri that produce clean oil on the order of 50 m3/d
ha
ad
Dh [315 B/D] (next page). A detailed study of GS-11,
integrating core and log data, allowed inter-
Gandhar preters to unravel the low-resistivity phenomenon
and formulate a reliable mineralogical model and
water saturation estimates.
er
Riv
da
Na rma Core Studies
GULF OF
CAMBAY Sixty core samples from three GS-11 wells pro-
vided thin sections for study of texture and miner-
0 miles 15.5 alogy. Polished sections helped reveal the pres-
0 km 25 ence of metallic minerals. Scanning electron
microscope (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD)
Delhi
studies of cores identified clay minerals. In addi-
■Gandhar field on the western tion, laser and sieving methods were used to
I N D I A coast of India.
analyze grain size.
The core investigations showed several mech-
anisms contributing to high conductivity.
Medium- to fine-grained sands ranged from gray
to green-gray, with green indicating chloritic

Clay Coating Quartz Overgrowth

200 µm 20 µm
■SEM photographs showing coated grains and clay matrix (left) and quartz overgrowth with chlorite coating
on quartz grains (right).

8 Oilfield Review
clays. Bioturbation created thin, fine clay lamina- Gamma Ray
tions over clean sands. Quartz was the most 0 GAPI 150

Depth, m
prominent mineral, with minute opaque SP Density
Deep Resistivity
minerals—pyrite or magnetite—occurring in -25 MV 125 1.95 g/cm3 2.95

bioturbated sections. Pyrite, which increases Caliper Shallow Resistivity Neutron Porosity
the formation conductivity, was limited to the 6 in. 16 0.2 ohm-m 2000 45 p.u. -15

clayey part of the matrix and constituted less

than 5% by volume.
Clay, primarily chlorite, coating the grain sur-
faces was indicated by SEM pictures and XRD
studies (previous page, bottom). Smaller grains
were coated more than larger grains. Laser
analysis of samples shows the GS-11 sand to XX80

be in the silt range, with grain sizes averaging

22 to 32 microns.

Formation Evaluation
Logs were analyzed to identify clay types and
heavy minerals. Thorium-potassium crossplots of XX90
the NGS Natural Gamma Ray Spectrometry logs
identified predominant clays as chlorite in the
GS-11 sand

sands and kaolinite/chlorite in the shales. The

density-neutron crossplot showed a trend toward
high density (low porosity) with little increase in
the neutron. The particles associated with this
X100
behavior, which included fine-grained quartz and
heavy minerals such as siderite, pyrite and
ilmenite, were collectively called silt.
From core- and log-derived information, a min-
eralogical model of kaolinite, chlorite, quartz and
silt was chosen for the GS-11 sands. Validation
for the model came from geochemical analysis of X110

21 core samples from different wells. A few sam-

ples were analyzed to determine the weight per- ■Log response from Well Z shows an average resistivity reading of 3 to 4 ohm-m
cent of oxides, such as silicon dioxide [SiO2], over the GS-11 sand, which produced clean oil during conventional testing.

using X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and the results

were interpolated between samples. The percent-
ages were then converted into weight percent of
elements using standard tables and processed

Autumn 1995 9
 Weight % of Minerals from Volume % of Minerals
with a mineralogical model to give weight per-
Log Analysis XRF Analysis of Oxides from XRF Weight % cent of minerals. The model based on geochemi-
from Cores and Log Porosity
cal analysis was constrained to include only
Free Water Free Water quartz, kaolinite, chlorite and ilmenite. This
Quartz Quartz Quartz constraint allowed the weight percent of minerals
to be converted to volume percent using the
Silt Ilmenite Ilmenite
total porosity from log interpretation and the

Description
Depth, m

Bound Water Bound Water Bound Water mineral densities.

Core
Chlorite Chlorite Chlorite Comparison of the log and XRF mineral analy-
ses shows agreement between the total clay per-
1:100 m Kaolinite Kaolinite Kaolinite
centage and the relative volume of kaolinite and
chlorite (left). The silt and ilmenite percentages
XX54
do not agree, as might be expected since the silt
was defined to include finer grained quartz.

XX56 Conclusions
The composite results from the extensive log-
core analysis show agreement between core- and
log-derived parameters (next page). Water satu-
XX58
ration values computed from the Waxman-Smits
equation compare well with those derived from
capillary pressure measurements.1 Because little
XX60
water had been produced from existing GS-11
wells, the log-derived water saturation values
were considered to represent irreducible water
XX62 saturation values.
The core studies showed that the low-resistiv-
Sandstone Coarse Bioturbated Silty carbon- Laminated Shale
sandstone sandstone aceous shale silty shale ity measurements in the GS-11 sand have two
sources. First, individual sand grains are coated
■ Comparison between log and XRF mineral analyses of Well Y. A mineralogical model of kaolinite, chlorite,
with clay. Second, the silt-sized formation grains
quartz and silt was chosen.
lead to higher irreducible water saturations in
the formation.

1. Waxman and Smits modified Archie’s law to account for

the increased conductivity of shale by introducing a shali-
ness parameter based on cation exchange capacity (CEC).
See: Waxman MH and Smits LJM: “Electrical Conductivi-
ties in Oil-Bearing Shaly Sands,” Society of Petroleum
Engineers Journal 8, no. 2 (1968): 107-122.

10 Oilfield Review
 Quartz ohm-m. Later the same year, the second
well was logged with a combination of AIT
Silt
m from Sw from Moved and IPL Integrated Porosity Lithology tools.10
Qv from Logs Waxman-Smits
EPT/MicroSFL Bound Water
Hydrocarbon The high resolution of the AIT tool—1 ft ver-
1.0 3.0 0 2.0 100 0
Chlorite sus 2 ft for the induction—and the
Moved Water
m= Qv from Sw from enhanced sensitivity of the IPL-derived neu-
f (Qv from Logs) Kaolinite
Bad Co vs Cw Archie Water tron porosity increased net pay to 63 ft [19.2
Hole 1.0 3.0 0 2.0 100 0 Combined Model m] and showed 13 beds with resistivity
Flag Oil p.u.
0 100 greater than 2 ohm-m.
m from Qv from Swirr from Fluid Analysis
5.0 0.0
Co vs Cw Wet Chemistry Cap Studies p.u. φ from Core Resistivity Measurements at the Bit
1:200 m 1.0 3.0 0 2.0 100 p.u. 0 50 100 100 0
Improvements in measurements-while-
drilling (MWD) technology have not only
boosted the efficiency of directional drilling,
x780 but also enhanced thin-bed evaluation.11
Two tools‚ the RAB Resistivity-At-the-Bit tool
and the ARC5 Array Resistivity Compen-
GS-11
sated tool—are especially useful in thin-bed
environments by providing resistivity data
before invasion has altered the formation.
The RAB tool provides five different resis-
x790
tivity readings plus gamma ray, shock and
tool inclination measurements. Configured
as a stabilizer or a slick collar, the RAB tool
is run behind the bit in a rotary drilling
assembly and above the motor in a steerable
drilling assembly.
One resistivity measurement, called “bit
resistivity,” uses the drill bit as part of the
x800 transmitting electrode. With the RAB tool
attached to the bit, alternating current is cir-
culated through the collar, bit and formation
before returning to the drillpipe and drill
collars above the transmitter. In the case of
oil-base mud, which is an insulator, the cur-
rent loop is complete only when the collars
and stabilizers touch the borehole wall. The
x810
vertical resolution of the RAB bit resistivity is
GS-10
only 2 ft and it gives the earliest possible
warning of changes in formation resistivity.
Four additional resistivity measurements,
with 1-in. vertical resolution for thin-bed
applications, are made with three button
■ Composite log-core analysis of Well X. Core results are shown for the cementation exponent m ; the CEC electrodes and a ring electrode. The shallow
normalized for pore volume, Q v , irreducible water saturation Swirr and porosity φ. Q v , the CEC per volume of depths of investigation—3, 6 and 9 in. for
pore fluid, was calculated from cores, by measuring resistivity at different water salinities, and from logs.

10. “Neutron Porosity Logging Revisited, ”Oilfield

Review 6, no. 4 (October 1994): 4-8.
11. Bonner S, Burgess T, Clark B, Decker D, Lüling M,
Orban J, Prevedel B and White J: “Measurements at
the Bit: A New Generation of MWD Tools,” Oil-
field Review 5, no. 2/3 (April/July 1993): 44-54.
Allen D, Bagersh A, Bonner S, Clark B, Dajee G,
Dennison M, Hall JS, Jundt J, Lovell J and Rosthal
R: “A New Generation of Electrode Resistivity Mea-
surements for Formation Evaluation While
Drilling,” Transactions of the SPWLA 35th Annual
Logging Symposium, Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA, June
19-22, 1994, paper OO.

Autumn 1995 11
 100 ■ Evaluating inva- the buttons and 12 in. for the ring electrode
Laminated wet sands sion with the RAB
tool. In laminated —allow interpreters to characterize early-
wet sands, the RAB time invasion (left ).
logs made after The recently-introduced ARC5 tool pro-
drilling and while vides five phase and attenuation resistivity
drilling anticorre-
MicroSFL late, showing pref- measurements, like the AIT tool, with a verti-
erential invasion. cal resolution of 2 ft. With a 4 3/4-in. diame-
ter, it is especially useful for formation evalu-
Resistivity, ohm-m

AIT ation in slim holes typical of deviated drilling

(next page, top ).
The measurements and spacings of the
RAB ring ARC5 and AIT tools are comparable,
after drilling
although not identical, making petrophysi-
cal evaluation with either tool in the same
well or between wells seamless (below left ).
The multiple measurements of the ARC5
RAB ring
tool also allow interpreters to radially map
while drilling out the invasion process. The additional
phase and attenuation measurements pro-
vide a better characterization of electrical
0.2 anisotropy than existing MWD tools.
570 580 590 600
Distance, ft Improving Thin-Bed Evaluation Through
Data Processing
Despite the emphasis on developing high-
ARC5 Phase Shift Resistivities at CAT Well resolution resistivity logging tools, many
34 in. openhole tools still have a vertical resolution
102
28 in.
of 2 to 8 ft [0.6 to 2.4 m]. Several data pro-
22 in.
16 in. cessing techniques have been developed to
Resistivity, ohm-m

10 in. enhance the vertical resolution of these tradi-

tional tools (next page, bottom ). All methods
use at least one high-resolution measure-
ment to sharpen a low-resolution one and
101 require a strong correlation between the two.
An existing technique helpful in interpreting
low-resistivity pay is Laminated Sand Analy-
sis (LSA), a computer program for evaluating
the shaliness, porosity and water saturation
in beds as thin as 2 in. [4 cm].12
A newer approach for identifying and
AIT Resistivities at CAT Well
90 in. evaluating thin beds is the SHARP Syner-
102
60 in. getic High-Resolution Analysis and Recon-
30 in. struction for Petrophysical Parameters soft-
20 in.
Resistivity, ohm-m

ware. SHARP processing improves the

10 in.
resolution of log inputs to the ELAN Elemen-
tal Log Analysis module, thereby improving
saturation and reserve estimates. Currently,
101 SHARP software exists as an interactive,
stand-alone prototype application for Sun
workstations but a second generation ver-
sion will be incorporated into the GeoFrame
reservoir characterization system by the end
400 450 500 550 of 1995.
Depth, ft

■ Comparison of ARC5 log with the AIT log at 2-ft vertical resolution. The logs were run 12. Allen DF: “Laminated Sand Analysis,” Transactions
in the Customer Acceptance Test (CAT) Well in Houston, Texas, USA. of the SPWLA 25th Annual Logging Symposium,
New Orleans, Louisiana, USA, June 10-13, 1984,
paper XX.

12 Oilfield Review
 ARC5 Phase Shift Resistivity CCL
Borehole Corrected -19 1.0
Inelastic Count Rate Far Detector
34 in. (P34H) Borehole Sigma Far Detector Count Rate
c.u. cps cps
100 0 1500 0 1200 0
28 in. (P28H)
Near Detector
22 in. (P22H) Far Detector Background TDT Porosity Count Rate
ROP5 cps cps
0.6 0 3000 0
Depth, ft

ft/hr 16 in. (P16H)

500 0
Gamma Ray Formation Sigma
Gamma Ray 10 in. (P10H)
0 GAPI 150 0.2 ohm-m 200 0 GAPI 100 60 c.u. 0

X800

X900

■ ARC5 log run in wash down mode in front of thin gas stringers. Rough hole conditions precluded running wireline logs in the well
except for a CBT Cement Bond Tool log and a TDT Thermal Decay Time log. The TDT log confirmed the presence of gas indicated by
the ARC5 log.

Data Processing Methods for Enhancing Vertical Resolution

Technique Measurements Method Improvement in Resolution

Enhanced Phasor Phasor Induction log Medium-induction From 7 ft to about 3 ft

Processing (1988) measurement used to enhance [2 to 1 m]
deep induction measurement

Enhanced Resolution Litho-Density log Near-detector measurement From 18 in. to 4 in.

Processing (1986) used to compensate for far [45 cm to 10 cm]
detector measurement

CNL Compensated Near-detector measurement From 24 in. to 12 in.

Neutron Log used to compensate for far [61 cm to 30 cm]
detector measurement

Laminated Sand Triple combo Computes bound water saturation Down to 2 in. [5 cm]
Analysis (1984) (gamma ray, neutron (shaliness) from EPT tool, used
and density), EPT with dual-water model to
Electromagnetic redistribute the measured induction
Propagation Tool resistivity, yielding estimates of
the resistivity of thin beds. Effective
porosity, water saturation
and permeability are computed.

Autumn 1995 13
 ■ Establishing bed
SHARP analysis relies on high-resolution Average Resistivity
Formation MicroScanner boundaries and
inputs, such as Formation MicroScanner, modes (right) with
Images Square Average Resistivity
FMI or EPT Electromagnetic Propagation 1.0 ohm-m 100 the SHARP program
Tool logs to define a layered model of the and a Formation
formation (right ). The program looks at the MicroScanner log
(left). SHARP analy-
zero crossings on the second derivative of sis determines bed
the high-resolution log, where the slope boundaries from
changes sign, to indicate bed boundaries. In inflection points
the case of a Formation MicroScanner or XX20 on the second
FMI log, the SHARP program examines the derivative of an
average Formation
second derivative of an average resistivity MicroScanner
reading from all button sensors. resistivity reading.
With bed boundaries established, SHARP Modes are estab-
analysis plots a histogram of the frequency lished by grouping
resistivity measure-
of a particular resistivity value within the ments on a his-
logged interval of interest. By studying how togram (not shown).
resistivity values cluster, an interpreter can XX40 A square represen-
group the values into different populations, tation of the aver-
or modes. SHARP analysis assumes that all age Formation
MicroScanner resis-
resistivity data in a particular mode come tivity curve shows
from the same kind of formation, and further the bed boundaries
that the resistivity value in a particular mode and modes.
is constant. In addition, SHARP evaluation
assumes that petrophysical parameters such
XX60
13. Ramamoorthy R, Flaum C and Coll C: “Geologically 1
Consistent Resolution Enhancement of Standard
Petrophysical Analysis Using Image Log Data, 2
paper SPE 30607, to be presented at the 70th
SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, 4 6
Dallas, Texas, USA, October 22-25, 1995.
14. Chapman S, Colson JL, Everett B, Flaum C, Herron 3 5
M, Hertzog RC, La Vigne J, Pirie G, Quirein J,
Schweitzer JS, Scott H and Wendlandt R: “The
Emergence of Geochemical Well Logging,” The XX80
Technical Review 35, no. 2 (April 1987): 27-35.
Mode number

■ Enhancing the reso-

Formation lution of deep lat-
MicroScanner Refined erolog measurements
Depth, ft

Average Resistivity Model Reconstructed LLD Resistivity Model Reconstructed LLD (LLD) of the DLL Dual
Resistivity Laterolog Resistivity
Square tool. The Formation
Average MicroScanner aver-
Original LLD Original LLD Original LLD Original LLD
Resistivity age resistivity curve
ohm-m ohm-m ohm-m ohm-m ohm-m is shown with its
1.0 100 1.0 100 1.0 100 1.0 100 1.0 100
XX40 SHARP-generated
average resistivity
square log (far left).
The bed boundaries
and number of
modes established
by SHARP is used to
generate an
XX60 enhanced-resolution
LLD curve. The mod-
eled LLD measure-
ment of the DLL tool
is refined by compar-
ing the original DLL
log with the recon-
XX80 structed LLD log
(middle) and interac-
tively adjusting the
bed boundaries and
mode values to
achieve a better
match (right).
X100

14 Oilfield Review
as density, neutron porosity and sonic veloc- Bed Boundaries Enhanced Density
ity are also constant in a given mode.

Depth, ft
After establishing the number of beds and Original Density
Original AIT 10-in. 1.65 g/cm3 2.65
modes in the logged interval—the “square Enhanced
log”—the SHARP program calculates a set Gamma Ray Enhanced Neutron
Enhanced AIT 60-in. Porosity
of mode values that minimizes the differ- DCAL Formation
Original
ence between the original and square logs. -1 in. 4 Gamma Ray MicroScanner Images Original Neutron
Original AIT 60-in. Porosity
This model, a squared resistivity log of bed GAPI ohm-m p.u.
1:120 ft 0 150 Pad 1 Pad 2 Pad 3 Pad 4 0.2 200 60 0
boundaries and mode values, is filtered with XX900
the response function of a logging tool to
produce a synthetic, or so-called recon-
structed, log (previous page, bottom ). The
model is refined by minimizing the differ-
ence between the measured log and the
reconstructed log. At a workstation screen,
the log interpreter can interactively adjust
the boundaries and bed values of the modes
to achieve a match.
When the synthetic and measured logs
match, the model can be used as a high-res-
olution input into the ELAN interpretation.
To sharpen the resolution of other logs, such
as the gamma ray, the model of bed bound-
aries determined previously is utilized to
reconstruct other squared, enhanced logs for
high-resolution formation evaluation. A low-
resistivity example from the Gulf of Mexico
shows how SHARP analysis improved
reserve estimates by 28%, even when
applied to AIT measurements and a high-res-
olution triple combo of density, neutron and
gamma ray logs (right and next page ).
Rather than reconstruct logs using SHARP
analysis, Raghu Ramamoorthy and Charles
Flaum, of Schlumberger-Doll Research,
Ridgefield, Connecticut, USA have devel-
oped a simpler technique to enhance pro-
ducibility and hydrocarbon content esti-
mates made with conventional petrophysical
analyses in thin beds.13 Working with logs
from the GLT Geochemical Logging Tool,
they picked a high-resolution clay indicator,
either the FMI or EPT log, and calibrated it to
the clay volume derived from the GLT mea-
surement. In addition to clay volume, the
GLT tool combines nuclear spectrometry
logging measurements to determine mineral X1000
concentrations and cation exchange capac-
ity of the formation.14

■ Comparison of original and SHARP-

enhanced logs for a low-resistivity pay
example from the Gulf of Mexico. The
interval was logged with a high-resolu-
tion triple combo. The original 10-in. and
60-in. depth-of-investigation curves from
the AIT log are shown with the enhanced
AIT 60-in. log. Only the 60-in. curve was
enhanced because the SHARP prototype
software does not yet have the modeled
tool response for other AIT measurements.
An ELAN interpretation (next page) using 10.00 1.66 0.20
the enhanced logs shows a 28% increase Resistivity, ohm-m
in estimated reserves.

Autumn 1995 15
 ELAN with High-Res Inputs ELAN with Enhanced Inputs respond to clays, the GLT-derived clay vol-
ume—a low-resolution measurement—is
Irreducible Water Irreducible Water enhanced by looking at local variations of
Moved Water Moved Water the high-resolution FMI measurement. The
Water Water
low-resolution GLT clay volume is adjusted
by the difference between the FMI-derived
Depth, ft

Hydrocarbons Hydrocarbons clay volume and its value averaged over the
Bound Water Bound Water resolution of the GLT tool, which is 2 ft:
Quartz Quartz
V clay, high-res = V clay, low-res GLT +
Montmorillonite Montmorillonite

Gamma
Ray
Kaolinite Kaolinite [V clay, high-res FMI - < V clay, high-res FMI >].
Illite Illite
GAPI Sw With well data, an empirical relationship
0 150 Volume Scale p.u. Volume Scale
p.u. Image 100 0 0 p.u. is established between clay volume and
1:120 ft 0 100 100
porosity. This relationship is applied to the
XX900
enhanced GLT clay volumes to derive high-
resolution porosity values. Enhanced GLT
clay volumes and porosity values are then
processed with calibrated FMI resistivity val-
ues to boost the resolution of hydrocarbon
saturation estimates.
Applying this technique to GLT and FMI
logs from a well in Lake Maracaibo,
Venezuela reveals overlooked reserves. The
FMI image shows the highly laminated
nature of the formation, with beds on the
order of 1 ft. A comparison of standard-reso-
lution and high-resolution ELAN interpreta-
tions shows that potential pay zones have
been completely masked in the conven-
tional processing (next page, top ).

Using Electrical Anisotropy to

Find Thin-Bed Pay
James Klein and Paul Martin of ARCO
Exploration and Production Technology in
Plano, Texas, and David Allen of Schlum-
berger Wireline & Testing in Sugar Land,
Texas are modeling electrical anisotropy to
detect low-resistivity, low-contrast pay such
as thin beds.15 The researchers found that a
water-wet formation with large variability in
grain size is highly anisotropic in the oil leg
and isotropic in the water leg. They attribute
the resistivity anisotropy to grain-size varia-
tions, which affect irreducible water satura-
tion, between the laminations.
They tested their theory by modeling the
thin, interbedded sandstones, siltstones and
mudstones of the Kuparuk River formation
A-sands of Alaska’s North Slope, located 10
miles [16 km] west of Prudhoe Bay. The
model, based on a Formation MicroScanner
X1000 interpretation, contains layers of low-perme-
ability mudstone and layers of permeable
sandstone with variable clay content.
The simulated resistivity data are
described as either perpendicular—mea-
sured with current flowing perpendicular to
the bedding—or parallel—measured with
current flowing parallel to the bedding.

16 Oilfield Review
 Water Plotting perpendicular versus parallel resis-
Bound Water Hydrocarbon
tivity for a given interval shows how hydro-
carbon saturation influences electric
Formation MicroScanner Siderite Calcite
Images anisotropy (below left ). Simulated resistivity
Orthoclase Quartz data in the oil column curve to the right,
0 180 360 but simulated resistivity data in the water
Depth, ft

Pyrite Rutile leg are nearly linear. The position of data

Montmorillonite Muscovite along the oil column arc indicates the
lithology of the formation.
Illite Kaolinite Today, this technique works only with
p.u. p.u.
2-MHz MWD tools such as the CDR Com-
0 100 0 100 pensated Dual Resistivity tool. The CDR
phase and attenuation measurements pro-
vide a unique response to anisotropy that
allows the perpendicular and parallel resis-
X80 tivities to be determined. The technique
requires that the logging tool be parallel to
the beds so that differences in the phase and
attenuation of resistivity measurements can
be used to establish anisotropy. Although
the technique cannot yet be applied at other
angles, its originators believe some opera-
tors will value it enough to tailor the devia-
tion of their wells so that logging tools can
run parallel to beds of interest.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Logging

X85
Although thin-bed evaluation is challenging,
the tools and techniques described so far
provide answers in most cases. More trou-
blesome to interpreters than thin beds is
another prominent cause of low-resistivity
pay, reduced grain size, which contributes
to high irreducible water saturations. The
CMR Combinable Magnetic Resonance tool
shows potential for measuring irreducible
water saturation and pore size.16
■ Using a high-resolution measurement to enhance a low-resolution one. The clay vol-
umes derived from a GLT log of well in Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela were enhanced The CMR tool looks at the behavior of
with an FMI log from the same well. The enhanced ELAN interpretation (track 3) fea- hydrogen nuclei—protons—in the presence
tures several pay zones that were missed on the standard ELAN interpretation (track 2). of a static magnetic field and a pulsed radio

Oil Column Water Leg

100
15. Anisotropy is the variation of a property with
50% sand: Increasing
direction. In this case, it is variation of resistivity in
50% shale oil saturation
the vertical (perpendicular) versus horizontal
(parallel) planes.
Perpendicular resistivity

For a review of electrical anisotropy:

Anderson B, Bryant I, Helbig K, Lüling M and
nd

10
sa

Spies B: “Oilfield Anisotropy: Its Origins and Electri-

%

cal Characteristics,” Oilfield Review 6, no. 4

0
10

(January 1995): 48-56.

Allen DF, Klein JD and Martin PR: “The Petrophysics
of Electrically Anisotropic Reservoirs,” Transactions of
1
the SPWLA 36th Annual Logging Symposium, Paris,
France, June 26-29, 1995.
16. Morriss CE, MacInnis J, Freedman R, Smaardyk J,
Straley C, Kenyon WE, Vinegar HJ and Tutunjian PN:
100% shale “Field Test of an Experimental Pulsed Nuclear Mag-
100% netism Tool,” Transactions of the SPWLA 34th Annual
shale 100% sand Logging Symposium, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, June
0.1 13-16, 1993, paper GGG.
0.1 1 10 100 0.1 1 10 100
Chang D, Vinegar H, Morriss C and Straley C:
Parallel resistivity, ohm-m Parallel resistivity, ohm-m “Effective Porosity, Producible Fluid and Permeability
in Carbonates from NMR Logging,” Transactions of
■ Effect of saturation on electrical anisotropy in the Kuparuk River formation, Alaska, the SPWLA 35th Annual Logging Symposium, Tulsa,
USA. Resistivity data taken in the oil column curve to the right, but resistivity data Oklahoma, USA, June 19-22, 1994, paper A.
taken in the water leg are nearly linear. The position of data along the oil column arc
indicates the lithology of the formation. Strong anisotropy may be present in the oil col-
umn, depending on the saturation in the more resistive component. In the water leg,
the same formation might display little or no anisotropy. 17
frequency (RF) signal (right ). A proton’s size distributions. The area under a spec-
magnetic moment tends to align with the trum of T2 times is called CMR porosity.

static field. Over time, the magnetic field
gives rise to a net magnetization—more pro-
tons aligned in the direction of the applied
field than in any other direction.
Applying an RF pulse of the right fre-
quency, amplitude and duration can rotate
the net magnetization 90° from the static field
direction. When the RF pulse is removed, the
protons precess in the static magnetic field,
emitting a radio signal until they return to
their original state. Because the signal
strength increases with the number of mobile
protons, which increases with fluid content,
the signal strength is proportional to the fluid
content of the rock. How quickly the signal
decays—the relaxation time—gives informa-
tion about pore sizes and, to some extent,
the amount and type of oil.
A CMR log displays distributions of relax-
ation, or T2 times, which correspond to pore
Net magnetization
Unlike previous NMR tools, the CMR
tool is a pad-mounted device. Permanent
Static
magnets in the tool provide a static mag- B magnetic
netic field focused into the formation. The field
CMR tool’s depth of investigation, about 1 in.
[2.5 cm], avoids most effects from mudcake
or rugosity. Its vertical resolution of 6 in.
[15 cm] allows for comparison with high-
resolution logs.
A low-resistivity example from the
Delaware formation in West Texas shows
how the NMR response allows log inter-
preters to measure residual oil saturation B
directly from the CMR log (below ). NMR Net
measurements on core samples from the Radio frequency
Delaware formation show that the NMR pulse magnetization
response will decay within the first 200 mil-
liseconds (msec) if the pores are filled with
water. If the pores are filled with oil, how-
ever, the signal decays after about 400 msec.

210-msec
CMR Oil Show oil/water line
T2 Log Laterolog Deep 0.08 p.u. -0.02 B
.003 sec 1
CMR Free Fluid Bound Fluid Volume Radio
Caliper from 30 p.u. -10 33-msec line signal
Litho-Density tool Laterolog Shallow sec
CMR Porosity
Depth, ft

6 in. 16
30 p.u. -10

Gamma Ray MicroSFL Log T2 Distribution

Mud Log Show
GAPI ohm-m 1000 0 gas units 1000 0.001 1.50
0 200 0.1 ■ Principle behind the CMR tool. Permanent
magnets in the CMR tool create a static
X250 magnetic field B that gives rise to a net
magnetization among hydrogen nuclei (top).
A pulsed radio frequency signal rotates the
net magnetization 90° away from the static
magnetic field (middle). After the RF pulse is
removed, the protons precess back to their
original state, emitting a radio signal whose
strength is proportional to the fluid content
of the rock (bottom).

The T2 distributions in track 4 have been

divided into three parts. The area under the
X300
T2 curve to the left of the first cutoff, shown
as a blue line at 33 msec, represents irre-
ducible water saturation. The area under the
curve from 33 msec to 210 msec (red line)
represents producible fluid. Above 210
msec, the area under the curve represents
oil, presented as a CMR oil show in track 3.
This measurement of oil actually refers to
residual oil saturation since the CMR tool
X350
looks only at the flushed zone.
With the introduction of the CMR tool,
■Early field test of the CMR tool in the Delaware formation, West Texas, USA. Based on log interpreters are gaining the upper hand
NMR measurements of core samples from the Delaware formation, the T2 distributions in the struggle to assess low-resistivity pay.
in track 4 have been divided into three parts. The area under the T2 curves to the left of Although there are no easy answers when
the 33-msec cutoff is irreducible water saturation. From 33 msec to 210 msec, the area evaluating low-resistivity pay, the tools and
under the curve represents producible fluid. Above 210 msec, the area under the curve
represents oil. In track 3, the mud log show curve was derived from the total gas mea- interpretation techniques are in place to
sured on the mud log. It indicates that there is an oil-water contact halfway through more efficiently find these frequently
the interval, at about X320 ft. bypassed zones. —TAL

18 Oilfield Review