energies

Article
Three-Phase Short-Circuit Current Calculation of
Power Systems with High Penetration of VSC-Based
Renewable Energy
Niancheng Zhou, Jiafang Wu and Qianggang Wang * ID

State Key Laboratory of Power Transmission Equipment & System Security and New Technology,
Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China; cee_nczhou@cqu.edu.cn (N.Z.);
20161102036t@cqu.edu.cn (J.W.)
* Correspondence: yitagou@cqu.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-136-4055-8474

Received: 28 January 2018; Accepted: 23 February 2018; Published: 2 March 2018

Abstract: Short-circuit current level of power grid will be increased with high penetration of
VSC-based renewable energy, and a strong coupling between transient fault process and control
strategy will change the fault features. The full current expression of VSC-based renewable energy
was obtained according to transient characteristics of short-circuit current. Furtherly, by analyzing
the closed-loop transfer function model of controller and current source characteristics presented
in steady state during a fault, equivalent circuits of VSC-based renewable energy of fault transient
state and steady state were proposed, respectively. Then the correctness of the theory was verified
by experimental tests. In addition, for power grid with VSC-based renewable energy, superposition
theorem was used to calculate AC component and DC component of short-circuit current, respectively,
then the peak value of short-circuit current was evaluated effectively. The calculated results could be
used for grid planning and design, short-circuit current management as well as adjustment of relay
protection. Based on comparing calculation and simulation results of 6-node 500 kV Huainan power
grid and 35-node 220 kV Huaisu power grid, the effectiveness of the proposed method was verified.

Keywords: high penetration; VSC-based renewable energy; short-circuit current; DC component;

peak value of short-circuit current

1. Introduction
Grid-connected power generation scale of renewable energy sources, like wind energy and
solar energy, is continuously expanding, and renewable energy sources connected to grid with high
penetration will become an important trend of future electric power system [1–4]. With higher
penetration of renewable energy power generation in electric power system, short-circuit currents
injected by them during short-circuit fault will increase current at fault point, and consequently,
electrical equipment are faced with higher requirements for dynamic and thermal stability [5]. In the
meantime, the strong coupling between diversity of their fault transient states and control strategy
will change grid fault features and its distribution [6,7]. Therefore, short-circuit current calculation
of power grid with a high penetration of renewable energy sources are basic for the electric power
system planning and design, equipment selection, and protection configuration.
Renewable energy source generation is divided into electric rotating machinery and voltage
source converter based renewable energy (VSC-based renewable energy), where the former includes
synchronous generators and induction generators; the latter includes photovoltaic power generation,
direct-driven wind power, energy storage, etc. For electric rotating machinery, short-circuit calculation
of synchronous generator is very mature, model of voltage source and series impedance is the basis
of fault analysis [8]. Induction generators have different short-circuit current characteristics when

Energies 2018, 11, 537; doi:10.3390/en11030537 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2018, 11, 537 2 of 25

compared with synchronous generators [9], when short-circuit faults occur, they are unable to maintain
their terminal voltage without an external excitation current. Many methods are used to study
the short-circuit current of induction generators, including real-time simulation tools [10], dynamic
simulation software [11,12] and physical experiments [13]. However, the peak value of short-circuit
current for electric rotating machinery is very high, while that is limited for VSC-based renewable
energy due to its control strategy of converter. It can be divided into voltage-control and current-control
converter according to difference in controlled inner loops [14]. Current control mode can realize
grid-connecting synchronization and over-current limitation easily; so current control is usually used
in grid-connected VSC-based renewable energy [14,15]. Short-circuit current, provided by VSC-based
renewable energy, is determined by converter control and limited by thermal limiting current of power
switch, so it has fault features different from conventional power source [16].
In aspect of transient equivalent model of VSC-based renewable energy, it is helpful in evaluating
the short-circuit current by establishing a short-circuit calculation model considering fault current
characteristic. It was analyzed in [17] that fault transient characteristics and influencing factors of
VSC-based renewable energy, and the fault responses of VSC-based renewable energy are very different
from that of conventional sources. Literature [18] presents a model for calculating transient current of
VSC-based renewable energy. However, the influence of the control strategy and controller parameters
of VSC-based renewable energy is not considered. Then calculation models of steady short-circuit
current was established, when considering the control strategy of VSC-based renewable energy [19].
In [20], based on the analysis of two control strategies, a fault sequence component model of VSC-based
renewable energy was proposed. Furtherly, in consideration of fault ride-through, a new improved
model of VSC-based renewable energy was analyzed in [21]. However, the models mentioned above
were only specific to steady short-circuit current of VSC-based renewable energy under different faults,
transient AC component and decaying DC component of short-circuit current were not discussed.
In aspect of short-circuit current calculation, based on the method of equivalent generator
voltage at the fault location, an algorithm principle is proposed to calculate short-circuit current in
distribution networks, but control and current-limiting features of VSC-based renewable energy were
not considered in [22]. Therefore, when considering the current-limiting characteristics of VSC-based
renewable energy, a short-circuit current algorithm of VSC-based renewable energy, connected to
radiation-type power distribution network, was proposed in [23]. Meanwhile, VSC-based renewable
energy can be treated as PQ and Iθ buses, so the power flow and short-circuit current can be calculated
in the same way by a proposed method in [24]. According to [25], VSC-based renewable energy was
represented as a constant PQ source or a constant current source in corresponding to the changes
of terminal voltage, and Gauss-Seidel method was used to calculate short-circuit current. While a
universal algorithm considering the AC component of short-circuit current was proposed further,
based on Newton-Raphson iterative technique [26]. But, none of the methods mentioned above gave a
processing mode for high penetration of VSC-based renewable energy during short-circuit current
calculation, and the calculation method of peak value was not mentioned.
Anhui power grid is a part of east China power grid, which supplies power to 16 cities in Anhui
province. The Anhui power grid is connected to the power grids in other provinces through two
1000 kV and seven 500 kV lines. The internal regions in Anhui power grid are interconnected by the
backbone network with 500 kV and 220 kV lines. By September 2017, the total installed power capacity
of Anhui power grid is 38.13 GW, including the thermal power 32.71 GW, the photovoltaic power
2.77 GW, the wind power 2.1 GW, and the hydropower 0.55 GW. Anhui power grid mainly includes
Huaisu power grid (including Huaibei and Suzhou power grids), Bozhou power grid, Huainan power
grid and so on, which is shown in Figure 1. The renewable energy sources have been developed
rapidly, and Figure 1 also shows the operation and planning photovoltaic power stations in Anhui
power grid. It is noted that the most photovoltaic power stations are connected into Huaisu and
Huainan power grids. The photovoltaic power capacities of Huaisu and Huainan power grids are
1410 MW and 1440 MW in Table 1. It can be seen from Table 1, the proportions of renewable power
Energies 2018, 11, x 3 of 25

Energies 2018, 11, 537 3 of 25

and Huainan power grids. The photovoltaic power capacities of Huaisu and Huainan power grids
are 1410 MW and 1440 MW in Table 1. It can be seen from Table 1, the proportions of renewable
capacity relative to
power capacity total installed
relative to totalcapacity
installedarecapacity
31.8% inare
Huaisu
31.8%power grid and
in Huaisu 37% in
power Huainan
grid power
and 37% in
grid. The photovoltaic power is a type of VSC-based renewable energy, thus the Huaisu
Huainan power grid. The photovoltaic power is a type of VSC-based renewable energy, thus the and Huainan
power
Huaisugrids are with high
and Huainan powerpenetration of VSC-based
grids are with renewable
high penetration energy.
of VSC-based renewable energy.

Figure 1. Operation and planning photovoltaic power stations in Anhui power grid.

Table 1. Installed
Table 1. Installed power
power capacities
capacities of
of Huaisu
Huaisu and
and Huainan
Huainan power
power grids.
grids.

Region Thermal Power Photovoltaic Power Wind Power

Region Thermal Power Photovoltaic Power Wind Power
Huaisu 3720 MW 1410 MW 326 MW
Huaisu
Huainan 3720MW
2512 MW 1410
1440 MW MW 38 MW326 MW
Huainan 2512 MW 1440 MW 38 MW
In order to determine the short-circuit current level of power grid with high penetration of VSC-
basedInrenewable energy, in this
order to determine paper, from the
the short-circuit perspective
current level ofofpower
short-circuit current
grid with highfeatures of VSC-
penetration of
based renewable
VSC-based energy,
renewable a full in
energy, current expression
this paper, fromofthe three-phase
perspectiveshort-circuit current
of short-circuit was obtained.
current features
Meanwhile,
of VSC-basedaccording
renewabletoenergy,
the output
a full current
current characteristics presented by
expression of three-phase VSC-basedcurrent
short-circuit renewablewas
energy in different period of faults, the equivalent circuits of fault transient
obtained. Meanwhile, according to the output current characteristics presented by VSC-based state and steady state
were proposed
renewable respectively.
energy in differentThen, the of
period above contents
faults, are verified
the equivalent by experimental
circuits test and
of fault transient related
state and
calculation
steady stateresults. Besides, superposition
were proposed theorem
respectively. Then, thewas
aboveused to decompose
contents fault by
are verified network into normal
experimental test
component network and fault component network, AC component and DC component
and related calculation results. Besides, superposition theorem was used to decompose fault network of short-
circuit
into current
normal in powernetwork
component grid canandbe calculated, while the
fault component peak value
network, can be obtained
AC component and DCfurther.
componentFinally
of
through simulation results of Anhui power grid in MATLAB/Simulink (R2017a, MathWorks,
short-circuit current in power grid can be calculated, while the peak value can be obtained further. Natick,
MA, USA),
Finally the proposed
through simulationcalculation
results of method was verified.
Anhui power grid in MATLAB/Simulink (R2017a, MathWorks,
Natick, MA, USA), the proposed calculation method was verified.
2. Three-Phase Short-Circuit Current of VSC-Based Renewable Energy
2. Three-Phase Short-Circuit Current of VSC-Based Renewable Energy
2.1. Three-Phase Short-Circuit Current and Transient Equivalent Circuit of VSC-Based Renewable Energy
2.1. Three-Phase Short-Circuit Current and Transient Equivalent Circuit of VSC-Based Renewable Energy
Unlike conventional sources, short-circuit current of VSC-based renewable energy is influenced
Unlike conventional
by their control strategies.sources,
However,short-circuit
transitioncurrent of VSC-based
from normal state torenewable energy
short-circuit is influenced
steady state, the
by
change of short-circuit current still exists a transient state, including decaying AC state,
their control strategies. However, transition from normal state to short-circuit steady the
periodic
change
componentof short-circuit current
and decaying DCstillcomponent.
exists a transient state,
Similar to including decayingshort-circuit
the three-phase AC periodic component
current of
Energies 2018, 11, x 4 of 25

Energies 2018, 11, 537 4 of 25

synchronous generator in [8,27], when short-circuit steady state is taken into account, a-phase short-
circuit current expression of a VSC-based renewable energy under three-phase short-circuit fault can
and decaying
be written as: DC component. Similar to the three-phase short-circuit current of synchronous generator
in [8,27], when short-circuit steady state is taken into account, a-phase short-circuit current expression
 
t

 
t 

ia  t  =  I m energy
 I m  eunder m  cos t  0   I m 0 cos  0  I m cos 0 e
of a VSC-based renewable T   Ithree-phase short-circuit fault can  be written T a as:
(1)

 

t
h i   t
0
− Im∞ e− T0 + Im∞ cos(ωt + θ0 ) + Im|0| cos δ0 − Im 0
cos θ0 e− Ta


ia (t) = Im (1)
where I′m is initial amplitude of AC component, which gradually attenuates according to time
constant0 T′, and finally attenuates to steady value Im∞, ω = 2 πf, f is grid frequency, Im|0| is current
where Im is initial amplitude of AC component, which gradually attenuates according to time constant
T 0 , and finally
amplitude before short-circuit,
attenuates  
to steady value I m 0 cosIm∞0 ,ωI m=cos
2 πf, 
0 f isisgrid
initial value Iof
frequency, DCis component,
m|0| current amplitude Ta is
before short-circuit, Im|0|of cos 0
− Im cos θ0 δis
δ0 component, initial value of DC component, T is attenuation time
attenuation time constant DC 0 is initial phase angle of the currentabefore short-circuit,
constant of DCangle
and θ0 is phase component, is initial phase
of steadyδ0short-circuit current.angle Asof ACthe current before
components short-circuit,(±120°
are symmetrical, and θ+0 δis 0)
phase angle of steady short-circuit current. As AC components are symmetrical, ( ± 120 ◦ + δ ) and
and (±120° + θ0) are used to replace δ0 and θ0 in the above expression, b-phase and c-phase current 0
±120◦ + θ 0 ) of
(expressions areVSC-based
used to replace renewableδ0 andenergy θ 0 in the under above expression,short-circuit
three-phase b-phase and faultc-phase current
can also be
expressions
obtained. of VSC-based renewable energy under three-phase short-circuit fault can also be obtained.
According
According to to Equation
Equation (1), (1), the
the short-circuit
short-circuit processprocess of of VSC-based
VSC-based renewable
renewable energy
energy consists
consists of of
transient
transient state
state and
and steady state, as
steady state, as we
we all all know,
know, in in the
the steady
steady state,
state, the
the VSC-based renewable energy
VSC-based renewable energy
is
is equivalent
equivalent to to aa current
current source,
source, and and will will output
output stablestable short-circuit
short-circuit current
current according
according to to command
command
current. However, it is not suitable for transient state, equivalent circuit of the VSC-based renewable
energy will no longer be a current current source,
source, whichwhich is is related
related to to internal
internalcontrol
controlofofthe
theinverter.
inverter.
Next, aafurther
furtheranalysis
analysisofof transient equivalent circuit is carried
transient equivalent circuit is carried out. Schematic diagram out. Schematic diagram
of a grid- of
aconnected
grid-connected
VSC-based VSC-based
renewable renewable
energy isenergy shownisinshown Figure 2a, in Figure
where the2a, DC
wheresidetheis aDC side is a
photovoltaic
photovoltaic array simulator, and the maximum power point
array simulator, and the maximum power point tracking (MPPT) control is adopted to achieve the tracking (MPPT) control is adopted to
achieve the maximize output power under different light intensity
maximize output power under different light intensity and ambient temperature. By a photovoltaic and ambient temperature. By a
photovoltaic
inverter withinverter
LC filter, the LC
with filter, the renewable
VSC-based VSC-basedenergy renewable energy
converts DCconverts
to AC, andDC tois AC,
thenand is then
connected
connected to the power grid through a step-up transformer. Its
to the power grid through a step-up transformer. Its terminal voltage u and current i, are collected terminal voltage u and current i, are
by
collected
measuringbyelements
measuring andelements
is fed intoand theiscontroller,
fed into the controller,
so that so that can
the controller the adjust
controller can adjust
the output currentthe
output current
of inverter of inverter
effectively. Lf and effectively.
Cf are filter Lf and Cf areand
inductor filter inductorrespectively,
capacitor, and capacitor,andrespectively, and Zl is
Zl is line impedance
line impedance from the grid-connected point
from the grid-connected point of photovoltaic to the fault point. of photovoltaic to the fault point.

Measure
Zl
Inverter LC filter
MPPT DC f
P Pmax Lf i u
+
Us Cf
-
U AC Grid
Load
Photovoltaic array
Controller

(a)

i
i* ui 1 i
–
+ GP(s) ++ +– ++
sLf
u
GF(s) sCf
Inverter control u LC filter u

(b)

Figure
Figure 2. A2.grid-connected
A grid-connected VSC-based
VSC-based renewable
renewable energy:
energy: (a) schematic
(a) schematic diagram;
diagram; (b) control
(b) control block
block diagram.
diagram.

A simplified control block diagram of inverter and LC filter is shown in Figure 2b. In this figure,
ui and u represent output voltage of inverter and terminal voltage in Figure 2a, i* represents command
Energies 2018, 11, x 5 of 25

A simplified control block diagram of inverter and LC filter is shown in Figure 2b. In this figure,
ui and u represent output voltage of inverter and terminal voltage in Figure 2a, i* represents command
current, GP(s)
Energies 2018, and GF(s) are the transfer function of PI controller and feedforward control,
11, 537 5 of 25
respectively, according to the control diagram of Figure 2b, the following expressions can be obtained
[28]:
current, GP (s) and GF (s) are the transfer function of PI controller and feedforward control, respectively,
  i ∗ (of s )Figure
− i ( s ) 2b, ( s )following
⋅ GPthe + u ( s ) ⋅ GFexpressions
( s ) = ui ( s ) can be obtained [28]:

according to the control diagram
( 1 (2)
 [iu∗i((ss))−− iu((ss)]) · ⋅GP (s)++ u (us()s⋅)sC
· f F=
G ( si)( s=) ui (s)
 sLf (2)
[ui (s) − u(s)] · sL1 f + u(s) · sCf = i (s)
By simplifying two equations in Equation (2) and eliminating ui(s), the relationship between
By simplifying
terminal voltage u, current two equations
i and command in Equation current (2)i*and eliminating
is obtained as: ui (s), the relationship between
terminal voltage u, current i and command current i* is obtained as:
GP ( s ) sLf + GP ( s )
⋅ i∗ ( s ) = ⋅ i (s) + u (s) (3)
1 − s CfPLf − GF ( s ) · i∗ (s) = 1 − ssL
2 G (s) 2
Cff L
+f G −PG(Fs)( s ) · i (s) + u(s) (3)
1 − s2 Cf Lf − GF (s) 1 − s2 Cf Lf − GF (s)
According to closed loop transfer function models of inverter, controller, and filter in Equation
According
(3), the to closed of
transfer function loop transfer
output function
voltage and models
command of inverter,
current controller,
and equivalent and filter
outputin Equation
impedance (3),
the transfer
can be obtained function[28–30],of output
then voltage
equivalent and of command
VSC-based current and equivalent
renewable energy can output be impedance
realized through can be
obtained [28–30], then equivalent of VSC-based
Thevenin or Norton circuit. For VSC-based renewable energy ports, the renewable energy can be realized
. equation . E. s = Z ⋅ I + U is

through 
Thevenin
or Norton circuit. For VSC-based renewable energy ports, the equation Es = Z · I + U is established,
established,
. where Es is equivalent potential, which is equal to the product of transfer function G(s)
where Es is equivalent potential, which is equal to the product of transfer function G(s) with command
with command
current i*, and G(s)current i*, and
is related toG(s)control is related
strategy; to U.
control .
and I strategy;
are terminaland
U voltage I are
andterminal
current voltage and
respectively;
current respectively; Z is virtual control
Z is virtual control impedance, determined by control parameters. impedance, determined by control parameters.
In
Inreality,
reality, toto enhance
enhance controlcontrol performance
performance of ofVSC-based
VSC-basedrenewable renewableenergy, energy, internal
internal andand external
external
virtual
virtual impedances will be added to the controller [28], where internal virtual impedance is
impedances will be added to the controller [28], where internal virtual impedance is used
used forfor
resonance damping of filter [29]; external virtual impedance
resonance damping of filter [29]; external virtual impedance is used to regulate output impedance is used to regulate output impedance of
VSC-based
of VSC-based renewable
renewable energy,
energy, including
including external
external series
seriesimpedance,
impedance,is isused usedtotorealize
realizeits its power
power
decoupling
decoupling control in low-voltage power grid [30,31], while external parallel impedance used
control in low-voltage power grid [30,31], while external parallel impedance is is usedto
harmonic
to harmonic current
current distribution
distribution between between multiple sources
multiple sources[32]. [32].
VSC-basedVSC-based renewable energy
renewable for fault
energy for
ride-through operation is still under controllable operation
fault ride-through operation is still under controllable operation status after short-circuit, combining status after short-circuit, combining
controller’s
controller’s virtual
virtual impedance
impedance and and LC LC filter,
filter, equivalent
equivalent circuit circuit of of VSC-based
VSC-based renewable
renewable energyenergy is is
shown in Figure 3a.
shown in Figure 3a.
.
In
In Figure
Figure 3a, 3a, equivalent
equivalent internal potential EEss is
internal potential is equal
equal to to product
product of of transfer
transfer function
function G(s) G(s) and
and
command
command current,current, and and G(s)
G(s) isis transfer
transfer function
function related related to to control
control strategy.
strategy. Z Zvcvc and
and Z Zvg are virtual
vg are virtual
damping impedancesinhibiting
damping impedances inhibiting filter
filter resonance,
resonance, Zvp and ZvpZvs and are Zparallel
vs are and parallel
seriesand virtualseries virtual
impedances
impedances to improve output characteristics of VSC-based
to improve output characteristics of VSC-based renewable energy; xL and xC are equivalent reactance renewable energy; x L and xC are
equivalent reactance of inductance and capacitance of LC
of inductance and capacitance of LC filter, respectively; Ztl represents equivalent impedance of filter, respectively; Z tl represents equivalent
impedance
transformerofand transformer
line; ZL and andZline; ZL and Zl are load impedance and network-side line impedance
l are load impedance and network-side line impedance respectively;
.
respectively;
and, Egrid and and,
Zs are 
Egridgridandvoltage
Zs are grid and voltage and its short-circuit
its short-circuit impedance. impedance. It can be known It canfrom
be known
Equation from(1)
that short-circuit
Equation process of a VSC-based
(1) that short-circuit process of arenewable
VSC-basedenergy contains
renewable transient
energy state
contains and steady
transient statestate.
and
In transient
steady state.state, initial ACstate,
In transient component of VSC-based
initial AC component renewable energyrenewable
of VSC-based is jointly decided
energybyis internal
jointly
potential,
decided byequivalent impedance,
internal potential, and fault
equivalent condition;
impedance, and while,
fault in steady state,
condition; while,VSC-based renewable
in steady state, VSC-
energyrenewable
based will output stablewill
energy short-circuit current
output stable accordingcurrent
short-circuit to command current.
according to command current.

Zvp Zvp Zvp

Ztl Zl I′ Ztl I∞ Ztl
Zvs xL f Zvs xL Zvs xL
Zvc Zs Grid Zc Zc
E s Zvg ZL E s U ′ I∞
xC E grid
Load

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3. Transient equivalent circuits of a VSC-based renewable energy: (a) the whole circuit
of three-phase short-circuit fault; (b) the circuit of fault transient period; (c) the circuit of fault
steady period.
Energies 2018, 11, 537 6 of 25

Based on Figure 3a, equivalent circuits of fault transient and steady period can be obtained as
shown in Figure 3b,c. Earth loop (post-fault voltage is low and earth loop current has minor influence)
is neglected in short-circuit current calculation, then VSC-based renewable energy in transient period
is equivalent to series between a voltage source and impedance; VSC-based renewable energy in
. 0
steady period presents a current source and outputs stable short-circuit current. In Figure 3b, U is the
.0 .
terminal voltage of VSC-based renewable energy; I and I ∞ are transient current and steady current
respectively, which are output by VSC-based renewable energy. According to Figure 3b, KVL theorem
is used to solve the equivalent circuit to obtain the internal potential of VSC-based renewable energy
during transient period as:

. . 0 Zvp ( Zvs + jxL ) .0 . 0 .0

Es = U + · I = U + Zc · I (4)
Zvp + ( Zvs + jxL )

where Zvp , Zvs and xL are combined into equivalent impedance Zc , which is expressed by virtual
.
frame in Figure 3b. It is assumed that potential Es maintains unchanged during short-circuit moment,
.0
terminal voltage falls and transient current I appears, and this transient current will not exceed the
limiting current output by VSC-based renewable  . energy.
 After the peak value of short-circuit current
appears, it gradually attenuates to steady value  I ∞  under the effect of controller. AC component and
 

DC component will attenuate, respectively, according to different time constants, where attenuation
time constant T 0 of periodic AC component is related to transfer function G(s); DC component
attenuation time constant Ta [27] is jointly decided by equivalent impedance Zc , transformer and line
impedance Ztl , as follow:
Lc + Ltl
Ta = (5)
Rc + Rtl
where Lc and Ltl are inductances of equivalent impedance Zc and Ztl respectively, Rc and Rtl are their
resistances, respectively.
In reality, it is very difficult to obtain the value of equivalent impedance Zc , and its impedance
parameter can be estimated in way of experimental test. In this paper, DC component attenuation
time constant of VSC-based renewable energy was used to estimate equivalent impedance parameter.
Considering that unknown parameters were equivalent resistance and inductance of VSC-based
renewable energy, in this experiment, transformer inductance Ltl and resistance Rtl were changed to
obtain DC attenuation time parameters under two external conditions (mean time constants were taken
after 20 times of test under each situation) respectively as Ta1 and Ta2 , and equation set containing two
unknown parameters—Lc and Rc —was established:

Lc + Ltl1

 Ta1 = Rc + Rtl1
(6)
 T = Lc + Ltl2
a2 Rc + Rtl2

where Ta1 and Ta2 are attenuation time constants obtained under two test conditions, Ltl1 and Ltl2 are
corresponding test inductances, Rtl1 and Rtl2 are their resistances. Then inductance Lc and resistance
Rc of equivalent impedance Zc are

Ta2 Ltl1 − Ta1 Ltl2 + Ta1 Ta2 ( Rtl2 − Rtl1 )


 Lc = Ta1 − Ta2
(7)
Ta2 Ltl1 /Ta1 − Ltl2 + Ta2 ( Rtl2 − Rtl1 ) Ltl1

Rc = Ta1 − Ta2 + Ta1 − Rtl1
Thus impedance parameter of Thevenin equivalent circuit in Figure 3 can be estimated,
short-circuit current of VSC-based renewable energy after fault should be smaller than the limiting
current, and only in this way can VSC-based renewable energy remain fault ride-through operation.
Due to limitations of modulation factors and DC voltage during pulse width modulation, its internal
  R = Ta 2 Ltl1 Ta1 − Ltl2 + Ta 2 ( Rtl2 − Rtl1 ) + Ltl1 − R
 c Ta1 − Ta 2 Ta1
tl1

Thus impedance parameter of Thevenin equivalent circuit in Figure 3 can be estimated, short-
circuit
Energiescurrent
2018, 11,of VSC-based renewable energy after fault should be smaller than the limiting current,
537 7 of 25
and only in this way can VSC-based renewable energy remain fault ride-through operation. Due to
limitations .of modulation factors and DC voltage during pulse width modulation, .  its internal
   
potential E can
potential E s s can only
  only be regulated within permissible range, namely
within permissible range, namely E E ≤
smin ≤
smin  E ≤ E
ss ≤ Esmax
 smax. .Limiting
Limiting
currentvalue
current value ofof VSC-based
VSC-based renewable
renewable energy
energy isis set as IImax
set as max , ,then
thenterminal
terminalvoltage
voltage conditions
conditions
corresponding to fault ride-through operation of VSC-based renewable energy
corresponding to fault ride-through operation of VSC-based renewable energy are as follows: are as follows:
. . 
 E − U ′0 ≤ I
 Ess − U  ≤ max ImaxZ|cZc | (8)(8)

Phase difference of internal potential. Es ahead of terminal voltage . U ′ is set as δ , then
0 is set
Phase difference of internal potential E s ahead of terminal voltage U as δ, then permissible
U ′ can be obtained according to Equation (8):
 . 
permissible fluctuation range of terminal
 0 voltage
fluctuation range of terminal voltage U  can be obtained according to Equation (8):


) ( )
2
(
2
 . U ′ ≥ E
  . δ
 0   . s cos δ − I max Zc −2 Es sin (9)
r
2
U  ≥  Es  cos δ − ( Imax | Zc |) −  Es  sin δ (9)


2.2.Experimental
2.2. ExperimentalTest
TestofofThree-Phase
Three-PhaseShort-Circuit
Short-CircuitCurrent
CurrentofofaaVSC-Based
VSC-BasedRenewable
RenewableEnergy
Energy
Theexperimental
The experimentalplatform,
platform,asasestablished
establishedthrough
throughschematic
schematicdiagram
diagramofofFigure
Figure2a,2a,isisshown
showninin
Figure4,4,where
Figure whereprogrammable
programmableDC DCpower
powersource
sourceChroma
Chroma62050H-600S
62050H-600Swith withdetailed
detailedspecifications
specifications
inin[33]
[33]isisused
usedasasphotovoltaic
photovoltaicarray arraysimulator,
simulator,photovoltaic
photovoltaicinverter
inverterES-5TLT
ES-5TLT(Huaiwei
(Huaiwei(V-way),
(V-way),
Guangdong,China)
Guangdong, China)isisa a55kW
kWthree-phase
three-phaseinverter,
inverter,andandprogrammable
programmableAC ACpower
powersource
sourceChroma
Chroma
61845with
61845 withdetailed
detailedspecifications
specificationsinin[34][34]and
andACACelectronic
electronicload
loadare
areused
usedtotosimulate
simulatefault
faultvoltage
voltage
andgrid
and gridload.
load.During
During three-phase
three-phase short-circuit
short-circuit fault,
fault, bothboth convert-type
convert-type sourcesource and power
and power grid
grid will
will inject
inject short-circuit
short-circuit current
current towards
towards faultfault point
point f. When
f. When electricaldistance
electrical distancebetween
betweenVSC-based
VSC-based
renewable energy
renewable energy and
andfault point
fault is tooisshort,
point too terminal voltage will
short, terminal decrease
voltage willgreatly and corresponding
decrease greatly and
short-circuit current
corresponding will exceed
short-circuit upper
current limit
will of converter
exceed outputofcurrent,
upper limit converterat the moment,
output photovoltaic
current, at the
inverter photovoltaic
moment, will experience automatic
inverter blockingautomatic
will experience and quit operation
blocking and [14,21], without any
quit operation short-circuit
[14,21], without
any short-circuit
current currentinto
being injected being injected
power grid.into power grid.

Chroma 61845

Chroma 62050H-600S
ES-5TLT

CT Grid power source

Photovoltaic array Photovoltaic

power supply inverter
Load

Figure
Figure4.4.An
Anexperimental
experimentalplatform
platformofofa a5 5kW
kWVSC-based
VSC-basedrenewable
renewableenergy.
energy.

Different fault conditions are simulated by regulating fall amplitude of output voltage of
Different fault conditions are simulated by regulating fall amplitude of output voltage of
programmable power source, and photovoltaic inverter is under normal operation, active power is
programmable power source, and photovoltaic inverter is under normal operation, active power
set as 0.5 pu, and reactive power is 0, three-phase short-circuit happens at t = 0.1 s and the fault lasts
is set as 0.5 pu, and reactive power is 0, three-phase short-circuit happens at t = 0.1 s and the fault lasts
10 periods. The test is conducted under three post-fault voltages U0 (0.2 pu, 0.18 pu and 0.17 pu), and
the obtained three-phase short-circuit current waveforms of a VSC-based renewable energy are shown
in Figure 5. It is found by gradually reducing post-fault voltage amplitude with 0.01 pu being the
interval that when post-fault voltage is 0.18 pu, this photovoltaic inverter can still continuously injected
short-circuit current. After voltage continuously drops to 0.17 pu, it experiences automatic blocking
when output current is nearby maximum value, and afterwards, its current gradually decreases to 0.
Both Figure 5a,b show the situations where short-circuit current of a VSC-based renewable
energy doesn’t exceed limiting current, as drop amplitude of terminal voltage continues to increase,
shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 5. 5. It
It is
is found
found by by gradually
gradually reducing
reducing post-fault
post-fault voltage
voltage amplitude
amplitude with with 0.01
0.01 pupu being
being
the
the interval
interval that
that when
when post-fault
post-fault voltage
voltage isis 0.18
0.18 pu,
pu, this
this photovoltaic
photovoltaic inverter
inverter can can still
still continuously
continuously
injected
injected short-circuit
short-circuit current.
current. After
After voltage
voltage continuously
continuously dropsdrops to to 0.17
0.17 pu,
pu, itit experiences
experiences automatic
automatic
blocking
blocking when when output
output current
current is is nearby
nearby maximum
maximum value, value, and
and afterwards,
afterwards, its its current
current gradually
gradually
decreases
decreases
Energies
to 0.
2018,to11,0.537 8 of 25
Both
Both Figure
Figure 5a,b5a,b showshow the the situations
situations where
where short-circuit
short-circuit current
current of of aa VSC-based
VSC-based renewable
renewable
energy
energy doesn’t
doesn’t exceed
exceed limiting
limiting current,
current, asas drop
drop amplitude
amplitude of of terminal
terminal voltage
voltage continues
continues to to increase,
increase,
short-circuit current
current ofof the
the inverter
inverter will
will gradually
gradually rise,rise,
and and
when when
its
short-circuit current of the inverter will gradually rise, and when its command current reaches its
commandcommand current current
reaches reaches
upper
upper
upper
limit, limit, current-limiting
limit, current-limiting
current-limiting link link of link of
of controller controller
controller will
will be will
be started be
started to started
to reduce to
reduce actual reduce
actual output actual
output current output
current of of thecurrent
the inverter
inverterof
the
[14].inverter
[14]. DC [14]. DC attenuation
DC component
component component
attenuation attenuation
(expressed
(expressed by (expressed
by dotted
dotted lineby in
line dotted
in the line in the
the middle)
middle) of amiddle)
of a VSC-based
VSC-based of a VSC-based
renewable
renewable
renewable
energy, energy, obtained by halving the vertical line between two
energy, obtained by halving the vertical line between two envelop lines (dotted lines), is shown
obtained by halving the vertical line between two envelop envelop
lines (dotted lines (dotted
lines), is lines), in
shown is
in
shown
Figure in
Figure 5a,b. Figure
5a,b. As 5a,b.
As inductive As inductive
inductive current
current in current in short-circuit
in short-circuit
short-circuit loop
loop cannot loop cannot
cannot experience experience
experience sudden
sudden change, sudden
change, this change,
this will
will
this
generate DC component to make instantaneous value of post-fault short-circuit current be equalbe
will
generate generate
DC DC
component component
to make to make instantaneous
instantaneous value of value of
post-fault post-fault short-circuit
short-circuit current becurrent
equal to
to
equal
the to
the value the value
value before
before fault before fault
fault happens.
happens. happens.

1.5
1.5 22
22

11 1.5
1.5 1.5
1.5
11 11
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5 0.5
0.5
i(pu)

i(pu)
00
i(pu)

00
i(pu)

i(pu)
i(pu)
00
-0.5
-0.5
-0.5
-0.5
-1 -0.5
-0.5
-1
-1
-1 -1.5
-1.5 -1
-1
-1.5
-1.5 -2
-2
0.1 -1.5
-1.5
0.1
0.1 0.12
0.12 0.14
0.14 0.16
0.16 0.18
0.18 0.2
0.2 0.22
0.22 0.24
0.24 0.26
0.26 0.1 0.12
0.12 0.14
0.14 0.16
0.16 0.18
0.18 0.2
0.2 0.22
0.22 0.24
0.24 0.26
0.26 0.1
0.1 0.12
0.12 0.14
0.14 0.16
0.16 0.18
0.18 0.2
0.2 0.22
0.22 0.24
0.24 0.26
0.26
t(s) t(s)
t(s)
t(s) t(s)
t(s)
(a)
(a) (b)
(b) (c)
(c)
Figure
Figure 5.
Figure 5. Measured
5. Measured three-phase
Measured three-phase short-circuit
short-circuit currents
three-phase short-circuit of
of aaa VSC-based
currents of
currents VSC-based renewable
VSC-based renewable energy.
renewable energy. (a)
energy.(a) U′ == 0.2
U′0 =
(a)U 0.2
0.2
pu; (b)
pu; (b)
pu; U′
(b) U 0 = 0.18
U′ == 0.18 pu;
0.18 pu; (c)
pu; (c) U′
(c) U 0 = 0.17
U′ == 0.17 pu.
0.17 pu.
pu.

DC
DC components
components of of three-phase
three-phase short-circuit
short-circuit current
current in
in Figure
Figure 5a5a are
are extracted
extracted separately,
separately, and
and
DC components of three-phase short-circuit current in Figure 5a are extracted separately, and
decomposed
decomposed three-phase
three-phase DC DC components
components are are shown
shown inin Figure
Figure 6a.
6a. It
It can
can be
be known
known that that three-phase
three-phase
decomposed three-phase DC components are shown in Figure 6a. It can be known that three-phase
DC
DC components
components are are unequal,
unequal, but but all
all of
of them
them attenuate
attenuate according
according to to the
the same
same exponential
exponential rule rule and
and
DC components are unequal, but all of them attenuate according to the same exponential rule and
finally
finally attenuate
attenuate to to zero.
zero. InIn the
the meantime,
meantime, the the AC
AC components
components of of short-circuit
short-circuit current
current can can bebe further
further
finally attenuate to zero. In the meantime, the AC components of short-circuit current can be further
decomposed,
decomposed, as as shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 6b.
6b. AC
AC components
components are are mainly
mainly three-phase
three-phase sinusoidal
sinusoidal current
current with
with
decomposed, as shown in Figure 6b. AC components are mainly three-phase sinusoidal current with
equal
equal amplitude and symmetrical phase positions, and envelop lines of AC components present
amplitude and symmetrical phase positions, and envelop lines of AC components present
equal amplitude and symmetrical phase positions, and envelop lines of AC components present
attenuation
attenuation trend,
trend, for
for the
the convenience
convenience of of observation,
observation, only
only a-phase
a-phase current
current is is presented
presented in in Figure
Figure 6b.
6b.
attenuation trend, for the convenience of observation, only a-phase current is presented in Figure 6b.
According to exponential attenuation rule analysis of envelop
According to exponential attenuation rule analysis of envelop lines of AC components, AClines of AC components, AC
According to exponential attenuation rule analysis of envelop lines of AC components, AC components
components
components of of VSC-based
VSC-based renewable
renewable energy
energy only
only attenuate
attenuate according
according to to one
one time
time constant,
constant, which
which is
is
of VSC-based renewable energy only attenuate according to one time constant, which is different from
different
different from
from attenuation
attenuation process
process ofof two
two time
time constants
constants (sub-transient
(sub-transient and and transient)
transient) of of synchronous
synchronous
attenuation process of two time constants (sub-transient and transient) of synchronous generator. Thus
generator.
generator. Thus
Thus thethe correctness
correctness of of full
full current
current Equation
Equation (1)
(1) proposed
proposed in in Section
Section 2.12.1 is
is further
further verified.
verified.
the correctness of full current Equation (1) proposed in Section 2.1 is further verified.

i(A)
i(A) IImm

aa IIm′m′
IImm∞∞ TT′′
00 t(s) 00 tt
bb t(s)
cc

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure
Figure 6.
6. Decomposing
Decomposing of
of short-circuit
short-circuit current waveforms:
waveforms: (a)
current waveforms: (a) DC
DC component; (b)
component; (b) AC
(b) AC component.
AC component.
component.
Figure 6. Decomposing of short-circuit current (a) DC component;

Through multiple tests of photovoltaic inverter ES-5TLT, inductance Lc and resistance Rc ,

calculated by Equation (7), are 0.149 pu and 0.069 pu respectively, namely | Zc | = 0.164 pu. Terminal
voltage of photovoltaic inverter, in Figure 5b, falls to 0.18 pu after fault, initial AC component value of
its three-phase short-circuit current is 1.346 pu, which is smaller than limiting current Imax = 1.4 pu,
and thus, equivalent internal potential of VSC-based renewable energy can be estimated as 0.401 pu.
 Through multiple tests of photovoltaic inverter ES-5TLT, inductance Lc and resistance Rc,
calculated by Equation (7), are 0.149 pu and 0.069 pu respectively, namely Z c = 0.164 pu. Terminal
voltage of photovoltaic inverter, in Figure 5b, falls to 0.18 pu after fault, initial AC component value
Energies 2018, 11, 537 9 of 25
of its three-phase short-circuit current is 1.346 pu, which is smaller than limiting current Imax = 1.4 pu,
and thus, equivalent internal potential of VSC-based renewable energy can be estimated as 0.401 pu.
. 
   , impedance Z and limiting current Imax are substituted into Equation (9),
Equivalent potential E
Equivalent potential Ess , impedance | Zcc| and limiting current Imax are substituted into Equation (9),
operation range
rangeofofpost-fault terminal
post-fault voltage
terminal under
voltage different
under phase
different differences
phase is calculated,
differences as shown
is calculated, as
in Figure 7, where blue lines show post-fault terminal voltages corresponding to Figure
shown in Figure 7, where blue lines show post-fault terminal voltages corresponding to Figure 5b,c, 5b,c, and
shadow
and areaarea
shadow is permissible range
is permissible of fault
range voltage.
of fault voltage.

0.2
0.195
0.19
Operation area
0.185
0.18
U ′ ( pu)

0.175
0.17
0.165
0.16
0.155
0.15
0 5 10 15
δ (°)

Figure
Figure 7.
7. Operation
Operation range
range of
of terminal
terminal voltage
voltage of
of aa VSC-based
VSC-based renewable
renewable energy during faults.

Phase
Phase difference
difference between
between internal
internal potential
potential andand terminal
terminal voltage
voltage isis generally
generally smaller
smaller than
than 10°,
10◦ ,
when the terminal voltage falls to 0.18 pu, blue line is located in operation range of
when the terminal voltage falls to 0.18 pu, blue line is located in operation range of terminal voltage, terminal voltage,
and
and VSC-based
VSC-based renewable
renewable energy
energy maintains
maintains fault
fault ride-through
ride-through operation.
operation. However,
However, when when terminal
terminal
voltage
voltage fails to 0.17 pu, the fault voltage is outside shadow area and it is lower than critical voltage,
fails to 0.17 pu, the fault voltage is outside shadow area and it is lower than critical voltage,
which
which results
results in
in inverter
inverter blocking,
blocking, as
as shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 5c,5c, and
and output
output current
current of of VSC-based
VSC-based renewable
renewable
energy
energy gradually
gradually reduces
reduces to to 0.
0.
According
According to torequirements
requirementsforfor grid
grid connection
connection test test of photovoltaic
of photovoltaic inverter,
inverter, when itswhen
faultits fault
voltage
voltage is higher than 0.2 pu, fault ride-through operation must be kept within a
is higher than 0.2 pu, fault ride-through operation must be kept within a certain time. When it’s lowercertain time. When
it’s
thanlower
0.2 pu,than
there0.2
arepu, there areindifferences
differences in faultoperation
fault ride-through ride-through operation
abilities abilities
of different of different
products. During
products. During the experimental process, test data with small voltage drop
the experimental process, test data with small voltage drop amplitude are used to obtain equivalentamplitude are used to
obtain equivalent impedance and internal potential, and then critical voltage of VSC-based
impedance and internal potential, and then critical voltage of VSC-based renewable energy under fault renewable
energy underoperation
ride-through fault ride-through
is estimated,operation
and it canis estimated, and it cansetting
be used to determine be used of to determine
voltage setting of
drop amplitude
voltage drop amplitude
in the experiment. in the experiment.
Equivalent Equivalent renewable
circuits of VSC-based circuits of VSC-based
energy under renewable
transientenergy under
and steady
transient and steady states are applied to short-circuit current calculation of traditional
states are applied to short-circuit current calculation of traditional power grid, and then short-circuit power grid,
and then under
currents short-circuit currents
different under period
short-circuit differentcanshort-circuit
be calculated.period can be calculated.

3.
3. Three-Phase
Three-Phase Short-Circuit
Short-Circuit Current
Current Calculation
Calculation of
of Power
Power Systems
Systems with
with High
High Penetration of
Penetration of
VSC-Based Renewable Energy

3.1. AC
3.1. AC Component
Component Calculation
Calculation of
of Three-Phase
Three-Phase Short-Circuit
Short-Circuit Current
Current in
in Power
Power Systems
Systems
For short-circuit
For short-circuit current
current calculation
calculation inin power
power systems,
systems, the
the system
system equivalent
equivalent circuit
circuit is
is usually
usually
simplified as a linear electric network with active components [35] in Figure 8. The
simplified as a linear electric network with active components [35] in Figure 8. The superposition superposition
theorem can
theorem can be
be applied
applied to
to calculate
calculate voltage
voltage and
and current
current responses
responses inin this
this active
active network. Using the
network. Using the
superposition theorem, when a fault is occurred at node f through the impedance z ,
superposition theorem, when a fault is occurred at node f through the impedance zff, then the fault then the fault
node is
node is considered
considered to
to be
be supplied
supplied with
with aa negative
negative voltage
voltage source,
source, equal
equal to
to the
the voltage
voltage at
at that
that location
location
in normal state, while all of the other sources areare set
set to
to zero.
zero.
Energies 2018, 11, 537 10 of 25
Energies 2018, 11, x 10 of 25

If − If If

f f f
Active Active
network U f zf
network U f U f zf

Figure 8. Equivalent network for symmetrical short-circuit analysis.

Figure 8. Equivalent network for symmetrical short-circuit analysis.

In the figure,. If and. U f represent the short-circuit current and voltage at the fault node, and
In the figure, I f and U f represent the short-circuit current and voltage at the fault node, and the
the original part of the fault
original part of the fault branch branch
can becan be separated.
separated. Compared
Compared with
with the the normal
normal network,
network, a short-
a short-circuit
circuit fault is equivalent to adding an injection .
current −  to the fault node. Therefore, the nodal
I .
fault is equivalent to adding an injection current − I f to the fault f node. Therefore, the nodal voltage U i
voltage
in U i in the
the network network
[8,35] can be[8,35] can be
expressed as:expressed as:

i = Z
.  . .
UUi = ∑ Zijij II jj −− ZZififIIff
j∈G
(10)
(10)
j∈G

where G represents the set of active nodes in the network, I. j is the injected current at active nodes,
where G represents the set of active nodes in the network, I j is the injected current at active nodes,
Zij, Zif are the impedance elements of nodal impedance matrix of the network. It can be seen that the
Zij , Zif are the impedance elements of nodal impedance matrix of the network. It can be seen that the
nodal voltage is superposed by two parts. The first part is the voltage generated by all of the power
nodal voltage is superposed by two parts. The first part is the voltage generated by all of the power
in the network when . I = 0 , namely normal component; the second part is the voltage generated by
in the network when I f f= 0, namely normal component; the second part is the voltage generated by
currentI fI,f namely
. . 
short-circuitcurrent
short-circuit , namely fault
fault component.
component. Thus,
Thus, thethe post-fault
post-fault voltage
voltage Ui U i can
can be calculated
be calculated by
by superposing
superposing the the
aboveabove twotwo components,
components, andand the corresponding
the corresponding current
current can also
can also be obtained
be obtained by
by the
the same
same superposition
superposition idea.idea.
Afteraashort-circuit
After short-circuit fault
fault occurs
occurs in the
in the powerpower system
system with VSC-based
with VSC-based renewable
renewable energy,energy,
a certaina
certain increasing
increasing amplitudeamplitude
will occur willtooccur to VSC-based
VSC-based renewable
renewable energy energy as relative
as relative to outputto output
currentcurrent
under
under normal
normal operation operation
[36]. At [36]. At the moment,
the moment, an increment
an increment of current of current
injected byinjected
VSC-based by renewable
VSC-based
renewable
energy will energy
generatewill generatefault
additional additional fault in
component component in short-circuit
short-circuit current. It iscurrent.
assumedIt that
is assumed that
VSC-based
VSC-basedenergy
renewable renewable energy
is installed at is installed
node k, and atthenode k, and the
short-circuit short-circuit
current at node kcurrent at node k can
can be decomposed be
into
decomposed into normal component and fault component by the superposition
normal component and fault component by the superposition theorem. Then, the AC fault component theorem. Then, the
AC
of fault component
short-circuit currentofcan short-circuit
be obtained current can be
according to obtained
Equationaccording
(1): to Equation (1):
t
− t
 I mcos (ωt(ω+t + ) cos((ωtt++ δδ00))  + (ωt + θ0 )0
h i
∆ik (t) Δ
=iki(kt()t=
)−ik (itk)|0−| (itk)0 =
(t ) =Im∞ cos θ0θ)0− −ImI m|0|0 cos ω + (( Im
′0 −−IImm∞) )ee−T ′Tcos
0 cos( ωt + θ )

0
 ∞  m ∞ (11)
(11)
= ∆ik∞ (t) + ∆ik (t)
= Δik∞ (t ) + Δik′ (t )

whereikik(t)
where (t) isisthe
theshort-circuit
short-circuitcurrent
currentinjected
injectedby VSC,ik|0|
byVSC, ik|0|(t) and ∆i
(t) and Δikk(t)
(t) are
are the
the normal
normal component
component
and the fault component, ∆i (t) and ∆i 0 ( t ) are the fault steady component and the fault transient
k ∞
and the fault component, Δik∞(t) and Δi′kk(t) are the fault steady component and the fault transient
component
componentrespectively.
respectively.ACACcomponent
componentamplitude
amplitudeof ofshort-circuit
short-circuitcurrent
currentpresents
presentsattenuation
attenuationtrend
trend
with
with time. Bu,t in engineering calculation, more attention is given to initial value and steady valueof
time. But in engineering calculation, more attention is given to initial value and steady value of
its
its AC
ACcomponent,
component, so sotwo
twomoments
momentsin intransient periodtt==00and
transientperiod andsteady periodt t==∞,
steadyperiod ∞, during
during fault
fault
process,
process,areareselected
selectedtotocalculate
calculateinitial
initialvalue
valueand andsteady
steadyvalue
valueofofACACcomponent.
component. .0
Figure
Figure9 9shows equivalent
shows circuit
equivalent of AC
circuit of fault component,
AC fault fault transient
component, component
fault transient ∆ I k is injected
component ΔIk′ is
by VSC-based renewable energy to the node in transient period of short-circuit. According to Figure 3b,
injected by VSC-based renewable energy to the node in transient period of short-circuit. According .
VSC-based
to Figure 3b,renewable energy
VSC-based is equivalent
renewable energy isto series connection
equivalent between voltage
to series connection betweensource
voltage∆ Esource
k and
equivalent impedance Zck . For the convenience of analysis, Norton theorem is used to make voltage
ΔEk and equivalent impedance Zck. For the convenience of analysis, . 0 Norton
. theorem is used to make
source equivalent to current source, as shown in Figure 9a, where ∆ I k = ∆ Ek /Z ck . Insteady period of
voltage source equivalent to current source, as shown in Figure 9a, where ΔI k′ = ΔEk Z ck . In steady
power grid fault, it can be known from Figure 3c that VSC-based renewable energy is equivalent to
period of power grid fault, it can be known from . Figure 3c that VSC-based renewable energy is
current source injecting fault steady component ∆ I k∞ at the node, and its equivalent circuit is shown

Figure 9b.to current source injecting fault steady component ΔI k∞ at the node, and its equivalent
equivalent
in
circuit is shown in Figure 9b.
 k k k∞

(a) (b)

Figure 9. Equivalent circuit of AC fault-component of a VSC-based renewable energy: (a) transient

Energies 2018, 11,
period; 537 11 of 25
Energies 2018,(b)
11, steady
x period. 11 of 25

When considering power grid with high penetration of VSC-based renewable energy, it is
assumed that m sets VSC-based renewable energy are installed in power grid, and three-phase short-
circuit fault happens at node f. Superposition theorem is used to decompose fault network into
normal component networkand fault component
ΔEk ΔIk′ network as shown
ΔIk∞
in Figure 10, where G represents
power source node and G1~G k are grid-connected points of conventional power sources; Gk+1~Gk+m

are grid-connected points of VSC-based renewable energy; D represents load node, D1~Dn are load
grid-connected points, constant impedance (a) Z represents load and f (b)
is short-circuit fault point (for a
boltedFigure
short-circuit, zf = 0).
Figure 9. 9.Equivalent
Equivalentcircuit
circuitofofAC
AC fault-componentofofa VSC-based
fault-component a VSC-based renewable
renewable energy:(a)(a)
energy: transient
transient
As shown
period; (b) in Figure
steady 10a, VSC-based renewable energy injects current I 0 towards the node in
period.
period; (b) steady period.
normal component network and voltage at point f is normal operation voltage U f 0 . Figure 10b,c are
When considering power grid with high penetration of VSC-based renewable energy, it is
faultWhen considering
component powerduring
networks grid with high penetration
transient periodareandofsteady
VSC-based renewable energy,where
period it is assumed
assumed that m sets VSC-based renewable energy installed in powerrespectively,
grid, and three-phase voltage
short-
that m
source sets
− U VSC-based
and z renewable energy are installed in power grid, and three-phase short-circuit
f are added at fault terminal. For conventional power source, short-circuit current
fault
circuit fault
f 0 happens at node f. Superposition theorem is used to decompose fault network into
happens at node f. Superposition theorem is used to decompose fault network into normal component
normal
network
component
calculation
andisfault
network and fault
implemented
componentwith
component network
subtransient
network as shownreactance xd′′asand
in Figure 10,
shown
where
in Figure 10, where Gxdrepresents
synchronous
G representsreactance
power source in node
fault
power
transientsource node and G 1~Gk are grid-connected points of conventional power sources; Gk+1~Gk+m
and G1 ~Gperiod and steady period, respectively, while VSC-based renewable energy injects current
k are grid-connected points of conventional power sources; Gk+1 ~Gk+m are grid-connected
are grid-connected points of VSC-based renewable energy; D represents load node, D1~Dn are load
towards
points the node byrenewable
of VSC-based energy;ΔD
current sources and ΔI∞ respectively,
I′ represents load node, Dand 1 ~Dfor fault
n are loadtransient period, branch
grid-connected points,
grid-connected points, constant impedance Z represents load and f is short-circuit fault point (for a
constant
impedance Zc needsZadding
impedance represents load and f renewable
to VSC-based is short-circuit point (for a bolted short-circuit, zf = 0).
faultside.
energy
bolted short-circuit, zf = 0).
As shown in Figure 10a, VSC-based renewable energy injects current I 0 towards the node in

D1 operation voltage U f 0 . Figure 10b,c are
normal component network and voltage at point f isGnormal
1
…

fault component networks during transient periodGand steady period respectively, where voltage
k Dn
source −U f 0 and zf are added
′′
xd1 ′′fault terminal. For G
atxdk conventional
k+1 power source, short-circuit current
Z1
I
…

I
calculation is implemented k+1 0 k+m 0
with subtransient Gk+m xd′′ and synchronous
reactance Zn reactance xd in fault
E1′′ … E k′′ f
…
transient period and steady period, respectively, while VSC-based renewable energy injects current
towards the node by current sources ΔI′ and ΔI∞ respectively,
U
and for fault transient period, branch
f0
impedance Zc needs adding to VSC-based renewable energy side.
(a)

G1 D1
G1 D1
…

G1 D1
Gk Dn
…

′′ Gk
xd1 ′′
xD
dkn Gk+1 Gk Dn
′′ xdk
xd1 ′′ Gk+1 xd1 xdk Z1 Gk+1
Ik+1 0 Ik+m 0 Z1
…

ΔIk+1
′ ΔIk+m
′ Gk+m ΔI( k+1)∞ ΔI( k+m)∞ Z1
…

E1′′Gk+m  Zn
… … Ek′′ Zn …f Gk+m Zn
f … f
Zc(k+1) … Zc(k+m) …
U f 0 −U f 0
−U f 0
zf zf
(a)
(b) (c)

Figure 10. Normal component G1 network

D1 G1
and fault component network of AC components D1 during
…

a fault. (a) normal componentGnetwork;

k Dn (b) fault component network during transient
Gk
period;
Dn
(c) fault
′′ ′′
xcomponent
d1 xdk Gk+1
network during steady period. xd1 xdk Gk+1
ΔIk+1
′ ΔIk+m
′   Z1 ΔI( k+1)∞ ΔI( k+m)∞ Z1
…

… Gk+m Zn … . Gk+m Zn
f f
As shown
Zc(k+1) in …
Figure 10a, VSC-based renewable energy injects current
Zc(k+m) … I |0| towards the node in
.
normal component network and voltage at point f is normal operation voltage U f−|0U|. Figure 10b,c
−U f 0 f0
are fault component networks during transient period and steady period respectively, where voltage
. zf zf
source −U f|0| and zf are added at fault terminal. For conventional power source, short-circuit current
00
calculation is implemented (b)with subtransient reactance xd and synchronous (c) reactance xd in fault
transient period and steady period, respectively, while VSC-based renewable energy injects current
Energies 2018, 11, 537 12 of 25

.0 .
towards the node by current sources ∆ I and ∆ I ∞ respectively, and for fault transient period, branch
impedance Zc needs adding to VSC-based renewable energy side.
Short-circuit currents of branches are obtained by superposing normal currents and fault
components, the former can be obtained through load flow calculation, so only fault components
are analyzed. For fault steady period, the equation of node voltage expressed by node impedance
matrix [8,27] is as follow:
∆Ui = ZIi (12)

where:  iT
h . . .
 ∆Ui = ∆U · · · ∆U · · · ∆U

1 f k+m+n
h . . . iT (13)
 Ii = 0 · · · ∆ I (k+1)∞ · · · ∆ I (k+m)∞ · · ·

− I f∞ ··· 0

where ∆Ui is fault component of node voltage; Ii is injected current towards node i; coefficient matrix Z
.
is namely node impedance matrix. The voltage fault component at the fault node ∆U f in Equation (12)
is separately by superposition theorem as follow:
 .
∆ I (k+1) ∞
 


..


 . i 
.
 h
 ∆U = Z  
f(k+1) · · ·

f Zf(k+m) Zff  .


 ∆ I (k+m) ∞

 (14)

 .
− I f∞



 . . .

zf I f∞ = U f|0| + ∆U f


Then, according to Equation (14), AC component of short-circuit current can be obtained as:
 . 
∆ I (k+1) ∞
.
..
h i 
U f|0| + Zf(k+1) · · · Zf(k+m) 
 .


.
. ∆ I (k+m) ∞
I f∞ = (15)
Zff + zf

If diagonal elements of node impedance matrix as well as related mutual impedance are already
.
known, short-circuit current at any short-circuit point can be solved. Short-circuit current I f∞ is
substituted into Equation (12) to calculate voltage fault component at any node, then add the normal
components to the fault components, post-fault voltage of each node can be obtained as follows:
.
∆ I (k+1) ∞
 

. . . . i .. 
.
h
U i = U i|0| + ∆U i = U i|0| +
 
Zi(k+1) · · · Zi(k+m) Zif  .
 (16)
∆ I (k+m) ∞
 
 
.
− I f∞

Short-circuit current flowing through any branch can be calculated, according to node voltages
and branch impedances in the above equation, and thus voltage and current distribution in post-fault
network can be obtained. For fault transient period, subtransient reactance is used to replace
synchronous reactance in conventional power source, and earth branch Zc should be added to nodes
of VSC-based renewable energy to form a new impedance matrix; initial AC component value I 0 of
short-circuit current is calculated according to Equations (12)–(16), and its calculation method is similar
to that during fault steady period, so unnecessary details will not be given here.
Energies 2018, 11, 537 13 of 25
Energies 2018, 11, x 13 of 25

3.2. Peak Value Calculation of Three-Phase Short-Circuit Current

Current in
in Power
Power Systems
Systems
In order to verify
verify dynamic
dynamic stability
stability of electrical
electrical equipment, the peak value of short-circuit
current needs to be calculated, at the moment, DC component of short-circuit should be firstly
determined. DueDue to
to the
the equivalent
equivalent circuit
circuit for
for DC short-circuit
short-circuit current is also simplified as a linear
electric network [35], the superposition theorem can also be applied to calculate the DC short-circuit
current, and
and then
thencombining
combiningthe the
AC ACandand
DCDC short-circuit
short-circuit currents
currents to obtain
to obtain the value
the peak peak value of
of three-
three-phase short-circuit.
phase short-circuit. The VSC-based
The VSC-based renewable
renewable energy
energy does
does notnot injectthe
inject theDC
DCcomponent
component into
into the
power grid under normal operation, and the DC fault component of VSC-based renewable energy at
node k can be obtained according
according to
to Equation
Equation (1),
(1), as
as follows:
follows:
− t t
( )
−T

0
∆ikdc
Δi(t) (=
t) = i (t()t )== IIm|0cos
ikdc δ δ0−−I ′Imcos
| cos θ θ0e eTak ak
cos (17)
(17)
kdc kdc m0 0 m 0

where T is attenuation
ak is
Tak attenuation timetime constant
constant of
of DC
DC component
component for for VSC-based
VSC-based renewable
renewable energy
energy at at node
node k,
and it’s related to equivalent impedance of VSC-based renewable energy and network
it’s related to equivalent impedance of VSC-based renewable energy and network impedance impedance from
fault
from point
fault to the system.
point For VSC-based
to the system. renewable
For VSC-based energy at
renewable different
energy nodes, series
at different circuit
nodes, series between
circuit
equivalent impedance Z and self-impedance
between equivalent impedance Zc and self-impedance
c Z kk at grid-connected point can be used to calculate
Zkk at grid-connected point can be used to
DC attenuation
calculate time. Similarly,
DC attenuation for a conventional
time. Similarly, powerpower
for a conventional sourcesource
at access node node
at access n, itsn,injected DC
its injected
component
DC component is asisfollows: [8,27]
as follows: [8,27]
√ t
2Δ2∆EEn n − t
∆indc
Δindc ) =indc
(t)(t= = −− 00 cos
indc((tt)) =
′′dn
(
cos θ0θ)0e)e Tan
δ(0δ0−− T−
an (18)
(18)
xxdn

where ∆EΔEnn ==En′′E−nU−n U

00
, nE, n′′Enisissubtransient
00
potential,UU
subtransientpotential, n nisis terminal
terminal voltage
voltage after
after fault,
fault, and ′′
00
and xxdn
dn is
subtransient reactance;TTan
subtransient reactance; an is
is DC
DCattenuation
attenuationtime
timeofofthe
theconventional
conventional power
power source
sourceat at
node n, and
node its
n, and
calculation method is similar to VSC-based renewable energy. When
its calculation method is similar to VSC-based renewable energy. When multiple VSC-basedmultiple VSC-based renewable
energy is connected
renewable energy is to the power
connected grid,
to the as DCgrid,
power component doesn’t exist
as DC component in normal
doesn’t network,
exist in normal and fault
network,
network of DC components is just fault component network, as shown
and fault network of DC components is just fault component network, as shown in Figure 11.in Figure 11.

G1 D1
…

Gk Dn
Δi1dc Δikdc Δi Gk+1
( k+1)dc Δi( k+m )dc Rd1
…

… Gk+m Rdn
f
…

−uf 0

rf

Figure 11. Fault

Figure 11. Fault component
component network of DC
network of DC components
components during
during aa fault.
fault.

In Figure 11, all of the conventional power sources and VSC-based renewable energy inject DC
In Figure 11, all of the conventional power sources and VSC-based renewable energy inject
components by current sources, as DC components don’t generate induced potentials through
DC components by current sources, as DC components don’t generate induced potentials through
inductances, only resistance parameters are considered in the network. Similar to Equation (12), node
inductances, only resistance parameters are considered in the network. Similar to Equation (12), node
voltage equation is expressed as follow:
voltage equation is expressed as follow:
Δuidc = Riidc (19)
∆uidc = Riidc (19)
where
Energies 2018, 11, 537 14 of 25

where  h iT
 ∆uidc = ∆u1dc (t) · · · ∆ufdc (t) · · · ∆u(k+m+n)dc (t)

h iT (20)
 i = ∆i (t) · · · ∆i
(k+m)dc ( t ) 0 · · · −ifdc ( t ) · · ·

idc 1dc 0

where ∆uidc is DC component of node voltage, iidc is DC component of external injected current at
node i, coefficient matrix R is namely real part of node impedance matrix Z. Similar to the derivation
of Equation (15), the DC component of fault point can be obtained as:
 
∆i1dc (t)
..
h i 
Rf1 ··· R f(k+m) 
 .


∆i(k+m)dc (t)
ifdc (t) = (21)
Rff + rf

The peak value is estimated under the severest situation, using AC component and DC component
of short-circuit current during transient period. In consideration of the most serious short-circuit, it
is assumed that the system is under no-load operation before fault, and instantaneous short-circuit
current value reaches maximum within half a cycle after fault, namely t = 0.01 s. Then, the peak value
ifM at fault point and its effective value IfM are as follows:
√
ifM = q2If0 + ifdc (0.01)
(
(22)
IfM = If0 2 + ifdc
2 (0.01)

where If0 is initial AC component value of short-circuit current, and ifdc (0.01) is DC component value
of 0.01 s after fault.
Fault characteristics of VSC-based renewable energy are different from those of conventional
power sources. Through the analysis of short-circuit current expression of VSC-based renewable
energy, its fault process can be divided into transient and steady states, where transient state includes
AC component attenuation and DC component attenuation. During short-circuit current calculation
of power grid with high penetration of VSC-based renewable energy, equivalent impedances, and
equivalent internal potentials under different voltage drops are obtained through experimental test,
mutual iterations of transient equivalent model and network equation are implemented to update fault
components of short-circuit current, and then AC and DC components of three-phase short-circuit in
the network can be obtained accurately.
In order to simplify engineering calculation process, considering the severest situation,
as post-fault Im0 will not exceed I 0
max , and transient current Im of VSC-based renewable energy is taken
as Imax in this paper; Im∞ can be solved through power reference values P*, Q* and command current.
They are substituted into fault component equations of AC and DC components, respectively; the initial
values and steady values of AC components, as well as DC components at different moments can be
calculated by superposition theorem. Then the peak value is estimated by initial AC component values
and DC component values, which is used to guide equipment selection and dynamic stability test.

4. Simulation Analysis
Renewable energy installed capacity proportions of Huainan power grid and Huaisu power grid
are 64% and 44% relative to the maximum load in 2018, both of which have reached high permeability
levels. Taking grid structures and parameters of Huainan and Huaisu power grid as examples,
the proposed method is used to calculate short-circuit currents under different fault nodes, meanwhile
a simulation model in MATLAB/Simulink is established, calculated results and simulation results are
compared, and the correctness of the proposed method is verified. As influence of load on short-circuit
current is usually neglected in practical calculation, the following examples have completed calculation
and simulation under no-load conditions before fault.
Energies 2018, 11, x 15 of 25

circuit current is usually neglected in practical calculation, the following examples have completed
Energies 2018, 11, 537 15 of 25
calculation and simulation under no-load conditions before fault.
Photovoltaic power stations in the calculated examples all consist of 500 kW photovoltaic
generating sets, where
Photovoltaic powerrated voltage
stations of calculated
in the each generating
examples set all
is 315 V, power
consist of 500 factor is 1 (main
kW photovoltaic
parameterssets,
generating are shown in Appendix
where rated voltage A), upper
of each limit output
generating set iscurrent of eachfactor
315 V, power photovoltaic inverter
is 1 (main is 1.5
parameters
times of rated current, and voltages of generating units rise to 35 kV through step-up transformers.
are shown in Appendix A), upper limit output current of each photovoltaic inverter is 1.5 times of rated
As impedances
current, of collecting
and voltages power lines
of generating unitsfor
risephotovoltaic powerstep-up
to 35 kV through stationstransformers.
are small, detailed collecting
As impedances
power
of lines will
collecting powernotlines
be taken into accountpower
for photovoltaic in calculated
stations examples.
are small, detailed collecting power lines will
not be taken into account in calculated examples.
4.1. 500 kV Case in Huainan Area
4.1. 500 kV Case in Huainan Area
Calculation and simulation analysis are carried out for 500 kV grid structure of Huainan power
grid,Calculation
and its network structure isanalysis
and simulation shown are in Figure
carried12.
outInfor
Figure
500 kV12a, green
grid pointsofrepresent
structure Huainan220 kV
power
substations,
grid, and itsand red points
network represent
structure is shown500 kV substations,
in Figure 12. Inincluding
Figure 12a,Fengtai,
green Tangzhuang,
points represent Gaocheng,
220 kV
Luochang, Kongdian,
substations, and Feibei.
and red points represent Green
500 filled area in theincluding
kV substations, point represents grid-connected
Fengtai, Tangzhuang, point of
Gaocheng,
photovoltaic,
Luochang, and photovoltaic
Kongdian, and Feibei.allowed
Greencapacity is labeled
filled area in the and
pointfilled by yellow.
represents Simplified structure
grid-connected point of
is shown in and
photovoltaic, Figure 12b, 480 MW
photovoltaic allowed andcapacity
960 MW photovoltaic
is labeled power
and filled stations
by yellow. are connected
Simplified into
structure is
Tangzhuang
shown and12b,
in Figure Gaocheng,
480 MW respectively, and the impedance
and 960 MW photovoltaic parameters
power stations of all branches
are connected are shown
into Tangzhuang
in Table
and 2. Considering
Gaocheng, fluctuation
respectively, and theofimpedance
photovoltaic power generations
parameters withare
of all branches light illumination
shown in Table in
2.
actual operation,
Considering illumination
fluctuation intensities,
of photovoltaic powerinput by all photovoltaic
generations power generations,
with light illumination in actual in normal
operation,
operation and
illumination after fault
intensities, inputarebyall
all selected as 1000
photovoltaic power W/m 2 in simulation, input environmental
generations, in normal operation and after
temperature
fault is 30 °C,as
are all selected and
1000output
W/m 2
power of photovoltaic
in simulation, inputpower generationtemperature
environmental is 30 ◦ C, and
is mainly determined by
illumination
output powerintensity.
of photovoltaic power generation is mainly determined by illumination intensity.

Grid-connected point Zhangji Dingji

of photovoltaic 100MW 70MW

Tangzhuang Luji
Gugou
Fengtai Tangzhuang

Fengcheng
20MW
Xinqiao Bagongshan Zhongan Luochang
560MW 10MW
Xindong
Gaocheng
Gaocheng Xishan Luochang
12MW
Zhiwuyuan Kongdian
Jinjialing
Liaocheng
400MW 18MW
Feibei
Shouzhou Feibei
250MW Kongdian
(a)

Grid-connected point
of photovoltaic Luochang

Fengtai Tangzhuang Kongdian

480MW

Gaocheng
960MW Feibei
(b)

Figure
Figure 12. 12. Single
Single line line diagram
diagram of Huainan
of Huainan 500power
500 kV kV power grid.
grid. (a) (a) overall
overall structure;
structure; (b) simplified
(b) simplified structure.
structure.
Energies 2018, 11, 537 16 of 25

Table 2. 500 kV branch impedance parameters.

Energies 2018, 11, x 16 of 25

Equivalent ImpedanceTable
between
2. 500500
kVkV
branch impedance parameters.
Positive Sequence Impedance
Busbars Benchmark Capacity = 100 MVA
Equivalent Impedance between 500 kV Busbars
Busbar I Busbar J R1Positive
(pu) Sequence Impedance
X1 (pu)
Benchmark Capacity = 100 MVA
Feibei Busbar I Gaocheng Busbar J 0.0003
R1 (pu) 0.0089
X1 (pu)
Feibei Feibei Kongdian Gaocheng 0.0002
0.0003 0.0035
0.0089
Feibei Feibei Luochang Kongdian 0.0016
0.0002 0.0238
0.0035
Fengtai Feibei TangzhuangLuochang 0.0001
0.0016 0.02380.001
GaochengFengtai Kongdian
Tangzhuang 0.0170
0.0001 0.1538
0.001
GaochengGaocheng Luochang Kongdian 0.0014
0.0170 0.0212
0.1538
GaochengGaocheng
TangzhuangLuochang
0.0004
0.0014
0.0072
0.0212
Kongdian Luochang 0.0001 0.0011
Gaocheng Tangzhuang 0.0004 0.0072
Luochang Tangzhuang 0.0004 0.0051
Kongdian Luochang 0.0001 0.0011
Luochang Tangzhuang 0.0004 0.0051
In order to further verify the accuracy and correctness of the calculation method proposed
In order
in this paper, to further verify
a conventional the accuracy
method, whichand correctness
treats of therenewable
VSC-based calculationenergy
methodasproposed in
conventional
this paper, a conventional method, which treats VSC-based renewable energy as conventional voltage
voltage sources, is used to compare with the proposed method in this paper, and values of steady
sources, is used to compare with the proposed method in this paper, and values of steady short-
short-circuit currents and initial AC component are calculated when three-phase short-circuit happens
circuit currents and initial AC component are calculated when three-phase short-circuit happens to
to 6 substations respectively, finally a comparative verification is implemented with simulation data.
6 substations respectively, finally a comparative verification is implemented with simulation data.
During
Duringtransient and
transient andsteady
steadycalculation
calculation processes, 1.5 and
processes, 1.5 and 1.3
1.3times
timesofofrated
ratedoutput
output currents
currents are are
respectively taken
respectively for for
taken VSC-based
VSC-based renewable
renewable energy
energyininconventional
conventionalmethod,
method, and
and results are solved
results are solved as
seenasinseen
Figure 13.
in Figure 13.

Maximum relative error Maximum relative error

of proposed method: of conventional method:
18 10.57%
2.64%
16
14
Three-phase short-circuit
三相短路电流(kA)

12
current (kA)

10
8
6
4
2
0
Feibei
肥北 Fengtai
凤台 Gaocheng
皋城 Kongdian
孔店 Luochang
洛厂 Tangzhuang
汤庄
Simulation Proposed Conventional
仿真结果
results 本文方法
method 常规方法
method

(a)
Maximum relative error
of proposed method:
60 1.48% Maximum relative error of
conventional method:
50
6.16%
Three-phase short-circuit
三相短路电流()kA)

40
current (kA)

30

20

10

0
Feibei
肥北 Fengtai
凤台 Gaocheng
皋城 Kongdian
孔店 Luochang
洛厂 Tangzhuang
汤庄
Simulation Proposed Conventional
仿真结果
results
本文方法
method
常规方法
method

(b)

Figure 13. Three-phase short-circuit current of substations. (a) steady short-circuit current; (b) initial
Figure 13. Three-phase short-circuit current of substations. (a) steady short-circuit current; (b) initial
AC component value.
AC component value.
Energies 2018, 11, 537 17 of 25
Energies 2018, 11, x 17 of 25

In Figure 13a, steady short-circuit current values calculated through two different methods are
compared with simulation data, and it can be seen from histogram that the proposed method in this
paper is closer to simulation results, and maximum relative error is 2.64%, which is lower than 8.33%
of the conventional method. Figure Figure 13b shows comparison
comparison results
results of
of initial AC component
component values,values,
and relative error of the proposed method doesn’t exceed 1.48%, which is still lower than 6.16% of
conventional
conventional method.
method.Based
Basedonon a comparison
a comparison from the angle
from of mean
the angle error, mean
of mean error, error
meanoferror
this method,
of this
and conventional
method, method are
and conventional 0.92%are
method and 5.74%,
0.92% andrespectively, and it further
5.74%, respectively, and itcertifies
further that this that
certifies method
this
is more accurate
method than conventional
is more accurate method.method.
than conventional Moreover, by comparing
Moreover, Figure Figure
by comparing 13a,b, it13a,b,
can be found
it can be
that
found mean
that error
mean0.92%, duringduring
error 0.92%, calculation of initial
calculation AC component
of initial AC componentvalue,value,
is smaller than mean
is smaller error
than mean
2.1%
error of steady
2.1% short-circuit
of steady current current
short-circuit in this method, which embodies
in this method, the superiority
which embodies of this method
the superiority in
of this
calculation of fault transient
method in calculation of faultperiod.
transient period.
Taking Kongdian substation
substation as as an
anexample,
example,short-circuit
short-circuitDC DCcomponent
componentisiscalculated,
calculated, which
which is
is used to evaluate the peak value with initial AC component value.
used to evaluate the peak value with initial AC component value. Calculated results Calculated results that were
obtained through
through twotwomethods
methodsare arecompared
comparedwith withsimulation
simulation waveform
waveform data, as as
data, shown
shown in Figure
in Figure14.
In
14.conventional
In conventional method,
method,impulse
impulse coefficient
coefficientKMKMisisused
usedtotomultiply
multiplyby byinitial
initialAC
AC component
component value
for approximate
approximateestimation
estimationofofpeakpeak value,
value, namely
namely KM K=M1.8.= In
1.8. In Figure
Figure 14, post-fault
14, post-fault 0.01 s is 0.01
takens asis
taken
maximum as maximum instantaneous
instantaneous value of short-circuit
value of short-circuit value, namelyvalue,peaknamely
value,peak
blackvalue,
squareblack square
represents
represents
simulation simulation
data, while data,
redwhile red andsquares
and green green squares
represent represent calculation
calculation resultsresults
of thisofmethod
this methodand
and conventional
conventional method
method respectively.
respectively. It can
It can be be known
known from
from this
this figurethat
figure thatresults
resultsofofthis
this method
method are
closer to simulation results, but the conventional method has a certain deviation, and then it’s proved
that this method contributes more to accurate accurate evaluation
evaluation of of peak
peak value
value atat fault
fault point.
point.

104

14 Conventional method: 1.38e+05

Proposed method: 1.34e+05
12 X: 0.11
Y: 1.31e+05
10

6
i(A)

-2
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
t(s)

Figure
Figure 14.
14. Three-phase
Three-phase short-circuit
short-circuit current of Kongdian
current of Kongdian substation.
substation.

In Figure 13b, the initial AC component value in Kongdian substation is close to 50 kA, which
In Figure 13b, the initial AC component value in Kongdian substation is close to 50 kA, which
may be exceeding the allowable value. At the moment, short-circuit current level can be limited by
may be exceeding the allowable value. At the moment, short-circuit current level can be limited by
reducing the photovoltaic allowed capacity. Assume the original scheme is with the photovoltaic
reducing the photovoltaic allowed capacity. Assume the original scheme is with the photovoltaic
capacity in Figure 12, and the modified scheme is reduced all photovoltaic capacity to 0.6 times of
capacity in Figure 12, and the modified scheme is reduced all photovoltaic capacity to 0.6 times of
that in the original scheme. The comparison of initial AC component values between the original
that in the original scheme. The comparison of initial AC component values between the original
scheme and the modified scheme is shown in Figure 15. When the photovoltaic capacities reduce, the
scheme and the modified scheme is shown in Figure 15. When the photovoltaic capacities reduce,
short-circuit current of each substation decreases with different degrees, and the short-circuit current
the short-circuit current of each substation decreases with different degrees, and the short-circuit
of Kongdian substation is much less than the allowable value of 50 kA. The substation closer to grid-
current of Kongdian substation is much less than the allowable value of 50 kA. The substation closer
connected point of photovoltaic, the change of photovoltaic capacity will have a greater effect on its
to grid-connected point of photovoltaic, the change of photovoltaic capacity will have a greater effect
short-circuit current.
on its short-circuit current.
Energies 2018,
Energies 11,x537
2018,11, 18 of
18 of 25
25

60

Three-phase short-circuit current (kA)

50
Energies 2018, 11, x 18 of 25

40
60
30

Three-phase short-circuit current (kA)

50
20
40

10 30

0 20
Feibei Fengtai Gaocheng Kongdian Luochang Tangzhuang
10
Original scheme Modified scheme
0
Feibei Fengtai Gaocheng Kongdian Luochang Tangzhuang
Figure 15.
Figure Comparison of
15. Comparison of initial
initial AC
AC
Original component
component
scheme values of
values
Modified scheme of Huainan
Huainan power
power grid.
grid.

Figure 15. Comparison of initial AC component values of Huainan power grid.

4.2. 220
4.2. 220 kV
kVCase
Casein
inHuaisu
Huaisu Area
Area
4.2. Huaisu
220 kV
kV 220 kV Case in Huaisu
power Areamainly includes 35 substations, like Suixi, Nanping, and Huaibei
grid
220 Huaisu power grid mainly includes 35 substations, like Suixi, Nanping, and Huaibei
substations, and
220 its
kV main
Huaisu structure
power
substations, and its main structure is grid is shown
mainly
shown in Figure
includes
in Figure 16. Green
Green
35 substations,
16. filledNanping,
like filled
Suixi, area in
area in the
the Huaibei
and point represents
point represents
substations,
grid-connected point and
point of its main structure
of photovoltaic, is shown
photovoltaic,photovoltaic in Figure
photovoltaicallowed 16. Green filled
allowedcapacity area in the
capacityisislabeled point
labeledand represents
andfilled
filledbybyyellow,
yellow,
grid-connected
grid-connected point of photovoltaic, photovoltaic allowed capacity is labeled and filled by yellow,
and it
and it can be
be seen
canand seen from
from the
thefigure
figure that
thatphotovoltaic
photovoltaic connection
connection presents
presents features of
features
it can be seen from the figure that photovoltaic connection presents features of large quantity
large
of quantity
large and
quantity
dispersity, and
and dispersity, branch
and branch
and dispersity, impedance
impedance
and branch parameters
impedance parametersin all
parameters in of
inallthe
allofof substations
thethe substations
substations are listed in
areinlisted
are listed Appendix
in Appendix
Appendix B. B. B.
Fenghuangshan Xiaoxian Guanqiao
Grid-connectedFenghuangshan
point Xiaoxian Guanqiao
Grid-connected point
of photovoltaic 60MW 20MW
of photovoltaic Zhaodikou 60MW
Longhai
20MW
Guoyang Jiaolou Huaibei 50MW
Zhaodikou Longhai
Zonglou
Guoyang Jiaolou Wuliying Huaibei 50MW
69.8MW
50MW Jianhe Zonglou
Wuliying Huaierchang
69.8MW
Caocun
Wenchanggong Linhuan50MW Jianhe
Kuanglou 160MW
100MW Huaierchang
Suixi Qianyingzi
Bianhe Caocun
Wenchanggong Linhuan
Qiyuan
Kuanglou 160MW
100MW Hushan 110MW
Mengcheng Tuohe Jicun Suwu Lingbei
Suixi Bianhe Qianyingzi
Yangliu Nanping Sunan Shuangqing 100MW
60MWQiyuan 160MW 40MW 120MW
Hushan 110MW 160MW 50MW
Sudong
Mengcheng Tuohe Jicun Suwu Lingbei
Sudongxin Jiangnan Liuyao Sizhou
Yangliu Nanping Sunan Shuangqing 100MW
60MW Figure 16. Single
Figure
160MW line
16. Single
40MW
linediagram ofHuaisu
diagram of Huaisu220220 kV power
kV power
120MW grid. grid.
160MW 50MW
Sudong
As there are a great number of nodes in this calculated example, calculation results of only some
Sudongxin Liuyao Sizhou
As there
nodesare a great
are listed number
in this of nodes
paper, and in seen
details are Figure Jiangnan
this incalculated example,
17. Each calculation
sector area, results
in Figure 17a, is of only
some nodes corresponding
are listedtoin calculation
this result
paper, of initial
and detailsACare
component
seen invalue
Figureof one
17. substation,
Each length
sector of sector
area, in Figure 17a,
Figure 16. Single line diagram of Huaisu 220 kV power grid.
radius represents short-circuit current value, and different colors represent results obtained through
is corresponding to calculation result of initial AC component value of one substation, length of
different methods. According to sector areas with different colors that are shown in the figure, it can be
sector
Asradius
there
known represents
are a great
that short-circuit
number
calculation results current
of obtained
nodes in value,
this
through and different
calculated
the method proposedcolors
example, this represent
incalculation
paper are results
results
closest obtained
oftoonly some
through different methods. According to sector areas with different colors
nodes are listed in this paper, and details are seen in Figure 17. Each sector area, in Figure 17a, is
simulation data, its sector area nearly overlaps with simulation result. But there that
is are
some shown
deviation in
in the figure,
calculated
it can be known
corresponding results
that
to calculation obtained
calculation through
result conventional
results obtained
of initial method,
through
AC component comparing with
the method
value of onesimulation
proposed results,
substation, where
inlength
this paper are
of sector
maximum absolute error of conventional method reaches 2.31 kA, while that of the proposed method
closestrepresents
radius to simulation data, its current
short-circuit sector area nearly
value, and overlaps
different with
colorssimulation result. obtained
represent results But therethrough
is some
is only 0.36 kA. Comparison of relative errors of two methods is shown in Figure 17b, and maximum
deviation in calculated
different methods.
relative error results
According
of the method obtained
to sector through
areas
proposed in with conventional
different
this paper doesn’tcolors method,
exceedthat
2%, are
while comparing
shown
that ofin with simulation
the figure, it can be
conventional
results, that
known where
method maximum
calculation absolute
reaches asresults
high 7%. error
asobtained of conventional
through
The above the further
data have method
method reaches
proposed
verified initial in2.31
AC thiskA,paper
component while
are that
values, of the
closest to
proposed method
simulation data, itsissector
only 0.36
areakA. Comparison
nearly overlapsofwith
relative errors ofresult.
simulation two methods
But thereis is
shown
somein Figure 17b,
deviation in
and maximum relative error of the method proposed in this paper doesn’t exceed 2%,
calculated results obtained through conventional method, comparing with simulation results, where while that of
conventional
maximum method
absolute reaches
error as high as 7%.
of conventional The above
method data
reaches have
2.31 kA, further
while verified initial
that of the AC component
proposed method
values, obtained through the proposed method, are more accurate and are also applicable
is only 0.36 kA. Comparison of relative errors of two methods is shown in Figure 17b, and maximum to complex
power systems.
relative error of the method proposed in this paper doesn’t exceed 2%, while that of conventional
method reaches as high as 7%. The above data have further verified initial AC component values,
Energies 2018, 11, x 19 of 25
Energies 2018, 11, x 19 of 25

obtained through the proposed method, are more accurate and are also applicable to complex power
obtained through the proposed method, are more accurate and are also applicable to complex power
systems.
Energies 2018, 11, 537 19 of 25
systems.
50kA
50kA
Qianyingzi Suixi
SudongQianyingzi Suixi Nanping
Zhaodikou
Sudong 30kA Nanping Huaibei
Maximum relative error 30kA
Zhaodikou Maximum absolute error
Huaibei
Maximum relative
of proposed error 25kA
method: Maximum absolute
of proposed error
method :
Longhaiof proposed method: 25kA of proposed method :
1.73% 20kA 0.36kA
Longhai 1.73% Hushan0.36kA
20kA Hushan
15kA
Jicun 15kA Wenchanggong
Jicun 10kA Wenchanggong
10kA
Caocun Fenghuangshan
Caocun Fenghuangshan
Sunan Zonglou
Sunan Zonglou
Maximum relative error
SizhouMaximum relative error
Sizhou of conventional method: Huaierchang
of conventional
6.73%method: Huaierchang
Guanqiao 6.73%
Guanqiao Linghuan
Linghuan
Shuangqing Guoyang
Shuangqing Guoyang
Suwu Jiaolou Simulation results
Maximum absolute error Jiangnan
Suwu Jiaolou Simulation results
Maximum absolute error: Jiangnan
Mengcheng Proposed method
of conventional method Proposed method
of conventional method : Mengcheng Conventional method
2.31kA Conventional method
2.31kA
(a)
(a)
Qianyingzi 6%
Qianyingzi 6%
Sudong Suixi Nanping
Sudong Suixi
5% Nanping
Zhaodikou 5% Huaibei
Zhaodikou Huaibei
4%
Longhai 4%
Longhai 3% Hushan
3% Hushan
Jicun 1.73% 2%
Jicun 1.73% 2% Wenchanggong
1% Wenchanggong
Caocun 1%
Fenghuangshan
Caocun Fenghuangshan

Sunan Zonglou
Sunan Zonglou
6.73%
Sizhou 6.73% Huaierchang
Sizhou Huaierchang

Guanqiao Linhuan
Guanqiao Linhuan
Shuangqing
Shuangqing Guoyang
Suwu Guoyang
Suwu Jiangnan Jiaolou Proposed method
JiangnanMengcheng
Jiaolou Proposed method
Conventional method
Mengcheng Conventional method
(b)
(b)
Figure 17.
17. Initial value of AC component of substations. (a) initial AC component value; (b)
Figure
Figure 17.Initial
Initialvalue
valueof AC
of component
AC component of substations. (a) initial
of substations. (a)AC component
initial value; (b) comparison
AC component value; (b)
comparison of
of relative errorsrelative errors
of initial ACofof initial
components. AC components.
comparison of relative errors initial AC components.

Similar to Section 3.1, impulse coefficient KM = 1.8 is taken in conventional method to evaluate
Similar to Section 3.1, impulse coefficient KM
Similar M =
= 1.8
1.8 is
is taken
taken in
in conventional
conventional method
method to evaluate
peak value, and its comparison with calculation results obtained through the method in this paper is
peak value, and its comparison with calculation results obtained through the method in this paper is
as shown in Figure 18. Difference between calculation result of conventional method and simulation
as shown in Figure 18. Difference
Difference between calculation result of conventional method and simulation
result is larger, and maximum relative error reaches as high as 22.98%, but relative error of the
result is
is larger,
larger,and
andmaximum
maximum relative
relative error
error reaches
reaches as high
as high as 22.98%,
as 22.98%, but relative
but relative error oferror of the
the method
method proposed in this paper doesn’t exceed 10%, which is within acceptable range.
method
proposed proposed in this
in this paper paper exceed
doesn’t doesn’t10%,
exceed 10%,
which is which
withinisacceptable
within acceptable
range. range.
Energies 2018, 11, 537 20 of 25
Energies 2018, 11, x 20 of 25

120kA

Maximum absolute error

of conventional method:
Qianyingzi 80kA 9.91kA
Sudong Suixi Nanping

Zhaodikou Huaibei
60kA
Longhai Hushan
40kA
Jicun
20kA Wenchanggong
Maximum absolute error
of proposed method:
Caocun Fenghuangshan 4.94kA
Maximum relative error
of proposed method:
Sunan Zonglou
Maximum relative error 7.84%
of conventional method:
22.98% Huaierchang
Sizhou

Guanqiao Linhuan

Shuangqing
Guoyang
Suwu Simulation results
Jiangnan Jiaolou Proposed method
Mengcheng Conventional method

Figure
Figure 18.
18. The
The peak
peak value
value of
of short-circuit
short-circuit current
current of substations.

It
It can
can be be known
known fromfrom the
the above
above analyses
analyses that,
that, the
the calculation
calculation method
method in in this
this paper
paper isis reasonably
reasonably
effective
effective forfor three-phase
three-phase short-circuit
short-circuit current
current calculation
calculation of of complex
complex powerpower system
system withwith high
high
penetration
penetration of VSC-based renewable energy. From simple network to complex network, structural
of VSC-based renewable energy. From simple network to complex network, structural
parameters
parameters of of Huainan
Huainan and and Huaisu
Huaisu power
power gridsgrids are
are used
used to
toverify
verifyaccuracy
accuracyof ofthe
theproposed
proposedmethod.
method.
This method is suitable for three-phase short-circuit current calculation
This method is suitable for three-phase short-circuit current calculation of complex systems, of complex systems, and
and initial
initial AC component value and peak value can
AC component value and peak value can be accurately evaluated. be accurately evaluated.
Due
Due to to the
theconnection
connectionofofphotovoltaic
photovoltaicininadjacent
adjacentsubstations,
substations, thetheinitial ACAC
initial component
component value
valueof
Suixi is close to the allowable value of 50 kA, in Figure 17a. By moving the
of Suixi is close to the allowable value of 50 kA, in Figure 17a. By moving the adjacent photovoltaic adjacent photovoltaic
substations
substations of of Wuliying
Wuliyingand andNanping
Nanping to to Jiangnan,
Jiangnan, which
which is farisfrom
far from
Suixi,Suixi, a modified
a modified schemescheme
is shown is
shown
in Figurein Figure 19 to restrain
19 to restrain the short-circuit
the short-circuit current current of Suixi.
of Suixi. The initial
The initial AC component
AC component values
values of
of the
the original scheme in Figure 16 and the modified scheme in Figure 19 are compared
original scheme in Figure 16 and the modified scheme in Figure 19 are compared in Figure 20. It can be in Figure 20. It
can be known
known the short-circuit
the short-circuit currentcurrent
of Suixiofsubstation
Suixi substation is effectively
is effectively limited,limited,
and theand the short-circuit
short-circuit current
current of Nanping is also reduced, while the short-circuit current of
of Nanping is also reduced, while the short-circuit current of Jiangnan has been increased Jiangnan has been increased
by a smallby
aamplitude.
small amplitude. The short-circuit current does not exceed the interrupting capacity
The short-circuit current does not exceed the interrupting capacity of breakers, so the of breakers, so
the proposed
proposed methodmethod of short-circuit
of short-circuit current
current calculation
calculation can becanused betoused to achieve
achieve the grid-connected
the grid-connected scheme
scheme of VSC-based renewable energy when considering short-circuit
of VSC-based renewable energy when considering short-circuit current limitation constraints. current limitation constraints.
Energies 2018, 11, 537 21 of 25
Energies 2018, 11, x 21 of 25

Energies
Energies2018,
2018,11,
11,xx Fenghuangshan Xiaoxian Guanqiao 21
21of
of25
25
Grid-connected point
of photovoltaic Fenghuangshan 60MW
Xiaoxian 20MW
Guanqiao
Fenghuangshan Xiaoxian Guanqiao
Grid-connected
Grid-connectedpoint
point Zhaodikou 60MW Longhai 20MW
ofofphotovoltaic
photovoltaic 60MW 20MW
Guoyang Jiaolou Huaibei 50MW
Zhaodikou
Zhaodikou Longhai
Longhai Zonglou
Guoyang Huaibei 50MW
JiaolouWuliying
Guoyang Jiaolou Huaibei 50MW 69.8MW
Zonglou
Zonglou
50MW Jianhe
Wuliying
Wuliying 69.8MW
69.8MW
Huaierchang
50MW
50MW Jianhe
Jianhe
Caocun
Wenchanggong Linhuan Huaierchang
Huaierchang
Linhuan Kuanglou 160MW
Caocun
100MW
Wenchanggong Linhuan
Wenchanggong Caocun
Kuanglou 160MW
160MW
100MW
100MW Suixi Kuanglou Qianyingzi
Bianhe
Suixi
Suixi Bianhe Qianyingzi
Qianyingzi
Qiyuan Bianhe
Qiyuan
Qiyuan Hushan 110MW
Mengcheng Hushan
Hushan 110MW Suwu Lingbei
Tuohe Jicun
110MW
Lingbei
Mengcheng
Mengcheng Tuohe Jicun Suwu
Suwu Lingbei
Tuohe Jicun
Yangliu Nanping Sunan Shuangqing 100MW
Yangliu
Yangliu Nanping
Nanping Sunan Shuangqing
Shuangqing 100MW
60MW 160MW Sunan
40MW 120MW 100MW
60MW 60MW 160MW 40MW
160MW 40MW 120MW
120MW 160MW 50MW
160MW 50MW
160MW 50MW
Sudong
Sudong
Sudong
Sudongxin
Sudongxin
Sudongxin Jiangnan LiuyaoSizhou
Liuyao
Liuyao Sizhou
Sizhou
Jiangnan
Jiangnan
210MW
210MW
210MW

Figure
Figure
Figure 19.
19. A19.AAmodified
modified
modified scheme
scheme ofof
scheme ofthe
thetheconnection
connectionof
connection ofphotovoltaic
of photovoltaicpower
photovoltaic powerstations
powerstationsin
inHuaisu
stations Huaisu power
power
in Huaisu grid.
grid. grid.
power
Figure 19. A modified scheme of the connection of photovoltaic power stations in Huaisu power grid.

60
60
60

50
50
(kA)
current(kA)

50
Three-phase short-circuit current (kA)
short-circuitcurrent

40
40
40
Three-phaseshort-circuit

30
30

30
Three-phase

20
20

20
10
10

10
00

(a)
(a)

40
40
(a)
35
(kA)

35
current(kA)

40 30
short-circuitcurrent

30

35 25
Three-phase short-circuit current (kA)

25
Three-phaseshort-circuit

30 20
20

15
15
25
Three-phase

10
10
20
55
15
00
10

0 Original
Originalscheme
scheme Modified
Modifiedscheme
scheme

(b)
(b)
Figure 20. Comparison
Figure
Figure 20.
20.Comparison
Comparisonofof
initial
of AC
initial
initial ACcomponent
AC component
componentvaluesvalues
valuesofofHuaisu
of Huaisu
Huaisu power
power
power grid.
grid.
grid.(a) (a) short-circuit
(a)short-circuit
short-circuit current
current
current
of substations (from Suixi to Original(b)
Mengcheng); scheme Modified
short-circuit scheme of substations (from Jiangnan to
current
of substations (from Suixi to Mengcheng); (b) short-circuit current of substations (from
of substations (from Suixi to Mengcheng); (b) short-circuit current of substations (from Jiangnan to Jiangnan
Qianyingzi).
to Qianyingzi).
Qianyingzi).
(b)

Figure 20. Comparison of initial AC component values of Huaisu power grid. (a) short-circuit current
of substations (from Suixi to Mengcheng); (b) short-circuit current of substations (from Jiangnan to
Qianyingzi).
Energies 2018, 11, 537 22 of 25

5. Conclusions
In this paper, measured short-circuit current waveforms of a VSC-based renewable energy was
firstly analyzed, and then a full current expression was acquired, based on which superposition theorem
was used to derive three-phase short-circuit AC and DC components, respectively, and then calculation
method of three-phase short-circuit current was proposed, so as to obtain peak value. A simulation
model was established in MATLAB/Simulink, through analysis of calculated examples-Anhui
500 kV and 220 kV power grids, it is verified that the proposed method could effectively calculate
initial short-circuit AC component and peak value. The study shows that short-circuit current of
a VSC-based renewable energy mainly consists of three parts: attenuated periodic AC component,
steady short-circuit current and attenuated DC component. As VSC-based renewable energy has
unique fault characteristics, its output current after fault is incorporated into fault component network,
a corresponding impedance matrix is formed specific to different equivalent circuits in fault steady
and transient states, and then a superposition theorem is used to accurately evaluate three-phase
short-circuit current, so as to provide a basis for grid planning and design, short-circuit current
management as well as protection calculation.

Acknowledgments: This work was supported by the Chongqing Research Program of Basic Research and Frontier
Technology (cstc2015jcyjBX0033) and National Natural Science Foundation of China (51577018).
Author Contributions: Qianggang Wang and Jiafang Wu contributed to paper writing and the whole revision
process. Niancheng Zhou and Jiafang Wu built the simulation model and analyzed the data. All the authors have
read and approved the final manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Appendix A. Related Parameters of PV Generator Set

Table A1. Basic parameters of PV generator set.

Type Photovoltaic Grid-Connected Inverter

Model number SG500MX-M
Rated AC output power 500 kW
Rated frequency 50 Hz
Maximum output voltage (VDC) 1000 V
MPPT voltage range (VDC) 480~850 V
Rated grid voltage (VAC) 315 V
Maximum continuous working current 1018 A
The power factor ≥0.99

Appendix B. Branch Impedance Parameters of 220 kV Network

Table A2. 220 kV branch impedance parameters.

Equivalent Impedance between 220 kV Busbars

Positive Sequence Impedance
Benchmark Capacity = 100 MVA
Busbar I Busbar J R1 (pu) X1 (pu)
Zonglou Longhai 0.009 0.0472
Zonglou Huaierchang 0.0059 0.0312
Zonglou Huaibei 0.0037 0.018
Xiaoxian Longhai 0.0071 0.0361
Xiaoxian Guanqiao 0.0014 0.0115
Xiaoxian Fenghuangshan 0.0026 0.0134
Xiaoxian Zhaodikou 0.0031 0.026
Yangliu Wenchanggong 0.0026 0.0214
Yangliu Qiyuan 0.0018 0.0145
Yangliu Mengcheng 0.0069 0.037
Wuliying Suixi 0.0008 0.0038
Wuliying Fenghuangshan 0.0015 0.0077
Energies 2018, 11, 537 23 of 25

Table A2. Cont.

Equivalent Impedance between 220 kV Busbars

Positive Sequence Impedance
Benchmark Capacity = 100 MVA
Busbar I Busbar J R1 (pu) X1 (pu)
Guoyang Wenchanggong 0.0038 0.0317
Guoyang Suixi −0.1381 1.0474
Guoyang Mengcheng 0.0105 0.0794
Guoyang Jiaolou 0.0011 0.0058
Guoyang Jiangnan −0.1284 1.8228
Wenchanggong Suixi −1.7936 7.5312
Wenchanggong Qiyuan 0.0054 0.0399
Wenchanggong Mengcheng 0.0207 0.4638
Wenchanggong Linhuan 0.0004 0.0056
Wenchanggong Jiangnan −2.3867 13.3188
Tuohe Sunan 0.0001 0.0012
Tuohe Sudongxin 0.0005 0.0038
Tuohe Jicun 0.0002 0.0013
Suixi Suwu 0.0006 0.009
Suixi Nanping 0.0028 0.0143
Suixi Mengcheng −0.0662 0.9864
Suixi Kuanglou 0.0002 0.0032
Suixi Jiaolou 0.0071 0.0359
Suixi Jiangnan −0.0036 0.2195
Suixi Huaibei 0.0045 0.023
Suixi Hushan 0.0006 0.0079
Suwu Liuyao 0.0041 0.0226
Suwu Lingbei 0.0016 0.013
Suwu Shuangqing 0.0003 0.0026
Suwu Caocun 0.0012 0.0098
Suwu Qianyingzi 0.0015 0.0179
Sunan Nanping 0.0024 0.0123
Sudong Jicun 0.0014 0.0069
Sizhou Liuyao 0.0026 0.0134
Qiyuan Mengcheng 0.0015 0.0121
Nanping Mengcheng 0.0036 0.0184
Mengcheng Jiangnan 0.0831 1.3231
Longhai Zhaodikou 0.0008 0.0038
Liuyao Jicun 0.0091 0.0461
Kuanglou Jianhe 0.0005 0.0043
Kuanglou Hushan 0.0008 0.0111
Jiangnan Huaierchang 0.0069 0.0349
Jianhe Huaibei 0.0005 0.003
Jicun Shuangqing 0.0014 0.0069
Huaierchang Bianhe 0.0018 0.0092
Huaibei Fenghuangshan 0.0015 0.0077
Guanqiao Caocun 0.0004 0.0036
Bianhe Shuangqing 0.0014 0.0073

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