Science Literacy & the Scientific Process

Brian H. Lower, Ph.D. and Steven K. Lower, Ph.D.

The Ohio State University

Max Seigal, National Geographic, 2013.

Dr. Brian H. Lower1 & Dr. Steven K. Lower1,2

1School of Environment & Natural Resources

2School of Earth Sciences

 Anne Houtman, Susan Karr and Jeneen Interlandi.

Scientific America Environmental Science for a Changing World.

W. H. Freeman and Company, New York, NY (2013 or 2014).

 Homework: 


PBS FRONTLINE Heat


Watch: Chapter 4 America’s Addiction to Coal

(29:45-48:00)

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/heat/view/#4

Some coal facts:

Average USA household uses 9.5 tons of coal per year

(9.5 tons = 19,000 pounds)

Greater than 50% of all electricity in USA comes from coal

Over 2-billion tons of CO2 (the major greenhouse gas)

released by USA coal-burning power plants each year
CHAPTER 2 SCIENCE LITERACY AND THE PROCESS OF SCIENCE

SCIENCE
AND THE SKY
Solving  the  mystery  of  disappearing  ozone  
Dr.  B.H.  Lower  (Ohio  State  University)  
The Scientific Method

1.  Recognize a question or unexplained

occurrence

2.  Develop a hypothesis to explain the

occurrence

A.  Hypothesis - a proposed explanation for

an observed phenomena Brennan Huff (Step Brothers, 2008)

3.  Design and perform experiments to test Dr. Huff - Last week we put liquid
paper on a bee, and it died. This
hypothesis statement is NOT a hypothesis.

4.  Analyze and interpret data to reach An example hypothesis: Putting
liquid paper on a bee obstructs the
conclusion
insect’s spiracles thereby
preventing oxygen from entering
5.  Share knowledge with scientific community the insect’s body causing the
and public organism to die.
 Further Publish paper
Observations research by in scientific
scientists journal
Questions
Reject
hypothesis Paper Paper
Hypothesis rejected accepted

Prediction
Fail to
reject Peer review
Test hypothesis of Paper

Results
Scientific
paper
Monday, April 2, 12
2 SCIENCE AND THE SKY

Solving the mystery of disappearing ozone

At  the  end  of  this  unit  you  will  know:  

•   Science  is  a  process  and  always  tentaMve  
•   Science  is  limited  to  observaMon  and  
experimentaMon  
•   Two  types  of  scienMfic  studies  and  their  roles  in  
our  understanding  of  natural  phenomena  
•   How  hypotheses  are  generated  and  tested  
•   The  history  of  ozone  as  an  environmental  crisis
 

Learning

Outcomes

Earth’s Atmosphere

Thin layer of gases

that envelops Earth

Layers of Earth’s
Atmosphere
Gases in extremely thin air absorb X-
rays and short-wave radiation raise
temperature to 1000oC or higher

Temperatures as low as -140oC

Meteors burn up from friction with air molecules

Ozone layer is thickest at 20-30 km

99% of atmosphere (by weight)

is below 30 km

Ozone (O3) Formation is Good for Life

Ozone formation is a natural process that

occurs Earth’s stratosphere. High energy
ultraviolet (uv) radiation from the sun breaks
apart molecular oxygen (O2) into two
oxygen atoms. One of the oxygen atoms (O)
then combines with an oxygen molecule
(O2) producing a new molecule with three
atoms of oxygen, which we call ozone (O3).
https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a000000/
a000800/a000823/index.html

Sun

O O O
uv + molecular O
light O oxygen (O2) O O
oxygen
O atom (O) ozone (O3)
O
Earth’s stratosphere
The Ozone (O3) Layer Shields Earth’s Surface from ultraviolet radiation

The Sun (like all stars) emits different types radiation and one type of radiation,
called ultraviolet (uv) radiation, is particularly dangerous to living organisms. UV
radiation can damage DNA and cause cancer. UV radiation travels from the Sun,
through space to our planet. Earth’s ozone (O3) layer is found in the stratosphere,
approximately 30 km (20 miles) up from Earth’s surface. Ozone (O3) absorbs
nearly all of the Sun’s uv radiation and protects all organisms from its damages.

https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a000000/
a000800/a000834/index.html
Sun

O O
O O O O O
O

O O
O
O O O
uv O
light O O
O O

O
ozone (O3)
O

Earth’s
O

layer

O
O
O

stratosphere
2 SCIENCE AND THE SKY

Solving the mystery of disappearing ozone

DepleMon  of  stratospheric  ozone  caused  by  syntheMc  

chemicals  allows  dangerous  solar  radiaMon  to  reach   Main
the  Earth’s  surface.    The  scienMfic  process  allows  us  
to  understand  this  relaMonship  more  fully.   concept

Susan  Solomon  is  a  world-­‐class  

scienMst  who,  along  with  her  
colleagues,  helped  seOle  a  long-­‐
standing  debate  about  the  
causes  for  the  disappearing  
ozone  above  the  South  Pole.  
2 Science gives us tools to observe the natural world

TERMS  TO  KNOW:   Solomon  and  her  team  flew  to  the  
ObservaMons   AntarcMc  to  collect  data  about  the  
Inferences   thinning  of  the  ozone  in  response  to  a  
Atmosphere   publicaMon  by  Joe  Farman  of  the  BriMsh  
Troposphere   AntarcMc  Survey.  
Stratosphere  
Ozone  
 2 Science gives us tools to observe the natural world

1957–  
     Beginning  of  data  collecMon  with  on-­‐the-­‐ground  instruments  
 designed  to  extend  the  researchers’  senses  and  measure  
 atmospheric  composiMon  
 First  indicaMons  of  lower  than  normal  ozone  levels  used  to  make  
 inferences  about  possible  causes  
 2 Science gives us tools to observe the natural world

1970s  –  Discovered  that  the  ozone  layer  had  thinned  about  33%  during  
 the  AntarcMc  spring  
 

 ObservaMons  from  two  sites  over  more  than  a  dozen  seasons    

 

 Also  connected  studies  to  data  showing  increases  in  CFCs

 (chlorofluorocarbons),  which  produce  atmospheric  chlorine  (Cl)  
 2 Science gives us tools to observe the natural world

Inference  that  ozone  depleMon  in  

the  AntarcMc  was  connected  to  
the  increased  presence  of  
chlorine  compounds  produced by  
CFCs
 2 Science gives us tools to observe the natural world

Ozone  – Key  element  in  the  

atmosphere;  component  of  smog  
at ground  level—“bad”  ozone  
 
Troposphere  –  Ground  to  about  7  
miles  up  
 
Stratosphere  –  Beyond      
troposphere  up  to  about  31  miles      
 

Less  dense  than  troposphere  and  

contains  layer  of  ozone  (O3)
 
Solar  radiaMon  –  Enters  the  
atmosphere  in  three  forms  of  
ultraviolet  (UV)  radiaMon:  UV-­‐A,  
UV-­‐B,  UV-­‐C  
Ozone  in  the  stratosphere  absorbs  
much  of  the  UV-­‐B.  
 2 Science gives us tools to observe the natural world

Ozone  – Key  element  in  the  

atmosphere  
 
Troposphere  – Ground  to  about  7  
miles  up  
 
Stratosphere  –  Beyond      
troposphere  up  to  about  31  miles      
 

Less  dense  than  troposphere  and  

contains  layer  of  ozone  (O3)
 
Solar  radiaMon  –  Enters  the  
atmosphere  in  three  forms  of  
ultraviolet  (UV)  radiaMon:  UV-­‐A,  
UV-­‐B,  UV-­‐C  
Ozone  in  the  stratosphere  absorbs  
much  of  the  UV-­‐B.  
 2 Science gives us tools to observe the natural world

Ozone  – Key  element  in  the  

atmosphere  
 
Troposphere  – Ground  to  about  7  
miles  up  
 
Stratosphere  – Beyond      
troposphere  up  to  about  31  miles      
 

Less  dense  than  troposphere  and  

contains  layer  of  ozone  (O3)
 

Ozone  in  stratosphere  helps  

maintain  our  “perfect”  
temperature  on  the  planet.  
 
 2 Science gives us tools to observe the natural world

Ozone  – Key  element  in  the  

atmosphere  
 
Troposphere  – Ground  to  about  7  
miles  up  
 
Stratosphere  – Beyond      
troposphere  up  to  about  31  miles      
 

Less  dense  than  troposphere  and  

contains  layer  of  ozone  (O3)
 
Solar radia?on  – Enters  the  
atmosphere  in  three  forms  of  
ultraviolet  (UV)  radiaMon:  UV-­‐A,  UV-­‐
B, UV-­‐C  
Ozone  in  the  stratosphere  absorbs  
much  of  the  UV-­‐B.  
2 Science gives us tools to observe the natural world

Dangers associated  
with UV-­‐B:  
 

Damage  to  cells  and  

biological  molecules  like  
DNA  
 

Increased  risk  of  cataracts

 
 

Increased  risk  of  skin  

damage  
 
Increased  risk  of  cancer  
 The  protec?ve  ozone  (O3) layer  in  the  stratosphere
 
Exposure to ultraviolet (uv) solar radiation = skin cancer
(example of Australian man who worked outdoors and had to
have an artificial nose after doctors removed his nose due to
skin cancer).
2 Scientific opinions do not change overnight

TERMS  TO  KNOW:   CFCs  were  first  developed  in  the  1930s  as  a  
Ultraviolet  radiaMon  (UV)   commercial  coolant  in  refrigerators  and  air  
condiMoners.    By  the  1970s,  they  were  in  
Science   everything  from  hairspray  to  fast-­‐food  
Empirical  evidence   containers.  
CorrelaMon    

Over  Mme,  CFC  molecules  entered  the  air  and  

Cause-­‐and-­‐effect   were  detected  by  a  BriMsh  scienMst,  James  
relaMonship   Lovelock,  in  the  atmosphere  over  England.  
They  were  considered  safe  at  the  Mme  
and  there  was  no  cause  for  alarm.  

Alterna9ve  proposal  –  CFC  molecules  

would  remain  alo,  for a long  9me
and  be  broken  apart  by  UV  light  in  the  
stratosphere.  The  released  chlorine  
atoms  would  destroy  ozone.  
 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

Older CFCs Newer CFCs

have chlorine, do NOT have
which destroys chlorine, but
ozone. have fluorine
Bromine also instead, which
destroys turns out they
ozone. These destroy ozone
molecules are also. These
no longer molecules are
produced or also potent
used in many greenhouse
countries. gases.
 Causes  of  Ozone  (O3) deple?on  in Stratosphere
 
•   Primary  chemical   •   CFCs  are  very  stable  and  
responsible  for  O3 loss is only  exposure  to  strong  
a group  of  compounds   UV  radiaMon  can  break  
called   them  down.  
chlorofluorocarbons   •   When  this  happens  the  
(CFCs)   CFC  molecules  release  
1.   Used  as  propellants  for   atomic  chlorine  (Cl)  
aerosol  cans  
•   One  chlorine  atom  can  
2.   Used  as  coolant  for  air  
condiMoners  and  
destroy  100,000  ozone  
refrigerators   molecules  
3.   Foam-­‐blowing  agents  for   •   The  net  effect  is  to  
insulaMon  and  packaging   destroy  O3  faster  than  it  is  
(Styrofoam)   naturally  produced  
 Ozone  Hole  Peaks  Over  AntarcMca
 
NaMonal  Geographic  Video
 
http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/news/antarctica-ozone-
vin?source=searchvideo
 The  Ozone  Hole
 
•   A  slight  ozone  thinning  occurs  
naturally  over  AntarcMca  for  a  
few  months  each  year.  
•  In  1985,  this  thinning  was  
observed  to  be  greater  than  
expected  if  natural  causes  
were  the  only  factor  inducing  
it.  
•  This  increasing  thinning  that  
occurs  each  September-­‐
December  is  called  the  ozone  
hole.    Ozone  levels  have   The hole occurs over Antarctica because
dropped  as  low  as  33%  of   strong westerly winds circulate around
the continent and create a polar vortex.
their  pre-­‐1975  values.  
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Destroy Earth’s Ozone (O3) Layer

Manmade compounds called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were widely used in

refrigerators and air conditioners from about 1930-1990 to keep things cold.
These molecules are very lightweight and wind carries them 30 km (20 miles) up
into Earth’s stratosphere. It takes about 5 years for CFC to reach the stratosphere
where Earth’s protective ozone layer is also located. This is a serious problem
because CFCs are very reactive and destroy ozone (O3) on contact thereby
creating a hole in the ozone layer. This hole allows high energy ultraviolet light to
reach Earth’s surface where it can damage DNA and cause cancer.
https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a000000/a000800/a000826/index.html

uv
light Cl + O O molecular oxygen
(O2)
Sun chlorine O
(Cl) ozone O O
F Cl (O3)
C Cl O chlorine
CFC
Cl F Earth’s monoxide (ClO)
stratosphere
The Hole is the Ozone (O3) is Bad for Life

CFCs destroy ozone thereby creating a thinning

of the ozone layer or as we call it, a hole in
Earth’s ozone layer. This hole allows uv radiation
to reach the surface of our planet where most life
is located. UV radiation is dangerous for life
because it damages DNA and causes cancer.
This satellite image from NASA shows
https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/ the maximum stratospheric ozone hole
cgi-bin/search.cgi? (blue) over Antarctica for 1991.
series=142
Sun

ozone (O3)
O layer
O O O
F
C
O O
uv
ozone C l
light
hole Cl
F CFC
Earth’s
O
O

stratosphere O
1. The formation of ozone is a slow chemical process
compared to the process by which CFCs break apart (i.e.,
destroy) ozone molecules.
2. The hole in Earth’s ozone layer occurs because CFCs
break apart ozone molecules faster than new ozone
molecules can be created.
3. The destruction of ozone by CFCs is an anthropogenic
process (i.e., caused by human activity), while the creation
of ozone is a natural process.
4. Ozone is important for life on Earth because ozone acts
like a shield to block ultraviolet (uv) radiation from
organisms that live on Earth.
5. Ultraviolet radiation (uv radiation) is harmful to all
organisms on Earth because it damages DNA and causes
cancer.
Cl catalyzed ozone  (O3) destruc?on over Antarctica
 
 
In  the  winter  sun  does  NOT  reach  AntarcMca,  which  becomes  very  cold.    Strong  
winds  develop  in  the  middle  to  lower  stratosphere  that  circulate  around  the  
conMnent  creaMng  a  polar  vortex  which  isolates  the  air  within  it.    
 
Polar  stratospheric  clouds  form  in  the  extreme  cold  (-­‐80o  C).    These  clouds  are  
composed  of  water,  nitric  acid,  and  ice  and  these  provide  surfaces  for  O3  
destrucMon  by  atomic  Cl.      
 
Susan Solomon’s hypothesis  -­‐  In  the  spring  the  sun  returns  and  ozone  is  
destroyed  via:  
CFCl3  + sunlight  →  CFCl2  + Cl  
Cl  +  O3  →  ClO  +  O2
ClO  +  O3  →  Cl  +  2  O2
 
The  ozone  hole  grows  through  the  spring  unMl    
air  warms  and  polar  vortex  weakens.  
 
 NASA Ozone Watch

Ozone maps from 1979 to present for Northern and Southern Hemispheres

https://ozonewatch.gsfc.nasa.gov/monthly/SH.html
2 The scientific method systematically rules out explanations

TERMS  TO  KNOW:   Was  there  evidence  for  the  possibility  that  
ScienMfic  method   CFCs  were  destroying  ozone?  
Hypothesis   A  NASA  report  in  1985  confirmed  that  ozone  
Testable   was  being  destroyed  even  faster  than  earlier  
PredicMon   projecMons.  
 

Falsifiable   A  correlaMon  was  established  between  the  

presence  of  CFCs  and  ozone  depleMon.  
2 The scientific method systematically rules out explanations

TERMS  TO  KNOW:   Hypotheses  provide  tentaMve  answers  to  the  

ScienMfic  method   quesMons  generated  by  our  observaMons.  
Hypothesis  
Testable  
PredicMon  
Falsifiable  
ObservaMons  and  
quesMons  about  
causes  for  the  
thinning  ozone.    
Testable  
hypotheses  were  
developed  based  
on  several  
possibiliMes.  
2 Different types of studies amass a body of evidence

TERMS  TO  KNOW:  

ObservaMonal  study  
Experimental  study  
Control  group  
Test  group  
Independent  variable  
Dependent  variable  
Peer-­‐reviewed  
Theory  

Hypothesis  –  Cloud  parMcles  in  the  polar  stratospheric  clouds  were  providing  
surfaces  for  the  reacMons  that  would  free  chlorine  molecules  from  CFCs.    In  
sunlight,  the  chlorine  molecules  would  then  break  up  into  isolated  chlorine  atoms  
that  destroyed  ozone.      
Is  this  hypothesis  testable  and  falsifiable?  
2 Different types of studies amass a body of evidence

Hypothesis  – Cloud  parMcles  in  the  polar  

stratospheric  clouds  were  providing  surfaces  for  
the  reacMons  that  would  free  chlorine  molecules  
from  CFCs.    In  sunlight,  the  chlorine  molecules  
would  then  break  up  into  isolated  chlorine  atoms  
that  destroyed  ozone.      

Normal  ozone  
breakdown  and  
formaMon   Studying  effects  of  UV-­‐B  on  plants  
2 Different types of studies amass a body of evidence

Hypothesis  – Cloud  parMcles  in  the  polar  

stratospheric  clouds  were  providing  surfaces  for  
the  reacMons  that  would  free  chlorine  molecules  
from  CFCs.    In  sunlight,  the  chlorine  molecules  
would  then  break  up  into  isolated  chlorine  atoms  
that  destroyed  ozone.      

CFC-­‐driven  ozone  
breakdown   Studying  effects  of  UV-­‐B  on  plants
 
2 Different types of studies amass a body of evidence

Hypothesis  – Cloud  parMcles  in  the  polar  

stratospheric  clouds  were  providing  surfaces  for  
the  reacMons  that  would  free  chlorine  molecules  
from  CFCs.    In  sunlight,  the  chlorine  molecules  
would  then  break  up  into  isolated  chlorine  atoms  
that  destroyed  ozone.      

ObservaMonal  studies  were  conducted  to  

determine  if  the  predicMon  that  lower  
ozone  layers  would  increase  the  incidence  
of  skin  cancers  was  supported.  
 

Skin  cancer  rates  prior  to  and  a>er  ozone  

depleMon  were  compared  and  showed  
staMsMcal  significance.  

CFC-­‐driven  ozone  
breakdown  
2 Different types of studies amass a body of evidence

Evidence  amassed  that  CFCs  were  

contribuMng  to  ozone  depleMon.  
AlternaMve  hypotheses  were  
tested  but  not  supported.  
 

As  the  body  of  supported  

hypotheses  consistent  with  that  of  
Solomon  grew,  the  CFC  theory  
became  the  accepted  explanaMon  
for  what  was  happening.  
 
The  “precau9onary  principle”  of  
be:er  safe  than  sorry,  rather  than  
innocent  un9l  proven  guilty,  
prompted  Michigan  Representa9ve  
Perry  Bullard  to  introduce  legisla9on  
that  would  outlaw  aerosol  cans—a  
significant  source  of  CFCs  
2 The international
community got together to meet the
problem head on

TERMS  TO  KNOW:   Actual  and  projected  change  over  Mme  for  global
 
emissions  of  ozone-­‐depleMng  substances
 
StaMsMcs  
Montreal  Protocol  
Policy  
PrecauMonary  principle  
AdapMve  management  
1985  – Experts  meet  in  Vienna  to  
discuss  ways  to  research  and  solve  the  
problem.  
1987  – The  internaMonal  community  
comes  together  in  Montreal  to  produce  
a plan  for  dealing  with  ozone  depleMon
—phase  out  dangerous  chemicals  like  
CFCs.
2009  – The  Montreal  Protocol  is  raMfied  
by  all  196  countries  in  the  world.  
 Helping  the  Ozone  Layer  Recover
 
In  1978  the  USA  (the  largest  user  of   •   In  1987  Montreal  Protocol  was  
CFCs)  banned  the  use  of  CFC   signed  by  many  countries  and  it  
propellants  in  anMperspirants  and  hair   sMpulated  a  50%  reducMon  in  CFC  
sprays.    This  was  a  good  start,  but   producMon  by 1998.  
propellants  represented  only  a  small   •   Industries  have  manufactured  new  
porMon  of  the  CFC  use.   CFCs  that  do  NOT  aOack  the  ozone  
layer,  but  ARE  potent  greenhouse  
gases  others  aOack  ozone,  but  not  
as  much  as  older  CFCs  
•   CFCs  are  extremely  stable  in  
atmosphere  with  lifeMmes  of  
decades  
•   Full  recovery  of  ozone  layer  is  
es?mated  to  take  place  some?me  
a2er 2050.
2 The international community got together to meet the
problem head on
AntarcMca  
1979  – First  year  of  
available  images  
showing  area  of  
thinning  
2006  – Lowest  ozone  
level  ever  reached  

1979 1993 200

CorrelaMon  
between  levels  
of  CFC12  and  
ozone  over  
AntarcMca  and  
the  beginning  of  
recovery  
2 PERSONAL CHOICES THAT HELP