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➤ Conservation of Momentum
➤ “losses” due to shear at the boundaries
➤ useful when energy losses are unknown
Expansion
➤ ____________
Open Channel Flow: Discharge/
Depth Relationship
➤ Given a long channel of
constant slope and cross
section find the relationship A
between discharge and depth
P
➤ Assume
no acceleration
➤ Steady Uniform Flow - ___ _____________
geometry with distance)
➤ prismatic channel (no change in _________
➤ Use Energy and Momentum, Empirical or
Dimensional Analysis?
➤ What controls depth given a discharge?
➤ Why doesn’t the flow accelerate? Force balance
Steady-Uniform Flow: Force
Balance
V2
τo P ∆ x
Shear force =________ 2g Energy grade line
P Hydraulic grade line
Wetted perimeter = __ b
Gravitational force = γA ∆x sinθ
________ ∆x c
Turbulence
Relationship between shear and velocity? ______________
Open Conduits:
Dimensional Analysis
➤ Geometric parameters A
Hydraulic radius (Rh)
➤ ___________________ Rh =
P
Channel length (l)
➤ ___________________
➤ ___________________
Roughness (ε)
➤ Write the functional relationship
l ε
C p = f , , Re, Fr , M, W
Rh Rh
V
➤ Does No! Fr =
Fr affect shear? _________ yg
Pressure Coefficient for Open
Channel Flow?
− 2 ∆p Pressure Coefficient
Cp = − ∆p = γhl
ρV 2 (Energy Loss Coefficient)
2 ghl hl = S f l
Ch = Head loss coefficient
V2
l
Friction slope
2 gS f l Friction slope coefficient Slope of EGL
CS f =
V2
Dimensional Analysis
l ε 2 gS f l
CS f = f , , Re CS f =
Rh Rh V2
l ε
CS f = f , Re Head loss ∝ length of channel
Rh Rh
Rh ε Rh
CS f = f , Re = λ (like f in Darcy-Weisbach) S f
C =λ
l Rh l
2 gS f l Rh 2 gS f Rh 2g
=λ V= V= S f Rh
V 2
l λ λ
Chezy equation (1768)
➤ Introducedby the French engineer Antoine
Chezy in 1768 while designing a canal for
the water-supply system of Paris
2g
V = C Rh S f compare V= S f Rh
λ
where C = Chezy coefficient
m m
60 < C < 150
s s
where 60 is for rough and 150 is for smooth
also a function of R (like f in Darcy-Weisbach)
Darcy-Weisbach equation (1840)
πd 2
f = Darcy-Weisbach friction factor
A 4 d
l V2 l V2 Rh = = =
hl = f hl = f P πd 4
d 2g 4 Rh 2 g
l V2 V2 8g
Sfl = f S f Rh = f V= S f Rh
4 Rh 2 g 8g f
A = yb + y 2 z
1 y
z
[
P = 2 y 2 + ( yz ) ]
2 1/ 2
+b b
[
P = 2 y 1+ z ]
2 1/ 2
+b
Use Solver!
Flow in Round Conduits
= ( r sin θ ) ( r cos θ )
r − y
θ = arccos
r
radians
A = r 2 (θ − sin θ cosθ )
r
T = 2r sin θ
θ
P = 2 rθ A y
Maximum discharge
when y = ______
0.938d T
Open Channel Flow: Energy
Relations
V12 hL = S f ∆x
velocity head α1
2g V22
energy
α2 grade line
2g
hydraulic
y1 grade line
y2 water surface
S o ∆x
∆x
2 2 Turbulent flow (α ≅ 1)
V V
y1 + So ∆x + 1
= y2 + 2
+ S f ∆x y - depth of flow
2g 2g
Energy Equation for Open Channel Flow
V12 V22
y1 + + So ∆x = y2 + + S f ∆x
2g 2g
Specific Energy
➤ Thesum of the depth of flow and the
velocity head is the specific energy:
V2 y - potential energy
E = y +
2g V2
- kinetic energy
2g
E1 + S o ∆x = E2 + S f ∆x
B
3 roots (one is negative)
Specific Energy: Sluice Gate
10
9
sluice gate q = 5.5 m2/s
y1 8 EGL y2 = 0.45 m
7 q2
6
E = y + V2 = 12.2 m/s
2gy 2 1
5
E2 = 8 m
y
4
3
2
2
y2 1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
E1 = E2
E
Given downstream depth and discharge, find upstream depth.
alternate depths (same specific energy)
y1 and y2 are ___________
Why not use momentum conservation to find y1?
Specific Energy: Raise the Sluice
Gate
4
sluice gate
3
y1 EGL
2
y
1 2
y2 1
E1 = E2
0
0 1 2 3 4 q2
E E = y +
2gy 2
as sluice gate is raised y1 approaches y2 and E is
minimized: Maximum discharge for given energy.
Specific Energy: Step Up
Short, smooth step with rise ∆y in channel
Given upstream depth and 4
discharge find y2
4 3
3 2
y
2 1
y
1 0
0 1 ∆y 2 3 4
0 E
0 1 2 3 4
E E1 = E2 + ∆y Increase step height?
4
yc
y
Critical Flow 1
0
0 1 2 3 4
E
Q 2Tc 2
QT V 2T A
1 = = Fr 2
= Fr 2
=D Hydraulic Depth
gAc3 gA 3
gA T
Critical Flow:
Rectangular channel
Q 2Tc T
1 = T = Tc
gAc3
Q = qT Ac = ycT Ac yc
q 2T 3 q2
1= =
3 3
gy T
c gyc3
1/ 3
q 2
yc = Only for rectangular channels!
g
Vc2 yc Vc2
yc = = velocity head = 0.5 (depth)
g 2 2g
V2 yc 2
E = y + E = yc + yc = E
2g 2 3
4
y
Critical Flow 1
0
0 1 2 3 4
E
➤ Characteristics
➤ Unstable surface
➤ Series of standing waves Difficult to measure depth
➤ Occurrence
➤ Broad crested weir (and other weirs)
➤ Channel Controls (rapid changes in cross-section)
➤ Over falls
➤ Changes in channel slope from mild to steep
Energy equation
How do you find H?______________________
Solution
Hydraulic Jump
➤ Used for energy dissipation
➤ Occurs when flow transitions from
supercritical to subcritical
➤ base of spillway
➤ We would like to know depth of water
downstream from jump as well as the
location of the jump
➤ Which equation, Energy or Momentum?
Hydraulic Jump!
Hydraulic Jump
M1 +M 2 = W +Fp1 +Fp2 +Fss Conservation of Momentum
hL
EGL
M 1 x + M 2 x = F p + Fp 1x 2x
M 1 x = −ρV12 A1 y2
y1
M 2 x = ρV A2 2
2
L
− ρQV1 + ρQV2 = p1 A1 − p2 A2
2 2 ρgy Q
Q Q gy1 A1 gy2 A2 p= V =
− + = − 2
A1 A2 2 2 A
Hydraulic Jump:
Conjugate Depths
For a rectangular channel make the following substitutions
A = By Q = By1V1
V1
Fr1 = Froude number
gy1
Much algebra y2 =
y1
(− 1 + 1 + 8 Fr12 )
2
valid for slopes < 0.02
Hydraulic Jump:
Energy Loss and Length
•Energy Loss E1 = E2 + hL
q2 ( y2 − y1 ) 3
E = y + algebra hL =
2gy 2 4 y1 y2
significant energy loss (to turbulence) in jump
•Length of jump
No general theoretical solution
Experiments show
L = 6 y2 for 4 < Fr1 < 20
Gradually Varied Flow
V12 V22 Energy equation for non-
y1 + + So ∆x = y2 + + S f ∆x
2g 2g uniform, steady flow
V22 V12 dy = y2 − y1
So dx = ( y2 − y1 ) + − + S f dx
2g 2g T
V 2 dy
dy + d + S f dx = So dx
2g y A
P
dy d V
2
dx dx
+ +Sf = So
dy dy 2 g dy dy
Gradually Varied Flow
d V 2 d Q 2 − 2Q 2 dA − Q 2T
= = ⋅ = = − Fr 2
dy 2 g dy 2 gA2 2 gA3 dy
gA3
Change in KE
dy d V 2 dx dx
+ +Sf = So Change in PE
dy dy 2 g dy dy
We are holding Q constant!
dx dx
1 − Fr + S f
2
= So
dy dy
dy dy So − S f
[1 − Fr ]
2
= So − S f =
dx dx 1 − Fr 2
Gradually Varied Flow
dy So − S f
= Governing equation for
dx 1 − Fr 2 gradually varied flow
➤ Gives change of water depth with distance along channel
➤ Note
➤ So and Sf are positive when sloping down in
direction of flow
➤ y is measured from channel bottom
➤ dy/dx =0 means water depth is constant
yn is when So = S f
Surface Profiles
➤ Mild slope (yn>yc)
➤ in a long channel subcritical flow will occur
➤ Steep slope (yn<yc)
➤ in a long channel supercritical flow will occur
➤ Critical slope (yn=yc)
➤ in a long channel unstable flow will occur
➤ Horizontal slope (So=0)
➤ yn undefined
➤ Adverse slope (So<0)
➤ yn undefined Note: These slopes are f(Q)!
Surface Profiles
Normal depth Obstruction
Sluice gate Steep slope (S2)
Steep slope Hydraulic Jump
dy So − S f
= S0 - S f 1 - Fr2 dy/dx
dx 1 − Fr 2
4
+ + +
yn 3
- + - yc
2
y
1
- - + 0
0 1 2 3 4
E
More Surface Profiles
dy So − S f
S0 - S f 1 - Fr2 dy/dx =
4
dx 1 − Fr 2
1 + + + 3
yc
2
y
2 + - -
yn 1
3 - - + 0
0 1 2 3 4
E
Direct Step Method
V12 V22
y1 + + S o ∆x = y2 + + S f ∆x energy equation
2g 2g
V12 V22
y1 − y2 + −
2g 2g
∆x = solve for ∆x
S f − So
rectangular channel prismatic channel
q q Q Q
V1 = V2 = V2 = V1 =
y1 y2 A2 A1
Direct Step Method
Friction Slope
Manning Darcy-Weisbach
n 2V 2 fV 2
S f = 4/3 SI units Sf =
Rh 8 gRh
n 2V 2
Sf = English units
2.22 Rh4 / 3
Direct Step
➤ Limitation: channel must be _________
prismatic (so that
velocity is a function of depth only and not a
function of x)
➤ Method
➤ identify type of profile (determines whether ∆y is + or -)
➤ choose ∆y and thus yn+1
➤ calculate hydraulic radius and velocity at yn and yn+1
➤ calculate friction slope yn and yn+1
➤ calculate average friction slope
➤ calculate ∆x
Direct Step Method
=y*b+y^2*z
V12 V22
=2*y*(1+z^2)^0.5 +b y1 − y2 + −
2g 2g
=A/P ∆x =
S f − So
=Q/A
=(n*V)^2/Rh^(4/3)
=y+(V^2)/(2*g)
=(G16-G15)/((F15+F16)/2-So)
A B C D E F G H I J K L M
y A P Rh V Sf E Dx x T Fr bottom surface
0.900 1.799 4.223 0.426 0.139 0.00004 0.901 0 3.799 0.065 0.000 0.900
0.870 1.687 4.089 0.412 0.148 0.00005 0.871 0.498 0.5 3.679 0.070 0.030 0.900
Standard Step
➤ Given a depth at one location, determine the depth at a
second location
➤ Step size (∆x) must be small enough so that changes in
water depth aren’t very large. Otherwise estimates of the
friction slope and the velocity head are inaccurate
➤ Can solve in upstream or downstream direction
➤ upstream for subcritical
➤ downstream for supercritical
➤ Find a depth that satisfies the energy equation
V12 V22
y1 + + S o ∆x = y2 + + S f ∆x
2g 2g
What curves are available?
1.4
1.2
1.0
S1
elevation (m)
0.8
bottom
S3 0.6
0.4
surface
yc 0.2
yn
0.0
20 15 10 5 0
distance upstream (m)
y y+δy y
V V+δV V-Vw V+δV-Vw y+δy
1 1
F1 = ρgy 2
F2 = ρg ( y + δy ) 2
2 2 F1 F2
Fr = F1 − F2 =
1
[
ρg y − ( y + δy )
2 2
] V-Vw V+δV-Vw
2
Wave Celerity:
Momentum Conservation
Fr = M 2 − M 1 M 1 = − ρ (V − Vw ) y
2
Per unit width
Fr = ρy ( V − Vw ) [ ( V + δV − Vw ) − ( V − Vw ) ]
Fr = ρy ( V − Vw ) δV
y V-Vw V+δV-Vw y+δy
1
[ ]
ρg y 2 − ( y + δy ) 2 = ρy ( V − Vw ) δV
2
1 steady flow
g [ − 2 yδy ] = y ( V − Vw ) δV
2
− gδy = ( V − Vw ) δV
Wave Celerity
y ( V − Vw ) = ( y + δy )( V + δV − Vw ) Mass conservation
yV − yVw = yV + δyV + yδV + δyδV − yVw − δyVw
δy
δV = −( V − Vw )
y
y
− gδy = ( V − Vw ) δV Momentum V-Vw V+δV-Vw y+δy
δy
gδy = ( V − Vw )
2
y steady flow
V V
gy = ( V − Vw )
2
c = V − Vw c = gy = Fr =
yg c
Wave Propagation
➤ Supercritical flow
➤ c<V
➤ waves only propagate downstream
➤ water doesn’t “know” what is happening downstream
upstream control
➤ _________
➤ Critical flow
➤ c=V
➤ Subcritical flow
➤ c>V
➤ waves propagate both upstream and downstream
Most Efficient Hydraulic
Sections
➤ A section that gives maximum discharge for a
specified flow area
➤ Minimum perimeter per area
➤ No frictional losses on the free surface
➤ Analogy to pipe flow
➤ Best shapes
➤ best
➤ best with 2 sides
➤ best with 3 sides
Why isn’t the most efficient
hydraulic section the best design?
Cost of liner
➤ Velocity-Area-Integration
Discharge Measurements
2
➤ Sharp-Crested Q = Cd b 2 gH 3/ 2
Weir 3
8 θ 5/ 2
➤ Triangular Weir Q= Cd 2 g tan H
15 2
3/ 2
➤ Broad-Crested 2
Weir Q = Cd b g H
3
2
➤ Fr>1 decrease in E gives increase in y
y
1
10 cm
S = 0.005
Summary/Overview
➤ Energy losses V=
8g
S f Rh
f
➤Dimensional Analysis 1 2/3 1/2
V = R h So
➤Empirical n
V12 V22
Energy Equation y1 +
2g
+ So ∆x = y2 +
2g
+ S f ∆x
V2 q2 Q2
➤ Specific
Energy E = y + = y+ 2 = y+ 2
2g 2 gy 2 gA
➤ Two depths with same energy!
➤How do we know which depth4
is the right one?
3
➤Is the path to the new depth
2
y
possible?
1
0
0 1 2 3 4
E
Specific Energy: Step Up
Short, smooth step with rise ∆y in channel
Given upstream depth and 4
discharge find y2
4 3
3 2
y
2 1
y
1 0
0 1 ∆y 2 3 4
0 E
0 1 2 3 4
E E1 = E2 + ∆y Increase step height?
Critical Depth
V q T
Fr = c = =Q 3
3
yc g 3
gyc gA
2
y
➤Fr>1 = Supercritical 1
➤Fr<1 = Subcritical 0
0 1 2 3 4
E
What next?
➤ Standard step