STG FUNDAMENTALS

1.0  STEAM TURBINE FUNDAMENTALS ......................................................................................2 

1.1  Learning Outcomes .......................................................................................................2 
1.2  Turbine Principles .........................................................................................................2 
1.2.1  Nozzles and Their Principles .............................................................................2 
1.2.2  Basic Turbine Types and Principles ..................................................................3 
1.2.3  Classification of Turbines ..................................................................................9 
1.3  STG Operational Considerations ................................................................................11 
1.3.1  Fast Starts .......................................................................................................12 
2.0  PERFORMANCE MONITORING ...........................................................................................13 
2.1  Learning Outcomes .....................................................................................................13 
2.2  Introduction .................................................................................................................13 
2.3  Cycle Overview ...........................................................................................................14 
2.3.1  The Gas Turbine (Brayton) Cycle ...................................................................15 
2.3.2  The Steam-Water (Rankine) Cycle .................................................................18 
2.3.3  The Combined Cycle .......................................................................................20 
2.3.4  Rankine Cycle Parameters and Efficiency ......................................................20 
2.3.5  Combined Cycle Parameters and Efficiency ...................................................21 
2.4  Energy Conversion Process .......................................................................................22 
2.4.1  Energy Conversion ..........................................................................................23 
2.4.2  Energy Leaving the Plant ................................................................................24 
2.5  Plant Heat Rate...........................................................................................................25 
2.5.1  Gross Plant Heat Rate ....................................................................................25 
2.5.2  Net Plant Heat Rate ........................................................................................26 
2.6  Factors Affecting Plant Performance ..........................................................................27 
2.6.1  Gas Turbine ....................................................................................................27 
2.6.2  Boiler / Heat Recovery Steam Generator ........................................................29 
2.6.3  Steam Turbine .................................................................................................31 
2.6.4  Main Condenser ..............................................................................................34 
2.6.5  Deaerator ........................................................................................................38 

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1.0 STEAM TURBINE FUNDAMENTALS

1.1 Learning Outcomes

Upon completion of this section of the training manual the student should be able to perform the
following functions:

1. Describe the principles of steam turbine operation.

2. Understand the steam nozzles and their effect on steam.
3. Describe the different classes of steam turbines.
4. Describe Impulse and Reaction turbines.

1.2 Turbine Principles

Steam turbines convert the heat energy of steam into rotational mechanical energy. The
mechanical energy of the steam turbine is then used to produce electrical energy from a generator. The
steam turbine-generator is, by itself, a very simple machine with few moving parts. This is desirable
because it allows the steam turbine-generator to have very good reliability. It is not unusual for a steam
turbine-generator to operate continuously for more than a year without shutdown.

The power plant is often described as an energy conversion factory in which the chemical energy
in the fuel is transformed in a series of steps into electrical energy, with the turbine-generator as one part
of the power plant. The function of the steam turbine is to convert the energy in superheated high
pressure steam from the boiler or HRSG, into mechanical energy. It is common to refer to the energy
conversion that occurs in the turbine as happening in a single step. The conversion of energy in the
turbine actually occurs in two steps. First, the heat energy in the steam is converted into kinetic energy of
a steam jet by nozzles. Second, the steam jets are used with buckets or blades mounted on a rotor to
produce a mechanical force and torque. This section describes both of these processes.

1.2.1 Nozzles and Their Principles

A steam turbine nozzle is a device that converts heat

energy of steam into kinetic energy (energy of motion) by
expanding the steam. A simplified, convergent nozzle of the
type most often used in steam turbines is shown at the right in
the figure.

Assume that steam at temperature T1 and pressure P1

enters a convergent nozzle. The higher the pressure and
temperature, the more thermal energy is in the steam. The
steam is moving at velocity V1 before entering the nozzle.
The steam leaves the nozzle at a lower pressure and
temperature, T2 and P2 but at a higher velocity, V2.

Figure 1 - Convergent Nozzle

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This is because some of the heat energy in the steam has been converted into energy of motion,
called kinetic energy. Kinetic energy is a function of the square of velocity; therefore, as the velocity
increases, so does the kinetic energy.

The ratio of the pressure upstream and downstream of the nozzle is critical in the efficient
operation of the nozzle. It is designed to operate with a constant pressure ratio for best efficiency in
energy conversion. If turbine conditions change the pressure ratio, inefficiency results. Also, if changes
to the nozzle such as erosion occur, the design is upset and inefficiency results. Common problems with
nozzles which occur in operation are erosion from debris in the steam and deposits from contamination of
the steam.

1.2.2 Basic Turbine Types and Principles

The kinetic energy in a jet of steam is not useful as it is. The nozzle by itself cannot convert the
energy in the steam to useful mechanical energy. There are two basic turbine types: impulse and
reaction. Both use nozzles and rotor buckets (also called blades), but in different ways.

Impulse Turbine

Figure 2 illustrates the basic concept of an impulse

turbine. As illustrated, a steady jet of high velocity steam is
directed toward a turbine wheel. The impulse of the steam
velocity acting against the turbine blades causes the wheel to
rotate.

Figure 3 further illustrates the operating principles of

an impulse turbine. Steam enters an impulse turbine through
a stationary nozzle that expands the steam and creates a
steam jet. The steam jet strikes the rotor buckets (blades).
Each set of nozzles and rotor buckets is called a stage. The
graph in Figure 3 illustrates that the entire pressure drop in the
stage occurs at the nozzles, and the velocity and volume of
the steam increase in the nozzles.

Within an impulse turbine, the expanded steam strikes

the buckets forcing them to rotate and reducing the velocity of
the jet of steam. The force of the steam on the buckets
produces the mechanical energy needed to turn the generator. Figure 2 - Impulse Concept
This mechanical energy comes from the jet of steam which has
its velocity reduced considerably.

In large modern power plants, there is considerable thermal energy in each pound of steam
delivered to the turbine. It is impractical and inefficient to build a single nozzle and rotor large enough to
convert all the steam's thermal energy into useful work. Therefore, large modern turbines are usually
multi-staged, with each stage converting part of the steam's thermal energy to mechanical energy. In a
basic multi-staged steam turbine, steam enters through the first stage nozzle, which converts part of the
thermal energy in the steam into kinetic energy. The steam jet from the first stage nozzle strikes the first
stage rotor buckets. After leaving the first stage rotor buckets, the steam passes through the second
stage nozzle. Some of the remaining thermal energy is then converted to kinetic energy. The second
stage rotor buckets are forced to rotate by the steam jet leaving the second stage nozzles.

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Impulse turbines can be multi-staged in two ways. One of these ways is referred to as the Rateau
(or pressure compounded) stage. A Rateau turbine consists of a series of nozzles and buckets; with
each set of nozzles and buckets making up one stage. The turbine illustrated in the following figure is an
example of a four stage, pressure compounded, impulse turbine. As shown, the steam pressure in a
series of Rateau stages drops in steps through each set of nozzles.

Figure 3 - Impulse Principles

The second way that impulse turbine stages may be arranged is the Curtis (or velocity
compounded) stage shown in Figure 4. A velocity compounded stage has one set of nozzles with two or
more rows of moving buckets. There are stationary buckets between each row of moving buckets. Each
set of nozzles and buckets makes up one stage.

In passing from the nozzle exit through one set of buckets, the velocity of the steam decreases
because of the work it does on the buckets. The steam then passes through a row of stationary buckets
that change the direction of the steam without changing its pressure or speed. The new steam direction
is approximately parallel to the original steam direction leaving the nozzles. The steam then strikes a
second row of buckets that are attached to the same wheel as the first row. This process may be

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repeated through as many as four rows of moving buckets in one stage. Most Curtis stages, however,
are limited to two rows of moving buckets.

Figure 4 also shows that in an ideal Curtis stage, the entire pressure drop occurs through the
nozzle, and the pressure remains constant across the buckets. This is a characteristic of impulse
turbines. The velocity, on the other hand, drops in steps as it passes through the moving buckets.

In a sense, Curtis staging is not multi-staging. This is because, as pointed out above, no matter
how many rows of moving buckets a Curtis stage has, it is still only one stage. It is possible, however, to
have a second Curtis stage behind the first.

Figure 4 - Velocity Compounded (Curtis) Turbine Principles

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Many old, multistage, impulse turbines consist of both Rateau (pressure compounded) and Curtis
(velocity compounded) stages. Usually, the first stage (and sometimes the second stage) is a velocity
compounded stage with two rows of moving buckets on its wheel. The remaining stages are then
pressure compounded stages as shown in Figure 5. Newer turbines seldom use Curtis staging, however,
otherwise the multi-staging is the same. It is not unusual to have as many as 20 stages in an impulse
turbine.

Figure 5 – Combination Curtis and Rateau Stages

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Reaction Turbines

Figure 6 illustrates the basic operating principles

of an ideal reaction turbine. The turbine rotor is forced to
turn by the active force of the steam jet leaving the
nozzle. In an ideal reaction turbine, the moving buckets
would be the only nozzles. Therefore, all the steam
expansion would occur in the moving buckets. This is
impractical in large turbines because it is difficult to admit
steam to moving nozzles. Thus, large turbines use fixed
nozzles to admit steam to moving nozzles. Therefore,
practical, large reaction turbines use a combination of
impulse and reaction principles.

The rotary lawn sprinkler is an example of a

“pure” reaction turbine. In practice, so called pure
reaction turbines are seldom used, and are never used in
practical utility turbines. Practical reaction turbines are a
combination of reaction and impulse. There are
stationary nozzles just as there are for impulse turbines.
There are also rotating nozzles, not of the sort one might
expect from the figure of the simple reaction turbine.
Figure 6 - Reaction Nozzles
The typical reaction turbine has stationary
nozzles and moving nozzles. The moving nozzles are
created by varying the cross section of the openings
between adjacent buckets (usually called blades in such
turbines) as shown in Figure 7. Reaction turbines can be
classified by the percentage of the energy conversion
that occurs in the moving nozzles. Typically, turbines
that are called reaction turbines have about 50% reaction
and 50% impulse. Turbines which use a combination of
impulse and reaction principles are often referred to
simply as reaction turbines to distinguish them from the
impulse turbines.

There are rotating blades (similar to impulse

turbine buckets) in the practical reaction turbine and the
profile of the blades is such that the passages between
adjacent blades form nozzles, as shown in Figure 7, in
which the stationary nozzles are shown at the top and
the moving blades are below.

One practical result of this design is that, unlike

impulse turbines, there is a pressure drop across the Figure 7 - Reaction Turbine Stage
moving row of blades by design. That is P2; the
pressure between the nozzles and the blades is higher
than the pressure downstream of the blades, P3. This results in a force being imposed upon the rotor in
the downstream direction, unlike the impulse turbine. Accordingly, one characteristic of reaction turbines
is high thrust loading that requires special design features to make reasonable sized thrust bearings
practical.

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Figure 8 shows a series of reaction turbine stages. Each stage consists of a set of fixed nozzles
and a set of moving nozzles. The pressure drop occurs over both the fixed and moving nozzles.
Reaction turbines are multi-staged by alternating sets of fixed and moving nozzles. Each pair of fixed and
moving nozzles makes up one stage.

Figure 8 - Reaction Turbine Characteristics

Figure 9 - Combination; Curtis and Reaction Turbine

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1.2.3 Classification of Turbines

In the previous section, turbine theory and the two basic turbine types were described. Impulse
and reaction turbines can be further divided into a large variety of types using important characteristics.
Each of the six characteristics discussed below is applicable to both impulse and reaction turbines.
These characteristics are:

 Condensing vs. Non-Condensing

 Extraction vs. Non-Extraction
 Single Pressure vs. Multiple Pressure
 Reheat vs. Non-Reheat

Condensing vs. Non-Condensing

One characteristic for classifying steam turbines is whether they are condensing or non-
condensing. In a condensing turbine, the steam is exhausted into a condenser. By condensing the
steam, the turbine exhaust pressure and temperatures can be very low. Low exhaust pressure allows the
turbine to make maximum use of the thermal energy in the steam and makes the power plant more
efficient. Nearly all large steam turbines are of the condensing type.

In non-condensing turbines, the exhaust steam is not condensed. Instead, the exhaust steam is
often collected in a piping system and used for another process. In this application, the steam turbine can
provide an efficient method of reducing high pressure steam to low pressure steam; i.e, pressure letdown
device. If a non-condensing turbine exhausts to a pressure greater than atmospheric pressure, it is
referred to as a backpressure unit. The implementation of this type of turbine is becoming common at
larger cogeneration facilities which provide low/medium pressure steam to a steam host.

Extraction vs. Non-Extraction

A second way turbines can be classified is by extraction or non-extraction. Extraction turbines are
sometimes called "bleeder" turbines. An extraction turbine is a multi-stage turbine where some of the
steam is exhausted from, or bled, between turbine stages at extraction points. This extraction steam may
be used for feedwater heating, or as an alternate source of LP steam to the plant, or many other
purposes.

Single Pressure vs. Multiple Pressure

Most turbines have steam admitted to the first stage from a single source. Some turbines have
steam at a lower pressure admitted to the steam path at some point after the first stage. This
arrangement is common in steam turbines used in combined cycle plants because it is common to have
Heat Recovery Steam Generators (HRSG's) that operate with more than one pressure.

Reheat vs. Non-Reheat

A third way that turbines can be classified is reheat or non-reheat. A reheat turbine is a multistage
turbine in which the steam is directed from some intermediate stage of the turbine back to the boiler. In
the boiler, the steam is reheated and then piped back to the turbine. Some large turbines return the
steam to the boiler to be reheated a second time. This is called a double reheat turbine. There are two
advantages to reheating steam. First it makes the power plant more efficient thermodynamically.
Second, it delays the start of steam condensation in the turbine. Nearly all modern large steam turbines
use reheat.

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Typical STG Casing Configurations

Figure 10 - Single Casing Unit

Figure 11 - Tandem Compound Casing

Figure 12 - Cross Compound Casing

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1.3 STG Operational Considerations

The following information is provided for instructional reference and educational purposes only.
Specific details of STG operating procedures and characteristics are provided in the separate “STG
Operations” section of this training manual.

In order to bring a power plant up to base load operation the boiler and steam turbine must be
preheated as per their associated vendor limitations. In general, proper warm-up of the steam turbine
may take up to several hours in conjunction with proper boiler warming.

Steam Turbine Pre-Warming

One of the primary concerns of steam turbine operation is the gradual and uniform heating and
cooling of the rotors, shells, and valves. Controlling the rate of metal temperature change is necessary to
ensure excessive thermal stresses do not occur in any portion of the turbine metal. Each steam turbine
manufacturer provides starting and loading instructions for each specific steam turbine application.
These instructions are designed primarily to minimize cyclic damage to the turbine rotor, but they also
have the effect of limiting cyclic damage to the turbine shell. In general, the starting and loading
instructions contain recommended temperature ramp rates, acceleration rates, soak periods at different
holds, and generator loading rates. If properly followed, the starting and loading instructions will increase
the availability and reliability of the turbine components.

During steam turbine pre-warming and startup, the Operator must be aware of the following
limitations:

 Thermal stress and distortion

 Vibration
 Rotor and shell differential expansion

Any of the above limitations may be introduced by subjecting the turbine metal to excessive
temperature mismatches and/or rates of temperature change. One of the above limitations is likely to be
reached before the others, depending on the turbine design and configuration, although the other two
may be present to a significant degree.

Ramp rates are maintained during steam turbine startup by careful matching of the first stage and
reheat steam temperatures to the corresponding metal temperatures. The steam-to-metal temperature
difference should be maintained as small as possible. Typically, the main steam pressure and
temperature should be controlled in such a way to produce a steam-to-metal temperature difference of 50
to 100°F. This match, or slightly positive mismatch, is an important factor is establishing and maintaining
the desired ramp rate. Proper control of the thermal ramp is primarily achieved by controlling the main
and reheat steam temperature, and by controlling generator load upon synchronization to the grid.

First-stage steam temperature is affected not only by throttle steam temperature, but by boiler
pressure and temperature, and the resultant throttling at the turbine admission. Lower pressures result in
a higher first-stage steam temperature at the same initial steam temperature.

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Maintaining Steam Temperature and Pressure

During the steam turbine warm-up process, the steam seals can be placed in service followed by
the application of the condenser vacuum system. Once the steam flow and temperature from the boiler
has stabilized, the boiler load can be gradually increased to meet the steam turbine prestart
requirements, i.e. steam flow, pressure, and superheat. With all requirements met, the steam turbine is
rolled off the turning gear and brought up to synchronizing speed.

Steam from the steam drum must be superheated to a controlled temperature before entering the
steam turbine. To accomplish this, steam from the drum is routed through a superheater, where its
temperature is increased above the saturation point. This initial superheating of the steam brings the
steam temperature and pressure to the correct conditions before the admission of spray water
(attemperation) which provides downstream temperature control. Spray water is admitted into the
attemperator based on the steam outlet temperature from the superheater. Typically, a pneumatically
operated temperature control valve is provided to modulate spray water flow into the attemperator in an
effort to maintain the correct final steam temperature to the steam turbine.

Prior to steam turbine operation, boiler drum pressure is controlled through the firing rate of the
boiler. However, once the steam turbine generator is synchronized steam pressure and flow is controlled
by further increasing the boiler steam production and steam superheat.

Once sufficient steam pressures and flows are generated by the boiler it is quite common to
operate with the steam turbine valves wide open under all operating conditions, and allow steam turbine
generator load to vary as a function of the steam pressure available from the boiler. This arrangement is
called sliding (or variable) pressure operation. An advantage of sliding pressure operation is that it
reduces thermal stress on turbine components as the steam temperature remains relatively constant over
a wide load range. This mode of operation is also more efficient since there is minor energy loss across
the control valves since they are left wide open. In other words, the steam turbine operates in the turbine
follow mode with regard to the boiler.

1.3.1 Fast Starts

There are specific points of a plant startup where proper warm-up of components must take place;
i.e. the boiler and steam turbine. These warm-up periods are critical to the life expectancy of the plant
equipment and must never be ignored or bypassed. However, upon a plant shutdown or trip, the boiler,
steam turbine, and the associated piping and components will already be at or near operating
temperature. Only under these circumstances, can a fast start be performed.

The limiting factor during a fast start is the ability of the boiler to accept a large mass of thermal
energy at an accelerated rate. However, if the boiler is already "hot" from recent operation, firing rates
can typically be safely increased.

When determining loading rates, each combustion turbine manufacturer takes the following
parameters into consideration:

 Vital clearances between rotating parts.

 Thermal fatigue of metal parts.
 The rate of differential expansion; not only between parts of different materials, but
between parts of different thickness.

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2.0 PERFORMANCE MONITORING

2.1 Learning Outcomes

Upon completion of this section of the training manual the student should be able to perform the
following functions:

1. Describe the components of the energy conversion cycle.

2. Describe plant losses.
3. Describe Plant Performance.
4. Understand heat rate.
5. Identify key areas that affect plant performance.
6. Describe preventative maintenance programs.

2.2 Introduction

The following performance monitoring information is provided for instructional purposes

only. Detailed specifics of the efficiencies of this unit are not provided by this document.
However the following information and its application pertain to the power generation industry
and is useful information for any power plant operator. Some of the information pertains to
modern Combined Cycle Plant Cycles and may be appropriately cross-applied to the traditional
Rankine Cycle power plant.

The primary purpose of any power plant installation is to profit monetarily from the generation of
electricity. The profitability of a power plant is directly proportional to the efficiency and performance of
the plant and the manner is which is it operated. It is the responsibility of the operating staff to
continuously monitor and control the operation of the plant to achieve optimum performance and
efficiency, while minimizing losses. Being conscientious of the plant’s performance not only increases
profitability, but will pay back great dividends in extended equipment life and equipment reliability.

Maximum plant performance requires awareness on behalf of the Operators, of the conditions
which can lead to reduced plant efficiency and output. This awareness demands strict attention to detail,
combined with the ability to identify and correct performance related problems as they occur. Upon
completion of this course, the Operator will be aware of the factors that affect plant performance and
reliability, and the actions that can be taken to ensure the plant is operated in an efficient and reliable
manner.

Before a performance related problem can be solved, the ‘root cause’ of the problem must be
precisely identified. This module provides plant personnel with the required knowledge to identify
performance related problems associated with each major component of the combined cycle power plant.
The information conveyed in this section is broken down into individual sections, each pertaining to the
following objectives:

 Identify the plant’s energy conversion cycle.

 Define the term ‘Plant Performance’ and how it is measured.
 Identify the major components of the energy conversion cycle and how their operation
affects plant performance.

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2.3 Cycle Overview

The "traditional" thermal power plant is the Rankine Cycle plant, named after the man who
invented the cycle. A power plant cycle is a series of processes in which a fluid, generally water/steam, is
used to convert heat energy to mechanical energy. The Rankine Cycle in its simplest form consists of a
boiler, a turbine, a condenser, and a boiler feed pump. Early plants had thermal efficiencies of
approximately 25% to 30%. Only 25% to 30% of the heat energy in the fuel burned in these plants was
converted to electrical energy. The rest was lost in various ways. Rankine Cycle plants are still being
built today.

The Rankine Cycle has been refined considerably over the years and made more efficient by the
addition of components like feedwater heaters, superheaters, and reheaters. The efficiency of the
Rankine Cycle has also been improved by increasing the pressure and temperature of the cycle. Power
plants commonly use heat rate to measure efficiency. Heat rate is measured in BTU/KWh. Thus, heat
rate shows the amount of heat in BTUs that is required to produce a kilowatt-hour of electrical energy.
Thermal efficiency can be converted to heat rate by using the conversion factor “3413 BTU equals 1
KWh”. If a power plant could be built with 100% efficiency, its heat rate would be 3413 BTU/KWh.

Electric Light and Power Magazine, November 2002, issued an industry report covering the
Operating Performances of the top power plants in the US. These were ranked according to type: Coal,
Nuclear, and Natural Gas Combined Cycle. In addition, they were ranked by power generation, heat rate,
and capacity, and emissions. Nuclear power was only ranked by generation. It is interesting to note the
heat rates of the most efficient power plants.

Type of Power Plant Name / Size Heat Rate (2001) Efficiency

BTU / kW-hr
Coal Fired Bull Run (TVA) – 869 MW 8,881 38.4%
Combined Cycle South Point (Calpine) – 360 MW 6,909 49.4%

Gas Turbines and the Combined Cycle

Gas turbines (by themselves) use another type of cycle called the Brayton cycle, also named after
its inventor. The first commercial, industrial gas turbines were relatively inefficient, typically having a
thermal efficiency of 16% to 17%.

A combined cycle plant consists of one or more gas turbines (Brayton Cycle) that drive generators
and exhaust into a special boiler called a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) that generates steam
for a Rankine Cycle unit.

One of the principal reasons for the popularity of the combined cycle power plants is their high
thermal efficiency. Combined cycle plants with thermal efficiencies as high as 60% are being built.
Combined cycle plants can achieve these efficiencies because much of the heat from the gas turbine(s) is
captured and used in the Rankine Cycle portion of the plant. Refer to the following figure. The heat from
the exhaust gases would normally be lost to the atmosphere in a simple gas turbine cycle.

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Figure 13 - Combined Cycle

Another reason for the popularity of combined cycle plants is the relatively short time required for
their construction. Although it takes longer to build a combined cycle plant than a simple gas turbine
plant, a combined cycle plant can be built in much less time than a Rankine Cycle plant of comparable
output.

2.3.1 The Gas Turbine (Brayton) Cycle

The first major component of the combined cycle power plant is the gas turbine. In installations
where the gas turbine exhausts directly to the atmosphere, it is said to be operating in a "simple cycle"
mode. When a gas turbine exhausts into a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) and the resultant
steam is used to operate a steam turbine generator, the plant is referred to as a combined cycle power
plant.

A common arrangement of a gas turbine driving an electric generator is shown in the following
figure. The basic gas turbine consists of a compressor, a combustion section, and a turbine section. Air
is drawn into the compressor which raises the air pressure by a factor of 12 to 18:1. The temperature of
the air also increases with compression, and may be as high as 600°F (316°C) at the compressor
discharge.

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Figure 14 - Simple Cycle Combustion Turbine Diagram

In the combustion section, fuel is injected into the compressed air and burned to convert the fuel's
chemical energy into heat energy. Burning the fuel produces a high temperature, high pressure gas with
considerable thermal energy. This hot gas enters the turbine section where it expands, giving up its
thermal energy to the blades of the rotating turbine. In the process of expanding and cooling through the
turbine section, the thermal energy of the gas is converted into mechanical energy that is used to do
work. A large portion of the work from the turbine, about 60%, is used to drive the compressor. The
remainder of the turbine work is available to produce power by driving a generator. The heat exhausted
from the gas turbine is typically in the range of 900 to 1100°F (482-973°C).

The thermodynamic cycle of a gas turbine is referred to as the Brayton Cycle. The four processes
of the Brayton Cycle are represented on a temperature-enthalpy (T-h) diagram shown in Figure 15. The
T-h diagram is a convenient way to illustrate and analyze the performance of power plant cycles including
the gas turbine cycle. Temperature (T) is represented on the vertical axis and enthalpy (h) on the
horizontal axis. Enthalpy is a property of substances that describes the availability of energy to do work.

The T-h diagram is useful in analyzing thermodynamic cycles because it reveals the amount of
heat required to make a process occur in a cycle. If a process can be represented as a curve on the T-h
diagram, the area under the curve is the amount of heat required to make that process occur.

Each process in the Brayton Cycle can be drawn on the T-h diagram in the following figure. The
first process is the compression of air in the compressor represented by the line AB. As the air is
compressed, its temperature and pressure increases and there is a corresponding increase in enthalpy.
As work is done on the air, the air stores this energy in the form of temperature and pressure. The power
(energy) to perform this work originates from the turbine which is directly coupled to the gas turbine
compressor through a common shaft.

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Figure 15 - Simplified Brayton Cycle T-h Diagram

The second process is the addition of heat to the cycle at a constant pressure by burning of fuel
represented by the line B-C. The temperature of the gas that results from the combustion increases
considerably from the temperature of the air at the compressor outlet.

The third process is the expansion and cooling of the gas as it passes through the turbine, is
represented by the line C-D. Here, the energy of the hot pressurized gas is used to perform work.

The final process in the Brayton cycle is the cooling of the hot gas that exhausts to the
atmosphere, represented by line D-A. The exhausted gas mixes with ambient air, thus decreasing in
temperature.

The amount of heat that is required to make the Brayton cycle work is represented by the area
under line B-C. The fraction of heat that is rejected is represented by the area under the line D-A. The
area between these two lines represents the heat that is converted to useful mechanical energy. The
heat converted to useful mechanical energy is 25% to 30% of the total heat required to make the process
work.

Brayton Cycle Performance

To analyze simple cycle performance, data for a typical gas turbine is shown in the following
figure. The figure shows the energy supplied and energy output from a typical gas turbine cycle. The
data shown reflects operation at 100 percent load. The data is based on an ambient temperature of 59°F
(15°C) and site altitude of 1,700 feet (518 meters) above sea level. Energy supplied by the fuel is
925,000,000 BTU/hr based upon 37,910 lb/hr (17,196 kg/hr) of gas fuel with a heating value of 1000
BTU/SCF (SCF - Standard Cubic Feet). The power output of the gas turbine is 81,074 KW.

Overall efficiency of the gas turbine is 29.92%. The temperature of the exhaust gas is 990°F
(532°C) and exhaust gas flow is 2,577,856 lbs/hr (1,169,296 kg/hr). Since this exhaust gas started at
ambient temperature as air and fuel, considerable energy is used to heat the gas to such a high
temperature.

If the heat energy added to the exhaust gas was converted to electrical energy in this instance, an
additional 179 MW could be generated by the cycle (over twice the electrical power actually generated).
In practice, it is impossible to convert all of this heat energy into useful energy. However, it is possible to
recover a large fraction of the heat energy in the exhaust gas by operating the gas turbine in a combined
cycle. In a combined cycle plant, some of the exhaust heat energy is used in a Rankine Cycle.

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Figure 16 - Gas Turbine Performance Analysis

2.3.2 The Steam-Water (Rankine) Cycle

The Rankine Cycle used in conventional thermal power plants can be represented on a T-h
diagram. As with the Brayton Cycle, each line segment in the diagram corresponds to a process in the
cycle. A simple Rankine Cycle consists of only four components; the boiler (often called a steam
generator), a turbine, a condenser, and a boiler feed pump. The simple Rankine Cycle is shown on the
T-h diagram in the following figure. It must be noted that the illustration uses a boiler with a superheater,
thus the temperature of the steam entering the turbine is above saturation temperature.

Figure 17 - Simplified Rankine Cycle T-h Diagram

The first process in the Rankine Cycle is the increase in pressure of the condensate from the
condenser by the boiler feed pump. The increase in pressure occurs with a slight increase in enthalpy.
The increase in energy which the boiler feed pump adds to the cycle is represented by line 1-2.

The second Rankine Cycle process (Line 2-3) is the addition of heat (represented by Q) to the
water entering the boiler. Within the boiler, the water is transformed from a liquid to a gas (steam). The
generation of steam is assumed to occur at a constant pressure. Additional energy is added to the steam
as it passes through the superheater (line 4). The steam is then expanded and cooled as it passes
through the turbine as represented by line 4-5. Here, the energy of the steam is used to perform work.

The last process in the Rankine Cycle is the condensation of the steam that exhausts from the
turbine, represented by line 5-1. During condensation, considerable heat, called the heat of vaporization,
is lost.

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The heat required to make the Rankine Cycle work is determined by the area under the lines
between points 2 to 4; and the heat lost from the cycle is under the line between points 5 and 1. The area
between the lines represents the heat that is converted to useful mechanical energy. The useful
mechanical energy is only about 1/3 of the heat required to make the cycle work.

Rankine Cycle Performance

Rankine Cycle performance can be analyzed by referring to the typical (simplified, idealized)
power plant cycle shown in the following figure. Steam pressure at the turbine inlet is 1400 psia (96.52
bar) and temperature is 1000°F (537°C). The efficiency of this idealized plant is 41.5%. The efficiency of
a real Rankine Cycle with the same configuration would be lower than the ideal cycle. Actual Rankine
Cycle efficiency is lower than that calculated for the cycle alone. In practice, Rankine Cycle efficiencies
range from 20% to 39%.

Actual Rankine Cycle plants are considerably more complex than the simple cycle drawings
shown in the provided figures because components such as feedwater heaters are added to improve
efficiency. While most of the additions to the Rankine Cycle improve its efficiency, there are also factors
in a real Rankine Cycle that tend to make it less efficient.

 Not all of the chemical energy supplied to the boiler from the fuel is absorbed by the steam.
Typically only 85% to 90% of the energy input is absorbed. This means that the boiler is only 85%
to 90% efficient.
 Additional auxiliary equipment, such as fans and soot blowers, uses part of the power produced
(usually around 5%).

Figure 18 - Basic Rankine Power Plant Cycle Efficiency

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2.3.3 The Combined Cycle

Combined cycle refers to a power plant in which a gas turbine (Brayton Cycle) is integrated with a
Rankine Cycle unit. The Rankine Cycle makes use of much of the heat in the gas turbine exhaust gases.
Thermodynamically, the combined cycle can be represented by joining the high temperature Brayton
cycle with the moderate pressure and temperature Rankine Cycle. An example of a combined cycle
showing the Brayton cycle (gas turbine) and the Rankine Cycle (steam turbine) on a T-h diagram is
shown in the following figure. The area enclosed by the Rankine Cycle is within the area that represents
the heat rejected from the Brayton cycle. Thus, the Rankine Cycle area represents the heat energy that
is converted to useful mechanical energy that would otherwise be rejected to the atmosphere.

Figure 19 - Combined Cycle T-h Diagram

A large portion of the heat lost from the Brayton cycle is used in the Rankine Cycle. A much
greater fraction of the heat added to the cycle is actually converted to useful mechanical energy in the
combined cycle than either the Brayton cycle or the Rankine Cycle alone. The Rankine Cycle parameters
(pressure and temperature) are selected to match the temperature of the available gas turbine exhaust
gases. Usually, the pressure and temperature used in the Rankine Cycle portion of the combined cycle
plant are much lower than those used in conventional Rankine Cycle plants. The lower pressure and
temperature are necessary because the gas turbine exhaust gas, while very hot, is not nearly as hot as
the flue gas entering the convection pass of a conventional fired boiler.

The challenge in joining the Brayton and Rankine Cycles in a combined cycle plant, is the degree
of integration needed to maximize efficiency at an economic cost. The simple combined cycle can
consist of a single gas turbine, HRSG, steam turbine, condenser, and auxiliary systems. In addition, if the
environmental regulations require, an emissions reduction system can be directly integrated within the
HRSG. A variety of more complex configurations are possible.

2.3.4 Rankine Cycle Parameters and Efficiency

The efficiency of the Rankine Cycle is influenced by the configuration of the plant and the
steam/water conditions in the cycle. In order to achieve the highest overall combined cycle plant
efficiency, the efficiency of both the Brayton cycle and the Rankine Cycle must be compromised.

For the Rankine Cycle, the higher the steam pressure and temperature, the more efficient the
cycle. Furthermore, the steam must be superheated far above its saturation temperature to prevent
condensation as it passes through the steam turbine. As an example, in a cycle with initial conditions of

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2415 psig (167 bar) and 1000°F (537°C), the steam is heated 388°F (183°C) above saturation and thus is
said to have 388°F (183°C) of superheat. There must be a source of heat that is hotter than 1000°F
(537°C) in order to heat the steam to 1000°F (537°C). In a typical boiler, the fireball and hot flue gases
(approaching 2000°F/1093°C) provide that high temperature.

The temperature of exhaust gas from a typical gas turbine is lower than the flue gas in a
conventional fired boiler, usually 900 to 1100°F (482-593°C). Since this temperature is relatively low
compared to the conventional, fired boiler, the maximum pressure that the HRSG can have and still
provide adequate superheat is lower than the fired boiler found in the conventional Rankine Cycle.
Typical initial steam conditions for a combined cycle plant are 900 psig (62 bar) and 900°F (486°C).
Steam at this pressure and temperature has about 368°F (193°C) of superheat. The relatively low
pressure and temperature make the Rankine Cycle portion of the combined cycle plant less efficient than
the Rankine Cycle in most conventional plants. None the less, the use of a relatively inefficient Rankine
Cycle together with the gas turbine in a combined cycle makes the overall cycle efficiency higher than a
conventional Rankine Cycle alone.

Another critical parameter that affects the efficiency of the Rankine Cycle is the pressure in the
condenser. In general, the lower the condenser pressure (the higher the vacuum), the more efficient the
Rankine Cycle can be. The factors that determine the condenser pressure for a given load on a Rankine
Cycle unit are the condition of the condenser (especially how clean the tubes are) and the temperature of
the circulating water. The lower the circulating water temperature, the lower the condenser pressure and
thus the more efficient the Rankine Cycle. The design and operating considerations for the condenser of
a combined cycle plant are the same as those for a conventional Rankine Cycle plant.

2.3.5 Combined Cycle Parameters and Efficiency

The joining of the gas turbine and the Rankine Cycle in the combined cycle plant requires some
compromises in component efficiency in order to assure the maximum overall combined cycle plant
efficiency. For example, if the efficiency of the gas turbine was maximized without regard to the efficiency
of the plant as a whole, the Rankine Cycle portion of the plant might be adversely affected. Maximizing
gas turbine efficiency could result in an overall reduction of the combined cycle efficiency. Similarly, if the
Rankine Cycle portion were modified without regard to the gas turbine, the gas turbine efficiency might
decrease and lower the overall plant efficiency.

Two principal issues must be considered in the combined cycle performance. The first issue is the
initial steam conditions in the Rankine Cycle. The higher the initial steam pressure and temperature, the
more efficient the Rankine Cycle. Gas turbine exhaust temperature determines the upper limits on
Rankine Cycle initial conditions; the higher that temperature, the higher the Rankine Cycle pressure and
temperature can be. Higher gas turbine exhaust temperature also benefits the Rankine Cycle because
the higher the temperature of the gas turbine exhaust the more thermal energy (heat) is available to the
HRSG.

High gas turbine exhaust temperature is desirable for high Rankine Cycle efficiency. The more
efficient the gas turbine is, the lower its exhaust gas temperature. Accordingly, some compromise is
required between gas turbine efficiency and Rankine Cycle initial conditions.

Gas turbine exhaust temperature is also a concern when the gas turbine is at less than full load.
When the gas turbine drives a generator that is synchronized to an electrical distribution system, the
turbine speed is constant regardless of the load. The compressor operates at the same constant speed
and thus provides the same amount of air to the combustion section, regardless of the amount of fuel
being burned. The result is considerably lower firing temperatures and exhaust temperature at reduced

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load. The reduced temperatures cause both the gas turbine and Rankine Cycle efficiencies to fall as the
load is reduced.

In older gas turbine designs, there was no way to remedy this problem. In newer gas turbine
designs, air flow through the compressor can be controlled by adjustable Inlet Guide Vanes (IGVs). The
control is done by changing the angle of attack of the IGVs in operation. At reduced loads, the IGVs can
be adjusted to produce a lower air flow and maintain high exhaust temperatures at reduced load. The
range of load over which this method is effective is relatively small, typically from 70% to 100% of full
load.

The second principal issue in combined cycle efficiency is the gas turbine exhaust pressure. The
pressure at the gas turbine exhaust is the same as the pressure at the HRSG inlet. As exhaust pressure
increases, the velocity of the exhaust gas through the HRSG tube bundles also increases.

Heat transfer in the HRSG is principally convective heat transfer. The effectiveness of convective
heat transfer is partially dependant on velocity. As the velocity of the exhaust gases increase, the heat
transfer increases also. Thus, HRSG efficiency improves as the gas turbine exhaust pressure increases.
This is, however, the opposite of what is desirable for gas turbine efficiency.

Heat transfer can be increased without increasing gas turbine exhaust pressure by adding more
tubes in the HRSG which increases the heat transfer surface area. The increased cost of the additional
heat transfer surface area may, however, outweigh the increase in gas turbine efficiency.

For the simple cycle, increasing the pressure ratio increases gas turbine efficiency while
increasing firing temperature can decrease efficiency. However, increasing the firing temperature
increases the gas turbine output. For the combined cycle, very high pressure ratios result in little
increase or even a decrease in combined cycle efficiency. Increases in firing temperature always result in
an increase in combined cycle efficiency.

Designers of combined cycle plants must compromise the efficiency of the gas turbine and the
Rankine Cycle, especially the HRSG, in order to optimize the performance of the combined cycle. By
design, the pressure ratio is limited somewhat and the exhaust pressure is slightly higher than it would be
with the gas turbine operating in simple cycle. This optimization has resulted in combined cycle efficiency
as high as 60%. Future increases in gas turbine firing temperatures could produce combined cycle
efficiencies even higher.

2.4 Energy Conversion Process

The energy conversion cycle consists of those components which are responsible for converting
one form of energy into another. For example; converting water into superheated steam. In general
terms, a power plant can be thought of as a large energy transfer system made up of several smaller
energy transfer systems. The following figure is a simplified diagram of the energy conversion cycle of a
typical combined cycle power plant.

For purposes of this discussion we will refer to a combined cycle plant that incorporates a
Combustion Turbine and HRSG for the generation of steam that is used to produce power in a STG.
Even though the Potrero Unit is a traditional Rankine Cycle plant utilizing a Boiler and STG the
conversion process is still somewhat similar.

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2.4.1 Energy Conversion

As illustrated, natural gas or fuel oil is provided as the fuel source to the gas turbine. The fuel
provides chemical energy to the plant which must undergo several conversions to produce electrical
energy to the grid:

 Within the gas turbine, the chemical energy of the fuel is converted to thermal energy
(heat). The majority of this heat is converted to mechanical energy as it causes the gas
turbine shaft to rotate.
 The mechanical energy of the gas turbine is transmitted to the associated generator
through a drive shaft. Within the generator, mechanical energy is converted into electrical
energy.
 Exhaust heat from the gas turbine passes through the HRSG. Within the HRSG, the
thermal energy from the gas turbine exhaust is used to convert water into superheated
steam.
 Superheated steam is routed to the steam turbine, where it expands through the turbine
stages causing the shaft rotate. The steam turbine converts thermal and kinetic energy
into mechanical energy.
 The mechanical energy of the steam turbine is transmitted to the associated generator
through a drive shaft. Within the generator, mechanical energy is converted into electrical
energy.
 The steam exhausted from the steam turbine is cooled and condensed. The
condensate/feedwater is reintroduced into the HRSG to repeat the process.

Figure 20 - Energy Conversion Cycle (Combined Cycle Power Plant)

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2.4.2 Energy Leaving the Plant

As energy is converted through each stage of the power plant process, losses occur due to the
impossibility of the systems and the individual components to be 100% efficient. These losses are
inherent to the design of the plant and occur continuously while the plant is in operation. Although these
losses cannot be avoided, it is important to realize where these losses occur so that they can be
monitored and kept to a minimum.

In thinking of the power plant as an energy transfer system, it is important to realize that most of
the energy which enters the plant as fuel is not converted to a usable energy form such as electricity. A
typical combined cycle power plant converts less than 50% of the energy in the fuel into electrical energy.
The rest of the energy is used within the plant for running auxiliary equipment or is lost from the plant
cycle at various stages in the conversion process. Since energy cannot be destroyed, the fuel energy
that is not converted to electrical energy must leave the power plant in some other form. The major areas
of energy loss in a power plant cycle are as follows:
 Heat rejected to the circulating water
 Heat rejected through the flue gas stack
 Unburned combustibles in the flue gas
 Heat losses to the surrounding atmosphere by radiation
 Inefficient equipment performance due to improper operation and/or maintenance

From the above list of items, the primary way in which energy is lost from the power plant is as
heat in the circulating water leaving the condensers. Once the steam has given up its energy to the
turbine, it must be returned to the boiler to complete its cycle and start over. Since the steam is at a very
low pressure and will not flow back to the boiler, it needs to be condensed and pumped to the boiler as
feedwater. The steam is condensed by transferring its latent heat of vaporization to the circulating water
passing through the condenser tubes. The heat contained in the circulating water is discharged to the
atmosphere and thus, is lost from the plant cycle.

Another major loss of energy from the plant occurs within the HRSG. Although most of the
thermal energy inside the HRSG is transferred to the steam/water cycle, a portion of the heat contained in
the flue gas is discharged directly through the stack. This discharge of heat to the atmosphere takes
place in accordance with the thermodynamic design of the boiler by the manufacturer; i.e., a certain
amount of heat rejection must occur in order to achieve reliable HRSG operation. Reducing the flue gas
temperature below the design point can lead to problems with corrosion in the ductwork and decrease the
thermal lift (natural draft) of the flue gas through the stack. Therefore, it is necessary that the flue gas
temperature exiting the boiler is above a defined minimum value; generally between 240-280°F
depending on duct firing. Although this temperature value seems insignificant, it quickly becomes a major
factor when a quantitative measurement of the rejected flue gas mass flow is taken into account.

In addition to the above heat losses, a very small amount of energy is lost due to incomplete
burning of fuel within the gas turbine. Although the gas turbine is extremely efficient, a measurable
amount of the injected fuel is not burned completely. Incomplete combustion of fuel appears as carbon
monoxide in the flue gas. Unburned combustibles indicate that all of the chemical energy in the fuel is not
converted to heat, and therefore energy is also lost from the plant cycle.

The last form of energy loss is heat which is lost to the ambient environment. These losses result
from the radiation of heat from plant equipment, motors, electrical busses, and piping. Additional losses
may be present in the form of gas, steam, or water leaks. These types of losses can be minimized
through the use of insulation on piping and equipment, and by proper maintenance to prevent leaks.
However, no matter what measures are taken, a significant portion of energy losses will occur.

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2.5 Plant Heat Rate

Plant heat rate is a method of showing the performance of a power plant. It is a measure of the
amount of heat energy needed to produce one unit of electrical energy. The heat rate of a power plant is
generally regarded as a symbol of pride as it is a measure of the plants operating efficiency and is directly
representative of the hard work, knowledge, and dedication of the plant personnel to maintain optimum
plant performance.

The plant heat rate accounts for all inefficiencies of the plant in transferring the heat of combustion
into electricity. There are two kinds of plant heat rate; (1) gross plant heat rate and, (2) net plant heat
rate:

 Gross Plant Heat Rate is defined as the amount of heat energy in the fuel needed to
produce 1 kilowatt-hour of electricity at the generator output terminals.

 Net Plant Heat Rate is defined as the amount of heat energy in the fuel needed to produce
1 kilowatt-hour of electricity delivered to the transmission system for sale to users. The net
plant heat rate is most often used as a benchmark of the plant’s performance.

2.5.1 Gross Plant Heat Rate

The gross plant heat rate is determined by measuring the kilowatts generated at the generator
terminals for a given period of time (usually one month). During this time the amount of fuel burned in the
gas turbine and duct burners is also measured. The heat energy of the fuel is found by determining its
heating value (HV) in BTU’s. Natural gas has a nominal heating value of 1,000 BTU’s. The amount of
fuel used, multiplied by the heating value, determines the number of BTU’s needed to generate the
measured kilowatt-hours. The ratio of BTU’s to KWH’s is gross plant heat rate. The formula is illustrated
below:

(BTU per cu/ft of fuel) x (cu/ft of fuel per hour) x (number of hours)
= BTU
(KW electrical output) x (number of hours) KWHR

Unit Heat Rate Calculation

Unit heat rate is typically calculated automatically by the DCS and displayed at all times. To
perform a calculation of unit heat rate one would need the following information:

 Fuel Consumption in Btu’s = Fuel Consumption Rate x Fuel Heating Value

 Power Output in kW

Example / Assumptions:
CTG Fuel Consumption = 37,910 lb/hr
Gas Density = 0.0438 lb/scf
Fuel gas heating value = 1,000 Btu/scf (LHV)
Gross CTG Power Output = 81,074 kW

Step 1  1,000 Btu/scf / 0.0438 lb/scf = 22,831 Btu/lb

Step 2  22,831 Btu/lb X 37910 lb/hr = 865,523,210 Btu/hr (fuel consumption)
Step 3  865,523 Btu/hr / 81,074 kW/hr = 10,675 Btu/kWhr

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Unit Efficiency Calculation

If we wanted to know unit efficiency we need to divide the unit output by the fuel input. To
calculate unit efficiency we convert the fuel and kW to equal units as follows:

Step 1  22,831 Btu/lb X 37,910 lb/hr = 865,523,210 Btu/hr (fuel consumption)

Step 2  3,413 Btu/kW X 81,074 kWhr = 276,705,562 Btu
Step 3  276,705,562 / 865,523,210 = 31% efficiency

Note: This example unit will exhaust 2,577,856 lb/hr of air at 990°F to atmosphere. If we captured this
energy in an HRSG / STG cycle we would gain a considerable amount of kW generation with no
additional fuel consumption.

2.5.2 Net Plant Heat Rate

A portion of the electrical energy generated by the plant is needed to drive auxiliary plant
equipment such as circulating water pumps, boiler feed pumps, gas turbine auxiliaries, etc. Therefore,
not all of the electrical energy generated is delivered to the switchyard for transmission to the grid. The
auxiliary electrical load may be as much as 6% of the total generator output. If the sum auxiliary load is
subtracted from generator output, the result is net plant heat rate.

One kilowatt-hour of electrical energy is equivalent to 3,413 Btu’s of heat energy. If a power plant
were 100% efficient, it would have a net plant heat rate of 3,413 Btu per kWh. A very efficient, modern
coal fired power plant uses 8,500 Btu of heat energy to produce one kilowatt-hour of electrical energy.
Early power plants were very inefficient and some used more than 30,000 Btu to produce 1 kilowatt-hour
of electrical energy. The lower the plant heat rate, the more efficient the plant.

To perform a calculation of unit net heat rate one would need the following information:

 Fuel Consumption in Btu’s = Fuel Consumption Rate x Fuel Heating Value

 Power Output in kW
o Gross (at generator terminals)
o Net (supplied to switchyard)

Example / Assumptions:
CTG Fuel Consumption = 75,000 lb/hr
Fuel gas heating value = 22,800 Btu/lbm
Gross Power Output = 252,000 kW
Net Power Output = 244,000 kW

Net Heat Rate  75,000 lb/hr X 22,800 Btu/lb / 244,000 kW = 7,008 Btu/kWh
Gross Heat Rate  75,000 lb/hr X 22,800 Btu/lb / 252,000 kW = 6,786 Btu/kWh

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Impact of Heat Rate Deviations

Increases in heat rate directly affect plant profitability. A simplified approach to view the cost of
heat rate deviation would be to consider its effect in the annual fuel cost to operate the plant. The annual
fuel cost per year equates to the heat rate deviation multiplied by the actual fuel cost multiplied by the
power output of the plant multiplied by the hours the unit runs per year. For example if a unit ran under
the following conditions:

Heat rate deviation = 1 Btu/kWhr

Fuel Cost = $6.00 per 1,000,000 Btu
Run Hours / Year (90% availability) = 7884 hours
Unit Capacity 500,000 kWhr

1 Btu/kWhr X 500,000 kWhr X 7884 hr/yr X $6/1,000,000 Btu = $23,652 / yr

Note: This number only reflects the cost of fuel and does not take into consideration the price of
electricity or capacity payments.

Factors such as unit operating hours and fuel costs change, effecting the cost calculation
significantly. After the unit achieves some operating data a better site average heat rate deviation cost
may be calculated.

2.6 Factors Affecting Plant Performance

Modern distributed control systems (DCS) continuously calculate the net plant heat rate and
provide the information to the Control Room Operator. Since changes in ambient conditions have a direct
effect on the performance output of the gas turbine, the net plant heat rate will change accordingly based
on that premise alone. Over a period of time, these changes will be realized as baseline values to an
experienced Operator. However, significant changes in the net plant heat rate during base load steady-
state operation should be investigated immediately. A numerically higher than normal heat rate value
indicates an unnecessary loss of energy from the power plant cycle; thus indicating a reduction in plant
efficiency and performance.

Each major component of the energy conversion cycle plays a key role in the overall performance
of the plant; e.g., the gas turbine, HRSG, steam turbines, etc. A malfunction or abnormal condition
associated with any of these components has a direct impact on the overall plant performance. It is the
Operators responsibility to be aware of these potential conditions and how to identify them. The following
subsections discuss the operation and purpose of each major component and the abnormal conditions or
malfunctions that can lead to reduced plant performance.

2.6.1 Gas Turbine

Gas turbine units are equipped with a programmed control system designed to maintain the
turbine at maximum efficiency during all modes of operation. Unlike traditional coal or oil fired boilers
which require constant Operator attention to fuel and air ratios, combustion temperatures, and so forth;
the gas turbine control system maintains peak operation of the unit and does not allow for Operator
interaction on specific functions. This method of control is necessary to ensure emission parameters
(NOx) are continuously met and the integrity of the gas turbine is not jeopardized or damaged.

For example; during startup and operation of the gas turbine unit, the control system modulates
the position of the fuel valves, controls the operation of the blow-off dampers, and controls the position of

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the inlet guide vanes. Precise control of these components is extremely vital to the operation of the unit,
and thus these components are controlled by the gas turbine control logic. Human interaction to these
controls would invariably result in unnecessary thermal stress and damage to the gas turbine unit, and
possibly an explosion or flame out.

Although the control system has primary control over the gas turbine, there are conditions which
the Operator must monitor to ensure peak efficiency and performance. The following can affect the
performance of the gas turbine and should be periodically monitored:

 Compressor Fouling
 Dirty Inlet Air Filters
 Evaporative Cooler Malfunction
 Interstage Bleed Valve Malfunction

Compressor Fouling

The most common area of performance degradation for any gas turbine is the cleanliness of the
compressor. Over a period of time, traces of dirt particles accumulate on the surface of the compressor
blades resulting in reduced efficiency and compressor output. As the performance of the compressor
deteriorates, the overall reduction in performance of the gas turbine unit is very significant. In general
terms, a one percent decrease in compressor efficiency results in a two percent decrease in turbine
output.
Even with the gas turbine intake filters functioning properly, compressor fouling will undoubtedly
occur over an extended period of time. In an ideal situation, it would be desirable to keep the gas turbine
compressor extremely clean at all times. However, in real life terms it is not feasible to continuously wash
the compressor in an effort to maintain peak performance from the unit. The most common method of
determining when an offline water wash of the compressor is required, is by monitoring the performance
output of the unit with respect to ambient conditions. When a 5% decrease in unit performance is noted,
a water wash should be performed during the next unit shutdown, or an online water wash performed.

Dirty Inlet Air Filters

An obstruction of air flow to the gas turbine will undoubtedly result in decreased performance. The
gas turbine inlet air filters are equipped with a self-cleaning feature which operates automatically to
prevent an excessive pressure drop across the filter elements. Although this is an automatic function, the
operation of the cleaning sequence and the condition of the filters should be periodically checked to
ensure proper operation. Failure of the self-cleaning system or the high differential pressure alarm could
result in reduced performance of the gas turbine unit.

For example a large frame gas turbine may experience a 4”w.g. pressure drop across the inlet to
the gas turbine which equates to a 1.4% power output decrease and a 0.45% heat rate increase.
Maintaining the air inlet filters as clean as possible and changing the filters as required cannot be
overstressed.

Evaporative Cooler Malfunction

The largest single factor affecting the output of a gas turbine unit is the ambient air temperature.
As the temperature of air increases, it expands in volume; thus decreasing in density. As a result, gas
turbine output and efficiency are decreased due to the reduction in mass air flow through the compressor.
This reduction of air flow results in less effective cooling in the high temperature areas of the turbine; thus
fuel flow to the unit must be decreased to prevent overheating of the turbine above the maximum firing

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temperature. To finalize this chain of events, the reduction of fuel flow results in a corresponding
reduction in shaft horsepower; thus the generator megawatt output is reduced. In summary, unit output
decreases as ambient temperatures increase.

Gas turbines installed in seasonally warmer climates are sometimes equipped with an evaporative
cooler to offset the impact that high ambient temperatures have on unit performance. The evaporative
cooler consists of a water soaked cellulose media through which all air to the inlet of the gas turbine
compressor must pass. The evaporative cooler converts sensible heat into latent heat without changing
the total heat content of the mixture. This increases the moisture content and density of the air flow; thus
reducing the impact of high ambient temperatures on the performance and efficiency of the unit.

During unit operation, the evaporative cooler operates automatically and cannot be visually
inspected due to its installed location. However, it is the Operator’s responsibility to monitor unit
performance from the gas turbine control system and ensure the evaporative cooler is functioning
properly. Secondly, the source of makeup water to the cooler must be periodically checked to ensure it is
continuously available. A malfunction or failure of the evaporative cooler will result in an immediate
reduction in unit output and efficiency.

The entire evaporative cooler system should be periodically inspected during unit shutdown to
ensure proper operation and to verify that the cellulose media is in tact and free of obstructions or
damage. A tear or hole in the media will reduce the effectiveness of the system; thus resulting in a
reduction in unit output and efficiency.

Interstage Bleed Valve Malfunction

Most gas turbine compressors are equipped with interstage bleed valves used to purge excess air
from the compressor during startup and shutdown; i.e. to prevent a compressor stall or surge. The bleed
valves remain closed while the turbine is in operation and are not sequenced to open until a shutdown
signal is generated.

If any one of the interstage bleed valves are wholly or partially open during unit operation, the
performance and efficiency of the gas turbine will decrease. For monitoring purposes, open/close
indications are often provided at the gas turbine control system display. However, the bleed valves
should be visually checked on a periodic basis to ensure they are fully closed or are not leaking by. One
method of checking valve position is by observing the local position indications on the valve actuator. A
second method involves temperature. If the body and discharge piping of one bleed valve is significantly
warmer than the other two, chances are that the valve is passing air due to leakage or failure to close
completely. Any suspected leakage should be investigated at the earliest opportunity.

2.6.2 Boiler / Heat Recovery Steam Generator

The Boiler or HRSG is an important factor in the energy conversion cycle of any combined cycle
power plant. A Boiler is in effect a large heat exchanger that utilizes hot gas that is generated by the
combustion of a fuel source to convert feedwater into superheated steam. An HRSG is also large heat
exchanger which utilizes hot flue gas from the gas turbine exhaust to convert feedwater into superheated
steam. The installation of an HRSG on the exhaust end of a gas turbine provides a means of capturing
waste heat, and utilizing this heat to produce additional electrical energy. Hence the term; combined
cycle. Depending on the plant, the HRSG may be equipped with a duct burner.

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Duct Burner

The duct burner is installed in the flue gas stream at the inlet of the HRSG. The duct burner
provides a means of increasing steam production and steam superheat within the HRSG through the
introduction of additional thermal energy. When placed in operation, the duct burner is supplied with
natural gas which is combusted inside the HRSG duct work and the resultant thermal energy is released
to the boiler tube heat transfer surfaces.

The duct burner is generally placed in service while the gas turbine is operating at base load.
Particularly during warm weather conditions, the duct burner provides a means of increasing (recovering)
the electrical output of the plant by increasing steam production to the steam turbine generator.

As a stand alone item, the duct burner is not an efficient component of the energy conversion
cycle. In general terms, HRSG's with duct fired burners are not as efficient as unfired HRSG's because
the fuel burned in the HRSG duct does not perform any work in the gas turbine. The overall efficiency of
energy conversion in unfired HRSG's is therefore higher than in HRSG's with duct firing. However; as
long as the amount of revenue ($) resulting from the increased output of the turbine/generator, more than
offsets the cost of fuel to the duct burner, it’s use is considered an asset even though the overall net plant
heat rate is reduced.

Boiler / HRSG Efficiency

The most significant performance related factor associated with the Boiler or HRSG is the
efficiency of heat transfer across tubes. Placing all design characteristics and other fixed variables aside,
the primary interaction that an Operator has with the performance of the Boiler / HRSG is to ensure the
water chemistry is maintained within limits. Proper water chemistry ensures internal cleanliness of the
boiler tubes, thus promoting optimum heat transfer.

The two most important impurities which need to be controlled within the Boiler or HRSG
feedwater are; (1) oxygen and (2) dissolved solids. Oxygen causes corrosion attack on the internal tube
surfaces resulting in pitting and eventual tube failure. Oxygen corrosion is not only damaging to the
tubes, but it reduces the heat transfer efficiency of the tubes while it is occurring. Therefore, it is very
important to the overall efficiency of the plant to ensure proper operation of the deaerator and the oxygen
scavenger injection system.

Dissolved solids are particles of material which readily dissolve in water. Dissolved solids have
two detrimental effects on the Boiler or HRSG. First, they affect the acidity of the water, thus controlling
the tendency of the water to chemically attack pipe and tube surfaces. Secondly, dissolved solids leave
behind a formation of deposits on the internal tube surfaces after the water is boiled-off and converted to
steam. When this occurs, two undesirable effects can result:

1. When the deposits adhere to the inside of boiler tubes, they form a layer of scale which
retards the transfer of heat from the combustion gasses through the tube metal to the
boiler water. Thus, overheating and failure of the tubes results. Shutdowns are then
required to replace failed tubes and possibly to clean the boiler. The following figure
illustrates the obstruction of heat transfer across fouled tubes.

2. If the deposits are carried over in the steam, they can become lodged inside the
superheater or transported to the steam turbine blades. If the former occurs, overheating
and failure of the superheater tubes can result. If the latter occurs, the deposits can
greatly reduce turbine efficiency as well as erode the blade surfaces.

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Figure 21 - Effects of Scale on Boiler Tube Efficiency

Because dissolved solids have such a high impact on the overall efficiency of the Boiler or HRSG,
it is pertinent that the Operator maintain correct operation of the water treatment system and control the
accumulation of solids in the boiler through correct chemical injections and blowdowns. Proper water
treatment in a power plant is just as important as proper maintenance and operating procedures.

2.6.3 Steam Turbine

Within the steam turbine, heat energy stored in the steam is converted to mechanical energy. As
the steam expands through the turbine, it causes the turbine shaft to rotate. This rotation is transmitted to
the generator, where the mechanical energy is converted to electrical energy. The heat energy lost from
the steam (equal to the work performed by the steam) appears as a drop in steam pressure and
temperature (an enthalpy drop) as the steam passes through the turbine. The steam inlet pressure and
temperature plus the turbine backpressure (condenser vacuum) are all factors that affect the enthalpy
drop through the turbine to perform work.

Although the operation of a steam turbine is very straight forward, there are several factors which
affect the efficiency of the turbine in converting the thermal energy of the steam into mechanical energy to
the turbine shaft. The following subsections discuss these performance related factors and how they
affect steam turbine efficiency.

Steam Turbine Efficiency

To calculate STG efficiency we need to calculate the steam energy absorbed by the STG and
divide it by the energy supplied (steam in) to the STG. If we know steam inlet flow and enthalpy

Using a single stage STG we can calculate steam energy as follows:

Steam Flow In (lbm/hr) X Steam enthalpy (Btu/lbm) = Btu/hr

Steam Flow Out (lbm/hr) X Steam enthalpy (Btu/lbm) = Btu/hr

Energy In / Energy Out = STG efficiency

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Since the STG must operate with the losses in the Condenser we can calculate STG cycle
efficiency (heat rate) by calculating the steam energy used by the STG divided by the STG power. The
steam energy used by the STG equates to the steam energy in – the feedwater energy returned to the
HRSG. This incorporates the losses in the condenser.

Example / Assumptions:

Steam In = 400,000 lb / hr @ 1500 Btu/lb = 600,000,000 Btu/hr

Feedwater = 450000 lb/hr @ 270 Btu/lb = 121,500,000 Btu/hr
Energy Absorbed = 600,000,000 Btu/hr – 121,500,000 Btu/hr = 478,500,000 Btu/hr
STG Power Output = 60,000 kWhr
STG Heat Rate = 478,500,000 Btu/Hr / 60,000 kWhr = 7975 Btu/kWh

Steam Supply Temperature and Pressure

Final HP and Hot Reheat Steam temperatures are typically controlled to a design temperature
control setpoint through the use of desuperheater spray units. Temperature is typically controlled while
steam pressure will float with steam production. Allowing the final supply steam temperatures to drift from
the control setpoint only a couple of degrees has a measurable impact on plant heat rate. For example:
 A 5°F drop in HP steam supply temperature equates to a power generation change of
approximately 0.02% and a heat rate increase of 9 Btu/kWhr.
 A 5°F drop in Reheat steam supply temperature equates to a power generation change of
approximately 0.24% and a heat rate increase of 6.3 Btu/kWhr.
 A 10 psig drop in HP steam pressure equates to a power generation drop of 0.42% and a
heat rate increase of 2.6 Btu/kWhr.
To apply an estimated dollar factor to those figures:
Estimated Fuel Cost = $7/1,000,000 BTU
Unit Capacity = 500,000 kW (500 MW)
Run Hours / Year (80%) = 8760 * 0.8 = 7,008 hrs
Electricity pricing remains constant

Using the above data a 1 Btu/kWh Heat Rate Impact will equal an increased fuel cost of $24,500
per year. If a seemingly insignificant 5°F drop in steam temp causes a 9 Btu/kWh heat rate deviation the
annual fuel cost will increase $220,000. Ensuring that the desuperheaters are functioning properly and
that the temperature control signals are accurate appears significant.

Increases in temperature and pressure will improve plant heat rate but are generally not
controllable. If it were possible to exceed the STG throttle design conditions, the unit would be subjected
to increased wear and possible mechanical damage.

Note: This stresses the importance of having accurate, reliable and trustworthy instrumentation.

Condenser Backpressure

Condenser backpressure is the most significant factor that affects the cycle efficiency of a steam
turbine. Because the steam turbine exhausts into the condenser, it is desirable to reduce the pressure in
the condenser as much as possible, thus reducing the backpressure against which the turbine must
operate. As backpressure is decreased, the pressure drop across the steam turbine increases and a
corresponding increase of steam flow through the turbine results. A decrease in backpressure increases
the enthalpy drop across the turbine; thus improving the work performed by the steam as it passes
through toward the exhaust end.

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The two primary factors which affect condenser backpressure are the operation of the steam jet
air ejectors and the temperature of the circulating water. It is very important that the Operator monitor
these two factors closely to ensure peak performance of the unit. Once placed in service, the air ejectors
will operate as needed to withdraw air and non-condensable gases from the condenser shell. The
primary variable in maintaining condenser vacuum is the temperature of circulating water. Very cool
circulating water will increase the ‘quench’ effect that the condenser has on the condensing steam; thus
resulting in increased vacuum inside the condenser. Warm circulating water reduces the quench effect;
thus reducing the ability to achieve a high level of vacuum in the condenser.

Leakage

There are two types of leakage that can affect the operating efficiency of a steam turbine; (1)
steam leaking out, and (2) air leaking in. Every seam, joint, and seal on the steam turbine casing has the
potential to develop a leak. Periodic inspection by the Operator during steam turbine operation will aid in
detecting any leaks and prevent reduced performance of the unit.

One area of specific concern is the high pressure section of the steam turbine. Excessive steam
leakage along the shaft of the turbine can escape to the gland seal exhauster, taking its heat energy with
it. This leakage reduces steam flow through the turbine, thus reducing turbine work and efficiency.

Air in-leakage can occur at the shaft sealing area of a low pressure turbine. A leak of this nature
draws air into the condenser by virtue of the condenser vacuum. The in-leakage of air interferes with
condenser performance causing an increase in condenser backpressure. Consequently, turbine work
and efficiency are reduced.

Finally, leakage can occur internally inside the steam turbine. Steam can leak from a high
pressure stage, past the interstage packing, to a low pressure stage. This leakage will not affect flow to
the turbine, but the work produced by the turbine will decrease. Once again, turbine efficiency is reduced.

Blade Fouling

The internal components of a steam turbine are precisely machined and assembled with close
tolerances. The accuracy of these tolerances has a great impact on the performance and efficiency of
the machine. The most common cause of lost efficiency is fouling and erosion of the turbine blades and
nozzles. Any damage to the turbine nozzles which affects their shape or cross-sectional area will result in
lost turbine efficiency.

Tests have shown that a 0.003 inch (0.0762 mm) thick deposit, uniformly distributed over the
steam path of a turbine, can decrease flow through the turbine by 1% and cause a reduced turbine
efficiency of 3%. Deposits of this type are most commonly caused by poor water chemistry in the boiler.

The most prevalent constituent which causes scaling and deposits inside a steam turbine is silica.
Silica is a crystalline substance similar to glass and sand. Next to oxygen, silica is the most common
substance found in the earth’s crust. Water taken from wells contains high concentrations of silica.
Proper treatment of the water through the cation and anion vessels is extremely important to the
performance and efficiency of the steam turbines. In general, turbine scaling can be avoided when the
feedwater silica is less that 0.07 ppm. A secondary measure of reducing silica is by controlling the boiler
feedwater pH. The concentration of silica in the steam will decrease when the boiler water pH is
increased.

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During unit operation, silica vaporizes in the boiler at high pressure and temperature. When the
vaporous silica comes in contact with the cooler, low pressure surfaces of the turbine, it ‘plates out’
forming a shiny glass-like layer. Silica deposits on the turbine blading can restrict flow through the turbine
and cause a higher than normal first stage shell pressure. This is opposite of the normal trend for first
stage pressure to vary directly with flow.

Erosion

Blade erosion is primarily caused by excessive moisture in the steam due to insufficient
superheating. As steam passes through each stage of the turbine, it reduces in pressure and expands. If
the steam is not sufficiently superheated, it will begin to condense in the later stages of the turbine. The
condensed droplets of steam impinge on the nozzle and blade surfaces, resulting in erosion. Erosion can
actually increase steam flow through the turbine because of the increased nozzle area, but will reduce
turbine efficiency because of its effect on the nozzle pressure ratio.

A secondary form of erosion can occur from the existence of debris or solids suspended in the
steam. This type of steam contamination can result from the breaking loose of slag or deposits in the
main steam piping, or from tube exfoliation in the HRSG. Exfoliation is the process in which the
protective iron oxide film on the interior surface of the HRSG superheater tubes flakes off. No matter how
clean a steam system is, a certain amount of erosion will occur over an extended period of time due to
steam contamination.

Generator Hydrogen Pressure

Some steam turbine generators utilize a hydrogen atmosphere for heat transfer and cooling.
Turbine/generator manufacturers utilize hydrogen as a cooling medium because it has a higher heat
transfer coefficient than air, and it is also less dense than air. The thin density of hydrogen minimizes
windage losses inside the generator, and thus the amount shaft horsepower required by the steam
turbine to maintain a defined electrical load. With all other factors being equal, the use of hydrogen
cooling in a generator increases the efficiency of the turbine/generator unit.

The hydrogen pressure in the generator has a slight impact on the overall plant efficiency and a
major impact on plant load. The heat transfer ability of the hydrogen is directly related it’s pressure inside
the generator. If pressure decreases, heat transfer decreases and generator cooling will be reduced. If
this occurs, the generator output must then be decreased to prevent overheating of generator
components. For this reason, it is very important that the Operator maintain the generator hydrogen
pressure at the manufacturer’s design setpoint.

2.6.4 Main Condenser

The Rankin Cycle portion of a combined cycle plant consists of the steam/water cycle
components; to include the HRSG, the steam turbine generators, and the condensers. There is no single
component in the Rankine Cycle with a greater impact on the cycle efficiency than the condenser.
Approximately 60% of the steam energy is lost in the Condenser. Accordingly, the plant Operators must
have a good understanding of how the condensers work and the factors which affect their efficiency.

The primary function of a condenser is to condense the turbine exhaust steam into condensate. In
this respect, the condenser serves as the heat sink for the Rankine Cycle and consequently, the point of
heat rejection and heat loss from the cycle. The more efficient the condenser is, the less heat that is
dumped out of the cycle, and thus overall plant efficiency is increased.

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The difference in volume between steam and water at condenser operating temperature is roughly
twenty five thousand to one; i.e. at 95°F (35°C) a pound of water occupies 0.016113 ft3 (0.00156 m3)
while steam occupies about 404.484620 ft3 (11.454 m3). This reduction in volume creates a ‘quench
effect’ in the condenser when the steam is converted from a vapor to a liquid. The quench effect
(pressure reduction) at the turbine exhaust increases turbine efficiency and is very much responsible for
maintaining condenser vacuum.

During unit operation, the steam jet air ejectors (or vacuum pump) are responsible for removing air
and non-condensable gases introduced into the condenser shell by the exhaust steam, while the
quenching effect of the circulating water is the primary action which maintains condenser vacuum.
Improper operation of the air ejectors can result in an accumulation of air and non-condensable gases
inside the condenser shell. If not removed, these gases will tend to ‘blanket’ the condenser tubes,
resulting in reduced heat transfer efficiency. Continued operation under these conditions will result in
diminished vacuum and a unit trip. For these reasons, it is very important that the Operator maintain
correct operation of the circulating water system and the steam jet air ejectors.

Condenser performance has a significant impact on the overall efficiency of the plant. The
following factors directly affect condenser performance and must be continuously monitored by the
Operator:
 Sub-Cooling
 Tube Cleanliness and Fouling
 Air In-Leakage
 Water Box Priming
 Deaerating Condenser

Sub-Cooling

Efficient operation of the condenser requires that the exhaust steam be cooled only enough to
remove its latent heat, leaving the resultant condensate at the saturation temperature. It must be kept in
mind, that all of the thermal energy removed from the exhaust steam by the condenser is dumped from
the cycle by action of the circulating water. Additional cooling of the condensate below the saturation
value is not necessary and only serves to decrease the efficiency of the cycle. Any unnecessary heat
removed from the cycle must be replaced before the condensate is reintroduced into the HRSG as
feedwater.

The reduction of the condensate temperature below the saturation point is referred to as sub-
cooling. Some sub-cooling is necessary to provide sufficient suction head to the condensate pumps;
however, excessive sub-cooling reduces cycle efficiency and should be avoided. The primary factors
which affect condenser sub-cooling are circulating water flow and temperature. From an operating
standpoint, whatever the circulating water temperature is, there will always be a certain point at which the
condenser vacuum will not increase any further, no matter how much the circulating water flow is
increased. In this respect, condenser vacuum varies with seasonal conditions; i.e., the coldness of
circulating water.

The best method to avoid excess sub-cooling is by controlling the circulating water flow and
temperature in an effort to maintain the hotwell at the highest temperature attainable, without
experiencing a reduction of condenser vacuum. An excess of circulating water flow beyond this point
results in sub-cooling of the hotwell condensate. In other words, increasing the circulating water flow
after the maximum vacuum is attained, only reduces the condensate temperature as it falls downward
into the hotwell and does nothing toward further reducing vacuum.

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In general, it is desirable to maintain hotwell temperature equal to, or as near to the turbine
exhaust steam temperature as possible. In practical terms, it is not possible to have temperatures of
turbine exhaust steam and condenser hotwell condensate. However, a good rule of thumb is no more
than 10°F between steam and condensate temperatures.

If an excessive temperature difference exists between the exhaust steam and the hotwell, the
circulating water flow through the condenser should be reduced by the amount necessary to equalize the
temperatures. This may be done by either throttling the condenser circulating water outlet valves or
reducing the number of circulating water pumps. Reducing the circulating water flow to equalize the
temperatures not only helps to retain heat in the condensate, but also reduces the circulating water pump
electrical consumption.

Tube Cleanliness and Fouling

The internal cleanliness of the condenser tubes has a direct impact on the operating efficiency of
the condenser. Any fouling or build-up of material inside the tubes acts as an insulating layer which
reduces the rate of heat transfer between the turbine exhaust steam and the circulating water. When
fouling exists, optimum condenser vacuum is not attainable due to the inhibited ability of the circulating
water to efficiently condense the turbine exhaust steam and produce the desired ‘quench’ effect needed
for maximum vacuum. The net result of fouled tubes is reduced condenser vacuum and reduced steam
turbine generator output.

Proper water treatment is essential in maintaining efficient and reliable operation of the condenser.
This holds true whether the system is being operated in the closed-loop mode using the cooling tower, or
when recirculating water out of a nearby lake, bay or river. The purpose of injecting chemicals into the
circulating water is to prevent internal scaling and corrosion from occurring inside the system components
and to control the growth of bacterial slime and algae. Not only are the chemicals used to keep the
condenser tubes clean, but also the heat transfer surfaces of the cooling tower and all other components
served by the system. For example, the growth of micro-organisms in the circulating water system can
impair flow distribution at the cooling tower and cause deterioration of the cooling tower materials. In
summary, circulating water treatment must be closely monitored and tested to ensure the injected
chemicals are effective.

Air In-Leakage

Because the condenser operates under a vacuum, the presence of a leak results in air being
drawn into the condenser. The in-leakage of air results in reduced condenser vacuum, increased steam
turbine backpressure, and decreased unit efficiency.

If a reduction of condenser vacuum is noted during unit operation, the Operator can determine the
cause of the problem by checking the discharge air flow from the steam jet air ejectors. If the air flow is
normal, the cause of reduced vacuum can be traced to the operation of the circulating water system. As
previously discussed, inadequate circulating water flow or high water temperature can result in reduced
condenser vacuum. If the discharge flow rate from the ejectors is abnormally high, an air in-leakage
condition exists.

Determining the location of an air leak on a system which is under a vacuum presents a unique
problem. If the leak is of significant size, it can be located by listening for an in-rush of air. However,
most leaks are small enough that a more sophisticated detection method must be used. One common
method is to admit non-flammable gas, such as Freon into the atmosphere around the suspected area
while monitoring the air ejector discharge with a gas detector. When gas is detected, the point where gas

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was released is identified as having a leak. Once a leak is located, temporary repairs should be made so
the turbine backpressure is reduced, and steps should be taken to initiate permanent repairs.

Inadequate seal steam to the steam turbine shaft seals is the most likely cause of an air in-
leakage problem and should be one the first items checked by the Operator. If the steam seals are
functioning properly, the Operator must consider the probability of a leak at the condenser shell and all
components and piping connected to it. Leaks can originate from any one of the following:

 Condenser or Hotwell Instrumentation

 All Condensate Drain Piping to the Condenser
 Condensate Pump Shaft Seals
 Vacuum Breaker Leakage
 Hogger Valve Not Completely Closed
 Expansion Joint Leakage Due to Cracks or Gasket Failure

Water Box Priming

During unit operation, circulating water flow through the condenser tube bundle passes through
water boxes mounted on each end of the condenser shell. The churning and continuous flow of water
through the condenser water boxes and tubes promotes the liberation of entrained air from the water. As
the small bubbles of air are released, they rise to the surface and form an air pocket inside the water
boxes. Over a period of time, continued releases of air from the water will increase the size of the air
pocket to the extent that the upper row of tubes becomes air bound. When this occurs, circulating water
can not flow through the affected tubes due to the presence of the air pocket.

As with any shell and tube heat exchanger, the amount of heat transfer is directly related to the
size of the heat transfer area. In the condenser, the heat transfer area is the combined area of all the
condenser tube surfaces. If a portion of these tubes do not have circulating water flowing through them,
they can not transfer heat and thus the rate of heat transfer through the condenser is decreased. The
end result is less effective cooling of the steam turbine exhaust, leading to a reduction of condenser
vacuum and reduced unit performance and efficiency.

To prevent the above scenario from occurring, the condenser is equipped with automatic air
release valves. Sight glasses are generally provided on the upper portion of the water boxes and they
should be periodically checked by the Operator to ensure an air pocket is not present.

Deaerating Condenser

Many condensers are designed and installed today in combined cycle plants to both condense the
turbine exhaust steam while deaerating the condensate as it falls through the tubes. This is due to the
fact that water / steam are at the same point as in a conventional power plant; that point where liberation
of dissolved gasses occurs. The benefit to this application is that there are savings in equipment, no
need for additional deaerator space (on top of the HRSG), and the ability to deaerate large quantities of
makeup water using only the turbine exhaust steam and not using an auxiliary steam source.

The deaerating condenser has lower capital costs in equipment. There is no pressure deaerator,
deaerator storage tank, extractions from the steam turbine at one or more bleeds, extraction feedwater
heater, and all of the associated piping, electrical, and pneumatics associated with a system of this
nature. Additionally, the condensate pump which pumps the water from the hotwell to the LP steam drum
ensures that the boiler feed pump is supplied with adequate NPSH at all times. This design not only
offers higher efficiency, increased power, and easier maintenance.

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The reasons that this type of condenser is useful in a combined cycle plant is based on the ability
of the condenser to liberate all dissolved oxygen from the condensate to level not exceeding 0.005 cc/l (7
ppb) if:
 Air in leakage is minimized
 Condenser makeup is less than 3% of the entire cycle. Makeup water can often exceed
8000 ppb.
 Condenser is operated at or near full load, to ensure the vacuum and condensing
temperature approach both of which affect the DO levels in the condensate

At substantially reduced loads, those during startup of the plant or during a shutdown, high DO
levels in the condensate is due to inadequate venting in the condenser. This is because the air cooling
sections in the top of the condenser become ineffective during part load. The increased vapor in that
area in combination with an inadequate venting tends to overload the condenser vacuum system and
causes rapid buildup in the condenser.

Makeup for some combined cycle plants may exceed the makeup requirements for a conventional
fuel plant. Combined cycle plants may employ steam injection for NOx control or even for power
augmentation. This steam is vented with the turbine exhaust gas and is lost to the system. In many other
cases, specifically in cogeneration applications, steam is often sent to a thermal host, which may or may
not return the condensate to the plant.

2.6.5 Deaerator

In some plants, the deaerating condenser is not available and a conventional deaerator and
deaerator storage tank must be employed. When referring to plant performance and efficiency, one
component of the heat transfer cycle that is often over-looked is the deaerator. The life and reliability of
the Boiler or HRSG is very much dependant on the operation and effectiveness of the deaerator. It is
very important that the deaerator function properly in order to prevent oxygen-based corrosion from
attacking the water side heat transfer surfaces of the Boiler or HRSG. This type of corrosion reduces
heat transfer efficiency while it is occurring and can lead to eventual tube failure and unit shutdown.

The primary function of the deaerator is to remove non-condensable gases from the feedwater
entering the Boiler or HRSG. The efficiency of the deaerator in performing this function is partially
dependent on the temperature of the incoming feedwater. If the inlet water temperature is abnormally
low, proper deaeration cannot take place. This creates the need for additional chemical injection to
control feedwater dissolved oxygen content; and thus wasted chemicals and money are expended. The
Operator must ensure that the feedwater heater to the deaerator is in service and operating properly, and
that it is not bypassed for any reason.

To efficiently perform the task of deaeration, the deaerator requires an adequate supply of steam
at the design flow and pressure requirements. If the pressure of the steam supply deteriorates,
deaeration efficiency and heating decreases; again creating the need for additional chemical injection. To
alleviate this, the Operator must ensure that the steam supply to the deaerator is continuous and
adequate, and that the pressure regulator is functioning properly.

Deaerators must be properly vented to carry off the non-condensable gases which are "driven off"
from the feedwater. However, the continuous venting of the deaerator can be a source of considerable
lost energy and is often the single largest contributor to poor feedwater system efficiency. To minimize
these losses, the deaerator should be vented only enough to meet the unit’s dissolved oxygen removal
requirements. The Operator should observe the flow of steam from the deaerator vent to ensure
obstruction or plugging is not present.

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