Chapter 1.

Computation of
Critical Depth
 (1.1) INTRODUCTION

Critical depth is an important parameter in open channel hydraulics. It can be

defined in four ways, each assuming hydrostatic pressure distribution (Heggen, 1991):

I. The depth at which final velocity equals velocity (celerity") of a gravity

wave of infinitesimal amplitude in a wide channel with a uniform

velocity profile (constant velocity at all depths) .... When water is flowing

at critical depth Yc, the flow velocity will be Vc ( = .Yg.Yc) and the flow

velocity and wave celerity will be almost equal in magnitude provided

1'1 YIY is very small (Daugherty et. al., 1985).

Where, llY = Wave height

·wave celerity is the speed at which an infinitesimally small wave travels in a fluid

(Roberson & Crowe, 1993). It can be computed by applying the basic equations (Fox &

Mcdonald, 1995)

• 14 •
 For example, if a stone were dropped into still water, waves would

move with the velocity = ...Jg.Yc. This equation, however, should not be

applied to ocean waves or waves in very deep channels (Binder, 1962).

2. The depth at which specific energy and specific force, neither

corrected for velocity profile, are minimized.

3. The depth at which specific energy corrected for velocity profile

is minimized.

4. The depth at which specific force corrected for velocity profile IS

minimized.

For most designs, the profile-corrected specific-energy minimisation is the

definition of Yc.
Determination of critical depth for the g1ven value of discharge is often of
paramount importance to an engineer for prudent hydraulic design due to several reasons,
such as:-
• The relation of critical and normal depth determines the appropriate
family of gradually varied flow profiles.
• Critical depth represents the dividing point between the two entirely
different flow regimes: supercritical and subcritical.
• Wave problems occur in flow near critical depth (Heggen, 1991). The
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (1970) suggests that flow is prone
toward instability when depth is (1.0 ± 0 l)Yc, Yc being without profile
correction.
• Control in many hydraulic structures is established at critical conditions.

• Critical depth can also serve as the characteristic length for studying
problems such as backwater profiles (Chen & Wang, 1969)

For non-exponential sections, there are no computational difficulties in solving

critical depth equations when the discharge is unknown However. when the cross-section

- 15 -
is unknown, the solution cannot be found explicitly. Simplified solutions, therefore, in the

form of rapidly converging iterative scheme have been devised so as to cut down the

rigorous supplementary mathematical operations which would otherwise be required for

available trial & error computations. This chapter, as such, will attempt at developing &

analysing alternative iterative procedures for quickly and accurately solving the implicit

problem of determining the critical-depth in circular sections (Section 1.2), compound

channel sections (Section 1.4), and standard-lined canals (Section 1.5). No iterative

solution has been presented in this report for trapezoidal channels because Pillai et. al.

(1989) have already given one (Annexure IV) and Author has not yet been able to make it

even better. Similarly, development of any algorithm is unwarranted for parabolic

channels because critical depth in such channels can be found explicitly.

Conditions have been developed that guarantee that each iterative procedure will

converge to a unique solution. The test results show that the iterative procedures

presented here meet the requirements of guaranteed convergence and computational

efficiency (speed & accuracy-wise). This would be helpful in contributing directly to the

development of computer simulation models by providing an efficient algorithm with

guaranteed convergence for critical-flow depth in circular, standard-lined, and compound

channels when necessary. Proposed algorithms can also be used over a simple

programmable calculator.

An alternative explicit mathematical solution for quickly solving the implicit

problem of critical depth calculations in circular sewers has also been developed in

Section ( 1 3). The test results will undisputedly show that the solution meets the

requirements (of computational efficiency with reasonable degree of accuracy) more

- 16-
effectively than that of available ones. This explicit solution can also be used as a starting

point for the iterative solution so as to reduce the number of iterations (Rathore, 1993 &

1998).

A Spatially Varied Flow (SVF) model for determining the location of critical-flow

section in a collector channel has been presented in Section (1.6). The analysis deals with

the case where the discharge increases downstream resulting in a change of flow regime

from subcritical to supercritical in an SVF. However, the critical flow section serves as a

control section.

• ••

- 17-
(1.2) CIRCULAR CHANNELS (ITERATIVE SOLUTION)*

Use of circular sewers is not uncommon for waste-water conveyance;

consequently it has drawn the attention of so many researchers. Two-parameter-

relationship for the determination of critical-depths in circular channels was evolved by

Rajratnam & Thiruvengadam (1961). Swamee (1972) presented non-dimensionalised

tabular solutions for the two-parameter-relationship evolved by Rajratnam &

Thiruvengadam (I 961) for the determination of critical-depths in circular channels.

Subramanya (1972) reports an approximate solution for the same. Achyuthan (1974)

expressed critical-depth in terms of specific energy. Although the concepts behind all the

above methods are still valid, there is an imperative need for replacing these particular

approaches by simplified iterative solution.

• This solution is a composite and modified version of the papers published by Rathore

(1993), Rathore & Sen (1997b), and Rathore (1998a).

- 18-
 Simple bisection method requires a larger code and hence not time-effective. Hence,

this method is not particularly recommended when greater computational accuracy is

needed. Rathore (1993) developed rapidly converging iterative solution which was

subsequently modified by Rathore (I 998a). Rathore & Sen (1997b) presented an

explicit solution for the same which reduces average absolute errors down to half when

compared to the solution presented by Hager (1991). Several trial & error solutions have

also been reported by Rathore (1992). Several other graphical solutions have also come

out of the efforts made in the directions of critical flow computations in circular channels.

Numerical Analysis

The critical depth in an open channel is determined for a given channel discharge Q

by solving the following general equation:

T g

or,

(iT Yc
Yc (-f 3
--- ........................................................ ............ (1.2.1)
g A

Depending upon the relative values of radius (r) and discharge (Q), either of the

two conditions may possibly exist i e. Yc :;:: r or Yc :S r (Figures 1.2.1 & 1.2.2). When

circular channel flows half full under critical condition, corresponding critical discharge

can be computed by substituting:

A= and T = 2r
2

- I 9-
in equation (1.2.1) which gives,

'If rsg
Q, = .y ( --------)
16

Or, in tenns of a constant "K.t which will be introduced later in this section,

condition Yc = 1 may be expressed as:

Therefore, if Q > Qh (or K. > V7d2), corresponding Y, is greater than r and vice-

versa. Top-width increases upto Y, :'0 r, then starts decreasing. In order to develop

conditions that guarantee that the iterative procedure will converge to the unique solution,

requisite iterative scheme for both these conditions may be developed separately as

hereunder:

(i) Y :S r (Q:S Qh or Y :S 1 or K4 :S .Yn/2):

From the geometry of figure (1.2.1), one gets:

....................................................... (1.2.2)

T = 2.r. Sin (<!>1) ............ ' ................................................. (1.2.3)

where,

-----------------------
(r- Y c)

By substituting the values of 'A' and 'T' from equations (1.2.2) & (1.2.3)

respectively in equation ( 1.2. I), one gets·

- 20-
 KLK2
yc ~ --------- ......................................................................... (1.2.4)
K3

where,

2 rQ2
113
(--------)
g

and,

r
K3 = ---- .<j>J - (---- - l).r. Sin (<j>I)

Equation (1.2.4) is the requisite iterative scheme which can conveniently be used

upto any desired degree of convergence tolerance with an initial depth guess of Yc = r

when Q < Qh. It is to be noted that 'K1' is a lumped coefficient as it is required to be

calculated only once.

Non-dimensionalized version of equation (1.2.4) while preserving its converging

behavior can also be presented in the following form:

' .. ' .. ' ................................................... ' ............ (12.5)

where,

2Q2
K. = ( -------) 116
g rs

- 21 -
 I
2
K,; = ---- [ljl, - (1 -Yc) . Sin (ljl,)]t/
Yc

and,

Tan·' ,I{Yc (2- Yc)}

4> I = -------------------------
(I - Yc)

ii) Yc > R (Q > Qh or Xc > 1 or K4 > ,ln;/2):

From the geometry of the Figure (1.2.2), one gets:

A= n.~- r.lj>z +(Y-R). r. Sin (<l>z) ........................................................... (1.2.6)

T "' 2.r. Sin 4>2 ...................................................... (1.2.7)

By substituting the values of 'A' and 'T' from equations (1.2.6) & (1.2.7)

respectively in equation (1.2.1), one gets:

Yc= --------... ......................................................................................

( 1 2 8)
Ks
where,

r
K, = (n- 4>z). -----+(I - -----).r.Sin 4>z
Yo Y,
Equation (1.2.8) is the requisite iterative scheme which can be used with an initial

depth guess of Y, = r when Q > Ot,.

- 22-
 Equation ( 1.2.8) can also be presented in its non-dimensionalized from as shown

hereunder:

Yc = ................................... (1.2.9)

Where,

Tan· 1 v{Yc (2- Yc)}

Ql2 = --------------------------
(Yc- 1)

I
Kw = --- [1t- Ql2 + (Yc- !).Sin (cjJ2)] !6
Yc

Initial Flow-Depth Guess

The number of iterations required for convergence up to desired degree of tolerance

is a measure of the numeric procedure speed. It was found during the test runs that the

speed (Table 1.2. I & 1.2.2) of the iterative procedure is quite sensitive to the starting

point necessitating thereby an appropriate well defined trial depth guess so as to optimise

the efficiency of the proposed computer simulation model.

Numeric procedure was found to converge for all the values of initial relative trial

depth (Yctd) in the range 0 < Yc :S I for condition I (i.e Yc :S 1, K.. :S ..J7!12, or Yc :S r).

and I <YeS 2 for condition II (i e L ~ I, K.. ~ ..J7!12, or Yc ~ r) respectively. Yc1d = I

(or, Yc~d = r) can conveniently be used as a starting point of the numeric procedure for

both the conditions (i.e Condition I & II), but the number of iterations required are

awkward as can be realized from Table (I 2.1) Moreover, while employing the values of

- 2J-
You~ as obtained from Eq. (1.3.8} as initial trial-depths, numeric procedure was found to

converge in the range 0 < Yctd::; 1.890647 except for the condition 1 <Ltd :S 1.00766234

as Yctd < I in this range. In order to develop the requisite condition of guaranteed

convergence so that 0 < Y.td::; 1 and I ::; Ycld < 2 for condition II, eq. (1.3.8) can be

modified as hereunder:

1""' < f + 0.0078556 .......................................................................(1.2.1 0) 1

Where,

2Q2
K == <------
g.r5
r
Alternatively, Author's eq. (1.3.9) can also be used as initial trial-depth guess.

However, while employing the values of Yc"' as obtained from Eq. (1.3.9) as initial trial-

depths, numeric procedure was found to converge in the range 0 < Yo1<1 :S 1.890647 except

for the condition 1 < Yctd :S 1.000813 as Yctd < I in this range. In order to develop the

requisite condition of guaranteed convergence so that 0 < Yctd :S I and 1 ::; Yet<~ < 2 for

condition II, eq. (1.3.9) can be modified as hereunder:

I""' O -F• • •" • •"• • • • • • • • m•••••••••••••••••••••m• m•••m•••••••••• m••• m••••••••(1.2.11) I

Equation (1.2.11) has the advantage that it involves lesser number of mathematical

operations that that of equation (1 .2.10).

- 24-
 Alternatively, the following equation can also be used for the detemiination of

initial depth-guess:

Yctd= 0.012 + 0.7852K 1 - 0.1552K 12 + 0.0770SK/ - 0.01SK1 4 .................... (1.2.12)

Where,

[11.9856Q2] 0.281492
}(1 == -------------------

or,

(0.9986. KJ1.6889S2

Although equation (1.2.12) makes quite an accurate initial depth-guess except for

the range 0.9993895 < Yc ~ 1.0000001, it involves more number of mathematical

operations than that of equations (1.2.10) & (1.2.11). In the range 0.9993895 < Yc ~

1. 000000 I, the estimated value of Yctd comes out to be greater than one and hence the

algorithm does not converge. The equation (1.2.12) is to be modified if at all it is to be

used to calculate Yctd so that it functions unfalteringly well throughout the range.

Yctd; 0.011387 + 0.7852K1 - 0.1552K1 2 + 0.07705K13 - 0.015K14 .............. (1.2.13)

Performance & Evaluation

Flow-chart for the optimized computational procedure has been presented in Figure

(1.2.3). Test runs were performed to evaluate the iterative numerical technique. It was

verified during the test runs that the algorithm converged for a convergence tolerance of

I o"" or more (Tables 1.2.1, 1.2.2. & 1.2.3.). Range of validity of the algorithm for various

convergence tolerances has been shown in Table (I 2.4) for the value of Yctd = 1.

- 25-
Similarly, range of validity of the algorithm for various convergence tolerances has been

shown in Tables (1.2.5), (1.2.6) and (1.2. 7) when the values of Yctd are adopted as per

equations (1.2.10), (1.2.11) and (1.2.13) respectively. It can be verified from these tables

that the values of Y,td adopted as per equation (1.2.13) provide the highest ranges of

validity to the proposed algorithm for various convergence tolerances. However, for the

convergence tolerance of 10" 1 alone, the range of validity of initial depth-guess Y,,d= 1 is

same as provided by eq. (1.2.13). Maximum, average, and minimum absolute errors for

various convergence tolerances have been shown in Table (1.2.8) for the condition Y,,d =

1 andYctd adopted as per equation (1.2.1 0).

Limitations*

Author wishes to make it very clear that this algorithm (and also all the available

ones) have their practical limitations. For example, any of the numeric procedure would

not be valid for a I 0" corrugated metal pipe under certain conditions, because the

roughness height would cause the underlying assumptions to be invalid (average pipe

diameter constant, velocity is uniform). With this in mind, Author would say that the

tolerances listed herein do not necessarily reflect the expected degree of validity of the

equations (e.g. the procedure may give a critical depth with 7 significant figures when the

prediction is valid to only 2 significant figures) .

•••

* ASCE Review (June, 1994)

- 26-
 Figure (1.2.1)

Condition 1: Y :S r (Q:S Qh or Y :S l or K4 ::; -./n/2)

- ·-··- ...,....-·"
I

./ I ., T
/ / ~ '·,_ (r- Yc)
,.., 1 ',r

/
./ '· '
+Yc
_l
j~o~•----- 2rsin<j> 1
•

- 27-
 Figure (1.2.2)
Condition II: Yc > R (Q > Qh or Yc > 1 or :K4 > Vn/2)

I~ 2rsinQ>2 ~I

'
' '·
'
', r
-+--
I
~ ... /
/
/ T
Yc-r
' ' ,tb_.· _j_
-~/~ ·- - ·- -- - ·-·
Yc

. 28-
 Figure (1.2.3)
Flow Chart of the Proposed Algorithm

YES NO
IS
K,~--/rr/2
?

COMPUTE 4l2, K,. K,

ctd) = K, K, I .K,; f(Yctd) = K. K1 I K,

Xctd = f (Yctd)
IS YES YES IS
\BS[f{Y:ctd)- ABS [f(Yctd) -
Y:ctd] >CT Y:ctd] > CT
? ?

NO NO

NO

WRITE f(Yctd)
 Table (1.2.1). Maximum No. oflterations Required for Various
Convergence Tolerances when Yctd = 1.

Maximum No. oflterations Required for

Exact Value of the Convergence Tolerance of-
Value K~
of Yc w·l w-2 w-3 w·• w-5 10-6

10-7 2.7589lx!0-5 2 2 2 2 3 03
w-5 6.014x1o-• 2 2 2 2 4 06
w-3 1.296!x1 o·2 2 2 3 5 7 09
0.10 0.2783035 2 4 6 8 10 12
0.20 0.4402862 3 4 7 9 11 13
0.30 0.5749725 3 5 7 9 11 13
0.40 0.6941425 3 5 7 9 11 03
0.50 0.8027145 2 5 7 9 11 13
0.60 0.9033525 2 4 7 9 11 13
0.70 0.9977206 2 4 7 9 11 03
0.80 1.086964 2 4 7 9 11 13
0.90 1.171934 l 4 6 8 ll 13
1.00 1.253314 1 1 l 1 1 01
1.10 1.332178 1 3 6 8 10 12
1.20 1.408172 2 4 6 9 11 13
1.30 1.482296 2 5 7 9 ll 13
1.40 1.555467 3 5 7 9 ll II
1.50 1.628763 3 5 7 9 11 13
1.60 1.704026 3 5 7 9 10 12
~
1.70 I. 784803 .) 5 6 8 9 10
1.80 1.879472 3 4 5 6 6 07
1.887583 I. 994739 3 5 10 14 19 25

- 30-
 Table (1.2.2). Average No. of Iterations Required for Various
Convergence Tolerances when Yctd is Adopted as per Eq. (1.2.10,

Average No. oflterations Required for

Exact Value of the Convergence Tolerance of-
Value ~lt
of Yc w-1 w-2 w·' w-4 10-5 w-6

10-7 2. 7589lxl o-5 I I 2 2 2 02

w-5 6.014xl0·4 1 I 2 2 3 05
10"' 1.296lxl0-2 1 1 2 4 6 08
0.10 0.2783035 1 1 3 5 8 10
0.20 0.4402862 1 1 4 6 8 10
0.30 0.5749725 1 2 4 6 8 10
0.40 0.6941425 l 2 4 6 8 10
0.50 0.8027145 1 2 4 6 8 10
0.60 0.9033525 1 1 4 6 8 10
0.70 0.9977206 1 1 4 6 8 10
0.80 1.086964 I 1 4 6 8 10
0.90 1.171934 I 1 3 5 8 10
1.00 1.2533I4 I 1 1 1 1 01
1.10 1.332178 I 1 3 5 7 09
1.20 1.408I72 I I 3 6 8 10
1.30 1.482296 I 2 4 6 8 10
1.40 1.555467 1 2 4 6 8 10
1.50 1.628763 I 2 4 6 8 10
1.60 1.704026 . I 2 4 5 7 9
1.70 1.784803 1 1 2 4 5 7
1.80 1.879472 I 2 3 3 4 5
1.887583 1.994739 4 6 11 15 20 25

- 31 -
 Table (1.2.3). Average No. oflterations Required for Various
Convergence Tolerances when Yctd is Adopted as per Eq. (1.2.13)

Average No. oflterations Required for

Exact Value of the Convergence Tolerance of-
Value
K" w·l w·2 w·3 w·• w·s 10"6
of Yc

10-7 2. 75891xl0-5 I 2 2 2 2 3
10"' 6.014xlo·• I 2 2 2 3 5
w·' 1.2961xl0.2 I I 2 4 6 8
0.10 0.2783035 1 I 1 2 4 6
0.20 0.4402862 1 1 1 3 5 7
0.30 0.5749725 1 I 1 2 4 6
0.40 0.6941425 1 1 1 2 4 7
0.50 0.8027145 1 1 1 3 5 7
0.60 0.9033525 1 1 1 2 5 7
0.70 0.9977206 1 1 1 1 3 5
0.80 1.086964 1 1 I 2 4 6
0.90 1.171934 1 1 1 2 4 6
1.00 1.253314 1 I 1 1 1 1
1.10 1.332178 1 1 1 3 6 8
1.20 1.408172 1 1 1 4 6 8
130 1.482296 1 1 1 4 6 8
1.40 1.555467 1 1 1 3 6 8
1.50 1.628763 I I I 3 5 7
1.60 1.704026 1 1 1 2 4 6
1.70 1.784803 1 1 1 2 4 5
1.80 1.879472 1 1 2 2 3 3
1.8998 2.016459 1 1 6 15 24 30
1.9110 2.038614 1 3 61 118 176 --
1.9127 2.042203 1 38 488 938 -- --
1.9129 2.042629 I 144 2496 -- -- --
1.9460 2.130950 I -- -- -- -- --

- 32-
Table (1.2.4). Range of Validity of the Iterative solution
When Yctd = 1

S. Convergence Range of Validity

No. Tolerance

1 10-l O<YcSL9300

2 10-2 O<YcSL9129

3 10-3 0 < Yc:::: 1.9129

4 w-• 0 < Yc :5 1.9127

5 10-5 O<YcS 1.9110

6 10-<; 0 < Yc :5 1.8998

- 33-
Table (1.2.5). Range of Validity of the Iterative solution
When Yctd is taken as per Equation (1.2.10)

S. Convergence Range of Validity

No. Tolerance

I w-1 0 < Yc:::; 1.8717

2 10-2 O<Yc:SI.8717

3 w·3 0 < Yc:::; 1.8717

4 10"" 0 < Yc s 1.8717

5 w-' 0 < Yc:::; 1.8717

6 10-6 0 < Yc:::; 1.8717

- 34-
Table (1.2.6). Range of Validity of the Iterative solution
When Yctd is taken as per Equation (1.2.11)

S. Convergence Range of Validity

No. Tolerance

1 10-1 0 < Yc::; 1.887583

2 10-2 0 < Yc::; 1.887583

3 w-3 0 < Yc::; 1.887583

4 w-4 0 < y c::; 1.887583

5 10_,
0 < Yc::; 1.887583

6 10-6 0 < y c::; 1.887583

- 35 -
Table (1.2. 7). Range of Validity ofthe Iterative solution
When Yctd is taken as per Equation (1.2.13)

s. Convergence Range of Validity

No. Tolerance

1 10'' 0 < Yc :S 1.9460

2 10-2 0 < Yc:; 1.9129

3 w-> 0 < Yc :S 1.9129

4 10-4 O<Yc:S !.9127

5 JOos O<Yc:S\.9110

6 10-6 0 < Yc :S 1.8998

0
36 °
 TABLE -(1.2.8)

Maximum, Average, aud Minimum Absolute Errors for

Various Convergence Tolerances When Ltd is adopted as per Equation (1.2.10)

Convergence Average No Absolute Error

Tolerance of Iterations
Required Maximum Average Minimum

3.482187 X 10-2 4.461784 x w-3 0

10"1 1.03 (2.26)
(6.135428 x w-2) (2. 60252 I x 10-2) (0)

5.558491 X 10-3 2.463184 X 10-3 0

w-2 1.50 (4.19)
(5.722165 x w-3 ) (2.865238 x w-3) (0)

5.699594 X 10-4 2.659594 X 10-4 0

w·3 3.40 (6.29)
(5.71847 X 10-4) (2.72I I 19 X 10-4) (0)

5.668402 X 10 - 5 2. 755756 X 10-5 0

IO"" 5.41 (8.34)
( 5. 686283 X 10-5) (2.75172 X 10-5) (0)

5.960465 x w- 6 2. 952958 X 10-6 0

w·5
7.42 (10.35)
(5.960465 X 10-6) (2.914059 X 10-6) (0)

1.072884 X 10-7 3.295092 X 10-7 0

10-6 9.42 (12.35)
(1.072884 X J0-7) (3.227845 x w-7)_ 10)

Values in brackets correspond to the condition Yctd = l

. 37 -
(1.3) Circular Channels: An Alternative Explicit Solution

Introduction

An explicit mathematical solution for quickly solving the implicit problem of

critical depth calculations in circular sewers has been developed by Rathore & Sen

(1997b ). The test results undisputedly show that the equation presented here meets the

requirements (of computational efficiency with reasonable degree of accuracy) more

effectively than that of available ones and, as such, can also be used as a starting point for

the proposed iterative solution so as to reduce the number of iterations (Rathore, 1993 &

1998) as " ... efficiency is measured by the number of iterations to obtain a good

approximation to the solution" (Gillet al, 1981). Ortega & Rheinboldt (1970) calls it "the

economy of the entire operation".

Subramanya (1972) has reported following direct solution for the rough

determination of critical depth in circular sewers:

- 38 -
 1
Q 0206
[c ·· 2.02/--. --- j
.J g ,p

or,

I Yc = 1.30811. K
0 618
· .......... (1.3.1) I
Where,

2Q2
K = ( _____ )1'6
g.rs

However; Eq (1.3.1) is claimed to be valid only for 0.04 :S Yc :S 1.70.

Uniform flow in circular, partially filled conduits were experimentally considered

by Sauerbrey (1969), among others. According to Sauerbrey, relative pipe filling under

normal-flow condition (Yn) cannot exceed 1.90, because unstable flow occurs otherwise.

The conduit then gets pressurized over limited reaches between which confined free

surface flow occurs. The experimental observations of Sauerbrey may be expressed as

(Hager, 1989):

nQ 3 7
2
----------
83
- ---- Yn (1- ---Yn 2), Yn < 1.90 ......................................... (1.3 2)
S0 1h d ' 16 48

An expansion of Eq. (1.3.2) for the friction slope Sr, for which Yn --~ Y states

that

- 39-
 nQ 3 7
-- I 2(1- ---I2). In< 1.90 .. .. .. . . ....................... (1.3.3)
st t.fl 3
16 48

The cross-sectional area A of partially filled conduit flow may be approximated as

(Hager, 1989) :

A y y_2
=0.47140P [I- __::- ---1
12
............................................. (13.4)
uF 8 25

Q dA
Now, the Froude number F = -------- can be obtained by substituting T = ----- :
(g.A/T)l/2 dP

SY 7Y2
Q2[ 1 - -----= - ------]
27 24 75
F2 = ----- . . ..................................... (1.3.5)
2 y y2
54 - -3
gd p [ 1 - ---- - ----]
8 25

for 0.1 < Y < 1.90, the approximation

F
.................................................. (1.3.6)
Q
[ ---- ]112
g.d5

deviates less then 6% from Eq. (1.3.5). Therefore, relative critical depth (Subscript << c

>>)may be expressed as (Hager, 1991):

.. ( 1.3. 7)

-40-
or,

Yc= ..................................................... (1.3.8)

where,

2Q2
K = ( -------) Ii6
g.~

Eq. (1.3.8) can explicitly be used for the approximate computation of critical depth

in circular channels.

Authors, however, have found that "Y c" can more appropriately be expressed as a

function of "K" in the following form with a slightly increased value of the exponent:-

............................................................(1.3 ••) I

Validation

For the validation of the proposed solution and to compare its efficiency (accuracy-

wise) as compared to the available ones, test runs were performed as follows:

• For a given value of relative critical depth, the angle"<!>" subtended at the centre

of the sewer by the free surface was directly calculated.

• As the non-dimensionalised constant "K" is a function of"<!>" & relative critical

depth, its value can subsequently be calculated

• Now, from the known value of"K", "Y c" was calculated from equations (I 3 7),

(13 8)&(13 9)

- 41 -
 • The absolute value of the difference between the given relative critical depth and

the estimated critical depth was calculated which is a measure of numerical

procedure error. Extensive test computer simulation set-up was written in

ForTran77.

Equation (1.3.1) goes out of competition as it gives excessive maximum & average

absolute errors in the range 0.04 <; Yc <; 1.70. Table (1.3.1) shows these values. Also , the

standard deviation was found to be 0.48348 which is quite unsatisfactory. Now the only

comparable equation with the author's equation is Eq. (1.3.8). Table (1.3.2) shows the

comparative performance of these two equations in the range 0. I < Y c < 1. 90. By

performing 1798 test runs for each equation, reduction in standard deviation, & average

absolute errors was found to be 10.097% and 48.19% respectively by the use of author's

equation.

Performance & Evaluation

A large number of test runs were performed over the entire range to observe the

comparative performance of the proposed equation and its validation. Test runs, as such,

show that the proposed solution performs better than the available ones so far as the

average absolute errors, standard deviation, and variance are concerned. However;

maximum absolute error was found to increase by 37.92% as compared to Eq. (1.3.8).

It was also observed during the test runs that the maximum absolute errors go on

decreasing in the Author's equation as higher range of "Yc" is brought down. For

example, in the range 0 04 < Yc < 1.70, it was found to be only 2.46% which is less than

what is given by Eq ( 1 3 17) in the same range Also, in the range 0.0885 < Yc < I 7023,

- 42-
error It not greater than I% which seems to be quite satisfactory as compared to the

corresponding value of 3.876% given by equation (1.3.8). If Author's equation is

compared with equation (1.3.8) in the range 0.1 ~ Yc ~ 1.6947001, maximum absolute

error is found to be about 0.888% at the value ofYc = 1.6947001 for both the equations

(Table 1.3 .3). Beyond this value of Yc, absolute errors shoot up rather abruptly in the

Author's equation as compared to equation (1.3.8). Comparative performance of

Author's equation versus equation (1.3.8) has graphically been depicted in Figure (1.3.1).

No such graphically depiction has been considered necessary for the comparative

performance of Author's Equation versus equation (1.3.1) as it has already been declared

out of competition in the previous page.

Conclusively; Author's equation- if used in the range 0.1 :S Y, :S 1.81651- gives

maximum absolute error not exceeding 3.815% which is equal to what is given by

equation (1.3.8) in the same range (Table 1.3.3). However; Author's equation reduces the

average absolute error down to 0.59% as compared to equation (1.3.8) which generates

1.54% average absolute error in the range 0.1 :S Y, :S 1.81651. In fact, Author's equation

can be used over a comparatively wider range (i.e. 0.02128 :S X., :S 1.81651) without

exceeding the value of maximum absolute error which is generated by equation (1.3. 8).

Summary & Conclusions

A direct non-dimensionalised solution was presented for solving the implicit

problem of determining the critical depth in circular sewers rather quickly with

reasonable degree of accuracy over a wide range of "Y," or "Yc". Test runs show that

-43-
the proposed solution performs better than the available ones so far as the standard

deviation and absolute errors (average & maximum) are concerned .

•••

- 44-
Table (1.3.1). Comparative Performance of Author's Equation
Vs
Equation (1.3.1)

Efficiency Range 0.04::5 Yc ::5 1.70

Parameters
Equation ( 1) Author's Equation

Standard 0.4834846 3.99066 x w·3

Deviation

Variance 0.2337574 1.5825 x w·5

Maximum%
Absolute Error 918.3254 2.461029

Average%
Absolute Error I 17.3937 0.5201101

- 45 -
 Table (1.3.2). Comparative Performance of Author's
Vs
Equation (1.3.8)

Efficiency Range OJ < Yc ~ 1.70 % Improvement in

Parameters Author's
Equation (1.3.8) Author's Equation Equation

Standard 0.0129265 4.257333 X 10"3 + 67.065%

Deviation

Average%
Absolute Error 1.611292 0.4828513 + 70.033%

Maximum%
Absolute Error 3.815703 0.9660659 + 74.681%

- 46-
Table (1.3.3). Comparative Chart of the Absolute Errors Given By Author's
Equation Vs Equation (1.3.8)

Absolute Error
S.No. Exact Value ofYc
Author's Eq. Eq. (L3.8)

1 0.02128 -3.815 +4.228

2 0.08850 -1.000 +3.876
3 0.100 -0.785 +3.815
4 0.16385 0.000 +3.480
5 0.20 +0.263 +3.289
6 0.30 +0.661 +2.762
7 0.40 + 0.787 +2.234
8 0.50 +0.765 +1.708
9 0.60 +0.651 +1.185
10 0.70 +0.477 +0.670
11 0.833431 +0.188 0.000
12 0.913401 0.000 --0.387
13 1.00 -0.204 -0.785
14 l.IO -0.373 -1.159
15 1.20 -0.569 -1.538
16 1.30 -0.698 -1.837
17 1.40 -0.717 -2.017
18 1.50 -0.554 -2.010
19 1.611014 0.000 -1.631
20 1.6947011 +0.888 --0.888
21 1.7023 +1.000 -0.790
22 1. 750724 +1.888 0.000
23 1.816151 +3.815 +1.765
24 1.90 +8.960 +6.595

-47-
 Figure (1.3.1)
%Errors given by Author's Equation and Equation (1.3.8)
10
8 r··· ..... ,........ ,.......... ,.......... ,.......... ,.................... . --·-----··:-
' '
----------~- --- _____!_______ -- ---------- ---------- ---------- ------ ---·- --
'
6 ----·- ------ ·•· --------·------ ___ ;_ ------- ---- ----~ ---- .......... -----~---- ----·-:--- ----- -·--- -----
:
-:---
'
---- --~-- ---- --~-
'
----~ ----- ---···· -----·-·--·
'' ''
4 ........ -------·····------- ;··· --····-:·------- -~----------~- ----- --~------- ---:----- ----+ --------- --------- ---------- -------
' '
--~---- ---- --- -----~
2 :
·--~----- ----~----- ----~------ .... ..... -----~ .... ----~------· --~---
0
-2 ... - -.... -.. -. -- ...... ·- ---- ---··- ---- .... ·- ···--· ·---!··--- ..... ~-------
-4
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9
Normalised Critical Depth >>> !•AUthOr's Equation • Equation ( 1.3.8) -I
 (1.4) COMPOUND CANALS

As often as not non-exponential Compound Canal Sections (CCS) such as those in

cutting and filling are adopted for irrigation and power canals. This Section analyzes a

non-dimensionalised iterative procedure* for quickly and accurately solving the implicit

problem of determining the critical flow depth in CCS. The test results show that the

iterative procedure presented here meets the requirements of guaranteed convergence to a

unique solution and highest computational efficiency (accuracy and speed-wise).

* This procedure was presented by Rathore ( 1997a) in his paper entitled Computation

of Critical Flow Depth in Compound Channels in the (J) Indian Water Works

Association

-49-
Numerical Analysis

Consider a fixed location in CCS (Figure 1.4.1) for any given depth of flow

Y > De, the following geometric relations can be defined:

B,
2
A(Y) = C;.Y2 + Y [B + B1 + 2C1Dc- 2Dc.C,] + Dc [C,- C1- ----]. ................ (1.4.1)
De
T(Y) = B + ZY(Z1 + Zz) + B1 - 2Dc.(Z3 + Z•)

= ... T(Y) = B + ZYC2 + B1- 2Dc.C............................................................. (1.4.2)

\\>'here,

C 1 and C2 are constants defined in terms of the side slopes in cutting (i.e. z, and

Ct = tl [Zt, Zz] = [Zt + Zz]w ................................................................ (1.4.3)

Cz = fz [Zt, Zz] = [Zt + Zz] ........................................................................ (1.4.4)

Similarly CJ and C 4 can be defined in terms of the side slopes in filling (i.e. ZJ, z.)
as:

c3 = r, [Z3,~] = [Z3+ z.t 2

.. .. ... . . ... ... ... ... ... ... . ........................... (145)

c.= fz [ZJ, z.) = [Z3 + 2 4 ] ..........................................................•....•......... (1.4.6)

By substituting the values of A(Y) and T(Y) from equations (l.4.1) and (1.4.2)

respectively in equation (1.2.1) and rearranging, one gets:

Ql
C3.Yc + 2Yc.Kt.C; + K~CJ = (---(3 [B + 2Ye.C 2 + B 1 - 2Dc(Z 3 + ~)) 1 G
2

%ere,

K, ~ [B + B, + 2C,Dc- 2Dc.C,] f2C,

B,
~ De
2
Kl [(',- C1 - ---] fC 3
De
-50-
Where,

1 Q2
113
2
= ... Yc + 2K 1Yc = ----(----) .[K 2+ Y c] 113 .(2C 2 ) 113 - K s
c3 g

Adding K12 on both sides,

2
l ZC2Q
2 2 113 2
= ... Y c + 2Kt Yc + Kt = ----(---------)w[K2 + Yc] - Ks + Kt
c3 g

I ZC2Q 2
= ... (Yc +Kti = ----(---------)
113 [K2+ Yc]l/3 - Ks + Kt 2
c3 g

= ... I f(Yc)="[~ 113

+ {K3(K2+Y)} ]- K 1 ............................................ (1.4.7)

where,

ZC2Q2
K3 = { ----------} , and
3
gC3

K,= K/-Ks

Equation (1.4. 7) is the requisite iterative scheme which converges rapidly

Moreover, non-dimensionalised version of equation (I .4. 7) can be shown in the following

form while preserving its rapidly converging behaviour:

~·
,.. ""'
,.,•••••••
.,r. -t"' ~ .- - ..<0\.. ~"'
.,
• •· r
~
' ,.
r """' ~
T ·,~-:'fiJ
.·.·r )'1o
: • I ~i'l'(s;.~) \ 11!
.
• ....
j
. \ I
\ )
) ~
I
.
•
1-
T 187~
 f(Yc) = "!K.I + {Kl(fu+ X)} 113] - Kt ....................................(1.4.7A)

where,

Yc=Yc/B

Kz = [B + B1- 2Dc.C4]/2BCz

2CzQ 2
K3 = { ------------} , and
gB5C/

B1
2
K4 = K1 - Dc2 [CJ - C1- ----] /B 2C3
De

For a given flow rate Qo > 0, ifY = f(Y), then,

Qo=Q(Y)

Given any initial Y 1 > 0, Yn is iteratively defined by:

Yn+l = f]Yn] ... ... . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. .. . . . .. . .. . . . . . • . . . ....................... (1.4.9)

If Yo denotes the true solution of Qo = Q(Yo); then Yo = fl:Yo). Also, the

following premises of fl:Y) can mathematically shown to be true:

PREMISE I. IfY <Yo, then Y < f(Y) <Yo.

PREMISE II. If Yo< Y, the Yo< f(Y) < Y.

It can be shown that the sequence Yn converges to Yo. If the initial value, Y1 is less

than or equal to Yo, then premise I says that Yn is an increasing sequence bounded above

by Yo. Such a sequence must converge to some value y, Eq. (1.4.9) and the continuity

of f give Y• = flY.), and hence Qo = Q(Y •). Since the latter equation has Yo as its

unique solution, Y• = Yo. If the initial value Y, is greater or equal to Yo, then one gets

Yn converge downward to Yo using a similar argument with premise II

-52-
 Equation (1.4.7) and (1.4.7A) offer monotonous convergence and have yet another

ingenuity that they can conveniently be used for normal depth calculations in trapezoidal

channel as well [i.e. Yn :S De] simply by substituting Bt =De= 0, C4 = Cz, and C3 =Ct.

By making such substitution, lumped-coefficients* used in equations (1.4.7) get reduced

to the following form:

B
Kt = -----,and
2C,

B
K2 = ----- , and
c2
2CzQ 2
K3 = { ---------} , and
3
gCt

Performance & Evaluation

Test runs of the numerical procedure were performed as follows. Channel cross-

section as shown in Fig. (1.4.1) was selected for the performance study of the proposed

iterative procedure. Critical outflow rates were computed directly from the equations

using critical depths varying from O.oi to 3.00m in equal steps of O.Olm. The selected

cross-section and the computed critical outflow rate were then used in the numerical

• Lumped coefficients are calculated only once and hence the algorithm works faster

-53-
procedure to estimate the critical flow-depth at a specified convergence tolerance and an

initial critical flow-depth guess. The absolute value of the difference between the given

and the estimated critical flow-depths is a measure of the numerical procedure error. The

number of iterations required for requisite convergence is a measure of the numerical

procedure speed.

For each selected convergence tolerance and initial flow-depth guess, a set of 300

test-runs was performed using as many equally spaced values of critical flow-depth. Out

of these critical depth values, half were meant for the condition Yc :S De and the

remaining half (i.e. I 50) were meant for the condition Yc > De. In all, 55 such test sets

were run and hence 16500 (i.e. 55x300) test runs were performed. Tables (1.4.1) and

(1.4.2) summarizes the results of these tests. Maximum absolute errors were found to be

9.9494x10'3, 9.9372xl0 4 , 9.173lxl0 4 , 1.4066xl0'5 and 1.66893xl0-6 for the

convergence tolerances of 10· 1, 10'2, 10'3 , 104 , and 10'5 respectively (Table 1.4.2).

Summary & Conclusions

An iterative procedure was presented for quickly and accurately solving the

implicit problem of determining the critical depth in CCSs. Several thousand test runs

were performed to evaluate the effectiveness of the proposed iterative procedure. It was

verified during the test runs that the algorithm always converged for a convergence

tolerance of I 0-6 or more and the absolute errors were not affected by initial flow depth

guess. However, tolerances above 10-6 are not recommended for single precision values

because truncation errors may be such that the procedure never converges. Absolute

-54-
errors decreased with decreased tolerance. Also, method was not found to be much

sensitive to the starting point (Table I .4. I).

Tests similar to those devised for the iterative procedure were also devised for the

Newton-Raphson method. It was observed that the iterative procedure is computationally

efficient comparable to the Newton-Raphson method with suitable starting position

(number of iterations and computation times were generally a little larger for the Newton-

Raphson method) and very insensitive to starting position.

In conclusion; the test results have shown that the iterative procedure presented

here meets the requirement of guaranteed convergence, highest computational efficiency

(speed and accuracy wise) and ability to handle both trapezoidal and compound canal

cross sections.

A computer program has been written to implement the procedure on a computer.

The source code was written in Fortran for efficiency and portability, especially among

personal computers.

***

-55-
 Figure (1.4.1)
Typical Compound Canal Section (CCS) used for Performance Study

ZONEII(Yc>Dc)
Yc (orYn)

14
LB,

(1.22)
•I +
ZONE I (Yc :SDc)

1
B(3 m)
14 •I
Z (Average) ~ 1.20
Z1 (Average)~ 1.00

-56-
Figure (1.4.2). Flow-chart of the Proposed Algorithm for the Computation
of Critical-Depth in Compound Canals

Compute C~, Cz

Yes

Compute Yc from Eq. (1.4.7)

Is Yes
ABS(Yc-Y) > CT Y = Yc; I= I+ I
?

-57-
 Table (1.4.1)
Number oflterations Required
for
Various Convergence Tolerances & Initial Depth Guess

Initial No. oflterations Required for the Convergence Tolerance of:

Flow
Depth 10"' 10-2 1 o·3 104 1o·'
Guess i
'
YcSDi Yc>D YcsD iYc>D YcsD Yc>D YcsD i Yc>D Ycsoi Yc>D
4 \
10 3 3 4 ; 4 5 5 6 6 7 7
)
JO"' 3 3 4 i
i 4 5 5 6 6 7 7
10-2 3 3 4 l' 4 5 5 6 6 7 7
j
JO"' 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7
I 2 3 7
' 7
3 4 4 5 6 6
0 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 ;
7
10 3 j
3 4 4 5 6 7 6 8 7
50 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8
102 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8
103 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8
1o• 4 4 5 s 6 6 8 9
8 ' 9

- 58-
 Table (1.4.2)
Maximum Absolute Errors for Various Convergence Tolerances
and
Initial Deptb-Guess

Initial Maximum Absolute Errors for the Convergence Tolerances of:

Depth
Guess w·' w-2 w-3 10-4 w·'
3
104 6.070lx10- 7.76!4x104 8.3804xl o·' 8.8214x10-6 1.2516x10-6

1o-3 6.0672xl o·3 7.7545x1 0

4
8.3804xW5 8.8214x!0-6 1.2516x10-6

w-2 6.0405xl0-3 7. 7545x1 0

4
8.3327x1 o·' 8.8214xl0-6 l.2516xl0-6

w·' 6.9257xl0-3 7.9929x10

4
8.4519x1 o·s 8.9406xl 0-6 l.l920x 10-6

1 9.9494xl o·3 9.9372xW4 1.0228x!O·' l.0490x1 o-5 1.6689x1 0-6

0 6.0701 xl o·' 7764lxl0 4 8.3804xlo·' 8.8214xl 0-6 1.2516x 10-6

10 8.3601xl0-3 7.7486x104 8.7738xro·' l.0252xl o·' 1.6689x1 0-6

50 9.8021 x1 o-3 1. 0268x 104 1.0442x!O·' 1.0728xl o-5 1.1920x10-6

102 8.3690x 1o·3 9.1683x1 0

4
9.6797x1 o·' 1.00l3xl 0-6 1.1920x10-6

7.3902x1 o·3 1.4066xl o·'

3
10 8.6158x1 04 9.1731x104 1. 6689x 10-6

104 8. 9287x I o-3 9.4243x I 04 1.1754xl04 I .4066x1 o·' I. 6689x 10-6

-59-
(1.5) STANDARD LINED CANALS

This section analyses a rapidly convergmg & non-dimensionalised iterative

procedure* for quickly and accurately solving the implicit problem of determining the

critical flow depths in Standard Lined Canals (SLCs). The test results show that the

iterative procedure presented here meets the requirements of guaranteed convergence to a

unique solution and high computational efficiency (accuracy and speed-wise). The

findings will be helpful in contributing directly to the development of flexible

mathematical simulation model by providing an efficient algorithm with guaranteed

convergence for computing critical flow depths when necessary. Proposed algorithm can

also be used over a simple calculator.

*This procedure was presented by Rathore (l994b) in his paper entitled Critical Depth

Calculations in Standard Lined Cannals in the (l) Indian Water Works

Association.

- 60-
Introduction
It is now an accepted practice to line all new 1J18.jor canals and the need for lining

of canals, whenever feasible, is well recognized (Subramanya & Sahu, 1991). For such

lined canals, the Bureau of Standards (IS: 4745-1968) has recommended a standard lined

canal sections which is a trapezoidal section with corners rounded off with radius equal to

full supply depth (Figure 1.5.1 ). The limiting case of this section with zero bottom width

is termed as the standard lined triangular section and is recomnrended by the Central

Water Commission (India) for discharge less than 55m3/second (Figure 1.5.2).

It is felt that a simple procedure for computing the critical depth in such canals is

warranted for use by hydraulic engineers; consequently it has drawn the attention of

many researchers and several graphical and tabular relationships correlating the critical

flow parameters have come out of efforts made in this direction. Although the concepts

behind these methods are still valid, there is an imperative need for replacing these

particular approaches by an efficient computational algorithm for the ease of

computation.

The purpose of this section is to accomplish the following:

1. Develop an unfaltering iterative procedures for quickly and accurately finding normal

flow depth in various channel cross sections;

2. Find conditions (for each case) guaranteeing both a solution that is unique and an

iterative procedure that will converge to the solution;

3. Perform test runs to verify convergence and computational efficiency (acc\lracy and

speed-wise) of the proposed algorithm.

- 61 -
4. Present flow-chart of the proposed algorithm.

Numerical analysis

Consider a SLC cross-section satisfying the following conditions:

Q, A and T are non negative, continuous, and strictly increasing.

2. Q(O) =A (0) = 0, and Q (oo) =A (oo) = oo

In such SLCs, eq. (1.2. I) is to be solved for the following two conditions:

(I) Yc > YLor Q > QL [T i" f(<j>, Drs)]

(II) Yc :0: Y1. or Q :0: QL [T = f( <j>, Drs)]

Where,

YL = Dr•. tan(e /2).Sin(9)

AL = Dr•. tan(e /2).Sin((9)

QL = ..Jg.h3/TL = ;/[g.AL3/(BJ +Z YL)]

Condition I: [Y c > YL or Q > QL {T :;t f( <j>, Drs)})

From the geometry of the SLCS (Figure 1.5.1 ), one gets:

2
A(Y) = B1.Y + Z.Y - K1.Z ... .. ........................................................ (1.5.1)

Where,

B1 = B + 2.Dr•. tan(9 /2), and

Ko = Dr,2/Z[2 tan(e /2)- 9]

Also,

T(Y) = 81 + 2.ZYc (1 52)

-62-
 By introducing the values of "A" & "T" from equation (1.5.1) & (1.5.2)

respectively in ( 1.2.1) , one gets:

Q2
2
(---)u3(B 1 + 2 Z.Y c) 113 =B 1.Y + Z.Yc - Ko.Z
g

2.Q2
=~(--------) 113 (K2 + Yc) 113 = 2Kz.Yc + Yc2 - Ko
gZ2

Where,

Kz = Bt12Z = (B + 2.Drs.tan(6 /2))/2Z

Adding Kl on both sides,

2.Q2
=~(--------)''3(K2 + Yc)''J
gZ2

=~ I Yc = V(K, +{&(Kz +Yc)113}] - K2 ................................................. (1.5.3) I

Where,

K, = Ko + K/ , and

2.Q2
K3 =(--·-----)
gZ2

Non-dimensionalised version of equation (1.5.3) can also be presented while

preserving its rapidly converging behavior:

=~ I Yc = V[KJ. +{fu(Kz +Yc) 113}] - fu ..............................................(1.5.3A) I

Where,

_fu = Btf2BZ = (B + 2.Drs.tan(6 /2))/2BZ

IS;,= Dr/IZ[2 tan(e /2)- f]/B 2 + K2 2 , and

- 63 -
 2Q2
}(3 =-(---------)
gZ2B5

For standard lined triangular sections (Figure 1.5.2), equations (1.5.3) &

(I 5.3A) can be made applicable by substituting:

B =0 or 81 = 2.Drs.tan(e /2)

Condition ll: [Yc S YL or Q :S QL {T = f( (jl, Drs)})

Equations (1.5.3) and (1.5.3A) are not valid for partial discharge conditions

t.e. Yc :0: Y1. which may occur in a channel (Subramanya & Sahu, 1991) as:

(a) A uniform flow under conditions of specific regulations, and

(b) A non-uniform flow in various gradually varied flow situations. Partial flow

parameters corresponding to uniform flow would be needed in many solution

procedures of such gradually varied flows.

For the condition Yc :0: YLor Q :0: QL [T = f(1\l, Drs)]

A(Y) = B.Yc+Dr/<!J-[{Drs-Yc}Drs.Sin((jl)] ................................................. (l.5.4)

T(Y) = B + 2Dr5 .Sin(<!J) ..................................................................................... (1.5.5)

By introducing the values of "A" & "T" from equation (1.5.5) & (1.5.6)

respectively in (I .2.1 ), a simplified iterative scheme can be expressed in the following

form:

I Yc =- KfC((jl) .............................................................................. (1.5 6)

Where,

-.1(2Drs- Yc - Y c2)
4> =- tan-I [ -----·---------)
D-Ye

-64-
 [B + 2Drs Sin(l\>)t'
K(l\>) --------------------------------------------------- and
B + Drs21\>/Yc- [{Dr,JYc- I )Drs.Sin(!j>}]

Q2
1/3
K = [ ---- ]
g

Non-dimensionalised version of equation (1.5.6) can also be presented while

preserving its converging behaviour:

Xc = K-K(4>) .................................................................................................(1.5.6A~
Where,

Yc = Yc/ Drs

113
[B/Drs + 2.Sin(4>)]
K( 4>) = ----------------------------------------------- and
B1Drs+4>/Yc- [{1/Yc-l}Sin(!j>)]

Q2
K = [ -------- t'
5
gDrs

Performance & Evaluation

Test runs of the proposed procedure were performed so as to determine its speed as

a function of initial flow-depth guess and convergence tolerance. For various values of Q,

B, Z, and D as shown in Table (1.5.1.); critical depths for 1320 such combinations and

also for selected convergence tolerances (I o· 1, 10·2 , 10·3, 10-4, and 10'5) and flow-depth

guess were computed. As such, 55 sets comprising of 1119 test runs in each of them were

performed for the condition Q > Q~.. As the test results do not converge for the value of

- 65-
initial flow-depth guess greater than YL when Q sOL> five sets of 201 test runs were
5
performed for various convergences tolerances (I o· 1 to 10" ) using an initial depth guess

equal to YL for the condition Q ~ QL. In all, 62,550 (i.e. 55 x 1119 + 5 x 201) test runs

were performed on an IBM compatible microcomputer to observe the unfaltering

convergence and computational efficiency of the proposed iterative procedure. Test

results are shown in Table (1.5.2). Flow-chart of the proposed algorithm is depicted as

Figure (1.5.3).

Summary & Conclusions

An iterative procedure was presented for quickly and accurately solving the

implicit problem of determining the critical depth in SLCs. Several thousand test runs

were performed to evaluate the effectiveness of the proposed iterative procedure. It was

verified during the test runs that the algorithm always converged for a convergence

tolerance of 10-6 or more and the absolute errors were not affected by initial flow depth

guess However, tolerances above I 0-6 are not recommended for single precision values

because truncation errors may be such that the procedure never converges. Absolute

errors decreased with decreased tolerance. Also, method was not found to be much

sensitive to the starting point (Table 1.5.2).

Tests similar to those devised for the iterative procedure were also devised for the

Newton-Raphson method. It was observed that the iterative procedure is computationally

efficient comparable to the Newton-Raphson method with suitable starting position

(number of iterations and computation times were generally a little larger for the Newton-

Raphson method) and very insensitive to starting position

- 66-
 In conclusion; the test results have shown that the iterative procedure presented

here meets the requirement of guaranteed convergence, high computational efficiency

(speed and accuracy wise) and ability to handle both trapezoidal and triangular standard

lined canal cross-sections.

A computer program has been written to implement the procedure on a computer.

The source code was written in Fortran for efficiency and portability, especially among

personal computers.

***

- 67-
 Figure (1.5.1)
Standard Lined Trapezoidal Channel Section for Q >55m 3/sec.

Full Supply Depth Line

B
1 + - - - - - - - - BJ

- 68-
 Figure (1.5.2)
3
Standard Lined Triangular Channel Section for Q :5 55 m /sec.

'.

'
~I
.
~t
ZONE II

: 24> 'Dts
I . I ' Drs
I I \
I ',

j4 ~\
i Drstan(8/2)

-69-
 Figure (1.5.3)
Flow Chart of the Proposed Algorithm

READ Dis, Q, g, CT, Z, B, Y,,"

COMPUTE QL, e

YES NO
IS
Q>QL
?
COMPUTE K, Y1,: Yctd=Y1

COMPUTE K~, K2, K, COMPUTE <jl, K(<jl)

Yctd=Yc: COMPUTEYc
Yctd=Yc: COMPUTEYc from Eq. (1.5.6)
from Eq. (1.5.3)

IS YES YES IS
ABS(Yc-Yctd) ABS (Yc-
>CT Yctd) >CT
? ?

NO NO

WRITE Yc
Table (1.5.1) Range of Flow-Parameters Used In Test Runs

Variable Lower Value Upper Value Step

Q 1.00 501 50.00

z 0.5 1.50 0.20

Dfs 0.50 6.50 2.00
B l.OOm ll.OOm 2.00m

- 71 -
 Table (1.5.2)

Maximum Number of Iterations Required

for
Various Convergence Tolerances & Initial Depth Guess

Initial Max. No. oflterations Required for Convergence Tolerance of

Flow
Depth 10"' 10-2 w-3 10-4 10-5
Guess
Condition I (Q > QL)
10·4 4 6 7 8 10
10"3 4 6 7 8 10
1.0 4 6 7 8 9
2.0 4 5 7 8 9
3 4 5 7 8 9
6 4 5 6 7 9
20 4 5 6 8 9
50 4 6 7 8 9
102 4 6 7 8 10
103 5 6 7 9 10
104 5 6 8 9 10

Condition II (Q :5 Qd

YL 4 5 7 9 10

- 72-
(1.6) LOCATION OF CRITICAL FLOW SECTION
(THE SVF MODEL)

The present analysis deals with the case of a collector channel having zero inflow
at the discharge upstream and the discharge increasing downstream resulting in a change

offlow regime from subcritical to supercritical in an SVF. An efficient mathematical model

as such. has been developed for the location of critical flow section in a collector channel.

- 73-
 Introduction

A steady spatially-vmied flow represents a gradually-varied flow with nonuniform

discharge. The discharge in the channelva1ies along the length ofthe channel due to lateral

addition or withdrawal. Thus Spatially-Varied Flow (SVF) can be classified into two

categmies:

i) SVF with increasing discharge, and

ii) SVFwith decreasing discharge.

SVF with increasing discharge finds considerable practical applications. Flows

in side-channel spillway. wash-water troughs in filler plants, roof gutters, highway

gutters are some of the typical instances. If the flow is subcritical eve1ywhere in the

channel, the control of the profile will be located at the downstream end of cham1el.

However, for all other flow situations, the determination of the control point is a

necessity to sta1t the computation. In an SVF with increasing discharges, the critical

depth line is not a straight line parallel to the bed as in GVF but is a curved line.

Depending upon the combination of the bottom slope, channel roughness and channd

geometly, the CJitical depth of spatially-va1ied flow can occur at a location somewhere

between the ends of the channel, giving rise to a profile which may he subcritical

during the first pa1t and ~upei"Clitical in the subsequent pa1t ofthe channel (Subramanya.

1990). A method of calculation of the critical depth and its location based on the

concept of' equivalent CJitical depth channel" has been proposed by Hind ( 1926 ). An

altemative method based on transitional profiles suggested by Smith ( l<l67) has the

advantages like simplicity and less tedious ~:olculations compared to Hind's method.

As ,;~vera] hydraulic engineering acti1·iti,., in open channel flow involve· the

computation of Spati8ll~ Varied Flo1~ (S\T). a .:omputatinn model ha,; been

de1·eloped for SVF in this chapter ·n1e discharge in a collector channel. having 7CJO

- 74 -
 inflow at the slatting point upstream, is the product of the constant lateral inflow

discharge per unit length and the length ofthe channel fi·om the slatting point upstream

to the section of interest. Thus one can write:

Q=~············································· .............................................. ~.6~

Where,

Q =discharge at distance x measured fi-om the slatting point upstream and,

q =lateral inflow discharge per unit length.

According to Chow( 1959), in case ofthe lateral flow beingnomllll to the collector

channel (assuming hydrostatic pressure and uniform velocity distribution), the dynamic

equation ofat1 SVF is written in tenns of the vaiiation offree smface profile :

. d)' S,-S-2(Dix)P
..................................... (1.6.2)
dx 1-P

\Vhere,

So= challllel bed slope, and

S = fiiction slope.

l11e Fronde number(F) is given by:

Q!A /Qr
F= =

Solution of equation (I 6.2) can be obtain.:d using a tail Wdter condition or conn·ol

section. As the present analysis deal,; \lith tlu! ca;e where the discharge increases

d(mmtt eam resulting in a change of flow re.J!int-· li·ont su!K-ritical to supercritical in an

- 75 -
 SVF, the critical flow section serves as a .:ontrol section. Thus, equation (1.6:2) is

applied to the critical flow section, where Fronde number F is unity. Thus, one gets

S.,- S,- (D/x) = 0 .................................... ............. (1.6.4)

In the above, subscript 'c' refers to the parameters associated with the critical flow

section. At the critical flow section equation ( 1.6.6) becomes:

.................. ........................... 06~

The location ofthe critical flow section x,. can be obtained using equations( 1.6. 3) and

( 1.6.5) as:

.......................................................... (1.6.6)

As no physical solution can be obtained iiom (I. 6. 4) for cettain design parameters.

designers find it difficult to confum the existence of a ctitical section without any

mathematical guidance. To establish such guidance for obtaining feasible solution of equation

( 1.6.4) substituting equation ( 1.6.6) into equation ( 1.6.4) and nonnalizing, one gets:

s 2g
-+
s, ;a,
-=) ....................................................... (/.6. 7)

\\here g = q 1(sjf"i 15! l =Ali, t! = M 2

• and I= l~ng.th parameter of channel. Also

equation (I 6 6) can be expressed in a nonHali7<:d fonn as·

- 76-
 .. ........... . .......... ~6~

where~;= x.s jl. In the present study, the tenn S, is determined using the flow resistance

equations of Von I<annan (for rough regime) and Jain (I 976) (for transitional & smooth

regimes).

Rough Regime

For a complete rough regime, the Von Katman equation offlow resistance can be

used for the determination offiiction slopeS. The Von Karman eqation is:
'

I kP
' '
[ ; : = I.I4- 0.86/n .................. " .····· ......................... {1. 6 9)
4A
'

The fiiction factor can be extracted from the equation ofbed shear as (Dey, 2000 ):

1:= p(Q/ At= (A/ P) S, ................................... (1. 6. 10)

8

Using equations(l.6.9) and( 1.6. 10), one can WJite:

P,Q',
s,. = .......................... (1.6.11)

Replacing Qc from equation ( 1.6.5) into equation ( 1.6.11) and nomtalizing. }ields

- 77-
 p
-,
s' ~ .................... ········· (1.6. 12)

8T
-, [ 114-086h• (~~'- ~'
where P
- = P!l, and K =KIf-.~ ,\

Transitional Regime
In transitional regime, the Colebrook-White equation is applicable (Dey, 2000).

While the fiictionallosEes in full-bore flow pipes have been fully investigated by Colebrook

& White, a similar complete investigation ofthe Chezy coefficient C has not been completed.

· Titis is not only due to the extra vaiiables involved in fi"ee smface flows but also to the

wide range of surface rougbnesses met in practice and the difficulty in achieving steady

unifonn conditions outside the laboratmy. Defects in the setting of chamlelor sewer slopes,

obstmctions due to fuulty jii.Ilctions and the inherently II.IlsteadynatiJ.I·e ofmuch fi·ee SII.Iface

flow combine to make such a study difficult (Douglas et. a!., 1999). The Ameiican Society
'
of Civil Engineers 1963 study concruded that the behaviour ofChezy C could be infeiTed

directly from the full-bore flow fiiction factor as :

c~ v (2g!A.},

where the approptiate value of the fiiction factor A was to be detemlined from the

Colebrook-White eqation with the charactetistic length being taken as the hydraulic mean

radius. R =AlP Nonnally the Colebrook-Wltite equation is recognized in its full-bore

flo\\ ti mn \dtere the appropriate value of R isd -1. Hence the coefficients will change in
the: equation as·

- 78-
 l ......................... (1.6.13A)

Where Re is defi1~ed as pVR!p , V being the local cross-section mean flow velocity and

K, being the local roughness (Douglas et.aL, 1999).

Experimental investigations have shown that for partially filled pipe flow, where
the pipe diameter is less than a metre, the Colebrook-White-based resistance is more

accurate than the predictions of the Manning expression. At constant channel slope

Manning's n was found to vary with flow depth in pa1tially filled pipe flows where the

maximum depth was restiicted to less than a metre (Douglas et.al., 1999).

The advantage ofusing the Colebrook-White equation is that it covers the regime

offlow Jiomhydraulic smooth regime to rough regime (Dey, 2000). lbe rough or smooth

regime can be verified fl-om the values of relative roughness E ( = 0. 25k/A' 1) and flow

Reynolds number Re (= 4QP1 V 1) using the well-known Moody diagram However, as

the Colebrook-White equation is an implicit equation oO.., the use of flow resistance

equation proposed by Jain ( 1976)- which is the explicit from of the Colebrook-White

equation-makes the solution simpler. The equation ofJain ( 1976) is:

( l
I KP 6./ro'>p f) f)

- - =114-0.86/n ' ' ' .................... (1.6.13)

r: 4A
'
+
Q,/1')

I 'sing equations ( I. 6. 5) and ( I 6. I0 ). equ<i! ion ( I. tl 13) is e'\1nessed innonnalized fonn

as

- 79-
 p
-,
s,. ~ "' .. (1.6. 14)

6. 1!3", E,', I,'·'' ] 2

4A
-,.
135

where,

f3 ~ vl(g"'flS)

Smooth Regime
The complete smooth regime is seldom obtained in practice. The channel is con-

sidered to be smooth when the roughness elements are submerged by the laminar-sublayer.

l11e Nikuradse equation is applicable in smooth regime. As this equation is an implicit

solution ofA, Jain (1976) proposed an explicit fotm of the Nikuradse equation. The

equation is :

-~ - /.5146 .................................... (1.6.15)

Using equations( 1.6.5) & ( 1.6. 10), equation (I. 6. 15) is expressed innonnalized fotm as:

Ec
s,. = ...................... ( 1. 6. I 6)

1.5146 ] '

- 80-
 Computational Steps

The equations developed in the preceding pages are used to design a collector

channel. As input data, the values ofq, So, K, and other channel characteiistic parameters

are needed, such as for rectangular channel B; for trapezoidal challllel B, Z1 and Z2 , and

for circular channel d The steps involved for the computation are given below :

I. Compute fL K, and !3.

2. Consider COlllplete rough regime. SubstituteS, from equation ( 1. 6.12) to equation

( 1.6. 7).

3. Compute .I>umerically, using the Muller method (Conte and de Boor,

1987)

4. Computed_,, f.,. and I,.·

5. Using(I.6.8)computeK,

6 Compute x, ( = K,!So./).

· 7. Compute~: and R.

8. Using the Moody diagram, check the hydraulic regime considered in

step 2.

9. lfagreeable, stop computation. Othe1wise. in step 2, use equation (1.6.14) or

( 1.6.16) in place of equation ( 1.6.12) and repeat steps 2 to 8.

Summary & Conclusion

In this section a numerical procedure has been presented for locating the ciitical

section of a collector channel having zero in flo\\ at the stalling point upstream and the

discharge in erasing dm\11;.1rcam resulting in a d1angc oflhm 1cgimc fiom subciitical to

supclcJitical in an SVF As the Colebrook- White equation is an implicit equation ofi ..

th c tcnn -". has hecn dc:t c:nnincd using the llo\\ -1 c:<;i>'l anee equal ions nf\'on Kannan ti11
- 81 -
rough regime and Jain ( 1976) for transitional & smooth regime. The computer compatibility

ofthe algmithm is w1doubtful.

***

- 82-