y y = f(x)

A function from a set D to a set R is a rule that maps

each element of D to a single element of R.
b
f: D → R f: D ® R
f: x ® y= f(x)
↓ ↓
domain range
x
For each x in D there exists a single element y in O a
f(a) = b
R such that f(x) = y. x is called the variable of f
b is the image of a
and y = f(x) is called the image of x. The set of
images of all the elements of D is called the image set of f.
Consider the function f: A → B, f(x) = x2. We can write this function in different ways:
f(x) = x2, y = x2 or f: x → x2. All of these mean the same function. A is the domain and B is
the range of f.

A. DOMAIN AND RANGE OF A FUNCTION

Unless stated otherwise, the domain of a function f(x) is the largest set of real
x-values for which f(x) is defined. The range of the function is a set which includes at least
all the images of the elements in its domain. The domain and range of many functions are
subsets of the set of real numbers. The largest possible range of a function is \.
Let us look at the domain and range of some common types of function. In these
examples we will use the letter D to mean the domain of the function. The
notation D( f ) means the domain of the function f.
Type of function Form Domain Examples

polynomial f(x) = anxn+an–1xn–1+...+a0 f(x) = 2x+5 D( f ): ¡

¡
function n Î ¢+ È {0} f(x) = 2x2–3x+1 D( f ): ¡
As stated in the table, the domain of any polynomial function f is \. The range of the
polynomial function depends on the function itself. For example, let us draw the graph of the
function y = f(x) = xn and find its domain and range when n is odd or even.
y y y = f(x) = x
n
y = f(x) = xn

when when
n is n is
even odd x
x O
O
f: ¡ ® ¡+ Ç {0} f: ¡ ® ¡
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
domain range domain range

10 Algebra 10
 Type of function Form Domain Examples

2x – 3
f(x) = D( f ): ¡ – {–1}
rational g(x) x+1
f(x) = ¡–{x | h(x)=0}
function h(x) x2 + 5
f(x) = D( f ): ¡ – {5, –2}
(x – 5)(x + 2)

The value of the denominator in a rational expression cannot be zero, so any numbers which
make the denominator zero must be excluded from the domain of a rational function.
1
As an example, let us look at the graph of the function y = x– n = n .
x

y y

1
1 y = f(x) =
when y = f(x) = when xn
xn
n is n is
even odd x
O
x
O

f: ¡ – {0} ® ¡+ f: ¡ – {0} ® ¡ – {0}

We can see that the domain of a rational function changes according to the function.

Type of function Form Domain Example

radical f(x) = n g(x)

¡ f(x) = 3 x2 + 5x D( f ): ¡
function n is an odd integer

When the index of a radical expression is odd, y

the radicand can be negative, positive or zero.
y = f(x) = n x
Therefore there is no restriction on the value of
x and so the domain is \.
x
The figure at the right shows the graph of O
y = n x when n is odd and n > 1. We can see
that the range of the function is the set of real f: ¡ ® ¡
n is odd, n > 1
numbers.

Functions 11
 Type of function Form Domain Examples

f(x) = n g(x) f(x) = x2 – 2 D( f ): ¡ – (–ñ2, ñ2)

radical
function n is an even ¡ – {x | g(x) < 0} 2
integer f(x) = 4 x – 3x + 2 D( f ): ¡ – (1, 2)

When the index of a radical expression is even, y

the radicand cannot be negative, so we must nx
y = f(x) = ñ
exclude any numbers which make the radicand
negative from the domain.
f : [0, +¥) ® [0, +¥)
As we can see in the graph opposite, since the
radicand is non-negative both the domain and x
O n is even
range of y = x are the set \ ∪ {0}.
n +

EXAMPLE 1 The following table shows some more examples of the domain and range of different
functions. Write the missing values in the table.
Function Domain Range

f(x) = x2 + 2x + 1 ¡ [0, +¥)

f(x) = x2 – 2x – 3 ¡

f(x) = x3 – x2 + x + 1 ¡

1
f(x) = (–¥, 0) È (0, +¥)
x+1
x3 – 1
f(x) = 2 ¡ – {2, 3}
x – 5x + 6

f(x) = 1 – x2 [0, 1]

Solution The solution is left as an exercise for you.

12 Algebra 10
 EXAMPLE 2 Find the domain and range of the function f ( x) = x2 +5 x +6.

Solution We know that the radicand of a square root function cannot be negative.
Let us look at the sign of the radicand x2 + 5x + 6:

x –3 –2
2
x + 5x + 6 + – +

The radicand is non-negative in the intervals (–∞, –3] and [–2, +∞).
Therefore the domain of the function is (–∞, –3] ∪ [–2, +∞).
As x increases, the value of y also increases without limit.
So the range is [0, +∞).
In conclusion, the domain of f is (–∞, –3] ∪ [–2, +∞) and the range is [0, +∞).

Note
If a function f is a sum or difference of different functions then the domain of f is the
intersection of the domains of each function.

EXAMPLE 5 Find the image set of each function over the given interval.
a. f(x) = 3x + 6, x ∈ [0, +∞) b. f(x) = x2 – 2x + 8, x ∈ [–1, 2]
c. f(x) = x2 – 4x – 5, x ∈ [–1, 1] d. f(x) = 2x – x2, x ∈ [0, 3]

Solution We can find each range by drawing the graph of the function over the given interval.

a. As we can see in the graph, f(x) is an y

increasing function. The solid line shows the y = f(x) = 3x + 6
graph on the interval x ∈ [0, +∞). On this
6
The image set I of a interval the minimum value of f is f(0) = 6, min value
function f: A → B is the
set of images of all the and the maximum value goes to infinity.
elements of A, so I ⊆ B.
So the image set of f on this interval is
[6, +∞).
–2
x
O

Functions 13
 b. The figure shows the graph of the function
y
y = x2 – 2x + 8
y = f(x) = x2 – 2x + 8. The solid line shows
the graph on the interval x ∈ [–1, 2].
11
Since the extremum (vertex) of a function
max value
b b
f(x) = ax2 + bx + c is (– , f (– )), 8
2a 2a
7
the minimum value of the function on this min value
b −2
interval is f ( − ) = f ( − ) = f (1) = 7.
2a 2
Its maximum value on this interval is
f(–1) = 11.
x
So the image set of f on this interval is –1 O 1 2
[7, 11].

c. The figure shows the graph of y

y = x2 – 4x – 5
y = f(x) = x2 – 4x – 5. The solid line shows
max value
the graph on the interval x ∈ [–1, 1].
On this interval, 1 2 3 4 5
x
–2 –1 O
min f(x) = f(1) = –8 and
max f(x) = f(–1) = 0.
So the image set of f on this interval is
[–8, 0]. –5

min value
–8
–9

d. The solid line in the figure shows the graph y

of y = f(x) = 2x – x2 on the interval max value
1
x ∈ [0, 3].
3
On this interval, x
O 1 2
min f(x) = f(3) = –3 and
–1
max f(x) = f(1) = 1.
–2 min value
So the image set of the function on this
interval is [–3, 1].
–3
y = 2x – x2

14 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 6 Find the range of each function for its largest domain.

a. f ( x) = − x2 + 4x +5

Solution a. Let us define g(x) = –x2 + 4x + 5 and plot y

its graph (shown opposite). 9

As we can see, the function is positive over

the interval x ∈ [–1, 5].
g(x) ³ 0
So f ( x) = − x2 + 4x +5 is defined on the 5

interval x ∈ [–1, 5]. Also, on this interval the

minimum value of f(x) is 0 and the maximum
value of f(x) is ñ9, so we can write
x
− x2 + 4x +5 ≤ ñ9
–1 O
0≤ 2 5

0≤ − x2 + 4x +5 ≤ 3 y = g(x) = –x2 + 4x + 5
0 ≤ f(x) ≤ 3. So the range of f is [0, 3].

EXAMPLE 8 Find the domain of f ( x) = | x − 1| − | x + 2|.

Solution The radicand |x – 1| – |x + 2| must be non-negative, i.e.

|x – 1| – |x + 2| ≥ 0.
This gives |x – 1| ≥ |x + 2|. Taking the square of both sides gives
us x2 – 2x + 1 ≥ x2 + 4x + 4
–6x ≥ 3
1 1
x ≤ – . So the domain of the function is (–∞, – ].
2 2

EXAMPLE 9 Find the domain of f ( x) = 3 − 12 − x .

2

Solution We have the radicands 12 – x2 and 3 − 12 − x2 , and both of them must be non-negative:

12 – x2 ≥ 0 and 3 − 12 − x2 ≥ 0
9 ≥ 12 – x2
x2 – 3 ≥ 0.

Functions 15
 Let us solve each quadratic inequality by constructing its sign table:

x –2ñ3 2ñ3 x –ñ3 ñ3

12 – x2 – + – x2 – 3 + – +

–2ñ3 –ñ3 O ñ3 2ñ3

The domain of the combined function f ( x) = 3 – 12 – x2 is the intersection of these

intervals: D( f ) = [–2ñ3, –ñ3] ∪ [ñ3, 2ñ3].

Check Yourself 1
1. Find the domain of each function.

x
a. f ( x) = 2
b. f ( x) = 3 2 x +1+ x2 – 1 c. f ( x) = 2 x − 4 x +1
x +2 x −1

d. f ( x) = 2 x − 1 − 3x +1

2. Find the image of each function over the given interval.

a. f(x) = 2x + 1, x ∈ [1, 5) b. f(x) = x2 – 4x – 5, x ∈ [1, 3)

c. f ( x) = x2 + 2, x ∈ ( 2, 7]

3. Find the range of each function for its largest domain.

a. f ( x) = − x +7 x − 12
2

Answers
7
1. a. \ b. \ – (–1, 1) c. \ – (–1, 1] d. [ , ∞)
4

2. a. [3, 11) b. [–9, –8] f. (2, 3]

1
3. a. [0, ]
2

16 Algebra 10
B. COMPOSITE FUNCTION
Definition composite function
A function that is formed by the composition of two or more elementary functions is called a
composite function.
f f(x) g
x ⎯→ ⎯→ ⎯→ g( f(x))

The function g(f(x)) is called the composite of g with f.

The composite function g(f(x)) is also sometimes written as
(g ο f )(x). The composition of functions is associative but not commutative, i.e.
(f ο (g ο h))(x) = ((f ο g) ο h) but (f ο g)(x) ≠ (g ο f )(x).

EXAMPLE 10 Given f(x) = x2, g(x) = sin x and h(x) = 2x + 5, find

a. f(g(x)). b. g(f(x)). c. f(h(g(x))).

Solution a. f(g(x)) = f(sin x) = sin2 x

b. g( f(x)) = g(x2) = sin x2
c. f(h(g(x))) = f(h(sin x)) = f(2sin x + 5) = (2sin x + 5)2

EXAMPLE 11 Write each function as a composite function.

a. f(x) = (3x – 5)3

Solution a. Notice that these are not the only possible solutions to the question. We could have
chosen different elementary functions and still achieved the same function. For example,
for the function f(x) = (3x – 5)3, we could have chosen g(x) = 3x, h(x) = x – 5 and
t(x) = x3 to get f(x) =(3x – 5)3 = t(h(g(x))).

Check Yourself 2
Write each function as a composite function.
3
2x − 1 ⎞ 7 ⎛ x +5 ⎞
1. f ( x) = ⎛⎜ ⎟ 2. f ( x) = sin ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ 7 ⎠ ⎝ x +1 ⎠

Functions 17
C. INVERSE OF A FUNCTION
Recall the definition of inverse function: if the function f: D → R is both a one-to-one function
and an onto function then the function f –1: R → D is called the inverse of f.
f(x) = y ⇔ f –1(y) = x

A function f: A → B is a To find the inverse of a given function y = f(x)

y
one-to-one function if it is enough to find x in terms of the variable y. y = f(x) = 2x – 1
for each x1 ≠ x2 in A,
f(x1) ≠ f(x2). For example, let us find the inverse of the y=x

polynomial function f : \ → \, f (x)= 2x – 1:

x+1
Write y = f(x): y = 2x – 1. y = f –1(x) =
2
1
y +1
Express x in terms of y: x = = f −1( y).
A function f: A → B is an 2 x
onto function if for any –1 O 1
y ∈ B there exists an x ∈ A Finally, express the inverse function in terms
such that f(x) = y. –1
of the variable x: f −1( x) = x +1.
2
This is the inverse of f(x) = 2x – 1.

Recall that the graph of a function and the graph of its inverse are symmetric

with respect to the line y = x.

Let us recall the inverse of some common types of function:

Function Form Inverse

–1 x–b
linear function f(x) = ax + b f (x) =
a
ax + b – dx + b
rational function f (x) = f –1(x) =
cx + d cx – a

Look at some more examples of inverse functions:

Function Inverse

3x + 1 2x – 1
f: ¡ ® ¡, f(x) = f –1: ¡ ® ¡, f –1(x) =
2 3

–1 –1 –x + 2
f: ¡ ® ¡, f(x) = 2 – 3x f : ¡ ® ¡, f (x) =
3
2x + 1 x+1
f: ¡ – {1} ® ¡ – {2}, f(x) = f –1: ¡ – {2} ® ¡ – {1}, f –1(x) =
x–1 x–2

18 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 12 Find the inverse of the function f : [2, ∞) → [0, ∞), f (x) = x2 – 4x + 4.

Solution In the given domain and range, f(x) is both y

one-to-one and onto, so its inverse is a function. y = f(x) = x2 – 4x + 4
We can find this inverse function as follows:
x2 – 4x + 4 = y 4
(x – 2)2 = y
x–2 = ñy
x = ñy + 2 = f –1(y).
x
So the inverse is O 2
f –1: [0, ∞) → [2, ∞), f –1(x) = ñx + 2.

EXAMPLE 13 The function f: \ → \, f(x) = x3 – 3x2 + 4x – 1 is given. Find the real number a which
satisfies the equation f(a) = f –1(a).

Solution To solve the problem we have to find the y

intersection of the graphs of f and f –1. However,
we know that the graph of a function and the
y = f(x) y = x
graph of its inverse are symmetric with respect
to the line y = x. In other words, the intersection
a –1
of the two graphs will be on this line. At the y = f (x)
intersection point, therefore, y = f(x) = x, and x
so f(a) = a = f –1(a), as shown at the right. O a

If f(a) = a then a3 – 3a2 + 4a – 1 = a

a3 – 3a2 + 3a – 1 = 0
(a – 1)3 = 0
a = 1.

Check Yourself 3
1. Find the inverse of each function.
x
a. f : \ → \, f ( x) = 3 −
2
⎧5 ⎫ 5x − 2
b. f : \ − {1} → \ − ⎨ ⎬ , f ( x) =
⎩2 ⎭ 2x − 2

c. f : \ → \, f(x) = x3 – 3x2 + 3x

2. For each function, find the real number a which satisfies the equation f(a) = f –1(a).

a. f(x) = 3x + 1 b. (x) = 8x3 – 12x2 + 7x – 1

Answers
2x – 2 3 1 1
1. a. 6 – 2x b. c. x – 1 +1 2. a. – b.
2x – 5 2 2
Functions 19
D. CONSTANT, INCREASING AND DECREASING
FUNCTIONS
Let f: D → R be a function and let I ⊂ D and x1, x2 ∈ I and such that x1 < x2.

1. If f(x1) = f(x2) for all x1, x2 ∈ I then f is called y

a constant function on the interval I. c y=c

We write a constant function as f(x) = c

(c ∈ \). x
A x1 O x2 B
If f is a constant function,
f(x) is constant on I = [AB]
x1 < x2 ⇔ f(x1) = f(x2) = c.

2. If f(x1) < f(x2) for all x1, x2 ∈ I then f is called y y = f(x)

an increasing function on the interval I.
If f is an increasing function, f(x2)

If x1 < x2 and x1 < x2 ⇔ f(x1) < f(x2). f(x1)

f(x1) ≤ f(x2) then f is
called a non-d decreasing
function. x
A O x1 x2 B
f(x) increases on I = [AB]

Note
The increasing function f: \ → \, f(x) = x is called the identity function.

3. If f(x1) > f(x2) for all x1, x2 ∈ I then f is called y= f(x) y

a decreasing function on the interval I.
If f is a decreasing function,
x1 < x2 ⇔ f(x1) > f(x2). f(x1)
If x1 < x2 and
f(x2)
f(x1) ≥ f(x2) then f is
x
called a non-iincreasing A O x1 x2 B
function.
f(x) decreases on I = [AB]

EXAMPLE 14 Given that f(x) = (5 – a)x2 + (b + 2)x – 3 is a constant function, find a and b.

Solution Since f is a constant function, the coefficients of x2 and x must be zero:

5 – a = 0 and b + 2 = 0. So a = 5 and b = –2.

20 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 15 Show that
a. f: [0, ∞) → \, f(x) = ñx + x3 is an increasing function.
1
b. f: \ – {0} → \, f ( x) = is a decreasing function.
x

Solution a. Let x1, x2 ∈ [0, ∞) such that x1 < x2.

For all x1 < x2, x1 < x2 and x13 < x23. So x1 + x13 < x2 + x2 3 and f(x1) < f(x2).

So f is an increasing function on [0, ∞).

1 1
b. First let x1, x2 ∈ (0, ∞) such that x1 < x2. For all x1 < x2 , > and so f(x1) > f(x2).
x1 x2
1 1
Now let x1, x2 ∈ (–∞, 0) such that x1 < x2. For all x1 < x2 , > and so f(x1) > f(x2).
x1 x2
In both cases f is decreasing, so f is a decreasing function on \ – {0}.

EXAMPLE 16 Find the interval(s) on which each function decreases and/or increases.
1
a. y = 1 – 2x b. y = x2 – 3x c. y = 2
x
Solution We can draw a graph of each function to y
y = f(x) = 1 – 2x
determine the intervals.
a. We can see from the graph that f(x) = 1 – 2x
decreases on (–∞, ∞). 1

x
O 1
2

3 y
b. f decreases on the interval ( −∞, ].
2 y = f(x) = x2 – 3x
3
f increases on the interval [ ,+∞).
2 3
2 3
x
O

9
–4

Functions 21
 c. f increases on the interval (–∞, 0). y
1
y = f(x) =
f decreases on the interval (0, +∞). x2

x
O

EXAMPLE 17 Find the value a + b if f ( x) =

( a − 2)x2 + bx + 4
3x + 2
is a constant function.

( a − 2)x2 + bx + 4
Solution Since f is constant, we can write f ( x) = = k ( k ∈ \).
3x + 2
This gives (a – 2)x2 + bx + 4 = 3kx + 2k.
By the equality of polynomials, we can write
(a – 2) = 0
b = 3k
4 = 2k, which gives
a = 2, k = 2, b = 6. So a + b = 8.

EXAMPLE 18 The function f ( x) =

( a − 1)x2 +( b +5)x
2 x +1
is an identity function. Find a and b.

Solution Since f is an identity function, f(x) = x. So

( a − 1)x2 +( b +5) x
= x, i.e.
2 x +1
( a − 1)x2 +( b +5) x = 2 x2 + x.
By the equality of polynomials, a – 1 = 2 and b + 5 = 1. So a = 3 and b = –4.

Check Yourself 4
3mx +1
1. f ( x) = is a constant function. Find m.
6 x +5

2. f(x) = (m – 2)x + n + 5 is an identity function. Find m + n.

22 Algebra 10
 3. Decide whether each function increases or decreases on the given interval.
a. f(x) = 2x + 1, x ∈ \
b. f(x) = 1 – x, x ∈ \
c. f(x) = –x2 – 8x + 1, x ∈ (–4, ∞)
d. f(x) = –x2 – 2x – 1, x ∈ (–∞, 1)
e. f(x) = x3 + 1, x ∈ \
Answers

1. 2 2. –2
5

E. EVEN AND ODD FUNCTIONS

Definition even function, odd function
Let f: D → R be a function.
1. If f(–x) = f(x) for all x ∈ D then f is called an even function.
2. If f(–x) = –f(x) for all x ∈ D then f is called an odd function.

For example, the cosine function is an even function because cos (–x) = cos x.
Similarly, the sine, tangent and cotangent functions are odd functions because sin(–x) = –sinx,
tan (–x) = –tan x and cot (–x) = –cot x.

The graph of an even function is symmetric with respect to the y-axis.

Not all functions are even y y y = f(x) = x2

or odd. For example, y = f(x) = cos x
f(x) = x + 1 is neither 1
even nor odd.
3p
– p
2 2p
x
–2p –p p O p 3p
–
2 2 2

x
–1 O

f(–x) = f(x) f(–x) = f(x)

cos (–x) = cos (x) Even functions (–x)2 = (x)2

Functions 23
 The graph of an odd function is symmetric with respect to the origin.
y y y
y = f(x) = tan x
y = f(x) = x3
The following rules help y = f(x) = sin x
us to calculate the parity 1
(even or odd) of the sum 3p p 3p
–
and product of even p 2p 2 2 2
x p x x
functions (E) and odd –2p –p O – O O
functions (O): 2
E±E=E –1
O±O=O
E ± O = neither E nor O f(–x) = –f(x) f(–x) = –f(x) f(–x) = –f(x)
E⋅E=E sin (–x) = –sin (x) tan (–x) = –tan (x) (–x)3 = –x3
E⋅O=O
O ⋅ O = E. Odd functions

EXAMPLE 19 Determine whether each function is even, odd, or neither even nor odd.
2
a. f(x) = x2 + 3x + 2 b. f(x) = 7 tanx + x3 c. f ( x) = x6 – 28 d. f(x) = 3x + 3–x
x +x
e. f ( x) = x2 − 6 x +9 + x2 +6 x +9 f. f(x) = |x – 3| + |x + 4| g. f(x) = –3x2 + 2|x| – 5

Solution Let us find f(–x) and compare it with f(x) in each case.
a. f(–x) = x2 – 3x + 2, so f is neither even nor odd.
b. f(–x) = –7 tanx – x3 = –(7tan x + x3) = –f(x), so f is odd.
x2 – 2
c. f (– x) = 6 = f ( x) , so f is even.
x + x8
d. f(–x) = 3–x + 3x = 3x + 3–x = f(x), so f is even.
e. f (– x) = x2 +6 x +9 + x2 – 6 x +9 = f ( x) , so f is even.
f. f(–x) = |–x – 3| + |–x + 4|, so f is neither even nor odd.
g. f(–x) = –3x2 + 2|x| – 5 = f(x), so f is even.

EXAMPLE 20 f: \ → \, f(x) is an odd function such that f(–2) = k + 5 and f(2) = 2k + 3. Find k.

Solution Since f is an odd function, f(–x) = –f(x) and f(–2) = –f(2).

So k + 5 = –(2k + 3)
k + 5 = –2k – 3
3k = –8
8
k= – .
3

24 Algebra 10
 y
EXAMPLE 21 Complete the graph of the function if it is
a. even. b. odd.

x
O

Solution a. The graph of an even function is b. The graph of an odd function is symmetric
symmetric with respect to the y-axis. with respect to the origin.
y y
y = f(x)

x x
O O
y = f(x)

f(x) is an even function f(x) is an odd function

Check Yourself 5
1. Determine whether each function is even, odd, or neither even nor odd.
a. f(x) = |x| + cos x b. f(x) = x3 + sin x c. f(x) = x4 + x2 + 1
sin x + tan x
x
d. f(x) = cos x4 – x3 sin x e. f ( x) = f. f ( x) = 2 x3
cos( x3 )
2. f is an odd function and g is an even function. f(–2) + g(1) = 8 and g(–1) + f(2) = 6 are given.
Find f(–2) and g(–1).
Answers
1. a. even b. odd c. even d. even e. odd f. even 2. f(–2) = 1, g(–1) = 7

Functions 25
EXERCISES 1 .1
A. Domain and Range of a Function 4. Find the range of each function for its largest
domain.
1. State the domain and range of each function.
a. f ( x) = – x2 + 4
a. y b. y
y = f(x)
y = g(x)
b. f ( x) = – x2 – 10 x – 9

x
O 5
x
O
B. Composite Function

y y 5. Given f(x) = ñx, g(x) = x2, and h(x) = x + 1,

c. d.
write each function.
3
y = h(x) 2 y = t(x) a. g(h(f(x))) b. f(h(g(x)))
–4 –3 11
3 x
–2 –1 O
x –1
O –2
6. Write each function as a composite of elementary
functions.
1
a. f ( x) = 5 –
x +1
2. Find the domain of each function.

a. f ( x) = 9 – | x2 – 4|
C. Inverse of a Function
2
x – 3x – 4
b. f ( x) = 7. Find the inverse of each function.
x2 – 1
2−x
2x a. f: \ → \, f ( x) =
c. f ( x) = 3x +1+ 2
5
x–5 –2 x – 3
b. f: \ – {3} → \ – {2}, f ( x) =
x+ 3
c. f: [1, +∞) → [1, +∞), f(x) = 4x2 – 8x + 5

3. Find the range of each function over the given

interval.
8. For each function, find the real number a
a. f(x) = 1 – 3x, x ∈ [–2, 4) which satisfies the equation f(a) = f –1(a).
b. f(x) = x2 – 2x – 3, x ∈ (2, 4] a. f(x) = 5x – 2
2
c. f(x) = –x + 4x + 5, x ∈ [0, 1) b. f(x) = x3 – 6x2 + 13x – 8

26 Algebra 10
D.Constant, Increasing and
Decreasing Functions

ax2 + 2 x + b
9. f ( x) = is a constant function. Find
3x2 + bx + 2b
a and b.

10. Determine whether each function is increasing or

decreasing on the given interval.

a. f(x) = x2 – 6x + 1, x ∈ (3, ∞)

b. f(x) = –x2 + 4x – 3, x ∈ (–∞, 2)

c. f(x) = –x3 + 3, x∈\

11. The function f(x) = 2x2 – 7x – 15 is given.

a. On which interval does the function decrease?
b. On which interval does the function increase?

E. Even and Odd Functions

12. Determine whether each function is even, odd, or

neither even nor odd.
a. f(x) = x5 + x3 + x
cos x + x2
b. f ( x) =
3+ x4
x ⋅ tan x 5
c. f ( x) = ( )
x3 + sin x
d. f(x) = sin (tan(x3 + x))
e. f(x) = x4 ⋅ sin x

Functions 27
A. PIECEWISE FUNCTION
Definition piecewise function
A function that is defined by different formulas on different intervals of its domain is called a
piecewise function.

⎧2 x + 1 if x > 2
⎪
EXAMPLE 22 The piecewise function f : →
⎪
, f ( x) = ⎨x2
⎪
if 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 is given.

⎪⎩ – x2 – 1 if x < 0
a. Draw the graph of f. b. Find f(–5) + f(2) + f(3).

Solution a. When x > 2, we draw the graph of y = 2x + 1, y y = f(x)

when 0 ≤ x ≤ 2, we draw the graph of y = x and 2

5
when x < 0, we draw the graph of y = –x2 – 1. 4
3
b. When x = –5, f(x) = –x2 – 1. So f(–5) = –(–5)2 – 1 = – 26. 2
When x = 2, f(x) = x2. So f(2) = 22 = 4. 1
x
O 1 2
When x = 3, f(x) = 2x + 1. So f(3) = 2 ⋅ 3 + 1 = 7.
–1
Hence, f(–5) + f(2) + f(3) = –26 + 4 + 7 = –15.
y = –x2 – 1 y = x2 y = 2x + 1

EXAMPLE 23 The domain of the function f(x) shown in the figure is y

[0, 3]. Define f(x) as a piecewise function.
y = f(x)
2
Solution The graph consists of three line segments. Working from
left to right: 1
1 0.5
the first line segment is valid for 0 ≤ x < 1 and f ( x) = , x
2 O 1 2 3
the second segment is valid for 1 ≤ x ≤ 2 and f(x) = 1,
and the third segment is valid for 2 < x ≤ 3 and f(x) = 2.
So the definition is
⎧1
⎪ 2 if 0 ≤ x < 1
⎪
f ( x) = ⎨
1 if 1 ≤ x ≤ 2
⎪
⎪
⎩2 if 2 < x ≤ 3.
28 Algebra 10
 Check Yourself 6
1. The piecewise function f :
Calculate f(f(f(–1))).
⎧ x2 if x > 3
⎪
→ , f ( x) = ⎨3 x + 4 if 0 ≤ x ≤ 3 is given.
⎪ x3 + 2 if x < 0
⎩

2. Sketch the graph of each piecewise function.

⎧⎪ x if x ≥ 1
a. f : → , f ( x) = ⎨
⎪⎩ − x if x < 1

⎧⎪ x2 if x > 1
b. f : → , f ( x) = ⎨
⎩⎪ − x if x ≤ 1
2

⎧ 2 x − 1 if x < 0
⎪⎪
c. f : → , f ( x) = ⎨ 1 if 0 ≤ x < 1
⎪
⎪⎩ 1 − x if x ≥ 1
Answers
1. 49

B. ABSOLUTE VALUE FUNCTION

Recall that for any number x, the absolute value of y
y = |x|
x (written |x|) is the distance between x and the
origin on a number line.
⎧ x if x ≥ 0 x
|x| = ⎨ O
⎩ − x if x < 0
Definition absolute value function
The absolute value function |f(x)| is defined as
⎧ f ( x) if f ( x) ≥ 0
f ( x) = ⎨
⎩− f ( x) if f ( x) < 0.

EXAMPLE 24 Draw the graph y = |x – 3|. y y

Solution We begin by drawing the graph 3 3

x
y = x – 3. We then draw the O

graph y = |x – 3| by reflecting x
O 3
–3
the negative part of the graph.
y=x–3 y = |x – 3|

Functions 29
 Note
When solving absolute value equations or inequalities or when drawing the graph
of an absolute value function, begin by finding the intervals in which the value of
the function is negative, positive or zero.

EXAMPLE 25 Draw the graph y = |x2 – 1|.

x –1 1
Solution 1 Let us construct the sign table for x2 – 1.
x2 – 1 is positive for x < –1 or x > 1 and x2 – 1 + – +
zero for x = –1 or x = 1. y
For these values of x, |x2 – 1| = x2 – 1. y = x2 –1 y = x2 –1

x2 – 1 is negative for –1 < x < 1.

For these values of x, 1

|x2 – 1| = –|x2 – 1| = –x2 + 1.

x
2 ⎧ x2 – 1 if x ≤ –1 or x ≥ 1 –1 O 1
So|x – 1| = ⎨ 2
⎩ − x +1 if – 1 < x < 1. y = –x2 + 1
Now we can draw the graph, shown opposite.
Solution 2 We could also graph y y
y = x2 – 1 y = |x2 – 1|
y = |x2 – 1| using a different
method: first we graph 1

y = x2 – 1 and then we reflect the

x x
–1 O 1 O
negative y-values in the graph –1 1

with respect to the x-axis.

EXAMPLE 26 Draw the graph of f(x) = |x – 1| + |x + 2|.

Solution First we construct a sign table.

x –2 1
y
x–1 – – + y = f(x)
x+2 – + +
3
When x < –2, f(x) = –x + 1 – x – 2 = –2x – 1.
When –2 ≤ x < 1, f(x) = –x + 1 + x + 2 = 3.
When x ≥ 1, f(x) = x – 1 + x + 2 = 2x + 1. x
–2 O 1
So f(x) can be defined piecewise as –1
⎧ −2 x − 1 if x < −2
⎪
f ( x) = ⎨ 3 if −2 ≤ x < 1
⎪ 2 x +1 if x ≥ 1.
⎩
y = –2x – 1 y=3 y = 2x + 1
Now we can draw the graph, shown opposite.

30 Algebra 10
 Check Yourself 7
Draw the graphs.
1. y = |2x – 3| 2. y = |x3| 3. y = |x2 + 2x – 3 |
4. y = |x – 5| + |x + 3| 5. y = |x – 5| ⋅ x + 2x – 1 6. y = |2x + 1| + x – 3

C. SIGN FUNCTION
Definition sign function
Let f: → be a function.
y
The sign function sgn f(x) is defined as
y = sgn x
⎧ 1 if f ( x) > 0 1
⎪
sgn f ( x) = ⎨ 0 if f ( x) = 0 x
⎪ −1 if f ( x) < 0. O
⎩
–1
The sign function helps us to determine the
sign of a function on different intervals.
The sign function is also
called the signum function. For example, if x = –5 then sgn x = –1, if x = 0, sgn x = 0 and if x = 7, sgn x = 1.

EXAMPLE 27 Write the function f(x) = sgn(3 – x) as a piecewise function.

Solution Let us construct the sign table of (3 – x):

x 3 ⎧ 1 if x < 3
⎪
3–x + – Hence, sgn(3 – x) = ⎨ 0 if x= 3
⎪ −1 if x > 3.
sgn(3 – x) 1 –1 ⎩

EXAMPLE 28 Solve the equations.

2x
a. sgn (2x + 1) = –1 b. sgn (x2 + 5x) = 0 c. sgn( ) =1
x +1
1
Solution a. If sgn (2x + 1) = –1 then 2x + 1 < 0, so x < – .
2
b. If sgn (x2 + 5x) = 0 then x2 + 5x = 0, so x = –5 or x = 0.
2x 2x
c. If sgn( ) =1 then > 0, so x ∈ – [ – 1, 0].
x +1 x +1

Functions 31
EXAMPLE 29 f: → , f(x) = x2 – x – 6 is given. Draw the graph of sgn(f(x)).

Solution Let us construct the sign table of x2 – x – 6: y

x –2 3
x2 – x – 6 + – + y = sgn f(x)
1
3
1 –1 1 x
sgn(x2 – x – 6) –2 O
–1
⎧ 1 if x < –2 or x > 3
⎪
So sgn f ( x) = ⎨ 0 if x = –2 or x= 3
⎪ −1 if – 2 < x < 3.
⎩
The graph of y = sgn f(x) is shown opposite.

Check Yourself 8
1. Solve the equations.
x
a. sgn (x2 – 1) = 0 b. sgn (2 – x) = 1 d. sgn( ) =1
x −1
2. Draw the graph of each function.
a. f(x) = sgn (2 – x) b. f(x) = sgn (x2 – 5x + 6) c. f(x) = x – sgn (x)
Answers
1. a. {–1, 1} b. x < 2 c. – [0, 1]

D. FLOOR FUNCTION
For any real number x, the greatest integer that is less than or equal to x is called the floor of
x, denoted by x .

Definition floor function

Let f: → be a function. Then the floor function f(x) is defined as
⎧⎪ f ( x) if f ( x) ∈
f ( x) = ⎨
⎪⎩the greatest integer which is less than f ( x) if f ( x) ∉ .

32 Algebra 10
 Look at some examples of the floor function:

2 2.5 3 §2.5¨ = 2
5 5.75 6 §5.75¨ = 5
0 0.123 1 §0.123¨ = 0
Similarly, 6 = 6, –5 = –5, 0.85 = 0,
–4 –3.7 –3 §–3.7¨ = –4
–2.5 = –3, π = 3, e = 2, –0.6 = –1 and
–1 –0.4 0 §–0.4¨ = –1 –5.003 = –6.

The floor function Now let us draw the graph y = x in the domain [–3, 3].
f : → , f(x) = x
is also called the greatest Since the value y = x changes for each integer value of x, the integer values of x are
integer function. important points for the function y = x . We say that these values are the crucial points of
x . To draw the graph we have to consider the value of y between each of these crucial
points: y
if –3 ≤ x < –2, y = x = –3;
if –2 ≤ x < –1, y = x = –2; 3
if –1 ≤ x < 0, y = x = –1;
2
if 0 ≤ x < 1, y = x = 0;
if 1 ≤ x < 2, y = x = 1; 1

if 2 ≤ x < 3, y = x = 2; –3 –2 –1
x
if x = 3, y = x = 3. O 1 2 3
–1

–2

–3 y = §x¨

Remark
1. If x = t then we can write t ≤ x < t + 1 (t ∈ ).

2. For a ∈ and x ∈ , x + a = x + a.

For example, if x = 3 then 3 ≤ x < 4;

if x = –2 then –2 ≤ x < –1;
if x = a then a ≤ x < a + 1;
if x + 5 = 4 then x + 5 = 4, x = –1 and so –1 ≤ x < 0.

Functions 33
EXAMPLE 30 Draw the graph of f: [–4, 4] → , f ( x) = x ⋅
x
2
.

x
Solution First of all we have to find the crucial points at which
takes an integer value.
2
x x
For any real number x, if = t then we can write t ≤ < t +1, i.e. 2t ≤ x < 2t + 2.
2 2
So the points 2t (t ∈ ) are the crucial points and we need to evaluate the function on the
corresponding intervals:
x x
if –4 ≤ x < – 2 then –2 ≤ < –1 and so f( x)= x = x ⋅ (–2)= –2 x;
2 2
x x
if –2 ≤ x < 0 then –1 ≤ < 0 and so f( x)= x = x ⋅ (–1)= – x;
2 2
x x
if 0 ≤ x < 2 then 0 ≤ <1 and so f( x)= x = x ⋅ 0= 0;
2 2
x x
if 2 ≤ x < 4 then 1 ≤ < 2 and so f( x)= x = x ⋅1= x;
2 2
x x
if x = 4 then =2 and so f( x)= x = 4 ⋅2 = 8 .
2 2
We can now draw the graph on each interval. y
y = f(x)
8

x
–4 –2 O 2 4

Check Yourself 9
1. Find each value.
a. –2.1 b. –e c. 0.9 d. ñ2 e. π f. –π
2. Solve the equations.
3x – 1
a. x – 2 = –3 b. 2x + 1 = 5 c. = –1
4
3. Draw the graph of each function.
a. f(x) = 2x for –1 ≤ x ≤ 1 b. f(x) = –x for –2 ≤ x ≤ 2
Answers
5 1
2. a. x ∈ [–1, 0) b. x ∈ [2, ) c. x ∈ [–1, )
2 3

34 Algebra 10
EXERCISES 2 .1
A. Piecewise Function C. Sign Function

1. Given 5. Solve the equations.

⎧ x – 1 if x> 2 a. sgn x = 1 b. sgn (x – 1) = –1
⎪ f (0)+ f (2)
f ( x) = ⎨ x if 0 < x ≤ 2, find . c. sgn (x2 – 1) = –1 d. sgn (x3 – x) = 0
⎪ f (3) – f (1)
⎩ 4x if x≤0

2. Draw the graph of each piecewise function. 6. Draw the graphs.

⎧⎪ 1 if x >1
a. f ( x) = ⎨ a. y = sgn x2
⎪⎩ –2 if x ≤ 1
b. y = sgn (x – 1)
⎧⎪ 2 x + 4 if x >1 x +1
b. f ( x) = ⎨ c. y = sgn ( )
⎪⎩ – x if x ≤1 x–2

⎧ x2 +1 if x > 0
c. f ( x) = ⎪⎨
2
⎪⎩ x – 1 if x ≤ 0

D. Floor Function

B. Absolute Value Function 7. Solve the equations.

3. Write each absolute value function as a piecewise a. x = –2 b. x+1 =3

function. 2 x +1
c. x – 1 = –4 d. =1
3
a. f(x) = |x + 3| 1 – 3x
e. =1
b. f(x) = |x| + x 4
c. f(x) = |x2 – x – 2|
d. f(x) = |x – 2| + |x – 3|
e. f(x) = |x + 1| + |x – 1|
8. Draw the graph of each function on the given
f. f(x) = |x + 4| ⋅ x + x2 – 2x
interval.

a. f(x) = x + 1 , x ∈ [–2, 2)
4. Draw the graphs. b. f(x) = 2 – x , x ∈ [–3, 1]

a. y = |–x| b. y = |2 – 4x| c. f(x) = 2x – 1 , x ∈ [–1, 1]

c. y = |x2 – 1| d. y = |x2 – 4x – 5| d. f(x) = x x , x ∈ [–2, 2]
e. y = x|x + 1| + 3 f. y = |5x + 4| + 2x – 1 e. f(x) = x + x , x ∈ [–2, 2]

Functions 35
 9. Find the values of x for which each function is
undefined.

⎧ 1
⎪⎪ x2 if x > 0
– 16
f ( x) = ⎨
⎪ 1
if x ≤ 0
⎪⎩ x2 –x–2

10. f and g are two piecewise functions defined as

⎧⎪ x2 – 1 if x>2
f ( x) = ⎨ and
⎪⎩3x +1 if x≤2

⎧⎪ x +1 if x > 0
g( x) = ⎨
⎪⎩ x + 2 if x ≤ 0.

Find an expression for the function f(g(x)).

11. Find the inverse of the piecewise function

⎧⎪ 4 x – 1 if x >1
f: → , f (x) = ⎨
⎪⎩ 2 x +1 if x ≤ 1.

12. Write each function as a piecewise function.

a. f(x) = |1 – x|
b. f(x) = |x2 – 3x| – 4

c. f(x) = |x3| – x

13. Write each function as a piecewise function.

a. f(x) = x ⋅ |x|
b. f(x) = x + |x – 1|
c. f(x) = x2 – |x2 – 2x – 3|
d. f(x) = |x| + |x – 1|
e. f(x) = |x – 2| – |x – 3|
f. f(x) = |x2 – 1| + |x|

36 Algebra 10
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 1
1. What is the domain of f ( x) = | 2x − 1| − | 3x +1|? 6. Which one of the following is the graph of an odd
function?
A) [–2, 0] B) (–2, 0) C) [0, ∞) A) y B) y

D) (–∞, –2] E) 2 2
2 –2
x x
–2 O O 2
–2 –2
2−x
2. What is the domain of f ( x) = ?
x+ 2
y y
C) D)
A) [–4, –2) B) [0, 2] – {1} C) (–2, 2)
2
D) (–2, 2] E) (–2, 0] –2 2 2
x x
O –2 O

–2
–2
3. What is the range of f(x) = –x + 5 for x ∈ [–5, 5]?
E) y
A) [–5, 5] B) [0, 5] C) [–5, 10]
2
D) [5, 10] E) [0, 10] –2 2
x
O
–2
4. Find the inverse of f: [1, ∞) → [4, ∞),
f(x) = x2 – 2x + 5.

A) x−4 B) x – 4 +1 C) x2 − 2 +1 –2 x + 1
7. Given that f ( x) = is a constant function,
ax + 3
D) x − 2 +1 E) x − 4 −1 find a.

A) –2 B) –3 C) –4 D) –6 E) –10

5. Which one of the following is an odd function?

x2 8. Which one of the following functions is equivalent

A) f ( x) = B) f ( x) = 5 − x + 5+ x
| x| x –1
to f ( x) = x – for x < 1?
| x – 1|
C) f ( x) = x5 D) f(x) = x3 + x
3
x −x A) g(x) = x + 1 B) g(x) = x – 1

C) g(x) = 2x + 1 D) g(x) = x – 2
x2
E) f ( x) =
x −1 E) g(x) = x + 2

Chapter Review Test 1 37

 9. Which one of the following functions is equivalent 13. Find the inverse of f: → , f(x) = x3 – 3x2 + 3x.
⎧⎪ x − 5 if x ≥ 5
to f ( x) = ⎨ ? A) 3
x −1 B) 3
x − 1+1 C) 3
x +1 − 1
⎪⎩− x +5 if x < 5
A) g(x) = |x| – 5 B) g(x) = |x| + 5 x +1
D) E) x − 1+1
C) g(x) = |x – 5| D) g(x) = |x + 5|

E) g(x) = |2x – 5|

14. Which one of the following is an even function?

A) f(x) = x7 – x3 B) f(x) = 2x

10. What is the domain of f ( x) = 5 x2 − 4x − 12 ? C) f(x) = xsin x D) f(x) = xcos x

cos x
E) f(x) =
A) (–6, 2) B) (–2, 6) C) – (–2, 6) x3
+
D) E)

15. Given that

3x2 − ( a − 2)x + 3
f: − {−1, 1} → , f ( x) =
2 x +1 1 − x2
11. What is the domain of f ( x) = ?
4 − x2 is an even function, find the value of a2 ⋅ f(a).
A) [–2, 2] B) [0, –2] C) (–2, 2)
A) 5 B) 10 C) –15 D) –20 E) 25
D) – (–2, 2) E)

16. Given f: [–a, a] → , which of the following must

be an odd function?
12. What is the range of f ( x) = − x2 +5 x + 36 for f ( x)+ f ( −x)
A) f(x) ⋅ f(–x) B)
the largest domain of f ? 2
9 11 13 f ( x) − f ( − x ) 1
A) [0, ] B) [0, ] C) [0, ] C) D) f ( x)+ f ( )
2 2 2 2 x
15 17 1
D) (0, ) E) [0, ) E) f ( x) − f ( )
2 2 x

38 Algebra 10
A. LIMIT OF A POLYNOMIAL FUNCTION
Consider the polynomial function f(x) = 2x. We are asked to investigate what happens to the
value of f(x) as x gets closer to 2. We could begin by choosing a value of x which is close to 2,
for example 1.5. We can calculate f(1.5) = 2 ⋅ 1.5 = 3. Now we choose a value which is closer
to 2, for example 1.75: f(1.75) = 3.5. Continuing like this, we can make a table of values of f(x)
as x gets closer to 2.

x 1.5 1.75 1.8 1.9 1.95 2 2.05 2.1 2.2 2.25 2.5

2x 3 3.5 3.6 3.8 3.9 4.1 4.2 4.4 4.5 5

Using this table, we can guess that as x gets closer to (i.e. approaches) 2, the
value of f(x) approaches 4. We say that 4 is the limit of f(x) = 2x as x
approaches 2, and write lim( 2 x) = 4. In this notation, the arrow symbol (→)
x→2

means ‘approaches’. x → 2 means x approaches the number 2.

Notice that for f(x) = 2x, lim f ( x) = lim 2 x = 4, which is the same as f(2). Similarly, we can
x→ 2 x→ 2

calculate lim f ( x) = lim 2 x = 6 = f (3) and lim f ( x) = lim 2 x = 24 = f (12), etc. In other
x→ 3 x→ 3 x →12 x →12

words, in each case lim f ( x) = f ( c). In fact, this result is true for any polynomial function.
x→ c

Definition limit of a polynomial function

The limit of a polynomial function f(x) as x approaches a point c is f(c): lim f ( x) = f ( c).
x→ c

In other words, for f(x) = anxn + an–1xn–1 + ... + a0, lim f ( x) = f(c) = ancn + an–1cn–1 + ... + a0.
x→ c
For example, let us calculate the limit of f(x) = 2x when x approaches 5:
lim f ( x) = lim 2 x = 2 ⋅ 5 = 10.
x→5 x→5

EXAMPLE 1 Calculate the limits.

a. lim(4 x – 1) b. lim( x2 + 3x + 2) c. lim(3t – t2 )
x→ 2 x →–1 t →4

Solution These are all polynomial functions, so we can use lim f ( x) = f ( c).
x→ c
a. lim(4 x – 1) = 4 ⋅ 2 – 1= 7
x→ 2

b. lim( x2 + 3x + 2) = (–1) 2 + 3 ⋅(–1)+ 2 =1 – 3+ 2 = 0

x → –1

c. lim(3t – t 2 ) = 3 ⋅ 4 – 4 2 =12 – 16 = –4.

t→ 4

40 Algebra 10
 Check Yourself 1
1. Given f(x) = 4x – 1, complete the table to find the limit of f(x) as x approaches 3.

x 2.5 2.75 2.8 2.9 2.95 3 3.05 3.1 3.2 3.25 3.5
f(x) 9 12

2. Calculate the limit of each polynomial function.

a. lim5 x b. lim x(2 – x) c. lim( x2 – 3x – 15)
x→0 x→ 3 x→6

d. lim 2 x( x +1) e. lim 3t2 (2t – 1) f. lim7

x→ a t → –3 x→ 3

Answers
2. a. 0 b. –3 c. 3 d. 2a2 + 2a e. –189 f. 7

B. LIMITS ON A GRAPH
We can also use the graph of a function to study its limit as x approaches a certain point. For
example, let us draw the graph of the function f: → , f(x) = x + 1 and use it to find lim f ( x).
x→ 3

4.1 y
The notation f: →
means a function from
(the domain) to (the
4.05 y = f(x) = x + 1
range). 4.03
The notation lim f ( x) 5
x →3 4.01
means the limit of f(x) as
x approaches 3. 4
3.99
3
3.97
2
3.95

3.9 1

x
O 1 2 3 4 5

2.9 2.95 2.97 2.99 3.01 3.03 3.05 3.1

We can approach the point x = 3 from two directions: the right (as the values of x get
gradually smaller) and the left (as the values of x get gradually bigger).
In both cases, the limit of f(x) = x + 1 as x approaches 3 is 4: lim( x + 1) = 3+1= 4.
x→ 3

Limit of a Function 41
 ⎧ 5
⎪ 4 if x<
2
⎪
EXAMPLE 2 Given the piecewise function f : → , f ( x) = ⎨
⎪
⎪
2 if
5
x = , find lim f ( x).
2 x→
5
2
⎪ 5
⎪ 2 x – 1 if x>
⎩ 2
Solution Let us first draw the graph of the function. As
5 y
we can see, x = is a crucial point in the graph. y = f(x)
2 6
5
When we approach from the right-hand side
2
5 5
(i.e. when x is greater than ) we use the
2
function f(x) = 2x – 1 and get lim(2 x – 1) = 4. 4
5
x→
A point at which we need 2
3
to check the right-hand So we can say that f approaches 4 from the
and the left-hand limits
of a function is called a right-hand side. When we approach x from the 2
crucial point of the 5
function. left-hand side (i.e. when x is less than ) we 1
2
use the function f(x) = 4, which is constant. Its
x
O 1 2 5 3 4
limit is 4 when x approaches from the left-hand
2
side. As a result, f approaches 4 as x approaches
5
from both sides, i.e. lim f ( x) = 4.
2 x→
5
2

⎧⎪ – x – 1 if x ≠ 2
EXAMPLE 3 Given the piecewise function f : → , f ( x) = ⎨
⎪⎩ 3 if x = 2
, find lim f ( x).
x→ 2

y
Solution Let us draw the graph of f(x).
3
x = 2 is a crucial point. Notice that f(2) = 3 but
3 is not the limit of f at 2. This is because the y = f(x) 2
limit is the value which f(x) approaches as x
1
approaches 2. And in the graph we can see that
–1 1 2
the limit of f(x) when x approaches 2 is –3. x
O
As x gets closer to a point
c, although the limit –1
exists and approaches a
number, at the point c a –2
function may have a
different value, or may –3
not even be defined.
What happens at the
given point is not
important for the limit at
this point.

42 Algebra 10
 Note
If we get different results for a limit when we approach it from the right and from the left, we
say that the limit does not exist at this point.
Check Yourself 2
Graph each function and evaluate the given limit.

1. f: → , f(x) = 3,lim f ( x) 2. f: → , f(x) = –x – 2, lim f ( x)

x →2 x →3

⎧ x – 1 if x >1
2

⎧⎪ x2 if x ≠ –2 ⎪
⎪
3. f: → , f ( x)= ⎨ , lim f ( x) 4. f: → , f ( x) = ⎨ 1 if x =1, lim f ( x)
x → –2 x →1
⎪⎩1if x = –2 ⎪
⎪⎩ x2 +1 if x < 1
Answers
1. 3 2. –5 3. 4 4. does not exist

C. DEFINITION OF LIMIT
We have seen how to calculate the limit of a polynomial function, and we have used graphs
to calculate the limits of some other functions. However, we still do not have a general
formula for the limit of a function.
x2 – 4
For example, consider the limit of the function f: – {2} → , f ( x) = when x
x–2
x2 – 4
approaches 2, i.e. lim . f(x) is not a polynomial function and the graph of f(x) will be
x→ 2 x – 2

x2 – 4
difficult to draw. Also, f ( x) = is undefined at x = 2.
x–2
However, remember that when we calculate a limit we are examining the value of a function
as it approaches a point, not the value at the point itself. So by applying simple factorization
methods we can get
x2 – 4 ( x – 2)( x + 2) y 2
lim = lim f(x) = x – 4
x→ 2 x–2 x → 2 ( x – 2) x–2

4
= lim( x + 2) = 2+ 2 = 4.
x→ 2

x–2 3
We can say that =1 because x is very close
x–2 x–2 2
to 2 but not equal to 2, so is not zero
x–2
divided by zero and so it can be simplified. As we 1

can see in the graph of the function x

O 1 2
x2 – 4
f: – {2} → , f ( x) = , the limit of f(x) as
x–2
x approaches 2 is 4.
Limit of a Function 43
 1. Neighborhood of a Number
Let x0 be a real number and let a be a positive real number less than 1. Now consider the
real number x between x0 – a and x0 + a such that x0 – a < x < x0 + a.
In other words x is an element of the interval (x0 – a, x0 + a). This interval is called the
a-n
neighborhood of x0.

x0 – a x0 x0 + a

a-neighborhood of x0

x is a real number between x0 – a and x0 + a

For example, let us take x0= 5 and a = 0.1. The 0.1-neighborhood of 5 is the interval
(5 – 0.1, 5 + 0.1) = (4.9, 5.1).

4 4.9 5 5.1 6

0.1-neighborhood of 5

Check Yourself 3
1. Write the 0.01-neighborhood of 7 as an interval and show it on a number line.
5
2. Write the 0.2-neighborhood of as an interval and show it on a number line.
2

2. ε-neighborhood of a Number
Now let x be an element of the ε-neighborhood of x0:
ε is a Greek letter, x ∈ (x0 – ε, x0 + ε).
pronounced ‘epsilon’.
‘ε-neighborhood’ is read
as ‘epsilon-neighborhood’. x0 – e x0 x0 + e

e-neighborhood of x0

We can write the ε-neighborhood of x0 as an inequality: x0 – ε < x < x0 + ε.

When we subtract x0 from all parts of this inequality we get: –ε < x – x0 < ε.
We can write this inequality as an absolute value: |x – x0| < ε.

44 Algebra 10
 For example, consider x ∈ (3.8, 4.2)
x ∈ (4 – 0.2, 4 + 0.2)
(4 – 0.2) < x < (4 + 0.2)
–0.2 < x – 4 < 0.2
|x – 4| < 0.2.
This means that x is a real number in the 0.2-neighborhood of 4.

3.8 4.2
3 4 5

x is here

3. Limit of a Function
Definition limit of a function
Let f: → be a function and let x0 and L be real numbers.
Given any ε about L if there exists a δ about x0 such that for all x,
|x – x0| < δ ⇒ |f(x) – L| < ε
then the limit of f as x approaches the point x0 is L, i.e. lim f ( x) = L.
x → x0

Let us look at each part of the statement in turn.

|x – x0| < δ
–δ < x – x0 < δ
δ is a Greek letter,
pronounced ‘delta’. x0 – δ < x< x0 + δ
‘δ-neighborhood’ is read
as ‘delta-neighborhood’. x ∈ (x0 – δ, x0 + δ), i.e. x is in the δ-neighborhood of x0.

x0 – d x0 x0 + d

Similarly, |f(x) – L| < ε

–ε < f(x) – L < ε L+e

L – ε < f(x) < L + ε L

f(x) ∈ (L – ε, L + ε)
L–e
i.e. f(x) is in the ε-neighborhood of L.

Limit of a Function 45
 In other words, lim f ( x) = L means that for any small number ε there is another small
x → x0
number δ such that any point in the δ-neighborhood of x corresponds to a point in the
ε-neighborhood of L.
y
y = f(x)

L+e
Any point in
L this neighborhood...

L–e

... maps to a point

in this neighborhood.

x
O x0 – d x0 x0 + d

EXAMPLE 4 Show that lim(3x – 5) = 4 by using the definition of limit.

x→ 3

Solution We will use the definition of limit with x0 = 3, f(x) = 3x – 5 and L = 4.

To satisfy the definition, we need to show that for any ε > 0 there exists a δ > 0 such that
for all x, |x – 3| < δ ⇒ |(3x – 5) – 4| < ε. y y = f(x)
Let us rewrite the second part of this statement:
|(3x – 5) –ε 4| < 4+e
4
|3x –ε 9| < 4–e

3 ⋅ |x –ε 3| < 3
ε
|x – 3|
. <
3 2
All these inequalities are equivalent. Now we
1
need to show that for any ε > 0, there exists a
x
δ > 0 such that for all x, O 1 2 3 4
3– e 3+e
3 3
|x – 3| < δ ⇒ |(3x – 5) – 4| < ε.
ε ε
This is true if we take δ =
. Of course δ = is
3 3
not the only value of δ that will satisfy the
definition. Any smaller positive δ will work as
well. However, the definition of limit asks us to
find just one δ that satisfies the statement, so
this is enough.

46 Algebra 10
 ⎧⎪ 2 x – 1 if x ≠ 2
EXAMPLE 5 f: → , f ( x) = ⎨
⎪⎩ 1 if x = 2
is given. Show that lim f ( x) = 3 by using the definition of
x→ 2

limit.

Solution To prove that lim f ( x) = 3 we need to show that for all ε > 0 there exists a δ > 0 such that
x →2

|x – 2| < δ ⇒ |f(x) – 3| < ε.

Let us begin with the second part of the expression (|f(x) – 3| < ε) and let us try to show
that for all ε > 0 we can find a number δ.
ε
|f(x) – 3| < ε ⇔ |(2x – 1) – 3| < ε ⇔ |2x – 4| < ε ⇔ |x – 2| <
2
ε y
Now we have |x – 2| < which is similar to
2 y = f(x)
4
the first part of the expression (|x – 2| < δ).
3+e
ε 3
Indeed, since is a real number we can 3–e
ε 2 ε
choose δ = and so |x – 2| < . 2
2 2
Now we have found that there is a real number 1
ε
δ which is equal to , so for any ε > 0 we can
2 x
ε –1 O 1 2 3 4
choose δ = for this function.
2 2– e 2+e
2 2
Moreover, we can say that for all ε > 0 there
ε
exists a δ = > 0 and |x – 2| < δ ⇒ |f(x) – 3| < ε.
2
ε ε
For x ∈ (2 – δ, 2 + δ) = (2 – , 2 + ), f(x) ∈ (3 – ε, 3 + ε).
2 2
So as ε approaches zero, the point x approaches 2 and the value of f(x) approaches 3.
Thus, lim f ( x) = lim(2 x – 1) = 3.
x→ 2 x→ 2

Check Yourself 4
Use the definition of limit to prove each
statement and find the value of δ.

1. lim(7 x – 2) = 5
x →1

2. lim(4 x + 3) = –5
x →–2

Answers
ε ε
1. 2.
7 4

Limit of a Function 47
D. ONE-SIDED LIMITS
Notice that in limit notation,
x → x0 and x → x0+ mean
different things. x → –x0
and x → x0– also have
different meanings.
As we have already seen, sometimes the limit of a function can have two different values: one
value when x approaches x0 from the right, and another when x approaches x0 from the left.
When this happens, we call the limit of f as x approaches x0 from the right the right-h hand
limit of f at x0 and write it as lim+ f ( x) .
x →x 0
We call the limit of f as x approaches x0 from the left the left-h
hand limit of f at x0 and write
it as lim– f ( x) . y
x →x 0

For example, consider the function y = f(x) 5

shown opposite. Let us find the left-hand and
4
right-hand limits at the points 2, 5 and 6: y = f(x)
a. lim– f ( x) = 3 and lim+ f ( x) = 5 3
x→2 x→2

b. lim– f ( x) = 2 and lim+ f ( x) = 2 2

x→5 x→5

c. lim– f ( x) = 3 and lim+ f( x) does not exist, 1

x→6 x→6

since f is not defined for x > 6. x

O 1 2 3 4 5 6
In other words the left-hand and right-hand
limits as x → 2 are different; as x → 5 the
left- and right-hand limits are the same, and as x → 6 only the left-hand limit exists.

Definition one-ssided limits

1. The limit of the function f(x) as x approaches y
x0 from the right equals L if for any ε > 0
L+e
there exists a δ > 0 such that for all x,
L
x0 < x < x0 + δ ⇒ |f(x) – L| < δ,
i.e. for all x in the interval (x0, x0 + δ), L–e

f(x) ∈ (L – ε, L + ε). x
O x0 x0 + d

y
2. The limit of the function f(x) as x approaches
L+e
x0 from the left equals L if for any ε > 0 there
exists a δ > 0 such that for all x, L
x0 – δ < x < x0 ⇒ |f(x) – L| < ε, i.e.
L–e
for all x in the interval (x0 – δ, x0),
x
f(x) ∈ (L – ε, L + ε). O x0 – d x0

48 Algebra 10
 5 5
EXAMPLE 6 Find the one-sided limits at all the integer values of the graph of f : [– , ] →
2 2
shown in
the figure.
y
Solution The integer values are {–2, –1, 0, 1, 2}, so we
need to inspect these points. 3 y = f(x)

a. lim+ f ( x) = 0, lim f ( x) = 0
x→2 x→ 2–
2
b. lim+ f ( x) =1, lim– f ( x) = 0
x→1 x→1
1
c. lim+ f ( x) = –1, lim– f ( x) = –1
x→0 x→0 x
–2 –1 O 1 2
d. lim+ f ( x) = 0, lim– f ( x) =1
x→ –1 x → –1
–1
e. lim+ f ( x) = 0, lim– f ( x) = 0.
x→ –2 x→ –2

Definition existence of a limit

The limit of a function f(x) at a point x0 exists if and only if the right-hand and left-hand
limits at x0 exist and are equal. y

In other words,
a
lim f ( x) = L ⇔ lim+ f ( x) = L and y = f(x)
x → x0 x → x0 b

lim f ( x) = L.
x → x0 – x2
x
x1 O
The left-hand limit and For example, in the figure the function f has a
c
right-hand limit of a limit at point x2, but it has no limit at point x1
function are also called the
one-ssided limits of the because the left-hand and right-hand limits at
function. x1 are different.

⎧⎪ x – 1 if x > 2
EXAMPLE 7 f: – {2} → , f ( x) = ⎨
⎪⎩ – x + 3 if x < 2
is given. Find lim f ( x).
x →2

y
Solution As we can see from the graph, the point x0 = 2
is the crucial point of f(x). y = f(x)

Therefore, let us examine the one-sided limits

3
at this point.
lim+ f ( x) = lim(
+
x – 1) = 2 – 1=1 2
x→2 x→2

lim f ( x) = lim(– x + 3) = –2+ 3 =1 1

x→2 – – x→2

x
Since lim+ f ( x) = lim– f ( x) =1, they exist O 1 2 3
x→ 2 x→2

and are equal, and so lim f ( x) =1.

x→ 2

Limit of a Function 49
 Check Yourself 5 y
y = f(x)
1. The graph of f: [1, 7] → , f(x) is shown in the figure. 7
6
Find the one-sided limits at all integer values of the domain and find 5
at which point f has a limit. 4
3
⎧⎪ x2 +1 if x >1 2
2. Given the function f: – {1} → , f ( x) = ⎨ , find 1
the limit of f(x) at the point x0 = 1. ⎪
⎩ x – 1 if x < 1 x
O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

⎧ x if –1 ≤ x < 0 or 0 < x ≤ 1
⎪⎪
3. The function f: → , f ( x) = ⎨ 1 if x = 0 is given.
⎪
⎪⎩ 0 if x < –1 or x > 1
a. Find the one-sided limits at the points –1, 0, and 1.
b. At which point does the limit of f(x) exist?

Answers
2. does not exist

E. LIMITS OF SPECIAL FUNCTIONS

We have now learnt the definition and basic concepts of the limit of a function, and studied
one-sided limits. In this section we will look at the limit of some special functions: the
absolute value function, the sign function and the floor function.
We know that at a given point, the limit of a function exists if the right-hand limit and the
left-hand limit exist and are equal.
We can evaluate a limit of an absolute value, sign or floor function at a point by treating the
function as a piecewise function and checking the one-sided limits at the point. If the two
limits exist and are equal, then we can say that a limit exists at the given point.

EXAMPLE 8 f: – {2} → , f ( x) =
| x – 2|
x–2
+ x + 3 is given. Find lim+ f ( x) and lim– f ( x).
x→2 x→ 2

Solution Since the function f involves the absolute value expression |x – 2|, x0 = 2 is a crucial point
for f.
Let us begin by writing the function as a piecewise function.
If x > 2, x – 2 > 0 and so |x – 2| = x – 2. Therefore
| x – 2| x– 2
f ( x) = + x+ 3 = + x + 3 =1+ x + 3 = x + 4.
x–2 x–2

50 Algebra 10
 Similarly, if x < 2, y
x – 2 < 0 and |x – 2| = –(x – 2) and so y=x+4

| x – 2| – ( x – 2) 6
f ( x) = + x+ 3 = + x+ 3 5
x–2 x–2
4
= –1+ x + 3 = x + 2. 3
2
⎧⎪ x + 4 if x > 2 1
In conclusion, f( x) = ⎨ x
⎪⎩ x + 2 if x < 2. –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3
y=x+2
So the limits are
lim f ( x) = lim( x + 4) = 2+ 4 = 6
x→2+ + x→2

lim f ( x) = lim( x + 2) = 2+ 2 = 4.
x→2 – – x→2

Remark
When we evaluate the right-hand and left-hand limits of special functions it is sometimes
useful to define a positive real number h and look at what happens as h approaches zero.

For h ∈ +
and h → 0, the following statements are true:
lim f ( x) = lim f ( a + h) and
x→ a+ h→0
x (x ® 3+)
lim– f ( x) = lim f ( a – h). 3
x→ a h→0
3 + h (h ® 0)
For example, when h ∈ +
and h → 0,
–
(x ® 3 ) x
lim+ f ( x) = lim f (3+ h) and 3
x→3 h→0

(h ® 0) 3–h
lim f ( x) = lim f (3 – h).
x→3– h→0

EXAMPLE 9 Given f(x) = sgn(4 – x), find lim+ f ( x) and lim– f ( x) and decide whether lim f ( x) exists or
not.
x→4 x→ 4 x→ 4

Solution 1 x0 = 4 is a crucial point.

y
When x > 4 (x → 4+), 4 – x is negative and so
1 y = sgn(4 – x)
sgn(4 – x) = –1. So
x
lim+ f ( x) = lim+ sgn(4 – x) = –1. O 1 2 3 4
x→4 x→4 –1
When x < 4 (x → 4–), 4 – x is positive and so
sgn(4 – x) = 1. So
lim f ( x) = lim– sgn(4 – x) =1.
x→4– x→4

Since the left-hand and right-hand limits are not equal, lim f ( x) does not exist.
x →4

Limit of a Function 51
 Solution 2 Let h > 0 be a very small real number. Instead of writing x → 4+, we can write x = 4 + h
and consider h → 0:
lim sgn(4 – x) = lim sgn(4 – (4+ h)) = lim sgn(– h).
x→4+ h→0 h→0

Since h is a very small positive number, –h is negative and so sgn(–h) = –1,

i.e. lim sgn(– h) = –1. This is the right-hand limit.
h→ 0

Similarly, lim– sgn(4 – x) = lim sgn(4 – (4 – h) = lim sgn( h) =1.

x→4 h→0 h→0

Since h is a positive number, sgn(h) = 1. This is the left-hand limit.

As before, lim+ f ( x) ≠ lim– f ( x) and so lim f ( x) does not exist.
x→4 x→4 x→4

EXAMPLE 10 The function f: → , f(x) = 5x + 4 is given. Find lim f ( x).

x→ 2

Solution To find the limit as x approaches 2, we have to check the right-hand and left-hand limits:
lim f ( x) = lim+ 5 x + 4 = lim 5(2+ h)+ 4 = lim 14+5 h =14
x→2+ x→2 h→0 h→0

lim f ( x) = lim– 5 x + 4 = lim 5(2 – h)+ 4 = lim 14 – 5 h =13.

x→2 – x→2 h→0 h→0

Notice that since h is a very small positive number, 14 – 5h<14 and so 14 – 5h = 13.

We can see that lim+ f ( x) ≠ lim– f ( x).

x→2 x→2

So lim f ( x) does not exist.

x→ 2

| x – 1|
EXAMPLE 11 Find lim–
x→1 |1 – x|
.

Solution x → 1– means x is less than 1. Therefore, x – 1 < 0 so |x – 1| = –(x – 1) = 1 – x, and

1 – x > 0 so |1 – x| = 1 – x.
| x – 1| 1– x
So lim– = lim– = lim1 =1.
x→1 |1 – x| x→1 1 – x x→1–

52 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 12 Find lim– sgn(
x→1
x2 – 1
x+ 2
).
x –2 –1 1
x2 – 1
Solution Let us make a sign table of .
x+ 2 x2 – 1
– + – +
x+ 2
x → 1– means that x approaches 1 from the
x2 – 1
left-hand side, and in this interval is
x+ 2
negative.
2
So lim sgn( x – 1) = –1.
x→1– x+ 2

EXAMPLE 13 Find lim– 2 x+1 .

x→ 2

Solution Let h > 0 be a very small real number.

Then lim– 2 x +1 = lim 2(2 – h)+1 = lim 5 – 2 h = 4.
x→2 h→ 0 h→ 0

Check Yourself 6
Evaluate the limits.
x +| x | 2
1. lim( x2 | x +1|) 2. lim 3. lim | x – 4|
x →–3 x →–1 x x→2 –
x–2
| x2 – 3x + 2| |2 – x|
4. lim– 5. lim 6. lim+ sgn(3 – x) – x
x→1 x –1 x→2+ sgn( x – 2) x→3

| x |+2 1– x
7. lim+ 8. lim+ 9. lim+ 2 x +1
x→0 sgn( x2 – 2) x→1 sgn( x2 – 1) x→2

5x +1
10. lim– 11. lim( x + x + 2) 12. lim 8 x +1
x→3 16 x→ 2 x→4+ 3
13. lim(
–
2007 x – 1) 14. lim– 2 x 15. lim
x→ 4
3x + 4 – x
x→0 x→3

Answers
1. 18 2. 0 3. –4 4. –1 5. 0 6. –4 7. –2 8. 0 9. 5 10. 0 11. does not exist
12. 11 13. –2 14. 4 15. does not exist
Limit of a Function 53
F. LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY
In this section, we will use the concept of infinity. Infinity is not a real number, but we can
use it to describe a graph which continues without end in a positive or negative direction.
For example, consider the function f(x) tends to
y
f : – {0} → – {c} graphed in the figure. positive infinity
How can we evaluate lim– f ( x) and lim+ f ( x)?
x→0 x→0

As we can see in the graph, as we approach zero

c
from the left-hand side the value of f(x) gets
y = f(x)
larger and larger. In other words, for any chosen x ® 0– x ® 0+
number M, we can always find an x closer to x
zero on the left such that f(x) > M. We say that O

f(x) tends to (i.e. moves in the direction of)

f(x) tends to
positive infinity, and write negative infinity

lim f ( x) =+∞.
x→0–

Similarly, when we approach zero from the right-hand side the value of f(x) gets smaller and
smaller. In other words, for any chosen number –M, we can always find an x closer to zero
on the right such that f(x) < –M. We say that f(x) tends to negative infinity:

lim f ( x) = – ∞.
x→0+

In both cases, f(x) has an infinite limit as x y

approaches a real number. Now, what about
lim f ( x) and lim f ( x)?
x →+∞ x→ – ∞

As we can see in the graph, as the value of x

f(x) tends to c
increases, the value of f(x) approaches the
c
number c. In other words, for any chosen ε > 0,
x ® –¥ x ® +¥
we can find a number M such that for all x > M,
x
the value of f(x) will be in the ε-neighborhood of O
c, i.e. f(x) is getting closer and closer to c. So we
can write y = f(x)

lim f ( x) = c.
x→+∞

Similarly, as x gets smaller and smaller, the value of f(x) also approaches the number c as
shown in the figure. For chosen any ε > 0, we can find a number N such that for all x < N,
the value of f(x) will be in the ε-neighborhood of c, i.e. f(x) approaches the number c while
x approaches negative infinity. So we can write
lim f ( x) = c.
x→ – ∞

In both cases, as x approaches negative or positive infinity, f(x) approaches a real number.
54 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 14 f: – {0} → , f ( x) =
1
x
is given. Find the limits.

a. lim+ f ( x) b. lim– f ( x) c. lim f ( x) d. lim f ( x)

x→0 x→0 x →+∞ x→ – ∞

1 y
Solution First, let us graph f ( x) = to study the limits of the
x
function.
y = f(x) = 1
x
a. As x approaches zero from the right-hand side, f(x)
approaches +∞:
1 x ® 0– x ® 0+
lim =+∞.
x→0+ x x
O
For example, when we choose a positive number

which is very close to zero such as x = 0.0001, we

1
get a large positive number: =10000.
x

b. As x approaches zero from the left-hand side, f(x)

approaches –∞:
1
lim = – ∞.
x→0 – x

For example, when we choose a negative number which is very close to zero such as
1
x =–0.00001, we get a large negative number: = –100000.
x

c. As x approaches +∞, f(x) approaches zero: y

1
lim = 0. y = f(x) = 1
x→+∞ x x

For example, when we choose a large

positive value of x such as x = 1000000, we x ® –¥
get a small positive number close to zero: x
O
1
= 0.000001. x ® +¥
x

Limit of a Function 55
 d. As x approaches –∞, f(x) approaches zero:
1
lim = 0.
x→ – ∞ x

For example, when we choose a large negative value of x such as x = – 10000000, we get a
small negative number close to zero:
1
= –0.0000001.
x
1
As a consequence of results a and b, notice that lim does not exist.
x →0 x

EXAMPLE 15 Find the limit of the function f: – {0} → , f ( x) =

2 x2 – x
x2 + 4
as x approaches +∞.

1 1
x2 (2 – ) (2 – )
2 x2 – x x x
Solution lim f ( x) = lim 2 = lim = lim
x→+∞ x→+∞ x + 4 x→+∞ 2 4 x→+∞ 4
x (1+ 2 ) (1+ 2 )
x x
0
1
(2 – )
1 4 x = 2.
As x → +∞ we have → 0 and 2 → 0, so lim
x x x→+∞ 4
(1+ 2 )
x
0

EXAMPLE 16 Find the limit of the function f ( x) =

1
x –1
as x → 1.

Solution The function f is not defined at x0 = 1 and so y

x0 = 1 is a crucial point. y= 1
x–1
So let us check the right-hand and left-hand
limits. Let h > 0 be a very small number, then
1 1 1
lim f ( x) = lim+ = lim = lim =+ ∞,
x→1+ x→1 x – 1 h→0 (1+ h) – 1 h→0 h 1
x
O –
x®1 x ® 1+
1 1 1
lim f ( x) = lim– = lim = lim = – ∞.
x→1– x→1 x–1 h → 0 (1 – h) – 1 h → 0 –h
The right-hand and left-hand limits are not
equal, so lim f ( x) does not exist.
x →1

56 Algebra 10
 Remark
For some functions f: → , the following infinite limits are possible:

a. lim f ( x) =+∞ b. lim f ( x) = – ∞

x →+∞ x →+∞

c. lim f ( x) =+∞ d. lim f ( x) = – ∞.

x→ – ∞ x→ – ∞

Look at the examples.

y y y

y = –x2

x ® –¥ x ® –¥ x ® +¥ x ® –¥ x ® +¥
x x x
O O O
x ® +¥

y = x3 y = x2

Check Yourself 7 y

1. The graph of a function f(x) is shown opposite. Find

each limit. y = f(x)

a. lim f ( x) b. lim f ( x) 2
x →+∞ x→ – ∞

c. lim f ( x) d. lim f ( x)
x →1 x →3
x
O 1 3
2. Calculate the limits.
2x + 3 x3 +1
a. lim b. lim
x →+∞ 5 x + 4 x →+∞ x4
x2 – 2 x + 3 | x| 1 – x2 x2 – 2
c. lim d. lim e. lim f. lim
x →+∞ 2 x2 + 3x – 1 x → – ∞ | x |+1 x → – ∞ 1+ 3x2 x→ – ∞ 4x – 2
3. Calculate the limits.
1 1 1 1 5x – 1
a. lim 2 b. lim– c. lim+ 2
d. lim e. lim
x →0 x x→1 x – 1 x→ 2 x –4 x→ e 1 – ln x x→ 2 2–x
4. Calculate the limits.
3
a. lim( x5 + x4 + x3 ) b. lim(1 – x – x2 ) c. lim(2 x – )
x→ – ∞ x →∞ x→ – ∞ x
Limit of a Function 57
 Answers
2 1 1
1. a. 2 b. 2 c. +∞ d. does not exist 2. a. b. 0 c. d. 1 e. – 1 f. – 3. a. +∞ b. – ∞
5 2 3 4
c. +∞ d. does not exist e. +∞ 4. a. – ∞ b. – ∞ c. – ∞

Theorem limit combination theorem

Let f(x) and g(x) be functions such that lim f ( x) = a and lim g( x) = b. Then
x → x0 x → x0

a. lim[ f ( x)+ g( x)]= a + b

x→ x0

b. lim[ f ( x) – g( x)]= a – b
x→ x0

c. lim[ f ( x) ⋅ g( x)]= a ⋅ b
x→ x0

f ( x) a
d. lim[ ]= ( b ≠ 0)
x → x0 g( x) b
e. lim k ⋅ f ( x) = k ⋅ a (k ∈ ).
x → x0

EXAMPLE 17 Given f(x) = 5 and g( x) =

1
x
(x ≠ 0), evaluate the limits.

f ( x)
a. lim[ f ( x) + g( x)] b. lim[ f ( x) ⋅ g( x)] c. lim[ ]
x →–2 x→+∞ x →–3 g( x)

1 1 9
Solution a. lim[ f ( x)+ g( x)]= lim f ( x)+ lim g( x) = lim 5+ lim = 5+( – ) =
x → –2 x → –2 x → –2 x →–2 x →–2 x 2 2
1
b. lim [ f ( x) ⋅ g( x)]= lim f ( x) ⋅ lim g( x) = lim 5 ⋅ lim =5 ⋅ 0=0
x →+∞ x →+∞ x→+∞ x→+∞ x→+∞ x
f ( x) 5
c. lim[ ]= lim = lim 5 ⋅ x = 5 ⋅ lim x = 5(–3) = –15
x→ –3 g( x) x→ –3 1 x→–3 x→–3

EXAMPLE 18 f: – {0} → , f ( x) =
1
1+ 22 / x
is given. Calculate the limits.

a. lim+ f ( x) b. lim– f ( x) c. lim f ( x)

x→0 x→0 x→0

58 Algebra 10
 1 lim 1
x→0+
Solution a. lim+ f ( x) = lim+ =
x→0 x→0 1+ 2 2/ x
lim+ 1 + lim+ 2 2 / x
x→0 x→0

2 lim 1 1
x→0+
As x → 0 , → +∞ and so 2 2 / x →+ ∞. So
+
= = 0.
x lim+ 1 + lim+ 2 2 / x 1 + ∞
x→0 x→0

1 lim 1
x→0 –
b. xlim f ( x) = lim– 2/ x
=
→0 – x→0 1+ 2 lim– 1+ lim– 2 2 / x
x→0 x→0

2 lim 1 1 1 1
– x→0–
As x → 0 , → – ∞ and so = = = =1.
x lim– 1+ lim– 2 2 / x 1+ 2 −∞ 1+ 1 1+0
x→0 x→0
2∞
c. Since lim+ f ( x) ≠ lim– f ( x), lim f ( x) does not exist.
x→0 x→0 x→0

Check Yourself 8
f 2 ( x) − f ( x)
1. Given lim f ( x) = 2, find lim .
x→ a x→ a f ( x)+ 3
f ( x) ⋅ g( x)+ f ( x)
2. f(x) = sin x + 2 and g(x) = cos 2x are given. Find limπ .
x→ ⎛g⎞
2
⎜ ⎟ ( x)
⎝f⎠
3. Calculate each limit by using the limit combination theorem.
2
1+
x–2 x
a. lim 2 b. lim c. lim(3 x +1)2 d. lim(6 x3 + 4 x2 – 3)
x →1 x + 4 x→ – ∞ 4 x →1 x →–1
5+
x
Answers
2 1 1
1. 2. 0 3. a. – b. c. 16 d. –5
5 5 5

Limit of a Function 59
EXERCISES 2 .1
A. Limit of a Polynomial Function 15. Use the definition of the limit of a function to
prove each statement.
In questions 1-7, calculate the limits.
a. lim
x→5
2 x = 10 b. lim(2
1
x + 3) = 2
1. lim(3 x + 2) 2. lim( x2 – 2 x) x→ –
2
x→5 x →–4
c. lim
x →3
5=5
3. lim 3(2t – 1)( t +1) 4. lim17
t→2 x→ 4 D. One-Sided Limits
5. lim(2 k +1) 6. lim(2 x +1) ⋅ x2 16. y
x →–2 x→ a

7. lim( x2 – 2 b +1) 2
x→ b y = f(x)

1
B. Limits on a Graph –3 1
x
–2 –1 O
In questions 8-10, draw the graph of each 2 3

function and calculate the given limits. –1

–2
8. f: → , f(x) = 4x – 7, lim f ( x)
x→3

–3
⎧ x if x > 0
2
The figure shows the graph of a function f(x).
⎪⎪
9. f: → , f(x) = ⎨ 3 if x = 0 Find each limit.
⎪ 2
⎪⎩ – x if x < 0 a. lim+ f ( x) b. lim+ f ( x)
x→–1 x→2

a. lim f ( x) b. lim f ( x) c. lim f ( x) c. lim– f ( x) d. lim+ f ( x)

x→0 x→ 2 x →–2 x→0 x→ –2

e. lim– f ( x) f. lim f ( x)
x→ –1–
⎧ 2 if x > –3 x→ –2

⎪
10. f: → , f(x) = ⎨ 1 if x = –3 17. y
⎪ y = f(x)
⎩ x + 3 if x < –3
2
a. lim f ( x) b. lim f ( x) c. lim f ( x)
x →–5 x →–3 x →–1

C. Definition of Limit 1

x
11. Write the 0.3-neighborhood of 12 as an interval. –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4

12. Write the 0.1-neighborhood of –5 as an interval –1

and show it on a number line.

The graph of a function f is shown in the figure.
13. Write the 0.01-neighborhood of 4 as an interval. For which integer values of p in the interval
7 9
(– , ) does lim f ( x) exist?
14. Write the 0.05-neighborhood of 5 as an interval. 2 2 x→ p

60 Algebra 10
18. The function f: → , ⎧ x – 2 if x> 3
⎧ x if x >1 ⎪
⎪ ⎪ 3 if x= 3
2 if x =1 or x = –1 21. f: → , f(x) = ⎨
⎪ 1≤ x<3
f(x) = ⎨ ⎪ – x + 4 if
2
⎪ – x +1 if –1 < x <1 ⎪
⎩ 1 if x <1
⎪
⎩ –x if x < –1
is given. Calculate the limits.
is given.
a. Find the one-sided limits as x → –1, x → 0 and a. lim f ( x) b. lim f ( x)
x →1 x→ 3

x → 1.
b. Find at which point(s) the limit does not exist.
22. The figure shows the y

graph of a function 8
19. The function f: → , g(x). Find the sum of 7 y = g(x)
6
⎧ –3 if x >1 the left-hand limits of 5
⎪ g(x) at the integer 4
f(x) = ⎨ 2 if x =1 or x ≤ –2 3
⎪ 2 values in the interval 2
⎩ x – 4 if –2 < x <1 (0, 8). 1
x
is given. O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

a. Find the limits as x → 0 and x → 1.

b. Find at which point(s) the limit does not exist. E. Limits of Special Functions

23. Calculate the limits.

20. y a. lim | x – 2| b. lim|9 – x2 |
x→2+ |2 – x| x→ 3

4
| x – 5|
y = f(x) c. lim |2 x | d. xlim
x→0+ x + x
→ 5– x–5
3
|cos x|
f. lim | x|
2
e. lim+
x→
π cos x x→0– x
2

x
–3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 24. Calculate the limits.
–1 a. lim( x2 – sgn( x – 2)) b. lim(sgn(cos x))
–
x→2 +
π
x→
2
–2
|4 – x2 | x2 – 2 x
c. lim+ d. lim
x→2 sgn|2 – x| – x –
x→5 x – 3sgn( x – 5)
The graph of a function f: (–3, 3) → is shown in
the figure. At which integer value(s) of the 3x + 2 1– x
e. lim f. lim
domain does a limit exist? x→ 3 sgn(– x2 +6 x – 9) x →1 sgn( x2 – 3 x + 2)

Limit of a Function 61
25. Calculate the limits. 28. Calculate the limits.
1 1
a. lim( x + 3sgn x) b. lim( x + x) a. lim+ b. lim
–
x→2 x→ 3 x→2 x2 – 4 x →0 | x|
sin x x x3 + 2
c. lim+ d. lim( cos x + cos| x|) c. lim– 2 d. lim
x→π sin x +1 +
x→π x→3 x –9 x→ 3 x | x – 1| – 6
3– x e. lim( x – tan x)
e. lim x2 − 3 f. lim+ –
π
x→ 3 x→3 x–3 x→
2

g. lim– x5
x→2

x+ 2
29. f: → , f ( x) = is given.
x( x +1)( x – 2)
Calculate the limits.

a. lim f ( x) b. lim– f ( x)
x→ – ∞ x→ –1

F. Limits Involving Infinity c. lim+ f ( x) d. lim– f ( x)

x→ –1 x→0

26. The graph of a function f y

e. lim+ f ( x) f. lim– f ( x)
x→0 x→ 2
is shown in the figure.
Evaluate the limits. g. lim+ f ( x) h. lim f ( x)
x→2 x →+∞

a. lim f ( x)
x →+∞ 1

b. lim f ( x) x 30. Calculate the limits.

x→ – ∞ –2 –1 O 1
–1 y = f(x) x3
c. lim f ( x) a. lim (– x2 +1) b. lim 2
x →+∞ x → – ∞ x +5
x →1
–2
d. lim f ( x) 2 x3 – x2 +1 1
x →–1 c. lim d. lim
x → – ∞ x2 + 2 x +1 x →+∞ 1

e. lim f ( x) 1– 5x
x →–2

f ( x)+ f ( x)
31. Evaluate lim given lim f ( x) = 4.
x →2 f ( x) – 5 x→ 2

32. Use the limit combination theorem to calculate

27. Calculate the limits. each limit.
2 x2 +1 1 2x – 1
a. lim b. lim ( +1) a. lim 2 b. lim(4 x2 – 3 x+6)
x →+∞ 3x2 + 4 x →+∞ x x→ 3 x + 1 x→ 2

2
x –1 2| x | x–π
c. lim( ) d. lim( ) c. lim 5 d. lim 2 x2 + 4
x→ – ∞ x2 x→ – ∞ x x →π x+ π x→ 2

4 x2 + x – 5 3
x2 – 1
e. lim f. lim (1+ cos 1 ) e. lim
x→ – ∞ 3
x3 + 1 x →+∞ x x →7 x –1

62 Algebra 10
 So far we have studied the concept and formal definition of the limit of a function. We have

seen that even if a given function f is not defined at x0, in some cases the limit of the function

may exist as the point x approaches the point x0 or infinity.

x2 – 9
For example, the function f ( x) = is not defined at x0 = 3: when x0 = 3, we get the
x–3
0
value . But we know that lim f ( x) is not the same as f(3). It doesn't matter what happens
0 x→ 3

at x0 = 3; the important thing is what happens as x approaches this point. So the limit of a

function may exist even at undefined points.

x2 + x +1 ∞
Similarly, the function f ( x) = 2
approaches the value as x approaches infinity.
2x – 3 ∞
0 ∞
and are two examples of indeterminate forms. In the following section we will look at
0 ∞
0 ∞
how to evaluate limits which have the indeterminate forms , , 0 ⋅ ∞, ∞ – ∞, and 1∞.
0 ∞

0
A. AS A LIMIT
0
Let f and g be two functions and let x0 ∈ \ such that f(x0) = 0 and g(x0) = 0.
f ( x) 0
Then lim has the indeterminate form .
x → x0 g( x) 0
In this case there exists a function h(x) which is a common factor of the functions f and g

such that f(x) = f1(x) ⋅ h(x), g(x) = g1(x) ⋅ h(x) and h(x0) = 0.

So we can write
f ( x) f ( x) ⋅ h( x)
lim = lim 1 .
x → x0 g( x) x → x0 g1( x) ⋅ h( x)

Since x ≠ x0 (it is very close to, but not equal to, x0) we can cancel the factors h(x) and so

f1( x) ⋅ h( x) f ( x) f1( x0 )
lim = lim 1 =
x → x0 g1( x) ⋅ h( x) x→ x0 g1( x) g1( x0 )
which is the result of the limit.

Limit of a Function 63
EXAMPLE 19 Find lim
x→ 3
x2 − 9
x−3
.

0
Solution As x approaches 3, the quotient approaches the indeterminate form . However, by
0
factoring the expression in the numerator we get
x2 − 9 ( x − 3)( x + 3)
lim = lim = lim( x+ 3) = 6.
x→ 3 x−3 x→ 3 ( x − 3) x→ 3

( x – 3)
Remember that we can cancel the factor because x ≠ 3 at the limit (it is only
( x – 3)
approaching this point).

EXAMPLE 20 Find lim

x→ 2
x2 − 5x +6
x2 − x − 2
.

0
Solution This limit has the indeterminate formas x approaches 2, so we need to factor the numerator
0
and denominator and find the common factor:
x2 – 5x +6 ( x – 2)( x – 3) ( x – 3) 1
lim = lim = lim =– .
x→ 2 x2 – x – 2 x → 2 ( x – 2)( x +1) x → 2 ( x +1) 3

EXAMPLE 21 Find lim

x →1
x −1
x3 − 1
.

0
Solution The limit has the indeterminate form as x approaches 1.
0
We can begin by multiplying both the numerator and the denominator by the conjugate of ñx – 1:

x –1 ( x – 1)( x +1) ( x − 1)
lim 3
= lim 3 = lim 3 .
x →1 x –1 x →1
( x – 1)( x +1) x →1
( x − 1)( x +1)

We know that x3 – 1 = (x – 1)(x2 + x + 1), so

( x – 1) ( x − 1)
lim 3
= lim 2
x →1
( x – 1)( x +1) x →1
( x – 1)( x + x+1)( x +1)
1 1
= lim = .
x →1
( x + x +1)( x +1) 6
2

64 Algebra 10
 Check Yourself 9
Calculate the limits.
x2 – 2 x – 8 x2 – 9 x3 – x2 – x +1
1. lim 2. lim 3. lim
x→ 4 x2 – 3 x – 4 x→ 3 x3 – 27 x →1 3 x2 – 6 x + 3

x+ 2 – 2 x–4 4 – 2x
4. lim 5. xlim 6. lim
x→ 2 x–2 →16 4
x–2 x→ 2 4 x – 16

Answers
6 2 2 1 1
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 4 6. –
5 9 3 4 8

0
1. The Indeterminate Form in Trigonometric Functions
0
As x approaches a point x0, the limit of a trigonometric function is the image of x0.
π
For example, lim cos x = cos0 =1, lim sin x = sin0 = 0, and limπtan x = tan =1.
x→0 x→0
x→ 4
4

sin x
But what about a limit such as lim ?
x →0 x

When we are calculating the limit of a trigonometric function which involves the
0 sin x
indeterminate form , we can use the rule lim =1.
0 x →0 x

Conclusion
tan x sin ax a tan ax a
1. lim =1 2. lim = and lim =
x→0 x x→0 bx b x → 0 bx b
sin ax a tan ax a sin ax a tan ax a
3. lim = and lim = 4. lim = and lim = .
x→0 sin bx b x → 0 tan bx b x→0 tan bx b x → 0 sin bx b

tan x sin x 1 sin x 1

Proof 1. lim = lim ⋅ = lim ⋅ lim =1 ⋅ 1=1.
x→0 x x→0 x cos x x→0 x x→0 cos x
u
2. As x → 0, let ax = u so x = and consider u → 0.
a
sin ax 1 sin ax 1 sin u a sin u a a
lim = ⋅ lim = ⋅ lim = ⋅ lim = ⋅1=
x→0 bx b x→0 x b u →0 u b u →0 u b b
a

Limit of a Function 65
 tan ax tan ax
⋅ ax
tan ax a 1 a a
3. lim = lim ax = lim ax ⋅ = ⋅ =
x → 0 tan bx x → 0 tan bx x → 0 tan bx b 1 b b
⋅ bx
bx bx
sin ax sin ax sin ax
ax . lim
sin ax ax a ax a x→0 ax a 1 a
4. lim = lim = ⋅ lim = ⋅ = ⋅ =
x→0 tan bx x→0 tan bx b x→0 tan bx b tan bx b 1 b
bx ⋅ lim
bx bx x→0 bx

EXAMPLE 22 Find lim

x→ 2
4 – x2
sin(2 – x)
.

4 – x2 (2 – x)(2+ x) (2 – x)
Solution lim = lim = lim ⋅ lim(2+ x) =1 ⋅ 4 = 4
x → 2 sin(2 – x) x→ 2 sin(2 – x) x → 2 sin(2 – x) x→ 2

tan x
EXAMPLE 23 Find lim
x→π 3( x – π)
.

Solution Since tan x = –tan(π – x),

tan x – tan( π – x) 1 tan( π – x) 1 1
lim = lim = lim = ⋅1= .
x→π 3( x – π) x→π –3( π – x) 3 x→π ( π – x) 3 3

x
sin 2
EXAMPLE 24 Find lim
x→0 3x2
2.

2
x x x ⎛ x⎞
sin 2 sin 2 sin 2 ⎜ sin ⎟
1
2 = lim 1 1
2 = ⋅ lim 2= 1 2 = 1 ⋅12 = 1
Solution lim lim ⎜ ⎟
x → 0 3 x2 3 x → 0 4x 2
3 4 x → 0
⎛ x⎞
2
12 x → 0
⎜⎜ x ⎟⎟ 12 12
4 ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎝2⎠

1 – cos 2 x
EXAMPLE 25 Evaluate lim
x→0 8 x2
.

Solution Since cos 2x = 1 – 2sin2 x,

1 – cos 2 x 1 – (1 – 2 sin 2 x) 1 – 1+ 2 sin 2 x sin 2 x 1 sin x 2
lim 2
= lim 2
= lim 2
= lim 2
= lim( )
x→0 8x x → 0 8x x → 0 8x x→ 0 4x 4 x→ 0 x
1 2
= ⋅ 1 = 4.
4

66 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 26 Evaluate lim cos x .
x→ π – 2 x
π
2

π
Solution Since cos x = sin( − x) we can write
2
π 1
sin( – x) sin ( π – 2 x)
cos x 2 2 1
limπ = limπ = limπ = .
x→ ( π – 2 x) x→ ( π – 2 x) x→ ( π – 2 x) 2
2 2 2

Check Yourself 10
Calculate the limits. x
sin
tan 2 x sin x 2
1. lim 2. lim 3. lim
x → 0 tan5 x x → 0 tan 3 x x → 0 3x

sin(2 x − 2) sin 2 2 x sin5 x

4. lim 5. lim 6. lim
x →1 4x − 4 x→0 x2 x→0 5x ⋅ cos5 x
3π
tan πx 3x2 cos(3 x + )
7. lim 8. lim 9. lim 2
x →1 1 − x x → 0 1 − cos 2 x x → 0 sin( π − 2 x)

Answers
2 1 1 1 3 3
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 4 6. 1 7. –π 8. 9.
5 3 6 2 2 2

∞
B. AS A LIMIT
∞
Let f and g be two functions and let x0 ∈ \ such that as x approaches x0, both f(x) and g(x)

approach positive or negative infinity, i.e. lim f ( x) = ±∞ and lim g( x) = ±∞.

x→ x0 x→ x0

f ( x) ∞
Then lim has the indeterminate form . We can find the limit of such functions as
x→ x0 g( x) ∞

follows:

Limit of a Function 67
 Let P(x) = anxn + an–1xn–1 + ... + a0 and

Q(x) = bmxm + bm–1xm–1 + ... + b0 be two polynomial functions, then

P( x) a xn + an −1x n −1 +...+ ao
lim = lim n m m −1
x →±∞ Q( x) x→±∞ b x + b
m m −1x +...+ bo
0 0
a a
xn ( an + n −1 +...+ on ) n
= lim x x = lim an x .
x →±∞ m b b x→±∞ b x m
x ( bm + m −1 +...+ mo ) m
x x
0 0

As x approaches ±∞, the limit of each rational expression approaches zero, so we have
eliminated the rational expressions. In conclusion, we can write

⎧ an
⎪b if n = m
P( x) a x n
⎪ m
lim = lim n m = ⎨
⎪0 if n < m
x →±∞ Q( x ) x→±∞ b x
m
⎪
⎩ ±∞ if n > m.

This is the same as saying the following:

The degree of a polynomial
is the highest power of 1. If the degrees of the polynomials are equal then the limit is the ratio of the leading
the variable in the
polynomial. The leading coefficients.
coefficient is the 2. If the degree of the polynomial in the denominator is greater than the degree of the
coefficient of the term
with the highest degree. polynomial in the numerator then the limit is zero.
For example, x – 3x2 has
degree 2 and its leading
3. If the degree of the polynomial in the denominator is less than the degree of the polynomial
coefficient is –3. in the numerator then the limit is infinite (i.e. it approaches positive or negative infinity).

EXAMPLE 27 Evaluate the limits.

5 x 3 – 2 x2 + x – 1 –2 x3 – 1 x2 + 2
a. lim b. lim c. lim
x →∞ 4x3 – x2 +12 x →∞ x5 + x3 +1 x →−∞ x + 4

∞
Solution The indeterminate form is .
∞
5 x 3 − 2 x2 + x − 1 5
a. lim = because the polynomials have the same degree. Alternatively, we
x →∞ 4x3 − x2 +12 4
can calculate
2 1 1
x3 (5 − + − )
5 x 3 − 2 x2 + x − 1 3
x x2 x3 = lim 5 x = 5 .
lim = lim
x →∞ 4x3 − x2 +12 x→∞ 1 12 x→∞ 4 x3
4
x3 (4 − + 3 )
x x

68 Algebra 10
 −2 x3 − 1
b. lim = 0 because the degree of the polynomial in the denominator is bigger. We
x→∞ x5 + x3 +1
can also calculate this limit:
1
x3 ( −2 − 3 )
−2 x3 − 1 x −2 x3 −2
lim 5 = lim = lim 5 = lim 2 = 0.
3
x →∞ x + x +1 x →∞ 5 1 1 x →∞ x x →∞ x
x (1+ 2 + 5 )
x x
x2 + 2
c. lim = −∞ because the degree of the polynomial in the numerator is bigger. We can
x→−∞ x + 4

also calculate this directly:

⎛ 2 ⎞
x2 ⎜ 1+ 2 ⎟
x2 + 2 ⎝ x ⎠ x2
lim = lim = lim = lim x = −∞.
x →−∞ x + 4 x→−∞ ⎛ 4⎞ x→−∞ x x→−∞
x ⎜ 1+ ⎟
⎝ x⎠

EXAMPLE 28 Calculate the limits.

2x + 4 x − 4x2 − 1
a. lim b. lim
x →∞
9 x2 + 2 x →−∞
x2 + 2 x + 2

∞
Solution a. The indeterminate form is .
∞
⎛ 4⎞ ⎛ 4⎞ ⎛ 4⎞
x ⎜ 2+ ⎟ x ⎜ 2+ ⎟ x ⎜2+ ⎟
2x + 4 ⎝ x⎠ ⎝ x⎠ ⎝ x⎠ 2
lim = lim = lim = lim =
x →∞
9x + 2
2 x→∞
⎛ 2 ⎞ x→∞
2 x→∞
2 3
9x2 ⎜ 1+ 2 ⎟ 3 x 1+ 2 3 x 1+ 2
⎝ 9 x ⎠ 9 x 9 x
∞
b. The indeterminate form is .
∞
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
x − x ⎜4 − 2 ⎟ x − ( −x) ⎜ 4 − 2 ⎟
x − 4x − 1 2
⎝ x ⎠ ⎝ x ⎠
lim = lim = lim
x →−∞ 2
x + 2x + 2 x→−∞
2 2 x→−∞
2 2
x 1+ + 2 − x 1+ + 2
x x x x

1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
x+ x 4 − x ⎜⎜ 1+ 4 − 2 ⎟⎟
x2 = lim ⎝ x ⎠ 1+ 4
= lim = = −3
x →−∞
2 2 x→−∞
2 2 − 1
− x 1+ + 2 −x 1+ + 2
x x x x

Limit of a Function 69
EXAMPLE 29 Find lim
2 x +5 x+1
x →∞ 3x +5 x
.

∞
Solution The indeterminate form is .
∞
2
5x ⎛⎜ ( )x +5 ⎞⎟
2 x +5 x+1 ⎝ 5 ⎠ = 5, since lim( 2 ) x = 0 and lim( 3 ) x = 0 .
lim x = lim
x→∞ 3 +5 x x→∞ ⎛ 3 ⎞ x→∞ 5 x→∞ 5
5x ⎜ ( )x +1⎟
⎝ 5 ⎠

Check Yourself 11
Calculate the limits.
1 – x2 +7 x3 x5 + 2 x +7 x2 + 2 x − 12
1. lim 2. lim 3. lim
x →∞ 5+ x – x3 x →−∞ x2 +12 x – 1 x →−∞ 1 − x3

3x2 +1 x − 9 x2 − 1 cot 5 x
4. lim 5. lim 6. lim
x →−∞
4x + 4 2 x →∞ 2
x +1+ 3x x→0 cot 6 x
x
tan x2 + cos x
2 7 x+2 + 3x
7. lim 8. lim 9. lim
x→π cot( x − π) x →∞ 3 x2 x→∞ 5 x + 7 x

Answers
1 6 1
1. –7 2. –∞ 3. 0 4. ∞ 5. – 6. 7. –2 8. 9. 49
2 5 3

C. 0 ⋅ ∞ AS A LIMIT
Let f and g be two functions and let x0 ∈ \, and let us assume that as x approaches x0, f(x)
approaches zero but g(x) approaches positive or negative infinity, i.e.
lim f ( x) = 0 and lim g( x) = ±∞.
x → x0 x → x0

Then lim[ f ( x) ⋅ g( x) has the indeterminate form 0 ⋅ ∞.

x→ x0

We can find the limit of such functions by transforming the indeterminate form 0 ⋅ ∞ into the
0 ∞
indeterminate form or as follows:
0 ∞
f ( x) 0
lim [ f ( x) ⋅ g( x)]= lim has the indeterminate form .
x→ x0 x→ x0 1 0
g( x)

g( x) ∞
lim [ f ( x) ⋅ g( x)]= lim
x→ x0 x→ x0 1 has the indeterminate form ∞ .
f ( x)

70 Algebra 10
 1
EXAMPLE 30 Find lim( x ⋅ sin ).
x →∞ x

Solution 0
The function has the indeterminate form ∞ ⋅ 0. We can transform it into the form by writing
0
1
sin
1 x ).
lim( x ⋅ sin ) = lim(
x →∞ x x →∞ 1
x
1 1
Let us take = t. As x → ∞, → 0 so t → 0,
x x
1
sin
and so lim( x ) = lim( sin t ) =1.
x →∞ 1 t→0 t
x

EXAMPLE 31 Find lim

x →−∞
1
x +5
⋅ (3x − 2).

Solution The indeterminate form is 0 ⋅ ∞.

1 3x − 2
lim ⋅ (3x − 2) = lim = 3.
x →−∞ x +5 x→−∞ x +5

Check Yourself 12
Calculate the limits.
x 9 2π 1 1
1. lim( ⋅ sin ) 2. lim( x ⋅ tan ) 3. lim( x + 2) 2 4. lim x2 +5 x +1 ⋅
x →∞ 3 x x →∞ x x →∞ ( x − 1) x →∞ x+ 4

Answers
1. 3 2. 2π 3. 0 4. 1

D. ∞ – ∞ AS A LIMIT
Let f and g be two functions. Let x0 ∈ \, and let us assume that as x approaches x0, both f(x)
and g(x) approach infinity, i.e.
lim f ( x) = ∞ and lim g( x) = ∞.
x → x0 x → x0

Then lim [ f ( x) − g( x)] has the indeterminate form ∞ – ∞. We can find the limit of such
x→ x0
0 ∞
functions by transforming the indeterminate form ∞ – ∞ into the indeterminate form or ,
0 ∞
as shown in the following examples.

Limit of a Function 71
EXAMPLE 32 ⎛ 2
Find lim ⎜ 2
x→1 ⎝ x − 1
−
1 ⎞
⎟.
x −1⎠

Solution The indeterminate form is ∞ – ∞ as x approaches 1. We can rewrite the function to transform
0
the indeterminate form ∞ – ∞ into the indeterminate form :
0
⎛ 2 1 ⎞ ⎛ 2 1 ⎞ 2 – x–1 1– x
lim ⎜ 2 – ⎟ = lim ⎜ – ⎟ = lim = lim .
x →1 x – 1
⎝ x – 1⎠ x →1
⎝ ( x – 1)( x +1) x – 1 ⎠ x →1 ( x – 1)( x+1) x →1 ( x – 1)( x+1)

0
Now we have the indeterminate form and we can calculate the limit:
0
1– x –1 1
lim = lim =– .
x →1 ( x – 1)( x +1) x →1 ( x +1) 2

EXAMPLE 33 2 2
Find lim( 4 x – 6 x + 3 – 4 x + 3 x+1).
x →∞

Solution The indeterminate form is ∞ – ∞. Let us multiply and divide the expression by its conjugate.
Then we get

( 4 x2 – 6 x + 3 − 4 x2 + 3 x +1)( 4 x2 – 6 x+ 3 + 4 x2 + 3 x+1)
lim
x →∞
( 4 x2 – 6 x + 3 + 4 x2 + 3 x +1)

4 x2 – 6 x + 3 – (4 x2 + 3 x +1) –9 x+ 2
= lim = lim
x →∞ ⎛ 2 ⎛ 6 3 ⎞ 2 ⎛ 3 1 ⎞⎞ x →∞ 2x + 2x
⎜⎜ 4x ⎜ 1 − + 2 ⎟ + 4 x ⎜1+ + 2 ⎟ ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎝ 4 x 4 x ⎠ ⎝ 4 x 4x ⎠ ⎠

⎛ 2 ⎞
–9 x ⎜ 1 – ⎟
⎝ 9x ⎠ –9 x 9
= lim = lim =– .
x →∞ 2x+ 2x x →∞ 4 x 4

EXAMPLE 34 2
Find lim( x – 2 x – 3 + x – 4).
x→ – ∞

Solution The indeterminate form is ∞ – ∞.

Use the theorem:

⎛ –2 ⎞
lim( x2 – 2 x – 3 + x – 4) = lim ⎜ 1 ⋅ x+ + x – 4 ⎟= lim | x – 1|+ x – 4
x→ – ∞ x→ – ∞
⎝ 2 ⋅ 1 ⎠ x→ – ∞
= lim(– x +1+ x – 4) = –3.
x→ – ∞

72 Algebra 10
 Check Yourself 13
Calculate the limits.
⎛ 1 2 ⎞ ⎛ x2 x⎞
1. lim ⎜ + ⎟ 2. lim ⎜ – ⎟ 3. lim ⎛⎜ 1 − 1 ⎞⎟
x→1 x – 1
⎝ 1 – x2 ⎠ x→∞ 2 x – 5
⎝ 2⎠ x→ ⎝ cos x
π
cot x ⎠
2

4. lim( x2 + 3x +1 – x) 5. lim( x2 + 4 x +1 – x2 + 3 x + 3)
x→∞ x →∞

6. lim( x + 2 – x – 2 ) 7. lim( x2 – 8 x +1+ x+ 4)

x →∞ x →−∞

Answers
1 5 3 1
1. 2. 3. 0 4. 5. 6. 0 7. 8
2 4 2 2

∞
E. 1 AS A LIMIT
Let f and g be two functions and let x0 ∈ \, and let us assume that as x approaches x0, f(x)
approaches 0 and g(x) approaches infinity, i.e.
lim f ( x) = 0 and lim g( x) = ∞.
x → x0 x → x0

Since lim(1+ f ( x)) approaches 1 but is not equal to 1, the limit lim(1+ f ( x)) g( x ) has the
x → x0 x → x0
∞ ∞
indeterminate form 1 . We can remove the indeterminate form 1 by using the following rule:

Let lim f ( x) = 0, lim g( x) = ∞ and lim f ( x) ⋅ g( x) = k ( k ∈ \). Then

x → x0 x → x0 x → x0

lim(1+ f ( x)) g( x ) = e k , where e ≅ 2.718.

x → x0

EXAMPLE 35 For f ( x) =
1
x
and g(x) = x, find lim(1+ f ( x)) g( x ).
x →∞

1
Solution We have lim f ( x) = lim = 0,
x →∞ x→∞ x
lim g( x) = lim x = ∞ and
x →∞ x →∞

⎛1 ⎞
lim f ( x) ⋅ g( x) = lim ⎜ ⋅ x ⎟ =1.
x→∞ x
x →∞
⎝ ⎠
So k = 1 and by the given rule,
x
⎛ 1⎞
lim(1+ f ( x)) g( x ) = lim ⎜1+ ⎟ = e1 = e.
x→∞ x→∞
⎝ x⎠

Limit of a Function 73
EXAMPLE 36 For f ( x) =
3
x
and g(x) = 5x, find lim(1+ f ( x)) g( x ).
x →∞

3 For m, n ∈ \,
Solution We have lim f ( x) = lim = 0,
x →∞ x→∞ x m nx
lim(1+ ) = em⋅n.
lim g( x) = lim 5 x = ∞ and
x →∞ x
x →∞ x →∞

⎛3 ⎞
lim f ( x) ⋅ g( x) = lim ⎜ ⋅ 5 x ⎟ =15. So k = 15 and by the given rule,
x →∞ x
x →∞
⎝ ⎠
5x
⎛ 3⎞
lim(1+ f ( x)) g( x ) = lim ⎜1+ ⎟ = e15.
x→∞ x→∞
⎝ x⎠

3 x+1

EXAMPLE 37 x →∞
⎛
Find lim ⎜1+
⎝
2 ⎞
⎟
2 x +1 ⎠
.

2
Solution We can rewrite the limit in the form lim(1+ f ( x)) g( x ) using f ( x) = and
x →∞ 2 x +1
g(x) = 3x + 1.
2 2
So f ( x) = and lim f ( x) = lim = 0,
2 x +1 x →∞ x→∞ 2 x +1

g( x) = 3x +1 and lim g( x) = lim 3 x+1= ∞ .

x →∞ x →∞

2 6x+ 2 6
This gives lim f ( x) ⋅ g( x) = lim ⋅(3 x+1) = lim = = 3. So k = 3 and
x →∞ x→∞ 2x + 1 x →∞ 2 x +1 2
3 x+1
⎛ 2 ⎞
by the given rule, lim ⎜1+ ⎟ = e3.
x →∞
⎝ 2 x +1 ⎠

4x−2

EXAMPLE 38 ⎛ 3x +1 ⎞
Find lim ⎜
x →∞ 3x – 1
⎝
⎟
⎠
.

3x +1 3x – 1+ 2 2
Solution We can write = =1+ .
3x – 1 3x – 1 3x – 1
4 x− 2 4 x−2
⎛ 3x +1 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞ 2
Then lim ⎜ ⎟ = lim ⎜1+ ⎟ and we can take f ( x) = and g(x) = 4x – 2.
x →∞ 3x – 1
⎝ ⎠ x→∞
⎝ 3 x –1⎠ 3x – 1

⎛ 2 ⎞ 8x – 4 8 8
Since lim f ( x) ⋅ g( x) = lim ⎜ ⎟ ⋅(4 x – 2) = lim = , k= .
x →∞ 3x – 1 x →∞ 3 x – 1 3 3
x →∞
⎝ ⎠
4 x− 2 4 x− 2 8
⎛ 3x +1 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞
So lim ⎜ ⎟ = lim ⎜1+ ⎟ = e 3.
x →∞ 3x – 1 3x – 1 ⎠
⎝ ⎠ x→∞
⎝

74 Algebra 10
 Check Yourself 14
Calculate the limits.
x x x
5 x−2⎞ ⎛ 2 x +1 ⎞
1. lim ⎛⎜ 1+ ⎞⎟ 2. lim ⎛⎜ ⎟ 3. lim ⎜ ⎟
x →∞
⎝ x⎠ x →∞
⎝ x ⎠ x →∞
⎝ 2x ⎠
4x 2 x+5 x+ 4
⎛ 3x – 2 ⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞ 2x – 5 ⎞
4. lim ⎜ ⎟ 5. lim ⎜ 1 – ⎟ 6. lim ⎛⎜ ⎟
x →∞
⎝ 3x ⎠ x →∞
⎝ 2 x +7 ⎠ x →∞ 2 x + 3
⎝ ⎠
3 x +1
⎛ x+ 2 ⎞
7. lim ⎜ ⎟
x →∞ x +5
⎝ ⎠
Answers
1 8
–
1. e5 2. e–2 3. e 2 4. e 3
5. e–3 6. e–4 7. e–9

The figure shows an n-sided regular polygon inside a circle centered at O.

2π
In the figure let |AB| = a, |OA| = r and m( ∠AOB) = so in the right triangle AOH,
a n
O
a
sin( ∠AOH) = 2 = and a = 2rsin(∠AOH).
r 2r
π π r
Since ΔAOB is an isosceles triangle, m( ∠AOH ) = and a = 2 r sin .
n n H
π A B
The perimeter of the polygon is therefore n ⋅ 2 r sin . a
n
As the number of sides of the regular polygon increases to infinity, the polygon gets closer and closer to a circle.
π
sin
π n
Therefore the circumference of the circle is lim n ⋅ 2 r sin = lim 2 r ⋅ π = 2 πr.
n→∞ n n→∞ π
n
It can also be proved that the area of a circle is equal to πr2 by using a limit. (This is left as an exercise for you.)

Limit of a Function 75
EXERCISES 2 .2
0 | x |+2 x – 1 x2 + x – 2 + 3 x
A. as a Limit g. lim h. lim
0 x → – ∞ 3x + 4| x |+5 x→ – ∞ 5
x5 – 1
1. Calculate the limits. C. 0 ⋅ ∞ as a Limit
x–5 x2 – x – 6
a. lim 2 b. lim 2 4. Calculate the limits.
x → 5 x – 25 x →–2 x + x – 2

6 5
x2 – 5 x – 6 5 x3 – 5 a. lim( x ⋅ sin ) b. lim x2 – x + 3 ⋅
c. lim d. lim x →∞ 7x x →∞ x+ 2
x →–1 x +1 x →1 x –1
x2 – 9 x–2 c. lim( 3x ⋅ tan 3 ) d. lim(sin 2 x ⋅ cot 5 x)
e. lim 2
f. lim x →∞ x x→0
x→ 3 x – 5x +6 x→ 2 2
2 x – 3x + 4
D. ∞ – ∞ as a Limit
2 – | x| x3 – m 3
g. lim h. lim 5. Calculate the limits.
x →–2 2+ x x → m 2 x2 – mx – m 2

2 2 x 3 – x2
2 2 x+4 – 16 a. lim( x x
− ) b. lim( – x)
i. lim x+1 x→∞ 3x + 4 3 x→ – ∞ 1+ 2 x2
x→ 0 2 –2
x+ 2 4 x 2
2. Calculate the limits. c. lim( – 2) d. lim( + )
x→0 x x x→1 x – 1 x2 – 4 x + 3
sin5 x x–3
a. lim b. lim 6. Calculate the limits.
x→0 7x x→ 3 tan(2 x – 6)
sin(3 x – 6) 1 – cos 2 x a. lim( x2 +5 x +1 − x)
x →∞
c. lim d. lim
x → 2 tan( x – 2) x→0 sin 2 x
b. lim( x2 + x +1 – x2 + 2 x – 3)
x →∞
sin x cos x +1
e. lim f. lim
x →π ( π – x)2
x→0
1 – cos 2 x c. lim( x2 + 2 x + 2 – x+1)
x →∞
2
π – 2x
g. lim cos 2x – 1 h. lim d. lim( x x2 +1 – x2 )
π sin 2 x
x→0 x x→
2
x →∞

i. lim sin2 x 2 3
j. lim (1 – x 2 )( x – 1) E. 1∞ as a Limit
x→0
cos x – cos 2 x x →1 tan ( x – 1) 7. Calculate the limits.
2 3
a. lim(1+ )x b. lim(1 – )3 x
B. ∞ as a Limit x →∞ x x →∞ x
∞ x+ 3 x 6 x +1 2 x
3. Calculate the limits. c. lim( ) d. lim( )
x →∞ x x →∞ 6x
3x3 + 2 x2 +1 x2 + x +1 5x +1 3 x+1
a. lim b. lim 2 2 x+1
x →∞ x3 – 1 x →∞ 3 x3 + 4 e. lim(1 – ) f. lim( )
x →∞ 3x +1 x →∞ 5x – 1
x2 +1 x2 + x + 2
c. lim d. lim 7 x + 2 9 x –1
x→ – ∞ 5x – 4 x→ – ∞
3+ 5 x5 +1 g. lim(1+ )2 x h. lim( )
x→∞ 5x + 3 x →∞ x+ 4
2005 x + 2010 x4 + ax + 2
e. lim f. lim 3x +1 3 x+1 2 x +7 x –1
x →∞ x2 +1 x →∞ ( x2 – 1)2 – a i. lim( ) j. lim( )
x →∞ 3x + 2 x →∞ 2x – 1

76 Algebra 10
A. CONTINUITY AT A POINT
In this section we will look at the concept of continuity of a function. During our study of the
limit of f(x) as x approaches x0, we have continuously emphasized that the limit is not
necessarily equal to f(x0). Indeed, what actually happens at the point x0 is not important for
the limit of the function at that point. However, the nature of f(x0) becomes important when
we are considering the continuity of a function.

Definition continuity at a point, discontinuity at a point

Let A be a subset of \, let f: A → \ be a function and let x0 ∈ A. If
lim f ( x) = f ( xo )
x → xo

then we say f is continuous at x0. Otherwise, f is said to be discontinuous at x0.

It is important to note that for a function f to be continuous at x0, three things are necessary:
1. The limit of f(x) as x → x0 must exist.
2. The function f must be defined at the number x0, i.e. f(x0) must exist.
And also, by the definition above,
3. lim f ( x) = f ( xo ).
x→ xo

If even one of these three conditions is not satisfied, the function f is said to be
discontinuous at point x0.
Let us begin by looking at the continuity of some functions at given points.

y = f( x )

The figure shows the graph y = f(x).

f(a)
At x = a, lim f ( x) does not exist.
x→ a

So f is discontinuous at x = a.
x
O a

Limit of a Function 77
 y

At x = b, lim f ( x) = L but f(b) does not exist.

x→ b

This means that f is not defined at x = b. y = f(x)

L
So f is discontinuous at point b.
x
O b

At x = c, lim f ( x) = L and f(c) exists, but

x→ c f(c)
lim f ( x) ≠ f ( c). y = f(x)
x→ c
L
So f is discontinuous at point c.
x
c
O

At x = d, lim f ( x) = f ( d) .
x→ d y = f(x)
So f is continuous at point d.
f(d) = L

x
d
O

Note
The graph of a function which is continuous at a point has no gaps or breaks in its line at
that point. In other words, we can draw the graph of the function without lifting our pen from
the paper when we pass through the point.

EXAMPLE 39 Examine the continuity of the function f(x) in y

the figure at the points x = –3, x = –1, x = 2
and x = 4. 7
6
5
4
3 y = f(x)
2
1
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4

78 Algebra 10
 Solution a. The graph shows f(–3) = 2 and lim f ( x) = 2, so
x →−3

lim f ( x) = f ( −3). So f is continuous at x = –3.

x→−3

b. f(–1) is not defined. So f is discontinuous at x = –1.

c. lim f ( x) does not exist. So f is discontinuous at x = 2.

x→2

d. lim f ( x) = 5 but f(4) = 6.

x→4

Since lim f ( x) ≠ f (4), f is discontinuous at x = 4.

x→4

EXAMPLE 40 Examine the continuity of f: \ → \,

⎧ x2 +1 if x < 1
⎪⎪
f ( x) = ⎨ 2x if x = 1 at the point x =1.
⎪
⎩⎪ − x + 3 if x > 1

Solution Since f(1)= 2 ⋅ 1 =2, f(x) is defined at x = 1. y

y = x2 + 1
Let us find the limit of the function at x = 1:
3
lim− f ( x) = lim( x2 +1) =12 +1= 2 and
x →1 −
x →1 2

lim f ( x) = lim( −x + 3) = −1+ 3 = 2, so

x →1+ +
x →1
1
lim− f ( x) = lim+ f ( x) = 2 and so lim f( x) = 2.
x →1 x →1 x →1 x
–1 O 1 2 3
Since lim f ( x) = f (1), f is continuous at x = 1. y = –x + 3
x→1

EXAMPLE 41 Examine the continuity of f: \ – {–2} → \,

⎧ x3 − 8
⎪ 2 if x ≠ 2 and x ≠ –2
f ( x) = ⎨ x − 4 at the points x = 2 and x = −2.
⎪
⎩ 3 if x = 2

Solution a. At x = 2, f(2) = 3.
x3 − 8 ( x − 2)( x2 + 2 x + 4)
lim f ( x) = lim = lim
x→ 2 x→ 2 x2 − 4 x → 2 ( x − 2)( x + 2)

x2 + 2 x + 4 12
= lim = =3
x→ 2 x+ 2 4
Since lim f ( x) = f (2), f is continuous at x = 2.
x→ 2

b. At x = –2, f(–2) is not defined, so f is discontinuous at x = –2.

Limit of a Function 79
 Check Yourself 15 y

1. Examine the continuity of the function f shown in the figure 4 y = f(x)

3
at the points x = –3, x = –2, x = –1, x = 0, x = 2 and 2
x = 3. 1
x
–4 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4

2. Examine the continuity of f: \ → \,

⎧ 8x − 3
if x < −3
⎪ 3
⎪
f(x) = ⎨
3x if x = −3 at the point x = – 3.
⎪
⎪ x−6 if x > −3
⎩

⎧⎪ x2 + 5x if x < −1
3. Examine the continuity of f: \ → \, f ( x) = ⎨ at x = −1.
⎩⎪ x − 4x if x ≥ −1
3

⎧ x−9
if x < 0
⎪ x−3
⎪⎪
4. Examine the continuity of f: \ → \, f(x) = ⎨ 3 if x = 0 at x = 0.
⎪
⎪ 3
⎪⎩ if x > 0
1+ x2

2
⎧ mx + nx if x < −2
⎪
⎪⎪ 8 if x = −2
5. f: \ → \, f(x) = ⎨ is a function which is continuous at x = –2.
⎪ mx − n if x > −2
⎪ 5+ x2
⎪⎩
Find the values of m and n.

Answers
2. continuous 3. discontinuous 4. continuous 5. m = –5, n = –14

80 Algebra 10
EXERCISES 2 .3
A. Continuity at a Point 5. Examine the continuity of f: \ → \,
y ⎧ 2 x2 +1 if x < 1
1. The figure shows the graph ⎪
5 f ( x) = ⎨ x + 2 if x =1 at the point x= 1.
of a function f. Examine ⎪
⎩ − x + 4 if x > 1
4
the continuity of f at the y = f(x)
3
integer points in the 2

domain. 1
x
– 7 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 37
2 2

⎧ x2 + 2 x + 2 if x < −1
⎪
6. The function f ( x) = ⎨ m if x = −1
⎪
⎩ mx + n if x > −1
2. Examine the continuity of f: \ → \, is continuous at x = –1. Find m + n.
⎧⎪ x + 4 if x = 4
f ( x) = ⎨ at the point x = 4.
⎪⎩ 2 x if x ≠ 4

⎧ mx + 3 if x > 2
⎪
7. The function f( x) = ⎨ x+1 if x= 2
⎪
3. Examine the continuity of f: \ → \, ⎩ n2 − 1 if x < 2
⎧⎪ x +6 if x > 3 is continuous at x = 2. Find the possible values of
f ( x) = ⎨ at the point x = 3.
⎪⎩ x if x < 3
2
m and n.

⎪⎧ ax − a x + 3 if x < −1
2 2
4. Find the points at which the function
8. f ( x) = ⎨ is given.
⎧ 1 if x < 1 ⎪⎩ a x + ax +5 if x ≥ −1
3 2

⎪
f ( x) = ⎨ 2 if 1 ≤ x ≤ 2 is discontinuous. Find the possible values of a if f is continuous at
⎪
⎩ 1 if x > 2 the point x = –1.

Limit of a Function 81
B. Continuity on an Interval

9. Find the largest interval on which each function

is continuous.
x
a. f(x) = x3 – x2 + x – 1 b. f ( x) = 2
x +2
1 x+ 2
c. f ( x) = d. f ( x) =
x −1 x − 5x − 6
2

1
e. f ( x) = x3 + f. f ( x) = 3 2 x − 5
x

g. f ( x) = 3 3 x + 4 + x2 − 4

x2 − 2 x +1
h. f ( x) =
x2 − 3 x − 4

10. Find the largest interval on which each function

is continuous.
1 sin x
a. f ( x) = cos x b. f ( x) =
2 1 − cos x
x+ 2
c. f ( x) = sin x d. f ( x) = sin( )
x−2
x+2
e. f(x) = arccos(x – 4) f. f ( x) = sin(log )
x−2
3x + 4
g. f ( x) = arcsin( )
x −1

⎧ x3 − 27
⎪ if x > 3
⎪ 3−x
11. f ( x) = ⎨⎪ a if x = 3
⎪ x2 − bx + 27 if x < 3
⎩

is a continuous function in the set of real

numbers. Find a + b.

⎧ ax
⎪ if x > 1
12. f ( x) = ⎨ x2 +1
⎪ ax − 2 if x ≤ 1
⎩
is continuous in \. Find a.

82 Algebra 10
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 2
1. The figure shows the y 3x +| x|
y = f(x) 5. Find xlim .
graph of f(x). At which →0 − 3x + 2| x|
3
integer point in the 2 A) 0 B) 1 C) 2 D) 3 E) 4
interval (1, 7) does a 1
1 2 6
x
finite limit of f(x) exist? O 3 4 5 7

–3

A) 2 B) 3 C) 4 D) 5 E) 6

5
6. Find lim(1+ ) 3 x.
x →∞ x

A) e–3 B) e3 C) e5 D) e–15 E) e15

2. Find lim( x7 + x6 − x5 ).
x →−∞

A) –∞ B) ∞ C) 0 D) 2 E) –1

sin 4 x x+2
7. Find lim( ) .
x→0 x
1
3. Find xlim . A) 2 B) 4 C) 6 D) 8 E) 16
→0 – x
A) 0 B) 1 C) –1 D) ∞ E) –∞

2 x 3 – x2 – 1 8. Find lim( x2 – 3 x+ 4 – x).

4. Find lim 2 . x→∞
x →−∞ x + 2 x +1
A) 1 B) – 3 C) 3 D) – 1 E) 0
A) ∞ B) –∞ C) 2 D) –2 E) 0 2 2 2 2

Chapter Review Test 2 83

 a 3 − x3 ( x + 2)(3x − 1)
9. Find lim( ). 13. Find lim .
x→ a a 2 − x2 x →∞ 5 x2 − 4
3a 1 6 1 3
A) B) a C) 3 D) 3a E) A) B) 2 C) – D) – 1 E)
2 2 2 2a 5 5 4 5 5

10. The graph of a function y

f(x) is shown in the

4 y = f(x)
figure. Find the sum of 3 14. Find lim( x + 5 )2 x.
the left-hand limits of 2 x →∞ x
1
the function at the 1 2
x A) e5 B) e10 C) e2 D) e E) 1
O 3 4 5
integer values in the –1
interval (0, 5]. –2

A) –1 B) 1 C) 2 D) 3 E) 4

sin3 2 x
15. Find lim .
x→0 x3
x–9
11. Find lim . A) 0 B) 1 C) 2 D) 4 E) 8
x→9
x–3

A) 0 B) 3 C) 6 D) 9 E) ∞

12 x3 + 2 x2 − 1 3
12. Find lim . 16. Find lim( x −4 8 x +8 ).
x→∞ x3 +1 x→ 2 x − 4x
A) 6 B) –6 C) 12 D) –12 E) 14 A) 0 B) 2 C) 4 D) 8 E) 16

84 Algebra 10
A. ANGLES AND THE UNIT CIRCLE
In your previous studies you have already learned the basic principles of trigonometry on the
unit circle and in right triangles. Before we begin our study of trigonometry, it will be helpful
to review these basic concepts and definitions.

Definition
angle, directed angle

An angle is the union of two rays which have the same initial point.
If one of the rays of an angle is called the initial side of the angle and other ray is called the
terminal side, then the angle is called a directed angle.

Definition negative angle, positive angle

If a directed angle is measured in a clockwise
direction from its initial side then the angle is e de
sid l si
itia
l na
a negative angle. If the angle is measured in a in mi
ter
a a
counterclockwise direction then it is a ter
min init
positive angle. In trigonometry we use both al s ial
ide side
positive and negative angles.
negative angle: a = – 60° positive angle: a = 60°

We can measure angles using different units of measurement. The most common units are
degrees and radians. We write ° to show a degree measurement: one full circle measures
360°. We write R to to show a radian measurement: one full circle measures 2πR. We can also
3π
omit the radian notation if it is clear that an angle is in radians: α = means that the angle
3π 2
α measures radians.
2
We can use a simple formula to convert between degree (D) and radian (R) measures:
D R
=
180 ° π
π π
For example, 360° =2πR, 90° = , 45° = , ... .
2 4
In trigonometry we often work with angles drawn in the coordinate plane.

86 Algebra 10
 Definition unit circle, quadrant
The circle whose center lies at the origin of the coordinate plane and whose radius is 1 unit
is called the unit circle.
The coordinate axes divide the unit circle into four parts, called quadrants. The quadrants
are numbered in a counterclockwise direction.

in degrees: in radians: p
90° 2

2nd 1st 2nd 1st

quadrant quadrant quadrant quadrant
0º 0
180° 3rd 4th 360° p 3rd 4th 2p
quadrant quadrant quadrant quadrant

270° 3p
2

Definition quadrantal angles

The intersection points of the unit circle and the coordinate axes correspond to angles
measured on the circle. These angles are called quadrantal angles. In other words, 0°, 90°,
π 3π
180°, 270°, 360°, ... and 0, , π, , 2π, ... are quadrantal angles.
2 2
⎛ π⎞ ⎛π ⎞
In the unit circle, if α ∈ ⎜ 0, ⎟ then α is in the first quadrant, if α ∈ ⎜ , π ⎟ then it is in the
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝2 ⎠
⎛ 3π ⎞ ⎛ 3π ⎞
second quadrant, if α ∈ ⎜ π, ⎟ then it is in the third quadrant and if α ∈ ⎜ , 2π ⎟ then it
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
is in the fourth quadrant. The same applies to the equivalent intervals in degrees.

EXAMPLE 1 In which quadrant does each angle lie?

7π 17 π
a. 75° b. 228° c. 305° d. 740° e. –442° f. g –
3 5
Solution a. 75° < 90°, so it is in the first quadrant.
b. 228 ° ∈ (180 °, 270 °), so it is in the third quadrant.
We write ≡ to show that c. 305 ° ∈ (270 °, 360 °), so it is in the fourth quadrant.
two angles are coterminal:
α ≡ β means that α and β d. 740° = 20° + (2 ⋅ 360°) ≡ 20° and 20° ∈ (0 °, 90 °). So 740° is in the first quadrant.
are coterminal. e. –442° = 278° – (2 ⋅ 360°) ≡ 278° and 278 ° ∈ (270 °, 360 °). So – 442° is in the fourth quadrant.
Be careful! α ≡ β does not
7π π π π ⎛ π⎞ 7π
mean α = β. For example, f. = + 2 π ≡ and ∈ ⎜ 0, ⎟, so is in the first quadrant.
740° ≡ 20° but 740° ≠ 20°. 3 3 3 3 ⎝ 2⎠ 3
17 π 3π 3π 3π ⎛ π ⎞ 17 π
g. – = − (2 ⋅ 2 π) ≡ and ∈ ⎜ , π ⎟ , so – is in the second quadrant.
5 5 5 5 ⎝2 ⎠ 5

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 87

 Remember that there is a correspondence
between the points on the unit circle and the
p
real number line. 2
x2
Imagine the real number line placed
D x1
vertically next to the unit circle, so that O on C
E b B(a, b)
the real number line coincides with A(1, 0)
on the unit circle. Then we can ‘wrap’ the
A(1, 0)
real number line around the top and bottom a
halves of the circle to see the correspondences:
in the figure, we can see that point D G
F
corresponds to π ≅ 1.571 on the number line, x3
2
point F corresponds to − π , point B(a, b)
2 –
p
corresponds to x1, and so on. The intercept of 2
one radian and the unit circle corresponds to
1 on the real number line.

EXAMPLE 2 Find the real number which corresponds to the central angle 60° on the unit circle, using
π ≅ 3.14.

D R 60° R 60° ⋅ π π
Solution From the formula = we have = , so R = = . Using π ≅ 3.14 gives us
180 ° π 180 ° π 180° 3
3.14
R≅ ≅ 1.047. This is the required real number.
3

Check Yourself 1
1. Convert the measures to radians.
a. 30° b. 135° c. 210° d. 900°
2. Convert the measures to degrees.
π 5π
a. b. c. 5π d. 10π
3 6 4
Answers
π 3π 7π
1. a. b. c. d. 5π
6 4 6
2. a. 60° b. 150° c. 225° d. 1800°

88 Algebra 10
B. PRIMARY DIRECTED ANGLES
1. Coterminal Angles
Definition standard position of an angle
An angle in the coordinate plane whose vertex is at the origin and whose initial side lies along
the positive x-axis is said to be in standard position.

Definition coterminal angles

Two or more angles whose terminal sides coincide with each other when they are in standard
position are called coterminal angles.
Let us look at an example of coterminal angles. The figure shows a unit circle.

The positive angle ∠AOP corresponds to the arc y

AùEP and the negative angle ∠AOP corresponds to
the arc AùFP. These angles are coterminal. The P
measure of the positive angle ∠AOP is m(∠AOP) = α ° F
E
and the measure of the negative angle ∠AOP is q a
m(∠AOP) = –(360 – α)°. O
x
A
We can also express the measure of each angle in
radians. Since this is a unit circle, if the length of
the arc AùEP is θ then the measure of the positive
angle ∠AOP is m(∠AOP) = θ and the measure of
the negative angle ∠AOP is m(∠AOP) = –(2π – θ ).
Now assume that point P in the figure is moving around the circumference of the unit circle
from point A in the counterclockwise direction. Study the following table.

Measure of the central angle for AïP

Position of point P (moving counterclockwise)
Degrees Radians

P lies on the positive x-axis 0° 0

π
P lies on the positive y-axis 90° 0
P lies on the negative x-axis 180° π
3π
P lies on the negative y-axis 270° 2
P lies on the positive x-axis after one complete revolution 360° 2π

P lies on the ray [OP after one complete revolution 360° + α 2π + θ

P lies on the ray [OP after a second revolution 720° + α 4π + θ

P lies on the ray [OP after its kth revolution k ⋅ 360° + α 2kπ + θ

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 89

EXAMPLE 3 For each angle, write the set of coterminal angles with the same unit of measurement.
5π
a. 175° b.
4
Solution Coterminal angles differ by an integral multiple of complete angles.

a. {175° + k ⋅ 360°, k ∈ ]} = {...,–545°, –185°, 175°, 535°, 895°,...}

5π 11π 3 π 5 π 13 π 21 π
b. { + k ⋅ 2π, k ∈ ]} = {..., − , − , , , ,...}
4 4 4 4 4 4

Note a. b.
5p
The angles in part a and part b are –––
175° 4
coterminal. Therefore, if we graph them
in standard position, these angles will –185° 3p
– –––
have the same terminal side. 4

EXAMPLE 4 Find the arc length which corresponds to the central angle 40° on the unit circle (π ≅ 3).

D R 40° R 2π
Solution Since = we have = , so R = . We know that on the unit circle, the radian
180 π 180 π 9
measure of a directed angle is equal to the length of the directed arc corresponding to the
2π 2π 2 ⋅ 3 2
angle. So the arc length is , and using π ≅ 3 gives us ≅ = ≅ 0.6.
9 9 9 3

EXAMPLE 5 Find the coordinates of the terminal point of the arc with length
π
2
which is in standard
position on the unit circle.

Solution The circumference of a unit circle measures 2π. y

π
So represents a quarter of the circle. B(0, 1)
2
π
Therefore the arc length corresponds to the
2
point B(0, 1) on the unit circle. x
A¢(–1, 0) A(1, 0)

Furthermore, the arc length π corresponds to the

3π
point A′(–1, 0) on the unit circle and
2 B¢(0, –1)
corresponds to B′(0, –1).

90 Algebra 10
 2. Primary Directed Angles and Arcs
Definition primary directed angle
Let β be an angle which is greater than 360°. Then the positive angle α ∈ [0, 360°) which is
coterminal with β is called the primary directed angle of β.

In other words, the primary directed angle of β is the smallest positive angle that is
In order to find a primary
directed angle α we must coterminal with β. If we divide β by 360°, the remainder will be the primary directed angle.
divide the initial angle by
360. We must not simplify m(β ) = k ⋅ (360°) + m(α), k ∈ ].
before the division, because
360 represents a complete For example, 30° is the primary directed angle of 390° because 390° = 1 ⋅ 360° + 30°.
rotation. For example, the
remainder in the operation
5000÷360 gives us the
required primary directed We know that the radian measure of any angle is equal to the length of the arc which
angle whereas the simplified corresponds to its central angle in the unit circle. The circumference of a unit circle is 2π.
version 500÷36 does not.
Therefore any two real numbers that differ by integral multiples of 2π will coincide at the
same point on the circle.

Definition primary directed arc

The positive real number t ∈ [0, 2π) which differs from a real number by integral multiples
of 2π is called a primary directed arc.
Since t is the smallest positive real number that is coterminal with a given angle θ, we can
find t by subtracting integral multiples of complete rotations from θ, or alternatively by
dividing θ by 2π and considering the remainder:
θ = k ⋅ (2π) + t, k ∈ ].

EXAMPLE 6 Find the primary directed angle of each angle, using the same unit.
75π 75π
a. 7320° b. –7320° c. d. −
8 8

Solution a. 7320 360

– 7200 20
120
number of
rotations

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 91

 y y

x
120°

21st rotation

20 complete rotations in the positive direction

7320° = (20 ⋅ 360°) + 120°, so 120° is coterminal with 7320°.

So the primary directed angle of 7320° is 120°.
b. Solution 1
7320° = (20 ⋅ 360°) + 120°
–7320° = –(20 ⋅ 360° + 120°)
= (–20 ⋅ 360°) – 120°
= –120°
– 120° ≡ 240° (coterminal angles)
– 7320° ≡ 240° (coterminal angles)
Solution 2
–7320° = (–21) ⋅ 360° + 240°
Therefore the primary directed angle of –7320° is 240°.
y y

+240°
x x
–120°

20 complete rotations in the negative direction 21st rotation

92 Algebra 10
 c. Solution 1 y
75π 64 π 11π
= +
8 8 8
75π 11π
= 4 ⋅ (2 π)+
8 8
number of rotations x
11π
α=
8
Solution 2
1. Divide the numerator by twice the
denominator:
75p
2 ⋅ 8 = 16 and 75 ÷ 16 = (4 ⋅ 16) + 11. 8
5th rotation
2. Multiply the remainder by
π π 11π
: 11 ⋅ = .
denominator 8 8
75π 11π 75 16
So the primary directed angle of is .
8 8 – 64 4
11
number of rotations

remainder
d. If the angle was positive, the remainder y
– 75p
11π 8
would be as we found in part c. But the
8
11π
angle is negative, so the remainder is – .
8
Because a coterminal angle must be positive, x

11π 11π 5 π
we calculate − ≡ 2π – = .
8 8 8
5π
So the primary directed angle is .
8

EXAMPLE 7 Find the primary directed angle of θ = −30° 42′ 15′′.

Solution The primary directed angle must be positive, so we need to find the positive difference from
360°. Let the primary directed angle be θ ′.
To make the calculation easier we can write 360° as 359° 59′ 60′′. Then
359° 59′ 60′′
1° = 60′ and 1′ = 60′′ so – 30° 42′ 15′′
360° = 359° 59′ 60′′. –––––––––––––––––––––
329° 17′ 45′′.
So θ′ = 329° 17′ 45′′.
Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 93
 Check Yourself 2
1. Find the primary directed angle of each angle, using the same unit of measurement.
33π 3π
a. 100° b. 7200° c. d.
5 2
11π 5π
e. –400° f. –50° g. − h. −
3 4
2. For each angle, write the set of coterminal angles with the same unit of measurement.
π 3π
a. 30° b. 120° c. d.
3 2
Answers
3π 3π π 3π
1. a. 100° b. 0° c. d. e. 320° f. 310° g. h.
5 2 3 4
2. a. {..., –690°, –330°, 30°, 390°, ...} b. {..., –600°, –240°, 120°, 480°, 840, ...}
11π 5 π π 7 π 13 π 5π π 3π 7 π 11π
c. {..., – , – , , , , ...} d. {..., – , – , , , , ...}
3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2

C. TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS
1. Definition
C

hypotenuse
(hyp) opposite
side
(opp)
q
A adjacent side B
(adj)

Consider the right triangle in the figure. The table shows the trigonometric ratios for the
acute angle θ.
Ratio Ratio Ratio Abbreviated
name abbreviation definition definition

length of side opposite θ opp

sine sin θ
length of hypotenuse hyp
length of side adjacent to θ adj
cosine cos θ
length of hypotenuse hyp
length of side opposite θ opp
tangent tan θ
length of side adjacent to θ adj
length of side adjacent to θ adj
cotangent cot θ
length of side opposite θ opp
length of hypotenuse hyp
secant sec θ
length of side adjacent to θ adj
length of hypotenuse hyp
cosecant csc θ
length of side opposite θ opp

94 Algebra 10
 EXAMPLE 8 The figure shows a right triangle. Write the C

six trigonometric ratios for the angle θ.

10 8

q
A 6 B

opp 4 adj 3 opp 4

Solution sin θ = = cos θ = = tan θ = =
hyp 5 hyp 5 adj 3

adj 3 hyp 5 hyp 5

cot θ = = sec θ = = csc θ = =
opp 4 adj 3 opp 4

We know that any ratio can be expanded or simplified by multiplying its numerator and
denominator by the same non-zero number. For example:
2 2k 4 40 200
= = = = =... etc. where k is any non-zero number.
3 3k 6 60 300

This property is also used in trigonometry. Look at the two right triangles below.

C¢
C

b¢
b
a a¢

q
B c A q
B¢ c¢ A¢

a a′
sin θ = sin θ =
b b′

Although the lengths of the sides of the triangles are different, the two trigonometric ratios
a a′
for the common angle θ are the same: = . In other words, the sides are in proportion. We
b b′
say that these triangles are similar.

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 95

EXAMPLE 9 Two right triangles are shown below. Find the trigonometric ratios for the angle α in each
triangle and show that they are equal.
C C

13
5

a
26
A 12 B
10

a
A 24 B

opp 5 opp 10 5
Solution sin α = = sin α = = =
hyp 13 hyp 26 13
adj 12 adj 24 12
cos α = = cos α = = =
hyp 13 hyp 26 13
opp 5 opp 10 5
tan α = = tan α = = =
adj 12 adj 24 12
adj 12 adj 24 12
cot α = = cot α = = =
opp 5 opp 10 5
The ratios are the same because the sides are in proportion: these are similar triangles.

EXAMPLE 10 2
In a right triangle, θ is an acute angle such that cos θ = . Find the sine, tangent and
3
cotangent ratios of the same angle.
Solution We do not know the lengths of the sides of the triangle.
However, we know that any right triangle with angle θ
will be similar to this triangle. So we can use the numer-
2
ator and denominator of the given ratio ( ) as two sides hyp = 3
3 opp
of the triangle, as shown in the figure.
Now we can use the Pythagorean Theorem to find the
length of the opposite side: q
opp2 + 22 = 32 adj = 2
2
2
opp + 4 = 9 cos q =
3
opp2 = 5 so opp = 5.
The resulting right triangle gives us the following results:
opp 5 opp 5 adj 2
sin θ = = ; tan θ = = ; cot θ = = .
hyp 3 adj 2 opp 5
96 Algebra 10
 Check Yourself 3
1. In a right triangle, θ is an acute angle such that tan θ = 4. Find the sine, cosine and
cotangent ratios of the same angle.
2. One leg of an isosceles right triangle is 1 unit long. Find all the trigonometric ratios of one
of the two equal acute angles in the triangle.
Answers
4 1 1
1. sin θ = , cos θ = , cot θ =
17 17 4

1
2. sin 45° = cos 45° = , tan 45° = cot 45° =1, csc 45° = sec 45° = 2
2

2. Special Triangles and Ratios

Certain right triangles have ratios 1
which we can calculate easily using
45°
the Pythagorean Theorem. One
® ñ2
example is the isosceles right 1 1 1
triangle which we obtain when we
45°
bisect a square diagonally. If the
1 1
square has side length 1 unit we
obtain the isosceles right triangle
shown in the figure.
A A A
Another example is the right
60°
triangle which we obtain when we 30° 30° 30°
2 2 2 2
bisect of an equilateral triangle from 2 ñ3
ñ3
an altitude to a base. If the triangle 60° 60° 60° 60° 60°
has side length 2 units we obtain B 2 C B 1 H 1 C B 1 H
the right triangle shown in the
figure.
In each example we can find the unknown length using the Pythagorean Theorem:
12 + 12 = 2 and 2 2 – 12 = 3. We can use these two special right triangles to make a
table of trigonometric ratios for some common angles.
θ in
degrees θ in radians sin θ cos θ tan θ cot θ

π 1 3 1
30° 6 2 2 3 ñ3

π 1 1
45° 4 1 1
2 2
π 3 1 1
60° 3 2 2 ñ3 3

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 97

EXAMPLE 11 A surveyor located on level ground at a point A is standing
36 m from the base B of a flagpole. The angle of elevation
between the ground and the top of the pole is 30°. Find the
B approximate height h of the flagpole.

angle of elevation
A
h

B 30°
angle of depression 36 m

1
Solution We know that tan 30 ° = from the trigonometric table we have just seen.
3
opp h
Looking at the figure, we also know that tan 30 ° = = .
adj 36
h 1 36
Therefore = , and so h = ≅ 20.78 m.
36 3 3

EXAMPLE 12 In the figure, A

m(∠BAD) = m(∠DAC) = 30°
and BD = 12 units. 30°
30°
Find the value of x.

B 12 D C

1 12
Solution In the right triangle ABD, tan 30 ° = = so AB = 12ñ3.
3 AB

12+ x
In the right triangle ABC, tan 60 ° = 3 = so 12 + x = 12ñ3 ⋅ ñ3 = 36.
12 3
So x = 36 – 12 = 24 units.

98 Algebra 10
 EXAMPLE 13 In the figure,
A
m(∠ABC) = 30°,
m(∠ACB) = 45° 6
and AB = 6 units.
Find the value of x. 30° 45°
B H C

1 AH
Solution In the right triangle ABH, sin 30 ° = = so AH = 3.
2 6

3 BH
Also, in the same triangle cos 30 ° = = so BH = 3ñ3. Since angle H is a right angle
2 6
and angle C measures 45° then in the triangle AHC, m(∠A) is also 45°. Therefore AHC is an
isosceles right triangle.
So AH = HC = 3. Since BC = BH + HC, we have BC = x = 3ñ3 + 3.

Check Yourself 4
1. Find the length x in each triangle.
a. A b. A c. A

15° 30°
8 30°
2ñ2
45° 60° 30°
B H B C
C
1444442444443 14243 D B 8 D x C
x x

tan 30° ⋅ csc60°

2. Solve for x: = x ⋅ cot 30° sin 45°.
cos 45° ⋅ sin60°
Answers
8
1. a. 4( 2 + 6 ) b. 2ñ3 – 2 c. 16 2.
3 9

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 99

D. TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
The trigonometric ratios are related to each other by equations called trigonometric identities.

1. Basic Identities
a. Pythagorean identities
Property Pythagorean identities
For all θ ∈ \, C

1. sin2θ + cos2θ = 1 hypotenuse

(hyp) opposite
2. tan2θ + 1 = sec2θ side
(opp)
3. cot2θ + 1 = csc2θ .
q
A adjacent side B
(adj)

Proof 1. By the Pythagorean Theorem we have opp2 + adj2 = hyp2. (1)

2 2 2
opp + adj hyp
Therefore, 2
= (divide both sides by hyp 2)
hyp hyp 2
Be careful! hyp 2
opp2 adj 2
sin2 θ = sin θ ⋅ sin θ and + =
hyp2 hyp 2 hyp 2
cos2 θ = cos θ ⋅ cos θ,
etc. We do not write opp 2 adj 2
sinθ 2 because it is not
( ) +( ) =1.
hyp hyp
clear what we mean:
opp adj
sin (θ 2) or (sin θ )2? Since sin θ = and cos θ = , we have sin2θ + cos2θ = 1.
hyp hyp
opp2 + adj 2 hyp 2
2. Dividing both sides of (1) by adj2 gives = , i.e.
2 2 2
adj2 adj 2
opp adj hyp
+ = ,
adj2 adj 2 adj 2

2
opp 2 adj hyp 2
( ) + =( ).
adj adj 2 adj
opp hyp
Since tan θ = and sec θ = we have tan2θ + 1 = sec2θ.
adj adj
opp2 + adj 2 hyp 2
3. Dividing both sides of (1) by opp2 gives = .
opp2 opp 2
opp2 adj 2 hyp 2
So + = ,
opp2 opp 2 opp 2

opp2 adj 2 hyp 2

+( ) =( ).
opp 2 opp opp
adj hyp
Since cot θ = and csc θ = we have 1 + cot2θ = csc2θ , i.e. cot2θ + 1 = csc2θ.
opp opp
100 Algebra 10
 b. Tangent and cotangent identities
Property tangent and cotangent identities
sin θ
1. tan θ =
cos θ
cos θ
2. cot θ =
sin θ
3. tan θ ⋅ cot θ = 1
opp
opp adj sin θ hyp opp
Proof 1. We know that sin θ = and cos θ = , so = = .
hyp hyp cos θ adj adj
hyp
sin θ
So = tan θ .
cos θ
adj
cos θ hyp adj cos θ
2. Similarly, = = , i.e. = cot θ .
sin θ opp opp sin θ
hyp
sin θ cos θ
3. Consequently, ⋅ = 1. So tan θ ⋅ cot θ = 1.
cos θ sin θ

c. Reciprocal identities
Property reciprocal identities
1
1. csc θ =
sin θ

2. sec θ = 1
cos θ

opp 1 1 hyp
Proof 1. We know that sin θ = , so = = .
hyp sin θ opp opp
hyp
Remember! hyp 1
Since csc θ = , csc θ = .
1 opp sin θ
csc θ =
sin θ
adj 1 1 hyp
sec θ =
1 2. Similarly, cos θ = so = = .
cos θ hyp cos θ adj adj
(the first letters of hyp
reciprocal ratios are
opposite: hyp 1
Since sec θ = , sec θ = .
1
c= ,s= )
1 adj cos θ
s c

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 101

EXAMPLE 14 Verify the eight trigonometric identities using the right triangle in the figure.

Solution First we need to calculate the length of the hypotenuse.

By the Pythagorean Theorem, hyp2 = 22 + 32 hyp
opp = 3
hyp2 = 4+9
hyp2 = 13 q
hyp = ò13. adj = 2

Before verifying the identities, let us write the six trigonometric ratios for the given right triangle:
3 2 3 2 13 13
sin θ = , cos θ = , tan θ = , cot θ = , csc θ = , sec θ = .
13 13 2 3 3 2
Now we can verify the identities.
3 2
tan θ ⋅ cot θ = ⋅ =1
2 3
1 1 13
= = = csc θ
sin θ 3 3
13
1 1 13
= = = sec θ
cos θ 2 2
13

3 13
We know that tan θ = and sec θ = , so by substitution,
2 2

3 13 2
( )2 +1=( )
2 2
9 13
+1=
4 4
13 13
= . Therefore, tan 2θ + 1 = sec 2θ .
4 4

2 13
We know that cot θ = and csc θ = , so by substitution,
3 3
2 13 2
( )2 +1=( )
3 3
4 13
+1=
9 9
13 13
= . Therefore, cot2 θ + 1 = csc2 θ,
9 9

102 Algebra 10
 3 2
sin θ 13 3 cos θ 13 2
= = = tan θ , = = = cot θ,
cos θ 2 2 sin θ 3 3
13 13

3 2 9 4 13
sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ = ( ) 2 +( )2 = + = =1.
13 13 13 13 13

Check Yourself 5
2
1. Verify the eight trigonometric identities for the acute angle θ in a right triangle if sin θ = .
5
2. Verify the eight trigonometric identities for a right triangle with sides of length 7, 24 and
25 units.
4
3. Let α be an acute angle in a right triangle such that sin α = .
5
Evaluate cos α ⋅ (tan α + cot α).
π 21π
cos 2 + sin 2 +1
4. Evaluate 5 5 .
π π
2 – tan ⋅ cot
7 7
Answers
5
3. 4. 2
4

2. Simplifying Trigonometric Expressions

In the previous section we studied the eight most common trigonometric identities. These
identities are useful when we are simplifying trigonometric expressions. Let us look at some
examples.

EXAMPLE 15 Simplify cos x ⋅ tan x.

sin x
Solution We can use the identity tan x = :
cos x
sin x
cos x ⋅ tan x = cos x ⋅ (substitute)
cos x

sin x
= cos x ⋅ (cancel)
cos x
= sin x.
So cos x ⋅ tan x = sin x.

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 103

EXAMPLE 16 a. Simplify tan x ⋅ cos x ⋅ csc x.

b. Simplify cos3 x + sin2 x ⋅ cos x.

sin x 1
Solution a. We know tan x = and csc x = . Hence,
cos x sin x
sin x 1
tan x ⋅ cos x ⋅ csc x = ⋅cos x ⋅ (substitute)
cos x sin x
sin x 1 (cancel)
= ⋅ cos x ⋅ =1.
cos x sin x
So tan x ⋅ cos x ⋅ csc x = 1.

b. Since cos x is the common factor in both terms of the expression, let us factorize the
expression:
cos3 x + sin2 x ⋅ cos x = cos x ⋅ (cos2 x+ sin2 x) (factorize)
= cos x ⋅ 1 = cos x (using cos2 x + sin2 x = 1)
So cos3 x + sin2 x ⋅ cos x = cos x.

EXAMPLE 17 Simplify
sec x – cos x
tan x
.

sin x 1
Solution We know tan x = and sec x = . Hence,
cos x cos x
1
– cos x
sec x – cos x cos x
= (by substitution)
tan x sin x
cos x

1 cos 2 x
−
= cos x cos x (equalize the denominators)
sin x
cos x
1 − cos 2 x
= cos x (simplify the numerator)
sin x
cos x
1 − cos 2 x
cos x
= (cancel the common divisor)
sin x
cos x

104 Algebra 10
 sin 2 x
= (using sin2 x + cos2 x = 1)
sin x

= sin x. (by cancellation)

sec x − cos x
As a result, = sin x.
tan x

18
2
EXAMPLE Simplify 2+ tan
2
x
−1
sec x

sin x 1
Solution We know tan x = and sec x = . Hence,
cos x cos x

sin x 2
2+( )
2+ tan 2 x cos x – 1
− 1= (by substitution)
sec 2 x 1 2
( )
cos x

sin 2 x
2+
= cos 2 x – 1
1
cos 2 x

2 ⋅ cos 2 x sin 2 x
2
+
= cos x cos 2 x − 1 (equalize the denominators in the numerator)
1
cos 2 x

2 ⋅ cos 2 x + sin 2 x
= cos 2 x −1 (simplify the numerator)
1
cos 2 x

2 ⋅ cos 2 x + sin 2 x
cos 2 x
= −1 (cancel the common divisor)
1
cos 2 x
= cos2 x + cos2 x + sin2 x – 1 (2 ⋅ cos2 x = cos2 x + cos2 x)
= cos2 x + 1 – 1 (using cos2 x + sin2 x = 1)
= cos2 x + 1 – 1 (by cancellation)
= cos2 x.
2
As a result, 2+ tan
2
x
− 1 = cos 2 x.
sec x
Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 105
 Check Yourself 6
Simplify the expressions.
1+ csc x 1 1
1. cos x ⋅ tan x 2. 3. +
cos x + cot x 1 − sin x 1+ sin x
Answers
1. sin x 2. sec x 3. 2 ⋅ sec2 x

3. Verifying Trigonometric Identities

In the previous section we learned how to write a trigonometric expression in an alternative
(simpler) form using the eight basic identities. This means that we can derive other
identities using the eight basic identities. In this section we will learn how to verify a given
trigonometric identity.
To verify an identity, we try to show that one side of the identity is the same as the other side.
We take either the left-hand or right-hand side of the identity and do algebraic operations to
obtain the other side. Generally, it is easier to begin working with the more complex side of
the identity.
Let us look at some examples.

EXAMPLE 19 Verify the identity sin x ⋅ cot x = cos x.

Solution We can begin with either the left-hand side or the right-hand side. In this example we will
show both approaches.
Working on the left-hand side:
cos x
sin x ⋅ cot x = sin x ⋅ (by substitution)
sin x

cos x
= sin x ⋅ = cos x. (simplify)
sin x
We have obtained the right-hand side and the verification is complete.

Working on the right-hand side:

cos x = cos x ⋅ 1 (by substitution)
= cos x ⋅ tan x ⋅ cot x (tan x ⋅ cot x = 1)
sin x
= cos x ⋅ ⋅ cot x (by substitution)
cos x
sin x
= cos x ⋅ ⋅ cot x = sin x ⋅ cot x. (simplify)
cos x
We have obtained the left-hand side and the verification is complete.

106 Algebra 10
 EXAMPLE 20 Verify the identity csc x = cos x ⋅ (tan x + cot x).

Solution Since the right-hand side is more complex than the left-hand side, let us try to transform the
right-hand side into the left-hand side.
sin x cos x
We know tan x = and cot x = , so
cos x sin x
sin x cos x
cos x ⋅ (tan x+ cot x) = cos x ⋅( + )
cos x sin x

sin 2 x + cos 2 x
= cos x ⋅ ( )
cos x ⋅ sin x

⎛ 1 ⎞
= cos x ⋅ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ cos x ⋅ sin x ⎠

1
= = csc x.
sin x
We have obtained the other side of the identity and the verification is complete.

21
2
EXAMPLE Verify the identity (sin x + cos x) = 2+ sec x ⋅ csc x.
sin x ⋅ cos x

Solution Let us begin with the left-hand side as it is more complex.

(sin x + cos x) 2 sin 2 x+(2 ⋅ sin x ⋅cos x)+ cos 2 x

= (expand the numerator)
sin x ⋅ cos x sin x ⋅cos x

(2 ⋅ sin x ⋅ cos x)+1 (cos2 x + sin2 x = 1)

=
sin x ⋅ cos x

2 ⋅ sin x ⋅ cos x 1 (separate the fractions)

= +
sin x ⋅ cos x sin x ⋅ cos x

= 2+ csc x ⋅ sec x (simplify)

We have obtained the right-hand side of the identity and the verification is complete.

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 107

 tan x
EXAMPLE 22 Verify the identity
csc x
= sec x − cos x.

Solution Let us work on the left-hand side.

sin x
tan x cos x
= (by substitution)
csc x 1
sin x

sin x sin x (invert the denominator and multiply)

= ⋅
cos x 1
sin 2 x (multiply)
=
cos x

1 − cos 2 x (cos2 x + sin2 x = 1)

=
cos x

1 cos 2 x (separate the fractions)

= −
cos x cos x

= sec x − cos x (substitute and simplify)

We have obtained the right-hand side of the identity and so the verification is complete.

1 + sin x
EXAMPLE 23 Verify the identity
cos x
1 − sin x
=
cos x
.

Solution Begin with the left-hand side.

cos x cos x 1+ sin x
= ⋅ (multiply by 1)
1 − sin x 1 − sin x 1+ sin x

cos x ⋅ (1+ sin x) (write the product)

=
1 − sin 2 x

cos x ⋅ (1+ sin x) (cos2 x + sin2 x =1)

=
cos 2 x

1+ sin x
= (cancel the common factor)
cos x
This is the right-hand side of the identity, so the verification is complete.

Check Yourself 7
Verify the identities.
cos x
1. sec x – cos x = sin x ⋅ tan x 2. = csc x − sin x
sec x ⋅ sin x
1+ sin x cos x
3. + = 2 sec x
cos x 1+ sin x
108 Algebra 10
 4. Cofunctions
We have studied the trigonometric functions of certain angles and the trigonmetric ratios
between the sides and angles of a right triangle. In this section we will look at the relation
between the trigonometric ratios of complementary angles.
πR
Recall that complementary angles are angles whose sum is 90°, i.e. . Consider the right
2
triangle ABC with acute angles θ and α shown in the figure. θ and α are complementary angles.
b
We can also write sin θ = cos α = . In other C
a
words, the sine of θ and the cosine of its a
a
complement are equal. We say that sine and b

cosine are cofunctions. Looking at the

b q
triangle we can also write tan θ = cot α = B c
c A
(so tangent and cotangent are cofunctions)
a
and sec θ = csc α = (i.e. secant and cosecant are cofunctions).
c
In other words, for θ + α = 90°, θ = 90° – α we have

sin θ = sin(90° – α) = cos α

tan θ = tan(90° – α) = cot α

sec θ = sec(90° – α) = csc α.

For example, sin 43° = cos(90° – 43°) = cos 47°,

cos 26° = sin 63°,

tan 3° = cot 87°,

sec 18° = csc 72°,

π π π 3π
sin = cos( – ) = cos and
5 2 5 10

3π π 3π π
cos = sin( – ) = sin , etc.
8 2 8 8

EXAMPLE 24 Evaluate each expression.

a. tan 1° ⋅ tan 2° ⋅ tan 3° ⋅ ... ⋅ tan 88° ⋅ tan 89°

2 π 7π π 5π
b. sin +[tan ⋅ tan ]+ sin 2
7 18 9 14

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 109

 Solution a. The angles in each pair (89°, 1°), (88°, 2°), ..., (46°, 44°) are complementary.
Because tangent and cotangent are cofunctions,
tan 89° = cot 1°, tan 88° = cot 2°, ... , tan 46° = cot 44°.

So tan 1° ⋅ tan 2° ⋅ tan 3° ⋅ ... ⋅ tan 88° ⋅ tan 89°

= tan 1° ⋅ tan 2° ⋅ tan 3° ⋅ ... ⋅ tan 44° ⋅ tan 45° ⋅ cot 44° ⋅ ... ⋅ cot 2° ⋅ cot 1°

= 1 ⋅ 1 ⋅ 1 ⋅ ... ⋅ tan 45° ⋅ ... ⋅ 1 ⋅ 1 = 1.

π 5π π 5π π
b. The complement of is since + = .
7 14 7 14 2
Similarly, the complement of
7π π 7π π π
is since + = .
18 9 18 9 2

5π π 7π π
So sin = cos and tan = cot since these are cofunctions.
14 7 18 9

π 7π π 5π π π π π
So sin 2 + tan ⋅ tan + sin 2 = sin 2 +[cot ⋅tan ]+cos 2
7 18 9 14 7 9 9 7

π π π π
= sin 2 + cos 2 + cot ⋅ tan
7
 
 7 9
 
9
1 1

=1+1

= 2.

Check Yourself 8
1. Write the cofunction of each function.
a. tan 15° b. cos 36° c. sec 77°
π 2π 2π
d. sin e. cot f. tan
12 5 7

2. Evaluate each expression.

a. tan 5° ⋅ tan 25° ⋅ tan 45° ⋅ tan 65° ⋅ tan 85°
π 5π
b. tan ⋅ tan – cos 2 27° – cos 2 63°
7 14
Answers
5π π 3π
1. a. cot 75° b. sin 54° c. csc 13° d. cos e. tan f. cot
12 10 14
2. a. 1 b. 0

110 Algebra 10
Eratosthenes was a famous mathematician and the head of the famous library in
Alexandria, Egypt. In 240 BC he calculated the Earth's circumference using
trigonometry and his knowledge of the angle of elevation of the Sun at the summer
solstice in the Egyptian cities of Alexandria and Syene (now called Aswan).
Eratosthenes’ calculation was based on the assumptions that the Earth is a sphere
and that the sun is so far away that we can consider its rays to be parallel.
Eratosthenes compared observations made in Alexandria, where the
noontime Sun at the summer solstice was 7° away from straight overhead (the
zenith), to observations in Syene in southern Egypt, where the Sun was exactly at
its zenith. The distance between the cities was known to be about 5000 stadia,
roughly equal to 800 km (the stadion, plural stadia, was an old unit of measurement
such that 1 stadia ≅ 160 m). Therefore, Eratosthenes calculated the entire 360°
circle of the Earth to be (360/7) ⋅ 5000 stadia, which is about 260,000 stadia, or
41,000 km.

a2 B

parallel rays from the Sun

A
a1 a 1– a2

local horizon a1 = altitude of Sun at site 1

a2 = altitude of Sun at site 2

circumference of the Earth = arc length AïB ⋅ (360° / (α – α1))

EXERCISES 3 .1
A. Angles and the Unit Circle 5. Find the primary directed angle of 1720 grads in
1. In which quadrant does each angle lie? degrees.

a. 275° b. 228° c. 185°

28π 125 π
d. –530° e. f.
3 6

6. Solve for x if x ∈ \, k ∈ ].
a. 2x – 120° = 90° + (k ⋅ 360°)

2. Find the value of the real number which b. x + π = π + x +( k ⋅ 2 π)

3 4 3 4
corresponds to each angle on the unit circle. Give
c. 4x = k ⋅ 360°
your answer to three decimal places.

a. 45° b. 105° c. –70° d. 3x − 150 ° = π +( k ⋅ 2 π)

6
3π 26π
d. e.
7 5

C. Trigonometric Ratios
B. Primary Directed Angles 1
7. tan x = is given. Evaluate each ratio, given
3. Find the primary directed angle of each angle, 17
that x is in the first quadrant.
using the same unit.

a. 1234° b. –4321° a. cot x b. sin x c. cos x

90 π
c. 190 π d. −
9 19

8. In the figure, m(∠A) = 90°, C

4. An arc lies in standard position on the unit circle. AD = 3,

Find the coordinates of the terminal point of the DB = 5 and x
arc if the arc has length m(∠ADC) = 60°.
a. π. b. 5π . Calculate BC = x. 60°
4
B 5 D 3 A

112 Algebra 10
 9. In the figure, D 13. The figure shows a V E IV D
x ›› series of 30°-60°-90° F
III
m(∠DAC) = 45°,
C C
right triangles,
m(∠BAC) = 30° and II
increasing in size from B
BC = 3ñ2. right to left. The length of
3ñ2 I
Calculate DC = x. the hypotenuse of the eighth 30°
45° O A
30° triangle in the series is 72 units.
A B Calculate AO.

10. D C
30°
3 120°

A 8 B

In the figure, DC || AB, m(∠D) = 30°, m(∠B) = 120°, D. Trigonometric Identities

AD = 3 and AB = 8. Calculate DC.
14. Simplify the expressions.
a. csc x ⋅ tan x b. sec2 x – tan2 x
11. In the figure, A 1 + sin x
c. tan x + cot x d.
m(∠C) = 120°, 1 + csc x
30°
m(∠A) = 30° e. tan x f. cot x − 1
26 sec x
and AB = 26. h 1 − tan x
Calculate the 120°
height h.
B C

12. Calculate the length x in each figure.

›
a. A 15. Simplify the expressions.
N ›
60° a. (sec x – tan x)2 (1 + sin x)
M
4
b. cos x
x sec x + tan x
B K L C c. sin4 x – cos4 x + cos2 x
b. A sin x
d. − csc x
1 − cos x
3
e. 1 1
15° +
B H C sec x csc2 x
2

x f. (tan x + sin x)2 + (1 + cos x)2

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 113

16. Verify the identities. 18. Evaluate the expressions.
a. (1 – cos x)(1 – cos x) = sin2 x 2π 3π π
tan ⋅ tan – sin 2
a. 7 14 10
b. cos x + sin x =1 2π
sec x csc x 1 – cos 2
5

(sin x + cos x) 2 sin 2 x − cos 2 x tan 25° ⋅ tan65°

c. = b. +2
sin x − cos x (sin x − cos x) 2
2 2 sin2 25° + sin 2 65°

1 − sin x
d. = (sec x − tan x) 2
1+ sin x

e. csc x – sin x = cos x cot x

f. (cot x – csc x)(cos x + 1) = –sin x

19. Evaluate
π 3π π 5π
sin 2 + sin 2 + cos 2 + cos 2 .
8 8 12 12

17. Verify the identities.

a. 1+ tan x = cos x+ sin x

1 − tan x cos x − sin x

b. cos x sin x − cos x

=
1 − sin x cos x − cot x

c. 1 1
− = 2 sec x tan x
1 − sin x 1 + sin x

d. tan x − cot x
= sin x cos x
tan 2 x − cot 2 x

e. 1+ sin x = (tan x + sec x )2

1 − sin x

1+ cos x
= (cot x + csc x )
2
f.
1 − cos x

114 Algebra 10
 In the previous section we defined the trigonometric ratios in terms of the side lengths of a
right triangle. In this section we will study the same ratios as ratios on the unit circle and as
functions. To define a trigonometric function we must find its domain, range, graph and
inverse.
Recall that the domain of a function f(x) is the largest set of real x-values for which f(x) is
defined. For example, the domain of a polynomial function is . The range of function is a
set which includes at least all images of the elements in its domain. The largest possible
range of a real function is .
Recall also the definition of increasing and decreasing function: we say that f(x) is an increas-
ing function if f(x1) < f(x2) when x1 < x2, and f(x) is a decreasing function if
f(x1) > f(x2) when x1 < x2. If f(x1) = f(x2) for every x1 < x2 then f(x) is a constant function.
With these basic definitions we are ready to look at the properties of trigonometric functions.

A. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

1. The Sine Function
Consider the unit circle and an angle α in
standard position on the circle, as shown at B
D
the right.
1
In the figure, m(∠AOB) = α and OB = 1. Let a A
us draw perpendiculars from point B to the O C
x- and y-axis, as shown.
BC BC
We know sin α = = = BC = OD. This sine axis
OB 1
is true for any angle α. So we can say that the

y-axis is the sine axis. By the definition of the unit circle, we can also say –1 ≤ sin α ≤ 1 and

the angle α can be any real number.

We can define a function from the real numbers to the interval [–1, 1] with the rule
f(x) = sin x. This function is called the sine function. This function has the following
properties:
The sine function 1. Domain = .
corresponds to the
y-coordinates of points 2. Range = [–1, 1]
on the unit circle.
3. sin x > 0 in the interval (0, π).

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 115

 4. sin x < 0 in the interval (π, 2π).
5. sin x is increasing in the first and fourth quadrants.
6. sin x is decreasing in the second and third quadrants.
7. sin x is a continuous function.
By using the unit circle we can form the following table:

degrees 0° 90° 180° 270° 360°

π 3π
radians 0 π 2π
2 2
sin α 0 1 0 –1 0

EXAMPLE 25 Calculate sin 0° + 3 sin 90° – 2 sin 180° - sin 270°.

Solution We can find these values from the unit circle:

sin 0° + 3 sin 90° – 2 sin 180° – sin 270° = 0 + (3 ⋅ 1) – (2 ⋅ 0) – (–1) = 3 + 1 = 4.

EXAMPLE 26 Find the domain and range of f(x) = 3 sin x + 2.

Solution We know that the domain of sin x is .

The sine function is a continuous function, so we can find the range by calculating the
maximum and minimum values of f(x).
The maximum value of sin x is 1, so the maximum value of f(x) is 3 ⋅ 1 + 2 = 5.
The minimum value of sin x is –1, so the minimum value of f(x) is 3 ⋅ (–1) + 2 = –1.
In conclusion, the range of f(x) is [–1, 5].

2. The Cosine Function

Look at the unit circle in the figure.
OC OC
We know cos α = = = OC, and this is
OB 1 B
true for any angle α. So we can say that the
1
x-axis is the cosine axis.
a A
From the unit circle we have –1 ≤ cos α ≤ 1 cosine axis
O C
and the angle α can be any real number.
We can define a function from the real
The cosine function
numbers to the interval [–1, 1] with the rule
corresponds to the
x-coordinates of points f(x) = cos x. This function is called the
on the unit circle. cosine function. It has the following properties:

116 Algebra 10
 1. Domain =
2. Range = [–1, 1]
π π
3. cos x > 0 in the interval (– , ).
2 2
π 3π
4. cos x < 0 in the interval ( , ).
2 2
5. cos x is increasing in the third and fourth quadrants.
6. cos x is decreasing in the first and second quadrants.
7. cos x is a continuous function.

By using the unit circle we can form the following table:

degrees 0° 90° 180° 270° 360°
π 3π
radians 0 π 2π
2 2
cos x 1 0 –1 0 1

EXAMPLE 27 Calculate cos 360° – 2 cos 90° – 3 cos 180° + cos 270° – cos 0°.

Solution We can use the values in the table we have just seen:
cos 360° – 2 cos 90° – 3 cos 180° + cos 270° – cos 0° = 1 – (2 ⋅ 0) – [3 ⋅ (–1)] + 0 – 1
= 1 + 3 – 1 = 3.

EXAMPLE 28 Find the domain and range of f(x) = 4 cos x – 2.

Solution We know that the domain of cos x is . So the domain of f(x) is also .
The maximum value of cos x is 1, so the maximum value of f(x) is 4 ⋅ 1 – 2 = 2.
The minimum value of cos x is –1, so the minimum value of f(x) is 4 ⋅ (–1) – 2 = –6.
In conclusion, the range of f(x) is [–6, 2].

EXAMPLE 29 Find the range of y = sin 3x ⋅ cos 2x + cos 3x ⋅ sin 2x + 1.

Solution We know (sin 3x ⋅ cos 2x) + (cos 3x ⋅ sin 2x) = sin(3x + 2x) = sin 5x by the sum and
difference formulas. So the equation simplifies to y = sin 5x + 1.
Also, –1 ≤ sin 5x ≤ 1, so
(–1 + 1) ≤ (sin 5x + 1) ≤ (1 + 1).
In conclusion, the range of y is 0 ≤ y ≤ 2.

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 117

 13π 11π
EXAMPLE 30 Calculate sin π + cos
2
+ sin17 π – 2 ⋅cos13 π+ sin
2
.

Solution We can find the answer by using coterminal angles and quadrantal angles for each term.
sin π = 0
13π π π
cos = cos( + 3 ⋅ 2 π) = cos = 0
2 2 2
sin17 π = sin( π+8 ⋅ 2 π) = sin π = 0
cos13 π = cos( π+6 ⋅ 2 π) = cos π= –1
11π 3π 3π
sin = sin( + 2 ⋅ 2 π) = sin = –1
2 2 2
Combining these results give us
13π 11π
sin π + cos + sin17 π – 2 ⋅cos13 π+ sin = 0+0+0 – 2(–1)+(–1 ) =1.
2 2

3. The Tangent Function

The figure opposite shows the unit circle and tangent axis
D
an angle α. Let us draw a line through the B
point A(1,0) perpendicular to the x-axis.
Then we extend OB such that OB and the
new line intersect at point D. Then a A
O C
BC DA DA
tan α = = = = DA. We can do this
OC OA 1
π 3π 5π
for all values of x except ± , ± , ± ... .
2 2 2
We can call this new line the tangent axis.
The tangent function We can see in the figure that the tangent axis has infinite length. So we can define a
corresponds to the
y-coordinates of points π
function from – { + kπ}, k ∈ to such that f(x) = tan x. This function is called the
on the tangent axis. 2
tangent function. It has the following properties:
π
1. Domain = – { + kπ}, k ∈
2
2. Range =
π 3π
3. tan x > 0 on (0, ), ( π, )
2 2
π 3π
4. tan x < 0 on ( , π), ( , 2 π)
Can you see why this 2 2
function is called the
tangent function? 5. tan x is always increasing.
sin x
6. tan x = , cos x ≠ 0.
cos x
118 Algebra 10
 By using the unit circle we can form the following table:

degrees 0° 90° 180° 270° 360°

π 3π
radians 0 π 2π
2 2
tan x 0 undefined 0 undefined 0

EXAMPLE 31 Find the domain and the range of f(x) = tan 3x + 4.

π π kπ
Solution Domain: 3x ≠ + kπ gives us x ≠ + , k ∈ .
2 6 3
π kπ
So the domain is {x | x ∈ , x ≠ + , k ∈ }.
6 3
Range: tan 3x ∈ , so the range is (–∞, ∞).

4. The Cotangent Function

The figure shows the unit circle and a line
B D
through the point B(0, 1) parallel to the cotangent axis
x-axis. If we extend OC such that OC and the C
new line intersect at point D, then
OF OE OE a
cot α = = = = OE = BD.
CF DE 1 O F A E

We can do this for all values of α except

0, ±π, ±2π... . We can call this new line the
The cotangent function
corresponds to the cotangent axis.
x-coordinates of points
on the cotangent axis. We can see in the figure that this axis has infinite length. So we can define a function from
– {kπ}, k ∈ to such that f(x) = cot x. This function is called the cotangent function. It
has the following properties:

1. Domain = – {kπ}, k ∈

2. Range =
π 3π
3. cot x > 0 on (0, ), ( π, ).
2 2
π 3π
4. cot x < 0 on ( , π), ( , 2 π)
2 2
5. cot x is always decreasing.
cos x
6. cot x = , sin x ≠ 0
sin x

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 119

 By using the unit circle we can form the following table:

degrees 0° 90° 180° 270° 360°

π 3π
radians 0 π 2π
2 2
cot x undefined 0 undefined 0 undefined

5. The Secant Function

The figure shows the angle ∠POC = α and
the unit circle. Let us draw a tangent line to
the unit circle at point P and say that the P

intersection point of the tangent line and the

OC OC a C
x-axis is C. Then sec α = = = OC.
OP 1 O A

We can do this for all values of α except

π 3π 5π
± , ± , ± , ... because at these points
2 2 2
the tangent line will be parallel to the x-axis.

We can see in the figure that as α approaches 90°, sec α approaches ∞.

π
We can define a function from – { + kπ}, k ∈ to – (–1, 1) such that f(x) = sec x. This
2
function is called the secant function. It has the following properties:
π
1. Domain = – { + kπ}, k ∈
2
The secant function 2. Range = – (–1, 1)
corresponds to the
x-coordinates of points
π π
on the x-axis with 3. sec x > 0 on (– , )
x ∉ (–1, 1). 2 2
π 3π
4. sec x < 0 on ( , )
2 2
1
5. sec x = , cos x ≠ 0.
cos x
By using the unit circle we can form the following table:

degrees 0° 90° 180° 270° 360°

π 3π
radians 0 π 2π
2 2
sec x 1 undefined –1 undefined 1

120 Algebra 10
 6. The Cosecant Function
The figure shows the angle ∠POA = α and
D
the unit circle. Let us draw the tangent to x
P
the unit circle at point P and say that the

intersection point of the tangent line and the a

OD OD O A
y-axis is D. Then csc α = = = OD.
OP 1
We can do this for all values of x except 0,

±π, ±2π, ±3π, ... because at these points the

tangent line will be parallel to the y-axis.

We see in the figure that as α approaches 0°, csc α approaches ∞.

So we can define a function from – {kπ}, k ∈ to – (–1, 1) such that f(x) = csc x. This
function is called the cosecant function. It has the following properties:

1. Domain = – {kπ}, k ∈
The cosecant function
corresponds to the 2. Range = – (–1, 1)
y-coordinates of points
on the y-axis with 3. csc x > 0 on (0, π)
y ∉ (–1, 1).
4. csc x < 0 on (π, 2π)
1
5. csc x = , sin x ≠ 0.
sin x

By using the unit circle we can form the following table:

degrees 0° 90° 180° 270° 360°

π 3π
radians 0 π 2π
2 2
csc x undefined 1 undefined –1 undefined

7. Mixed Examples
π
EXAMPLE 32 Given the function f(x) = 2sin x + cos 2x, find f ( ) .
6

π π π 1 1 3
Solution f ( ) = 2 ⋅ sin + cos(2 ⋅ ) = 2 ⋅ + = .
6 6 6 2 2 2

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 121

EXAMPLE 33 Calculate (sin
π
2
3π
2
3π
⋅ cos π) – (tan π ⋅ cot )+ sec 2 π– csc .
2

π 3π
Solution We know that sin = 1, cos π = –1, tan π = 0, cot = 0, sec 2π = 1 and
3π 2 2
csc = –1. So
2
π 3π 3π
(sin ⋅ cos π) – (tan π ⋅ cot )+ sec 2 π– csc =1 ⋅(–1) – 0 ⋅0+1 – (– 1) =1.
2 2 2

Note p
2
cos x sin x
tan x cot x
We can summarize the signs of the functions
cos x, sin x, tan x and cot x as shown in the
figure. O
p 2p

3p
2

EXAMPLE 34 Find the sign of each ratio.

sin 200°, cos 122°, tan 312°, cot 300°, sec 120°, csc 77°

Solution We can use the figure above. 200° is in the third quadrant, so sin 200° is negative.
122° is in the second quadrant, so cos 122° is negative.
312° is in the fourth quadrant, so tan 312° is negative.
300° is in the fourth quadrant, so cot 300° is negative.
120° is in the second quadrant, so sec 120° is negative.
77° is in the first quadrant, so csc 77° is positive.

EXAMPLE 35 Write a = sin 65°, b = cos 124° and c = tan 55° in ascending order.

Solution Let us draw the given angles on the unit

circle. We know that tangent function is an 65°
124°
55°
increasing function, so if 55° > 45° then
sin 65°
tan 55° > tan 45° = 1. So c > 1.
cos x
Also from the figure we have cos 124°

a = sin 65° is positive and smaller than 1,

and b = cos 124° is negative. So b < a < c. tan 55°

122 Algebra 10
 EXAMPLE 36 Write a = sin 50°, b = cos 50°, c = tan 50° and d = sec 50° in ascending order.

Solution Look at the figure. At 45°, sin 45° = cos 45°

and cos 45° < tan 45° = 1. C
Also, if 90° > x > 45° then sin x > cos x and tan 50°
tan x > 1. B

So we can write cos 50° < sin 50° < tan 50°. sin 50°
What about sec 50°? A
O cos 50° D
sin50 ° 1
tan50 ° = and sec50 °= .
cos50 ° cos50 °
We know sin 50° < 1, so tan 50° < sec 50°.
So b < a < c < d.

EXAMPLE 37 Find the domain and range of y =2 sin x + 3 tan 2x.

Solution Let us find the domain and range of 2 sin x and 3 tan 2x separately:
f(x) = 2 sin x: domain = and range = [–2, 2].
π kπ
In this type of question, g(x) = 3 tan 2x: domain = − { + }, k ∈ and range = .
begin by finding the 4 2
domain and range of the
π kπ π kπ
individual functions. So the domain of the function y is ∩ − { + }, k ∈ = − { + }, k ∈ .
Then the domain is the 4 2 4 2
intersection of the
domains and the range is
The range of y is ∪ [–2, 2] = .
the union of the ranges.

EXAMPLE 38 Find the domain and the range of y = cos2 x + cos x.

Solution The domain of both cos2 x and cos x is . So we can say that the domain of y is ∩ = .
To find the range, we can use the fact that cos2 x and cos x are continuous functions. The
range is therefore the interval between the minimum and maximum points of y.
y = ax2 + bx + c is the Let us use the substitution t = cos x, then we have y = t2 + t.
equation of a parabola.
The vertex of the b 1 1
So y is a parabola and its vertex is V(r, k) where r = – =– =– and
parabola is V(r, k) where 2a 2 ⋅1 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
b
and
k = y(– ) = (– )2 – = – = – .
r=– 2 2 2 4 2 4
2a
k =y(k). 1
So the minimum value of y is – .
4
If we substitute the maximum value of cos x in the function we will get the maximum value
of y. The maximum value of cos x is 1, so the maximum value of y is 12 + 1 = 2.
1
In conclusion, the range of y is [– , 2].
4
Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 123
 Check Yourself 9
1. Evaluate each expression.
a. sin 90° + cos 180° – 2 ⋅ tan 180° – cot 90°

b. 3 ⋅ cos 0º + 3 ⋅ tan 0º – 2 ⋅ cot 270° + sin 270°

3π π 3π π 13π
c. sin + 2 ⋅ cos – cot d. sec 3π + 2 ⋅ csc – cot
2 2 2 2 2
7π 21π 3π 5π
e. sin 3π + cos + tan17 π+ cot f. sec17 π + csc – tan6 π+ cot
2 2 2 2

2. Find the domain of each function.

a. f(x) = 3 sin(5x + 2) b. y = 4 cos 5x c. y = 4 tan 3x – 2
π
d. f(x) = cot(3x – 5) + 2 e. f(x) = 3 csc 2x – 2 f. y = sec(2 x + )
3
g. y = 2 sin 3x + cos 2x h. y = 2 tan 3x – 3 cot 5x
3. Find the range of each function.
a. y = 3 sin 2x + 1 b. y = 5 sin (4x + 1) – 3 c. f(x) = 3 sin 7x + 4
d. y = 2 cos 5x – 4 e. y = 13 cos (2x – 3) f. f(x) = 5 cos x + 3
g. y = tan 3x – 1 h. f(x) = 2 tan (4x – 2) + 6 i. f(x) = 2 sec 3x
j. y = 4 csc 7x – 3 k. y = 2 sec (x + 2) l. y = 2 tan x + cot 2x
4. Find the sign of each ratio.
a. sin 233° b. cos 129° c. tan 448° d. cot 322°
7π
e. tan 198° f. sec 121° g. csc 167° h. sin
5
17 π 6π 13π 3π
i. cos j. tan k. cot l. sec
7 5 19 4
5. Write each set of ratios in ascending order.
a. x = sin 45°, y = cos 74° and z = tan 155°
b. a = sin 130°, b = cos 130°, c = tan 130° and d = sec 130°
c. m = sin 119°, n = tan 244° and r = cot(–12°)

Answers
1. a. 0 b. 2 c. –1 d. 1 e. 0 f. –2
π kπ 5 kπ kπ
2. a. b. c. − { + }, k ∈ d. − { + }, k ∈ e. −{ }, k ∈
6 3 3 3 2
π kπ π kπ nπ
f. − { + }, k ∈ g. h. −{ + ∪ }, k, n ∈
12 2 6 3 5

124 Algebra 10
 3. a. [–2, 4] b. [–8, 2] c. [1, 7] d. [–6, –2] e. [–13, 13] f. [–2, 8] g. h.
i. (–∞, –2] ∪ [2, ∞) j. (–∞, –7] ∪ [1, ∞) k. (–∞, –2] ∪ [2, ∞) l.
4. a. – b. – c. + d. – e. + f. – g. + h. – i. + j. + k. – l. –
5. a. z < y < x b. d < c < b < a c. r < m < n

B. CALCULATING TRIGONOMETRIC VALUES

1. Trigonometric Values of Quadrantal Angles
Definition quadrantal angle
If the terminal side of an angle coincides with a y
coordinate axis then the angle is called a B(0, 1)
quarantal angle. If an angle is not quadrantal, it p 90°
2
is called a nonquadrantal angle.
A¢(–1, 0) 180° 0° A(1, 0)
x
p O 360° 2p

3p
2 270°
B¢(0, –1)
the angles 0+ kp and p + kp (k Î ¢)
2
are quadrantal angles

We can calculate the trigonometric values of quadrantal angles by observing at the points at
which the terminal sides of the angles intersect the unit circle.

Trigonometric Values of Quadrantal Angles

q in degrees q in radians sin q (y) cos q (x) tan q (y/x) cot q (x/y) sec q (1/x) csc q (1/y)

0° 0 0 1 0 undefined 1 undefined
p
90° 2 1 0 undefined 0 undefined 1

180° p 0 –1 0 undefined –1 undefined

270° 3p –1 0 undefined 0 undefined –1

2
360° 2p 0 1 0 undefined 1 undefined

EXAMPLE 39 Evaluate each expression.

a. sin 0° + cos 270° + tan 180° – cot 90° b. sin 90° – tan 180° + cot 270° – cos 180°

Solution We can use the table above.

a. 0 + 0 + 0 – 0 = 0 b. 1 – 0 + 0 – (–1) = 2

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 125

EXAMPLE 40 Evaluate each expression.
π 3π 3π π
a. sin π + cos + tan 0 − cot b. sin − tan π − cot − cos 0
2 2 2 2
Solution a. 0 + 0 + 0 – 0 = 0
b. –1 – 0 – 0 – 1 = –2

EXAMPLE 41 Evaluate sin 1710° – cos 2520° + cot 450° – tan 900°.

Solution The angles are all greater than 360° so we begin by finding the primary directed angle of each
term.
sin 1710° = sin (4 ⋅ 360° + 270°) = sin 270°
cos 2520° = cos (7 ⋅ 360° + 0°) = cos 0°
cot 450° = cot (360° + 90°) = cot 90°
tan 900° = tan (2 ⋅ 360° + 180°) = tan 180°
Hence,
sin 1710° – cos 2520° + cot 450° – tan 900° = sin 270° – cos 0° + cot 90° – tan 180°
= –1 – 1 + 0 – 0 = –2.

Check Yourself 10
Evaluate each expression by using the table of trigonometric values for quadrantal angles.
1. 2 ⋅ sin 180° + tan π + 5 ⋅ cot 270° + 3 ⋅ cos 180°.
π
4 ⋅ cos 0 − 10 ⋅ sin
2. 2
2 ⋅ sin 270 ° − cos π
Answers
1. –3 2. 6

2. Reference Angle
In this section we will learn how to find the trigonometric ratios of any angle in terms of the
trigonometric ratios of a corresponding acute angle. We will use the special trigonometric ratios
for 30°, 45° and 60° angles which we studied in section 1.2.

Definition reference angle

The positive acute angle α which is formed by the terminal side of a nonquadrantal angle θ and
the x-axis is called the reference angle for θ.

126 Algebra 10
 Look at the figures. They show how to find the reference angle α for an angle θ in each
quadrant.
y y

a=q q
a
x x
O O

If 0° < q < 90° then a = q. If 90° < q < 180° then a = 180° – q.

y y

q q
x O x
a O a

If 180° < q < 270° then a = q – 180°. If 270° < q < 360° then a = 360° – q.

The trigonometric reduction formulas help us to ‘reduce’ a trigonometric ratio to a ratio of

an acute angle. If the acute angle is a common angle, this technique helps us to find the ratio.
For example, imagine you need to find cot 300°.
We can say that 300° = 270° + 30°.
3
By the reduction formula for the cotangent, cot 300° = –tan 30° = − .
3
To derive the reduction formulas, first we need to know the signs of the trigonometric
functions in each quadrant:

1. sin x cos x tan x cot x

first ⎛ π⎞
⎜ 0, ⎟ + + + +
quadrant ⎝ 2⎠
second ⎛π ⎞
⎜ , π⎟ + – – –
quadrant ⎝2 ⎠
third ⎛ 3π ⎞
⎜ π, ⎟ – – + +
quadrant ⎝ 2 ⎠
fourth ⎛ 3π ⎞
⎜ , 2π ⎟ – + – –
quadrant ⎝ 2 ⎠

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 127

 π 3π
2. If we have or in the reduction formula, the formula changes sine to cosine and
2 2
tangent to cotangent. If we have π or 2π in the formula, the function does not change.
3. Now we can combine these two pieces of information to get the reduction formulas:
π π π
sin( − x) =cos x, cos( − x) =sin x, tan( − x) =cot x
2 2 2
π π π
sin( + x) =cos x, cos( + x) = − sin x, tan( + x) = −cot x
2 2 2
3π 3π 3π
sin( − x) = − cos x, cos( − x) = −sin x, tan( − x) = cot x
2 2 2
3π 3π 3π
sin( + x) = − cos x, cos( + x) =sin x, tan( + x) = −cot x
2 2 2
sin( π − x) =sin x, cos( π − x) = − cos x, tan( π − x) = −tan x

sin( π + x) = − sin x, cos( π + x) = −cos x, tan( π + x) = tan x

sin( − x) = − sin x, cos( − x) =cos x, tan( − x) = −tan x

EXAMPLE 42 Simplify each expression, given that 0 < x <

π
2
.
π π 3π
a. sin( + x) b. cos( + x) c. tan( + x) d. sin(2π – x) e. sin(π + x) f. cos(2π + x)
2 2 2

Solution a. ( π + x) is in the second quadrant, so sin( π+ x) = cos x.

2 2
π π
b. ( + x) is in the second quadrant, so cos( + x) = – sin x.
2 2
c. ( + x) is in the fourth quadrant, so tan( 3 π+ x) = – cot x.
3 π
2 2
d. (2π – x) is in the fourth quadrant, so cot(2π – x) = –cot x.
e. (π + x) is in the third quadrant, so sin(π + x) = –sin x.
f. (2π + x) is in the first quadrant, so cos(2π + x) = cos x.

cos(90º+x)+ sin(270º – x)+ sin(180º – x)

EXAMPLE 43 Simplify
cos(– x) – cos(360º – x)+ sin(90º+ x)
.

Solution Let us simplify each term using the reduction formulas:

cos(90º + x) = –sin x, sin(270º – x) = –cos x,
sin(180º – x) = sin x, cos(–x) = cos x,
cos(360º – x) = cos x and sin(90º + x) = cos x. So
cos(90º + x)+ sin(270º – x)+ sin(180º – x) – sin x– cos x+ sin x − cos x
= = = –1.
cos(– x) – cos(360º – x)+ sin(90º + x) cos x– cos x+ cos x cos x

128 Algebra 10
 EXAMPLE 44 Find the reference angle for each angle.
a. 30° b. 150° c. 215° d. 317°

Solution a. Since 0 < 30° < 90°, the reference angle for 30° is 30°.
b. Since 90° < 150° < 180°, the reference angle for 150° is 180° – 150° = 30°.
c. Since 180° < 215° < 270°, the reference angle for 270° is 270° – 215° = 55°.
d. Since 270° < 137° < 360°, the reference angle for 317° is 360° – 317° = 43°.

Now that we can calculate reference angles we are ready to calculate the trigonometric value
of a nonquadrantal angle. To do this, follow the steps:
1. Find the primary directed angle of the nonquadrantal angle and determine its quadrant.
2. Determine the sign of the function in this quadrant.
3. Calculate the reference angle for the given angle.
4. Find the trigonometric value of the reference angle and use it with the sign from step 2.

EXAMPLE 45 Find each trigonometric value by using a reference angle.

a. cos 135° b. sin 330° c. sec 240° d. csc 120°
e. sin 510° f. cos 945° g. tan (–930°) h. cot (–675°)
Solution a. 1. 135° is already a primary directed angle and it is in the second quadrant.
2. In the second quadrant, the cosine function is negative.
3. The reference angle is α = 180° – 135° = 45°.
1
y
4. cos 135 ° = − cos 45° = −
2
b. 1. 330° is already a primary directed angle and it is in the fourth quadrant.
sin a (+) sin a (+)
cos a (–) cos a (+)
2. In the fourth quadrant, the sine function is negative.
tana (–) tana (+)
cot a (–) cot a (+)
sec a (–) sec a (+)
3. The reference angle is α = 360° – 330° = 30°.
csc a (+) csc a (+) 1
x 4. sin 330 ° = − sin 30° = −
O 2
sin a (–) sin a (–) c. 1. 240° is a primary directed angle, third quadrant
cos a (–) cos a (+)
tana (+) tana (–) 2. In the third quadrant, the secant function is negative.
cot a (+) cot a (–)
sec a (–) sec a (+) 3. The reference angle is α = 240° – 180° = 60°.
csc a (–) csc a (–)
4. sec 240° = – sec 60° = –2

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 129

 d. 1. 120°: primary directed angle, second quadrant

2. In the second quadrant, the cosecant function is positive.

3. α = 180° – 120° = 60°

2
4. csc 120° = csc 60 ° =
3
e. 1. 510° = 360° + 150°. So the primary directed angle of 510° is 150° and it is in the
second quadrant.

2. In the second quadrant, the sine function is positive.

3. α = 180° – 150° = 30°

1
4. sin 510 ° = sin 1 50° = sin 30 ° =
2

f. 1. 945° = (2 ⋅ 360°) + 225°. So the primary directed angle is 225° and it is in the third quadrant.

2. In the third quadrant, the cosine function is negative.

3. α = 225° – 180° = 45°

1
4. cos 945 ° = cos 225 ° = − cos 45 ° = −
2
g. 1. –930° = (–3 ⋅ 360°) + 150°. So the primary directed angle is 150° and it is in the
second quadrant.

2. In the second quadrant, the tangent function is negative.

3. α = 180° – 150° = 30°

4. tan ( −930 °) = tan 1 50 °

= − tan 30°
1
=−
3

h. 1. –675° = (–2 ⋅ 360°) + 45°.

So the primary directed angle is 45° and it

is in the first quadrant.

2. In the first quadrant, the cotangent function is positive.

3. α = 45° – 0° = 45°

4. cot (–675°) = cot 45° = 1

130 Algebra 10
 EXAMPLE 46 Find the each trigonometric value by using a reference angle.
7π 31π ⎛ 25π ⎞ ⎛ 47 π ⎞
a. cot b. tan c. sin ⎜ − ⎟ d. cos ⎜ − ⎟
6 4 ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠

7 7π 7π π
Solution a. 1. < 2 so < 2π . So this is a primary directed angle. Moreover, = π + so the
6 6 6 6
angle is in the third quadrant.
2. In the third quadrant, the cotangent function is positive.
3. α = 7π − π = π
6 6
7π π
4. cot = cot = 3
6 6
31
b. 1. Since > 2, we need to write the angle as a primary directed angle:
4
31π 7π 7π
= (3 ⋅ 2 π)+ . So the primary directed angle is and it is in the fourth quadrant.
4 4 4
2. In the fourth quadrant, the tangent function is negative.
7π π
3. α = 2π − =
4 4
31π 7π π
4. tan = tan = − tan = −1
4 4 4
25
c. 1. Since − < −2, we need to write the angle as a primary directed angle.
3
25π 5π
− = ( −5 ⋅ 2 π)+ . So the primary directed angle is 5π and it is in the fourth
3 3 3
quadrant.
2. In the fourth quadrant, the sine function is negative.
5π π
3. α = 2π − =
3 3
⎛ 25π ⎞ 5π π 3
4. sin ⎜ − ⎟ = sin = − sin = −
⎝ 3 ⎠ 3 3 2
47 47 π π
d. 1. − < −2 so we need to find the primary directed angle: − = −6 ⋅ (2 π)+ .
4 4 4
The angle is in the first quadrant.
2. In the first quadrant, the cosine function is positive.
π π
3. α = − 0 =
4 4
⎛ 47 π ⎞ π 1
4. cos ⎜ − ⎟ = cos =
⎝ 4 ⎠ 4 2
Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 131
 Check Yourself 11
1. Find the reference angle for each angle.
a. 890° b. 5000° c. –850° d. –2500°
32π 103π 50 π 11π
e. f. g. − h. −
7 6 11 5
2. Find each trigonometric value by using a reference angle.
a. sin 570° b. tan 405° c. cos (–2550°) d. cot (–7950°)
19π 27 π 25π ⎞
e. cot f. cos g. sin ⎛⎜ − 45π ⎞⎟ h. tan ⎛⎜ − ⎟
3 4 ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 6 ⎠
Answers
3π π 5π π
1. a. 10° b. 40° c. 50° d. 20° e. f. g. h.
7 6 11 5
1 3 3 2 2 3
2. a. − b. 1 c. d. –ñ3 e. f. − g. h. −
2 2 3 2 2 3

3. Calculating Ratios from a Given Ratio

In this section we will learn how to find all the trigonometric ratios of an angle from a single
given ratio. In solving such problems we will use our knowledge of trigonometric ratios in
right triangles, the sign of a trigonometric function and the fundamental trigonometric
identities. Let us look at an example.

EXAMPLE 47 For each trigonometric ratio in the given quadrant, find the five other trigonometric ratios
for same angle.
2 1
a. sin θ = , θ ∈ (0 °, 90 °) b. cos θ = − , θ ∈ (90 °, 180 °)
5 3
3π
c. tan θ = 7 , θ ∈ ⎛⎜ π, 3π ⎞⎟ d. cot θ = −6, θ ∈ ⎛⎜ , 2 π ⎞⎟
4 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
Solution We will use the abbreviations opp, adj and hyp to mean the opposite side, adjacent side and
hypotenuse of a triangle with respect to the angle θ.
a. The angle is in the first quadrant. In this quadrant, both axes are positive and so the sine
and cosine values will be positive. By the Pythagorean Theorem,
hyp2 = adj2 + 22 (+)
2 2 2
5 = adj + 2
5
adj2 = 25 – 4 q +2
q q
adj = ±ò21. (+) +x

We choose the positive value for the first quadrant:

adj = ò21.

21 2 21 5 5
As a result, cos θ = , tan θ = , cot θ = , sec θ = , csc θ = .
5 21 2 21 2

132 Algebra 10
 b. The angle is in the second quadrant. In this quadrant (+)

the x-axis is negative and the y-axis is positive. The 3

+y
cosine function is related to the x-axis, and so q qq
(+) –1
1 adj −1
cos θ = − can be taken as cos θ = = .
3 hyp +3
By the Pythagorean Theorem, opp = ñ8 = 2ñ2.
As a result,
2 2 2 2 −1 3 3
sin θ = , tan θ = = −2 2, cot θ = , sec θ = = −3, csc θ = .
3 −1 2 2 −1 2 2

opp 7 −7
c. Similarly, tan θ = = = using the signs of
adj 4 −4
the axes in the third quadrant. By the Pythagorean
–4
Theorem, hyp = ò65. As a result, (–) q (+) q
–7
−7 −4 −4 4 r
sin θ = , cos θ = , cot θ = = ,
65 65 −7 7 (–)

65 65
sec θ = , csc θ = .
−4 −7

adj 6
d. Finally, cot θ = = −6 = using the signs of the
opp −1
axes in the fourth quadrant. (+) +6
By the Pythagorean Theorem, hyp = ò37. q q
–1
r
−1 6
As a result, sin θ = , cos θ = ,
37 37 (–)

−1 37 csc θ = 37 = − 37.
tan θ = , sec θ = , −1
6 6

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 133

 Check Yourself 12
1. Find the sine, cosine and tangent ratios of each angle without using a trigonometric table
or calculator.
2π 63π
a. θ = 315° b. θ = c. θ = – 900° d. θ =
3 2
2. a. tan θ = 5, θ ∈ (180°, 270°) are given.
Find sin θ and cos θ.

b. sec θ = −10, θ ∈ ⎛⎜ π , π ⎞⎟ are given.

⎝2 ⎠
Find sin θ and tan θ.

Answers
1 1
1. a. sin 315 ° = − , cos 315 ° = , tan 315° = –1
2 2
2π 3 2π 1 2π
b. sin = , cos =− , tan =− 3
3 2 3 2 3
c. sin 900° = 0, cos 900° = –1, tan 900° = 0
63π 63π 63π
d. sin = −1, cos = 0, tan is undefined
2 2 2
5 1
2. a. sin θ = − cos θ = −
26 26

3 11
b. sin θ = tan θ = –3ò11
10

C. PERIODS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

1. Periodic Functions
The values of some mathematical functions repeat with the same pattern to infinity. A
function with this property is called a periodic function.

Definition periodic function, period, fundamental period

A function f: A → B is a periodic function if it satisfies the rule
f(x + T) = f(x) for all values of x in A.
The number T is called the period of the function.
The smallest possible positive value of T is called the fundamental period of the function.

134 Algebra 10
 EXAMPLE 48 f : → is a function such that f(x) = {the remainder when x is divided by 4}. Draw the
graph of f and find its period.

Solution Let us find some values of f(x) to draw the graph.

x f(x)
y = f(x)
0 0
3
1 1
2
2 2
1
3 3 x
4 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
5 1
6 2
7 3
8 0
9 1
10 2

As we can see in the table, the values 0, 1, 2 and 3 repeat. So we can write
f(x) = f(x + 4) = f(x + 8) = … .
We can say that T = 4, 8, 12, ... are all periods of f(x).
The smallest positive period of f(x) is 4, so the fundamental period of f(x) is 4.

EXAMPLE 49 The figure below shows the graph of the function y = f(x).
a. Find the fundamental period of f(x).
b. Find f(133), f(85) and f(202).

y = f(x)

2
–5 –4 5 10 12 15
x
–3 –2 1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 11 13 14

–2

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 135

 Solution a. From the graph we can see
f(–5)= f(0) = f(5) = ... = –2
f(–4)= f(1) = f(6) = ... = 0
f(–3)= f(2) = f(7) = ... = 2
f(–2)= f(3) = f(8) = ... = 2
…
So the periods are 5, 10, 15, ... and the fundamental period is T = 5.
b. If T = 5 then we can write f(x) = f(x + kT) = f(x + 5k), k ∈ . So
f(133) = f(3 + 26 ⋅ 5) = f(3) = 2
f(85) = f(0 + 17 ⋅ 5) = f(0) = –2
f(202) = f(2 + 40 ⋅ 5) = f(2) = 2.

2. Periods of Trigonometric Functions

Recall the definition of coterminal angles on the unit circle: for any angle x we can write
x = x + 2kπ, k ∈ . If we apply this fact to trigonometric functions, we get
We know that the tangent
and cotangent values of sin x = sin(x + 2kπ)
angles in the first and
third quadrants and in cos x = cos(x + 2kπ)
the second and fourth
quadrants are the same,
tan x = tan(x + kπ)
so we only add kπ for the cot x = cot(x + kπ).
tangent and cotangent
functions. This means that trigonometric functions are also periodic functions. Moreover, 2kπ is a
period for sin x and cos x and kπ is a period for tan x and cot x, where k is an integer.

EXAMPLE 50 Find the fundamental period of f(x) = 2cos 3x.

Solution If f is a periodic function then by definition, f(x) = f(x + T) . So

2 cos 3x = 2 cos [3(x + T)]. Simplifying gives us cos 3x = cos [3(x + T)].
Let us use the coterminal angles of 3x, i.e 3x + 2kπ:
If cosx = cosy then
x = ±y + 2kπ. When we cos(3x + 2kπ) = cos [3(x + T)].
write –y + 2kπ, we can
simplify 3x from both Removing the cosine function from both sides gives 3x + 2kπ = 3(x + T) = 3x + 3T, so
sides. For this reason, 2kπ
we will take only the 2kπ = 3T and therefore T = is the period of f(x).
positive value of y. 3
2π
The smallest possible positive value of k is 1, and so the fundamental period of f(x) is .
3

136 Algebra 10
 Rule
Let n be an integer, let a and b be real numbers and let T stand for the fundamental period
of a trigonometric function.
1. For y = sin n( ax + b), y = cos n( ax+ b), y = sec n( ax+ b)and y = csc n( ax+ b).

π
i. if n is even then T = .
| a|

2π
ii. if n is odd then T = .
| a|
π
2. For y = tan n( ax + b) and y = cot n( ax+ b), T = .
| a|

Note
If f(x) is a periodic function then af(x) and f(x) + b are also periodic functions and the
periods of all these functions are the same. Can you see why?

EXAMPLE 51 Find the fundamental period of each function.

a. y = sin7 8x. b. y = 2cos5 (4x + 2).
c. f(x) = 3 sin2 (3x + 5) – 2. d. f(x) = 7 sec3 (5 – 2x) + 4.
e. f(x) = csc4 (4x + 1) – 1.

Solution We will use the rule we have just seen.

2π 2 π π
a. n = 7 is odd, so T = = = .
| a| 8 4
2π 2 π π
b. n = 5 is odd, so T = = = .
| a| 4 2
π π
c. n = 2 is even, so T = = .
| a| 3
2π 2π 2π
d. n = 3 is odd and a = – 2, so T = = = =π.
| a | | –2| 2
π π
e. n = 4 is even, so T = = .
| a| 4

EXAMPLE 52 Find the fundamental period of each function.

a. y = 5 – cot3 (2x – 1). b. f(x) = tan4 5x. c. y = 2 cot3 (2 – 6x) + 1.

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 137

 Solution a. We know that the period of y = 5 – cot3(2x – 1) is the same as the period of
π π
y = cot3(2x – 1). So T = = .
| a| 2
π π
b. T = =
| a| 5
π π π
c. a = –6, so T = = = .
| a | | –6| 6

EXAMPLE 53 π
Find the fundamental period of y = sin( x).
3

π
Solution n = 1 is odd and a = , so
3
2π 2 π 3
T= = = 2π ⋅ = 6 .
| a| π π
3

Rule
To find the period of the sum or difference of two or more periodic functions, first we find
LCM means least the fundamental period of each separate function, and then we take the least common
common multiple: the
smallest quantity that is multiple of these periods. This is the fundamental period of given function. For example, if
divisible by two or more
given quantities without
f(x) = g(x) + h(x) and the fundamental periods of g(x) and h(x) are T1 and T2 respectively
a remainder. then the fundamental period of f(x) is T = LCM(T1, T2).
GCD is the greatest
common divisor: the
greatest quantity that
can divide two or more
given quantities.
For example:
LCM (4,6) = 12,
GCD (4,6) = 2.

Rule
a c
For any two quantities and ,
b d
a c LCM( a, c)
LCM( , ) =
b d GCD( b, d)

a c p LCM( a, c, ..., p, ...)

By extension, LCM( , , ..., , ...) = .
b d q GCD( b, d, ..., q, ...)

EXAMPLE 42 Find the fundamental period of y = sin3x + cos33x.

138 Algebra 10
 Solution For g(x) = sin3x we have T1 = 2π.
2π
For h(x) = cos33x we have T2 = .
3
2π 2π 2π LCM(2 π, 2 π) 2 π
So the fundamental period is T = LCM(2 π, ) = LCM( , )= = = 2 π.
3 1 3 GCD(1, 3) 1

EXAMPLE 54 Find the fundamental period of y = 3 cos5 3x – 2 cot3 5x.

2π
Solution For g(x) = 3 cos5 3x we have T1 = .
3
π
For h( x) = 2 cot 3 5 x we have T2 = .
5
2π π LCM(2 π, π) 2 π
So the period is T = LCM( , )= = = 2 π.
3 5 GCD(3, 5) 1

EXAMPLE 55 Find the fundamental period of y = cos2 3x – cot2 2x + sin3(5x + 1).

π
Solution For g( x) = cos 2 3 x we have T1 = ,
3
π
for h( x) = cot 2 2 x we have T2 = ,
2
2π
and for r( x) = sin 3(5 x+1) we have T3 = .
5
π π 2π LCM( π, π, 2 π) 2 π
So T = LCM( , , )= = = 2 π.
3 2 5 GCD(3, 2, 5) 1

Note
If f(x) is a product or quotient of two periodic functions then LCM(T1, T2) gives us a period
of f(x) but this may not be the fundamental period. To find the fundamental period we must
change the product or quotient to a sum or difference of functions.

EXAMPLE 56 Find the fundamental period of y = cos 5x ⋅ cos 3x.

Solution First rewrite the product as a sum or difference:

1 1 1
y = cos 5x ⋅ cos 3x = ⋅ [cos(5x + 3x)+ cos(5x 3x)] = cos 8 x + cos 2 x.
2 2 2
1 2π π 1 2π
No
ow for g( x) = cos 8 x we get T1 = = , and for h( x) = cos 2 x we get T2 = = π, so
2 8 4 2 2
π π π LCM( π, π ) π
T = LCM( , π) = LCM( , ) = = = π.
4 4 1 GCD( 4, 1) 1

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 139

 Check Yourself 13
1. Find the fundamental period of each function.
a. y = sin3 4x b. y = 2 sin2(4 – 3x) c. y = 3 cos3(5x – 2)
d. y = 2 sec2(2 – 4x) + 1 e. y = csc7(2x + 3) – 4 f. y = 2 cos 5x

2. Find the fundamental period of each function.

2πx x
a. y = cot6(3x + 2) b. y = tan 3x c. y = 2 cot 3(3 – ) d. y = tan
5 4
π
3. Find the fundamental period of y = sin( x) .
5
4. Find the fundamental period of each function.
a. y = sin3 2x + cos3 5x b. y = cos2 4x – 2 cot5 3x
c. y = cos3 8x – cot 2x + sin3(6x + 1) d. y = cos x ⋅ cos 3x
e. y = 6 sin 2x ⋅ cos 2x f. y = sin x ⋅ sin 3x

Answers
π π 2π π 2π π π 5
1. a. b. c. d. e. π f. 2. a. b. c. d. 4π 3. 10
2 3 5 4 5 3 3 2
π
4. a. 2π b. π c. π d. π e. f. π
2

D. GRAPHS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

We have already seen that trigonometric functions are periodic. We can use this fact to sketch
or draw the graphs of trigonometric functions.
To draw the graph of a trigonometric function, follow the steps:
1. Find the period of the function.

2. Choose a suitable interval for the graph. Generally [0, 2π] is a good interval for sin x and
π π
cos x, (0, π) is good for cot x and (– , ) is good for tan x.
2 2
3. Investigate the behavior of the function in the given interval. For this we will check the
values of the function for common angles such as 0°, 30°, 45°, 60°, 90°, ... . This will show
us when the function is increasing and when it is decreasing. We write to show that a
function is increasing on an interval. We write to show that it is decreasing.
For sin x and cos x functions we can divide the interval [0, 2π] into four equal parts and
take the endpoints of the intervals as the angles to inspect.
4. Draw the graph of the function in the given interval and copy it any number of times to
get the general graph of the function.

Now we are ready to look at the graph of the basic trigonometric functions.

140 Algebra 10
 1. Graph of the Sine Function
For f(x) = sin x we have f: → [–1, 1]. Follow the steps described above:
1. The period of sin x is 2π.
2. We will draw the graph on the interval [0, 2π].
π 3π
3. We can use the quadrantal angles 0, , π, and 2 π and make a table:
2 2
p 3p
0 p 2p
x 2 2
sin x 0 1 0 –1 0

4. Now we can draw the graph with the information.

1
3p
–p 2 3p
p p 2p x
2
–1

2p

Remember that the period of y = sin x is 2π, so after drawing the graph in [0, 2π] we can
copy the curve any number of times to get the general graph of y = sin x.

2. Graph of the Cosine Function

For f(x) = cos x we have f: → [–1, 1].
1. The period of cos x is 2π.
2. We will draw the graph on the interval [0, 2π].
3. We can use the quadrantal angles
p 3p
π 3π 0
2
p
2
2p
0, , π, and 2 π and make a table: x
2 2 cos x 1 0 –1 0 1

4. Now we can draw the graph:

y

1 y = cos x
p 3p
–p 2 p 2 x
3p p 2p
– –
2 2
–1
2p

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 141

 The period of y = cos x is 2π, so after drawing the graph in [0, 2π] we can copy the curve
any number of times to get the general graph of y = cos x.

3. Graph of the Tangent Function

π
f(x) = tan x means f : – { + kπ} → .
2
1. The period of tan x is π.
π π
2. We will draw the graph on the interval (– , ) .
2 2
π π π π
3. Use the special angles − , − , 0, and to make a table:
2 4 4 2
p p p p
– – 0
x 2 4 4 2
tan x –¥ –1 0 1 ¥

4. Draw the graph: y

– 3p p 3p
–p
2 2 2 2
x
–p p

π π
The period of y = tan x is π, so after drawing the graph on the interval (– , ) we can
2 2
copy the curve any number of times to get the general graph of y = tan x.

4. Graph of the Cotangent Function

f(x) = cot x means f : – {kπ} → .

1. The period of cot x is π.

2. We will draw the graph on the interval (0, π).

π π 3π π
3. Use the special angles 0, , , and to make a table:
4 2 4 2

p p 3p
0 p
x 4 2 4
cot x ¥ 1 0 –1 –¥

142 Algebra 10
 4. Draw the graph: y

p 3p
–p
2 2 2
x
–p p 2p

The period of y = cot x is π, so after drawing the graph in (0, π) we can copy the curve any
number of times to get the general graph of y = cot x.

5. Graph of the Secant Function

1
We know that sec x = . So f(x) = sec x is undefined when cos x = 0, which means
cos x
π
the function is f : – { + kπ} → – (–1, 1).
2
1. The period of sec x is 2π.
2. We will draw the graph on the interval (0, 2π).
3. We can use the quadrantal angles and the cosine function to make the table:
p 3p
0 p 2p
x 2 2
sec x 0 +¥ –¥ –1 –¥ +¥ 1

4. Draw the graph: y

y = sec x

-3p/2 -p/2 p/2 3p/2

x
-2p -p p 2p
-1
y = cos x

Remember that the period of y = sec x is 2π, so we can copy the curve any number of times
to get the general graph of y = sec x.

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 143

 6. Graph of the Cosecant Function
1
We know that f(x) = csc x and csc x = , so we can say that csc x is undefined when
sin x
sin x = 0, i.e. the function is f : – {kπ} → – (–1, 1).

1. The period of csc x is 2π.

2. We will draw the graph on the interval (0, 2π).

3. We can use the quadrantal angles and the sine function to make table:

p 3p
0 p 2p
x 2 2
csc x +¥ 1 +¥ –¥ –1 –¥ +¥

4. Draw the graph:

y
y = csc x

-p -p/2 p 3p/2
x
-3p/2 O p/2 2p 5p/2

-1 y = sin x

Remember that the period of y = csc x is 2π, so after drawing the graph in [0, 2π] we can
copy the curve any number of times to get the general graph of y = csc x.

7. Graph Translations
Recall the basic effects that different changes in a function can have on a graph:
1. The graph of y = f(x – r) is the graph of f(x) shifted r units right along the x-axis.
2. The graph of y = f(x) + k is the graph of f(x) shifted k units up along the y-axis.
3. The graph of y = –f(x) is the reflection of the graph of f(x) with respect to the x-axis.

144 Algebra 10
 EXAMPLE 57 π
Draw the graph of y = sin( x – ) .
3

π π
Solution r= , so we will shift the graph of f(x)= sin x to the right by units along the x-axis. So
3 3
π
the graph of y = sin( x – ) is as follows:
3
y

y = sin x
1
p
y = sin (x – )
2p 3
–p p p x
3

–1

EXAMPLE 58 Draw the graph of y = 3cos(2x + 1).

Solution Let us draw the graph of y = 3cos 2x first, then we will shift the graph one unit to the left.
2π
1. The period of y = cos 2x is T = =π.
2
2. We will draw the graph in [0, π].
p p 3p
π π 3π 0 p
x 4 2 4
3. Use the special angles 0, , , and π to
4 2 4 cos 2x 1 0 –1 0 1
make the table:
3cos 2x 3 0 –3 0 3

4. Now we can draw y = cos 2x and then y = 3cos (2x + 1):

3 y = 3cos (2x + 1)

y = 3cos 2x

p p
4 2
3p p 3p 2p x
4 2

–3
p

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 145

EXAMPLE 59 Draw the graph of y = 2 sin 3x + 4.

Solution Begin with the graph of y = 2 sin 3x:

2π
1. The period of y = 2 sin 3x is T = .
3
2π
2. We will draw the graph in [0,].
3
π π π 2π
3. Use the angles 0, , , , and to draw the table:
6 3 2 3
p p p 2p
x 0 6 3 2 3

sin 3x 0 1 0 –1 0
2sin 3x 0 2 0 –2 0

2sin 3x + 4 4 6 4 2 4

4. Finally, draw the graph:

y

p p p 2p x
6 3 2 3
2p
3

EXAMPLE 60 Draw the graph of y = 2 cos

x
3
– 3 in the interval [–6π, 6π].

x 2π
Solution 1. The period of y = cos is T = = 6 π.
3 1
3
3π 9π
2. Let us divide the interval [0, 6π] into four equal parts, then the angles will be 0, , 3π, ,
2 2
6π.

3. Make the table:

3p 9p
x 0 2 3p 2 6p
p
cos 1 0 –1 0 1
3
p
2cos – 3 –1 –3 –5 –3 –1
3

146 Algebra 10
 4. Finally, draw the graph:

y
9p 3p 3p 9p
– –
–6p 2 –3p 2 2 3p 2 6p
x
–1

–3

–5
6p

EXAMPLE 61 Draw the graph of y = tan

x
3
in [–3 π, 3 π].

x π
Solution 1. The period of y = tan is T = = 3 π.
3 1
3
2. We need to draw the graph in [–3π, 3π].

3π 3π
3. Let us use the angles – , 0, and draw the table:
2 2
3p 3p
–
x 2 0 2
x
tan –¥ 0 ¥
3

4. Now we can draw the graph and repeat the curve on the interval [–3π, 3π]:

– 3p 3p
2 2 3p
x
–3p

3p

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 147

 Check Yourself 14
1. Draw the graph of each function in the interval [0, π].
a. y = 3 sin 4x – 1 b. y = 5 – cos 2x c. y = tan 2x

Answers

1. a. b. c.
2 6
p 3p p 3p 5
4 8 2 4 p 4
p 5p 7p
–1 p p p
8 8 8 3p
4 2 4

–4 p p 3p p
4 2 4

E. INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Recall that a function f: S → T is a one-tto-o
one function if for every x1 ≠ x2, f(x1) ≠ f(x2). Also,
f is an onto function if every element in T is an image of an element in S.
Remember!
If f: D → R is a If a function is both one-to-one and onto then it has an inverse. It is easy to show that
one-to-one and onto trigonometric functions are not one-to-one, since they repeat themselves. Therefore, if we
function then want to define the inverse of a trigonometric function, we must choose a suitable smaller
: R → D is its
–1
f domain and range in which the function is both one-to-one and onto.
inverse.
We use the prefix ‘arc’ to name the inverse of a trigonometric function. For example,
arcsin x is the inverse of sin x,
arccos x is the inverse of cos x,
arctan x is the inverse of tan x,
arccot x is the inverse of cot x, and so on.

Be careful!
Note
1 Some books use sin–1 x, cos–1 x, tan–1 x, cot–1 x or Asin x, Acos x, Atan x, Acot x to show the
sin −1 x ≠
sin x inverses of trigonometric functions. Some book also use Arcsin x to mean the inverse
cos −1 x ≠
1 function of sin x, and arcsin x to mean the inverse relation of sin x. We know that a relation
cos x
does not need to be one-to-one to have inverse, but a function must be one-to-one and onto
to have its inverse.
In this book we will use arcsin x, arccos x, arctan x and arccot x to mean the inverses of the
trigonometric functions.

148 Algebra 10
 1. The Arcsine Function
⎡ π π⎤
If f : ⎢ − , ⎥ → [–1, 1] then f(x) = sin x is both one-to-one and onto, so we can define its
⎣ 2 2⎦
inverse on this interval. The inverse of f(x) = sin x on this interval is f –1(x) = arcsin x
⎡ π π⎤
with f −1 : [ −1, 1] → ⎢ − , ⎥.
⎣ 2 2⎦
π π
x = arcsin y ⇔ y = sin x, x ∈[ − , ]
2 2

Graph of y = arcsin x

⎡ π π⎤
For arcsin : [ −1, 1] → ⎢ − , ⎥ we can find the following values:
⎣ 2 2⎦

Remember! ñ2 ñ2
–
x –1 2 0 2 1
The graph of an inverse
function f –1(x) is the arcsin x – p –
p 0 p p
reflection of the graph of 2 4 4 2
the function f(x) with
respect to the line y = x.
The values give us the graph y = arcsin x:

p y = arcsin x
2
1 y = sin x
p
– –1
2
0 1 p x
2
–1
p
–
y=x 2

EXAMPLE 62 1
Find the value of arcsin .
2

Solution By the definition of inverse trigonometric functions we have

1 1
x = arcsin ⇔ = sin x .
2 2
1
We know that sin 30° = sin 150° = sin 390° = … = , but arcsin is only defined on the
2
⎡ π π⎤ π
interval ⎢ − , ⎥ , so we will take x = 30° = .
⎣ 2 2⎦ 6

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 149

EXAMPLE 63 Find arcsin(–
2
3
).

⎡ π π⎤
Solution The arcsine function is defined on the interval ⎢ − , ⎥ ,
⎣ 2 2⎦
3 3 π
so x = arcsin(– )⇔– = sin x, i.e. x= –60 °= – .
2 2 3

2
EXAMPLE 64 Find sin(arcsin
2
).

2 2
Solution 1 Let arcsin = x . Then we can write sin(arcsin ) = sin x .
2 2

2 2
Remember! x = arcsin ⇔ = sin x, so x = 45 °.
By the property of 2 2
inverse functions,
f(f –1(x)) = x and 2 2
So sin(arcsin ) = sin x = sin 45 °= .
–1
f (f (x)) = x. 2 2

2 2
Solution 2 sin(arcsin )= by the property of inverse functions (since f(f –1(x))=x).
2 2

EXAMPLE 65 Find cos (arcsin 1).

Solution Let arcsin 1 = x, then we must find cos x.

If arcsin 1 = x then sin x = 1 and so x = 90°.
So cos (arcsin 1) = cos x = cos 90° = 0.

EXAMPLE 66 Find arcsin (tan 45°).

π
Solution tan 45° = 1, so we need to find arcsin1= 90 ° = .
2

150 Algebra 10
 2. The Arccosine Function
If f: [0, π] → [–1, 1] then f(x) = cos x is both one-to-one and onto, so we can define its
inverse. The inverse of f(x) = cos x on this interval is f –1(x) = arccos x with
f –1: [–1, 1] → [0, π].

x = arccos y ⇔ y = cos x, x ∈ [0, π]

Graph of y = arccos x

For arccos : [–1, 1] → [0, π] we can find the following values:

ñ2 ñ2
–
x –1 2 0 2 1

arccos x p 3p p p 0
4 2 4

The values give us the graph of the function y = arccos x:

y
y = arccos x Notice that the graph is a reflection of
p
y=x
y = cos x in the line y = x.

p
2
1

p
–1 0 1 p x
2
–1
y = cos x

EXAMPLE 67 1
Find arccos .
2

Solution By the definition of inverse trigonometric functions we have

1 1 1 π 1
x = arccos ⇔ = cos x and x ∈ [0, π] ⋅ = cos x means x = 60° = = arccos .
2 2 2 3 2

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 151

EXAMPLE 68 Find arccos
2
3
+ arccos
2
2
.

Solution Let us evaluate each term separately.

3 3 π
a = arccos means cos a = , so a= 30 °= .
2 2 6

2 2 π
b = arccos means cos b = , so b= 45 °= .
2 2 4
π π 5π
Combining these results gives us a+ b= + = .
6 4 12

EXAMPLE 69 Find arccos (cos (–30°)).

Solution Since cos x and arccos x are inverse functions, the answer seems to be –30°.
But we know arccos: [–1, 1] → [0, π], so the result cannot be –30°.
Instead, we must find the answer in [0, π].
If cos (–30°) = a then we must find arccos a. Since cos (–x) = cosx, we have

3
a = cos(–30 °) = cos 30 ° = .
2

3 π
So arccos(cos(–30°)) = arccos a= arccos = 30 °= . This is the answer.
2 6

EXAMPLE 70 Find sin(arcsin

2
2
+ arccos
2
3
).

Solution 2 3
Let a = arcsin and b = arccos .
2 2

2 2 π
a = arcsin means sin a = and so a= 45 ° = .
2 2 4

3 3 π
b = arccos means cos b = and so b= 30 ° = .
2 2 6

2 3
So sin(arcsin + arccos ) = sin(45° + 30°) = (sin45° ⋅ cos30°) + (cos45° ⋅ sin30°)
2 2
2 3 2 1 6+ 2
=( ⋅ )+( ⋅ )= .
2 2 2 2 4

152 Algebra 10
 3
EXAMPLE 71 Find cos(arcsin ).
5
3 3
Solution Let a = arcsin , then sin a = and we
5 5
3 A
need to find cos a. However, sin a = is not
5
a ratio we know, so we can draw a right
5
3
triangle to find the other trigonometric ratios

for the angle a. In the figure, the Pythagorean a

2 2 2 C 4 B
Theorem gives us BC + AB = AC , i.e.
BC2 = 52 – 32 = 25 – 9 = 16, so BC = 4.
BC 4 3
So cos a = = = cos(arcsin ).
AC 5 5

EXAMPLE 72 π 1
Find cos( – arcsin ).
2 2

1
Solution Let arcsin = a, then we need to find
2
π 1 1
cos( – a) = sin a = sin(arcsin ) = .
Reduction formula: 2 2 2
π
cos( − x) = sin x
2

2
EXAMPLE 73 Find sin(2 ⋅ arccos ).
3

2 2 A
Solution Let arccos = a, then cos a = .
3 3
Then we have
3
2 ñ5
sin(2 ⋅ arccos ) = sin 2a = 2 sin a ⋅ cos a.
3
2 a
Given that cos a = we can draw a right
3 B 2 C
triangle to find sin a.
5
The Pythagorean Theorem gives us AC = 5, so sin a = . So
3
2
sin(2 ⋅ arccos ) = sin 2 a = 2 ⋅sin ⋅ a ⋅cos a
3
5 2 4 5
=2⋅ ⋅ = .
3 3 9

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 153

EXAMPLE 74 Find the domain of y = arccos(2x + 1).

Solution arccos: [–1, 1] → [0, π], so –1 ≤ (2x + 1) ≤ 1, and subtracting 1 from all parts of the
inequality gives us –2 ≤ 2x ≤ 0. Finally, dividing all parts by 2 gives us –1 ≤ x ≤ 0.
So x ∈ [–1, 0], i.e. the domain is [–1, 0].

3. The Arctangent Function

⎛ π π⎞
If f : ⎜ − , ⎟ → then f ( x) = tan x is both one-to-one and onto, so we can define its
⎝ 2 2⎠
⎛ π π⎞
inverse. The inverse of f(x) = tan x is f –1(x) = arctan x with f −1 : → ⎜− , ⎟ .
⎝ 2 2⎠

⎛ π π⎞
x = arctan y ⇔ y = tan x, x ∈ ⎜ − , ⎟
⎝ 2 2⎠

Graph of y = arctan x

⎛ π π⎞
For arctan : ⎜ − , ⎟ → we can find the following values:
⎝ 2 2⎠
x –¥ –1 0 1 ¥

arctan x – p –
p 0 p p
2 4 4 2

The values give us the graph of the function y = arctan x:

y
y = tan x

y=x

y = arctan x

0
p x
– p
2
2

p
–
2

EXAMPLE 75 Find arctan ñ3.

π
Solution If x = arctan ñ3 then tan x = ñ3 and so x = 60° = = arctan 3.
3

154 Algebra 10
 3
EXAMPLE 76 Find arctan1+ 2 ⋅ arctan
3
– arctan(– 3).

Solution π
If arctan 1 = a then tan a = 1 and so a = 45° = .
4

3 3 π
If arctan = b then tan b = and so b= 30 ° = .
3 3 6
π
If arctan(– 3) = c then tan c= – 3 and so c= –60 ° = − .
3
3 π π π 11π
So arctan 1 + 2 ⋅ arctan – arctan (–ñ3 ) = + 2 ⋅ − ( − ) = .
3 4 6 3 12

1
EXAMPLE 77 Find sin(arctan ).
2
1 1 1
Solution If arctan = x then tan x = and we need to find sin x. However, tan x = is not a
2 2 2
ratio we know, so we can draw a right triangle to find other trigonometric ratios of x.
In the figure, the Pythagorean Theorem gives A
us BC2 + AC2 = AB2, i.e.
ñ5
AB2 = 22 + 12 = 4 + 1 = 5 and so AB = ñ5. 1
AC 1 5 x
So sin x = = = .
AB 5 5 B 2 C

EXAMPLE 78 Find arctan(tan

5π
4
).

5π
Solution By the properties of inverse functions the answer seems to be , but remember that
4
⎛ π π⎞ 5π
arctan a ∈ ⎜ − , ⎟ and so cannot be the answer.
⎝ 2 2⎠ 4
5π π
However, tan =1 and so arctan 1= 45 ° = is the correct answer.
4 4

4. The Arccotangent Function

If f: (0, π) → then f(x) = cot x is both one-to-one and onto, so we can define its inverse.
The inverse of f(x) = cot x is f –1(x) = arccot x with f –1: → (0, π).

x = arccot y ⇔ y = cot x, x ∈ (0, π)

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 155

 Graph of y = arccot x
For arccot: (0, π) → we have the following values:

x –¥ –1 0 1 ¥

arccot x p 3p p p 0
4 2 4

The values give us the graph of arccot x:

y y=x
p
y = arccot x

p
2

0 p p x
2

y = cot x

EXAMPLE 79 Find arccot

3
3
.

3 3 π
Solution x = arccot means cot x = , so x= 60 °= .
3 3 3

EXAMPLE 80 Find tan(arccot ñ3) + cos (arccot 1) – sin (arccot 0).

Solution If a = arccot ñ3 then cot a = ñ3 and so a = 30°.

If b = arccot 1 then cot b = 1 and so b = 45°.
If c = arccot 0 then cot c = 0 and so c = 90°.
So tan (arccot ñ3) + cos (arccot 1) – sin (arccot 0) = tan 30° + cos 45° – sin 90°
3 2 2 3+3 2 −6
= + −1 = .
3 2 6

156 Algebra 10
 Check Yourself 15
1. Find each value in radians.
1 1
a. arcsin 1 b. arcsin(– ) c. arccos(– )
2 2
2
d. arccos(– ) e. arctan 0 f. arctan(– 3 )
2 3
g. arccot ñ3 h. arccot (–1)

2. Evaluate each expression.

2 3
a. cos(arcsin ) b. sin (arccos 1) c. tan(arcsin )
2 2
3
d. sin(arctan(– )) e. arccot (tan 60°) f. arccos (cot 45°)
3
3. Evaluate each expression.
2 3 2
a. sin(arcsin ) b. cos(arcsin ) c. tan(arcsin )
5 4 3
d. cot(arctan 3) e. sin (arctan 2) f. cos (arcsin(cos 60°))

4. Evaluate each expression.

3 3π 3 π 3
a. sin( π − arcsin ) b. tan( + arctan ) c. cot( – arcsin )
5 2 4 2 2
2 1 1
d. cos(2 ⋅ arcsin ) e. tan(arccot ) f. tan(2 ⋅ arcsin )
7 4 2
5. State the domain of each function.
a. f(x) = arcsin(3x – 1) b. f(x) = arccos(4x + 2)

Answers
π π π 3π
1. a. b. − c. 2π d. 3π e. 0 f. − g. π h.
2 6 3 4 6 6 4
2 1 π
2. a. b. 0 c. ñ3 d. – e. f. 0
2 2 6
2 7 2 5 1 2 5 3
3. a. b. c. d. e. f.
5 4 5 3 5 2
3 4 41
4. a. b. – c. ñ3 d. e. 4 f. ñ3
5 3 49
⎡ 2⎤ ⎡ 3 1⎤
5. a. ⎢0, ⎥ b. ⎢ – , – ⎥
⎣ 3⎦ ⎣ 4 4 ⎦
Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 157
 MATHEMATICS AND MUSIC
Many people today think that mathematics is a science, made up only of theorems, numbers
and formulas. However, we can also think of mathematics as an art, just like painting or
music. If you study the history of music or art, you will find that in ancient times
mathematics and geometry were used to produce beautiful creative works. Also,
mathematicians look for the simplest or most elegant proofs of a theorem, just as musicians
try to produce the most beautiful or pleasing music.
In ancient Greece the study of mathematics had four main parts: arithmetic, geometry,
astronomy and music. The famous philosopher Confucius (551-479 BC) investigated the
effects of musical notes and rhythms on humans, and Plato (428-348 BC) accepted music
as an important part of education. Even in the Middle Ages (around 400 to 1500 AD),
mathematics, astronomy and music were all taught together. Many famous mathematicians
in history have also studied the relationships between
mathematics and music.

Music, Rhythm and Ratio

One very basic relationship between math and music is rhythm. A
musical rhythm can be defined as a mathematical ratio such as
4:4 or 3:4. With only a little practice, you can hear this ‘rhythm
ratio’ in different pieces of music.
Ratios also define musical notes. Pythagoras (580-520 BC) and
his followers studied the relationship between the length of a
piece of wire and the sound (or musical note) it makes, and saw
that the relationships were ratios. For example, imagine that a piece of
wire makes the note C (‘do’) when you pluck it. Pythagoras found that
if you divide the string into the ratio 2:3 and pluck the longer part, the
note is A (‘la’). If you divide the longer part into two-thirds again, the
next note is F (‘fa’) in the next octave. Each time you divide the string,
it produces a note which is five notes ahead in the musical scale.
Other important mathematical ratios in the Pythagorean musical scale
are 6:5, 3:2 and 16:9.
You can find another link between music and math in the shapes of
instruments. Many instruments have curves that are designed to give
the best sound, and some of these curves correspond to the graph of
y= 2x.
Sound Waves

Each sound that you hear, such as a musical note, can

be represented as a sound wave with a particular
frequency and amplitude. Higher sounds have higher
frequencies, and louder sounds have bigger amplitude.
You may remember that a famous ratio in mathematics

is the golden ratio, which is equal to 1+ 5 1.618 .

2
Musicians have found that if the frequencies of two
notes are in this ratio then they produce a pleasing harmony when they are played together.
Sound waves are connected to trigonometry by the sine function: every sound can be
represented as a wave which has the equation y = a ⋅ sin(bθ – c). In this equation, a is the
amplitude, b is the product of the frequency and 2π, and c is a real number called the phase
difference. As an example, consider a sound with frequency 55 Hz and amplitude 3. The graph
of this sound wave is given by y = a ⋅ sin(bθ – c) with a = 3, b = 2π ⋅ 55 = 110π and c = 0, i.e.
y = 3sin (110πθ).

Math and Music

We can see that mathematics provides one way for us to
understand music and harmony. If a musician uses
mathematical ratios in his music, the music will sound
pleasing to more people. However, a musician does not need
to know math to write music, and the
people who listen to the music do not
usually need any special education to enjoy it. This is one difference
between music and most of mathematics. Can you think of any others?

Activity
Try looking for pictures of sound waves in an encyclopedia or on the
Internet. Can you see the similarity between sound waves and the graph
of the sine function?
EXERCISES 3 .2
A. Trigonometric Functions and Their 4. Find the sign of each ratio.
Properties a. sin 133° b. cos 224°
1. Evaluate each expression. c. tan 245° d. cot 22°
a. sin 0° + 3 ⋅ cos 270° + 4 ⋅ tan 180° – cot 270° e. tan (–298°) f. sec 552°

b. 3 ⋅ cos 90° + tan 540° + 2 ⋅ cot 270° – sin 180° 21π

g. csc (–467°) h. sin
7π 3π π 5
c. sin + 3 ⋅ cos – 2 ⋅ cot
2 2 2 8π 26 π
i. cos j. tan( − )
3π 3π 7π 7 15
d. sec5π – 3 ⋅ csc + 2 ⋅ cot – sin
2 2 2 4π 23π
k. cot(– ) l. sec
17 π 11π 7 5
e. sin7 π + 2 ⋅ cos + 3 ⋅ tan7 π – cot
2 2

2. Find the domain of each function.

a. f(x) = 2sin(3x – 2) + 1
b. f(x) = 2cos3x – 2
c. y = 4tan(4x – 2) 5. In which equations is x undefined?
d. y = 2cot(x + 1) + 3 a. sin x = 0.2 b. cos x = 0.9
e. y = csc(3x – 2) c. tan x = 3 d. cot x = –0.5
f. y = sec(3x – 60°) e. sec x = –0.3 f. cos x = 3
g. y = 3sin 2x – 5 cos (7x – 2) g. csc x = 2 h. tan x = –3
h. y = tan 2x – 3 cot 5x i. sec x = 34 j. csc x = 0
k. cos x = 2
3. Find the range of each function.
a. y = sin 3x b. y = 5 sin 4x
c. y = 3 sin 2x – 4 d. y = 4cos (x – 4) + 2
e. y = 3 sin (x – 2) + 3
f. y = 2 cos 3x – 2
g. y = 2tan (2x + 1) 6. Find the maximum and minimum values of each
h. y = tan (4x – 2) function.

i. f(x) = sec 2x + 1 a. y = 3sin x + 4 b. y = 2cos(2x – 1)

j. f(x) = 2 csc 3x – 1 c. y = 5sin 3x – 1 d. y = 2sec x + 1

k. f(x) = tan 2x + cot 3x e. y = 3csc x f. y = tan 4x

160 Algebra 10
 π
7. Find the biggest ratio in each set. 11. Given that 0 < x < , which of the following
4
a. cos 67°, cos 78°, cos 127°, cos 299° statements are true?
b. sin 45°, sin 66°, sin 233°, sin 300° a. sin x < cos x b. cot x > cos x
c. tan 2°, tan 88°, tan 92°, tan 358° c. tan x > cot x d. cot x > sec x
d. sin 70°, cos 50°, tan 40°, cot 30° e. sin x > cos x f. sec x > csc x

B. Calculating Trigonometric Values

8. Write each set of ratios in ascending order. 12. Complete the table.
a. x = sin 35°, y = cos 84°, z = tan 255°.
Trigonometric Values of Quadrantal Angles
b. a = sin 30°, b = cos 230°, c = tan 70°,
q in q in sin q cos q tan q cot q sec q csc q
d = sec 80°. Degree Radian (y) (x) (y/x) (x/y) (1/x) (1/y)

0° 1
c. m = sin 30°, n = tan 40°, r = cot (–20°).
p
2 1 undefined 0 undefined
d. x = sin 80°, y = cos 80°, z = tan 80°, –1
180° 0 undefined undefined
k = sec 80°. 0 0 –1
270° undefined undefined

e. a = tan 20°, b = cot (–40°), c = sec 60° 2p 0 1 undefined

13. Evaluate each expression without using a

trigonometric table or calculator.
9. Which of the following statements are true?
a. sin 180° + cos 270° + tan 360° + cot 90°
a. (sin 20° ⋅ sin 40°) < sin 20°
b. sin 90° – cos 270° – (tan 180° ⋅ cot 270°)
b. cos 50° > (cos 50° ⋅ tan 33°)
c. (sin 50° ⋅ cos 20°) < sin 50°
d. (tan 60° ⋅ cos 40°) < tan 60° 14. Find the reference angle for each angle.

e. (tan 250° ⋅ sin 40°) > tan 250° a. 12° b. 112° c. 212° d. 312°

f. (cos 100° ⋅ sin 80°) > cos 100° e. 50° f. 150° g. 250° h. 350°

15. Find the reference angle for each angle.

a. –25° b. –140° c. –245° d. –305°
π
10. Given that < x < y < π , which of the following
2 e. –5° f. –95° g. –260° h. –320°
statements are true?
a. sin x > cos x b. tan x > tan y
16. Find the reference angle for each angle.
c. sin x < sin y d. cos x > cos y
a. 1000° b. 3456° c. –3000° d. –7890°
e. sin x > sin y f. cot x > cot y
e. 2000° f. 6789° g. –1000° h. –2345°

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 161

17. Find the reference angle for each angle. 22. Find each trigonometric value by using a reference
π 7π 18 π 25π angle.
a. b. c. d.
11 12 13 14 a. sin (–225°) b. cos (–150°)
2π 9π 22π 36π c. tan (–300°) d. cot (–30°)
e. f. g. h.
13 15 17 19 e. sin (–1590°) f. cos (–675°)
g. tan (–9045°) h. cot (–600°)

18. Find the reference angle for each angle.

π 7π 13π 23π
a. − b. − c. − d. − 23. Find each trigonometric value by using a reference
8 10 12 14
angle.
π 8π 17 π 28 π 5π π
e. − f. − g. − h. − a. sin b. cos
6 9 12 15 6 3
5π 11π
c. tan d. cot
4 6
19. Find the reference angle for each angle. ⎛ π⎞ ⎛ 2π ⎞
e. sin ⎜ − ⎟ f. cos ⎜ − ⎟
73π 2019 π 101π 1001π ⎝ 4⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠
a. b. c. − d. −
6 9 13 15 ⎛ 7π ⎞
g. tan ⎛⎜ − 5π ⎞⎟ h. cot ⎜ − ⎟
57 π ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 6 ⎠
e. f. 1007 π g. − 602 π h. − 1009 π
7 73 98 99

20. Complete the table with + and – signs. 24. Find each trigonometric value by using a reference
Signs of the Trigonometric Values of Nonquadrantal Angles angle.
67 π 100 π
Quadrant,
sin θ =
y x y x r
cos θ = tan θ = cot θ = sec θ = csc θ =
r a. sin b. cos
axis r r x y x y 6 3
x>0 55π 607 π
I
y>0 + + c. tan d. cot
4 6
x<0
II – – +
y>0 ⎛ 83π ⎞ ⎛ 202 π ⎞
e. sin ⎜ − ⎟ f. cos ⎜ − ⎟
III
x<0
– + + – ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠
y<0
⎛ 89π ⎞
IV
x>0
– + – g. tan ⎛⎜ − 151π ⎞⎟ h. cot ⎜ − ⎟
y<0
⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 6 ⎠

21. Find each trigonometric value by using a reference

angle. 25. Evaluate the expressions.
a. sin 120° b. cos 240° a. cos 45° + cos 330° + cos 150° + cos 315°
c. tan 315° d. cot 135°
b. cot 5π − sin 5π + tan π − cos 7 π
e. sin 855° f. cos 3660° 6 4 3 4
g. tan 2025° h. cot 1410° c. sec 300° + tan 585° + cot 765° + csc 1230°

162 Algebra 10
26. Evaluate each expression given that α is an acute
angle.
a. sin(180° + α) – cos(270° + α) +
tan(360° + α) + cot(900° + α)
π π
b. sin ( π − α )+sin ( π + α )+cot ( − α)+cot ( + α)
2 2
30. Each equation contains a trigonometric function.
›
Find the value of the cofunction of this function
in the given quadrant.
a. α ∈ (0°, 90°), 3(tan α – 4) = 2tan α – 9
sin α − 10
b. α ∈ (90°, 180°), 7(sin α − 1) =
2

27. For each trigonometric ratio in the given 22+ csc α

c. α ∈ (270°, 360°), = –4
quadrant, find the other trigonometric ratios for θ. 3+ 4csc α
3
a. sin θ = , θ ∈ (0 °, 90 °)
2

b. cos θ = −
2 31. In the figure, A
, θ ∈ (90 °, 180 °) › m(∠ABC) = 150°,
2 x
5 AB = 6 and 6
c. tan θ = , θ ∈ (180 °, 270 °) 150°
4 BC = ñ3.
B ñ3 C
Calculate
2
d. cot θ = − , θ ∈ (270 °, 360 °)
3 a. AC = x. b. the area of ΔABC.

28 . For each trigonometric ratio in the given

quadrant, find the other trigonometric ratios for θ.
2 ⎛ 3π ⎞ 32. Find the perimeter D 4 C
a. sin θ = − , θ ∈ ⎜ , 2 π⎟ › P and area A of the
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ 120°

24 3π ⎞ trapezoid ABCD in
⎛
b. cos θ = − , θ ∈ ⎜ π, ⎟ the figure.
25 ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛π ⎞ A 10 B
c. tan θ = −4, θ ∈ ⎜ , π ⎟
⎝2 ⎠
⎛ π⎞
d. cot θ = 7, θ ∈ ⎜ 0, ⎟
⎝ 2⎠ 33. Write each angle in degree-minute form. Give
your answer rounded to two decimal places in the
29. α is an acute angle. minutes place.
›
3 ⋅ sin α +1 2
a. If = , what is sin α? a. 48.5° b. 136.2° c. 213.75° d. 313.79°
4 − 5 ⋅ sin α 5
cos α − 2 1
b. If = − , what is cos α?
7 ⋅ cos α +11 6
34. Write each angle in decimal degrees. Give your
tan α +5 tan α − 4
c. If =− , what is tan α? answer rounded to two decimal places.
6 2
d. (tan 45° ⋅ cot α) + (sec 60° ⋅ cot α) = 12 is a. 121° 15′ b. 346° 50′
given. Calculate cot α. c. 198° 19′ d. 23° 56′ 12′′

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 163

35. Find each trigonometric value rounded to four 40. Find the fundamental period of each function.
decimal places. a. y = sin2 2x – cos2 2x
a. sin 23.4° b. cos 54.25° b. y = cos3 5x – 3 cot 2x
c. tan 71.1° d. cot 63.55° c. y = cos4 2x – cot 3x + sin5 (3x – 1)
d. y = 2 sin x ⋅ cos 4x
e. y = 4 cos 5x ⋅ sin 3x
36. Find each trigonometric value rounded to four f. y = sin x ⋅ sin 3x
› decimal places.
g. y = cos 3x ⋅ cos 4x
a. sin 121° 15′
h. y = sin2 3x + cos3 3x – tan 2x + cot 3x
b. cos 346° 50′
i. y = tan2 x + cot5 4x – sin2 4x
c. tan 131° 27′ 3 x
j. y = tan x +5 ⋅ sin 4( )
d. cot 89° 49′ 3

41. Find the fundamental period of y = arctan (tan x).

C. Periods of Trigonometric Functions
37. Find the fundamental period of each function.
a. y = sin2 3x 42. Find the fundamental period of y = sin (πx).
b. y = 3 sin3 (2 – 5x)
c. y = cos4 (x + 3) D. Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
d. y = 3 sec5 (7 – 3x) – 5
43. Sketch the graph of each function.
e. y = csc12 (5x + 1) – 2
a. y = 2 sin 3x + 1 b. y = 3 – 2 ⋅ cos x
f. y = cos 3x
c. y = 2 tan 3x d. y = 2cos 2x – 2
e. y = 5sin 4x + 1

38. Find the fundamental period of each function.

a. y = tan3 (2x – 1) 44. Draw the graph of each function in the interval
[0, π].
b. y = 4 tan 5x
x a. y = sin 3x
c. y = cot 2 (3 – )
5 b. y = tan 2x – 1
d. y = 3 – cot (5x + 1)
c. y = cot x + 2
x
d. y = 2 sin
2
x x
39. Find the fundamental period of y = cos( ) . e. y = 3cos
π 3

164 Algebra 10
45. The graph of the function f(x) = cos x is given. E. Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Which of the following transformations should be
47. Write each value in degrees.
combined to obtain the graph of
f(x) = cos (3x + 2) – 1? 2
a. arcsin 0 b. arcsin(– )
2
I. move the graph 1 unit left
2
c. arcsin (–1) d. arcsin
II. move the graph 1 unit up 2
III. move the graph 1 unit down 3
e. arccos 1 f. arccos(– )
2
IV. move the graph 2 units right
g. arccos 0 h. arccos (–1)
V. move the graph 2 units left

VI. divide all values on the x–axis by 3

VII. multiply all values on the x–axis by 3 48. Write each value in radians.

a. arctan 1 b. arctan (–1)

46. Find the equation which corresponds to each c. arccot 1 d. arccot 0

graph. 3
e. arccot (–ñ3) f. arctan(– )
3
a. y
2 3
g. arctan (–ñ3) h. arccot(– )
3

–p –p/2 3p/2
49. Evaluate each expression.
O p/2 p 2p x
1
a. cos (arcsin 0) b. sin(arccos )
2
–2 3 5
c. sin(arctan ) d. cos(arcsin )
b. 3 13
y
4
1 e. tan (arccos 1) f. cot(arcsin )
p
y = sin x 5
–p O 2p x
–1

c. y
4 50. Evaluate each expression.
3
3 a. tan(arctan ) b. sin (arctan 1)
2 2
1 c. cos (arccot ñ3) d. arccot (tan 30°)
–p p y = sin x
–2p O 2p x e. arctan (cot 135°) f. arctan (sin 270°)
–1

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 165

 15π
51. Evaluate each expression. 54. Find arcsin(sin ).
4
7
a. cos(arcsin )
25
3 5
b. sin(arccos ) 55. What is a + b if a = arcsin( ) and
5 6
5
1 b = arcsin(– )?
c. cot( arcsin ) 6
3

d. tan (arccot (–3))

29π
56. Find arccos(sin ).
e. cos (arctan 4) 3

f. cot (arccos (sin 60°))

4 2
57. Find cos(arcsin – arctan ) .
5 3

52. Evaluate each expression.

π 4 58. Find arcsin (cos(arctan(cot 60°))).
a. sin( – arccos )
2 7
π 5
b. tan( + arc cot )
2 2 3π 4
59. Given that x ∈ ( π, ) and x = arctan , find
2 3
3π 1
c. cot( – arcsin ) sin x.
2 2
4
d. tan(2 ⋅ arcsin )
5 3 1
60. Find tan(arcsin + arccos ) .
5 2
3
e. cot(arccos )
4
12
f. sin(2 ⋅ arcsin ) 61. Find cos (arcsin(tan(arccot 1))).
13

53. Find the domain of each function. 62. Find tan(arccot(sin(arccos 0)))

a. y = 3 ⋅ arcsin (2x + 4)
b. y = 2 ⋅ arccos (3x + 2) π 2π
63. Find arctan(cos +sin ).
6 3
c. y = 5 – 2 ⋅ arccos (x – 3)
d. y = arcsin (3 – 5x)
e. y = arctan 3x 3 3 3
64. Evaluate [arccos + arcsin + arctan 3].
f. y = arccot (5x + 1) › π 2 2

166 Algebra 10
A. TRIGONOMETRIC THEOREMS
We now know how to calculate one or more angles
or side lengths in a right triangle from given
information about the triangle. However, there are
also relations between the angles and sides of any
triangle (not just right triangles). In this section
we will study these general relations and use them
to solve triangle problems.

1. The Law of Cosines

Theorem law of cosines
In a triangle ABC with side lengths a, b and c, A
a = b + c – 2bc ⋅ cos A
2 2 2

b2 = a2 + c2 – 2ac ⋅ cos B
b
c
c2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab ⋅ cos C.

B a C

Proof First we draw CH as an altitude of the

A
triangle. Point H now divides AB into two segments
such that AH = x and HB = c – x. Consequently
In a triangle ABC, a is x
the side opposite A, b is there exist two right triangles: ΔCAH and ΔCHB. c H
the side opposite B and b
Applying the Pythagorean Theorem to each
c is the side opposite c. h
A right triangle gives us
c–x
q h2 + (c – x)2 = a2 (1)
c b
h2 + x2 = b2. (2)
B a C
B a C We can subtract these side by side:
a, b and c can also mean h2 + (c – x)2 = a2
the lengths of sides a, b
and c respectively. h2 + x2 = b2
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
We also write A to mean
h2 + (c – x)2 – h2 – x2 = a2 –b2
the angle at A, B to
mean the angle at B and c2 – 2cx + x2 – x2 = a2 – b2.
C to mean the angle at
C: in the figure, m(A) = θ. So a2 = b2 + c2 – 2cx. (3)

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 167

 In the right triangle CAH,
C
x
cos A = , i.e. x = b ⋅ cos A.
b
Substituting this value of x in (3) gives us
a2 = b2 + c2 – 2cb ⋅ cos A. b
h

We can rewrite this as

a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc ⋅ cos A,
which is the required result.
A x H
The proofs of the other two identities are similar.
They are left as an exercise for you.
Notice that by rewriting the three parts of the law of cosines we obtain the relations
b2 + c2 – a2
cos A =
2bc

a2 + c2 − b 2
cos B =
2ac

a2 + b 2 – c2
cos C = .
2ab

Note
By the law of cosines:
1. If two sides of a triangle and the angle between them are known, it is possible to calculate
the length of the third side of the triangle.
2. If the three sides of a triangle are known, it is possible to calculate the trigonometric
values of the angles in the triangle.

EXAMPLE 81 In the figure, ABC is a triangle with

A
AC = 4, BC = 6 and m(∠ACB) = 60°.
Find AB. 4

Solution By the law of cosines, c 60°

C
c2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab ⋅ cos C
c2 = 62 + 42 – 2 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 4 ⋅ cos 60° 6
1
c2 = 36 + 16 – 2 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 4 ⋅ B
2
c2 = 28
c = ò28 = 2ñ7.

168 Algebra 10
 EXAMPLE 82 In the figure, ABC is a triangle with
A
AB = 2, BC = ñ3 and m(∠ABC) = 150°.
Find b. b
2 150°
B ñ3 C
Solution By the law of cosines,
b2 = a2 + c2 – 2ac ⋅ cos B
⎛ 3⎞ ⎛ 3⎞
b2 = (ñ3)2 + 22 – 2 ⋅ ñ3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ ⎜ – ⎜⎜ cos 150 ° = –
⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ ⎟
2 ⎟⎠
2
⎝ ⎠ ⎝
b =3+4+6
b2 = 13
b = ò13.

EXAMPLE 83 The figure shows a triangle ABC with C

AC = 3, AB = 7 and m(∠ACB) = 120°. Find a. 120° a
3

Solution By the law of cosines,

A 7 B
c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab ⋅ cos C
⎛ 1⎞ 1
7 2 = a2 + 32 − 2 ⋅ a ⋅ 3 ⋅ ⎜ − ⎟ (cos 120 ° = − )
⎝ 2⎠ 2
49 = a2 +9+ 3 a; ( a – 5)( a+8) = 0;
a2 + 3a − 40 = 0; a = 5 , a = –8.

(–5) (8)
Since the length of a side cannot be negative, a = 5.

EXAMPLE 84 Find cos A in the triangle in the figure. C

Solution By the law of cosines, 5

b2 + c2 – a2 2
cos A =
2bc
52 + 42 – 2 2
=
2 ⋅5 ⋅4 A 4 B

25+16 – 4
=
40
37
= .
40

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 169

EXAMPLE 85 Find the measure of angle B in the figure. B

Solution By the law of cosines, 3 6

2 2 2
a +c – b
cos B =
2ac
A
2 2 2
3 +6 – (3 3) 3ñ3
= C
2 ⋅3⋅6
9+ 36 – 27
=
36
18 1
= = .
36 2

1 1
So cos B = . We know that m(∠B) < 90° and cos 60° = . Therefore m(∠B) = 60°.
2 2

Check Yourself 16
1. The side lengths of a triangle are 4, 5 and 6 units respectively. Find the cosine of the
smallest angle in the triangle.

A
2. ABC is a triangle with AB = 4,
Inscribed and 4 120° x
circumscribed: BC = ò61 and m(∠BAC) = 120°. Find AC.

B ò61 C
Answers

The black line shows an 1. 0.75 2. 5

inscribed triangle.
The red line shows a
circumscribed circle. 2. The Law of Sines
Theorem law of sines

Let ABC be a triangle with side lengths a, b and c C

which is inscribed in a circle with radius R.
a b c
Then = = = 2 R. b a
sin A sin B sin C O
R

A c B
OB = R

170 Algebra 10
 Proof Look at the figure.
C
In the right triangle CDA,
hC E
sin A = , i.e. hC = b ⋅ sin A. (1)
b F a
b

In the right triangle CDB, hb

ha
hC hc
sin B = , i.e. hC = a ⋅ sin B. (2)
a A D B
From (1) and (2) c
we obtain b ⋅ sin A = a ⋅ sin B, i.e.
a b (I)
= .
sin A sin B
hb
Similarly, in the right triangle BFA we have sin A = , i.e. hb = c ⋅ sin A. (3)
c
hb
Finally, in the right triangle BFC, sin C = which gives hb = a ⋅ sin C. (4)
a
a c
From (3) and (4) we obtain c ⋅ sin A = a ⋅ sin C, i.e. = . (II)
sin A sin C
a b c
From (I) and (II) we obtain = = . (Result 1)
sin A sin B sin C
To show the relation with the radius R of
A
the circumscribed circle, we can use the figure
M
opposite.
M is a point on the circle such that MC is the O

diameter of the circumscribed circle and

B C
m(∠MBC) = 90°. Since ∠BAC and ∠BMC are
circumscribed angles having the same arc BïC
on the circle, m(∠BAC) = m(∠BMC).
Since m(∠M) = m(∠A) we have sin M = sin A.
In the right triangle MBC,

a a a
sin M = = , i.e. sin A = .
MC 2 R 2R
a
So = 2 R. (Result 2)
sin A
a b c
Combining Result 1 and Result 2 gives us = = = 2 R.
sin A sin B sin C

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 171

 Note
Let ABC be an inscribed triangle. By the law of sines:
1. If the measures of the three angles and the radius
of circumscribed circle are known, it is possible to
find the side lengths of the triangle.
2. If the radius of the circumscribed circle and the
side lengths of the triangle are known, it is possible
to calculate the trigonometric values of the
angles of the triangle.

EXAMPLE 86 In a triangle ABC, m(∠A) = 30° and the length of side a is 8 cm. Find the area of the
circumscribed circle of ΔABC.
Solution By the law of sines, A
30°
a 8
= 2 R so = 2 R.
sin A sin 30 ° R

8
So = 2 R, i.e. R = 8 cm.
1
8 C
2 a=
We can calculate the area A of a circle with B
the formula A = πR2.
So the area is π ⋅ 82 = 64π cm2.

EXAMPLE 87 In a triangle ABC, m(∠B) = 45°, m(∠C) = 30° and the length of side c is 4 cm. Find the
length of side b.

Solution By the law of sines, A

c b 4 b
= , i.e. = . b
sin C sin B sin 30 ° sin 45 ° 4

4 b
So = and b = 4ñ2 cm. 45° 30°
1 2 B C
2 2

172 Algebra 10
 EXAMPLE
88 In a triangle ABC, the measures of the interior angles are 30°, 60° and 90° respectively. The
radius of the triangle’s circumscribed circle is 6 cm. Find the perimeter of the triangle ABC.

Solution By the law of sines,

a b c
= = = 2 ⋅ 6 =12. This gives
sin 30 ° sin 60 ° sin 90 °
1
a = sin 30 ° ⋅ 12 = ⋅12 = 6 cm, C
2
B
3 60°
b = sin 60 ° ⋅ 12 = ⋅12 = 6 3 cm and
2 6
30° O
c = sin 90° ⋅ 12 = 12 cm.
Since the perimeter P(ΔABC) = a + b + c we A

can write
P(ΔABC) = 6 + 6ñ3 + 12 = 18 + 6ñ3 cm.

Check Yourself 17
1. In a triangle ABC, a = 5 cm and the radius of the circumscribed circle is 5 cm. Find m(∠A).

2. In a triangle ABC, m(∠A) = 30°, m(∠B) = 135° and b = 4ñ2 cm. Find the length of side a.
Answers
1. 30° or 150° 2. 4 cm

3. Formulas for the Area of a Triangle

Theorem
In a triangle ABC with sides a, b and c, the following properties hold:

1 A
A( ΔABC ) = ⋅ a ⋅ b ⋅ sin C
2
1 c b
A( ΔABC ) = ⋅ a ⋅ c ⋅ sin B
2
1
A( ΔABC ) = ⋅ b ⋅ c ⋅ sin A.
2 B a C

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 173

 Proof Look at the figure. By the general rule for the
A
1
area of a triangle, A( ΔABC ) = ⋅ b ⋅ hb. (1)
2
hb
Moreover, in the triangle ABH, sin A = c H b
c
hb
whic gives hb = c ⋅ sin A. (2)
If we substitute (2) into (1) we obtain
1
A( ΔABC ) = ⋅ b ⋅ c ⋅ sin A which is one of the
2 B a C
results to be proven.
The other proofs are similar and are left as an exercise for you.

EXAMPLE 89 In a triangle ABC, A(ΔABC) = 3ñ3 cm2, b = 3 cm and c = 4 cm. Find all the possible measures
of angle A.

1
Solution A( ΔABC ) = ⋅ b ⋅ c ⋅ sin A
2

1 3
3 3= ⋅ 3 ⋅ 4 ⋅ sin A, i.e. sin A =
2 2

3
We know sin 60 ° = sin 120 ° = . So m(∠A) = 60° or m(∠A) = 120°.
2

EXAMPLE 90 In the figure, A(ΔABC) = 5 cm2. Find A(ΔADE).

3
C

D
1
Solution A( ΔABC ) = ⋅ AB ⋅ AC ⋅ sin A 4
2
1 2
5= ⋅ 5 ⋅ 7 ⋅ sin A, i.e. sin A = A
2 7 5 B 2 E
Since angle A is common to both triangles we
can use the value of sin A for both triangles:
1
A( ΔADE) = ⋅ AD ⋅ AE ⋅ sin A
2
1 2
A( ΔADE) = ⋅ 4 ⋅ 7 ⋅ = 4 cm 2.
2 7

174 Algebra 10
 Theorem Heron’s Formula
Let ABC be a triangle with sides a, b and c and perimeter a + b + c = 2u. Then
A( ΔABC ) = u( u − a )( u − b )( u − c ).

Proof sin2 A + cos2 A =1 so sin2 A = 1 – cos2 A. (1)

b2 + c2 − a2
By the law of cosines, cos A = . Substituting this in (1) gives
2bc
2
2 ⎛ b2 + c2 − a2 ⎞ (2bc )2 − ( b2 + c2 − a2 )2
sin A =1 − ⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ 2bc ⎠ 4b2 c2

(2 bc − b 2 − c2 + a2 )(2bc + b 2 + c 2 − a 2 )
=
4b2 c2

⎡ a2 − ( b2 − 2 bc + c2 ) ⎤⎦ ⎡⎣( b2 + 2 bc + c 2 ) − a 2 ⎤⎦
=⎣
4b2 c2

⎡ a2 − ( b − c)2 ⎤⎦ ⎡⎣( b + c)2 − a2 ⎤⎦

=⎣
4b 2 c2

( a + c − b)( a + b − c)( b + c − a)( a + b + c)

= .
4b2 c2

Let us write each factor of the numerator in terms of u as follows:

a + b + c = 2u a + b + c = 2u a + b + c = 2u
+ –2a = –2a + –2c = –2c + –2b = –2b
–––––––––––––––––––––––––– –––––––––––––––––––––––––– ––––––––––––––––––––––––––
b + c – a = 2(u – a) a + b – c = 2(u – a) a + c – b = 2(u – b).

2( u − a) ⋅ 2( u − c) ⋅ 2( u − b) ⋅ 2 u
Now we have sin 2 A = , i.e.
4b2 c2
4u( u − a)( u − b )( u − c)
=
b2 c2
2
= u( u − a )( u − b )( u − c ).
bc

1
If we use substitute this result in the area equation A( ΔABC ) = ⋅ b ⋅ c ⋅ sin A we get
2
1 2
A( ΔABC ) = ⋅b ⋅c ⋅ u( u − a )( u − b )( u − c ).
2 bc

So A( ΔABC ) = u( u − a )( u − b )( u − c ).

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 175

EXAMPLE 91 In a triangle ABC, a = 9 cm, b = 10 cm and c = 11 cm. Find A(ΔABC).

9+10+11
Solution By Heron’s Formula, let 2u=a + b + c so u = =15.
2
Then A( ΔABC) = u( u − a)( u − b)( u − c)

= 15(15 − 9)(15 −10)(15 −11)

= 15 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 = 30 2 cm 2.

EXAMPLE 92 In the figure, AB = 6 cm, AC = 10 cm and

A
BC =12 cm. Find AD = x.

Solution From Heron’s Formula, 6 10

x
12+10+6
2u = a + b + c so u = =14.
2
So A( ΔABC ) = u( u − a)( u − b)( u − c) B D C
1555555555552555555555553
12
= 14(14 − 12)(14 −10)(14 −6)

= 14 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 8 = 8 14 cm 2.

1 1 4 14
But A( ΔABC ) = ⋅ AD ⋅ BC, which gives us 8 14 = ⋅ x ⋅ 12, i.e. AD = x = cm.
2 2 3

Theorem area of an inscribed triangle

Let ABC be a triangle with sides a, b, c which is inscribed in a circle with radius R. Then
a⋅b⋅c
A( ΔABC ) = .
4R
C
1
Proof A( ΔABC ) = ⋅ b ⋅ c ⋅ sin A. By the law of sines,
2
b a
a a O
= 2 R which gives us sin A = .
R
sin A 2R
R
If we substitute for sin A in the equation for A c B
2R OB = R

the area, we obtain

1 a a⋅b⋅c
A( ΔABC ) = ⋅b ⋅c ⋅ = .
2 2R 4R

176 Algebra 10
 EXAMPLE 93 The side lengths of a triangle are 5 cm, 6 cm and 7 cm. Find the radius of the triangle’s
circumscribed circle.

Solution From Heron’s Formula, C

5+6+7
2u=a + b + c so u = = 9 and R
2 7 6

A( ΔABC ) = u( u − a)( u − b )( u − c) O

A 5 B
= 9(9 − 5)(9 − 6)(9 − 7)

= 9 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 = 6 6 cm 2.

a⋅b⋅c 5 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 7 210
However, since A( ΔABC ) = we have 6 6 = = .
4R 4R 4R

35
Solving for R gives R = cm.
4 6

Check Yourself 18
1. In a triangle ABC, AB = 8 cm, BC = 12 cm and m(∠ABC) = 30°. Find the area of the
triangle.

2. A triangle has side lengths of 14 units, 16 units and 20 units respectively. Find its area.

3. In a triangle ABC, A(ΔABC) = 18 cm2 and a ⋅ b ⋅ c = 72. Find the radius of circumscribed
circle.

Answers

1. 24 cm2 2. 15ò55 square units 3. 1 cm

4. Further Theorems (Optional)

Theorem
Let ABC be a triangle with sides a, b and c such that A(ΔABC) = S. Then

2S ⋅ sin A 2 S ⋅ sin B 2 S ⋅ sin C

a= , b= , c= .
sin B ⋅ sin C sin A ⋅ sin C sin A ⋅ sin B

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 177

EXAMPLE 94 The interior angles of a triangle ABC measure 30°, 60° and 90° respectively. Given that
A(ΔABC) = S = 2ñ3 cm2, find the length of each side.

Solution Let us use the theorem.

1
2⋅2 3 ⋅
2S ⋅ sin A 2 ⋅ 2 3 ⋅ sin 30 ° 2 = 2 cm
a= = =
sin B ⋅ sin C sin 60 ° ⋅ sin 90 ° 3
⋅1
2
3
2⋅2 3 ⋅
2S ⋅ sin B 2 ⋅ 2 3 ⋅ sin 60 ° 2 = 2 3 cm
b= = =
sin A ⋅ sin C sin 30 ° ⋅sin 90 ° 1
⋅1
2
2S ⋅ sin C 2 ⋅ 2 3 ⋅ sin 90 ° 2 ⋅2 3 ⋅1
c= = = = 4 cm
sin A ⋅ sin B sin 30 ° ⋅sin 60 ° 1 3
⋅
2 2

Theorem law of tangents

In a triangle ABC with sides a, b and c,

⎛ A+ B ⎞ ⎛ A+C ⎞ ⎛ B+ C ⎞
tan ⎜ ⎟ tan ⎜ ⎟ tan ⎜ ⎟
a+ b ⎝ 2 ⎠, a+c ⎝ 2 ⎠, b+c ⎝ 2 ⎠.
= = =
a–b ⎛ A – B⎞ a–c ⎛A–C ⎞ b–c ⎛B – C ⎞
tan ⎜ ⎟ tan ⎜ ⎟ tan ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠

EXAMPLE 95 In the figure, m(∠B) = 105°, m(∠C) = 15° and

b + c = 3 +ñ3. Find the lengths of sides b and c.
C
15°
b
A

105° c
Solution By the law of tangents, B

⎛ B+ C ⎞ ⎛ 105 ° +15 ° ⎞
tan ⎜ ⎟ tan ⎜ ⎟
b+ c ⎝ 2 ⎠ . So 3+ 3 ⎝ 2 ⎠
= =
b–c ⎛ B– C ⎞ b–c ⎛ 105 ° – 15 ° ⎞
tan ⎜ ⎟ tan ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
tan (60 °) 3
= =
tan (45 °) 1
= 3
3+ 3 3 3 3 3+3
b – c= = =
3 3 3
= 3 +1.
⎧⎪b + c = 3+ 3
If we solve the system ⎨ , we find b = 2ñ3 and c = 1.
⎪⎩b − c = 3 +1

178 Algebra 10
 Check Yourself 19
1
1. In a triangle ABC, a = 8 cm, A(ΔABC) = 16 cm2 and sin B ⋅ sin C = . Find m(∠A).
4
2. In a triangle ABC, b = 11 cm, c = 5 cm, m(∠B) = 78° and m(∠C) = 42°. Find the value
of tan 18°.
Answers
3 3
1. 30° or 150° 2.
8

B. TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULAS
1. Sum and Difference Formulas
In this section we will learn the relations between the sum or difference of two angles and
their trigonometric ratios. We will prove these relations using the trigonometric identities we
have studied.

a. sin(x±y) A
In the figure,
x
A(ΔABC) = A(ΔABH) + A(ΔACH). By the y

formula for the area of a triangle, c b

1 1 1
⋅ b ⋅ c ⋅ sin A = ⋅ c ⋅ h ⋅ sin x + ⋅ b ⋅ h ⋅ sin y, h
2 2 2
which we can rewrite as
(b ⋅ c ⋅ sin A) = (c ⋅ h ⋅ sin x) + (b ⋅ h ⋅ sin y). B H C
If we divide both sides by b ⋅ c we get
a
h h
sin A = ⋅ sin x + ⋅ sin y. (1)
b c
h h
In the triangle, m(A) = x + y, cos y = and cos x = .
b c
If we substitute these in (1) we obtain
sin (x + y) = [sin x ⋅ cos y] + [cos x ⋅ sin y] .

If we replace y with –y in this equation we get

sin (x + (–y)) = [sin x ⋅ cos (–y)] + [cos x ⋅ sin (–y)].
Since cos (–y) = cos y and sin (–y) = –sin y we have
sin (x – y) = [sin x ⋅ cos y] – [cos x ⋅ sin y] .

EXAMPLE 96 Calculate sin 75°.

Solution We can write 75° as the sum or difference of two easier angles.

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 179

 For example, we know the values of the trigonometric
functions of 45° and 30°, so we can write 75° = 45°+ 30°.
So sin 75° = sin (45° + 30°).
By the sine of the sum of two angles,
sin(45° + 30°) = (sin 45° ⋅ cos 30°) + (cos 45° ⋅ sin 30°)
2 3 2 1
= ⋅ + ⋅
2 2 2 2

6+ 2 6+ 2
= . So sin75° = .
4 4

EXAMPLE 97 Calculate sin 15°.

Solution We can write 15° as 45° – 30°, 60° – 45° or any other suitable combination.
Let us choose 60° – 45°.
sin 15° = sin (60° – 45°)
= (sin 60° ⋅ cos 45°) – (cos 60° ⋅ sin 45°)
3 2 1 2
=( ⋅ )–( ⋅ )
2 2 2 2

6– 2
=
4

b. cos(x±y) A

To find cos (x + y) we will use the formula for

x y
the sine of the difference of two angles
b
obtained in the previous section. c
cos α = sin(90° – α) cos (x + y) = sin (90° – (x + y))
= sin (90° – x – y)
B C
= sin ((90° – x) – y) (regrouping) H
155555555525555555553
a
= sin ((90° – x) – y)
= sin [(90° – x) ⋅ cos y] – [cos (90° – x) ⋅ sin y].
Since sin (90° – x) = cos x and cos (90° – x) = sin x,
cos (x + y) = [cos x ⋅ cos y] – [sin x ⋅ sin y] .

If we replace y with –y in this equation we get

cos (x + (–y)) = [cos x ⋅ cos (–y)] – [sin x ⋅ sin (–y)].
Since cos (–y) = cos y and sin (–y) = –sin y we have
cos (x –y) = [cos x ⋅ cos y] + [sin x ⋅ sin y] .

180 Algebra 10
 EXAMPLE 98 Calculate cos 105°.

Solution We can write 105° as the sum or difference of two

easier angles. Let us choose 105° = 60° + 45°.
cos 105° = cos (60° + 45°)
= (cos 60° ⋅ cos 45°) – (sin 60° ⋅ sin 45°)
1 2 3 2
= ⋅ – ⋅
2 2 2 2

2– 6
=
4

EXAMPLE 99 Show that cos (60° + 30°) ≠ cos 60° + cos 30°.

Solution 1 We have 60° + 30° = 90° and we know cos 90° = 0. On the other hand,

1 3
cos 60 ° + cos 30 ° = + ≠ 0. Therefore, cos (60° + 30°) ≠ cos 60° + cos 30°.
2 2
Solution 2 We know that cos (x+ y) = (cos x ⋅ cos y) – (sin x ⋅ sin y).
So cos (60° + 30°) = (cos 60° ⋅ cos 30°) – (sin 60° ⋅ sin 30°), i.e.

1 3 3 1
cos (60 ° + 30 °) = ⋅ − ⋅ = 0.
2 2 2 2
1 3
However, cos 60 ° + cos 30 ° = + ≠ 0. So cos (60° + 30°) ≠ cos 60° + cos 30°.
2 2

c. tan(x±y)
sin θ sin ( x + y) (sin x ⋅ cos y)+(cos x ⋅sin y)
We know that tan θ = . So tan ( x+ y) = = by
cos θ cos ( x+ y) (cos x ⋅ cos y) – (sin x ⋅sin y)
our previous results.

If we divide the numerator and denominator by cos x ⋅ cos y and simplify, we get
Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 181
 (sin x ⋅ cos y)+(cos x ⋅sin y)
cos x ⋅ cos y
tan ( x + y) =
(cos x ⋅ cos y) – (sin x ⋅sin y)
cos x ⋅ cos y
sin x ⋅ cos y cos x ⋅ sin y
+
cos x ⋅ cos y cos x ⋅ cos y
=
cos x ⋅ cos y sin x ⋅ sin y
–
cos x ⋅ cos y cos x ⋅ cos y
sin x sin y
+
cos x cos y
= . This gives us
sin x sin y
1− ⋅
cos x cos y
tan x+ tan y .
tan ( x+ y) =
1 – (tan x ⋅tan y)

tan x + tan (– y)
If we replace y with –y in this equation we get tan ( x + (– y)) = .
1 – (tan x ⋅ tan (– y))
Since tan (–y) = –tan y we have
tan x – tan y .
tan ( x – y) =
1+ (tan x ⋅tan y )

EXAMPLE 100 Verify that tan 210° = 3

3
.

Solution 210° = 180° + 30°

tan 180 °+ tan 30 °

tan 210 ° = tan (180 °+ 30 °)= (by the formula above)
1 – (tan 180 ° ⋅ tan 30 °)
3
0+
= 3 = 3
3 3
1– 0 ⋅
3

EXAMPLE 101 Find tan (x – y) using tan x = 52 1

and tan y = .
4

5 1 9
–
tan x – tan y
Solution tan ( x − y) = = 2 4 = 4
1+(tan x ⋅ tan y) 1+ 5 ⋅ 1 13
2 4 8
18
=
13

182 Algebra 10
 d. cot(x±y)
1 cos ( x + y) (cos x ⋅ cos y) – (sin x ⋅sin y)
cot ( x + y) = = =
tan( x + y) sin ( x + y) (sin x ⋅ cos y)+(cos x ⋅sin y)

Let us divide the numerator and denominator by sin x ⋅ sin y and simplify:
(cos x ⋅ cos y) – (sin x ⋅sin y)
sin x ⋅ sin y
cot ( x + y) =
(sin x ⋅ cos y)+(cos x ⋅sin y)
sin x ⋅ sin y

cos x ⋅ cos y sin x ⋅ sin y

–
sin x ⋅ sin y sin x ⋅ sin y
=
sin x ⋅ cos y cos x ⋅ sin y
+
sin x ⋅ sin y sin x ⋅ sin y
cos x cos y
⋅ –1
sin x sin y
= . So
cos y cos x
+
sin y sin x
(cot x ⋅ cot y) – 1 .
cot ( x+ y) =
cot y+ cot x

cot x ⋅ cot ( − y) – 1
If we replace y with –y in this equation we get cot ( x + ( − y)) = .
cot ( − y)+ cot x

–(cot x ⋅ cot y) – 1
Since cot (–y) = – cot y we have cot ( x − y) = , i.e.
– cot y + cot x

(cot x ⋅ cot y) +1 .
cot ( x – y) =
cot y – cot x
Note
We can also calculate these results by using the corresponding results for the tangent and the
1 1
fact that cot α = (so cot ( x ± y) = ).
tan α tan ( x ± y)

EXAMPLE 102 Calculate cot 75°.

Solution cos 75° = cot(45° + 30°)
(cot 45° ⋅ cot 30°) – 1 (1 ⋅ 3) – 1 3–1 ( 3 – 1)( 3 – 1)
= = = =
cot 45° + cot 30° 1+ 3 1+ 3 ( 3 +1)( 3 – 1)
( 3 – 1)2 3 – 2 3+1 4 – 2 3
= = = =2– 3
( 3)2 – ( 1)2 2 2

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 183

 Check Yourself 20
1. Calculate cos 15° and sin 105°.
2. Calculate tan 195° and cot 285°.
3. Verify the results.
2 1
a. sin 135° = b. cos 300° =
2 2
4. Calculate tan 15° + cot 15°.
4
5. cot x = –1 and cot y = – are given. Find cot (x – y).
3
Answers
2+ 6
1. cos 15° = sin 105° = 2. tan 195° = 2 – ñ3, cot 285° = ñ3– 2 4. 4 5. –7
4

2. Double-Angle and Half-Angle Formulas

We now know formulas to calculate trigonometric ratios such as sin(x + y), cos(x + y),
tan(x + y) and cot(x + y). In this section we will consider the special case x = y and find
formulas for the trigonometric ratios sin 2x, cos 2x, tan 2x and cot 2x. These formulas are called
the double-aangle formulas.

a. sin 2x
We know that sin (x + y) = (sin x ⋅ cos y) + (cos x ⋅ sin y).
If x = y this formula becomes
sin (x + x) = (sin x ⋅ cos x) + (cos x ⋅ sin x), i.e.

sin 2 x = 2sin x ⋅ cos x .

sin 2 x
We can also rewrite this as sin x ⋅ cos x = .
2

EXAMPLE 103 Calculate sin 120° using the double-angle formula for sine.
Solution sin 120° = sin (2 ⋅ 60°)
= 2 ⋅ sin 60° ⋅ cos 60° (double-angle formula)
3 1
=2⋅ ⋅
2 2
3
=
2

184 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 104 Evaluate the expressions. π π
a. sin 22.5° ⋅ cos 22.5° ⋅ cos 45° b. 6 sin cos
8 8

sin 2 x
Solution a. Using sin x ⋅ cos x = gives us
2
1
sin 22.5° ⋅ cos 22.5° ⋅ cos 45° = sin (2 ⋅ 22.5°) ⋅ cos 45°
2
1
= sin 45° ⋅ cos 45°
2
1 1
= ⋅ sin (2 ⋅ 45°)
2 2
1 1
= sin 90° = .
4 4

π π π π π π 2
b. 6sin cos = 3 ⋅ (2sin cos ) = 3 ⋅ sin(2 ⋅ ) = 3 ⋅ sin = 3⋅
8 8 8 8 8 4 2
3 2
=
2

EXAMPLE 105 Simplify cos 6 x sin 6 x

–
cos 2 x sin 2 x
.

cos 6 x sin 6 x (cos 6 x ⋅ sin 2 x) – (cos 2 x ⋅sin 6 x) (sin 2 x ⋅ cos6x) – (sin6 x ⋅cos 2 x)
Solution – = = .
cos 2 x sin 2 x cos 2 x ⋅ sin 2 x sin 2 x ⋅cos 2 x
sin(2 x – 6 x) sin (–4 x)
Using the double-angle formula gives us = , and using the
sin 2 x ⋅ cos 2 x cos 2 x ⋅ sin 2 x
– sin 4 x
double-angle formula again gives us = –2.
1
sin 4 x
2

4 ⋅ cos 50 ° ⋅ sin 50 ° ⋅ cos 100 °

EXAMPLE 106 Simplify sin 200 °
.

2 ⋅ (2 ⋅ cos 50 ° ⋅ sin 50 °) ⋅cos 100 °

Solution We can rewrite this as and use sin 100° = 2 ⋅ sin 50° ⋅ cos 50°.
sin 200 °
2 ⋅ sin 100 ° ⋅ cos 100 °
This gives us by the double-angle formula.
sin 200 °
sin 200 °
Using the double-angle formula again gives us =1 .
sin 200 °

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 185

EXAMPLE 107 Evaluate sin 20° ⋅ cos 40° ⋅ cos 80°.
(sin 20 ° ⋅ cos 20 °) ⋅ cos 40 ° ⋅cos 80 °
Solution sin 20 ° ⋅ cos 40 ° ⋅ cos 80 °=
cos 20 °

1
(sin 40 ° ⋅ cos 40 °) ⋅ cos 80 °
sin 160° = sin 20°
=2
sin a cos 20 °
1 1 1
sin 80 ° ⋅ cos 80 ° sin 160 ° sin 20 °
1
160°
20°
=4 = 8 = 8 = tan 20 °
cos 20 ° cos 20 ° cos 20 ° 8

b. cos 2x
We know that cos (x + y) = cos x ⋅ cos y – sin x ⋅ sin y.
If x = y this formula becomes
cos (x + x) = (cos x ⋅ cos x) – (sin x ⋅ sin x), i.e.

cos 2 x = cos2 x – sin2 x .

We can also use the identities sin2 x = 1 – cos2 x and cos2 x = 1 – sin2 x to obtain two
additional formulas:
cos 2 x = 2cos2 x – 1
cos 2 x = 1 – 2sin2 x .

EXAMPLE 108 Calculate cos 2x given cos x = 7

4
π
and 0 < x < .
2

7 2 7
Solution cos 2 x = 2 ⋅ cos 2 x – 1= 2 ⋅( ) −1= 2 ⋅ −1
4 16
1
=–
8

1 – cos 2 x
EXAMPLE 109 Simplify the expression 1+ cos 2 x .
1 – cos 2 x 1 – (1 – 2 sin 2 x) 1 – 1+ 2 sin 2 x 2 sin 2 x
Solution = = =
1+ cos 2 x 1+(2 cos 2 x – 1) 1+ 2 cos 2 x – 1 2 cos 2 x

= tan 2 x

186 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 110 Given cos 11° = t, write sin 68° in terms of t.
Solution sin 68° = cos 22° (cofunctions)
cos 22° = cos (2 ⋅ 11°) = 2 ⋅ cos 11° – 1 2
(double-angle formula)
2
= sin 68° = 2t – 1

c. tan 2x
tan x + tan y
We know that tan ( x + y) = .
1 – tan x ⋅ tan y
If x = y this formula becomes
tan x + tan x
tan ( x + x) = , i.e.
1 – tan x ⋅ tan x

2tan x
tan 2 x = .
1 – tan 2 x

111
4
EXAMPLE tan x = . Find tan 2x.
3
2 tan x
Solution tan 2 x =
1 – tan 2 x

4 8 8
2⋅
= 3 = 3 = 3
⎛4⎞
2
16 7
1– ⎜ ⎟ 1– –
⎝3⎠ 9 9

24
=–
7

d. cot 2x
cot x ⋅ cot y – 1
We know that cot ( x + y) = .
cot x + cot y
If x = y this formula becomes
cot x ⋅ cot x – 1
cot ( x + x) = , i.e.
cot x + cot x

cot 2 x – 1
cot 2 x = .
2cot x

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 187

EXAMPLE 112 Given that x is an acute angle, calculate cot 2x using tan x – cot x = 2.
1 1
Solution Since tan x = we have – cot x = 2, i.e.
cot x cot x
1 – cot 2 x 2
= .
cot x 1
This gives us 1 – cot2 x = 2cot x, i.e. cot2 x + 2cot x – 1 = 0.
–2 – 6 –2+ 6
If we apply the quadratic formula we get cot x = or cot x = .
2 2
Since x is an acute angle, the cotangent value must be positive. Since ñ6 > 2, –2 + ñ6 is
–2+ 6
positive and so cot x = .
2

e. Half-angle formulas
We have just seen that sin 2x, cos 2x, tan 2x, and cot 2x can be expressed in terms of sin x,
cos x, tan x and cot x respectively. In addition, we can apply the procedure in reverse order to
express sin x, cos x, tan x, and cot x in terms of sin 2x, cos 2x, tan 2x and cot 2x
respectively. For this reason, the double-angle formulas are also called half-angle formulas.
By using the double-angle formula for the cosine function, we can obtain the half-angle
formulas for the sine, tangent and cotangent functions as follows.
x
We know that cos 2x = 2 cos2 x – 1. If we replace x with , then
2
⎛ x⎞ x
cos ⎜ 2 ⋅ ⎟ = 2 cos 2 – 1,
⎝ 2⎠ 2

x x 1+ cos x
cos x = 2 cos 2 – 1 i.e. cos = ± . (1)
2 2 2

x ⎛ x⎞ x
Similarly, cos 2x = 1 – 2sin2 x. If we replace x with then cos ⎜ 2 ⋅ ⎟ =1 – sin 2 ,
2 ⎝ 2⎠ 2

x x 1 − cos x
cos x = 1 − sin 2 i.e. sin = ± . (2)
2 2 2
Using (1) and (2) we can write
x 1 – cos x
sin ±
x
tan = 2= 2 , i.e. tan x = ± 1 − cos x .
2 cos x 1+ cos x 2 1+ cos x
±
2 2

188 Algebra 10
 Similarly,

x 1+ cos x
cos ±
x 2= 2
cot = , i.e.
2 sin x 1 – cos x
±
2 2

x 1+ cos x
cot =± .
2 1 – cos x

EXAMPLE 113 cos 2 x = – 51 is given. Find cos x if x is in the first

quadrant.

1 + cos 2 x
Solution cos 2x = 2cos2 x – 1 so cos x = ± .
2

Since x is in the first quadrant, the cosine is positive.

⎛ 1⎞
1+ ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ 5⎠
So cos x =
2

2
= .
5

EXAMPLE 114 Calculate sin 22.5º using half-angle formulas.

1 – cos 2 x
Solution cos 2x = 1 – 2sin2 x so sin x = ± . Since x is an acute angle, the sine is positive.
2

2
1–
2 2
So sin (22.5 °) = (cos 45° = )
2 2

2− 2
= .
2

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 189

 3 is given. Find tan x if x is in the fourth quadrant.
EXAMPLE 115 cos x =
5 2

Solution Since x is in the fourth quadrant, 270° < x < 360°.

x x
So 135° < < 180 °. This means that is in the second quadrant, where the tangent function
2 2
is negative.

x 1 – cos x
By the half-angle formula, tan =± and we take the negative value.
2 1+ cos x
3 2
1–
x 5 5 , i.e. tan x = – 1 = – 1 .
Hence, tan = – =–
2 3 8 2 4 2
1+
5 5

EXAMPLE 116 Find the values of sin 105° and cos 15° using half-angle formulas.
210 ° 1 – cos 210 ° 3
Solution sin 105 ° = sin = (cos 210 °= – )
2 2 2
Notice that we take the positive value in the half-angle formula because the sine function is
positive in the second quadrant. So we have

3
1 – (– )
sin 105 ° = 2 = 2+ 3 = 2+ 3 .
2 4 2
Similarly,
30° 1+ cos 30 ° 3
cos 15 ° = cos = . (cos 30 °= )
2 2 2

We take the positive value because the cosine function is positive in the first quadrant. So

3
1+
cos 15 ° = 2 = 2+ 3
2 4

2+ 3
= .
2

190 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 117 Given cot 2x = t, find sin x in terms of t.
x t 1 t2 + 1
Solution We can show cot = in a right triangle, as
2 1
shown opposite. x
2
From the double-angle formula for the sine we t
x x
have sin x = 2 ⋅ sin ⋅ cos .
2 2
1 t
So sin x = 2 ⋅ ⋅
2 2
t +1 t +1
2t
= 2 .
t +1

EXAMPLE 118 Given sin x =

3
5
, find cos
x
2
if x is an acute
C

x
angle. 2
5 3
Solution We can solve this problem using the previous
formulas. However, let us look at an alternative x
x
2
geometric solution. D A B
Step 1: We sketch the triangle ABC as in the
figure. We calculate AB = 4 using the Pythagorean Theorem.
Step 2: We extend side AB to create DB such that AD = AC = 5.
Step 3: We construct the right triangle DBC.
Since AD = AC, the triangle DAC is an isosceles triangle.

Hence, m(∠CDA) = m(∠ACD) and m(∠CAB) = m(∠CDA) + m(∠ACD).

x
Therefore, m( ∠CDB) = . Moreover, BD = AD + AB = 5 + 4 = 9.
2
By using the Pythagorean Theorem with the triangle CDB,
DC 2 = BC 2 + BD 2

= 32 +9 2

DC = 9+81 = 90

= 3 10.

x DB 9
So cos = =
2 DC 3 10

3 10
= .
10
Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 191
 Check Yourself 21
α 3
1. α is an acute angle such that sin = . Find sin α.
2 5
2
2. α is an acute angle such that cos α = . Find cos 2α.
5
x x 1
3. cos 2 x ⋅ cos x ⋅ cos ⋅ sin = is given. Find cos 8x.
2 2 24
4. If tan 84° = t, find cot 78° in terms of t.

5. Calculate tan 15°.

Answers

24 17 2t
1. 2. – 3. 7 4. 5. 2–ñ3
25 25 9 t2 – 1

4. Sum to Product Formulas

In this section we will study formulas which allow us to rewrite the sum of two trigonometric
functions as a product of two trigonometric functions. We will use the sum and difference
formulas in our working.
a. sin a ± sin b
To obtain a formula for sin a + sin b we add the formulas for the sine of a sum and the sine
of a difference:
sin ( x+ y) = (sin x ⋅ cos y)+(co s x ⋅ sin y)

+sin ( x − y) =+ (sin x ⋅ cos y) – (cos x ⋅ sin y)

sin ( x + y)+ sin ( x − y) = 2 ⋅ sin x ⋅ cos y. (1)

⎧⎪ a = x + y
If we write a = x + y and b = x – y we obtain the system ⎨ .
⎪⎩ b = x – y
a+ b a–b
Solving this system for x and y gives x = and y = , which we can substitute in (1):
2 2
a+b a –b
sin a +sin b= 2 sin cos . (2)
2 2

192 Algebra 10
 If we subtract the two formulas instead of adding them, we get
sin ( x+ y) = (sin x ⋅cos y)+(co s x ⋅ sin y)

– sin ( x – y) = – (sin x ⋅cos y) – (cos x ⋅s in y)

sin ( x + y) – sin ( x – y) = 2 ⋅ cos x ⋅sin y. (3)

If we write a = x + y and b = x – y we obtain the system

⎧⎪ a = x + y a+ b a–b
⎨ . Solving this gives x = and y = , which we can substitute in (3) :
⎪⎩ b = x – y 2 2

a+b a –b
sin a – sin b= 2 cos sin
2 2 . (4)

EXAMPLE 119 Evaluate the expressions.

a. sin 105° + sin 15°
b. sin 70° – sin 10°
Solution We could evaluate each term separately and then combine them. Howewer, the sum to
product formulas give us an easier way.
⎛ 105 ° +15 ° ⎞ ⎛ 105 ° – 15 ° ⎞
a. sin 105 ° + sin 15 ° = 2 ⋅ sin ⎜ ⎟ ⋅cos ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
= 2 ⋅ sin 60 ° ⋅ cos 45 °

3 2
=2⋅ ⋅
2 2
6
=
2

b. ⎛ 70° – 10 ⎞ ⎛ 70 °+10 ° ⎞
sin 70 ° – sin 10 ° = 2 ⋅ cos ⎜ ⎟ ⋅sin ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
= 2 ⋅ cos 30 ° ⋅ sin 40 °

3
=2⋅ ⋅ sin 40 °
2

= 3 ⋅ sin 40 °

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 193

 b. cos a ± cos b
Now let us add the formulas for the cosine of a sum and the cosine of a difference:
cos (x + y) = (cos x ⋅ cos y) – (sin x ⋅ sin y)

+ cos (x – y) = +(cos x ⋅ cos y) + (sin x ⋅ sin y)

cos (x + y) + cos (x – y) = 2 ⋅ cos x ⋅ cos y. (5)

If we write a = x + y and b = x – y then we obtain the system

⎧⎪ a = x + y a+ b a–b
⎨ . Solving this gives x = and y = , which we can substitute in (5):
⎪⎩ b = x – y 2 2

a+b a –b
cos a +cos b= 2 cos cos . (6)
2 2
If we subtract the formulas instead of adding them, we get
cos ( x+ y) = ( cos x ⋅ cos y) − (sin x ⋅ sin y)

− cos ( x − y) = − ( cos x ⋅ cos y)+(si n x ⋅ sin y)

cos ( x + y) − cos ( x − y) = −2 ⋅ sin x ⋅ sin y. (7)

If we write a = x + y and b = x – y we obtain the system

⎧⎪ a = x + y a+ b a–b
⎨ . Solving gives x = and y = which we can substitute in (7):
2 2
⎪⎩ b = x – y

a+b a –b
cos a – cos b= – 2 sin sin . (8)
2 2

EXAMPLE 120 Simplify cos 105 ° + cos 15 °

sin 105 ° + sin 15 °
.

105 ° +15 ° 105 ° −15 °

2 cos ⋅ cos
cos 105 ° + cos 15 ° 2 2
Solution = (sum to product formulas)
sin 105 ° + sin 15 ° 105° +15 ° 105 ° −15 °
2 sin ⋅ cos
2 2
cos 60 ° ⋅ cos 45 °
=
sin 60 ° ⋅ cos 45 °
1
2 1
= = .
3 3
2

194 Algebra 10
 π
EXAMPLE 121 Evaluate sin a – sin b
cos a – cos b
given that a + b = .
3
a+b a–b
2 cos sin
sin a – sin b 2 2
Solution =
cos a – cos b –2 sin a + b sin a – b
2 2
a+ b
cos
= 2 = – cot a + b
a+b 2
– sin
2
π
a+ b
= – cot = – cot 3
2 2
π
= – cot =– 3
6

sin 3 x + sin 5 x+ sin 7 x

EXAMPLE 122 Find the simplest form of the expression cos 3 x + cos 5 x+ cos 7 x
.

Solution We can use the first and last terms of both the numerator and the denominator in the sum
to product formulas.

7 x + 3x 7 x – 3x
2 sin cos + sin 5 x
sin 3 x + sin 5 x+ sin 7 x 2 2
=
cos 3 x + cos 5 x+ cos 7 x 2 cos 7 x + 3x cos 7 x – 3x + cos 5 x
2 2

2 sin 5 x ⋅ cos 2 x+ sin 5 x

=
2 cos 5 x ⋅ cos 2 x+ cos 5 x

sin 5 x ⋅ (2 cos 2 x+1)

=
cos 5 x ⋅ (2 cos 2 x+1)

sin 5 x
= = tan 5 x
cos 5 x

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 195

 c. tan a ± tan b

For two real numbers a and b not equal to

π
kπ + (k ∈ ] ), we know that
2
sin a sin b
tan a + tan b = + . Multiplying gives us
cos a cos b
(sin a ⋅ cos b)+(cos a ⋅sin b)
tan a + tan b = , i.e.
cos a ⋅ cos b

sin ( a + b)
tan a +tan b= . (9)
cos a ⋅ cos b
If we write – b instead of b in this equation, we get
sin ( a + (– b))
tan a + tan (– b) = , i.e.
cos a ⋅ cos (– b)
sin ( a – b)
tan a – tan b= . (10)
cos a ⋅ cos b

EXAMPLE 123 Evaluate tan 75° + tan 15°.

Solution We can use the sum to product formula for the tangent.
sin (75 ° +15 °)
tan 75 ° + tan 15 ° =
cos 75 ° ⋅ cos 15 °
sin (90 °)
=
sin 15 ° ⋅ cos 15 °
1
=
sin 30 °
2
1
= =4
1 1
⋅
2 2

196 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 124 Given sin 10° = t, evaluate tan 70° + tan 10° in terms of t.
sin (70 ° + 10 °)
Solution tan 70 ° + tan 10 ° =
cos 70 ° ⋅ cos 10 °
sin (80 °)
=
cos 70 ° ⋅ cos 10 °
cos 10 ° 1
= =
sin 20 ° ⋅ cos 10 ° sin 20 °
1 1
= =
2 sin 10 ° ⋅ cos 10 ° 2 ⋅ t ⋅ 1 – t 2

d. cot a ± cot b
π
For two real numbers a and b not equal to kπ + (k ∈ ]), we know that
2
cos a cos b
cot a + cot b = + .
sin a sin b
cos a ⋅ sin b + cos b ⋅ sin a
Multiplying gives us cot a+ cot b= , i.e.
sin a ⋅ sin b
sin ( a + b)
cot a +cot b= . (11)
sin a ⋅ sin b
If we write –b instead of b in this equation, we get
sin ( a +(– b))
cot a + cot (– b) = , i.e.
sin a ⋅ sin (– b)
sin ( a – b)
cot a – cot b= – . (12)
sin a ⋅ sin b

EXAMPLE 125 18x = π is given. Find the simplest form of the expression cot 9 x + cot x
cot 9 x – cot x
.

sin (9 x + x)
cot 9 x + cot x sin 9 x ⋅ sin x = – sin 10 x
Solution =
cot 9 x – cot x sin (9 x – x) sin 8 x
–
sin 9 x ⋅ sin x

sin(18 x – 8 x)
=–
sin8 x

sin ( π − 8 x)
=–
sin 8 x

sin 8 x
=– = –1
sin 8 x
Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 197
 Check Yourself 22
Simplify each expression.
1. sin 75° – sin 15°
2. cos 105° – cos 75°
3. tan 165° + tan 15°
4. cot 75° – cot 195°
Answers
2 2– 6
1. 2. –2sin 15° = 3. 0 4. –2ñ3
2 2

5. Product to Sum Formulas

If we need to convert a product of two trigonometric expressions to a sum or difference we
use the product to sum formulas. These formulas are derived from the sum and difference
formulas.

a. sin x ⋅ sin y
For any real numbers x and y,
cos ( x + y) = (cos x ⋅ cos y) – (sin x ⋅ sin y)

− cos ( x − y) = –(cos x ⋅ cos y)+(sin x ⋅ sin y)

cos ( x + y) – cos ( x − y) = –2 ⋅ sin x ⋅ sin y

1
sin x ⋅ sin y = – . y) – cos (x – y)] .
[cos (x + (13)
2

EXAMPLE 126 Write sin 5α ⋅ sin 3α as the difference of two trigonometric ratios.
Solution Let us use the product to sum formula for sine:
1
sin 5α ⋅ sin 3α = – [cos (5 α + 3 α) – cos (5 α – 3 α)]
2
1
= – [cos (8α ) – cos (2 α)].
2

198 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 127 Evaluate sin 75°⋅ sin 15°.
Solution We could evaluate the two terms separately. However,
let us use the product to sum formula for sine:
1
sin 75 ° ⋅ sin 15 ° = – [cos (75° + 15°) – cos (75° – 15°)]
2
1
= – [cos 90 ° – cos 60 °]
2
1⎡ 1⎤ 1
=– ⎢0 – ⎥= .
2⎣ 2⎦ 4

b. cos x ⋅ cos y
For any real numbers x and y,
cos ( x+ y) = (cos x ⋅ cos y) – ( sin x ⋅ sin y)

+cos ( x – y) =+ ( cos x ⋅ cos y)+(sin x ⋅ sin y)

cos ( x + y)+ cos ( x – y) = 2 ⋅ cos x ⋅ cos y

1
cos x ⋅ cos y = [cos (x + y) + cos (x – y)] . (14)
2

EXAMPLE 128 Write cos 7α . cos 4α as the sum of two trigonometric ratios.
Solution By the product to sum formula for cosine,
1
cos 7α ⋅ cos 4α = [cos (7α + 4α) + cos (7α – 4α)]
2
1
= [cos (11α )+ cos (3 α)].
2

EXAMPLE 129 Evaluate cos 105° ⋅ cos 15°.

1
Solution cos 105° ⋅ cos 15 ° = [cos (105° + 15°) + cos (105° – 15°)]
2
1
= [cos 120 °+ cos 90 ° ]
2
1⎡ 1 ⎤ 1
= – +0 ⎥ = –
2 ⎢⎣ 2 ⎦ 4

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 199

 c. sin x ⋅ cos y
For any real numbers x and y,
sin ( x+ y) = (sin x ⋅ cos y)+( cos x ⋅ sin y)

+ sin ( x − y) =+ ( sin x ⋅ cos y) – (cos x ⋅ s in y )

sin ( x + y)+ sin ( x − y) = 2 ⋅ sin x ⋅ cos y

1 (15)
sin x ⋅ cos y = [sin (x + y) + sin (x – y)] .
2

3π π
EXAMPLE 130 Evaluate sin 8 ⋅ cos 8 .
Solution By the product to sum formula,
3π π 1⎡ ⎛ 3π π ⎞ ⎛ 3π π ⎞⎤
sin ⋅ cos = ⎢sin ⎜ + ⎟+ sin ⎜ – ⎟ ⎥
8 8 2⎣ ⎝ 8 8⎠ ⎝ 8 8 ⎠⎦

1⎡ π π⎤
= ⎢ sin + sin ⎥
2⎣ 2 4⎦

1⎡ 2 ⎤ 2+ 2
= ⎢1+ ⎥= .
2⎣ 2 ⎦ 4

d. cos x ⋅ sin y
For any real numbers x and y,
sin ( x+ y) = ( sin x ⋅ cos y)+(co s x ⋅ sin y )

– sin ( x – y) = – ( sin x ⋅ cos y) – (cos x ⋅ sin y)

sin ( x + y) – sin ( x – y) = 2 ⋅ cos x ⋅ sin y

1
cos x ⋅ sin y = [sin (x + y) – sin (x – y)] . (16)
2

200 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 131 Evaluate cos 8π ⋅ sin 38π.
π 3π 1 ⎡ ⎛ π 3π ⎞ ⎛ π 3π ⎞⎤
Solution cos ⋅ sin = ⎢sin ⎜ + ⎟ – sin ⎜ – ⎟⎥
8 8 2⎣ ⎝8 8 ⎠ ⎝ 8 8 ⎠⎦

1⎡ π ⎛ π ⎞⎤ 1 ⎡ π π⎤
= sin – sin ⎜ – ⎟ ⎥ = ⎢sin + sin ⎥
2 ⎢⎣ 2 ⎝ 4 ⎠⎦ 2 ⎣ 2 4⎦

1⎡ 2 ⎤ 2+ 2
= ⎢1+ ⎥=
2⎣ 2 ⎦ 4

Note
Example 101 and Example 102 are actually the same question. The cosine and sine
functions were simply in a different order, so the result does not change due to the
commutative property of multiplication. Although we applied a different formula in each
question, the results are the same. Therefore we can say that formulas (15) and (16) are
different forms of the same identity.

EXAMPLE 132 Evaluate cos 15° ⋅ sin 75°.

1
Solution cos 15 ° ⋅ sin 75 ° = [sin(15° + 75°) – sin(15° – 75°)]
2

1 1
= [sin 90 ° – sin (–60 ° )]= [sin 90° + sin 60°] (sin(–60°) = –sin 60°)
2 2

1⎡ 3 ⎤ 2+ 3
= ⎢1+ ⎥=
2⎣ 2 ⎦ 4

Check Yourself 23
Evaluate each expression.
1. sin 105° ⋅ sin 15°
2. cos 75° ⋅ cos 15°
3. sin 75° ⋅ cos 15°
Answers
1 1 2+ 3
1. 2. 3.
4 4 4

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 201

 APPLICATIONS OF TRIGONOMETRY
Trigonometry has many applications in the modern world, in fields as diverse as engineering, architectural
design, acoustics, astronomy, physics, biology, map-making, computer graphics, optics and statistics. People
working in these fields often use trigonometry without knowing it, because the math is hidden in modern
instruments and computer programs. However, the trigonometric formulas are still there, and without these
formulas, science and technology would be very different. Here are just three examples of how trigonometry
applies to the real world.
Trigonometry and Optics
Light travels at different speeds through different objects, and we can use trigonometry to calculate how fast
light will travel through a transparent object such as air, water or glass. The relative speed of light is controlled
by a number called the refraction index: the refraction index of air is very close to 1, the index for water is 1.33,
and the index for glass is 1.5.
a
The figure at the right shows a pyramid with light passing through it at an angle θ. The q
θ α
sin( + )
refraction index n for this pyramid is given by n = 2 2 .
θ
sin
2
For example, if α = 60° then the refraction index is
θ α θ θ θ 3 θ 1
sin( + ) sin ⋅ cos 30 °+cos ⋅sin30 ° sin ⋅ +cos ⋅
n= 2 2 = 2 2 = 2 2 2 2 = 3 + 1 cot θ .
θ θ θ 2 2 2
sin sin sin
2 2 2

Trigonometry and the Climate

If you measure the temperature of a pan of water at intervals as you heat it up and leave
it to cool, you will find that the temperatures do not rise and fall in a straight line. In fact,
the changes in temperature follow a curve defined by y = A ⋅ cos a(t + b) + B. In this
equation, A is called the amplitude of the function, a is the period, b is called the phase difference and B is a
constant number.
As an example, imagine you want to show a graph of the temperature T in a city during a particular period. At
15:00 the temperature is 30° C and at 03:00 the next morning it is 10° C. Assuming that the temperature always
falls, how can we draw its graph?

We calculate the amplitude A as the average of the maximum and minimum values of the function:
30° C − 10 ° C 2π π
A= =10. The period is a = = , and so the equation for the temperature is
2 24 12
π
T = A ⋅ cos a(t + b) + B =10 ⋅ cos ( t + b)+ B.
12
t is the time. If we say t = 3 at 03:00 and t = 15 at 15:00 then we have T = 10° C at t = 3 and T = 30° C at
t = 15. Using these values, we can find b = 9 and B = 20.
In conclusion, the graph of the temperature in the city is given by
π
T =10 cos ( t +9)+ 20.
12
North Pole
Plane of a
Trigonometry and Navigation parallel

Half of a great circle

How can we measure the shortest distance between any two points on

Prime Meridian
Earth? This question is important for airline companies and ships all over Plane of
equator
the world, and we can use trigonometry to find the answer. Equator
Navigators divide the Earth using lines of latitude and longitude. To
Plane of a
understand what this means, imagine the intersection of the earth with a parallel
plane passing through the North and South Poles. The intersection is a South Pole

complete circle, and half of this circle (from pole to pole) is called a
meridian of longitude, or simply a meridian. The meridian which passes North Pole
through the city of Greenwich in England is called the prime meridian. O¢ Parallel
b1
P1 K
Now imagine a plane intersecting with the Earth perpendicular to the prime B P2 C
meridian. This plane also creates a circle. The biggest such circle around the

Meridian
a1 O
Earth is called the equator. H b1
To find the shortest distance between two points on Earth, a navigator needs Equator A

to know two things: Prime

meridian
1. The latitude of each point, which is its angular distance north or south of
South Pole
the equator.
2. The longitude of each point, which is its angular distance east or west of the prime meridian.
As an example, look at the figure above right. α1 represents the longitude of
P1 and β1 represents its latitude. If α1 = 60.5° and β1 = 48.2°, we can say that
point P1 has coordinates 60.5° N 48.2° W (i.e. 60.5° north of the equator and
48.2° west of the prime meridian).
The distance (or arc measure) θ in radians between any two points north of
the equator is given by the trigonometric formula
θ = arccos(sin α1sin α2 + cos α1cos α2cos Φ)
α1 = the longitude of point P1
where
α2 = the longitude of point P2,
Φ = the change in latitude from P1 to P2, and
Although θ must be in radians, α1, α2 and Φ may be expressed in degrees.
EXERCISES 3 .3
A. Trigonometric Theorems 3. A triangle ABC has sides a, b and c such that
1. Find the length of side x in each triangle. a2 – b2 – c2 – (b ⋅ c) = 0. Find m(∠A) = α.

a. A b.

A
4. A triangle ABC has sides a, b and c such that
30° c2 – b2 = a2 + ñ2 ⋅ b ⋅ a. Find m(∠C) = α.
3 120° x
2
3

B 4 C 5. Find the length x in each figure.

B
x a. A b. A
C
A 45° 75°
c. A d. x 2 ñ3 x
2 x
B
4 2 B 60°
4 150° B C
30°
60° C
B x C C
A
c.
6 8

2. Find the length x in each figure. B C

30°
a. A b. A x
1
4 3 D
D 4 A(DABC) = A(DDBC)
2 x E
D
2 x
1
B
5
C B 4 C 6. Calculate sin α in each figure.
›
c. A d. a. A b.
A
A
3 10
6 ñ5
3 4 120°
x 2 x a 30° a
D
C 1 B C B 4 C
B 3 D 2 C 3
B
c. D C d. A
e. A f. A
6 a
30° 9
2 E
x 4
2 3 E a 30°
4
D B D C
4 A B
B 1 2BD = DC
1 D B ABCD is a square
3 x
C C CE = BE

204 Algebra 10
 7. The side lengths of a triangle ABC are 3, 7 and 8 B. Trigonometric Formulas
units respectively. What is the circumference of 13. Calculate the values without using a trigonometric
the circumscribed circle of the triangle? table or a calculator.

a. sin 105° b. cos 15° c. tan 75°

d. cos 105° e. tan 165° f. cot 255°
8. In a triangle ABC, m(∠A) = 75°, m(∠B) = 60° and g. sin 195° h. cot 345°
AB = c = 10 cm.

a. Find the length of the side b.

b. Find the radius of the circumscribed circle of 2 1
the triangle.
14. sin x = and cos y = are given. Find the
3 4
value of each expression.

a. sin (x + y) b. sin (x – y)
9. In a triangle ABC, A
c. cos (x + y) d. cos (x – y)
m(∠ACB) = 120°, e. tan (x + y) f. cot (x – y)
m(∠ABC) = 30° 6ñ3 cm
x
and AB = 6ñ3 cm.
Find AC. 120°
30° 1
B C
15. x and y are acute angles such that tan x = and
› 4
3
tan y = . Evaluate the expressions.
5
a. tan (x + y) b. cos (2x + y)

10. A triangle ABC has side lengths a = 3, b = 3ñ3 c. sin (x + y) d. cos (x – 2y)
and c = 6. Its circumscribed circle has radius R = 3. e. cot (2x + 2y) f. sin (x + 2y)
Find the measure of each interior angle of the
triangle.
16. Simplify the expressions.
›
a. sin (x + 30°) + cos (x + 60°)
11. A triangle ABC has sides a = 7 cm, b = 24 cm and b. cos (x + y) + cos (x – y)
c = 25 cm. Find A(ΔABC). c. sin (x + 30°) + sin (x – 30°)
d. sin (x + y) – sin (x – y)

12. A triangle ABC has sides of length 8, 15 and 17

units respectively. Find the radius of its 17. Express cos 3α in terms of cos α and tan 3α in
›
circumscribed circle. terms of tan α.

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 205

18. Calculate sin 2x, cos 2x and tan 2x from the 21. Express each sum or difference as a product of
› information given in each question. trigonometric functions.
3 ⎛ π⎞ a. sin 5x + sin 3x b. sin x – sin 4x
a. sin x = and x ∈ ⎜ 0, ⎟
5 ⎝ 2⎠
c. cos 4x – cos 6x d. cos 9x + cos 2x
5
b. cos x = and csc x < 0 e. sin 2x – sin 7x f. sin 3x + sin 4x
13
x 5x
7 ⎛π ⎞ g. sin 11x + sin 9x h. cos – cos
c. tan x = – and x ∈ ⎜ , π ⎟ 2 2
24 ⎝2 ⎠
d. csc x = 4 and tan x < 0
2
e. cot x = and sin x > 0
3

x x x
19. Calculate sin , cos and tan from the
› 2 2 2 22. Verify each identity.
information given in each question. ›
(Hint: 1 + cos x = cos 0° + cos x)
4 ⎛ π⎞ x
a. sin x = and x ∈ ⎜ 0, ⎟ a. 1 + cos x = 2cos2
5 ⎝ 2⎠ 2
x
3 3π ⎞
b. 1 – cos x = 2sin2
⎛ 2
b. cos x = – and x ∈ ⎜ π, ⎟
2 ⎛π
5 ⎝ 2 ⎠ c. 1+ sin x = 2 sin ⎜ + x ⎞⎟
⎝4 2⎠
⎛π ⎞
c. csc x = 3 and x ∈ ⎜ , π ⎟ ⎛π x⎞
⎝2 ⎠ d. 1 – sin x = 2 cos 2 ⎜ + ⎟
4 2
⎝ ⎠
⎛ π⎞
d. tan x = 1 and x ∈ ⎜ 0, ⎟ ⎛π ⎞
⎝ 2⎠ 2 sin ⎜ + x ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠
e. 1+ tan x =
3 ⎛ 3π ⎞ cos x
e. sec x = and x ∈ ⎜ , 2 π ⎟
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎛π ⎞
2 sin ⎜ – x ⎟
f. cot x = 5 and csc x < 0 ⎝ 4 ⎠
f. 1 – tan x =
cos x
1 – tan x ⎛π ⎞
g. = tan ⎜ + x ⎟
1+ tan x ⎝4 ⎠
20. Simplify each expression.
⎛π ⎞
2 sin ⎜ + x ⎟
a. sin 105° – sin 15° b. cos 75° + cos 15° ⎝ 4 ⎠
h. 1+ cot x =
c. cos 105° – cos 15° d. sin 165° + sin 15° sin x

e. sin 75° + sin 195° f. sin 105° + sin 255° ⎛π ⎞

2 sin ⎜ – x ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠
g. cos π – cos 5π h. sin 3π – sin π i. 1+ cot x =
12 12 8 8 sin x

206 Algebra 10
23. Prove each statement. 26. In the figure, ABCD D C
› › is a rectangle. Find
cot α. 3
a. sin x + sin 5 x = tan 3 x
cos x + cos 5 x
E a
1
b. sin 3 x + sin 7 x = cot 2 x
cos 3 x – cos 7 x A 2 F 4 B

c. sin 10 x cos 5 x
=
sin 9 x + sin x cos 4 x

d. sin x + sin 3 x+ sin 5 x = tan 3 x

cos x + cos 3 x+ cos 5 x
27. In the figure, ABCD D C
e. sin x + sin y = tan x + y and BEFH are squares
cos x + cos y 2
and AB = 2BE. H F
f. sin ( x + y) – sin ( x – y)
= tan y Find sin(∠AHE).
cos ( x + y)+ cos ( x – y)

g. sin ( x + y) – sin ( x – y) A B E
= cot x
cos ( x – y)+ cos ( x+ y)

24. In the figure, ABCD is A D

a square with
3DE = 2EC and
28. Find tan α in the A

q E figure. a
m(∠AEB) = θ. 1
Find tan θ.
B n D 2 C

B C

25. In the figure, CB ⊥ BA y

29. In the figure opposite, A
and BC = 12. C
ABC is an isosceles a
Find cos(∠OAC).
12 triangle. AB = AC,
m(∠ABC) = θ ,
B(0, 4) m(∠BAC) = α and
tan θ = 3.
x q
0 Find tan α.
A(3, 0)
B C

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 207

30. In the figure, A 1 1
36. Evaluate + .
AD = 5 cm, 5 E sin 15 ° cos 15 °
D 4
BD = 13 cm, a
DF = 12 cm,
DE = 4 cm and 13 12
m(∠FDE) = α. Find
cot α. B F C

37. Evaluate sin 10° ⋅ sin 30° ⋅ sin 50° ⋅ sin 70°.
››

31. sin 20° = x is given. Write sin 40° in terms of x.

38. cos 76° = x is given. Find sin 37° ⋅ cos 23° in terms
of x.
3 π
32. tan x – cot x = is given with 0 < x < .
› 4 2
Find tan 2x – cot 2x.

π
39. x = is given. Evaluate cos 8x ⋅ cos 2x.
12
3π
33. cos 2α = –0.125 is given with π < α < . Find
2
sin α .

40. π = 8α is given. Evaluate cos 5α ⋅ sin 3α.

34. Evaluate 3cos2 105° + sin2 15°.

4 π π
35. tan 2α = is given and < α < π. 41. a – b = is given. Evaluate
3 2 › 6
Evaluate (sin α ⋅ cos α) – cos2 α. tan (2a – b) ⋅ tan (a – 2b).

208 Algebra 10
 In the previous section we looked at trigonometric identities. Recall that an identity in x is
an expression which is true for all values of x. If an expression is only true for some values
of x then it is called an equation.
For example, sin2x + cos2x = 1 is true for all values of x, and so it is an identity.
1
However, sin x = is only true for x = 30°, x = 150° and their coterminal angles. So
2
1
sin x = is an equation.
2
In this section we will learn how to solve trigonometric equations.

A. TYPES OF TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATION

1. Basic Equations
a. sin x = a
Given the equation sin x = a, how can we y
Remember! find x?
The y-axis is the sine p – arc sin a a arc sin a
axis. Look at the figure. For any number on the
sine axis there are two corresponding values
on the unit circle. One value is x1 = arcsin a –x x
O x
and the other is x2 = π – arcsin a.
We should also consider the coterminal
angles of x1 and x2, for example
arcsin a + 2π, arcsin a + 4π,
arcsin a + 6π, ... .
We can write

sin x = a ⇔ { x = arcsin a + 2kπ, k ∈ } or {x = π – arcsin a + 2πn, n ∈ }

where –1 ≤ a ≤ 1.
Alternatively, by studying this result carefully we can rewrite it in a shorter form:

sin x = a ⇔ x = (–1)k arcsin a + kπ, k ∈ for –1 ≤ a ≤ 1.

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 209

 Special Results:
When x = 0, x = 1 or x = –1 we can write the answer in a shorter way without using the
formula.

sin x = 0 ⇔ x = kπ, k ∈ .

π
sin x = 1 ⇔ x = + 2kπ, k ∈ .
2
π
sin x = –1 ⇔ x = – + 2 kπ, k ∈ .
2

3
EXAMPLE 133 Solve sin x = 2
.

Solution 1 From the longer formula we have

3 3 3
sin x = ⇔ {x1=arcsin +2 k π, k ∈ } and { x2 = π −arcsin + 2πn, n ∈ }.
2 2 2

3 π π
We know arcsin = 60 ° = . So x1 = + 2 k π, k ∈ . (1)
2 3 3
π 2π
Also x2 = ( π − ) + 2 nπ = + 2 nπ, n ∈ . (2)
3 3
π 2π
Combining (1) and (2) gives us x = { + 2 kπ, + 2 nπ}, k, n ∈ .
3 3
Solution 2 From the shorter formula we have sin x = a ⇔ x =( −1) k arcsin a + kπ, k ∈ .

π
So x = (–1) k + kπ, k ∈ .
3

Note
Notice that both solutions give the same answer. However, the second, shorter form is more
practical, since we can get the solutions by substituting only values of k.

EXAMPLE 134 Solve 4 sin 5x – 2 = 0.

2 1
Solution Rearranging the equation gives us sin5 x = = .
4 2
1 π π π kπ
arcsin = 30 ° = , so the solution is 5 x= (–1) k + k π , i.e. x = (–1) k + , k∈ .
2 6 6 30 5

210 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 135 Solve sin x = – 2
2
.

2 π
Solution arcsin(– )= –45° = – , so we have
2 2

π π π
x =(–1)k·(– )+kπ = (–1)k·(–1)· +kπ, i.e. x = (–1)k+1 +kπ, k ∈
1. xn ⋅ xm = xn + m 4 4 4
2. –x = (–1) ⋅ x
b. cos x = a
y
If cos x = a, what is x?
x1 = arc cos a
Look at the figure. For any number on the
cosine axis there are two corresponding
x
Remember! values on the unit circle. One value is
O –x a x
The x-axis is the cosine x1 = arccos a and the other is
axis.
x2 = 2π – arccos a or x2 = – arccos a.
x2 = –arc cos a
We should also consider the coterminal
angles of x1 and x2, for example
arccos a + 2π, arccos a + 4π, .... .
We can write

cos x = a ⇔ x = ± arccos a + 2kπ, k ∈

where –1 ≤ a ≤ 1.
Special Results:
π
cos x = 0 ⇔ x = + kπ, k ∈ .
2
cos x = 1 ⇔ x = 2kπ, k ∈ .
cos x = –1 ⇔ x = π + 2kπ, k ∈ .

Note
The points on the graph below show the solutions to the equation cos x = a.

arc cos a – 2p –arc cos a + 4p

–arc cos a + 2p
–arc cos a – 2p
–arc cos a arc cos a + 2p
arc cos a

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 211

 1
EXAMPLE 136 Solve cos x = 2 .
Solution We have cos x = a ⇔ x = ± arccos a + 2 k π, k ∈ .

1 π
Also, arccos = 60 ° = .
2 3
1 π
So x = ± arccos + 2 kπ = ± + 2 k π, k ∈ .
2 3

EXAMPLE 137 Solve 2cos x – ñ3 = 0.

Solution Let us rewrite the equation in terms of cos x. Then we get
3 3 π π
cos x = , and we know arccos = 30 °= . So x = ± + 2 kπ, k ∈ .
2 2 6 6

EXAMPLE 138 Solve cos x = – 2

2
.

2 3π 3π
Solution arccos(– ) =135 ° = , so by the formula, x= ± + 2 k π, k ∈ .
2 4 4

EXAMPLE 139 Solve 2 cos 5x + 1 = 0.

1 1 2π
Solution Rewriting the equation gives us cos5 x= – , and arccos( − ) =120 °= .
2 2 3
2π 2 π 2k π
So 5 x = ± + 2 kπ, i.e. x = ± + , k∈ .
3 15 5

212 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 140 Solve cos (3x) – 2 = 0.
Solution Rewriting the equation gives us cos 3x = 2, but we know –1 ≤ cos 3x ≤ 1. So cos 3x = 2 is
impossible. Therefore the equation has no solution.

π
EXAMPLE 141 Solve cos(3x – 4 ) = 0.
π π
Solution We know cos x = 0 ⇔ x = + kπ, i.e. arccos 0 = .
2 2
π π π π 3π π kπ
So 3 x – = + kπ, which gives us 3 x= + + k π= + k π, i.e. x= + , k ∈ .
4 2 2 4 4 4 3

EXAMPLE 142 Solve sin( 2π – 3x) =1.

π
Solution We know that sin( – 3 x) = cos 3x, so we can solve cos 3x = 1 instead.
2
2kπ
cos θ = 1 is a special result, so 3x = 2kπ and x = , k∈ .
3

c. tan x = a
Remember! If tan x = a, what is x? y
The red line in the a
figure is the tangent Look at the figure. For any number on the arc tan a
axis.
tangent axis there are two corresponding
y
values on the unit circle. One value is
x
x1 = arctan a and the other is O x
x the symmetry of x1 with respect to the origin,
i.e. x2 = π + arctan a. (arc tan a) + p

By also considering the coterminal angles we

can write

tan x = a ⇔ x = arctan a + kπ, k ∈

for a ∈ .

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 213

EXAMPLE 143 Solve tan 3x = ñ3.
Solution By the formula, 3 x = arctan 3 + kπ, k ∈ . We know

π π π kπ
arctan 3 = 60 ° = , so 3 x = + k π, i.e. x= + , k ∈ .
3 3 9 3

EXAMPLE 144 Solve 4tan(5x+ π3)+ 4 = 0.

π
Solution Rearranging the equation gives us tan(5 x + ) = –1.
3
π π π
arctan(–1) = – 45 ° = – , so by the formula we have 5x + = – + kπ, i.e.
4 3 4

π π 7π 7 π kπ
5x = – – + kπ = – + kπ and x = – + , k∈ .
4 3 12 60 5

EXAMPLE 145 Solve tan (2x – 13°) = 3

3
and write the answer in degrees.

3
Solution We know arctan = 30 °. Also, writing the solution formula in degree form gives us
3
2x – 13° = 30° + 180° k, i.e. 2x = 13° + 30° + 180° k = 43° + 180° k, so
Remember!
43° +180 ° ⋅ k
We know that 1° = 60 x= = 21.5 ° +90 ° ⋅ k, k ∈ .
minutes (60'). 2
So 0.5° = 30 minutes. If we write 21.5° as 21°30' then the answer is
Instead of 21.5° we can
write 21°30'. x = 21°30' + 90° k, k ∈ .

d. cot x = a
If cot x = a, what is x? y
Look at the figure. For any number on the a
cotangent axis there are two corresponding
arc cot a
values on the unit circle. One value is
x1 = arccot a and the other is the symmetry x
Remember! of x1 with respect to the origin, O x
The red line in the figure i.e. x2 = π + arccot a.
is the cotangent axis.
By also considering the coterminal angles we (arc cot a) + p
y
can write

x cot x = a ⇔ x = arccot a + kπ, k ∈

for a ∈ .

214 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 146 Solve 3 cot 2x = ñ3.
3
Solution Rearranging the equation gives us cot 2 x = .
3
3 π π π kπ
We know arccot = 60 ° = , so by the formula, 2x = + kπ and x = + , k ∈ .
3 3 3 6 2

EXAMPLE 147 Solve cot(– 2x) = –1.

3π x 3π 3π
Solution arccot(–1) =135 ° = , so by the formula, – = + kπ and x = – – 2 k π, k ∈ .
4 2 4 2
Note that since k is any integer it can be negative or positive, so we can also write
3π 3π
x= – – 2 kπ = – + 2 k π, k ∈ .
2 2

Check Yourself 24
1. Solve the equations.
x
a. (2 sin x) – 1 = 0 b. 7 sin x = 0 c. (2 sin )+ 3 = 0
2
x π 2 3 π 1
d. sin( – ) – =0 e. cos8 x = – f. cos( x + ) = –
2 4 2 2 6 2
2. Solve the equations.
π x x
a. (2 tan 4x) + 2 = 0 b. tan( + ) = 3 c. cot(– ) =1
4 2 2

d. cot 4x = ñ3

3. Solve the equations.

3π x 1 π 3
a. cos( – )= b. sin( + 3 x) = c. tan (π + 4x) = 0
2 2 2 2 2
3π
d. cot( – 2 x) =1
2

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 215

 1
4. Find the solutions of sin x = in the interval 500º < x < 1000º .
2
sin5 x
5. Solve =1 .
3

Answers
π 2π
1. a. (–1)k + πk, k ∈ b. kπ, k ∈ c. (–1)k+1 + 2 πk, k ∈
6 3
π π 5π kπ 2 π
d. (–1)k + + 2 πk, k ∈ e. ± + , k∈ f. ± π – + 2 πk, k ∈
2 2 48 4 3 6
π π π π π kπ
2. a. – + n, n ∈ b. + 2 kπ, k ∈ c. – + 2πk, k ∈ d. + , k∈
16 4 6 2 24 4
π π 2kπ kπ π kπ
3. a. (–1)n+1 + 2 πn, n ∈ b. ± + , k∈ c. , k∈ d. + , k∈
3 18 3 4 8 2
4. 510°, 750°, 870°

5. no solution

2. Factorizing Equations
We have seen how to solve simple trigonometric equations such as 7sin x = 0 and
tan(4x + π) = 1. But how can we solve more complicated equations which contain a power of a
ratio, or mixed ratios?
One approach is to use factorization. If we can rewrite an equation in the factorized form
a ⋅ b = 0 where a and b are trigonometric ratios, then we can solve a = 0 and b = 0 and find the
union of the solution set. This union is the solution of the original equation. We can factorize an
equation by using substitution and trigonometric identities and formulas.

EXAMPLE 148 Solve 2cos x – 3cosx + 1 = 0.

2

Solution Let us factorize the expression. Let cos x = a, then the equation becomes 2a2 – 3a + 1 = 0,
which we can factorize.
1
2a2 – 3a + 1 = (2a – 1) ⋅ (a – 1) = 0, which has solutions a = and a = 1.
2
1 1 π
If a = then cos x = and so x = ± + 2kπ, k ∈ . (1)
2 2 3
If a = 1 then cos x = 1 and so x = 2nπ, n ∈ . (2)
π
The union of (1) and (2) gives us x ∈ {± + 2 kπ, 2 nπ}, k, n ∈ . This is the solution of the
3
equation.

216 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 149 Solve sin x + sin x = 0.
2

Solution Factorize the expression:

sin x(sin x + 1) = 0 has solutions sin x = 0 and
sin x = –1.
If sin x = 0 then x = kπ, k ∈ .
π
If sin x = –1 then x = – + 2 nπ, n ∈ .
2
π
Combining the two solutions gives us x ∈ {kπ, – + 2 nπ}, k, n ∈ .
2

EXAMPLE 150 Solve 3 tan x + 2 tan x = 1.

2

Solution Making the right side zero gives us 3 tan2 x + 2 tan x – 1 = 0.

1
We can factorize this as (3 tan x – 1) ⋅ (tan x + 1) = 0, which has solution tan x = or
3
tan x = –1.

1 1 1
If tan x = then x = arctan + kπ, k ∈ . ( arctan is not a special angle, so we will leave
3 3 3
it in this form.)

π
If tan x = –1 then x = arctan(–1)+ nπ = – + nπ, n ∈ .
4
1 π
In summary, the solution is x ∈ {arctan + kπ, – + n π}, k, n ∈ .
3 4

EXAMPLE 151 Solve sin 2x + sin x = 0.

Solution Using the identity sin 2x = 2 sin x ⋅ cos x we can write
2 sin x ⋅ cos x + sin x = sin x (2cos x + 1) = 0, which means
1
sin x = 0 or 2cosx + 1 = 0 ⇒ cos x = – .
2
If sin x = 0 then x =kπ, k ∈ .
1 1 2π 2π
If cos x = – then arccos(– ) =120 ° = , so x= ± + 2 n π, n ∈ .
2 2 3 3
2π
In summary, the solution is the union: x ∈ {kπ, ± + 2 nπ}, k, n ∈ .
3

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 217

EXAMPLE 152 Solve 2 sin x + 2 sin x = ñ2 + ñ2 sin x.
2

Solution Let us factorize both sides separately:

2 sin2 x + 2 sin x = 2 sin x (sin x + 1), and ñ2 + ñ2 sin x = ñ2(1 + sin x).
So we can rewrite the original equation as
2 sin x (sin x + 1) – ñ2(sin x + 1) = 0. Factorizing this gives
2
(sin x + 1) ⋅ (2 sin x – ñ2) = 0, i.e. sin x = –1 or sin x = .
2
π
If sin x = –1 then x = – + 2 kπ, k ∈ .
2
2 π
If sin x = then x = (–1)n + nπ, n ∈ .
2 4
π n π
So the solution is x ∈ {– + 2 kπ, (–1) + n π}, k, n ∈ .
2 4

EXAMPLE 153 Solve cos 4x + cos 2x = 0.

Solution We can factorize the left-hand side using the sum to product formulas:
4x + 2 x 4x – 2 x
cos 4 x + cos 2 x = 2 ⋅ cos( ) ⋅ cos( ) = 2 cos 3 x ⋅cos x= 0.
2 2
So we have cos 3x = 0 or cos x = 0.
π π kπ
If cos 3x = 0 then 3x = + kπ and so x = + , k ∈ .
2 6 3
π
If cos x = 0 then x = + nπ, n ∈ .
2
π kπ π
So the solution is x ∈ { + , + n π}, k, n ∈ .
6 3 2

EXAMPLE 154 Solve tan 3 x + tan 4 x

1 – tan 3 x ⋅ tan 4 x
=–
3
3
.

tan x + tan y tan 3 x + tan 4 x

Solution We know the sum formula tan( x + y) = , so is equivalent to
1 – tan x ⋅ tan y 1 – tan 3 x ⋅ tan 4 x
3
tan (3x + 4x). So we can rewrite the equation as tan7 x = – .
3
3 π π π kπ
Since arctan(– ) = –30 ° = – , we have 7 x = – + kπ. i.e. x = − + , k ∈ .
3 6 6 42 7

218 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 155 Solve sin (x + 20°) – sin (x – 20°) = 0.
Solution By using the sum to product formulas we can write
x + 20° + x – 20 ° x + 20 ° – x+ 20 °
sin( x + 20 °) – sin( x – 20 °) = 2 ⋅ cos( ) ⋅ sin( )
2 2
= 2 ⋅ cos x ⋅ sin 20 °.
π
So the equation is 2cos x sin 20° = 0 and so cos x = 0, i.e. x = + kπ, k ∈ .
2

EXAMPLE 156 Solve 2 cos x = 3 sin x.

2

Solution One side of the equation contains the sine function and the other side contains the cosine
function. We can change these to the same trigonometric ratio. Since cos2x = 1 – sin2x, we
can rewrite the equation as 2 cos2x = 3 sin x, i.e.
2 (1 – sin2 x) = 3 sin x ⇒ 2 – 2 sin2x = 3 sin x ⇒ 2sin2x + 3 sin x – 2 = 0.
Factorizing this gives us (2 sin x – 1 ) ⋅ (sin x + 2) = 0. So either
1 π
sin x = ⇒ x = (–1) k + k π, k ∈ , or sin x = 2 which has no solution since –1≤ sin x ≤ 1.
2 6
π
In conclusion, the solution is x = (–1)k + kπ, k ∈ .
6

7
EXAMPLE 157 Find the sum of the roots of sin x+ cos 4 4
x=
8
in the interval [–π, π].

Solution Let us use the identity x2 + y2 = (x + y)2 – 2xy. Then we have

7
sin 4 x + cos 4 x = (sin 2 x+ cos 2 x) 2 – 2 sin 2 x ⋅cos 2 x= .
8
Using the identities sin2x + cos2x = 1 and (2 sin x ⋅ cos x)2 = sin2 2x we can write
sin 2 2 x 7 7 1 sin 2 2 x
12 – = , which we can rearrange as 1 – = = , i.e.
2 8 8 8 2
1 1 1
sin 2 2 x = . So either sin 2 x= or sin 2 x= – .
4 2 2
1 π π kπ
If sin 2 x = then 2 x = (–1) k + kπ and so x= (–1) k + , k ∈ .
2 6 12 2
1 π π nπ
If sin 2 x = – then 2 x = (–1) n+1 + nπ and so x= (–1) n+1 + , n∈ .
2 6 12 2
π kπ π nπ
In summary, the solution is x ∈{( −1) k + , (–1) n +1 + }, k, n ∈ .
12 2 12 2

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 219

 Practical Notation
So far we have written the solution to a trigonometric equation as the union of other
solution sets. However, this union might not be the shortest form of the answer. For
example, one solution set may contain the other set. In this case, we only need to give the
larger set as the answer.
Alternatively, in a multiple-choice question we may find two or more answers but these may
not be in the given choices. In this case it is helpful to draw all the answers on the unit
circle. If the angles between the answers are the same then we will take the first
non-negative answer and add the common angle multiplied by k ∈ . This will give us the
answer.

y y y

a a
2p a
p 3

2p x p x 2p x
2p
3
3

one answer: two answers: three answers:

x = a + 2πk x = a + πk 2π
x = a+ k
3
y y
a

...
x x

four answers: n answers:

π 2π
x = a+ k x = a+ k
2 n

220 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 158 Solve sin x ⋅ cos x = cos x.
Solution Rearranging and then factorizing the equation gives cos x(sin x – 1) = 0, i.e.
cos x = 0 or sin x = 1.
π
If cos x = 0 then x = + kπ, k ∈ Z.
2
π
If sin x = 1 then x = + 2 nπ, n ∈ Z.
2
Inspect the answers:
π π 3π 5π
+ kπ = {± , ± , ± , ...}.
2 2 2 2
π π 3π 5π 7π 9π
+ 2 nπ = { , – , , – , , ...}.
2 2 2 2 2 2
We can see that the first set includes the second one, so we can write the final answer as
π
x = + kπ, k ∈ Z.
2

EXAMPLE 159 Solve 2 cos x – 1 = 0. 2

1
Solution Rearranging the expression gives us cos 2 x = .
2
1 2 1 2
So either cos x = = or cos x = – =– .
2 2 2 2

2 2 π π
If cos x = and arccos = 45 ° = then x = ± + 2 kπ, k ∈ .
2 2 4 4

2 2 3π
If cos x = – and arccos(– ) =135 ° = p
y
2 2 4 –
4
p
3π 4
then x = ± + 2 nπ, n ∈ .
4
x
π 3π
So x ∈ {± + 2 kπ , ± + 2 n π} where k, n ∈ . 5p
4 4 4
p
Now sketch the answers on the unit circle, as –
4

shown at the right. We can see that a shorter

π π
form of the answer is x = + k, k ∈ Z.
4 2

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 221

 3. Equations with a Common Ratio
Sometimes a trigonometric equation includes the same ratio on each side of the equation,
for example cos x = cos 30°. We can use the following solution formulas in this case.

1. If cos x = cos a then x = a + 2kπ or x = –a + 2kπ, k ∈ .

2. If sin x = sin a then
x = a + 2kπ or x = (π – a) +2kπ, k ∈ ⇒ x = (–1)ka + kπ, k ∈ .
3. If tan x = tan a then x = a + kπ, k ∈ .
4. If cot x = cot a then x = a + kπ, k ∈ .
Note that we may need to use trigonometric identities, factorization or substitution to bring
an equation to one of these simple forms.

EXAMPLE 160 Solve cos x = cos 30°.

Solution 1 From the formula above, x = 30° + 360°k or x = –30° + 360°k, k ∈ .
π
We can also write the answer in radians as x = ± + 2kπ , k ∈ .
6
Solution 2 Let us try to solve the equation without using the formula.
We can write cos x – cos 30° = 0.
Using the sum to product formulas gives us
x + 30° x – 30 °
cos x – cos 30 ° = −2 ⋅ sin( ) ⋅sin( ) = 0, i.e.
2 2
x + 30° x – 30 °
sin( ) = 0 or sin( ) = 0.
2 2
x + 30° x + 30 °
If sin( ) = 0 then = kπ, so x= –30 °+ 360 °k, k ∈ .
2 2
x – 30 ° x – 30 °
If sin( ) = 0 then = nπ, so x= 30 °+ 360 °n, n ∈ .
2 2
So the final ans wer is x ∈ {–30 °+ 360 °k, 30° + 360 °n}, k, n ∈ .

EXAMPLE 161 Solve sin 2x = sin 20°.

Solution 1 By the solution formula, 2x = 20° + 360°k or 2x = (180° – 20°) + 360°n. So
x = {10° + 180°k, 80° + 180°k}, k ∈ .

Solution 2 By the second formula for sin x = sin a, 2x = (–1)k ⋅ 20° + 180°k and so
x = (–1)k ⋅ 10° + 90°k, k ∈ .

222 Algebra 10
 cos x cos 2 x
EXAMPLE 162 Solve cos5x = cos6 x .
Solution Cross multiplying gives us cos x ⋅ cos 6x = cos 5x ⋅ cos 2x.
By the product to sum formulas on each side of the equation we get
1 1
[cos( x +6 x)+ cos( x – 6 x) ]= [cos(5 x+ 2 x)+ cos(5 x – 2 x) ]. This simplifies to
2 2
cos 7x + cos (–5x) = cos 7x + cos 3x. Rearranging the terms gives us
cos 5x – cos 3x = 0, i.e.
cos( − x) = cos x
5 x + 3x 5x – 3x
–2 sin( )sin( )= 0 ⇒ –2 ⋅ sin 4x ⋅ sin x = 0. So
2 2
sin 4x = 0 or sin x = 0.
kπ
If sin 4x = 0 then 4x = kπ and so x = , k∈Z .
4
If sin x = 0 then x = nπ, n ∈ .
kπ
We know that {nπ , n ∈ } ∈ { , k ∈ } . So the final solution is
4
kπ
x∈{ }, k ∈ Z.
4

π π
EXAMPLE 163 Solve tan(4x+ 3 ) = cot(2 x – 5).
Solution One side contains a tangent but the other side is a cotangent. We need to rewrite one ratio
in terms of the other to get a simpler equation.
π π π 7π
On the right-hand side we can write cot(2 x – ) = tan( – 2 x+ ) = tan( – 2 x).
5 2 5 10
π
cot x = tan ( – x) π 7π
2 So the equation becomes tan(4 x + ) = tan( – 2 x). By the solution formula for tan x,
3 10
π 7π
4x + = – 2 x + k π. Rearranging the terms gives us
3 10
7π π 11π 11π kπ
6x = – + kπ = + k π, i.e. x ∈{ + }, k ∈ Z.
10 3 30 180 6

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 223

EXAMPLE 164 Solve sin 5x + sin 4x = sin 3x + sin 2x.
2 2 2 2

Solution We cannot factorize the equation directly, but we can rewrite it as sin2 5x – sin2 2x = sin2 3x –
sin2 4x. Now we can factorize:
(sin 5x – sin 2x)(sin 5x + sin 2x) = (sin 3x – sin 4x)(sin 3x + sin 4x).
By the sum to product formulas on both sides we get

5x + 2 x 5x – 2 x 5x + 2 x 5x – 2 x
2 cos( ) ⋅ sin( ) ⋅ 2 sin( ) ⋅cos( )=
2 2 2 2
3x + 4 x 3x – 4 x 3x + 4 x 3x – 4 x
2 cos( ) ⋅ sin( ) ⋅ 2 sin( ) ⋅cos( ).
2 2 2 2
This simplifies to
7x 3x 7x 3x 7x x 7x x
2 cos ⋅ sin ⋅ 2 sin ⋅ cos = 2 cos ⋅sin( − ) ⋅2 sin ⋅cos( − ).
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
By using the identity 2 sin x ⋅ cos x = sin 2x we can simplify this further to
sin 7x ⋅ sin 3x = sin 7x ⋅ sin (–x) = –sin 7x ⋅ sin x.
So sin 7x ⋅ sin 3x + sin 7x ⋅ sin x = 0, i.e.
sin 7x (sin 3x + sin x) = 0 ⇒ sin 7x = 0 or sin 3x + sin x = 0.
kπ
If sin 7x = 0 then 7x = kπ ⇒ x = , k ∈ Z. (1)
7
If sin 3x + sin x = 0 then sin 3x = –sin x = sin (–x). By the solution formula for sine we
have
nπ
a. 3x = –x + 2nπ, i.e. 4x = 2nπ ⇒ x = , n ∈ Z. (2)
2
π
b. 3x = (π – (–x)) + 2mπ = π + x + 2mπ, i.e. 2x = π + 2mπ ⇒ x = + mπ , m ∈ Z. (3)
2

As we can easily see, (3) is a subset of (2), so (2) is a sufficient answer. Finally, combining
kπ nπ
(1) and (2) gives us x ∈ { , }, k, n ∈ Z.
7 2

Check Yourself 25
1. Solve the equations.

a. cos2x + cos x = 2 b. 4 cos2x – 3 cos x = 0 c. 3 cos 2x – 2 cosx + 3 = 0

2 ⋅ tan 3 x 3
d. sin 2x = sin x e. = f. cot2x – 3 cot x + 2 = 0
1 – tan 2 3 x 3

224 Algebra 10
 2. Write the solution to each equation in its shortest form.

a. tan2x – 1 = 0 b. 2cos2x + cos x – 1 = 0

x 5x 5x
3. Find the sum of the roots of 2 sin sin – sin = 0 in the interval [0, 2π].
2 2 2
4. Solve each equation.

a. sin 5x = sin 3x b. cos 3x – cos x = 0 c. tan 2x + tan 3x = 0

π 2π
d. cos 3x = sin x e. sin(2 x + ) = sin( x – )
3 3

Answers
π 3
1. a. 2kπ, k ∈ b. { + kπ, ± arccos + 2 nπ}, k, n ∈ Z
2 4
π 2 π
c. { + kπ, ± arccos + 2 n π}, k, n ∈ Z d. {kπ, ± + 2 nπ}, k, n ∈ Z
2 3 3
π kπ π
e. + , k∈Z f. { + kπ, arccot2+ nπ}, k, n ∈ Z
36 6 4
π kπ π 2 kπ
2. a. + , k∈Z b. + , k∈Z
4 2 3 3

3. 8π
π nπ nπ kπ
4. a. {kπ, + }, k, n ∈ Z b. {kπ, }, k, n ∈ Z c. , k∈Z
8 4 2 5
π kπ π 4π 2 nπ
d. { + ,– + nπ}, k, n ∈ Z e. {π + 2 kπ, + }, k, n ∈ Z
8 2 4 9 3

4. Linear Equations in sin x and cos x

Recall that ax + by = c is a linear equation in the two variables x and y. If we replace x and
y with sin x and cos x then we obtain a linear equation in sin x and cos x. In other words,
the equation a sin x + b cos x = c is a linear equation in sin x and cos x.
b a
To solve a linear equation like this, we can use the substitution tan α =or cot α = . Then
a b
we can use the sum and difference formulas to simplify the given expression. Finally, we can

use the methods we have already seen to solve the question.

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 225

 b
First let us try to get from the given equation. For this we will divide both sides of the equa-
a
tion by a:
a cos x + b sin x c
a cos x + b sin x = c ⇒ = , i.e.
a a
b c
cos x + sin x =
a a
sin α c b sin α b
cos x + sin x = (use tan α = and we know that tan α = = )
cos α a a cos α a
cos x ⋅ cos α + sin α ⋅ sin x c
= (equalize the denominators)
cos α a
cos( x – α ) c c
= , i.e. cos( x – α) = cos α. (by the difference formula for cosine)
cos α a a
A
Now draw a right triangle and let
2
b a +b
tan α = , so cos α = . So 2
a
a a + b2
2 b

c c a c
cos( x – α) = cos α = ⋅ = . a
a a a + b2
2
a + b2
2
B a C

In conclusion, to solve a linear equation of the

form asin x + bcos x = c we can compare the values of c2 and a2 + b2.
c
1. If c2 > a2 + b2 then cos( x − α) = > 1 and so there is no solution for the linear
a + b2
2

equation.
2. If c2 = a2 + b2 then cos (x – α) = 1 and so x = α + 2kπ, k ∈ .
3. If c2 < a2 + b2 then we can solve the equation by using the methods that we have learned
for equations with a common ratio.

EXAMPLE 165 Solve 2 sin x + 3 cos x = 4.

Solution We have a sin x + b cos x = c with a = 3, b = 2 and c = 4.
Let us compare c2 and a2 + b2. We get 22 + 32 = 4 + 9 = 13 < 42 = 16.
Since c2 > a2+ b2, by the above result we can say that the equation has no solution.

EXAMPLE 166 Solve cos x + ñ3 sin x = 2.

Solution We have a = 1, b = ñ3 and c = 2. Let us compare c2 and a2 + b2. We get
a2 + b2 = 12 + ñ32 = 1 + 3 = 4 = c2. Then by the above result we can find the solution.
b 3 π π π
First find α : tan α = = = tan , i.e. α = so the solution is x = + 2kπ, k ∈ .
a 1 3 3 3
226 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 167 Solve ñ3 cos x + sin x = 1.
Solution 1 We have a = ñ3, b = 1 and c = 1.
a2 + b2 = ñ32 + 12= 3 + 1 = 4 > 1 = c2, so we will use the equations with a common ratio.
b 1 3 π π
tan α = = = = tan ⇒ α = . So by the above result we have
a 3 3 6 6
c π 1 π 1 3 1
cos( x – α) = cos α and cos( x − ) = cos = ⋅ = .
a 6 3 6 3 2 2
π 1
So the equation becomes cos( x – ) = .
6 2
1 π π π π π
Since arccos = 60 ° = , we have x – = ± + 2 kπ and so x = ± + 2 kπ, k ∈ Z.
2 3 6 3 6 3

b a
Solution 2 we can use cot α = .
In this type of question, instead of using the substitution tan α =
a b
The equation is ñ3cosx + sinx = 1, and dividing both sides by a = ñ3 gives us

3 3 3 cos α 3
cos x + sin x = . Now let us use the substitution cot α = , i.e. = .
3 3 3 sin α 3
3
By using the sum formula for sin(x + α) we get sin( x + α ) = ⋅ sin α.
3
3 π π 3 3 1
cot α = , i.e. α = . So sin( x + ) = ⋅ = .
3 3 3 3 2 2
1 π π π π π
arcsin = , so the answer is x + = ( −1)k + kπ or x = ( −1) k − + kπ, k ∈ .
2 6 3 6 6 3

EXAMPLE 168 Solve 3 sin x + ñ3 cos x = 3.

Solution We have a=ñ3 , b= 3 and c = 3. We get a2 + b2 = ñ32 + 32= 3 + 9 = 12 > 9 = c2, so we
will use the equations with a common ratio.
b 3 π π
tan α = = = 3 = tan so α = .
a 3 3 3
π 3 π 3 1 3
cos( x − ) = cos = ⋅ = .
3 3 3 3 2 2
3 π π π π π
Since arccos = , we have x − = ± +2 kπ ⇒ x = ± +2 k π, k ∈ .
2 6 3 6 3 6
Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 227
EXAMPLE 169 Solve cos x + sin x = 1.
Solution We have a= 1 , b= 1 and c = 1.
We get a2 + b2 = 12 + 12= 2 > 1 = c2, so a2 + b2 > c2 and we will use equations with a
common ratio.
b 1 π π
tanα= = = 1 = tan ⇒ α = .
a 1 4 4
c π 1 π 2
cos( x − α) = cos α, i.e. cos( x − ) = ⋅cos = .
a 4 1 4 2
2 π π π π π
Since arccos = , we have x − = ± + 2 kπ, i.e. x = ± +2 k π, k ∈ .
2 4 4 4 4 4
We can also write these answers separately:
π
x1 = 2kπ, k ∈ and x2 = + 2 n π, n ∈ .
2

5. Homogeneous Equations in sin x and cos x

Recall that the degree in a term in an equation is its power: 2x3 has power 3.

Definition homogeneous equation

If the degrees of all the terms in an equation are the same, the equation is called a
homogeneous equation. For example,
ax + by = 0 is a first-order homogeneous equation,
ax2 + bxy + cy2 = 0 is a second-order homogeneous equation, and so on.
If we substitute sin x and cos x for x and y in a homogeneous equation, the equation
becomes a homogeneous equation in sin x and cos x.
In this section we will look at the solutions of homogeneous equations in sin x and cos x.

a. First-order homogeneous equations

Let a cos x + b sin x = 0 be a given equation. Dividing both sides by cos x gives us
a cos x + b sin x 0
= (cos x ≠ 0). This simplifies to
cos x cos x
sin x a a
a+ b = 0 , i.e. a + b tan x = 0 ⇒ tan x = – ⇒ x = arctan(– ) + k π, k ∈ .
cos x b b

228 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 170 Solve sin x + cos x = 0.
sin x
Solution Dividing both sides by cos x (cos x ≠ 0) gives us +1= 0 .
cos x

We can rewrite this as tan x = –1.

π π
Since arctan(–1) = –45 ° = , we have x = + kπ, k ∈ .
4 4

EXAMPLE 171 Solve ñ3 cos x – 3 sin x = 0.

Solution Let us divide both sides by cos x (cos x ≠ 0). Then we have
sin x 3
3–3 = 0, i.e 3 – 3tan x = 0 ⇒ tan x= .
cos x 3
3 π π
Since arctan = 30 ° = , the solution is x= + kπ, k ∈ Z.
3 6 6

b. Second-order homogeneous equations

Let a cos2 x + (b cos x ⋅ sin x) + c sin2 x = 0 be a given equation. Dividing both sides by
cos2 x gives us
a cos 2 x + b cos x ⋅ sin x + c sin 2 x 0
2
= (cos x ≠ 0), which simplifies to
cos x cos 2 x
sin x sin 2 x
a+ b +c = 0, i.e. a + b tan x+ c tan 2 x = 0.
cos x cos 2 x

This is a quadratic equation in tan x. We can now find the solution using factorization.
Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 229
EXAMPLE 172 Solve cos x – (3 cos x ⋅ sin x) – 4 sin x = 0.
2 2

Solution Let us divide both sides by cos2 x (cos x ≠ 0). Then we have
cos 2 x – 3cos x ⋅ sin x – 4sin 2 x 0 sin x sin 2 x
= , i.e 1 – 3 – 4 = 0. We can rewrite this as
cos 2 x cos 2 x cos x cos 2 x
1 – 3 tan x – 4 tan2 x = 0.
Factorizing this equation gives us
(1 – 4 tan x) ⋅ (1 + tan x) = 0. There are two cases:
1 1
a. If 1 – 4 tan x = 0 then tan x = and so x = arctan + kπ, k ∈ Z. (1)
4 4
π
b. If 1 + tan x = 0 then tan x = –1 and so x = – + nπ, n ∈ Z . (2)
4
1 π
Combining (1) and (2) gives us the final answer: x = {arctan + kπ, – + nπ}, k, n ∈ Z.
4 4

6. Maximum and Minimum Values of a Trigonometric

Function
A
Let f(x) = a cos x + b sin x for a, b ∈ . How
can we find the maximum and
minimum values of f(x)?
2
b
a+
2

b sin α b
Let tan α = = .
a cos α
Let us draw a right triangle with an acute
a
angle α. We can write a
B C
f(x) = a cos x + b sin x
b (take α out of the paranthesis)
= a(cos x + sin x) sin α
a (use the substitution tanα = )
sin α cos α
= a(cos x + sin x)
cos α
cos x ⋅ cos α + sin x ⋅ sin α (eqalize the denominators and use the sum formulas)
= a( ) a
cos α (from the right triangle we have cosα = )
a cos( x – α) a + b2
2

=
a
a2 + b 2
= a2 + b2 cos( x – α).
We know –1 ≤ cos(x – α) ≤ 1. Multiplying both sides by a2 + b2 gives us
– a2 + b2 ≤ a2 + b 2 cos( x – α) ≤ a 2 + b 2 . In summary,
maximum value of f ( x) = a2 + b 2 .
minimum value of f ( x) = – a2 + b 2 .

230 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 173 Find the maximum and minimum values of f(x) = 3 cos x – 4 sin x.
Solution We are given a = 3 and b = –4.
By the formula we have just seen,
maximum value of f ( x) = a2 + b 2 = 32 +(–4)2 = 9+16 = 25 = 5

minimum value of f ( x) = – a2 + b2 = – 32 +(–4)2 = – 9+16 = – 25 = –5.

EXAMPLE 174 Find the maximum and minimum values of f(x) = sin x + cos x.
Solution We have a = 1 and b = 1.
By the previous formula:
maximum value of f ( x) = a2 + b 2 = 12 +12 = 1+1 = 2

minimum value of f ( x) = – a2 + b 2 = – 12 +12 = – 1+1 = – 2.

EXAMPLE 175 Find the range of the function f(x) = sin x + ñ3 cos x.
Solution We know that sin x and cos x are continuous functions, so the range will be an interval
between the maximum and minimum values of f(x).
By using the previous formula with a = ñ3 and b = 1 we have
2
2 2
maximum value of f ( x) = a + b = 3 +12 = 3+1 = 4 = 2
2 2 2
minimum value of f ( x) = – a + b = – 3 +12 = – 3+1 = – 4 = –2.

So the range is [–2, 2].

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 231

EXAMPLE 176 Find the value of x that gives A = (sin x + 3) ⋅ (1 – sin x) its maximum value.
Solution 1 First we will find the maximum value of A, then we will find the value of x at this point.
A = (sin x + 3) ⋅ (1 – sin x)
= 3 – 2 sin x – sin2 x
= 4 – (1 + 2 sin x + sin2 x)
= 4 – (1 + sin x)2.
We know (1 + sin x)2 ≥ 0, so A = 4 – (1 + sin x)2 ≤ 4.
So the maximum value of A is 4. Now we need to solve the equation
(sin x + 3) ⋅ (1 – sin x) = 4 for x:
3 – 2 sin x – sin2 x = 4 ⇒ sin2 x + 2 sin x + 1 = 0.
This factorizes to (sin x + 1)2 = 0, i.e. sin x = –1. So the answer is
π
x = – + 2 kπ , k ∈ Z.
2

Solution 2 We can get the maximum value of a function f(x) = a ⋅ b when a = b.

So A = (sin x + 3) ⋅ (1 – sin x) is at its maximum when sin x + 3 = 1 – sin x. This gives us
2 sin x = 1 – 3 = – 2, i.e. sin x = –1. So the answer is
π
x = – + 2 kπ , k ∈ Z.
2

Check Yourself 26
1. Solve the equations.
a. 4 sin x + 3 cos x = 6 b. ñ3 sin x + cos x = 1 c. 2sin x + ñ5 cos x = 3

2. Solve the equations.

a. 3cos x + ñ3 sin x = 3 b. sin x – ñ3 cos x = –1 c. sin x – cos x = 1

3. Solve the first-order homogeneous equations.

a. sin x + ñ3 cos x = 0 b. sin x + 2 cos x = 0 c. 3 sin x – cos x =0

4. Solve ñ3 cos2 x – (1 + ñ3)sin x ⋅ cos x + sin2 x = 0.

5. Find the maximum and minimum values of each trigonometric function.

a. 2 sin x + 3 cos x b. 5 sin x – 12 cos x c. 3 cos x – 4 sin x

6. Find the range of f(x) = 4 sin x + 3 cos x + 2.

232 Algebra 10
 Answers

2π 2 5
1. a. no solution b. { + 2 kπ,2 nπ}, k, n ∈ Z c. arctan + 2 kπ, k ∈ Z
3 5

π
2. a. { + 2 kπ, 2 nπ}, k, n ∈ Z
3

π π
b. {– + 2 kπ, + 2 nπ}, k, n ∈ Z
2 6

π
c. { + 2 kπ, π + 2 nπ}, k, n ∈ Z
2

π 1
3. a. – + kπ, k ∈ Z b. (– arctan 2)+ kπ, k ∈ Z c. (arctan )+ kπ, k ∈ Z
3 3

π π
4. { + kπ, + nπ}, k, n ∈ Z
4 3

5. a. ò13, – ò13 b . 13, –13 c . 5, –5 6. [–3, 7]

B. FURTHER TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS

1. Equations with an Absolute Value
If a trigonometric equation includes an absolute value, we can solve it by considering the
possible values of the absolute expression.

EXAMPLE 177 Solve |3 cos 5x + 2| – 3 = 0.

Solution Rearranging the equation gives us |3 cos 5x + 2| = 3.
So either 3 cos 5x + 2 = 3 or 3 cos 5x + 2 = –3.
1 1
1. If 3 cos 5x + 2 = 3 then 3 cos 5x = 1, i.e. cos5 x = and 5x = ± arccos + 2 kπ .
3 3
1 1 2 kπ
So x = ± arccos + , k ∈ Z.
5 3 5
5
2. If 3 cos 5x + 2 = –3 then 3 cos 5x = –5, i.e. cos 5x = – < –1 . This equation has no
3
solution.
1 1 2 kπ
In conclusion, x = {± arccos + }, k ∈ Z is theonly solution.
5 3 5

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 233

EXAMPLE 178 Solve |sin x + cos x| = sin x – cos x.
Solution Consider the two possibilities for the absolute value:
1. If sin x + cos x = sin x – cos x then 2 cos x = 0, i.e. cos x = 0. So
π
x = + 2kπ, k ∈ Z.
2
2. If sin x + cos x = –(sin x – cos x) = –sin x + cos x then 2 sin x = 0, i.e. sin x = 0. So
x = nπ, n ∈ .
π
So the solution is x ∈ { + 2kπ, nπ}, k, n ∈ Z.
2

2. Parametric Equations
If an equation includes one or more variables which may affect the result of the equation, the
equation is called a parametric equation.

EXAMPLE 179 How many solutions does the equation sin x + sin x = m have in [0, 2π], depending on m?
2

Solution Let us begin by finding the maximum and minimum values of sin2 x + sin x.
If we substitute t = sin x then the expression is equivalent to the function y = t2 + t.
b 1
The vertex of y is V(r, k) where r = – = – and
2a 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
k = y(– ) = (– )2 + (– ) = – = – . So – is the minimum value of y.
2 2 2 4 2 4 4
y = ax2 + bx + c is the
form of a parabola. The To find the maximum value of y we will substitute the maximum value of sin x into y. The
vertex of a parabola is maximum value of sin x is 1, so the maximum value of y is 12 + 1 = 2.
V(r, k), where
1 1
b This means – ≤ y ≤ 2, and when y < – and y > 2 there is no solution.
r=– and 4 4
2a
k =y(k).
We can rewrite the equation t2 + t = m as t2 + t – m = 0. Let us find the discriminant of
this quadratic equation: Δ = b2 – 4ac = 12 – 4 ⋅ 1 ⋅ (–m) = 1 + 4m.
1
1. If Δ < 0, i.e. m < – , there is no real solution.
4
1
2. If Δ = 0, i.e. m = – , there is one root for the quadratic equation:
4
1 1 1 1
t2 + t + = 0 = ( t + )2 = 0 and t = – . So sin x= – and x ∈[0, 2 π].
4 2 2 2
1
So for sin x = – we have two answers: x = 210° and x = 330°.
2
1
3. If Δ>0, i.e. 2 ≥ m > – there are two roots, and for every root there are two values of sin x.
4
1
In summary, the equation has no solution when m < – and m > 2. It has two solutions if
1 4 1
m = – , and it has a pair of solutions for each value of m in ( − ; 2] .
4 4
234 Algebra 10
 3. Equations with Inverse Trigonometric Functions
If an equation includes inverse trigonometric functions such as arcsin, arccos, arctan, etc.,
we can solve it by using the rules of inverse trigonometric functions, i.e. if arcsin x = y then
sin y = x, if arctan x = y then tan y = x, etc.

4
EXAMPLE 180 Solve arctan x+ arctan(1 – x) = arctan 3.
Solution In this type of problem, first we try to convert inverse trigonometric functions to regular
trigonometric functions so that the equation is easier to solve. We can work on each term
separately:
If arctan x = α then tan α = x.
If arctan (1 – x) = β then tan β = 1 – x.
4 4
If arctan = y then tan y = .
3 3
4
Now we can write arctan x + arctan (1 – x) = arctan as α + β = y.
3
Let us take the tangent of both sides, then tan (α + β) = tan y. We can rewrite this as
tan α + tan β x +1 – x 1 4
= tan y, i.e. = = , i.e.
1 – tan α ⋅ tan β 1 – x ⋅(1 – x) 1 – x + x 2
3
3 = 4 – 4 x + 4 x2 or 4 x2 – 4 x+1= 0. This is the square of (2x – 1). So
1
(2 x – 1)2 = 0 ⇒ 2 x – 1= 0, i.e. x = . This is the solution of the equation.
2

4. Systems of Trigonometric Equations

A system of trigonometric equations includes two or more trigonometric equations. To solve
a system of equations we either eliminate one of the trigonometric ratios by adding or
subtracting, or we find one ratio in terms of the other and then use substitution.

x sin a + 3sin b = cos a

EXAMPLE 181 Solve the system of equations ⎧⎨⎩x cos a + 3cos b = – sin a .
Solution We want to eliminate one of the trigonometric ratios. For this the coefficients must be the
same. So let us multiply the first equation by cos b and the second equation by –sin b,
respectively. Then
x sin a cos b + 3sin b cos b = cos a cos b
– x cos a sin b – 3 sin b cos b = sin a sin b
x(sin a cos b – cos a sin b) = cos acos b+ sin asin b (add the two equations)
x ⋅ sin( a – b) = cos( a – b) (by the sum and difference formulas)

cos( a – b)
x= = cot( a – b ).
sin( a – b)

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 235

 1
EXAMPLE 182 Solve the system of equations ⎧⎪⎪⎨sin x cos y = 2 .
⎪cos x sin y = – 1
Solution Adding and subtracting the two⎪⎩ expressions gives
2 us
1 1
sin x cos y + cos x sin y = – = 0 , i.e. sin (x + y) = 0 ⇒ x + y = kπ, and
2 2
1 1 π
sin x cos y – cos x sin y = + =1 , i.e. sin (x – y) = 1 ⇒ x – y = + 2 nπ.
2 2 2
⎧ x + y = kπ (1)
Now we have another system of equations: ⎪⎨ π
⎪⎩ x – y = 2 + 2nπ. (2)

π π kπ
Adding these equations gives us 2 x = + 2 nπ + kπ, i.e. x = + nπ + , k, n ∈ Z.
2 4 2
π kπ π kπ
From (1) we can write y = kπ – x = kπ − − nπ − = − − nπ + , k, n ∈ Z.
4 2 4 2
π kπ π kπ
In summary, the solution is ( x, y) = ( + nπ + , − − nπ + ), k, n ∈ Z.
4 2 4 2

EXAMPLE 183 Solve the system of equations ⎧⎪⎨sin x+ sinπ y = – .

2

⎪x + y =
⎩ 2
π
Solution From the second equation we get y = – x . Let us use this in the first equation:
2
π
sin x + sin( – x) = – 2 , i.e.
2
sin x + cos x = –ñ2 ⇒ cos x + 1 ⋅ sin x = –ñ2. (1)
π
sin
π 4 then (1) becomes
Substitute 1= tan =
4 π
cos
4
π π π
sin cos x cos + sin xsin
cos x + 4 sin x = 4 4 = – 2, i.e. cos( x – π ) = – 2 ⋅cos π = – 2 ⋅ 2 = –1.
π π 4 4 2
cos cos
4 4
We know arccos( −1) = π, s o
π π π 5π
x – = x − = π + 2kπ and x = + π + 2 kπ = + 2 kπ, k ∈ Z.
4 4 4 4
π π 5π 3π
y= – x= – – 2 kπ = – – 2 kπ, k ∈ Z.
2 2 4 4
5π 3π
In summary, ( x, y) = ( + 2 kπ ,– – 2 kπ ), k ∈ Z.
4 4

236 Algebra 10
 5. Mixed Examples
We have now seen several different techniques which we can use to solve trigonometric
equations:
1. We can factorize the terms.
sin α
2. We can use a substitution such as tan α = .
cos α
3. We can use trigonometric identities and formulas.
4. We can consider different parts of an equation separately, and combine individual
results to get the final solution.
There are no strong rules about which technique is appropriate for which problem. Often we
may try different approaches before we find the answer. The best way to improve your
problem-solving skills is to practise on many different types of problem. In this section we will
look at some mixed problems and their solutions.

EXAMPLE 184 Solve cos 2x = cos x – sin x.

Solution The equation contains both sin x and cos x, so it is not clear what we should write instead
of cos 2x. Let us try using the identity cos 2x = cos2 x – sin2 x. Then the equation becomes
cos2 x – sin2 x = cos x – sin x. Factorizing the left side gives
(cos x – sin x) ⋅ (cos x + sin x) – (cos x – sin x) = 0, i.e.
(cos x – sin x) ⋅ (cos x + sin x – 1) = 0.
There are two cases:
cos x
1. If cos x – sin x = 0 then cos x = sin x and so 1= = tan x.
sin x
π
So x = + kπ , k ∈ Z. π
4 sin
π 4
2. If cos x + sin x = 1 then we can use the substitution 1= tan =
4 π
cos
4
π
sin
to get cos x + 4 sin x =1, i.e. cos x ⋅cos π+ sin x ⋅ sin π = cos π= 2.
π 4 4 4 2
cos
4
π 2
This simplifies to cos( x – ) = .
4 2
π π π π
From the solution formula for cosine, x – = ± + 2 nπ and so x = ± + 2 n π, n ∈ Z.
4 4 4 4
π π π
In summary, x ∈ { + kπ , ± + 2 n π}, k, n ∈ Z.
4 4 4

EXAMPLE 185 Find the sum of all the roots of sin1 3x + cos1 3x = 163 in [0, 2π ].
2 2

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 237

 Solution Equalize the denominators on the left-hand side: 1 1 cos 2 3 x +sin 2 3 x
+ =
sin 2 3 x cos 2 3 x sin 2 3 x ⋅ cos 2 3 x
1 4 4
= = = . So the equation becomes
sin 3x ⋅ cos 3 x 4sin 3 x ⋅cos 3 x sin 2 6 x
2 2 2 2

4 16 3 3 3
2
= , i.e. sin 2 6 x = and so sin6 x = or sin6 x =– .
sin 6 x 3 4 2 2
3 π π kπ
1. If sin6 x = then 6 x = (–1) k + kπ and so x =(–1) k + , k∈ .
2 3 18 6
π π 7π 4π
k = 0 gives x = , k = 1 gives x = , k = 2 gives x = , k = 3 gives x = .
18 9 18 9
3 k π nk
2. If sin6 x = – then 6 x = (–1) k+1 + nπ and so x= ( −1) k+1 + , n ∈ Z.
2 3 18 6
2π 5π
k = 1 gives x = , k = 2 gives x = .
9 18
π π 7π 4π 2 π 5 π 3 π
In conclusion, the sum of the roots is + + + + + = .
18 9 18 9 9 18 2

EXAMPLE 186 Solve 1 – sin x = sin ( 2x – 4π).

2

Solution Let us use the sum and difference formulas to expand the right side:
x π x π x π x 2 x 2
sin 2 ( – ) = (sin ⋅ cos – cos ⋅sin ) 2 = (sin ⋅ – cos ⋅ ) 2
2 4 2 4 2 4 2 2 2 2
2 2 x x 1 x x
=( ) (sin – cos ) 2 = (sin – cos ) 2.
2 2 2 2 2 2
Now consider the left side. We can see that on the right side we have half angles, so let us
use half angles on the left side too.
x x x x
We can use the identities sin x = 2 sin cos and 1= sin 2 + cos 2 to get
2 2 2 2
2 x 2 x x x x x 2
1 – sin x = sin + cos – 2 sin cos = (sin – cos ) .
2 2 2 2 2 2
So the original equation becomes
x x 1 x x x x x x
(sin – cos ) 2 = (sin – cos ) 2,, i.e. 2(sin – cos ) 2 – (sin – cos ) 2 = 0.
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
x x 2 x x x x
If (sin – cos ) = 0 then sin – cos = 0, i.e. sin = cos .
2 2 2 2 2 2
x
sin
x
Dividing both sides by cos gives 2 = tan x =1.
2 x 2
cos
2
π x π π
We know arctan 1= , so the solution is = + kπ, i.e. x = + 2 kπ, k ∈ Z.
4 2 4 2

238 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 187 Solve cos 2x + sin 2x = cos x + sin x.
Solution Let us change the sine functions to cosine functions by using the reduction formula
π π π
cos( – x) = sin x . So sin 2 x = cos( – 2 x) and sin x = cos( – x).
2 2 2
π π
Then the equation becomes cos 2 x + cos( – 2 x) = cos x+ cos( – x).
2 2
Using the sum to product formulas gives
π π π π
2x + – 2x 2x – + 2x x+ – x x– + x
2cos( 2 ) ⋅ cos( 2 ) = 2cos( 2 ) ⋅cos( 2 ), i.e.
2 2 2 2
π π π π
2 cos⋅ cos(2 x – ) = 2 cos ⋅cos( x – ) .
4 4 4 4
π π π π
Dividing by 2 cos on both sides ( cos ≠ 0 ) gives cos(2 x – ) = cos( x – ).
4 4 4 4

There are two possible cases:

π π
1. If 2 x – = x – + 2 kπ then x = 2kπ, k ∈ .
4 4
π π π π 2n π
2. If 2 x –
= –( x – )+ 2 nπ then 3 x = + 2 n π and so x= + , n ∈Z.
4 4 2 6 3
π 2 nπ
In summary, the answer is x ∈ {2 kπ, + }, k, n ∈ Z.
6 3

Check Yourself 27
2
1. Solve |cos(45° – x)| = .
2
m
2. For which values of m does the equation 2 – = 2 cot x have a solution?
sin x
π
3. Solve arccos x – arcsin x = .
6
4. Solve each system of equations.
⎧ 3 ⎧ 2 2 1
⎪sin x = – ⎪⎪sin x + sin y = 2
a. ⎨ 2 b. ⎨
⎪ ⎪ x – y = 4π
⎩cos x > 0 ⎪⎩ 3
5. Solve the equations.
a. cos2 3x + cos2 x = 1 b. sin4 x + cos4 x = sin x ⋅ cos x
x
c. cos(πcot x) = sin (πcot x) d. cos x +1= cot
2
e. 43tan x – ñ3 = 1
Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 239
 Answers

kπ 1
1. , k ∈Z 2. m ∈ [–2ñ2, 2ñ2] 3.
2 2

π π 7π
4. a. – + 2kπ, k ∈ Z b. { + kπ, – + kπ}, k ∈ Z
3 6 6

π kπ π πn π 1
5. a. { + , + }, k, n ∈ Z b. + kπ, k ∈ Z c. {arccot + kπ}, k ∈ Z
8 4 4 2 4 4

π π
d. {π + 2kπ, + 2 nπ}, k, n ∈ Z e. + kπ, k ∈ Z
2 6

C. TRIGONOMETRIC INEQUALITIES
1. Basic Trigonometric Inequalities
We can solve trigonometric inequalities by looking at the graphs of the basic trigonometric
functions on the unit circle. By using the following steps we can find the solution of any
simple trigonometric inequality:
1. Find the region which satisfies the given inequality on the unit circle.
2. Write the boundaries of the selected region. We calculate the boundaries by
moving in an anticlockwise direction. Remember that the smaller bound (for
example, a negative bound) must always be the first bound.
3. For sin x and cos x add 2kπ, and for tan x and cot x add kπ.
To understand why step 3 is necessary, look at the figure. We know that trigonometric
functions are periodic, and so a trigonometric equation or inequality has infinitely many
solutions. To include all these answers we add kπ or 2kπ to the solution of any trigonometric
inequality.

y
1
sin x >
1 2
1
2
x
–1

240 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 188 Solve the inequality sin x > 21 .
Solution
Remember!
[a, b] is an interval which
includes a and b:
x ∈ [a, b] means
a ≤ x ≤ b.
(a, b) is an interval
which does not include a
or b: x ∈ (a, b) means
a< x < b.
Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities
Let us draw the unit circle and shade the required region.
y y y
1
5p 1 p 5p 2 p
1
2 6 2 6 6 6
x x x
π 5π
As we can see in the figure, the boundaries are < x < . To get the full answer we must
6 6
π 5π
add 2kπ to both sides, so the answer will be + 2 kπ < x < + 2 kπ, k ∈ Z.
6 6
a. Inequalities in sin x y
Consider the inequality sin x > a.
If a > 1 there is no solution p – arc sin a a arc sin a
(because –1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1).
If a < –1 the answer will be all the real x
numbers, i.e. (–∞, ∞).
If –1 ≤ a ≤ 1 the answer is
(arcsin a + 2kπ) < x < (π – arcsin a + 2kπ), k ∈ Z.
We can write this as
y
x ∈ (arcsin a + 2kπ, π – arcsin a + 2kπ), k ∈ Z.
Now consider the inequality sin x < a.
a
If a < –1 there is no solution. –p – arc sin a arc sin a
If a > 1 the answer will be all the real
numbers, i.e. (–∞, ∞). x
If –1 ≤ a ≤ 1 the answer is
(–π – arcsin a + 2kπ) < x < (arcsin a + 2kπ),
k ∈ Z.
241
EXAMPLE 189 Solve the inequality sin x ≥ 2
2
.

Solution Let us draw the figure, as shown at the right. y

2 π
We know arcsin = , so the 3p p
2 4 4 ñ2 4
π 3π 2
second boundary is π – = .
4 4
x
We have the ≥ sign, so the answer is
π 3π
( + 2 kπ) ≤ x ≤ ( + 2 kπ), k ∈ .
4 4
We can write this answer alternatively as
⎡π 3π ⎤
x ∈ ⎢ + 2kπ , + 2kπ ⎥ , k ∈ .
⎣ 4 4 ⎦

EXAMPLE 190 Solve the inequality sin x > – 23 .

Solution Let us draw the figure. y
3 π
We know arcsin(– ) = – , so the
2 3
π 4π
second boundary is π – (– ) = .
3 3
x
So the answer will be
π 4π ñ2
(– + 2 kπ) < x < ( + 2 kπ), k ∈ , i.e. 4p – 2 –p
3 3 3 3
π 4π
x ∈ (– + 2 kπ, + 2 k π), k ∈ .
3 3

EXAMPLE 191 Solve the inequality sin x < –2.

Solution We know that –1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1, so this inequality has no solution.

242 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 192 Solve the inequality 2sin 5x ≤ ñ2.
2
Solution Rearranging the terms give us sin5 x ≤ . y
2
2 π
We know arcsin = is the second – 5p
p
2 4 4 4
ñ2
2
Remember! boundary, so the first boundary is
The first bound is always π 5π x
5π –π – =– .
the smallest: – is 4 4
π 4
smaller than .
4 By solving the equation we get
5π π
(− + 2 kπ) ≤ 5 x ≤ ( + 2 kπ), k∈ .
4 4
π 2kπ π 2kπ
Dividing all sides by 5 gives us ( − + ) ≤ x ≤( + ), k ∈ .
4 5 20 5

EXAMPLE 193 Solve the inequality 4sin3x + 2 < 3.

1
Solution Rearranging the terms give us sin 3x < .
4 y

1
arcsin is not a special angle so, we will leave it
4 1
in this form. – p – arcsin 1 4 arcsin 1
4 4
So we can write the answer as x

1 1
( −π − arcsin + 2 kπ)<3 x< (arcsin + 2 k π) , k ∈ .
4 4
Dividing all sides by 3 gives us
1 1
π + arcsin arcsin
(− 4 + 2kπ ) < x < ( 4 + 2k π ), k ∈Z.
3 3 3 3

b. Inequalities in cos x y
Consider the inequality cos x > a. arccos a
If a > 1 there is no solution.
If a < –1 the answer will be all the real a

numbers, i.e. (–∞, ∞). x

If –1 ≤ a ≤ 1 the solution is
(–arccos a + 2kπ) < x < (arccos a + 2kπ), k ∈ . – arccos a

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 243

 Now consider the inequality cos x < a.
y
If a > –1 there is no solution.
arccos a
If a < 1 the answer will be all the real
numbers, i.e. (–∞, ∞).
a
If –1 ≤ a ≤ 1 the answer is x
arccos a + 2 kπ < x < 2 π – arccos a + 2 kπ,
k∈ .
2p – arccos a

EXAMPLE 194 Solve the inequality cos x ≤ 0.

Solution Let us draw the figure, as shown at the right. y p
2
π
The boundaries are arccos0 = and
2
π 3π
2π – = . So
2 2
π 3π x
( + 2 kπ) ≤ x ≤ ( + 2 kπ), k ∈ .
2 2

3p
2

EXAMPLE 195 Solve the inequality 2cos 2x – 1 > 0.

1
Solution Rearranging the terms gives us cos 2 x > . y
2 p
1 π 3
The boundaries are arccos = and
2 3
1 π
− arccos = − . So we have
2 3
π π 1 x
( − + 2kπ) < 2 x < ( + 2 k π), k ∈ Z. 2
3 3
Dividing all sides by 2 gives
–p
π π 3
( − + kπ) < x < ( + k π), k ∈ Z.
6 6

244 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 196 Solve the inequality 2cos x + ñ3 ≤ 0 in [0, 2π].
3
Solution Rearranging the terms gives us cos x ≤ – . y
2
5p
Now let us draw the figure. The boundaries 6
3 5π
are arccos( − )= and
2 6 – ñ2
2
3 5π 7 π x
2π − arccos( − )= 2π − = .
2 6 6
5π 7 π 7p
So the answer is [ , ].
6 6 6

EXAMPLE 197 Solve the inequality 2cos 3x > –π.

π π
Solution We can rewrite the inequality as cos 3 x > − . However, π ≅ 3.14 and so − < −1. So the
2 2
inequality is true for all real numbers: x ∈ (–∞, ∞).

Check Yourself 28
1. Solve the inequalities.
2
a. sin x < b. 2sin x ≤ –ñ3 c. 2sin 3x < 1
2
π
d. sin(5 x + ) ≥ 0 e. 2sin (–2x) > 1
3
2. Solve the inequalities.
π 3
a. 2cos x ≤ ñ2 b. 2cos(3x – )≥1 c. cos 3 x < –
6 2
2
d. cos( −2 x) > e. 5cos 3x – 2 > 0
2
3. Solve the inequalities in the interval [0, 2π].
π 2 π
a. cos(2 x − ) ≥ b. sin(3 x + ) < 0 c. 3sin x + 1 ≥ 0
4 2 3
Answers
5π π 2π π
1. a. − + 2kπ < x < + 2k π, k ∈ b. − + 2kπ ≤ x ≤ − + 2kπ, k ∈
4 4 3 3
7π 2 kπ π 2kπ π 2 kπ 2 π 2 kπ
c. − + < x< + , k∈ d. − + ≤x≤ + ,k∈
18 3 18 3 15 5 15 5
5π π
e. − + kπ < x < − + k π, k ∈
12 12

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 245

 π 7π π 2kπ π 2kπ
2. a. + 2kπ ≤ x ≤ + 2kπ, k ∈ b. − + ≤x≤ + , k∈
4 4 18 3 6 3

5π 2 kπ 7 π 2kπ π π
c. + < x< + , k∈ d. − + kπ < x < + kπ, k ∈
18 3 18 3 8 8
2 2
− arccos + 2 kπ arccos + 2 k π
e. 5 <x< 5 , k∈
3 3
⎡ π ⎤ ⎡ 5π ⎤ 2π 5π 8 π 11π 14 π 17 π
3. a. ⎢0, ⎥ ∪ ⎢π, ⎥ b. ( , ) ∪ ( , ) ∪( , )
⎣ 4⎦ ⎣ 4 ⎦ 9 9 9 9 9 9
1 1
c. [0, π + arcsin ] ∪[2 π – arcsin , 2 π]
3 3

c. Inequalities in tan x
Consider the inequality tan x > a. y
p
2
As we can see in the figure, the solutions to
the inequality are symmetric about the
arc tan a
origin. So we will write only one answer and
add kπ instead of 2kπ to give the final solu- x
tion. So the solution is
π
arctana + kπ < x < + kπ , k ∈ . p + arc tan a
2 p
–
2

y
Now consider the inequality tan x < a. p
2
From the figure we can get the solution a

π
− + kπ < x < (arctan a + k π), k ∈ . arc tan a
2
x

p + arc tan a
p
–
2

Note
π
If the inequality is given with ≥ or ≤, the answer will include arctan a but exclude ± ,
2
π
because tan( ± ) is undefined.
2

246 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 198 Solve the inequality tan x > 1.
y
Solution Look at the figure. p
2 1
π
arctan1= , so the answer is p
4 4

π π
( + kπ) < x < ( + kπ), k ∈ .
4 2 x

p
– tan x
2

EXAMPLE 199 Solve the inequality tanx ≤ ñ3.

y
Solution Look at the figure. ñ3
p
2 p
π 3
We know arctan 3 = , so the answer is
3
π π
( − + kπ) < x ≤ ( + k π), k ∈ .
2 3
x
Alternatively, we can write
⎛ π π ⎤
x ∈ ⎜ − + kπ, + kπ ⎥ , k ∈ .
⎝ 2 3 ⎦ –
p
2 tan x

EXAMPLE 200 Solve the inequality 3tan(4x – 5π )+ 3 ≥ 0.

Solution Rearranging the terms gives us y

p
π 3 2
tan(4 x − ) ≥ − . We know
5 3
3 π
arctan(– ) = – , so we have
3 6
π π π π x
(− + kπ) ≤ 4x − < ( + kπ) . Adding to
6 5 2 5
π 7π
each part gives ( + kπ) ≤ 4x < ( + k π). –
p ñ3
30 10 6 –
p 3
–
2 tan x
So the final answer is

π kπ 7 π kπ
( + ) ≤ x < ( + ), k ∈ .
120 4 40 4

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 247

EXAMPLE 201 Solve the inequality ñ3tan x ≥ 1 in [0, 2π].
3
Solution Rearranging the terms gives us tan x ≥ . y
p
3
2
3 π π
Since arctan = , the boundaries are ñ3
3 6 6 3 p
6
π 7π
and π + = . So we have
6 6 x

⎡ π π ⎞ ⎡ 7 π 3π ⎞ 7p
x∈ ⎢ , ⎟ ∪ ⎢ , ⎟. 6
⎣6 2 ⎠ ⎣ 6 2 ⎠
3p
2 tan x

d. Inequalities in cot x y
a cot x
Consider the inequality cot x > a and look at
arccot a
the figure. We can see that the inequality has
solution kπ < x < (arccot a + kπ), k ∈ .
x

p + arccot a

Now consider cot x < a. y

From the figure we can get the solution a
cot x
(arccot a + kπ) < x < (π + kπ), k ∈ .
arccot a

p + arccot a

Note
If the inequality is given with ≥ or ≤, the answer will include arccot a but exclude 0 and π,
because cot 0 and cot π are undefined.

248 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 202 Solve the inequality cot x > 1.
π π
Solution We know arccot 1= , so by the formula we have kπ < x < ( + kπ), k ∈ .
4 4

EXAMPLE 203 Solve the inequality 3cot 2x + ñ3 ≤ 0.

3
Solution Rearranging the terms gives us cot 2 x ≤ – . y
3 ñ3
–
3
3 2π cot x
We know arccot(– )= , so we have
3 3
2p
3
2π
( + kπ) ≤ (2 x < π + kπ) . Dividing all parts by
3 x
2 gives us the answer:

π kπ π kπ
( + ) ≤ x < ( + ), k ∈ .
3 2 2 2

EXAMPLE 204 Find all solutions of the inequality cot 2x ≥ –ñ3 in [0, 2π].
y
Solution Let us draw the figure.
5π
From the figure we have kπ < 2 x ≤ + kπ
6 5p
6
kπ 5π kπ
and so < x ≤ ( + ), k ∈ .
2 12 2
p x
If we replace k with 0, 1, 2 and 3 we get
11p
6

⎛ 5π ⎤ ⎛ π 11π ⎤ ⎛ 17 π ⎤ ⎛ 3 π 23 π ⎤
x ∈ ⎜ 0, ⎥ ∪⎜ , ⎥ ∪ ⎜ π, 12 ⎥ ∪ ⎜ 2 , 12 ⎥ .
⎝ 12 ⎦ ⎝ 2 12 ⎦ ⎝ ⎦ ⎝ ⎦
If k is greater than 3 or smaller than 0 then the answer is not in [0, 2π], so this is the
complete solution.

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 249

 Check Yourself 29
1. Solve the inequalities.
3 π
a. tan 3 x < b. tan( x – ) – 3 ≥ 0 c. 2tan 3x < 6
3 3

2. Solve the inequalities.

π
a. cot 3x ≤ –1 b. ñ3cot(2x + )≥1 c. 2cot 4x – 1 < 0
6

3. Solve the inequalities in the interval [0, π].

π π
a. tan(3 x + ) ≥ − 3 b. cot(2 x – ) <1
3 3
Answers

π kπ π kπ 2π 5π
1. a. − + < x< + , k ∈ b. + kπ ≤ x < + kπ, k ∈
6 3 18 3 3 6

π kπ 1 kπ
c. – + < x < arctan3 + , k ∈ Z
6 3 3 3
π kπ π kπ π kπ π kπ
2. a. + ≤ x< + , k ∈ b. − + <x≤ + , k∈
4 3 3 3 12 2 12 2
1
arccot
π kπ 2 + kπ , k ∈
c. + < x<
4 4 4 4
⎡ π ⎞ ⎡ π 7 π ⎞ ⎡ 4 π 13 π ⎞ ⎡7 π ⎤
3. a. ⎢0, ⎟∪⎢ , ⎟∪⎢ , ⎟∪ , π⎥
⎣ 18 ⎠ ⎣ 9 18 ⎠ ⎣ 9 18 ⎠ ⎣⎢ 9 ⎦
⎡ π ⎞ ⎛ 7 π 2 π ⎞ ⎛ 19 π ⎤
b. ⎢0, ⎟ ∪ ⎜ , ⎟∪⎜ , π⎥
⎣ 6 ⎠ ⎝ 24 3 ⎠ ⎝ 24 ⎦

2. Advanced Trigonometric Inequalities

Some problems may ask us to solve more complex trigonometric inequalities. The inequality
may include one type of trigonometric ratio but with different powers, or it may include two
or more different types of ratio. Alternatively, the expression may include one type of trigono-
metric ratio with two boundaries.
1. If the question has two inequalities (for example, a < cos x < b), we can draw a unit
circle and find the answer on the circle by using the methods we have already seen.
2. If the inequality contains a trigonometric ratio with different powers, we can try to
factorize it. By using substitutions we can change the inequality into a quadratic
inequality and then solve it. We can then use this to write the final solution.

250 Algebra 10
 3. If the problem involves more than one type of trigonometric ratio, we can try to simplify
or factorize it by using the methods that we have learned in the previous sections. We can
use summation formulas, sum to product or product to sum formulas, trigonometric
identities or other types of substitution to simplify the expression.
4. If we have a system of trigonometric inequalities, we can try to solve each inequality
separately and then find their common solution.
For some questions we may have to use a combination of methods to obtain the solution. Let
us look at some examples.

EXAMPLE 205 Solve the inequality − 21 < cos x ≤ 2

2
.

Solution Look at the figure. We can use y

2p p
3 4
2 π 1 2π
arccos = and arccos( − ) = , and
2 4 2 3
π 2π
find the other boundaries as – and − .
4 3 –
1 ñ2 x
2 2
Now we are ready to write the solution as the
2p –p
–
union of the two regions in the figure: 3 4

⎡π 2π ⎞ ⎛ 2π π ⎤
⎢ 4 + 2kπ, 3 + 2kπ ⎟ ∪ ⎜ − 3 + 2 nπ, − 4 + 2 nπ ⎥ , k, n ∈ .
⎣ ⎠ ⎝ ⎦

EXAMPLE 206 Solve the inequality 2

3 1
> sin x > .
2
y
Solution Let us draw the figure. 2p p
3 3
3 π 1 π 5p p
Using arcsin = and arcsin = , we 6 6
2 3 2 6
can find the other boundaries as
x
π 5π π 2π
π− = and π − = .
6 6 3 3
The answer is the union of the intervals:

π π 2π 5π
( + 2 kπ, + 2 kπ) ∪ ( + 2 n π, + 2 n π), k, n ∈ .
6 3 3 6

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 251

EXAMPLE 207 Solve the inequality |tan x| ≤ 1.
Solution We can rewrite this inequality as y
3p p 1
–1 ≤ tan x ≤ 1. 4
4

Let us draw the figure. We have

π π
arctan1= and arctan( −1) = − , so the x
4 4
π π
answer is [− + kπ, + kπ], k ∈ . 3p
4 4 – p
4 – –1
4

EXAMPLE 208 Solve the inequality 2sin x + sin x – 1 ≥ 0.

2

Solution First notice that the inequality contains a quadratic expression in sin x. Let us use the
substitution t = sin x and try to factorize the new expression. The inequality becomes
2t2 + t – 1 ≥ 0, which we can factorize as (2t – 1)(t + 1) ≥ 0. The roots of this expression are
1
t = and t = –1. Let us draw a table for the inequality:
2

1
–1 2

2t2 + t – 1 + – +

1
So the inequality is true for sin x ≤ –1 and sin x ≥ .
2
π
If sin x ≤ –1 then x = − + 2 kπ, k ∈ . (1)
2
1 π 5π
If sin x ≥ then + 2 n π ≤ x ≤ + 2 n π, n ∈ . (2)
2 6 6
π π 5π
(1) and (2) give us the solution: x = − + 2 kπ, k ∈ Z and + 2 n π ≤ x ≤ + 2 n π, n ∈ Z.
2 6 6

EXAMPLE 209 Solve the inequality 1 – 4cos x < 0.2

Solution Let us use the substitution t = cos x and try to factorize the expression:
1 1
1 – 4t2 = (1 – 2t)(1 + 2t) < 0. The roots are t = and t = − and the inequality is true for
2 2
1 1
t < – and t > .
2 2

252 Algebra 10
 1 2π 4π
So the solutions are cos x < − , i.e. + 2 kπ < x < + 2 k π, k ∈ , and
2 3 3
1 π π
cos x > , i.e. − + 2 nπ < x < + 2 n π, n ∈ .
2 3 3
⎛ 2π 4π ⎞ ⎛ π π ⎞
Finally, the answer is x ∈ ⎜ + 2kπ, + 2 k π ⎟ ∪ ⎜ − + 2 n π, + 2 n π ⎟, n, k ∈ .
⎝ 3 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 3 ⎠

EXAMPLE 210 Solve the inequality sin5x cos 3x − cos5 xsin 3 x< 2
3
.

Solution We can use the sum and difference formulas on the left-hand side:
sin 5x cos 3x – cos 5x sin 3x = sin (5x – 3x) = sin 2x.
3
So we need to solve sin 2 x < . From the y
2
4p p
3 π –
3 3
figure, the second boundary is arcsin = ñ3
2 3 2
π 4π
and the first boundary is −π − = − .
3 3 x

So we have

4π π
− + 2kπ < 2 x < + 2 k π, i.e.
3 3
2π π
( − + kπ) < x < ( + k π), k ∈ .
3 6

EXAMPLE 211 Solve the inequality (cos 2x – 3cos x) ≥ 1.

Solution It is difficult to work with the different ratios cos 2x and cos x, so let us use the formula
cos 2x = 2cos2x – 1 to get an inequality in cos x only. Then take 1 to the left side of the
inequality to get 2cos2x – 3cos x – 2 ≥ 0.
Using the substitution t = cos x gives us 2t2 – 3t – 2 ≥ 0.
1
By factorizing we have (2t + 1)(t – 2) ≥ 0. The roots are t = − and t = 2. Write a table:
2
1
–
2 2
2
2t – 3t – 2 + – +

1
So the solution is cos x ≤ – or cos x ≥ 2. The second inequality has no solution, so we only
2
1 2π 4π
need to consider cos x ≤ – ⇒ ( + 2 kπ) ≤ x ≤ ( + 2 kπ), k ∈ .
2 3 3

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 253

EXAMPLE 212 Solve the inequality (sin x – cos x) ≥ sin 2x. 2

Solution Expanding the power gives us sin2x – 2sin x cos x + cos2x ≥ sin 2x.
Using the identities sin2x + cos2x = 1 and 2sin x cos x = sin 2x, we can rewrite this
1
inequality as 1 – sin 2x ≥ sin 2x, i.e. 1 ≥ 2sin 2x and sin 2 x ≤ .
2
1 1 π π 7π
The boundaries for sin 2 x ≤are arcsin = and − π − = − .
2 2 6 6 6
7π π 7π π
So the solution is − + 2kπ ≤ 2 x ≤ + 2 k π, i.e. ( − + k π) ≤ x ≤ ( + k π), k ∈ .
6 6 12 12

⎧sin x > 0
EXAMPLE 213 Solve the system of inequalities ⎨⎩cos x ≤ 0 .
Solution Let us draw the unit circle and find the y y
answers on it.
In the first unit circle the answer is (0, π),
π 3π
In the second unit circle the answer is [ , ] x x
2 2

The intersection of these two answers gives us

π
the solution: x ∈ [ + 2kπ, π + 2 kπ), k ∈ . sin x > 0 cos x £ 0
2

⎪⎧tan x ≥ 3
EXAMPLE 214 Solve the system of inequalities ⎨
⎪⎩cot x <1
.

Solution Let us draw the unit circle and find the answers on it.

y
ñ3 y
p
2 1
p
6 p
4

x p x

tan x ³ ñ3 cot x < 1

π π
In the first unit circle the answer is [ + kπ, +kπ), k ∈ . (1)
3 2
254 Algebra 10
 π
In the second unit circle the answer is ( + πn, π + πn), n ∈ . (2)
4
π π
The intersection of (1) and (2) gives us the solution: x ∈ [ + kπ , + kπ), k ∈ .
3 2

Check Yourself 30
1. Solve the inequalities.
3 1
a. − < sin x ≤ b. |tan x| > ñ3 c. 8sin2x – 6sin x + 1 ≥ 0
2 2
1 6
d. cos 2 x < e. 4tan2x – tan x – 3 < 0 f. < 3+ 2 cos x
4 cos x +1
2
g. cos 2 2 x < sin 2 2 x+
2

2. Solve the inequality sin x + cos x > 0 in [0, 2π].

⎧ 2
⎪⎪sin x <
3. Solve the system of inequalities ⎨ 2 .
⎪ cos x ≥ 1
⎪⎩ 2
Answers
⎛ π π ⎤ ⎡ 5π 4π ⎞
1. a. ⎜ − + 2kπ, + 2kπ ⎥ ∪ ⎢ + 2 nπ, + 2 nπ ⎟ , n, k ∈
⎝ 3 6 ⎦ ⎣ 6 3 ⎠
π π π π
b. ( − + kπ, − + kπ) ∪ ( + n π, + n π), n, k ∈
2 3 3 2

1 1 π 5π
c. [− π − arcsin + 2kπ, arcsin + 2kπ] ∪ [ + 2 nπ, + 2 nπ], n, k ∈
4 4 6 6

π 2π 3 π
d. ( + kπ, + kπ), k ∈ e. − arctan + kπ < x < + k π, k ∈
3 3 4 4

π π π kπ 7 π kπ
f. ( − + 2kπ, + 2 kπ), k ∈ g. + < x< + , k∈
3 3 16 2 16 2
3π 7π ⎡ π π ⎞
2. [0, ) ∪ ( , 2 π] 3. ⎢ − + 2kπ, + 2kπ ⎟ , k ∈
4 4 ⎣ 3 4 ⎠

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 255

 ABUL WAFA BUZJANI
(10 June 940 - 15 July 998)

Abul Wafa Buzjani was a Muslim mathematician and astronomer.

He was born in Buzjan, Khorasan in Iran. His extended name is
Abu al-Wafa Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Yahya ibn Ismail
ibn al-Abbas al-Buzjani.

When he was nineteen years old, Abul Wafa moved to Iraq. He

made many discoveries in mathematics and astronomy. Abul Wafa
worked mostly on trigonometry and wrote many books, but many
of them are lost today.

Abul Wafa also studied the movement of the moon. There is a

crater on the moon with his name. He also invented a wall
quadrant for the calculation of measurements in astronomy.

Abul Wafa is known as the father of the basic rules of plane

trigonometry and spherical trigonometry. He introduced the
terms ‘secant’ and ‘cosecant’ to mathematics and improved
methods for calculating trigonometric tables. He also developed
new methods for solving some problems in spherical triangles.

In spherical trigonometry, he studied and developed the

properties of the sine function. He also established some of the
basic trigonometric identities and formulas, including

sin(a + b) = sin a ⋅ cos b + cos a ⋅ sin b

sin 2a = 2sin a ⋅ cos a

cos 2a = 1 – 2sin2a

sin2a = 1 – cos2a.

Abul Wafa discovered the law of sines for spherical triangles that Spherical triangles
sin A sin B sin C
is = = .
sin a sin b sin c
The works of Abul Wafa were translated to Western languages
beginning in the 12th century. He is a well-known
mathematician, and many books have been written about him.

Abul Wafa died on 15 July 998 in Baghdad, Iraq.

 NASIR AL-DIN AL-TUSI
(18 Feb 1201 - 26 June 1274)

Nasir al-Din al-Tusi was born in 1201 in Tus, Khorasan in Iran.

His extended name is Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn al
Hasan al-Tusi, but he is known as just Tusi in the West.
Tusi was a Muslim mathematician, astronomer, chemist,
biologist, physicist and scientist. He also studied Islamic
theology and philosophy.
Tusi began his studies at an early age. In Tus he studied the
Koran, hadith, logic, philosophy, mathematics, astronomy and
medicine. Later he traveled to different places to study and to
attend the lectures of famous scholars. He went to Nishapur to
study philosophy and mathematics. After the attack of the
Mongols he went to Mosul and other places, and during this
time he made his most important contributions to science.
Finally he joined Hulagu Khan’s army. Tusi died in 26 June
1274 in Kadhimiya, Iran, and left about 150 works on different
subjects.
A 60 – kilometer diameter crater on the moon was named
Nasireddin, in honor of Tusi. The minor planet 10269 Tusi was
also discovered by a Russian astronomer and given his name.
Tusi was the first scientist to treat trigonometry as a separate
mathematical discipline, different from astronomy. He also gave
the first extensive description of spherical trigonometry, and he
was the first person to list the six distinct cases of a right
triangle in spherical trigonometry.

Tusi formulated the law of sines for plane triangles:

a b c
= = . He also wrote the same formula for
sin A sin B sin C
spherical triangles and proved these laws. In 1265, Tusi wrote a
manuscript regarding the calculation for the nth roots of an
integer. He studied binomial expansions, and used Pascal’s
triangle before Pascal.
Today Tusi’s work lives on in his many books about
mathematics, biology, astronomy and chemistry.
EXERCISES 3 .4
A. Types of Trigonometric Equation 3. Solve the equations.
1. Solve the equations. a. tan x = –1
2 3
a. sin x = b. sin x = − b. 3tan 2x – ñ3 = 0
2 2
c. 6sin 2x + 3 = 0 d. 2sin 3x – ñ3 = 0 2π
c. 2 tan(5 x − ) −2=0
3
π
e. 2 sin( x − )+ 3 = 0 f. 4sin 5x = 0 d. 3tan(3x + 24°) – ñ3 = 0
5
x π x π
g. sin( − ) = −1 e. tan( + ) = 2
3 4 3 2
3π
3π f. tan( x − ) = 0
h. 2 sin( + 2 x) − 1= 0 i. 3sin 4x + 2 = 0 2
2
x
j. sin( π − ) − 1= 0
2
x 2 sin 2 x
k. 2 sin( − 2 π)+ 2 = 0 l. =1
2 3 4. Solve the equations.
a. cot x = 1

b. cot 4x = ñ3

c. 1 – cot 2x = 2
π
d. 3cot(3 x − )+ 3 = 0
3
π x
e. cot( − ) = −1
2 3
2. Solve the equations.
x
2 f. 2 cot( − ) − 4 = 0
a. cos x = b. 2cos x + ñ3 = 0 2
2
π 2
c. cos(5 x − ) = d. 3cos 4x – 4 = 0
4 2
e. 2cos 3x – ñ3 = 0
5. Find the sum of the roots of each equation in the
2π interval 700° < x < 1000° in degrees.
f. cos(2 x + ) = −1
3
1
g. cos(5x – 30°) = 1 a. cos 3 x =
2
π 2 2
h. cos( − 2 x) = in [0, 2 π] b. sin 2 x =
2 2 2
3π x π
i. cos( + ) = 0 in [0, 2 π] c. tan( x + ) = 3
2 3 3

258 Algebra 10
 6. Solve the equations. 9. Solve the equations.

a. cos 3x + cos 5x = 0 a. sin 3x = sin 30°

b. 4cos22x + 2cos 2x = 0 b. cos 4x = cos 20°

2
c. 2cos x + cos x = 1 π
c. tan x = tan
3cos x 4
d. cos 2 x +1= x
2 d. cot = cot15 °
2
e. cos 2x = sin x + 1

f. cos 3x + cos 5x = 2cos 4x

sin 3x cos 3 x
10. Solve = .
sin x cos x

7. Solve the equations.

a. sin 2x – sin x = 0
1 π π
b. (sin 3 x cos 2 x)+(cos 3 xsin 2 x) = 11. Solve tan(2 x + ) = cot( x − ) .
2 4 3
c. sin 6x = sin 2x

d. 2sin 3x = 1

e. cos 2x = 3cos x + 1 in [0, 2π] 12. Solve each linear equation in sin x and cos x.
2 sin x − 2 a. 3sin x – 3cos x = 5
f. = 0 in [0, 2 π]
2 sin x + 3 b. 3cos x – 4sin x = 5
g. sin(2x + 10°) – sin(2x – 10°) = 0
c. 12sin x + 5cos x = 13
d. ñ2sin x + ñ2cos x = 1
3 2
h. 4sin x + 2sin x – 2sin x = 1
e. ñ3sin x – cos x = 1
›f. sin x – 2cos x = 1
8. Solve the equations.
2 tan 3 x
a. = 3
1 − tan 2 3x
b. tan2x + tan x – 2 = 0

c. cot2x – 1 = 0
13. Solve the homogeneous equations.
cot 3x − cot x
d. =− 3 a. 2sin x + cos x = 0
1+ cot 3 x cot x
e. tan x + cot x = 2 b. 3sin x – ñ3cos x = 0

x c. sin2x + sin x cos x – 2cos2x = 0

f. cot − cos x =1
2 d. sin2x – 2sin x cos x – 3cos2x = 0

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 259

14. Find the maximum and minimum values of each 20. For which values of a does the equation
function. ›
a
5− = 3tan x have a solution?
a. f(x) = 3sin x + 4cos x cos x
b. f(x) = ñ3sin x + cos x
c. f(x) = 2sin x – ñ5cos x
d. f(x) = sin x – cos x π
21. Solve arccos x+ arctan x = .
› 2

15. Find the range of each function.

a. f(x) = 5sin x – 12cos x + 13
b. f(x) = ñ7sin x + ñ2cos x + 1 ⎧ π
⎪x + y = 4
c. f(x) = sin x + ñ3cos x – 3 22. Solve the system of equations. ⎨
› ⎪
⎩tan x + tan y =1

B. Further Trigonometric Equations

16. Solve |sin x – cos x| = sin x + cos x. 5
23. Solve tan2 x +cos 2 x = .
› 2

17. Solve each system of equations in the interval

[0, π].
24. Solve tan2x + cot2y – 2tan x – 4cot y + 5 = 0.
⎧ 1 ›
⎪sin x sin y = 4 ⎧sin( x + y) =1
a. ⎪⎨ b. ⎪⎨
⎪ π ⎪⎩sin( x − y) =1
⎪⎩ x + y = 3

⎧tan x + cot y =1 C. Trigonometric Inequalities

c. ⎪
⎨ π 25. Solve each inequality.
⎪x + y =
⎩ 4 1
a. sin 3x > −
2
π
b. 2 sin( x − )+1< 0
3
18. Find the roots of sin4 x + cos4 x = cos 4x in [0, 2π]. c. 2sin 2x + ñ2 ≥ 0

π 3
d. sin(3 x − ) ≤
5 2
19. Solve 1 – cos 2x = 2 sin x. e. 3sin 5x + 3 > 0

260 Algebra 10
26. Solve the trigonometric inequalities. 31. Solve the trigonometric inequalities.
1 π
a. cos 2 x > − b. 2 cos(2 x − ) < −1 a. tan2x < 3
2 3
b. tan2x + tan x – 2 > 0
x
c. 2 cos + 2 ≥ 0 d. 3cos x – 3 > 0
3 c. (cot2x – 1)(cot2x – 3) ≤ 0
x π
e. 2 cos( − ) − 3 > 0
2 3

27. Solve the trigonometric inequalities. 32. Solve the trigonometric inequalities.
2
a. tan 3x ≤ 1 b. 3tan 4x + ñ3 < 0 a. cos 4 x cos x + sin 4 xsin x ≥
2
x x
x 5π b. 1+ sin
2
≥ 4sin 3 x − cos 2
c. 3tan( − )+3 ≥ 0 d. tan 5x + ñ3 > 0 3 3
2 36
c. 2(sin x + cos x)2 ≥ 3
1
d. sin x cos x <
4
28. Solve the trigonometric inequalities. e. cos 2x + sin x – 1 < 0
x
a. cot 3x + ñ3 < 0 b. 2 cot + 2 ≥ 0
2

29. Solve the trigonometric inequalities. 33. Solve the trigonometric inequalities.
1 2 1 3 6 tan 3 x
a. − ≤ sin x < b. < cos x ≤ a. > 3 b. tan x – cot x > 0
2 2 2 2 tan 2 3x − 1
3 3
c. |sin x| ≥ d. − 3 < tan x ≤
2 3

e. |cot x| > 1

34. Solve each system of inequalities.

30. Solve the trigonometric inequalities. ⎧ 1
⎪sin x cos x ≤ 2 ⎧⎪tan x >1
a. ⎨ b. ⎨
a. sin x – 2sin x ≥ 0
2
⎪ ⎪⎩cot x ≥ −1
b. 2cos2x – cos x – 1 > 0 ⎩sin x + cos x ≥ 2

c. 6cos2x + cos x – 1 < 0 ⎧ 1

⎪sin x cos x > 4
d. 2sin2x – 1 ≤ 0 c. ⎨
⎪
e. 2cos4x – 3cos2x > –1 ⎩tan x ≥ 3

Trigonometry: Functions, Equations and Inequalities 261

CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 3A
1. (a – 3)x2 + (b + 1)y2 = 1 is the equation of a unit 5. This figure contains E B
a
circle. Find (a, b). seven identical
D
squares. What is C
A) (2, 1) B) (1, 2) C) (3, 2)
tan (∠EDB)?
D) (3, 4) E) (4, 0)

3 4 5 3 5
A) B) C) D) E)
4 3 4 5 3
⎛ 3 ⎞
2. P ⎜⎜ , b ⎟⎟ is a point on the unit circle. Given that
⎝ 2 ⎠
P is in the fourth quadrant, find b. 6. In the figure, A

1 3 1 3 BC = ò10 and
A) – B) – C) –1 D) E) x
2 2 2 2 1
tan α = .
3 a
Find AC = x. B ò10 C

1
A) 3ñ3 B) 3 C) ñ3 D) E) 1
3
3. sin x – cos x = 1 is given. What is sin x ⋅ cos x?
4

15 15 3 3 7 7. In the figure, A
A) B) C) D) E)
16 32 4 8 8 m(∠ABC) = 30°,
a
m(∠BCA) = 90° and
DB = DC.
What is tan (∠DAC)? 30°
B D C

4. In the figure, ABCD is a D C

A)
3
B)
5
C)
5
D) ñ3 E) 2ñ3
square with H 2 2 3
m(∠CKE) = 90°,
K
m(∠DHA) = 90°, E
DH = HK and a
8. Which one of the following is equivalent to
m(∠DAH) = α.
sin 40°?
Find tan α. A B
A) sin 220° B) cos 140° C) sin 50°
7 3 3 2 1
A) B) C) D) E)
2 2 4 3 2 D) sin (–40°) E) cos (–50°)

262 Algebra 10
 9. Which one of the following is not equivalent to 13. In the figure, A
⎛π ⎞ ABC is a triangle
sin ⎜ − α ⎟ ? x
⎝ 2 ⎠ with AB = 10 cm,
DE = BE = 5 cm, D
⎛π ⎞
A) sin ⎜ 2 + α ⎟ B) cos (2π – α) C) cos (–α) EC = 3 cm and
⎝ ⎠
5 4
DC = 4 cm.
D) cos α E) sin (–α)
Find AD = x.
B 5 E 3 C

A) 2 B) 4 C) 6 D) 8 E) 10

3 4
10. = is given. Find the positive value of
cos x sin x
14. ABC is a triangle such that A( ΔABC ) = 15 2 cm 2 ,
cos x. 2
a = 5 cm and c = 6 cm. Which one of the
2 2 3 4 3 following is a possible value of m(∠B)?
A) B) C) D) E)
3 5 5 5 5
A) 150° B) 135° C) 120° D) 90° E) 60°

15. In the figure, D

11. A AB ⊥ AE, 5
A 6
x 135°
AB = 8 cm, C 9 E
ñ2
AC = 6 cm,
8
CE = 9 cm and
B ò10 C
CD = 5 cm.
Find x in the figure. Find A(ΔCDE). B

54
A) 1 B) ñ2 C) 2 D) 2ñ2 E) 4 A) cm 2 B) 12 cm2 C) 18 cm2
5
72
D) cm 2 E) 15 cm2
5

12. Find x in the figure. A 6

B 16. An inscribed triangle has side lengths of 3, 7 and
2
C 5
8 units respectively. Find the circumference of its
x circumscribed circle.
4
7 14 3
A) 7ñ3π units B) π units C) π units
D E 3 3
12
7 3 3 3
D) π units E) π units
A) 5 B) 6 C) 8 D) 10 E) 12 7 7

Chapter Review Test 3A 263

CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 3B
1. Find m(∠B) = α A 5. In the figure, G D
in the figure. ABCDEFGH is a cube. F E
23°41¢57¢¢ Find tan (∠GBH).

H
a 52°15¢23¢¢ a C
B C D A B

A) 28° 34′ 26′′ B) 27° 33′ 26′′ 1 2 1 3

A) B) C) D) E) ñ3
3 3 2 2
C) 27° 34′ 26′′ D) 28° 33′ 26′′

E) 29° 33′ 26′′

6. The figure contains A M

2. Find the primary directed angle of –3333°.
five identical L
A) 277° B) 267° C) 263° D) 257° E) 253° squares. What is B
J I H
K
sin (∠ALM)?
3. In the figure, ABCD A D
C D E F G
is a trapezoid and 1 1 2 3
3
5 x A) B) C) D) E)
α and β are 2 2 5 5 5
a
complementary
b
angles, BD = 5 B C
4
and tan α = .
3
Find DC = x. 7. π < θ < 3π and sin θ = – 1 are given. What is
2 4
5 4 15 20 tan θ – sec θ ?
A) B) C) 12 D) E)
12 15 5 4 3
15 15 15 15 15
A) B) C) D) − E) −
3 5 15 5 3
4. In the figure, AB = BC A
3
and cos B = .
5
Find cot C.
8. π < β < π and sin 2 β = 12 are given. What is
4 2 13
B C tan β + cot β ?

1 3 4 5 1 1 24 6 13
A) 2 B) C) D) E) A) B) C) D) E)
2 4 3 4 13 13 13 13 6

264 Algebra 10
 9. Which expression is equivalent to 13. In the figure, A

⎛ 3π ⎞ ⎛ 17 π ⎞ m(∠ABC) = 90°,
cos ⎜ + x ⎟ + sin ⎜ – x ⎟+ tan (2 π – x)?
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ AD = 2, DB = 4 2

A) cos x + sin x + tan x and BC = 3.

D
Find sin θ.
B) cos x – sin x – tan x
C) – cos x + sin x – tan x 4 q
D) – cos x – sin x + tan x
E) cos x + sin x – tan x B 3 C

2 11 2 11 2
A) B) C) D) E)
5 5 5 5 11 2 5
10. Which one of the following is false?
A) sin 40° = cos 50°
B) tan 210° = cot 30°
π
C) tan 45° = cot 225° 14. a + b = is given.
3
D) sec 89° = csc 1° Evaluate (sin a – sin b)2 + (cos a + cos b)2.
E) sin 280° = –cos 10°
A) 0 B) 1 C) 2 D) 3 E) 4

sin 15 ° cos 15 ° 15. In the figure,

11. Find the value of + . E
D C
sin 45 ° cos 45 °
ABCD is a square and
3 3 3 ⋅ DE = AB.
A) –ñ3 B) − C) 0 D) E) ñ3 F
2 2 Find csc α. a

A B

1 5 2 7
A) B) C) 5ñ2 D) E) 7
5 2 7 5 2

⎡π 3π ⎤ 1 1
12. x ∈ [0, π], y ∈ ⎢ , , cos x = – and sin y=
⎣2 2 ⎥⎦ 3 2
are given. Find cos (x + y).
1
16. cos x = is given. If x is an acute angle, find
− 3 −2 2 3+2 2 3−2 2 3
A) B) C) sin 2x.
6 6 6
1 2 2− 3 2 2 2 2 2 4 2 8 2
D) E) A) B) C) D) E)
6 6 2 3 9 9 9

Chapter Review Test 3B 265

CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 3C
72 π 5. In the figure, ABCD is D C
1. Find the primary directed angle of − a
.
5 rectangle with
2π 3π 4π 8π AB = 3 ⋅ AD.
7π
A) B) C) D) E) What is a possible
5 5 5 5 5
value of tan α?
A B
2. Find the coordinates of the terminal point of an
3π 1 3 1 1 10
arc in standard position with length on the A) B) C) D) E)
4 10 10 3 6 3
unit circle.

⎛ 1 3⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
A) ⎜ − , B) ⎜ − 2 , 2 ⎟ C) ⎜ 2 , − 2
⎜ 2 2 ⎟⎟ ⎜ 2 ⎟
2 ⎠ ⎜ 2 2
⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎝ ⎠
6. In the figure, ABC is a A
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
D) ⎜ 1 , − 3 ⎟ E) ⎜ − 2 , − 2 ⎟ right triangle with
⎜2 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜ 2 2 ⎟⎠ 45°
⎝ ⎝ m(∠B) = 90°,
m(∠BAC) = 45°, D 2ñ6
3. In the figure, ABC A m(∠ACD) = 15° and
is a right triangle AC = 2ñ6. Find DC.
15°
with altitude AH. 6
B C
CH = 4 and
AC = 6 are given.
B H C
A) 4 B) 2ñ3 C) ñ6 D) 2 E) 5
Find sin B. 4

3 2 1 1 1
A) B) C) D) E)
4 3 2 3 4
3
7. 0 < x < π and cos x = – are given. What is
4. The figure contains 5
A J I
csc x – sec x + tan x?
five identical
squares. What is 19 17 7 13 7
B K b H G A) B) C) D) − E) −
sin α + cos β ? 12 12 12 6 6
a

C D E F

2+ 5 1+ 5 3+ 5 8. cos 25° = a is given. Find sin 205° in terms of a.

A) B) C)
10 10 10 1
A) –a B) − C) 1 − a2
1+ 2 2+ 3 a
D) E)
10 10 D) − 1 − a2 E) a

266 Algebra 10
 9. cos 36° ≅ 0.8090 and cos 37° ≅ 0.7986 are given. 13. Which one of the following is equivalent to
Find cos (36° 15′). sin a + sin 3 a+ sin 5 a
?
cos a + cos 3 a+ cos 5 a
A) 0.8116 B) 0.8074 C) 0.8064
A) tan 3a B) cot 3a C) cot 4a
D) 0.8044 E) 0.8038
D) tan 6a E) tan 8a

10 . sin 36° ≅ 0.5878 and tan 42° ≅ 0.9004 are given.

Find (3 ⋅ cos 54°) – (2 ⋅ cot 48°).
14. 6x = π is given. Which one of the following is
A) 0.0374 B) 0.0274 C) –0.0174 tan 5 x + tan x
equivalent to ?
tan 5 x – tan x
D) –0.0274 E) –0.0374
A) 1 B) –1 C) 0 D) 3x E) 2x

4
11 . cos α = is given. If α is an acute angle, what is
5 π
α 15. a = is given. Which one of the following is
sin ? 20
2 sin 2 a – sin 4 a
equivalent to ?
sin 7 a ⋅ cos 9 a
1 4 3 4 1
A) − B) − C) D) E)
10 5 5 10 10 A) –3 B) –2 C) –1 D) 2 E) 3

12. sin 25° = a is given. Find the value of sin 40° in

terms of a. 1 1
16. What is + ?
A) 2a 2 2
B) 2a – 1 C) 1 – 2a 2 cos 195 ° sin 195 °
A) –2ñ2 B) –4ñ2 C) –2ñ6
1 – 2 a2
D) E) 2a2 + 1
a2 +1 D) –4ñ6 E) –6ñ2

Chapter Review Test 3C 267

CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 3D
1. What is 240° in radians? 5. A triangle ABC has side lengths a = 5 and b = 3.
Find c if m(∠C) = 60°.
3π 5π 7π 4π 11π
A) B) C) D) E)
4 3 6 3 6 21
A) 6 B) ò19 C) D) 4 E) ò17
2

1 sin x ⋅ tan x
2. In a right triangle, cos x = . Find .
3 cot 2 x 6. In a triangle ABC, m(∠A) = 60°, m(∠C) = 15°,
64 6 2 81 2 and N is a point on BC such that AN bisects ∠A
A) B) C) and BN = 4 cm. Find the length of AB.
3 5 2
17 8 2 A) 4ñ2 B) 3ñ3 C) 6ñ2 D) 2ñ3 E) 4
D) E)
3 3

7. A triangle ABC has the property

3cos x + 2 sin x 2
3. If = , what is cot x? sin2A + sin2B = sin2C.
2 cos x − sin x 3
Find m(∠C).
8 7 7 9 8
A) B) – C) D) E) –
5 4 4 5 5 A) 30° B) 45° C) 60° D) 90° E) 120°

sin x cos x
⋅ 5
4. Simplify tan x cot x . 8. x and y are acute angles. If sin x = and
13
1 − sin 2 x 3
cos y = , find sin(x – y).
A) 1 – tan x B) cos x C) 1 5
2
cos x 33 63 33 13 14
D) tan x E) A) B) C) – D) E) –
sin x 65 65 65 48 65

268 Algebra 10
 9. Find cos 75°. 13. What ratio is not equal to sin 15°?

6+ 2 3− 2 2− 6 A) sin 165° B) –cos 255° C) cos 75°

A) B) C)
4 2 2
D) sin 105° E) –cos 105°
6 −2 6− 2
D) E)
4 4

3 sin 410 ° ⋅ sin 210 ° ⋅ tan105 °

10. 90° < x < 180° and sin x = are given. 14. Simplify .
5 cot( −15 °) ⋅ cos 220 °
Find sin 2x + cos 2x.
2 1 1
27
A) B) 0 C) D) – E) 1
7 17 7 2 2 2 2
A) B) – C) D) – E) –
25 25 5 25 5

π 2
11. Given that 0 < x < and sin x − cos x = , find
2 3
cos 2x. sin105 ° + sin15 °
15. Simplify .
cos105 °+ cos15 °
2 14 5 13
A) B) C) 3 3
9 9 13 A) B) ñ3 C) –ñ3 D) – E) 1
3 3
3 14 4
D) E)
14 9

sin15° ⋅ cos15 °
12. Calculate .
tan15° ⋅ cot15 ° 16. Simplify cos 20° ⋅ cos 40° ⋅ cos 60° ⋅ cos 80°.
2 3 3+ 2 1 1 1 1 3 2 1
A) B) C) D) E) A) B) C) D) E)
3 4 4 4 2 16 8 8 32 2

Chapter Review Test 3D 269

CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 3E
(sin0° ⋅ cos 90 °)+ tan0 ° − cos180 ° 5. Write the signs of the trigonometric ratios
1. Calculate .
2sin 270 °+cot 90 ° sin 233°, cos 125°, tan 500° and sec 200° in order.
1 1
A) B) – C) 1 D) –1 E) 0 A) –, –, –, – B) –, –, +, +
2 2
C) –, +, –, + D) +, –, –, +

E) –, +, –, –

2. Find the range of f(x) = 3sin 4x + 5.

A) [3, 4] B) [–1, 1] C) [–7, 17]

D) [2, 8] E) [3, 5]
6. Which ratio is the biggest?

A) sin 250° B) cos 300° C) sec 80°

D) cot 250° E) tan 80°

π
3. Find the domain of f ( x) = 2 tan(2 x + ) − 5.
3

π kπ π
A) x ≠ + , k∈ B) x ≠ + kπ, k ∈
6 2 6
π kπ π
C) x ≠ + , k∈ D) x ≠ + kπ, k ∈
12 2 12 7. Find the fundamental period of f(x) = 3sin3 5x.
π
E) x ≠ + kπ, k ∈ π π 2π 2π 2π
2 A) B) C) D) E)
5 3 3 15 5

4. In which expression is x undefined?

7 8. Find the fundamental period of

A) cos x = B) tan x = 28
3
3 f(x) = tan 3x + sin2 2x.
C) sec x = 12 D) sin x =
2 π 5π π
E) cot x = 0.001 A) 2π B) C) D) π E)
2 6 6

270 Algebra 10
 2x
9. Find the fundamental period of f ( x) = sin . 12. Find the domain of f(x) = arccos(2x – 3).
π
A) π B) π2 C) 2 D) 4 E) 2π A) [1, 2] B) [–1, 1] C) [–5, –1]

D) [1, 5] E) (–∞, ∞)

10. The graph of the function f(x) = sin x is given.

Which of the following operations should be
combined to draw the graph of 1
13. Calculate arccos( − ).
f(x) = sin(2x – 3) + 1? 2
I. move the graph 3 units left π π 5π 2π π
A) B) – C) – D) E)
II. move the graph 3 units right 3 3 3 3 6

III. move the graph 3 units down

IV. move the graph 1 unit up
V. move the graph 1 unit down
VI. divide all values on the x–axis by 2
2
VII. multiply all values on the x–axis by 2 14. Calculate sin(arccos ).
3
A) I, IV, VII B) I, V, VI C) IV, II, VI 2 1 5 2 5
A) B) C) D) – E)
3 3 2 3 3
D) II, IV, VII E) II, V, VI

11. What is the equation of the graph? π 3

15. Calculate cos( + arctan ).
2 4
y
p 3p 4 3 4 4 3
2 p 2 2p A) B) – C) – D) E)
–1
x 5 5 5 3 5

–3

–5

A) y = 2cos 2x – 3 B) y = 2 sin 2x – 3 5 4
16. Calculate sin(arccos + arccot ).
C) y = 3 cos 2x – 2 D) y = 3 sin 2x + 2 13 3
E) y = 3 cos 2x + 2 33 37 63 13 20
A) B) C) D) E)
65 39 65 65 39

Chapter Review Test 3E 271

CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 3F
1. Solve 2cos 3x – 1 = 0. 6. Solve 3sin x – 5 cos x = 0.
π π 2kπ 5
A) ± + 2kπ, k ∈ B) ± + , k∈ A) arctan + kπ, k ∈
9 9 3 3
π π 2kπ 4
C) ± + 2kπ, k ∈ D) ± + , k∈ B) arc cot + kπ, k ∈
3 3 3 3
π 2 kπ 3
E) ± + , k∈ C) arcsin + 2 kπ, k ∈
18 3 5
3
D) arctan + 2 kπ, k ∈
5
2. Which of the following is not a solution of 5
E) arc cot + 2 kπ, k ∈
2
2sin x – 1 = 0? 3

A) 45° B) 135° C) 225° D) 425° E) 585°

3. What is the sum of the roots of 2cos2x – cos x = 0

7. What are the maximum and minimum values of
in [0, 2π]?
f(x) = 4 sin x – 5 cos x?
11π 17 π
A) 2π B) C) 4π D) E) 6π A) 3, –3 B) 5, –5 C) ò41, –ò41
3 3
D) 9, –9 E) ñ7, –ñ7
π π
4. Solve tan(3x − ) = tan .
3 4

7π kπ π kπ
A) + , k∈ B) + , k∈ 8. Find the roots of sin 2x + cos x = 0 in [–π, π].
12 2 12 3
π kπ 7π kπ π 5π π π π π π π
C) + , k∈ D) + , k∈ A) − , – , − , B) − , − , ,
36 3 36 3 2 6 6 2 2 6 6 2
3π kπ π π π π π
E) + , k∈ C) −π, − ,π D) − , − , − ,
4 3 6 2 3 6 2
π π π π
E) − , − , ,
4 6 4 2
5. Solve sin x – cos x = 1.
π π
A) + 2 kπ, k ∈ B) { + kπ, 2 nπ}, k, n ∈
2 2
2

C) 2kπ, k ∈
π
D) { + 2 kπ, 2 nπ}, k, n ∈ 9. Find the sum of the roots of cot x − 3 = 0 in
2 tan x +1
[0°, 540°].
π
E) { + 2kπ, π + 2 nπ}, k, n ∈
2 A) 1130° B) 720° C) 630° D) 1620° E) 1480°

272 Algebra 10
 ⎧sin x + cos y =1 π
10. Solve the system ⎪⎨ π. 13. Solve cot(2 x + ) − 3 < 0 .
x+ y = 6
⎪⎩ 2
π π
A) ( + 2 kπ, − 2 kπ), k ∈ ⎛ 5π ⎞
6 3 A) ⎜ kπ, + kπ ⎟ , k ∈
⎝ 6 ⎠
π π 5π π
B) ( + 2 kπ, − 2 kπ) ∪( +2 nπ, − − 2 nπ), k, n ∈ ⎛ kπ 5π kπ ⎞
6 3 6 3 B) ⎜ , + ⎟, k ∈
5π π ⎝ 2 12 2 ⎠
C) ( + 2kπ, − − 2kπ), k ∈ ⎛π 5π ⎞
6 3 C) ⎜ + kπ, + kπ ⎟ , k ∈
⎝ 6 6 ⎠
π
D) ( + 2 kπ, 2 kπ), k ∈ ⎛π ⎞
2 D) ⎜ + kπ, π + kπ ⎟, k ∈
⎝6 ⎠
π π π
E) ( + 2 kπ, 2 kπ) ∪ ( + 2 n π, + 2 n π), k, n ∈ ⎛ π kπ 5π kπ ⎞
2 6 3 E) ⎜ + , + ⎟, k ∈
⎝ 12 2 12 2 ⎠

2
11. Solve sin x ≤ .
2
14. Solve –1 < tan x ≤ ñ3.
⎡ π π ⎤
A) ⎢ − + 2kπ, + 2kπ ⎥ , k ∈
⎣ 4 4 ⎦ ⎛π 3π ⎤
A) ⎜ + kπ, + kπ ⎥ , k ∈
⎝3 4 ⎦
⎡π 3π ⎤
B) ⎢ + 2kπ, + 2 kπ ⎥ , k ∈ ⎛ π π ⎤
⎣ 4 4 ⎦ B) ⎜ − + kπ, + kπ ⎥ , k ∈
⎡ 5π π ⎤ ⎝ 4 6 ⎦
C) ⎢ − + 2kπ, + 2k π ⎥ , k ∈
⎣ 4 4 ⎦ ⎛ π π ⎤
C) ⎜ − + kπ, + kπ ⎥ , k ∈
⎡ 5π 3π ⎤ ⎝ 4 3 ⎦
D) ⎢ − + 2kπ, − + 2k π ⎥ , k ∈
⎣ 4 4 ⎦ ⎡ π π ⎞
D) ⎢ − + kπ, + kπ ⎟ , k ∈
⎡π 3π ⎤ ⎣ 3 4 ⎠
E) ⎢ + 2kπ, + 2 kπ ⎥ , k ∈
⎣4 4 ⎦ ⎛ π π ⎤
E) ⎜ − + 2kπ, + 2kπ ⎥ , k ∈
⎝ 4 3 ⎦
π 3
12. Solve cos(3 x − ) ≥ .
3 2
15. Solve 2cos2x + 3cos x – 2 > 0.
⎡π π ⎤
A) ⎢ + 2kπ, + 2kπ ⎥ , k ∈
⎣18 6 ⎦ ⎛ π π ⎞
A) ⎜ − + 2kπ, + 2 kπ ⎟, k ∈
⎝ 3 3 ⎠
⎡π π ⎤
B) ⎢ + 2 kπ, + 2 kπ ⎥ , k ∈ ⎛ π π ⎞
⎣6 2 ⎦ B) ⎜ − + 2kπ, + 2 kπ ⎟, k ∈
⎡ π 2 k π π 2 k π ⎤ ⎝ 6 6 ⎠
C) ⎢ + , + , k∈
⎣9 3 6 3 ⎥⎦ ⎛π 2π ⎞
C) ⎜ + 2 kπ, + 2 kπ ⎟, k ∈
⎡ π 2kπ π 2kπ ⎤ ⎝ 3 3 ⎠
D) ⎢ − + , + , k∈
⎣ 18 3 6 3 ⎥⎦ D) ( − arccos 2+ 2 kπ,arccos 2+ 2 k π), k ∈
⎡ π 2kπ π 2kπ ⎤
E) ⎢ + , + , k∈ ⎛ π π ⎞
⎣18 3 6 3 ⎥⎦ E) ⎜ − + kπ, + 2 kπ ⎟ , k ∈
⎝ 2 3 ⎠
Chapter Review Test 3F 273
 APPLICATÝON SAYFASI
GELECEK

274 Algebra 10
A. TANGENTS
The word ‘tangent’ comes from the Latin word tangens, which means ‘touching’. Thus, a
y
tangent line to a curve is a line that “just touches” the curve. In other words, a tangent
line should be parallel to the curve at the point of contact. How can we explain this idea
clearly? Look at the figures below.
A

A A A
x
a tangent line to a curve B

original curve zoomed in once zoomed in twice

y
B

As we zoom in to the curve near the point A, the curve becomes almost indistinguishable from
A
the tangent line. So, the tangent line is parallel to the curve at the point A.
How can we find the equation of a tangent to a curve at a given point? The graphs below
x show one approach.
a secant line to a curve t
y y
B(x, f(x)) B

f(x) – f(a) B

A(a, f(a)) A B
The slope of the line is
x–a
the tangent of the angle
between the line and the
positive x-axis.
a x x x

a a The first graph shows the curve y = f(x). The points A(a, f(a)) and B(x, f(x)) are two points on
this curve. The secant line AB has slope mAB, where
positive negative f (x) − f (a)
slope slope mAB = .
x−a
Now suppose that we want to find the slope of the tangent to the curve at point A. The
second graph above shows what happens when we move point B closer and closer to
zero no point A on the curve. We can see that the slope of the secant line AB gets closer and
slope slope closer to the slope of the tangent at A (line t). In other words, if m is the slope of the
tangent line, then as B approches A, mAB approaches m.

276 Algebra 10
 Definition tangent line
The tangent line to the curve y = f(x) at the point A(a, f(a)) is the line through A with the
slope
f (x) − f (a )
m = lim ,
x→ a x−a
provided that this limit exists.

Example 1 Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve y = x2 at the point A(1, 1).

Solution We can begin by calculating the slope of the tangent.

Here we have a = 1 and f(x) = x2, so the slope is

f (x) − f (1) x2 − 1
m = lim = lim
x →1 x −1 x →1 x − 1

The equation of a line (x − 1)(x +1)

through the point (x1, y1) m = lim = lim( x+1) =1+1= 2.
x →1 (x − 1) x →1
with slope m:
y – y1 = m(x – x1).
Now we can write the equation of the tangent at point (1, 1):
y – y1 = m(x – x1)
y – 1 = 2(x – 1)
y = 2x – 1.

Example 2 Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve y = x3 – 1 at the point (–1, –2).

Solution Here we have a = –1 and f(x) = x3 – 1, so the slope is

f ( x) – f ( −1) ( x3 − 1) − (( −1)3 − 1) x3 +1
m = lim = lim = lim
x→ –1 x – (–1) x→ –1 x +1 x→ –1 x +1

( x +1)( x2 – x + 1)
x3+ y3=(x+ y)(x2–xy+y2) m = lim
x→ –1 ( x +1)
m = lim( x2 – x +1) = (–1) 2 – (–1)+1
x→ –1

m = 3.

So the equation of the tangent line at (–1, –2) with slope m = 3 is

y – y1 = m(x – x1)
y – (–2) = 3(x – (–1))
y + 2 = 3x + 3
y = 3x + 1.

Differentiation 277
 We can also write the expression for the slope of a tangent line in a different way. Look at the
graphs below.
y y y=f(x)
B B
y=f(x)

A A

a a+h x h x
h
h
h

From the first graph, writing x = a + h gives us the slope of the secant line
f (a+ h) − f (a)
mAB = .
h
We can see in the second graph that as x approaches a, h approaches zero. So the
expression for the slope of the tangent line becomes:
f (a + h) − f (a )
m = lim .
h→0 h

THE SLOPE OF A TANGENT LINE TO A CURVE

The slope of a tangent line to a curve y = f(x) at x = a is

f (a + h) − f (a )
m = lim .
h→0 h

Example 3 Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve y = x3 at the point (–1, –1).

Solution Let f(x) = x3. Then the slope of the tangent at (–1, –1) is
f ( − 1+ h) − f (–1) ( −1+ h) 3 −( −1) 3
m = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
(–1)3 + 3(–1) 2 h+ 3(–1) h2 + h3 −(–1) 3
m = lim
(x+y)3=x3+3x2y+3xy2+y3 h→0 h
h(3 − 3h + h2 )
m = lim = lim(3 − 3 h+ h2 ) = 3.
h→0 h h→0

So, the equation of the tangent at point (–1, –1) is

y – (–1) = 3(x – (–1))
y + 1 = 3x + 3
y = 3x + 2.

278 Algebra 10
 Example 4 Find the equation of the normal line to the curve y =
2
x
at the point (2, 1).

Solution Recall that a normal line is a line which is perpendicular to a tangent. The product of the

slopes mt of a tangent and mn of a normal is –1.

Let us begin by finding the slope of the tangent.
2 2 2
– –1
f (2+ h) – f (2)
mt = lim = lim 2+ h 2 = lim 2+ h
h→ 0 h h→ 0 h h→ 0 h
2 – (2+ h) –h –1
mt = lim = lim = lim
h→ 0 h( h + 2) h → 0 h( h + 2) h → 0 2+ h

1
mt = – .
2
We have mt ⋅ mn = –1.

mn ⋅ mt = –1 –1 –1
The product of slopes of So, mn = = = 2.
mt 1
the tangent line and the –
normal line at a point 2
equals –1. The equation of the normal line passing through the

point (2, 1) with the slope mn = 2 is

y – y1 = mn(x – x1)
y – 1 = 2(x – 2)
y = 2x – 3.

Check Yourself 1
1. Find the equation of the tangent line to each curve at the given point P.
a. f(x) = x2 – 1 P(–1, 0)

b. f(x) = x3 + 1 P(0, 1)
1 1
c. f(x) = P( , 2)
x 2
2. Find the equation of the normal line at point P for each curve in the previous question.
Answers
1. a. y = –2x – 2 b. y = 1 c. y = –4x + 4

1 1
2. a. y = x+ b. x = 0 c. y = 1 x + 15
2 2 4 8

Differentiation 279
B. VELOCITIES
position at position at
Imagine you are in a car driving time t = 2 time t = 2+h

across a city. The velocity of the car

will not be constant. Sometimes
the car will travel faster, and
sometimes it will travel slower.

However, the car has a definite x

0
velocity at each moment. This is S(2 + h) – S(2)
called the instantaneous velocity of
S(2)
the car. How can we calculate the
instantaneous velocity?
S(2+h)
To answer this question, let us look at a simpler example: the motion of an object falling
through the air. Let g = 9.8 m/s2 be the acceleration of the object due to gravity. We know
from physics that after t seconds, the distance that the object will have fallen is
1 2
s(t) =gt meters or s(t) = 4.9 t2 meters.
2
Suppose we wish to calculate the velocity of the object after two seconds. We can begin by
calculating the average velocity over the time interval [2, 2 + h]:
distance travelled
average velocity =
elapsed time

s(2 + h) − s(2) 4.9(4 + 4h+ h2 − 4)

= = = 19.6 + 4 .9 h
h h

If we shorten the time period, the average velocity is becoming closer to 19.6 m/s, the value
of instantaneous velocity.
More generally, we can calculate the instantaneous velocity V(a)
of an object at time t = a by the limit of the average velocities:
s(a + h) − s( a)
V(a ) = lim
h→ 0 h
This is not the first time we see the above formula. It is the
same formula that we use for the slope of the tangent line to a
curve. Remember that
f (a + h) − f (a )
m = lim .
h→ 0 h
This means that the velocity at time t = a is equal to the slope
of the tangent line at A(a, s(a)).

280 Algebra 10
 Example 5 A stone is dropped from the top of the Eiffel Tower. What is the velocity of the stone after five
seconds?

Solution We use the equation of motion s(t) = 4.9t2 to find the

velocity V after five seconds:
s(5+ h) − s(5) 4.9(5+ h) 2 − 4.9(5) 2
V(5) = lim = lim
h →0 h h→0 h
4.9(25 +10 h+ h2 − 25) 4.9(10 h+ h2)
V(5) = lim = lim
h →0 h h→0 h
4.9h(10+ h)
V(5) = lim = lim(49+ 4.9 h) = 49 m/s.
h →0 h h→0

Example 6 A particle moves along a straight line with the equation of motion s(t) = t2 + 3t + 1, where
s(t) is measured in meters and t is in seconds.
a. Find the average velocity over the interval [1, 2].
b. Find the instantaneous velocity at t = 2.
Solution a. Average velocity is the ratio of distance travelled to elapsed time. So, we have
s(2) – s(1) (2 2 + 3 ⋅ 2+1) – (1 2 + 3 ⋅1+1)
average velocity = = = 6 m/s.
2 –1 1
b. Let V(2) be the velocity after two seconds.
s(2+ h) – s(2) ( h+ 2 )2 + 3 ⋅( h + 2) +1 −[2 2 + 3 ⋅2 +1]
V(2) = lim = lim
h→ 0 h h→ 0 h
h2 + 4h + 4+ 3h +6+1 − 11 h2 +7 h
V(2) = lim = lim = lim( h+7) = 7 m/s.
h→ 0 h h→ 0 h h→ 0

Check Yourself 2
1. A basketball player throws a ball upward at a speed of 20 m/s. This means that after t
seconds, the ball’s height will be s(t) = 20t – 4.9t2.
a. Find the average velocity of the ball over the interval [1, 2].
b. Find the instantaneous velocity of the ball after two seconds.
2. The displacement of a particle moving in a straight line is given by the equation of motion
s(t) = 2t3 + 3t – 2, where t is measured in seconds and s(t) is in meters.
a. Find the average velocity of the particle over the following intervals.
i. [1, 3] ii. [1, 4] iii. [2, 4]
b. Find the instantaneous velocity of the particle at each time.
i. t = 2 ii. t = 3 iii. t = 4
Answers
1. a. 5.3 m/s b. 0.4 m/s 2. a. i. 29 m/s ii. 45 m/s iii. 59 m/s b. i. 27 m/s ii. 57 m/s iii. 99 m/s

Differentiation 281
C. RATES OF CHANGE
In section A we learned how to find the slope of a tangent line and in section B we learned
how to calculate the instantaneous velocity of an object from a given acceleration. We can
say that acceleration is a rate of change: it shows how fast or slowly a quantity (the velocity)
changes from one moment to the next. Other examples of rates of change are how fast a
population grows, or how fast the temperature of a room changes over time.

The problem of finding a rate of change is mathematically equivalent to finding the slope of
a tangent line to a curve. To understand why, suppose y is a quantity that depends on
another quantity x. Thus, y is the function of x and we write y = f(x).

Look at the graph of f(x). If x increases by an amount h, then y increases by f(x + h) – f(x).
y y=f(x)

B(x+h, f(x+h))
f(x+h)
f(x+h) – f(x) is the
f(x+h) – f(x) change in y that corresponds
A(x, f(x)) to a change h in x.
f(x)
h
x x+h x

f (x+ h) − f (x)
The difference quotient is called the average rate of change of y with
h
respect to x over the interval [x, x + h] and can be interpreted as the slope of the secant line
AB. If we take the limit of the average rate of change, then we obtain the instantaneous rate
of change of y with respect to x, which is interpreted as the slope of the tangent line to the
curve y = f(x) at A(x, f(x)).

The following summarizes this part:

RATES OF CHANGE

1. The average rate of change of f over an interval [x, x + h] is

f (x+ h) − f (x)
.
h
2. The instantaneous rate of change of f(x) at a point x is
f (x + h) − f (x)
lim .
h→0 h

282 Algebra 10
 Example 7 A student begins measuring the air temperature in a room at eight o’clock in the morning.
2
She finds that the temperature is given by the function f (t ) =16+ t 2 °C, where t is in
3
hours. How fast was the temperature rising at 11:00?

Solution We are being asked to find the instantenous rate of change of the temperature at
t = 3, so we need to find the following limit:
f (3+ h) – f (3)
rate of change = lim
h →0 h
2 2
16 + (3 + h)2 – (16 + (3) 2 )
= lim 3 3
h →0 h
2 2
16+ ⋅ (9+6 h + h2 ) – 16 − ⋅ 9
= lim 3 3
h →0 h
2
(9 + 6 h + h2 – 9)
= lim 3
h →0 h
2h(6+ h)
= lim
h →0 3h
2
= lim(6+ h)
3 h →0
2
= ⋅ 6 = 4 °C per hour
3

Example 8 A manufacturer estimates that when he produces x units of a certain commodity, he earns
R(x) = x2 – 3x – 1 thousand dollars. At what rate is the revenue changing when the
manufacturer produces 3 units?

Solution We need to find the instantaneous rate of change of the revenue at x = 3, so

R(3+ h) – R(3) (3+ h) 2 – 3(3+ h) – 1 – (3 2 – 3 ⋅3 –1)

rate of change = lim =
h→ 0 h h
9+6 h + h2 – 9 – 3 h 3 h + h2
= lim = lim = lim(3+ h) = 3.
h→ 0 h h→ 0 h h→ 0

It follows that revenue is changing at the rate of $3000 per unit when 3 units are produced.

In conclusion, rates of change can be interpreted as the slope of a tangent. Whenever we

solve a problem involving tangent lines, we are not only solving a problem in geometry but
also solving a great variety of problems in science.

Differentiation 283
D. DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION
f (x+ h) − f (x)
Up to now we have treated the expression as a ‘difference quotient’ of the
h
function f(x). We have calculated the limit of a difference quotient as h approaches zero.

Since this type of limit occurs so widely, it is given a special name and notation.

Definition derivative of a function

The derivative of the function f(x) with respect to x is the function f ′(x) (read as “f prime of x”)
defined by
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′(x) = lim .
h→ 0 h
The process of calculating the derivative is called differentiation. We say that f(x) is
differentiable at c if f ′(c) exists.

Thus, the derivative of a function f(x) is the function f ′(x), which gives
1. the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f(x) at any point (x, f(x)),
2. the rate of change of f (x) at x.

FOUR-STEP PROCESS FOR FINDING f′(x)

1. Compute f(x + h).

2. Form the difference f(x + h) – f(x).
f (x+ h) − f (x)
3. Form the quotient .
h
f (x + h) − f (x)
4. Compute f ′(x) = lim .
h→ 0 h

Example 9 Find the derivative of the function f(x) = x2.

Solution To find f ′(x), we use the four-step process:

1. f(x + h) = (x + h)2 = x2 +2xh + h2
2. f(x + h) – f(x) = x2 + 2xh + h2 – x2 = 2xh + h2
2
3. f (x+ h) − f (x) = 2 xh+ h = h(2x+ h ) = 2x+ h
h h h
4. lim(2 x + h) = 2 x
h→ 0

Thus, f ′(x) = 2x.

284 Algebra 10
Example 10 Find the derivative of the function f(x) = x2 – 8x + 9 at x = 1.

Solution We apply the four-step process:

1. f(x + h) = (x + h)2 – 8(x + h) + 9 = x2 + 2xh + h2 – 8x – 8h + 9
2. f(x + h) – f(x) = x2 + 2xh + h2 – 8x – 8h + 9 – (x2 – 8x + 9) = 2xh + h2 – 8h
2
3. f (x+ h) − f (x) = h + 2 xh − 8h = h + 2x − 8
h h
f (x + h) − f (x)
4. lim = lim( h + 2 x − 8) = 2 x − 8
h→0 h h→0

So, f ′(x) = 2x – 8 and f ′(1) = 2 ⋅ 1 – 8 = –6.

This result tells us that the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f(x) at the point x = 1 is
–6. It also tells us that the function f(x) is changing at the rate of –6 units per unit change
in x at x = 1.

Example 11 Let f(x) =

1
x
.

a. Find f ′(x).
b. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f(x) at the point (1, 1).

1 1 h
− −
f (x + h) − f (x) x(x + h) 1 1
Solution a. f ′(x) = lim = lim x + h x = lim = lim( − )= − 2 .
h→0 h h → 0 h h→ 0 h h→ 0 x(x + h) x

b. In order to find the equation of a tangent line, we y

y = –x+2
have to find its slope and one point on the
tangent line. We know that the derivative gives us
the slope of the tangent. Let m be the slope of the 2
1
tangent line, then 1 y=
x

1 1 2 x
m = f ′(1) = −
= −1. 1
12 y=
x
So, the equation of the tangent line to the graph
of f(x) at the point (1, 1) with the slope m = –1
is
y – 1 = –1(x – 1)
y = –x + 2.
Differentiation 285
Example 12 The function f(x) = ñx is given. Find the derivative of f(x) and the equation of the normal
line to f(x) at the point x = 1.

f (x + h) − f (x) x+ h − x ⎛ x + h – x x+ h + x ⎞
Solution f ′(x) = lim = lim = lim ⎜ ⋅ ⎟
h→ 0 h h→ 0 h h→ 0
⎝ h x+ h + x ⎠
x+ h − x h 1
f ′(x)=lim = lim = lim
h→ 0
h( x + h + x ) h→ 0
h( x + h + x ) h→ 0
x+ h + x
1
f ′(x)=
2 x

Remember that if mt is the slope of a tangent and mn is the slope of a normal at the same
point, then mt ⋅ mn = –1. So, we can find the slope of the normal from the slope of the
tangent. Then we can write the equation of normal line to f(x) at the point x = 1.
The slope of the tangent is

1 1
mt = f ′(1) = = .
2⋅ 1 2
The slope of the normal is
1 1
mn = − = − = −2.
mt 1
2
The equation of the normal line is
y – y0 = mn ⋅ (x – x0)
y – 1 = –2(x – 1) (Note that y0 = f(x0), that is y0 = f(1) = 1)
y = –2x + 3.

Check Yourself 3
1. Find the derivative of the function f(x) = 2x + 7.
2. Let f(x) = 2x2 – 3x.
a. Find f ′(x).
b. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f(x) at the point x = 2.
3. Find the derivative of the function f(x) = x3 – x.
1
4. If f ( x) = , find the derivative of f(x).
x+ 2
Answers
1
1. 2 2. a. 4x – 3 b. y = 5x – 8 3. 3x2 – 1 4. −
2 ( x + 2)3

286 Algebra 10
E. LEFT-HAND AND RIGHT-HAND DERIVATIVES
When we were studying limits we learned that the limit of a function exists if and only if the
left-hand and the right-hand limits exist and are equal. Otherwise the function has no limit.
From this point, we may conclude that the derivative of a function f(x) exists if and only if
f ( x + h) − f ( x ) f ( x + h) − f ( x )
f ′( x− ) = lim− and f ′( x+ ) = lim+ exist and are equal.
h→ 0 h h→ 0 h
These expressions are respectively called the left-h hand derivative and the right-h hand
derivative of the function.

Example 13 Show that the function f(x)= ñx does not have a derivative at the point x = 0.

Solution Here we should find the left-hand derivative and the right-hand derivative. If they exist, then
we will check whether they are equal or not.
Let us find the left-hand derivative:
f (0 + h) − f (0) 0 +h − 0 h
f ′(0 − ) = lim− = lim− = lim− .
h→ 0 h h→ 0 h h→ 0 h
Since h < 0, ñh is undefined and this limit does not exist. So the left-hand derivative does
not exist either.
Thus, the function f(x)= ñx has no derivative at the point x = 0.

⎧⎪ x2 − 1, x ≥1
Example 14 f(x) is given as f ( x) = ⎨
⎪⎩2 x − 2, x < 1
.

Does this function have a derivative at the point x = 1?

Solution We will find the left-hand and the right-hand derivatives.

f (1 + h) − f (1) 2(1 + h) − 2 − 0 2h
f ′(1− ) = lim− = lim− = lim− =2
h→ 0 h h→ 0 h h→ 0 h
f (1 + h) − f (1) (1 + h) 2 − 1 − 0 h2 + 2 h
f ′(1+ ) = lim+ = lim+ = lim+ = lim( h + 2 ) = 2.
h→ 0 h h→ 0 h h→ 0 h h→ 0 +

The left-hand and the right-hand derivatives are equal to each other. Thus, the derivative of

the function at the point x = 1 exists and

f ′(1) = f ′(1–) = f ′(1+) = 2.

Differentiation 287
F. DIFFERENTIABILITY AND CONTINUITY
Recall that if f ′(c) exists, then the function f(x) is differentiable at point c. Similarly, if f(x)
is differentiable on an open interval (a, b), then it is differentiable at every number in the
interval (a, b).

Example 15 Where is the function f(x) = |x| differentiable?

Solution We can approach this problem by testing the differentiability on three intervals:
x > 0, x < 0 and x = 0.
1. If x > 0, then x + h > 0 and |x + h| = x + h.
Therefore, for x > 0 we have
| x + h | – | x| x+ h – x h
f ′(x) = lim = lim = lim = lim1=1.
h→ 0 h h → 0 h h → 0 h h→ 0

So, f ′(x) exists and f (x) is differentiable for any x > 0.

2. If x < 0, then |x| = –x and |x + h| = –(x + h) if we choose h small enough such that
it is nearly equal to zero.
Therefore, for x < 0 we have

| x + h | – | x| –( x + h) – (– x) –h
f ′(x) = lim = lim = lim = lim(–1) = –1
x→0 h x → 0 h h → 0 h h→ 0

So, f ′(x) exists and f(x) is differentiable for any x < 0.

3. For x = 0 we have to investigate the left-hand and the right-hand derivatives separately:
|0+ h| – |0| | h| h
lim+ = lim+ = lim+ = lim+ 1=1
h→ 0 h h→ 0 h h→ 0 h h→ 0

|0+ h| – |0| | h| –h
lim = lim– = lim– = lim(–1) = –1
h→ 0– h h→ 0 h h→ 0 h h→ 0–

Since these limits are different, f ′(x) does not exist. So, f(x) is not differentiable for
x = 0.
In conclusion, f(x) is differentiable for all the values of x except 0.
Alternatively, from the graph of f(x), we can see that f(x) does not y
y = f(x)
have a tangent line at the point x = 0. So, the derivative does not
exist.
Note that the function does not have a derivative at the point where x
the graph has a ‘corner’.

288 Algebra 10
 If a function f(x) is differentiable at a point, then its graph has a non-vertical tangent line at
A function f is this point. It means that the graph of the function cannot have a ‘hole’ or ‘gap’ at this point.
continuous at x = a
Thus, the function must be continuous at this point where it is differentiable.
if and only if
lim f ( x) = f ( a).
x→ a

Note
If f(x) is differentiable at a, then f(x) is continuous at a.

The converse, however, is not true: a continuous function may not be differentiable at every
point.
For example, the function f(x) = |x| is continuous at 0, because lim f (x) = 0 = f (0).
x →0

But it is not differentiable at the point x = 0.

⎧2 x2 − x, x>2
⎪⎪
Example 16 The piecewise function f(x) is given as f ( x) = ⎨6,
⎪ 3
x = 2.
⎪⎩ x − 2, x<2
a. Is f(x) continuous at x = 2?
b. Is f(x) differentiable at x = 2?

Solution a. Since lim f ( x) = f (2), f(x) is continuous at x = 2.

x→ 2

b. Let us find the left-hand and the right-hand derivatives of the function f(x) at the point x = 2.

f (2+ h) − f (2) (2 + h)3 − 2 − 6

f (2 − ) = lim− = lim−
h→ 0 h h→ 0 h

2 3 + 3 ⋅ 2 2 h + 3 ⋅ 2 h2 + h3 – 8 h(12+6 h+ h2 )
= lim− = lim−
h→ 0 h h→ 0 h

= lim(12+6
−
h+ h2 ) =12
h→ 0

f (2+ h) − f (2) 2 ⋅(2+ h)2 − (2 + h) − 6

f (2 + ) = lim+ = lim+
h→ 0 h h→ 0 h

2 ⋅ (4+ 4h + h2 ) − 2 − h − 6 8+8 h + 2 h2 − 2 − h − 6
= lim+ = li m+
h→ 0 h h→ 0 h

h(7+ 2 h)
= lim+ = lim(7+ 2 h) = 7.
h→ 0 h h→ 0 +

Since f ′(2+) ≠ f ′(2–), the derivative of the function f(x) does not exist at the point x = 2.
So, the function is continuous at x = 2, but it is not differentiable at the same point.

Differentiation 289
 We have seen that a function f(x) is not differentiable at a point if its graph is not
continuous at x = a. The figures below show two more cases in which f(x) is not
differentiable at x = a:
y y y

a x a x a x

a discontinuity a corner a vertical tangent

CRITERIA FOR DIFFERENTIABILITY

For the following cases the function is not differentiable at a given point:
1. the graph has a discontinuity at the point,
2. the graph has a ‘corner’ at the point,
3. the graph has a vertical tangent line at the point.

Example 17 Explain why the function shown in the graph

on the right is not differentiable at each of the
y
y = f(x)

points x = a, b, c, d, e, f, g.

Solution The function f(x) is not differentiable at the

points x = a, b, c because it is discontinuous at
each of these points. The derivative of the
function f(x) does not exist at x = d, e, f a b c d e f g x
because it has a corner at each of these points.
Finally, the function is not differentiable at x = g because the tangent line is vertical at that point.

290 Algebra 10
 Check Yourself 4
⎧ x − 1, x <1
1. Given that f ( x) = ⎨ 2 , show that the derivative of f(x) does not exist at the
⎩ x − 1, x ≥1
point x = 1.

2. f(x) = |x2 – 4x + 3| is given. Find the derivative of f(x) at the point x = 3.

3. The graph of a function f is given below. State, with reasons, the values at which f is not
differentiable.
y
y = f(x)

-1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 x

Answers
1. compare f ′(1–) and f ′(1+).
2. does not exist.
3. x = –1, corner; x = 4, discontinuity; x = 8, corner; x = 11, vertical tangent.

Differentiation 291
At the beginning of our study of derivatives we have learned that a curve lies very close to its
tangent line near the point of contact. This means that for the same value of x near the point
of tangency, the values of y on the curve and tangent line are approximately equal to each other.
This fact gives us a useful method for finding approximate values of functions.
We can use the tangent line at (a, f(a)) as an approximation to the function f(x) when x is near
a. The equation of this tangent line is
y = f(a) + f ′(a)(x – a).
So, our approximation becomes
f(x) ≈ f(a) + f ′(a)(x – a).
This type of approximation is called the linear approximation or tangent line approximation of
f(x) at a. The linear function whose graph is the tangent line
L(x) = f(a) + f ′(a)(x – a)
is called the linearization of f(x) at a. The geometric interpretation of linear approximation is
show in the figure.
y y = f(x)

y = f(x)

f(a)
L(a)

a x

The linear approximation f(x) ≈ L(x) is a good approximation when x is near a. It is very
useful in physics for simplifying a calculation or a theory. You might think that a calculator can
give us better approximation than the linear approximation. But a linear approximation gives an
approximation over an entire interval, which can be more useful. For this reason, scientists
frequently use linear approximation in their work. The following example illustrate the use of
linear approximation method to simplify calculation.
For example, let us find the linearization of the function f ( x)= x + 2 at a = 2, and use it to
approximate the numbers 3,99 and 4,01 .

First, we have to find f ′(2), the slope of the tangent line to the curve f ( x)= x + 2 when x = 2.
1
The derivative of f(x) is f ′( x)=( x + 2 )′ = .
2 x+ 2
1 1
So, f ′(2)= = .
2 2+2 4
The linearization is given by
L(x) = f(a) + f ′(a) ⋅ (x – a)
1 x 3
L(x) = f(2) + f ′(2) ⋅ (x – 2) = 2 + (x – 2) = + .
4 4 2
x 3
The linear approximation is therefore x + 2 ≈ L( x)= + .
4 2
In particular we have

1.99 3
3.99 = 1.99+ 2 ≈ L(1.99) = + =1.9975
4 2
2.01 3
4.01 ≈ L(2.01) = + = 2.0025.
4 2
x 3
The graphs of f ( x)= x + 2 and its linear approximation L( x)= + are shown below. We
4 2
see that our approximations are overestimates because the tangent line lies above the curve.
y
x 3
L(x) = +
4 2

2 f(x) = x + 2

–2 2 x

The following table shows estimates from the linear approximation with the actual values.

approximation actual value

3.99 1.9975 1.99749...

4.01 2.0025 1.00249...

EXERCISES 4 .1
A. Tangents C. Rates of Change
1. Find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of
each function at the given point. 5. The volume of a spherical cancer tumor is given
4 3
a. f(x) = 5x – 1 ; x = 3 by the function V( r ) = π r , where r is the
3
b. f(x) = 4 – 7x ; x = 2 radius of the tumor in centimeters. Find the rate

c. f(x) = x2 – 1 ; x = –1 of change in the volume of the tumor when

2
d. f(x) = 3x2 – 2x – 5 ; x = 0 r = cm.
3
› e. f(x) = x3 – 3x + 5 ; x = 1
6. A certain species of eagle faces extinction. After a
› f. f(x) = x + ñx ; x = 4 conservation project begins, it is hoped that the
1 eagle population will grow according to the rule
› g. f ( x) = ; x= 2
x2 N(t) = 2t2 + t + 100 (0 ≤ t ≤ 10), where N(t)
4x denotes the population at the end of the year t.
› h. f ( x) = ; x= 2
x +1 Find the rate of growth of the eagle population
when t = 2 and the average rate of growth over
2. Find the equation of the tangent line to each the interval [2, 3].
function at the given point.
a. f(x) = 2x + 5 at (2, 9)
b. f(x) = x2 + x + 1 at (1, 3)
› c. f(x) = x3 – x at (2, 6)

› d. f(x) = 2ñx at (4, 4)

B. Velocities
3. A particle moves along a straight line with
the equation of motion s(t) = t2 – 6t – 5, where s
is measured in meters and t is in seconds. Find
the velocity of the particle when t = 2.
7. The fuel consumption (measured in litres per
hour) of a car travelling at a speed of v kilometers
per hour is c = f(v).
a. What is the meaning of f ′(v)?

b. What does the statement f ′(20) = – 0.05 mean?

4. If a stone is dropped from a height of 100 m, its
height in meters after t seconds is given by
s(t) = 100 – 5t2. Find the stone’s average velocity
over the period [2, 4] and its instantaneous
velocity at time t = 4.

294 Algebra 10
D. Derivative of a Function ⎧ x +6, x> 3
8. Each limit below represents the derivative of a 14. Given that f ( x) = ⎪⎨x2 , x = 3 find f ′(3).
function f(x) at x = a. Find the function f and the ⎪ 3
⎩ x – 6 x, x> 3
number a in each case.
(1+ h)10 − 1
b. lim 8+ h − 2
3
a. lim Mixed Problems
h→ 0 h h→ 0 h
3x − 81 cos(π + h)+1 15. Consider the slopes y
c. lim d. lim
x→ 4 x − 4 h→0 h of the tangent lines A E
to the given curve at
9. Find the derivative of each function. each of the five B D
2 x +1
a. f(x) = 3 – 2x + x2 › b. f ( x) = points shown. List
x −1 C
these five slopes in
3 x
› c. f ( x) = › d. f ( x) = 3x +1 decreasing order.
x
16. If the tangent to the graph of f(x) = x2 – 2ax + 3
E. Left-Hand and Right-Hand ›
at x = –1 is parallel to the line 2x – y = 1, find a.
Derivatives
6x, 0≤x≤8
10. Let f(x) = . 17. At which point of the curve y = x2 + 4 does its
9x – 24, 8 < x ››
tangent line pass through the origin?
Does the function have derivative at x = 8? Why
or why not?
18. An arrow is shot upward on a planet. Its height (in
›
11. Given that f(x) = |x – 1|, find f ′(1). meters) after t seconds is given by h(t) = 60t – 0.6t2.
a. At what time will the arrow reach the top?
F. Differentiability and Continuity
12. b. With what velocity will the arrow hit the
y
ground?

19. Given the continuous function

y = f(x) ››
⎧ x2 +10 x +8, x ≤ –2
⎪
f ( x) = ⎨ax2 + bx + c, –2 < x < 0,
–2 –1 1 3 6 x
⎪ 2
⎩ x + 2 x, x≥0
find a, b and c such that its graph has a tangent
The graph of f(x) is given. At what numbers is f(x)
touching it at three points..
not differentiable? Why?

20. Given that f(x) = |x2 – 2x|, find f ′(1).

x2 + 7x, x ≤ 1 ›
13. Let f(x) = .
9x – 24, x > 1
Does the function have derivative at x = 1? Why 21. Using linear approximation calculate ò99.
or why not? ››

Differentiation 295
A. BASIC DIFFERENTIATION RULES
Up to now, we have calculated the derivatives of functions by using the definition of the
derivative as the limit of a difference quotient. This method works, but it is slow even for
quite simple functions. Clearly we need a simpler, quicker method. In this section, we begin
to develop methods that greatly simplify the process of differentiation. From now on, we will
use the notation f′(x) (f prime of x) to mean the derivative of f with respect to x. Other books
and mathematicians sometimes use different notation for the derivative, such as
d dy
f (x) = y′ = = Dx( f (x)).
dx dx
All of these different types of notation have essentially the same meaning: the derivative of a
function with respect to x. Finding this derivative is called differentiating the function with
respect to x.
In stating the following rules, we assume that the functions f and g are differentiable.
Our first rule states that the derivative of a constant function is equal to zero.

THE DERIVATIVE OF A CONSTANT FUNCTION

If c is any real number, then c′ = 0.

We can see this by considering the graph of the constant y

function f(x) = c, which is a horizontal line. The tangent line to y=c
a straight line at any point on the line coincides with the straight
slope = 0
line itself. So, the slope of the tangent line is zero, and therefore
the derivative is zero.
We can also use the definition of the derivative to prove this x
result: The slope of the tangent to
f (x + h) − f (x) c −c the graph of f(x) = c, where c is
f ′(x) = lim = lim = lim 0 = 0. constant, is zero.
h→ 0 h h → 0 h h→ 0

Example 18 a. If f(x) = 13, then f ′(x) = (13)′ = 0.

1 ⎛ 1 ⎞′
b. If f (x) = − , then f ′( x) = ⎜ − ⎟ = 0 .
2 ⎝ 2⎠

296 Algebra 10
 Next we consider how to find the derivative of any power function f(x) = xn.
Note that the rule applies not only to functions like f(x) = x3, but also to those such as
1
g(x) = 4 x3 and h( x) = = x −5 .
x5

THE DERIVATIVE OF A POWER FUNCTION (POWER RULE)

If n is any real number, then (xn)′ = nxn – 1.

Example 19 a. If f (x) = x, then f ′( x) = x ′ = 1 ⋅ x1−1 = 1 .

b. If f (x) = x2 , then f ′( x) = ( x2 ) ′ = 2 ⋅ x 2 −1 = 2 x.

c. If f (x) = x3 , then f ′( x) = ( x 3 ) ′ = 3 ⋅ x 3 −1 = 3 x 2 .

Note
To differentiate a function containing a radical expression, we first convert the radical
expression into exponential form, and then differentiate the exponential form using the Power
Rule.

Example 20 a. If f (x) = 2 x3 , then f ( x) = x 3 / 2 in exponential form

3 3 / 2 −1 3 1 / 2
f ′(x) = (x3 / 2 )′ = x = x .
2 2
1
b. If f (x) = , then f ( x) = x −1 in exponential form
x
1
f ′(x) = (x−1 )′ = −1 ⋅ x −1−1 = −x −2 = − .
x2

Differentiation 297
 The proof of the Power Rule for the general case (n ∈ ) is not easy to prove and will no be
given here. However, we can prove the Power Rule for the case where n is a positive integer.

Proof (Power Rule) If f(x) = xn, then f (x + h) − f (x) (x + h)n − x n

f ′(x) = lim = lim .
h→ 0 h h→ 0 h
Here we need to expand (x + h)n and we use the Binomial Theorem to do so:
⎡ n n −1 n ⋅ (n − 1) n − 2 2 ⎤
⎢⎣ x + nx h + x h + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + nxh n −1 + h n ⎥ − x n
2 ⎦
f ′(x) = lim
h→ 0 h
n ⋅ (n − 1) n − 2 2
n ⋅ xn −1h + x h + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅+ nxh n −1 + h n (every term includes h as a factor,
f ′(x) = lim 2
so h’s can be simplified)
h→ 0 h
⎡ n ⋅ (n − 1) n − 2 ⎤
f ′(x) = lim ⎢ nxn −1 + x h + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅+ nxh n − 2 + h n –1 ⎥ = n ⋅ x n −1 (if h = 0, then every term including
h→ 0
⎣ 2 ⎦ h as a factor will be zero)

Check Yourself 5
Differentiate each function by using either the Constant Rule or the Power Rule.

1. f(x) = 2 2. f(x) = 0.5 3. f (x) = – 1 4. f (x) = 3

3 2
1
7. f (x) = 1
3
5. f(x) = x3 6. f (x) = x7 8. f (x) =
x2 x3
Answers
73 4 2 3
1. 0 2. 0 3. 0 4. 0 5. 3x2 6. x 7. – 8. −
3 x3 2 x5

The next rule states that the derivative of a constant multiplied by a differentiable function
is equal to the constant times the derivative of the function.

THE CONSTANT MULTIPLE RULE

[c ⋅ f (x)]′= c ⋅ f ′(x) , c∈

Example 21 a. If f (x) = 3x, then f ′( x) = (3 x) ′ = 3 ⋅ ( x) ′ = 3 ⋅ 1 = 3 .

b. If f (x) = 3x4 , then f ′( x) = (3 x 4 ) ′ = 3( x 4 ) ′ = 3 ⋅ (4 x 3 ) =12 x 3 .

298 Algebra 10
 Proof (Constant Multiple Rule) If g(x) = c ⋅ f(x), then
g(x + h) − g(x) c ⋅ f (x + h) − c ⋅ f (x)
g′(x) = lim = lim
h→ 0 h h→ 0 h
f (x + h) − f (x)
g′(x) = c ⋅ lim
h→ 0 h
g′(x) = c ⋅ f ′(x).

Example 22 a. If f (x) = −
2
x3
x
6
, then f ′( x) = (–2 x −3 ) ′ = −2( x −3) ′ = –2(–3 x −4) = 6 x −4 = 4 .

b. ⎛1 ⎞ 5 5
If f (x) = 5 x, then f ′( x) = (5 x1 / 2 ) ′ = 5( x1 / 2 ) ′ = 5 ⎜ x −1 / 2 ⎟ = x −1 / 2 = .
⎝2 ⎠ 2 2 x

Next we consider the derivative of the sum or the difference of two differentiable functions.
The derivative of the sum or the difference of two functions is equal to the sum or the
difference of their derivatives. Note that the difference is also the sum since it deals with
addition of a negative expression.

THE SUM RULE

[ f (x) ∓ g(x)]′ = f ′(x) ∓ g′(x)

Note
We can generalize this rule for the sum of any finite number of differentiable functions.

[ f (x) ∓ g(x) ∓ h(x) ∓ ...]′ = f ′(x) ∓ g ′(x) ∓ h ′(x) ∓ ...

Differentiation 299
 Now, let’s verify the rule for a sum of two functions.

Proof (Sum Rule) If S(x) = f(x) + g(x), then

S′(x) = lim
S(x + h) − S(x)
= lim
[ f (x + h)+ g(x + h)] − [ f (x)+ g(x) ]
h→ 0 h h→ 0 h

S′(x) = lim
[ f (x + h) − f (x)]+ [g(x + h) − g(x) ]
h→ 0 h
f (x + h) − f (x) g(x + h) − g(x)
S′(x) = lim + lim
h→ 0 h h → 0 h
S′(x) = f ′(x)+ g ′( x).

Example 23 a. If f (x) = x−2 +7, then f ′( x) = ( x−2 +7) ′= ( x−2) ′+(7) ′= −2 x−3+0 = −2 x−3.

2
b. If g(t) = t + 5 , then g′( t) = ⎛ t
2
−2 ⎞
′ ⎛ t2 ⎞′ 1 2
⎟ +(5 t ) ′= ( t ) ′+5( t ) .′
−2 −2
2 ⎜ +5t ⎟ = ⎜
5 t ⎝5 ⎠ ⎝5 ⎠ 5

1
g(t )′ = (2t 2–1 )+5(–2 t–2–1 )
5
2 2t 10
g(t )′ = t − 10t −3 = − 3 .
5 5 t
Notice that in this example, the independent variable is t instead of x. So, we differentiate
the function g(t) with respect to t.

By combining the Power Rule, the Constant Multiple Rule and the Sum Rule we can
differentiate any polynomial. Let us look at some examples.

Example 24 Differentiate the polynomial function f(x) = 3x5 + 4x4 – 7x2 + 3x + 6.

Solution f ′(x) = (3 x5 + 4 x4 − 7 x2 + 3 x +6)′

f ′(x) = (3 x5 )′+(4 x4 ) ′+(–7 x2 ) ′+(3 x) ′+(6) ′

f ′(x) = 3(x5 )′+ 4( x4 ) ′ − 7( x2 ) ′+ 3( x) ′+(6) ′

f ′(x) = 3 ⋅ 5 x4 + 4 ⋅ 4 x3 − 7 ⋅ 2 x+ 3 ⋅1+0

f ′(x) =15 x4 +16 x3 − 14 x+ 3

300 Algebra 10
Example 25 It is estimated that x months from now, the population of a certain community will be
P(x) = x2 + 20x + 8000.
a. At what rate will the population be changing with respect to time fifteen months from
now?
b. How much will the population actually change during the sixteenth month?

Solution a. The rate of change of the population with respect to time is the derivative of the
population function, i.e.
rate of change = P′(x) = 2x + 20.
Fifteen months from now the rate of change of the population will be:
P′(15) = 2 ⋅ 15 + 20 = 50 people per month.
b. The actual change in the population during
the sixteenth month is the difference between
the population at the end of sixteen months
and the population at the end of fifteen
months. Therefore,
the change in population = P(16) – P(15)
= 8576 – 8525
= 51 people.

Check Yourself 6
1. Find the derivative of each function with respect to the variable.
3 4
a. f (x) = b. f (r ) = π r 3 c. f(x) = 0.2ñx
2x 3

d. f(x) = 3x2 + 5x – 1 e. 4 t2 3 2
f. f (x) = x − 4x + 3
f (t ) = − +t
t3 3 x

x3 − 3x2 + 3x − 1
2. Find the derivative of f (x) = .
x −1
x2 x − x
3. Differentiate f (x) = .
x x+ x
Answers
3 0.1 12 2t 3
1. a. − 2 b. 4πr2 c. d. 6x + 5 e. – – +1 f. 2 x − 4 −
2x x t4 3 x2
2. 2x – 2 3. 1

Differentiation 301
B. THE PRODUCT AND THE QUOTIENT RULES
Now we learn how to differentiate a function formed by multiplication or division of
functions. Based on your experience with the Constant Multiple and Sum Rules we learned
in the preceding part, you may think that the derivative of the product of functions is the
product of separate derivatives, but this guess is wrong. The correct formula was discovered
by Leibniz and is called the Product Rule.
The Product Rule states that the derivative of the product of two functions is the derivative
of the first function times the second function plus the first function times the derivative of
the second function.

THE PRODUCT RULE

[ f (x)g(x)]′ = f ′(x)g(x) + f (x)g ′(x)

Be careful! The derivative of the product of two functions is not equal to the product of the
derivatives:
We can easily see this by looking at a particular example.
Let f(x) = x and g(x) = x2. Then

f (x)g(x) = x ⋅ x2 = x3 f ′(x) =1 and g′( x) = 2 x

[ f (x)g(x)]′ ≠ f ′(x)g′(x)
[ f (x)g(x)] ′ = 3 x2 f ′(x)g′(x) =1 ⋅ 2 x = 2 x

[ f (x)g( x)]′ ≠ f ′(x)g′(x).

Example 26 Find the derivative of the function f(x) = x(x + 1).

Solution By the Product Rule,

f ′(x) = x ⋅ (x+ 1)′+ (x) ′ ⋅ (x+1) = x ⋅ 1+1 ⋅ ( x+1) = 2 x+1 .
We can check this result by using direct computation:
f(x) = x(x + 1) = x2 + x so, f ′(x) = 2x + 1, which is the same result.
Note that preferring direct differentiation when it is easy to expand the brackets is always
simpler than applying the Product Rule.

Example 27 Differentiate the function f(x) = (2x2 + 1)(x2 – x).

Solution f ′(x) = (2 x2 +1)′ ⋅ (x2 − x) +( 2x 2 + 1) ⋅ (x2 − x)′

f ′(x) = (4 x)(x2 − 1) + (2 x2 + 1)(2 x − 1)
f ′(x) = 4x3 − 4x+ 4x3 − 2x2 + 2x − 1
f ′(x) = 8 x3 − 2 x2 − 2 x − 1

302 Algebra 10
Example 28 Differentiate the function f(x) = (x3 + x –2)(2ñx + 1).

Solution First, we convert the radical part into exponential form:

f (x) = ( x3 + x – 2)(2 x +1) = ( x3 + x – 2) ⋅(2 x1/ 2 +1).
Now, by the Product Rule,
f ′(x) = (x3 + x – 2) ′ ⋅(2 x1/ 2 +1)+( x3 + x – 2) ⋅(2 x1/ 2 +1) ′
f ′(x) = (3 x2 +1)(2 x1/ 2 +1)+( x3 + x – 2) ⋅ x −1/ 2 = 6 x5 / 2 + 3 x2 + 2 x1/ 2 +1+ x5 / 2 + x1/ 2 – 2 x −1/ 2
f ′(x) = 7 x5 / 2 + 3x2 + 3x1 / 2 – 2 x–1/ 2 +1.

Let us look at the proof of the Product Rule.

Proof (Product Rule) If P(x) = f(x)g(x), then
P(x + h) − P(x) f (x + h)g(x + h) − f (x)g(x)
P′(x) = lim = lim
h→ 0 h h→ 0 h

By adding –f(x + h)g(x) + f(x + h)g(x) (which is zero) to the numerator and factoring, we have:
f (x + h)g(x + h) − f (x + h)g(x ) + f (x + h)g(x ) − f (x)g(x)
P′(x) = lim
h→ 0 h
f (x + h) [g(x + h) − g(x)]+ g(x) [f (x + h) − f (x) ]
P′(x) = lim
h→ 0 h
⎛ ⎡ g(x + h) − g(x) ⎤ ⎡ f (x + h) − f (x) ⎤ ⎞
P′(x) = lim ⎜ f (x + h) ⎢ ⎥ + g( x) ⎢ ⎥⎟
h→ 0
⎝ ⎣ h ⎦ ⎣ h ⎦⎠
g(x + h) − g(x) f (x + h) − f (x )
P′(x) = lim f (x + h) ⋅ l im + lim g(x) ⋅ lim
h→ 0 h→ 0h h → 0 h → 0 h
′ ′ ′ ′ ′
P (x) = f (x) ⋅ g (x)+ g(x) ⋅ f (x) = f (x)g(x)+ f (x)g (x).

Example 29 Differentiate the function f(x) = (x2 + 1)(3x4 – 5x)(x3 + 2x2 + 4).

Solution In this example we have a product of three functions, but we are only able to apply the rule
for the product of two functions. So, before we proceed we must imagine the function as
a product of two functions as follows:
f ( x) = ( x2 +1)(3 x4 − 5 x) ( x3 + 2 x2 + 4)

f ′( x) = [( x2 +1)(3 x4 − 5 x)]′ ( x3 + 2 x2 + 4) +( x2 +1)(3x 4 − 5 x)( x3 + 2 x2 + 4)′

requires product rule once more

f ′( x) = [2 x(3x4 − 5x)+( x2 +1)(12 x3 − 5)] ( x3 + 2 x2 + 4) +( x2 +1)(3 x4 − 5 x)(3x2 + 4x ).

Our aim is to introduce this method and because any further simplification is time
consuming, we will stop at this point.

Differentiation 303
 The derivative of a quotient is the denominator times the derivative of the numerator minus
the numerator times the derivative of the denominator, all divided by the square of the
denominator. Or,

⎛ numerator ⎞′ derivative of the numerator ×denominator – numerator × derivative of the denominator

⎜ ⎟ = .
⎝ denominator ⎠ the square of the denominator

THE QUOTIENT RULE

⎛ f (x) ⎞′ f ′(x)g(x) − f (x)g ′(x)

⎜ g(x) ⎟ = , g( x) ≠ 0
⎝ ⎠ ( g(x))2

The quotient rule is probably the most complicated formula you will have to learn in this text.
It may help if you remember that the quotient rule resembles the Product Rule.
⎛ f (x) ⎞′ f ′(x) Also note that like in the Product Rule, the derivative of a quotient is not equal to the
⎜ g(x) ⎟ ≠ g′(x)
⎝ ⎠ quotient of derivatives.

Example 30 Find the derivative of the function f (x) =

3x+ 1
2x − 1
.

Solution Using the Quotient Rule:

(3x+ 1)′ (2 x − 1) − (3 x+1) (2 x − 1)′
f ′(x) =
(2 x − 1)2
3 ⋅ (2 x − 1) − (3 x+1) ⋅ 2 6 x − 3 − 6 x − 2
f ′(x) = =
(2 x − 1)2 (2 x − 1)2
5
f ′(x) = − .
( 2 x − 1)2

31
2
Example Differentiate the rational function f (x) = x + x − 21 .
x −1

Solution According to the Quotient Rule,

(2 x+ 1) ⋅ (x − 1) − (x2 + x − 21) ⋅ 1
f ′(x) =
(x − 1)2

2 x2 − x − 1 − x2 − x+ 21 x2 − 2 x+ 20
f ′(x) = =
(x − 1)2 (x − 1)2

x2 − 2 x+ 20
f ′(x) = .
x2 − 2 x+ 1

304 Algebra 10
Example 32 Differentiate the function f (x) =
2 x2 + 3x+ 1
2x
.

Solution Before trying to use the Quotient Rule let us simplify the formula of the function:
2 x2 + 3x+ 1 2 x2 3x 1 3 1
f (x) = = + + = x+ + x −1.
2x 2x 2x 2x 2 2
In this example, finding the derivative will be easier and quicker without using the Quotient Rule.
1 −2 1 x2 − 1
f ′(x) = 1+ 0 − x =1− 2 =
2 x x2

Note
We do not need to use the Quotient Rule every time we differentiate a quotient. Sometimes
performing division gives us an expression which is easier to differentiate than the
quotient.

Let us verify the Quotient Rule.

f (x)
Proof (Quotient Rule) Let Q(x) = and Q(x) be differentiable.
g(x)
We can write f(x) = Q(x)g(x).
If we apply the Product Rule: f ′(x) = Q′(x)g(x) + Q(x)g′(x)
Solving this equation for Q′(x), we get
f (x)
f ′(x) − ⋅ g ′(x)
f ′(x) − Q(x)g ′(x) g(x)
Q′(x) = =
g(x) g(x)

f ′(x)g(x) − f (x)g ′(x)

Q′(x) = .
( g(x))2

Example 33 f(x) = ñx ⋅ g(x), where g(4) = 2 and g′(4) = 3. Find f ′(4).

Solution f ′(x) = ( x ⋅ g( x)) ′ = ( x ) ′ ⋅ g( x)+ x ⋅ g ′( x)

g(x)
f ′(x) = + x ⋅ g ′(x)
2 x
g(4) 2 13
So f ′(4) = + 4 ⋅ g ′(4) = +2 ⋅3 = .
2 4 2⋅2 2

Differentiation 305
 Check Yourself 7
1. Find the derivative of each function using the Product or the Quotient Rule.

a. f(x) = 2x(x2 + x + 1) b. f(x) = (x3 – 1)(x2 – 2)

⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
c. f (x) = ⎜ 2 + x ⎟⎜ + 1⎟ d. f (x) = ( x + 1) ⎜ x 2 + ⎟
⎝x ⎠⎝ x ⎠ ⎝ x⎠
2 x+ 4 x −1
e. f (x) = f. f (x) =
3x − 1 x +1
x2 − x+ 10 x3 + 3x2 − 5x+ 6
g. f (x) = h. f (x) =
x+ 1 2x

2. If f(x) is a differentiable function, find an expression for the derivative of each function.
f (x) 2
1+ xf (x)
a. y = x2f(x) b. y = c. y = x d. y =
x2 f (x) x

3. Suppose that f and g are two functions such that f(5) = 1, f ′(5) = 6, g(5) = –3 and

g′(5) = 2. Find each value.

⎛ f ⎞′ ⎛ g ⎞′
a. (fg)′(5) b. ⎜ ⎟ (5) c. ⎜ ⎟ (5)
⎝ g⎠ ⎝f⎠
Answers
2 3 5 1
1. a. 6x2 + 4x + 2 b. 5x4 – 6x2 – 2x c. 1 – – 4 d. x x + 2x −
x 3
x 2 2x x
14 2
3 3
e. – f. 1 g. x + 2 x −2 11 h. x − +
(3x – 1)2 x( x +1) 2
( x +1) x2 2

′ 2
′ 2 2
′
2. a. 2xf(x) + x2f ′(x) b. f ( x) ⋅ x 4– 2 xf ( x) c. 2 xf ( x) – f (2x) ⋅ x d. x f ( x2 ) – 1
x ( f ( x)) x
20
3. a. –16 b. – c. 20
9

306 Algebra 10
C. THE CHAIN RULE
We have learned how to find the derivatives of expressions that involve the sum, difference,
product or quotient of different powers of x. Now consider the function given below.
h(x) = (x2 + x – 1)50
In order to differentiate h(x) using the rules we know, we need to expand h(x), then find the
derivative of each separate term. This method is, however, tedious!

Consider also the function m( x) = x2 + x − 1. This function is also difficult to differentiate

using the rules we have learned. For each of the two functions h(x) and m(x), the
differentiation formula we learned in the previous sections cannot be applied easily to
calculate the derivatives h′(x) and m′(x).
We know that both h and m are composite functions because both are built up from simpler
functions. For example, the function h(x) = (x2 + x – 1)50 is built up from the two simpler
functions f(x) = x50 and g(x) = x2 + x – 1 like this:
h(x) = f(g(x)) = [g(x)]50 = (x2 + x – 1)50
Here we know how to differentiate both f and g, so it would be useful to have a rule that tells
us how to find the derivative of h = f(g(x)) in terms of the derivatives of f and g.

THE CHAIN RULE

[ f ( g( x))]′ = f ′( g( x)) ⋅ g′( x )

outer argument derivative of derivative of

function of the the outer the argument
outer function of the outer
function function

For example, if h(x) = f(g(x)) = (x2 + x – 1)50, then

h′(x) = f ′(g(x)) ⋅ g′(x) = 50(x2 + x – 1)49 ⋅ (2x + 1).

1. [(x2 + x – 1)50]′ ≠ 50(x2 + x – 1)49

2. [(x2 + x – 1)50]′ ≠ 50(2x + 1)49
Differentiation 307
Example 34 Differentiate the function f(x) = (3x2 + 5x)2005.

Solution By the Chain Rule, f ′( x) = 2005(3 x +5 x) ⋅ (3 x2 +5 x) ′= 2005(3 x2 +5 x) 2004 ⋅(6 x+5).

2 2004

Example 35 Suppose m(x) = f(g(x)) and g(1) = 5, g ′(1) = 2, f(5) = 3 and f ′(5) = 4 are given.
Find m ′(1).

Solution By the Chain Rule, m′(x) = f′(g(x)) ⋅ g ′(x). So m ′(1) = f ′(g(1)) ⋅ g′(1) = f ′(5) ⋅ 2 = 4 ⋅ 2 = 8.

Note
The Chain Rule can be generalized for the composition of more than two functions as follows:
[ f1( f2( f3(...fn(x)...)))]′ = [ f1′( f2( f3(...fn(x)...)))] ⋅ ( f2′( f3(...fn(x)...))) ⋅ ( f3′(...fn(x)...)) ⋅ ... ⋅ fn′(x)

Using the Chain Rule we can generalize the Power Rule as follows:

GENERAL POWER RULE

[(f(x))n]′ = n(f(x))n – 1 ⋅ f ′(x)

By using this rule we can more easily differentiate the functions that can be written as the
power of any other functions.

Example 36 Differentiate the function m( x) = x2 + x − 1.

1
Solution We can rewrite the function as m(x) = (x2 + x – 1)2 and apply the General Power Rule:
1
1 –
m′( x) = ( x2 + x − 1) 2 ⋅ ( x2 + x − 1) ′
2
1
1 –
m′( x) = ( x2 + x − 1) 2 ⋅ (2 x +1)
2
2 x +1
m′( x) =
2 x2 + x − 1

1
Example 37 Differentiate the function f ( x) = 2
x + 3x
.

Solution f ′( x) =[( x2 + 3x)−1]′ = −1( x2 + 3 x) −2 ⋅( x2 + 3 x) ′

f ′( x) = −1( x2 + 3 x) −2 ⋅ (2 x + 3)

2x + 3
f ′( x) = −
( x2 + 3x)2

308 Algebra 10
 38
1
–
Example Differentiate the function f(x) = (2x3 + x2 – 15) 3 .

4
1 –
Solution f ′( x) = − (2 x3 + x2 − 15) 3 ⋅(2 x3 + x2 −15) ′
3
1 1
f ′( x) = − ⋅ ⋅ (6 x2 + 2 x)
3 3 (2 x + x2 − 15)4
3

6 x2 + 2 x
f ′( x) = −
3 3 (2 x3 + x2 − 15)4

39
−
−3
Example Differentiate the function f ( x) = (( x +1) 3 +5 x) .

2 2
− −
Solution f ′( x) = −3(( x +1) 3 +5 x) −4 ⋅ (( x+1) 3 +5 x) ′
2 5
− 2 −
f ′( x) = −3(( x +1) 3 +5 x) −4 ⋅ ( − ( x+1) 3 ⋅ ( x+1) ′+5)
3
2 5
− 2 −
f ′( x) = −3(( x +1) 3 +5 x) −4 ⋅ (5 − ( x+1) 3 )
3

Example 40 Differentiate the function f ( x) = (2 x − 3)5 ⋅ x2 − 2 x.

Solution The function is the product of two expressions, so we can use the Product Rule:

f ′( x) = ((2 x – 3) 5 )′ ⋅ x2 − 2 x +(2 x − 3) 5 ⋅ ( x2 − 2 x) ′
1
1 –
f ′( x) = 5 ⋅ (2 x − 3)4 ⋅ 2 ⋅ x2 − 2 x +(2 x − 3) 5 ⋅ ⋅( x2 − 2 x) 2 ⋅(2 x – 2)
2
(2 x − 3)5 ⋅ (2 x − 2)
f ′( x) =10(2 x − 3) 4 x2 − 2 x +
2 x2 − 2 x

Differentiation 309
 7

Example 41 ⎛ 2t +1 ⎞
Differentiate the function g(t ) = ⎜
⎝ t−3 ⎠
⎟ .

Solution
⎛ 2t +1 ⎞ ⎛ 2t +1 ⎞′
6

g′(t ) = 7 ⎜ ⎟ ⋅⎜ ⎟ (by the Power Rule)

⎝ t−3 ⎠ ⎝ t −3 ⎠
6
⎛ 2t +1 ⎞ 2 ⋅ ( t − 3) − 1 ⋅ (2 t +1)
g′(t ) = 7 ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ (by the Quotient Rule)
⎝ t−3 ⎠ (t − 3)2
6
⎛ 2t +1 ⎞ 2t − 6 − 2t − 1
g′(t ) = 7 ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ (simplify)
⎝ t−3 ⎠ (t − 3)2

−49(2t +1)6
g′(t ) = .
(t − 3)8

Notation
dy
Remember that if y = f(x), then we can denote its derivative by y′ or .
dx
If y = f(g(x)) such that y = f(u) and u = g(x), then we can denote the derivative of f(g(x))
dy dy du
by y′ = f ′(g(x)) ⋅ g′(x) or y′ = f ′(u) ⋅ u′(x) or = ⋅ .
dx du dx
dy dy du
The notation = ⋅ is called Leibniz notation for the Chain Rule.
dx du dx

Example 42 Given that y = u2 – 1 and u = 3x2 + 1, find

dy
dx
by using the Chain Rule.

Solution By the Chain Rule,

dy dy du
= ⋅
dx du dx
dy d d
= ( u 2 – 1) ⋅ (3 x+1) (find the derivative of the first function with respect to u
dx du dx and the second function with respect to x)
dy
= (2 u – 1) ⋅ 3
dx
dy
= (2 ⋅ (3 x+1) – 1) ⋅ 3
dx
dy
=18 x + 3.
dx

310 Algebra 10
 Check Yourself 8
1. Find the derivative of f(x) = (2x + 1)3.
2. Differentiate y = (x3 – 1)100.
1
3. Find f ′(x) given f ( x) = 3
.
2
x + x +1
x3 − 1
4. Find the derivative of g( x) = 4 .
x3 +1
1 dy
5. y = and u = 3x – 1 are given. Find .
u dx
Answers
2 x +1
1. 6(2x + 1)2 2. 300x2(x3 – 1)99 3.
3 ( x2 + x +1)4
3

1 x3 +1 43 6 x2 3
4. ( ) 5. –
4 x3 – 1 ( x3 +1)2 (3x – 1)2

Differentiation 311
D. HIGHER ORDER DERIVATIVES
If f is a differentiable function, then its derivative f ′ is also a function, so f ′ may have a
derivative of its own, denoted by (f ′)′ = f ′′. This new function f ′′ is called the second
derivative of f because it is the derivative of the derivative of f. Look at three different ways
of writing the second derivative of a function:
d2 y
f ′′( x) = y′′ = 2
dx

2x
Example 43 Find the second derivative of the function f ( x) =
x –1
.

Solution By the Quotient Rule,

2 ⋅ ( x – 1) – 2 x ⋅ 1 2 x – 2 – 2 x 2
f ′( x) = 2
= 2
=– .
( x – 1) ( x – 1) ( x – 1) 2

Now differentiate f ′(x) to get f ′′(x):

⎛ 2 ⎞′ 4
f ′′( x) = ⎜ – ⎟ = (–2( x – 1) ) ′ = 4( x – 1) ⋅1=
–2 –3
2
⎝ ( x – 1) ⎠ ( x – 1)3

Note
Before computing the second derivative of a function, always try to simplify the first derivative
as much as possible. Otherwise the computation of the second derivative will be more tedious.

Notation
If we differentiate the second derivative f ′′(x) of a function f(x) one more time, we get the
third derivative f ′′′(x). Differentiate again and we get the fourth derivative, which we write
as f (4)(x) since the prime notation f ′′′′(x) begins to get difficult to read. In general, the
derivative obtained from f(x) after n successive differentiations is called the nth derivative or
dn y
the derivative of order n and written by f (n)(x) or .
dxn

Example 44 Find the derivatives of all orders of the polynomial function

f(x) = x5 + 4x4 + 2x3 – 5x2 – 6x + 7.

Solution f ′(x) = 5x4 + 16x3 + 6x2 – 10x – 6

f ′′(x) = 20x3 + 48x2 + 12x – 10
f ′′′(x) = 60x2 + 96x + 12
f (4)(x) = 120x + 96
f (5)(x) = 120
f (n)(x) = 0 (for n > 5)

312 Algebra 10
 Example 45 1
Find a general expression for the nth derivative of the function f ( x) = .
x
dy 1
Solution = ( x–1 )′ = – x–2 = – 2
dx x
d2 y 2
2
= (– x–2 )′ = 2 x–3 = 3
dx x
d3 y 6
3
= (2 x–3 )′ = –6 x–4 = – 4
dx x
d4 y 24
= (–6 x–4 )′ = 24 x–5 = 5
dx4 x
d5 y 120
= (24 x–5 )′ = –120 x–6 = – 6
dx5 x
n!=n⋅(n–1)⋅(n–2)⋅...⋅3⋅2⋅1
dn y (–1)n n!
for any natural number n = (...)′ = (–1) n
⋅ n! x –( n+1)
=
dxn xn+1

Check Yourself 9
1. Find the second derivative of each function.
x –1
a. f(x) = x3 – 3x2 + 4x + 5 b. f ( x) =
x+ 2
2. Find the third derivative of each function.
2/3 1
a. f(x) = x b. f (t ) = ( t 2 – 1)5
2
Answers
6 7 2 2 2
2. a. 8 x 3 b. 15t( t − 2) (3t − 2)
−
1. a. 6x – 6 b. –
( x + 2)3 27 2

Differentiation 313
Motion is one of the key subjects in physics. We define
many concepts and quantities to explain the motion in
one dimension. We use some formulas to state the
relations between the quantities. Derivative plays an
important role in defining the quantities and producing
the formulas from other derivatives. Here we will give the
definition of important concepts and formulas that
includes the uses of derivative.
DISPLACEMENT
The displacement is the change in the position of an object. If we denote the position at time t1
by x1, and the position at time t2 by x2, then the displacement is the difference between these two
points; this is defined by
Δx = x2 – x1.
The time interval is, similarly,
Δt = t2 – t1.
We use the capital Greek letter Δ(delta) to show a change in a variable from one value to
another.
VELOCITY
The velocity describes how fast the position of an object
changes. It is measured over a certain time interval. If a
car has a displacement Δx in a particular time interval Δt,
then the car's average velocity, Vav, over that time interval
is defined by
displacement x2 − x1 Δx
Vav = = = .
time interval t2 − t1 Δt
The definition of the average velocity includes a time interval. We learn more about the motion
when smaller time intervals are used. Because of this, we define the instantaneous velocity as
follows.
The instantaneous velocity at a time t is the velocity of an
object at that given instant of time. In other words, it is the
limit of the average velocity as Δt approaches zero:
 x(t + Δt ) − x(t )
V(t )= lim
Δt → 0 Δt
From the definition given above, we may conclude that the instantaneous velocity is the
derivative of the displacement with respect to time t.
Δx dx
V (t )= lim =
Δt → 0 Δt dt
ACCELERATION
The term acceleration refers to the rate of change in velocity of an object with respect to time.
We define the average acceleration, aav, in terms of velocity v1 at time t1 and v2 at time t2:
v2 − v1 Δv
aav = =
t2 − t1 Δt
Now we will define the instantaneous acceleration as follows.
Δv
The instantaneous acceleration is the limit of the expression as the time interval goes to
zero. Δt

Δv dv
a(t ) lim ==
Δt dt
Δt → 0

This means that the instantaneous acceleration is the derivative of velocity with respect to time.
Also it is the second derivative of the displacement.

For example, the position function x(t) of a car moving along a straight line is given as
x(t) = 4t2 + 6t – 20 m where t is in seconds.
The derivative of the position function gives the velocity function.
dx
V (t )= =(4t 2 +6t − 20)′ = 8t +6 m/s
dt
The acceleration is
dv
a(t )= =(8t +6)′ = 8 m/s 2.
dt
So, the car moves with constant acceleration.
EXERCISES 4 .2
A. Basic Differentiation Rules B. The Product and The Quotient Rules

1. Find the derivative of each function by using the 2. Find the derivative of each function by using the
rules of differentiation. Product or the Quotient Rule.

a. f(x) = 5x(x2 – 1)
a. f(x) = ñ2
b. f(x) = (2x + 3)(3x – 4)
1
b. f (x ) = − c. f(x) = 10(3x + 1)(1 – 5x)
151
d. f(x) = (x3 – 1)(x + 1)
π
c. f(x) = e
e. f(x) = (x3 – x2 + x – 1)(x2 + 2)
1 8 f. f(x) = (1 + ñt )(2t2 – 3)
d. f ( x) = x
12 3
g. f ( x) =
2x + 4
e. f(x) = 2x0.8
x −1
h. f ( x) =
5 4/5 2 x +1
f. f ( x) = x
4
1 − 2x
i. f ( x) =
2 1+ 3x
g. f ( x) =
6
411
j. x
f ( x) =
h. f(x) = 0.3x0.7 x2 +1

x2 + 2
k. f ( x) =
i. f(x) = 7x–12 x2 + x +1

l. x + 3x
j. f(x) = 5x2 – 3x + 7 f ( x) =
3x − 1

x 3 + 2 x2 + x − 1 3. Given that f(1) = 2, f ′(1) = –1, g(1) = –2 and

k. f ( x) =
x g′(1) = 3, find the value of h′(1).
4 3 2
l. f ( x) = 4 − 3 +
t t t a. h(x) = f(x) ⋅ g(x)

m. f ( x) = x + 3 x + 5 x b. h(x) = (x2 + 1) ⋅ g(x)

2 1 xf ( x)
n. f ( x) = x + + c. h( x) =
x x x + g( x)

1 3 f ( x) ⋅ g( x)
o. f ( x) =1 − + d. h( x) =
x x f ( x) − g( x )

316 Algebra 10
 x − 3x x 7. h(x) = g(f(x)) and f(2) = 3, f ′(2) = –3, g(3) = 5
4. Differentiate the function f ( x) = by and g′(3) = 4 are given. Find h′(2).
x
simplifying and by the Quotient Rule. Show that

both of your answers are equivalent. Which

method do you prefer? Why? dy

8. By using the Chain Rule, find for each function.
dx

5. f(3) = 4, g(3) = 2, f ′(3) = –6 and g′(3) = 5 are a. y = u2 – 1, u = 2x + 1

given. Find the value of the following expressions.
b. y = u2 + 2u + 2, u = x – 1
a. (f + g)′(3) b. (fg)′(3)
1
c. y = , u = x3
⎛ f ⎞′ ⎛ f ⎞ u –1
c. ⎜ ⎟ (3) d. ⎜ ⎟ (3)
⎝ g⎠ ⎝ f − g⎠
1
d. y = u + , u = x2 – x
u
C. The Chain Rule
6. Find the derivative of each function.
D. Higher Order Derivatives
a. f(x) = (3x – 1)2

b. f(x) = (x2 + 2)5 9. Find the second derivative of each function.

c. f(x) = (x5 – 3x2 + 6)7 a. f(x) = 3x2 – 7x + 2

d. f(x) = (x – 2)–3 b. f(x) = (x2 + 1)7

e. f ( x) = 2
x2
(5x2 + 3x – 1)2 c. f ( x) =
x –1
1
f. f ( x) =
4x2 +1 d. f ( x) = 2 x – 1

g. f ( x) = ( x +1+ x ) 3

› h. f(x) = (x – 1)5 ⋅ (3x + 1)1/3

10. Find the third derivative of each function.
(1 – 3 x)7
› i. f ( x) =
(2 x +1)4 a. f(x) = 5x4 – 3x3
3x – 9 3 2
› j. f ( x) = ( ) b. f(x) =
2x + 4 x

2x – 1 c. f ( x) = 3x – 2
› k. f ( x) =
3x +1
› l. f(x) = 3x + [2x2 + (x3 + 1)2]3/4 d. f(x) = (2x – 3)4

Differentiation 317
 Mixed Problems 16. The concentration of a certain drug in a patient’s
bloodstream t hours after injection is given by
11. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph
0.2t
of the function f(x) = (x3 + 1)(3x2 – 4x + 2) at C(t ) = .
t2 +1
the point (1, 2). a. Find the rate at which the concentration of
the drug is changing with respect to time.
x
12. The curve y = 2 is called a serpentine b. How fast is the concentration changing
x +1
curve. Find the equation of the tangent line to the 1 hour after the injection? What about after 2
hours?
curve at the point x = 3.

13. f is a differentiable function. Find an expression

for the derivative of each of the following functions.

a. y = x2ñxf(x)

b. y = x3(f(x))2
x3
c. y =
f ( x)
x + xf ( x ) 17. g(x) = f(x2 + 1) is given. Find g ′(1) if f ′(2) = 3.
d. y = ›
x

14. Prove that (fgh)′ = f ′gh + fg′h + fgh′ if f, g and h 18. Find an expression for the derivative of
› ›
are differentiable functions. ⎛ g( x)h( x) ⎞
f⎜ ⎟ if f, g, h, m and n are differentiable
⎝ m( n( x)) ⎠
15. A scientist adds a toxin to a colony of bacteria. He functions.

estimates that the population of the colony after t 19. If the tangent to the graph of f at point (2, 3) has an
24t +10 ›
hours will be P(t ) = 2 thousand bacteria. angle of 60° with x-axis, find the slope of tangent to
t +1 the graph of g(x) = f 2(x) – x ⋅ f(x) at x = 2.
Find the estimated rate of change of the

population after three hours.

20. Given that f ( x) = x x x and f ′′( a) = − 7 ,
› 64
find a.

21. Given that f(4 ⋅ g(x) + 7) = x3 – 2x2 + 3 and

›
g(x) = 1 – x, find f ′(–1).

22. Find an expression for the nth derivative of the

› 1
function f ( x) = .
2x

318 Algebra 10
A. DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
Let us begin by looking at the derivatives of the sine and cosine functions.

DERIVATIVES OF SINE AND COSINE

(sin x)′ = cos x

(cos x)′ = –sin x

Example 46 Find the derivative of the function f(x) = (sin x + cos x)2.

Solution f ′( x) = 2(sin x + cos x)(sin x+ cos x) ′ (by the General Power Rule)

f ′( x) = 2(sin x + cos x)(cos x – sin x) (by the sum, derivative of the sine and cosine)
f ′( x) = 2(cos x – sin x)
2 2
(simplify)
cos 2x = cos2 x – sin2 x
f ′( x) = 2 cos 2 x (by the trigonometric identity)

Now let us derive the formula for the derivative of the function f(x) = sin x.

Proof (Derivative of Sine Function)

By the definition of the derivative, we have
f ( x + h) − f ( x ) sin( x + h) − sin x
f ′( x) = lim = lim
h→ 0 h h → 0 h
sin x cos h + cos x sin h − sin x sin x cos h − sin x cos x sin h ⎞
f ′( x) = lim = lim ⎛⎜ + ⎟
h→ 0 h h→ 0 ⎝ h h ⎠
sin h
lim =1
h→0 h ⎛ ⎛ cos h − 1 ⎞ ⎛ sin h ⎞ ⎞ cos h − 1 sin h
f ′( x) = lim ⎜ sin x ⎜ ⎟ + cos x ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ = lim sin x ⋅ lim + l im cos x ⋅ lim
lim
cos h − 1
=0
h→ 0
⎝ ⎝ h ⎠ ⎝ h ⎠⎠ h → 0 h → 0 h h → 0 h → 0 h
h→0 h
f ′( x) = sin x ⋅ 0 + cos x ⋅ 1 = c os x.

Example 47 Find the derivative of the function f(x) = x ⋅ sin x.

Solution By the Product Rule

f ′( x) = ( x ⋅ sin x) ′ = ( x) ′ ⋅ sin x+ x ⋅(sin x) ′= sin x+ xcos x.

Differentiation 319
Example 48 Find the derivative of the function f(x) = cos(x3 – x).

Solution f ′( x) = (cos( x3 − x)) ′ = − sin( x3 − x) ⋅ ( x3 − x) ′= −sin( x3 − x) ⋅(3 x2 −1)

Example 49 Find the derivative of the function f(x) = sin3x2.

Solution In this example we have the composition of three functions.

f ( x) = sin 5 x2 = (sin( x2 ))5

We apply the Chain Rule beginning from the outermost function:

f ′( x) = ( (sin( x2 ))5 ) ′ = 5(sin( x2 ))4 ⋅ ( sin( x2 )) ′

f ′( x) = 5(sin( x2 ) )4 ⋅ cos( x2 ) ⋅ ( x2 ) ′
sin 2x = 2sin x cos x
f ′( x) = 5(sin( x2 ) )4 ⋅ cos( x2 ) ⋅ 2 x

f ′( x) =10 x si n( x2 )cos( x2 )

Check Yourself 10
Find the derivative of each function.
sin x
1. f(x) = x – 3 sin x 2. f(x) = xcos x 3. f ( x) =
1+ cos x
4. f(x) = cos2(x2 + x – 1)

Answers
1
1. 1 – 3cos x 2. cos x – xsin x 3.
1+ cos x
4. –sin(2x2 + 2x – 2) ⋅ (2x + 1)

DERIVATIVES OF OTHER TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

(tan x)′ = sec2 x = 1 + tan2 x (tan f(x))′ = sec2 f(x) ⋅ f ′(x)

(cot x)′ = –csc2 x = –(1 + cot2 x) (cot f(x))′ = –csc2 f(x) ⋅ f ′(x)
sin x
(sec x)′ = sec x ⋅ tan x = (sec f(x))′ = sec f(x) ⋅ tan f (x) ⋅ f ′(x)
cos2 x
cos x
(csc x)′ = –csc x ⋅ cot x = − (csc f(x))′ = –csc f(x) ⋅ cot f(x) ⋅ f ′(x)
sin2 x

320 Algebra 10
Example 50 Find the derivative of the function f(x) = tan(x2 – 3x + 1).

Solution f ′(x) = sec2(x2 – 3x + 1) ⋅ (x2 – 3x + 1)′ = sec2(x2 – 3x + 1) ⋅ (2x – 3)

or = (1 + tan2(x2 – 3x + 1))(2x – 3).

sec x
Example 51 Find the derivative of the function f ( x) =
1+ tan x
.

Solution By the Quotient Rule,

(sec x)′ ⋅ (1+ tan x) − sec x ⋅(1+ tan x) ′ (by the Quotient Rule)
f ′( x) =
(1+ tan x)2
sec x tan x ⋅ (1+ tan x) − sec x ⋅ sec 2 x
f ′( x) = (differentiate)
(1+ tan x)2
sec x(tan x + tan 2 x − sec 2 x)
f ′( x) = (factorize)
(1+ tan x)2
sec x(tan x − 1)
f ′( x) = (simplify using tan2 x + 1 = sec2 x)
(1+ tan x)2

Check Yourself 11
Find the derivative of each function.
tan x
1. f ( x) = 2. f(x) = 4 sec x – cot x 3. f(x) = cot(x2 – x + 1)
x
Answers
x sec 2 x – tan x
1. 2. 4sec xtan x + csc2 x 3. csc2(x2 – x + 1) ⋅ (1 – 2x)
x2

Differentiation 321
B. DERIVATIVES OF SPECIAL FUNCTIONS
1. Absolute Value Functions
y
y = |x|
⎧⎪ g′( x), g( x) > 0
If f(x) = |g(x)|, then f ′( x) = ⎨ .
⎪⎩ − g′( x), g( x) < 0
In general, a derivative does not exist when the function has 0 as
x
value because of a ‘corner’ as demonstrated in the graph on the right. corner

When g(x) = 0, the derivative exists only when the right-hand side and the left-hand side
derivatives are equal to each other.
We can also formulate the derivative expression as follows:
| g( x)|
f ′( x) = ⋅ g ′( x) = sgn[ g( x)] ⋅ g ′( x), g( x) ≠ 0.
g( x)

Example 52 Find the derivative of the function f(x) = |1 – x2| at the points x = 2, x = 1 and x = 0.

Solution Let us begin by trying to rewrite the function as a piecewise function.

The roots of the function are x = –1 and x = 2.

⎪⎧ x − 1, x < −1 and x ≥ 1
2

Then the function f will be f ( x) = ⎨ .

⎪⎩1 − x , –1 ≤ x < 1
2
y
Let us find f ′(2): y = f(x)
A piecewise function is a
function that is defined Note that f(2) ≠ 0.
by different formulae in
1
different parts of its For x = 2, f ′(x) = (x2 – 1)′ = 2x.
domain.
So, f ′(2) = 2 ⋅ 2 = 4.
–1 1 x
Let us find f ′(1):
Since f(1) = 0, we will check the left-hand and the right-hand derivatives.
For x < 1, f ′(x) = (1 – x2)′ = –2x.
So, f ′(1–) = –2 ⋅ (1) = –2.
For x > 1, f ′(x) = (1 – x2)′ = 2x.
So, f ′(1+) = 2 ⋅ 1 = 2.
Since f ′(1–) ≠ f ′(1+), f ′(1) does not exist.
Let us find f ′(0):
Note that f(0) ≠ 0.
For x = 0, f ′(x) = (1 – x2)′ = –2x.
So, f ′(0) = –2 ⋅ 0 = 0.

322 Algebra 10
Example 53 Given that f(x) = |x3 – 4x2 + 4x|, find the derivative of f(x) at the point x = 2.

⎧−
⎪ x + 4x − 4x,x < 0
3 2

Solution The piecewise form of the function is f ( x) = ⎨ .

⎪⎩ x − 4x + 4x, x ≥ 0
3 2

Since f(2) = 0, we will check the left-hand and the right-hand derivatives.
For 0 ≤ x < 2, f ′(x) = (x3 – 4x2 + 4x)′ = 3x2 – 8x + 4
f ′(2–) = 3 ⋅ (2)2 – 8 ⋅ 2 + 4 = 0.
For x > 2, f ′(x) = (x3 – 4x2 + 4x)′ = 3x2 – 8x + 4
f ′(2+) = 3 ⋅ (2)2 – 8 ⋅ 2 + 4 = 0.
Since the left-hand and the right-hand derivatives are equal to each other, the derivative of
the function exists at the point x = 2 and f ′(2) = 0.

Example 54 Given that f(x) = |x – x2|, find f ′(2) and f ′(3).

| x − x2 |
Solution Since f(2) ≠ 0 and f(3) ≠ 0, we can use the formula f ′( x) = ⋅ (1 − 2 x).
x − x2
| 2 − 22 |
f ′(2) = ⋅ (1 − 2 ⋅ 2) = −1 ⋅( −3) = 3
2 − 22
| 3 − 32 |
f ′(3) = ⋅ (1 − 2 ⋅ 3) = −1 ⋅( −5) = 5
3 − 32

Example 55 Given that f(x) = |cos x|, find the derivative of f(x) at the points x =
π
3
and x = π.

π
Solution For x = , cos x > 0. So, f(x) = cos x and f ′(x) = – sin x.
3
π π 3
f ′( ) = − sin( ) = −
3 3 2
For x = π, cos x < 0. So, f(x) = –cos x and f ′(x) = sin x.
f ′(π) = sin π = 0

Example 56 Given that f(x) = |x3 – 9| + x2, find f ′′(2).

Solution For x = 2, x3 – 9 < 0 and so f(x) = –x3 + 9 + x2.

If we take the derivative twice,
f ′(x) = –3x2 + 2x
f ′′(x) = –6x + 2.
Therefore, f ′′(2) = –6 ⋅ 2 + 2 = –10.

Differentiation 323
 Check Yourself 12
1. Given that f(x) = |x2 – 3x|, find f ′(3) and f ′(5).
2. Given that f(x) = |x4 – 2x2 + 1|, find the derivative of f(x) at the point x = 1.
π π
3. Given that f(x) = |sin x|, find f ′( ) and f ′( ) .
6 2
Answers
1. does not exist; 7 2. 0 3. 3 ; 0
2

2. Sign Functions
Note that a sign function has the range {–1, 0, 1}. When y
slope = 0
it takes –1 and 1 as its value, the graph is a horizontal line. 1
y = sgn x
Since the slope of a horizontal line is 0, we have 0 as the
derivative. When the function takes 0 as its value, the
graph has a discontinuity. So, the derivative does not exist. x
no slope
Look at the graph on the right: –1
In conclusion, if f(x) = sgn (g(x)), then
slope = 0
⎪⎧0, g( x) ≠ 0
f ′( x) = ⎨ .
⎪⎩does not exist, g( x) = 0

Example 57 Given that f(x) = sgn(x2 – x),

find the derivative of f(x) at the points
x = –2 and x = 1.

Solution We begin by finding the value of

f(–2) and f(1):
f(–2) = sgn((–2)2 – (–2)) = sgn(6) = 1
f(1) = sgn(12 – 1) = sgn(0) = 0.
Since f(–2) ≠ 0, f ′(–2) = 0.
Since f(1) = 0, f ′(1) does not exist
(f(x) is not continuous at x = 1).

324 Algebra 10
Example 58 Find the largest interval on which the function f(x) = sgn(x2 – x – 6) is differentiable.

Solution We can rewrite the function as a piecewise function:

⎧ 1, x < −2 and x > 3
⎪
f ( x) = ⎨ −1, −2 < x < 3 .
⎪
⎩ 0, x = −2 and x = 3

Since f(x) is not continuous at the points y

x = –2 and x = 3, it is not differentiable. 1 y = f(x)

It has a derivative at all other points, and
this is equal to zero. –2 3
x
So, the largest interval on which f is
differentiable is \ \ {–2, 3}.
–1

3. Floor Functions
⎧⎪0, g( x) ∉ ]
If f(x) = ag(x)b, then f ′( x) = ⎨ .
⎪⎩ may not exist, g( x) ∈ ]
When g(x) ∈ ], f(x) is certainly continuous and differentiable. However, when g(x) ∉ ], we
cannot be certain. It may be differentiable or not. In order to determine whether a floor
function is differentiable or not at a given value, we check the left-hand and the right-hand
derivatives.

Example 59 Given that f ( x) = a 2 x + 1b

3
, find the derivative of f(x) at the points x = 2 and x = 4.

2 x +1 5 2x + 1
Solution For x = 2, = ∉ ]. Since the expression is not an integer for x = 2, f ′(2) = 0.
3 3 3
2 x +1
For x = 4, = 3 ∈ ]. Here we have to find the left-hand and the right-hand derivatives,
3
because the expression 2 x +1 is an integer for x = 4.
3
f ( x) − f (4) 2 −3 −1
f ′(4− ) = lim− = – = − =+∞
x→ 4 x−4 4 −4 0
f ( x) − f (4) 3 −3 0
f ′(4+ ) = lim+ = + = =0
x→ 4 x−4 4 − 4 0+

Since f ′(4–) ≠ f ′(4+), f ′(4) does not exist.

Differentiation 325
Example 60 π
Given that f(x) = asin xb, find f ′( ) and f ′(π).
6

y
π 1 π
Solution sin( ) = ∉ ]. So, f ′( ) = 0.
6 2 6 1
At x = π, f(x) is not continuous (see the graph). So, it is –p/2 p 2p
p/2 x
not differentiable. Thus the derivative of f(x) does not
–1
exist at this point. y = f(x)

Example 61 Given that f(x) = ax2b, find f ′(0).

Solution For x = 0, f(x) = 0 ∈ ]. So, we have to find the left-hand and the right-hand derivatives of
the function f(x) = ax2b at the point x = 0.
f ( x) − f (0) a x2 b − 0 0
f ′(0 − ) = lim− = lim− = − =0
x→0 x−0 x→0 x −0 0

f ( x) − f (0) ax2 b − 0 0
f ′(0 + ) = lim+ = lim+ = + =0
x→0 x−0 x→0 x −4 0
Notice that if –1 < x < 1, ax2b = 0.
Since f ′(0–) = f ′(0+), the derivative of f(x) = ax2b exists at the point x = 0 and f ′(0) = 0.

Check Yourself 13
1. Given that f(x) = sgn (x2 + x), find f ′(–1) and f ′(2).
π π
2. Given that f(x) = acos xb, find f ′( ) and f ′( ).
3 2
3. Given that f(x) = |x2 + 3x – 4| + ax2b + sgn (x2 – 1), find f ′(0).
Answers
1. does not exist; 0 2. 0; does not exist 3. –3

326 Algebra 10
C. IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION
Up to now we have worked with the functions expressed in the form y = f(x). In this form,
the variable y is expressed easily in terms of the variable x. A function in this form is said to
be in the explicit form. However, some functions cannot be written in explicit form. Consider
the following equation:
y5 + y + x = 0
If we are given a value of x, we can calculate y in this equation. However, we cannot write
the equation in the form y = f(x). We say that x determines y implicitly, and that y is an
implicit function of x. Look at the same more implicit functions:
x5 + 2xy2 – 3y4 = 7
y – 2y2 = x
x2 – y2 + 4y = 0
How can we differentiate an implicit function? Recall the Chain Rule for differentiation. In
an implicit function, y is still a function of x, even if we cannot write this explicitly. So, we
can use the Chain Rule to differentiate terms containing y as functions of x. For example, if
we are differentiating in terms of x,
dy
(y4)′ = [(f(x))4]′ = 4( f(x))3f ′(x) = 4y3y′ or (y4)′ = y3 ,
dx
dy
(7y)′ = 7y′ or (7y)′ = 7 .
dx

The procedure we use for differentiating implicit functions is called implicit differentiation.
Let us summarize the important steps involved in implicit differentiation.

IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION

1. Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x. Remember that y is really
a function of x and use the Chain Rule when differentiating terms containing y.
dy
2. Solve the resulting equation for y′ or in terms of x and y.
dx

Example 62 Find y′ given the equation y5 + y + x = 0.

Solution ( y5 + y + x)′ = (0)′ (differentiate both sides)

( y5 )′ +( y)′+( x) ′ = 0 (by the Sum Rule)

5y4 y′ + y′ +1= 0 (by the Chain Rule)

y′(5y4 +1) = −1 (factorize)

1
y′ = − (isolate y′ )
5y4 +1

Differentiation 327
 Example 63 Find
dy
dx
given the equation y3 – y2x + x2 – 1 = 0.

Solution ( y3 − y2 x + x2 − 1)′ = (0)′ (differentiate both sides)

( y3 )′ − ( y2 x)′ + ( x2 )′ − (1)′ = 0 (by the Sum Rule)

dy dy
3y2 − (2 y x + y2 ) + 2 x − 0 = 0 (by the Chain Rule and the Product Rule)
dx dx
dy
(3y2 − 2 yx) = y2 − 2 x (factorize)
dx
dy y2 – 2x dy
= 2 (isolate )
dx 3y − 2 yx dx

Example 64 The equation x2 + y2 = 4 is given.

dy
a. Find by implicit differentiation.
dx
b. Find the slope of the tangent line to the curve at the point (ñ3, 1).
c. Find the equation of the tangent line at this point.

Solution a. Differentiating both sides of the equation with respect to x, we obtain

( x2 + y2 )′ = (4) ′

( x2 )′ +(y2 )′ = 0

dy
2x + 2y =0
dx
dy x
=– ( y ≠ 0).
dx y

b. The slope of the tangent line to the curve at the point (ñ3, 1) is given by
dy dy x 3
dx ( a, b)
m= =– =– = – 3.
dx ( 3, 1) y( 3 , 1) 1
is used for slope of the
curve at the point (a, b). c. We can find the equation of the tangent line by using the point-slope form of the
equation of a line. The slope is m = –ñ3 and the point is (ñ3, 1). Thus,
y – y1 = m(x – x1) y

y – 1 = –ñ3(x – ñ3) y + 3x – 4 = 0

ñ3x + y – 4 = 0. 2

A sketch of this tangent line is given on the right.

–2 2 4 x
The line x + ñ3y – 4 = 0 is tangent to the graph
of the equation x2 + y2 = 4 at the point (ñ3, 1). x2 + y2 = 4
–2

328 Algebra 10
Example 65 Find the derivative with respect to x of the implicit function x2 + y2 + x2 = 2.

Solution Differentiating both sides of the given equation with respect to x, we obtain

d 2 d d
( x + y2 )1/ 2 + ( x2 ) = (2)
dx dx dx
1 2 d 2
( x + y2 )1/ 2 ( x + y2 ) + 2 x = 0
2 dx
1 2 dy
( x + y2 )–1/ 2 (2 x + 2 y )+ 2 x = 0
2 dx
dy
2x+ 2y = –4 x( x2 + y2 )1/ 2
dx
dy
2y = –4 x( x2 + y2 )1/ 2 – 2 x
dx
2 2
dy –2 x x + y – x
= .
dx y

Check Yourself 14
dy
1. Find by implicit differentiation.
dx
a. x3 + x2y + y2 = 5 b. x2y + xy2 = 3x

2. Find the equation of the tangent line to each curve at the given point.
2 2
a. x2y3 – y2 + xy – 1 = 0; (1, 1) b. x – y =1; (–5, 9 )
16 9 4
2 2
c. x 3 + y 3 = 4; (1, 3 3)

Answers
–3x2 – 2 xy 3 – 2 xy – y2
1. a. b.
x2 + 2 y x2 + 2 xy
3 5 5
2. a. y = – x+ b. y = – x–4 c. y = –ñ3x + 4ñ3
2 2 4

Differentiation 329
D. DERIVATIVES OF PARAMETRIC FUNCTIONS
Sometimes we express the variables x and y as functions of a third variable t by a pair of
functions.
x = f(t), y = g(t)
Functions like these are called parametric functions, and the variable t is called the parameter.

PARAMETRIC DIFFERENTIATION

dy
dy dx
= dt , ≠0
dx dx dt
dt
dy
This enables us to find the derivative of a parametric function ( ) without having to
dx
eliminate the parameter t.

Example 66 Find the derivative with respect to x of the parametric curve x = t + 2 and y = 2t2 – 1.
dy
dy 4t
Solution = dt = = 4t
dx dx 1
dt

Example 67 If a is a positive constant and x = a cos t, y = a sin t, then find

dy
dx
.

dy
dy a cos t
Solution = dt = = – cot t
dx dx – a sin t
dt

Example 68 The parametric curve is given by the equations x = t +1 and y = t2 + 3t. Find the slope of
its tangent at x = 2.
dy
Solution Let us begin by finding in terms of t.
dx
dy d 2
(t + 3t )
dy 2t + 3
= dt = dt = = 2( t +1)1/ 2 (2 t + 3)
dx dx d 1
( t +1)
dt dt 2 t +1

For x = 2, x = t +1 = 2. So, t = 3.
dy
m= t=3 = 2 ⋅ ( t + 1)1/ 2 ⋅ (2t + 3) t=3 = 2 ⋅(3+1)1/ 2 ⋅(2 ⋅3+ 3) = 2 ⋅2 ⋅9 = 36.
dx

330 Algebra 10
 PARAMETRIC DIFFERENTIATION OF SECOND ORDER

dy′
d2 y dy′
= = dt
dx2 dx dx
dt
dy
1. Express y′ = in terms of t.
dx
2. Differentiate y′ with respect to t.
dx
3. Divide the result by .
dt

Example 69 Find
d2 y
dx 2
, if x = 2t – t2 and y = 1 – t3.

dy d
(1 – t3 )
dy dy dt dt –3t 2
Solution First, find in terms of t: = = = .
dx dx dx d
(2t – t 2 ) 2 – 2t
dt dt

dy d dy d 3t 2 –6t ⋅ (2 – 2t) – (–3t 2 ) ⋅(–2)

Then, differentiate with respect to t: ( ) = (– )= .
dx dt dx dt 2 – 2t (2 – 2t)2

dx dx d 2 y –12t +12t 2 – 6t 2 6t 2 – 12t 3t

Finally, divide the result by : : 2= 2
= 3
=– .
dt dt dx (2 – 2t) ⋅ (2 – 2 t) 8 ⋅(1 – t) 4( t – 1) 2

Check Yourself 15
dy
1. Find for each parametric curve.
dx
t –1 t +1
a. x = 2t + 3, y = t2 – 1 b. x = 5cos t, y = 5sin t c. x = , y=
t +1 t –1
d2 y
2. Find for each parametric curve.
dx2
dy
a. x = 3t2 + 2, y = 2t2 – 1 b. = 4+ sin 2 t , x = cos 2 t
dx
Answers
2
t +1 ⎞
1. a. t b. –cot t c. − ⎛⎜ ⎟
⎝ t −1⎠
1
2. a. 0 b. –
4 4+ sin 2 t

Differentiation 331
E. DERIVATIVES OF INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTIONS
In order to find the derivatives of the inverse trigonometric functions, we can use implicit
differentiation. For example, what is the derivative of Arcsin x?
π π
Let y = Arcsinx, then sin y = x and − ≤ y ≤ .
2 2

Now, if we differentiate sin y = x implicitly with respect to x,

dy dy 1
we get cos y ⋅ =1 or = .
dx dx cos y
π π 1
cos y ≥ 0, since − x
≤ y ≤ . So, cos y = 1 − sin 2 y = 1 − x2 .
2 2 y
d 1 1 1 – x2
Therefore, (Arcsin x) = = .
dx cos y 1 − x2
We can use a similar method to find the derivative of the other inverse trigonometric
functions.

DERIVATIVE OF INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

1 f ′( x)
(Arcsin x)′ = (Arcsin f ( x)) ′=
1− x 2
1 − ( f ( x))2

1 f ′( x)
(Arccos x)′ = – (Arccos f( x)) ′= –
1− x 2
1 − ( f ( x))2

1 f ′( x)
(Arctan x)′ = (Arctan f ( x)) ′=
1+ x2 ( f ( x))2 +1
1 f ′( x)
(Arccot x)′ = – (Arccot f( x)) ′= –
1+ x2 ( f ( x))2 +1

Example 70 Find the derivative of the function f(x) = Arcsin (x2).

( x2 )′ 2x
Solution f ′( x) = (Arcsin( x2 )) ′ = =
2 2
1 − (x ) 1 − x4

332 Algebra 10
Example 71 Find the derivative of the function f(x) = x⋅ Arctan ñx.

Solution By the Product Rule,

1 1 x
f ′( x) = ( x ⋅ Arctan x ) ′ =1 ⋅ Arctan x + x ⋅ ⋅( x –1/ 2 ) = Arctan x + .
1+ ( x ) 2 2
2(1+ x)

Example 72 Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve f(x) = 2 Arccos
x
2
at x = ñ3.

⎛ x ⎞′ 1
⎜ ⎟ 2
f ′( x) = –2 ⋅ ⎝2⎠ = –2 ⋅ 2 =–
Solution 2 2
x x 4 – x2
1 – ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ 1 – ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟
⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠

The slope of the tangent line is f ′(ñ3 ) = –2.

2π 2π
The curve passes through the point ( 3, ) since f ′(ñ3 ) = .
3 3
The equation of the tangent line is: y – 2π = –2( x – 3) or y = –2 x+ 2 3 + 2 π .
3 3

Check Yourself 16
1. Differentiate the functions.
a. f(x) = (Arctan x)3
2. Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve y = Arccos 2x at the point where it
crosses the y-axis.
Answers
3(Arctan x)2 π
1. a. 2. y = –2 x +
1+ x2 2

Differentiation 333
EXERCISES 4 .3
A. Derivatives of Trigonometric B. Derivatives of Special Functions
Functions
4. Find the required values using the given data:
1. Differentiate the functions. ⎛ −
⎞
a. f ( x) =| 2 x − 3x2 |, f ′(0 − )+ f ′ ⎜ ⎛⎜ 2 ⎞⎟ ⎟⎟+ f ′(1) = ?
a. f(x) = sin (3x – 5) ⎜⎝ 3 ⎠
⎝ ⎠
b. f(x) = cos (x2 – 1) ⎛ 1⎞
b. f ( x) = x2 + a xb + sgn( x – 2), f ′ ⎜ ⎟ = ?
c. f(x) = sin x – cos x ⎝ 3⎠

d. f(x) = 2 tan x + sec x c. f(x) = (2x + 3) ⋅ sgn(x2 + 1), f ′(ñ2) = ?

e. f(x) = sin x ⋅ tan x 3x +1
d. f ( x) = sgn(4 x +5) ⋅a b, f ′(2) = ?
2
f. f(x) = 2x tan x – x cos x
g. f(x) = cos2(2x3 – 3x)
1 – cos x 10
h. f ( x) = ( )
1+ cos x
4x
5. Given that f ( x) =| x2 − 4| − sgn( x3 + x)+ ,
cot x 2 x2 − 1
i. f ( x) = find the number of different x-values for which the
1+ sec x
j. f(x) = (1 + sec x) ⋅ (1 – cos x) function is not differentiable.

k. f(x) = tan x2 – x – 1

l. f ( x) = cot( x3 – 1)
1 – sec 2 ( x3 – 1) C. Implicit Differentiation
dy
m. f(x) = [x2sin(x – 1)]5 6. Find for each equation below.
dx
3
n. f ( x) = sec 2( 2x ) a. 5x – 4y = 3 b. xy – y – 1 = 0
x –1 y
c. x3 + x2 – xy = 1 d. – 3x2 = 5
x
e. 2x2 + 3y2 = 12 f. x2 + 5xy + y3 = 11
g. x2y3 – xy = 8 h. òxy – 3x – y2 = 0
2. Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve
at the given point.
y = x cos x; x=π

7. Find the equation of the tangent line to the given

curve at the indicated point.

3. For what values of x does the graph of a. 4x2 + 2y2 = 12; (1, –2)
f(x) = x + 2 sin x have a horizontal tangent line? b. 2x2 + xy = 3y2; (–1, –1)

334 Algebra 10
D. Derivatives of Parametric Functions Mixed Problems
dy
8 . Find for each pair of parametric equations. 13. Find the given order derivative by finding the first few
dx
a. x = 3t – 1 and y = t2 – 2t derivatives and observing the pattern that occurs.
1 27 d99
b. x = t(t + 1) and y = t –
t a. d 27 (cos x) b. (sin 2 x)
dx dx99
c. x = t3 – t2 – 1 and y = t2 + 3t + 1
35
d. x = t +1 and y = t2 + 3t c. d 35 ( x sin x)
dx
e. x = 3 t and y = 4 – t 2
f. x = 4cos t and y = 5sin t
2
14. Find the second derivative d y2 of each implicit
› function. dx
9. Find the equation of the tangent line at the given
point P. a. x2y – 1 = 0 b. x3 + y4 = 20
1 c. y2 + xy = 8 d. 3
x + 3 y =1
a. x = + t 2 , y = t2 – t + 1, P(2, 1)
t
b. x = 3t2 + 2, y = 2t4 – 1, P(5, 1)
15. Write the equation of the line which is tangent to
›
the curve y = x2 – 2|x – 1| at exactly two points.
d2 y
10. Find .
dx2
a. x = t2 – t b. x = ñt + 1 16. Find the required values using the given data:
1
y = t3 + 3t + 1 y= +1 ⎛π2 ⎞
t f ( x) = sin x , f ′ ⎜ ⎟=?
⎝ 16 ⎠
c. x = 2sin2 t
y = 3cos2 t

π
E. Derivatives of Inverse 17. Given that < x<π ,
2
Trigonometric Functions
|1 − tan x | ⋅ sgn(tan x)
11 . Differentiate the functions. differentiate f ( x) = .
x cos x
a. f(x) = Arcsin a b
2 2
x2 – 1
b. f(x) = Arccos
x 18. Given that f(x) = x3|x2 – 2|, find f ′(–2) + f ′′(1).
2
c. f(x) = Arctan (x + x – 1)
d. f(x) = Arctan x – 1 – x2
x2 +1
e. f(x) = Arcsin (tan x) 19. Given that f ( x) = , solve f ′(x) > 0.
› x2 − 1

12. Find the equation of the tangent line and the

x 20. Given that f ( x) = (2 − x + 2 )2 , solve f ′(x) = 0.
normal line to y = Arcsin when x = 1.
2 ›

Differentiation 335
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 4A
1. f(x) = x3 – 2x2 + 1 is given. Find the value of the 5. f(x) = sin x and g(x) = x2 + 3 are given.
f ( x) – f (2) Find the derivative of f(g(x)).
limit lim .
x→ 2 x–2
A) 2x cos (x2 + 3) B) 2x sin x
A) 2 B) 3 C) 4 D) 5x + 1 E) 3x2 – 4
C) x + sin x D) x sin (x2 + 3)

E) –x cos (x2 + 3)

2. Find the equation of the tangent line to the

π
function f(x) = 3cos 2x – 1 at the point M( , − 1).
2

A) y = 1 B) y = 2 C) y = –4

D) y = x – 2 E) y=–1 ⎧⎪ x3 , x ≤1
6. f ( x) = ⎨ is given. Find f ′(1).
⎪⎩3x, x >1

A) 0 B) 1 C) 2 D) 3 E) does not exist

3. The graph of the y

parabola y = ax2 + bx + c
y = ax2 + bx + c is
t
shown on the right such
1/2 45°
that t is its tangent at x
the point (1/2, –1). 7. f(x) = 2x2 – 3x + 1 is given. Find f ′′(1).
By using the information –1
A) 8 B) 6 C) 4 D) 3 E) 1
given in the figure, find
the value of a + b + c.
1
A) –2 B) − C) 0 D) 10 E) 15
2

8. f(x) = tan x – cot x is given. Find f ′(x).

4 3
4. f(x) = ax2 – 3x3 + 4 and f ′(2) = 8 are given. Find A) B) C) 2tan2 x
sin2 2x sin 2x
the value of a.
D) tan2 x + cot2 x E) sin 2x
A) 3 B) 4 C) 7 D) 11 E) 29

336 Algebra 10
 9. f ( x) = 2 x − 1 is given. Find f ′(5). x2
13. If the curve y = is tangent to the straight line
a
1 1 1 1 1 with the equation x – y = 1, then find the value
A) B) C) D) E)
2 3 4 5 6
of a.

A) 5 B) 4 C) 3 D) 2 E) 1

10. If the parametric function is given by the equations 14. If f(x) = |2 – x| + 2, then find the value of the
dy expression f ′(1) + f ′(3).
x = sin2 θ, y = sin2 θ, find .
dx
A) 0 B) 1 C) 2 D) 3 E) 4
A) 0 B) 1 C) –1 D) sin 2θ E) –tan 2θ

15. The graph given on y

the right belongs to 1

the function f(x).
dy f ( x) 1 2 4 x
11. y = 3xt – x2t2 is given. Find . If g( x) = , then
dt x
find the slope of the y = f(x)
A) 3 – 2t B) 3t – 2t2x C) 3x – 2x2t
tangent line to the
D) 3x + 2x2 E) 3t + 2x2t graph of g(x) at the point x = 2.

1
A) − 1 B) − C) 2 D) 1 E) 0
4 2

12. Given that f(1) = 3, lim f ( x) − 3 = 6 and 16. Find the shortest distance between the curve
x →1 x −1 4
y= and the origin (0, 0).
h(x) = x3 ⋅ f(x), find h′(1). x

A) 3 B) 6 C) 15 D) 18 E) 20 A) 8 B) 4 C) 2 D) 4ñ2 E) 2ñ2

Chapter Review Test 4A 337

CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 4B
1
1. f(x) = |x – 3| + sgn(x – 1) + a x + b is given. 4
16+ x − 2
2 5. Find lim .
x→0 x
Find the derivative of the function at the point
1 1 1
1 A) B) 1 C) 1 D) E)
x= . 2 4 8 16 32
2
A) does not exist B) 0 C) 1

D) 2 E) 18

⎧ x2 + 2, x ≤ 1
6. f ( x) = ⎪⎨ is given.
⎪⎩2 x +1, x > 1
x 3
2. f ( x) = − is given. Find f ′(9). Find the derivative of the function at x = 1.
3 x
A) 0 B) 1 C) 2 D) 3 E) does not exist
A) 9 B) 3 C) 1 D) 1 E) 1
3 6 9

d2 x+ 2 2 df (3)
3. Find (sin x + cos x)2. 7. f ( x) = ( ) is given. Find .
dx2 x−2 dx
A) 2(cos x – sin x) B) 2(sin x – cos x)
2 2
A) –300 B) –200 C) –150 D) –90 E) –40
C) sin x – cos x D) 2 cos 2x
E) –4 sin 2x

8. f(x) = |x2 + 3x – 4| + ax2b + sgn(x2 – 1) is given.

4. If the parametric curve is given by the equations
At which one of the following points does the
d2 y
x = t3 – 2t, y = t3 – 3t, find . derivative of the function exist?
dx2 t =1

A) 20 B) 12 C) 6 D) –20 E) –30 A) 1 B) 0 C) –1 D) –2 E) –3

338 Algebra 10
 9. y 13. Which one of the following is correct for the
x3
l tangent lines to the curve y = at the points
M | x|
2
y = f(x)
x = a and x = –a?

A) They are perpendicular to each other.

–3 3 x
B) They are parallel to each other.
C) The angle between them is 30°.
D) They are parallel to x-axis.
A is tangent to the curve y = f(x) at the point M(3, 2). E) They are parallel to y-axis.
f ( x)
If h( x) = , find h′(3).
x

2 5 1 1
A) B) − C) − D) E) 4
9 9 9 3 3
1
df ( )
14. f ( x) = (arcsin 2 x ) is given. Find
2 4 .
dx

π2 π2
A) B) C) π2 D) π E) 2π
10. Find the slope of the normal line to the function 4 2
π
f(x) = sin(cos 5x) at the point x = .
10

1 1 2
A) − 4 B) − C) D) E) 4
5 5 5 5 5
15. The tangent line to the curve y = x3 at the point
A(2, 8) intersects the curve at another point
B(x0, y0). Find x0.
3 5
A) − B) C) –3 D) –4 E) –5
11. f(x) = (x – 1)2 ⋅ (2x – t) and f ′′(0) = 0 are given. 2 2
Find the value of t.

A) 4 B) 2 C) 0 D) –2 E) –4

16. The implicit function sin (xy) + cos (xy) = 0 is

dy
given. Find .
dx
12. f ( x) = 2+ x is given. Find f ′(4). y
A) 1 B) − C) 2xy
1 1 x
A) 1 B) 4 C) D) 1 E)
2 4 16 D) ycos (xy) E) xcos x – ycos y

Chapter Review Test 4B 339

 APPLICATION SAYFASI EKLENECEK

340 Algebra 10
 0
A. THE INDETERMINATE FORM –
0
Guillaume de Let us consider the following limit where both f(x) and g(x) approach to zero as x → a:
L'Hospital f ( x)
lim
(1661-1704) x → a g( x)
0
If we substitute x = a in this limit, we obtain a fraction of the form , which is a
0
meaningless algebraic expression. This limit may or may not exist and is called an
0
indeterminate form .
0
French mathematician solved a From earlier studies you have learned to calculate such limits by using the limit theorems.
difficult problem posed by Pascal
at age 15. He published the first In this section, we will discuss a very powerful method known as L’Hospital’s Rule. This rule
book ever on differential calculus
0
gives a connection between derivatives and limits of the indeterminate form .
“L'Analyse des Infiniment Petits 0
pour l'Intelligence des Lignes
Courbes” (1696). In this book,
L'Hospital introduced L'Hospital's
rule. Within the book, L'Hospital
thanks Bernoulli for his help. An L’HOSPITAL’S RULE
earlier letter by John Bernoulli
gives both the rule and its proof, Let the functions f and g be differentiable on an open interval that contains the point a.
so it seems likely that it was
Bernoulli who discovered the f ′( x)
Suppose that lim f(x) = lim g(x) = 0 and lim exists. Then,
rule. L'Hospital’s name is spelled x→a x→a x→ a g′( x)
both “L'Hospital” and “L'Hôpital”,
the two being equivalent in
French spelling. f ( x) f ′( x)
lim = lim = L.
x→ a g( x) x→ a g′( x)

EXAMPLE 1 Find lim

x →0
sin x
x
.

Solution Since lim sin x = 0 and lim x = 0, we can apply L’Hospital’s Rule.
x→0 x→0

sin x (sin x)′ cos x

lim = lim = lim = cos 0 =1
x→0 x x→0 ( x)′ x→0 1

Note
Using L’Hospital’s Rule, differentiate both the numerator and the denominator seperately. Do
not apply the Quotient Rule.

342 Algebra 10
 EXAMPLE 2 Find lim
x→ 4
x–4
x2 – 4
.

Solution If we attempted to use L’Hospital’s Rule, we would get

x–4 ( x – 4)′ 1 1
lim 2 = lim 2 = lim = .
x→ 4 x – 4 x → 4 ( x – 4)′ x→ 4 2 x 8
This is wrong!
x–4 0
Since lim 2 does not give the indeterminate form , we cannot apply L’Hospital’s Rule
x→ 4 x – 4
0
here. Let us find the correct answer:
x–4 4–4 0
lim 2
= 2 = =0
x→ 4 x – 4 4 – 4 12

Note
0
Before applying L’Hospital’s Rule, verify that we have the indeterminate form .
0

EXAMPLE 3 Find lim

x → –1
x3 + x + 2
x +1
.

x3 + x + 2 (–1)3 +(–1)+ 2 0 0
Solution lim = = ( form; appl y the r ule)
x → –1 x +1 –1+1 0 0
x3 + x + 2 ( x3 + x + 2)′ 3 x2 +1
lim = lim = lim = 3 ⋅ (–1) 2 +1= 4
x → –1 x +1 x → –1 ( x +1)′ x → –1 1

EXAMPLE 4 Find lim

x →1
ln x
x2 – 1
.

ln x 0 0
Solution lim = ( form; apply the rule )
x →1 x2 – 1 0 0
1
ln x (ln x)′ 1
lim 2 = lim 2 = l im x =
x →1 x – 1 x →1 ( x – 1)′ x →1 2 x 2

Applications of the Derivative 343

 EXAMPLE 5 Find lim
x →–1
2x + 3 – 1
x +5 – 2
.

0
Solution We have the indeterminate form . So, we can use L’Hospital’s Rule:
0
2
2x + 3 – 1 ( 2 x+ 3 – 1) ′ 2 x+5 2 ⋅ 4
lim = lim = lim 2 2 x + 3 = lim = = 4.
x → –1
x +5 – 2 x → –1
( x +5 – 2)′ x→–1 1 x →–1
2 x+ 3 1
2 x +5
Note
f ′( x) 0
If lim is still indeterminate form , we use L’Hospital’s Rule again.
x→ a g′( x) 0
f ′( x) f ′′( x )
That gives lim = lim .
x → a g′( x) x → a g ′′( x )
0
In fact, whenever L’Hospital’s Rule gives , we can apply it again until we get a different result.
0

EXAMPLE 6 Find lim

x→0
x – sin x
x2
.

x – sin x 0 0
Solution lim = ( form; apply the rule)
x→0 x2 0 0
x – sin x ( x – sin x)′ 1 – cos x 1 – cos 0 0 0
lim = lim = lim = = ( form; apply the rule agai n)
x→0 x 2 x → 0 ( x )′
2 x → 0 2x 2 ⋅0 0 0

1 – cos x (1 – cos x) ′ sin x 0

lim = lim = li m = =0
x→0 2x x→0 (2 x)′ x→0 2 2

Check Yourself 1
Find the following limits:
x3 – 8 x2 – 8 x sin x – 1
1. lim 2. lim 3. lim
x → 2 x2 – 4 x→ 4 x–4 x →π/2 cos 2 x +1
Answers
1. 3 2. 6 3. –1/4

∞
B. THE INDETERMINATE FORM –
∞
∞
L’Hospital’s Rule is also valid for the indeterminate form . It is expressed as follows:
∞
f ′( x)
Suppose that lim f(x) = ±∞, lim g(x) = ±∞ and lim exists.
x→a x→a x → a g′( x)

f ( x) f ′( x)
Then, lim = lim .
x→ a g( x) x → a g′( x)

344 Algebra 10
 EXAMPLE 7 Find lim
x2 – 3x +5
x →∞ 7+ 2 x – 3 x2
.

x2 – 3x +5 ∞ ∞
Solution lim = ( form; apply the rule)
x →∞ 7+ 2 x – 3 x2 –∞ ∞

x2 – 3x +5 ( x2 – 3 x+5) ′ 2x– 3 ∞
lim = lim = lim ( still f orm; apply the ru le)
x →∞ 7+ 2 x – 3 x2 x→∞ (7+ 2 x – 3 x2 )′ x→∞ 2 – 6 x ∞

2x – 3 (2 x – 3)′ 2 1
lim = lim = lim =–
x →∞ 2 – 6x x →∞ (2 – 6 x)′ x→∞ –6 3

Note
L’Hospital’s Rule cannot be applied directly to the indeterminate forms ∞ ⋅ 0 and ∞ – ∞.
0 ∞
But it may be possible to convert them into the form or into the form .
0 ∞

EXAMPLE 8 x →∞
1
Find lim x sin .
x
This limit leads to the form ∞ ⋅ 0, but we can change it to
Solution
0 1
the form by writing x = .
0 1
x

f g 1
f ⋅g= or f ⋅ g = sin
1 1 1 x=0
lim x ⋅ sin = lim
g f x →∞ x x→∞ 1 0
x
0
Since we have the form , we can apply L’Hospital’s Rule.
0
1 1 1 1
sin (sin )′ ( − 2 ) ⋅ cos
lim x = lim x = lim x x = lim cos 1 =1
x →∞ 1 x→∞ 1 x→∞ 1 x→∞ x
( )′ − 2
x x x

Check Yourself 2
Find the following limits:
2 x2 – 5 x +7 1 1
1. lim 5. lim( − )
x→0 x sin x
x →∞ 3x + 4
Answers
1. ∞ 5. 0

Applications of the Derivative 345

EXERCISES 5 .1
0 Mixed Problems
A. The Indeterminate Form –
0 3. Find the following limits:
1. Find the following limits: 3
tan x
x a. lim x 3 + x − 2 b. lim
2 sin x→1 2 x − 3 x + 1 π 1 + tan x
x – 4x + 4 3
x→
a. lim b. lim 2
x→ 2 x2 + x – 6 x →0 2 x

› c. lim(tan x − sec x)
π
1+ 3x – 1 4 x3 + 4 x→
2
c. lim d. lim 2
x →0 x x → –1 5 x +6 x +1
6
x −1 πx
d. lim sin x › e. lim tan
1 – cos x 2
x – 8x
x→0 3x x →1 2 2
e. lim f. lim
x→0 x2 x→ 2 x–2
1
› f. lim( − csc x) › g. lim( x2 + 3 x − x )
3 x→0 x x→∞
sin(2 x + 4) 2 – x+ 6
g. lim h. lim
x → –2 x2 – x – 6 x→ 2 x2 – 4
3
3–3x 2 x2 + 3 x – 2
i. lim j. lim
x→ 3
x– 3
x →1/ 2 6x – 3

k. lim sin x – sin a

2
l. lim tan( x – 4)
x→ a x–a x→ 2 4 – x2
5x x
cos + sin arctan 3 x
m. lim 6 3 n. lim
x →0 arctan 4 x
x →π x–π

x π
2/3 arctan( ) –
o. lim x –4 p. lim 2 4
x→8 x–8 x→ 2 x–2

∞
B. The Indeterminate Form ––
∞
2. Find the following limits:

x2 + x +1 9 – x2
a. lim b. lim
x →∞ 3 x3 + 4 2
x→ – ∞ x – 2 x – 3

x2 + 4 cot 3 x
c. lim d. lim
x →∞ x x →0 cot 5 x
2
e. lim x + cos x
x →∞ 3 x2

346 Algebra 10
A. INTERVALS OF INCREASE AND DECREASE
In this section, we will first briefly review the increasing
y
and decreasing functions and then discuss the y=x2
relationship between the sign of the derivative of a
function and the increasing and decreasing behavior of
the function.
Recall the graph of the function f(x) = x2. As we move
x
from left to right along its graph, we see that the graph of
f falls for x < 0 and rises for x > 0. The function f is
2
the graph of f(x) = x

said to be decreasing on (–∞, 0) and increasing on (0, ∞).

Definition increasing and decreasing functions

A function f is increasing on an interval I if f(x) increases as x increases on I. That is, for any
x1 < x2 on I, f(x1) < f(x2).
Similarly, f is decreasing on an interval I if f(x) decreases as x increases on I. That is, for any
x1 < x2 in I, f(x1) > f(x2).

a decreasing function an increasing function

Note
We refer to a function as increasing or decreasing only on intervals, not at particular points.

Applications of the Derivative 347

 We now learn how the first derivative can be used to determine where the function is
increasing or decreasing. Let us look at the following graphs.
y y

y = f(x) y = f(x)
a
x

0° < α < 90°

a b x a b x
positive slope
f is increasing f is decreasing
positive slopes (f′(x) > 0) negative slopes (f′(x) < 0)

Observe that the function f is increasing on the interval (a, b) and the tangent lines to the
graph of f have positive slope on that interval. We know that the slope of each tangent line is
given by the derivative f ′(x). Thus, f ′(x) must be positive on (a, b).
Similarly, we expect to see a decreasing function when f ′(x) is negative. These observations
lead to the following important theorem.

Theorem
Let f(x) be a differentiable function on the interval I.
a. If f ′(x) > 0 for all the values of x on I, then f(x) is increasing on the interval I.
b. If f ′(x) < 0 for all the values of x on I, then f(x) is decreasing on the interval I.

Note
According to the theorem above, when we are asked to determine the intervals of increase
and decrease for a given function, we must examine the sign of the derivative of the
function. To do this, we shall construct the sign chart of the first derivative. We assume that
you are familiar with constructing the sign chart of a function from your earlier studies.

EXAMPLE 9 Find the intervals where the function f(x) = x2 – 4x + 3 is increasing and where it is
decreasing.

Solution Let us construct the sign chart of f ′(x). y

f ′(x) = 2x – 4 and x = 2 is a root of f ′(x) = 0 3

x –¥ 2 +¥

f ¢(x) – +
decreasing increasing 2
f (x)
( ) ( ) 1 3 x

the graph of
From the chart, f ′(x) > 0 when x > 2 and f ′(x) < 0 when x < 2.
f(x) = x2 – 4x + 3
So, f is increasing on (2, ∞) and decreasing on (–∞, 2).
It would also be true to say that f is increasing on [2, ∞) and decreasing on (–∞, 2].

348 Algebra 10
 Note
As in the previous example, we use an “up arrow” ( ) for the intervals where the function
is increasing and a “down arrow” ( ) for the intervals where the function is decreasing.

EXAMPLE 10 For what values of x is the function f(x) = (x – 1)3 either increasing or decreasing?

Solution f ′(x) = 3(x – 1)2. y

f ′(x) ≥ 0 for any of the values of x because (x – 1) > 0.

2

We conclude that f is always increasing for all the values of x.

The graph of f is shown in the figure. 1 x
-1
Note that when x = 1 we have f ′(x) = 0.
But that does not affect the increase since it is just a point.
the graph of (fx) = (x – 1)3

EXAMPLE 11 For what values of a is the function

f(x) = ax3 – 2x2 + 2x – 3 increasing for all real numbers?

Solution Since f is increasing for all real numbers, f ′(x) > 0.

f ′(x) = 3ax2 – 4x + 2 > 0
This is possible only if 3a > 0 and Δ < 0
2
Given ax + bx + c = 0, 3a > 0. So, a > 0. (1)
Δ = b2 – 4ac. 2
Δ = (– 4)2 – 4 ⋅ 3a ⋅ 2 = 16 – 24a < 0. So, a > . (2)
3
2
By (1) and (2), we have a > .
3

EXAMPLE 12 For what values of m is f ( x) =

mx – 2
x+ 3
always decreasing in its
domain?

Solution Since f is always decreasing, f ′(x) < 0 for all the values of x except
x = –3.
m( x + 3) – ( mx – 2) 3 m + 2
f ′( x) = = < 0.
( x + 3)2 ( x + 3)2

Then, we have 3m + 2 < 0 because (x + 3)2 is always positive.

2
Thus, m < – .
3

Applications of the Derivative 349

 13
y
EXAMPLE The graph of the function f is given on the interval (a, b). State
whether each of the following functions is increasing or decreasing y = f (x)
on (a, b).

a. g(x) = x2 – f(x) b. h(x) = f 2(x) c. f ( x)

m( x) =
x
a b x

Solution From the graph, we conclude that x < 0 and f(x) > 0 on (a, b). Also, we have f ′(x) > 0
because f is increasing on (a, b). Now let us find the derivative of each function.
a. g′(x) = 2x – f ′(x) < 0. So g is decreasing on (a, b).
b. h′(x) = 2 ⋅ f (x) ⋅ f ′(x) > 0. So h is increasing on (a, b).
′
c. m′(x) = f ( x) ⋅ x2− f ( x) < 0. So m is decreasing on (a, b).
x
Check Yourself 3
1. Find the intervals where each function is increasing or decreasing.
1
a. f(x) = x3 – 3x2 + 6 b. f ( x) =
3x + 4
kx +1
2. The function f ( x) = is always increasing in its domain. Find k.
x +1
Answers
1. a. increasing on (–∞, 0) and (2, ∞), decreasing on (0, 2)
4
b. decreasing on ⎛⎜ −∞, − 4 ⎞⎟ and ⎛⎜ − , ∞ ⎞⎟
⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠
2. k > 1.

B. MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM VALUES

1. Absolute and Local Maximum and Minimum
In many applications we need to find the largest or the smallest value of a specified quantity.
Here are a few examples:
• What is the shape of a container that minimizes the manufacturing costs?
• At what temperature does a certain chemical reaction proceed most rapidly?
• Which path requires the least time to travel?
These problems can be reduced to finding the maximum or minimum value of a function.
Let us first explain what we mean by maximum and minimum values.
Definition absolute maximum and minimum
A function f has an absolute maximum at c if f(c) ≥ f(x) for all the values of x in its domain.
Similarly, f has an absolute minimum at c if f(c) ≤ f(x) for all the values of x in its domain.

350 Algebra 10
 Note
Here is some terminology: If a function f has a maximum (or minimum) at x = c, then we
say that f(c) is a maximum (or minimum) value of f and (c, f(c)) is a maximum (or
minimum) point of f.
An extremum of a function is either a maximum or minimum value of that function.

The figure on the right shows the graph of a y

function f with absolute maximum at x = a f(a)

and absolute minimum at x = d. Note that

(a, f(a)) is the highest point on the graph y = f(x)

and (d, f(d)) is the lowest point.

In the same graph, if we consider only f(d)
I1 I2
the values of x sufficiently near b (for ( ) ( )
a b c d x
example, in the interval I1), then f(b) is the
smallest of those values of f(x). In other words, no nearby points on the graph of f are lower
than the point (b, f(b)). To define such points, we use the word “local”. So, we say that the
function f has a local minimum at the point x = b.
Similarly, f has a local maximum at x = c because f(c) is the largest value of f(x) in the
interval I2. We see that no nearby points on the graph are higher than the point (c, f(c)). We
now state the formal definition:

Definition local maximum and minimum

A function f has a local maximum at c if f(c) ≥ f(x) for all the values of x in an interval I
containing c.
Similarly, f has a local minimum at c if f(c) ≤ f(x) for all the values of x in an interval I
containing c.

The figure on the right illustrates some y absolute and

local max
local and absolute extrema of a function
local max
f with the domain [a, e]. We see that f has not absolute
a local maximum at x = c, and a local
minimum at x = b and x = d. Also, f has
local min
an absolute minimum at x = b and an not absolute

absolute maximum at x = e. Observe b

that the absolute minimum is also local, a c d e x
but the absolute maximum is not local y = f(x)
because it occurs at the endpoint x = e.
absolute and
local min

Applications of the Derivative 351

 Note
1. A function has at most one absolute maximum and one absolute minimum. But it may
have more than one local maximum or minimum.
2. An absolute extremum of a function is either a local extremum or an endpoint.

Check Yourself 4
1. Explain the difference between an absolute maximum y
and a local maximum. y = g(x)

2. The graph of a function with the domain [a, f] is given

on the right. For each of the points from a to f, state
whether the function has a local maximum or
minimum, or an absolute maximum or minimum.

a b c d e f x
Answers
1. absolute max.: f(c) ≥ f(x) for all the values of x in the domain of f.
local max.: f(c) ≥ f(x) for all the values of x in an interval I containing c.
2. local max. at x = b, x = d
local min. at x = c, x = e
absolute max. at x = d
absolute min. at x = a.

2. Finding the Local Extrema

We now learn how the first derivative can be used to locate y
y = f(x)
the local extrema. We first consider the functions that have
derivatives at the local extremum points. The figure on the
right shows the graph of a function f with a local
maximum at x = a and a local minimum at x = b. Observe
that the tangent lines to the graph at these points are a b x
horizontal (parallel to the x-axis) and therefore each has
slope 0. Remember that the slope of the tangent line is given by the derivative. So, we say that

f ′(a) = 0, f ′(b) = 0.
This analysis reveals an important characteristic of the local extrema of a differentiable
function.

Theorem
If f has a local extremum at c, and f ′(c) exists, then f ′(c) = 0.

352 Algebra 10
 Note y y = f(x)
The converse of this theorem is not true in general.
That is, when f ′(c) = 0, f does not necessarily have a
maximum or minimum at x = c. For example, consider
x
the function f(x) = x3. Here, f′(x) = 3x2, so f′(0) = 0. But,
f has neither a local maximum nor a local minimum at
x = 0.

EXAMPLE 14 The function f(x) = 2x3 – mx + 5 has a local minimum

at x = 1. Find m.

Solution Since f(x) is a polynomial function, it is differentiable

everywhere. By the theorem above, we have f ′(1) = 0.
f ′(x) = 6x2 – m
f ′(1) = 0
6 ⋅ 12 – m = 0
m=6

EXAMPLE 15 Find the local extrema of the function f(x) = |x|.

Solution Let us plot the graph of f.

y
⎧⎪ x, x ≥ 0 y = f(x)
f ( x) =| x |= ⎨
In some books, an ⎪⎩− x, x < 0
extremum that occurs
at a point where the
We see that f has a local minimum at x = 0.
x
derivative does not But there is no horizontal tangent there.
exist is called a singular
point.
In fact, there is no tangent line at all since f ′(x) is not defined at x = 0.

Note
The function f(x) = |x| shows that a local extremum of a function may exist at which the
derivative does not exist. As a consequence, we say that the local extrema of any function f
occurs at the points c where f ′(c) = 0 or f ′(c) does not exist. Such points are given a special
name.

Applications of the Derivative 353

 Definition critical point
The value c in the domain of f is called a critical point if either
1. f ′(c) = 0, or
2. f ′(c) does not exist.

EXAMPLE 16 Find the critical points of f(x) = 2x3 – 9x2 + 12x – 7.

Solution The derivative of f is f ′(x) = 6x2 – 18x + 12 = 6(x – 1)(x – 2).

Since f ′(x) is defined for all the values of x, the only critical points are the roots of f ′(x) = 0.
Therefore, x = 1 and x = 2.

x2
EXAMPLE 17 Find the critical points of f ( x) =
x –1
.

Solution The Quotient Rule gives

2 x( x – 1) – x2 ⋅ 1 x( x – 2)
f ′( x) = = .
( x – 1)2 ( x – 1)2
Since x = 0 and x = 2 are the roots of f ′(x) = 0, they are critical points. Next, observe that
f ′(x) does not exist when x = 1. However, since f is not defined at that point, the point
x = 1 is not a critical point.

18
y
EXAMPLE In the figure on the right the graph of a y = f(x)
function f with critical points at x = a, b, c, d,
and e are shown.
a. State why these points are critical.
b. Classify each of them as a local maximum,
a local minimum, or neither.
a b c d e x

Solution a. Observe that there are horizontal tangents at the points x = c, d, and e, so f ′(x) = 0 at
these points. Next, f ′(x) does not exist at x = a because the tangent line at this point is
vertical. Finally, since there is a corner at x = b, f ′(x) does not exist there.

354 Algebra 10
 b. From the graph of f, we say that f has a local maximum at x = d, and a local minimum at
x = b and x = e. Note that f ′(c) = 0 and f ′(a) does not exist, and f has no local extrema
at these points. We conclude that not every critical point gives rise to a local extrema.

Check Yourself 5
Find the critical points of the following functions.

1. f(x) = x3 – 3x + 4 2. f(x) = 1 – ñx
Answers
1. –1, 1 2. 0

3. The First Derivative Test

So far we have learned that any extremum of a function f must occur at any critical point of
f. In the previous example we have seen that not every critical point is a maximum or a
minimum.Therefore, we need a test that helps us classify critical points as local maximum,
local minimum, or neither.
Suppose that the function f is continuous at c and that f is defined on some open interval
containing c.

f¢>0 + – f¢<0
If f is increasing on the left of c and
+ –
decreasing on the right, then f should inc. dec. + –
have a local maximum at x = c. + –

c x

Applications of the Derivative 355

 y
If f is decreasing on the left of c and + –
increasing on the right, then f should + –
dec. inc.
have a local minimum at x = c.
+ –
+ –
f¢<0 f¢>0

c x

y y
+ –
If f is increasing on both sides or + f¢>0 –
decreasing on both sides, then f + f¢<0 –
+ –
should have neither a local maximum f¢>0 f¢<0
+ –
nor a local minimum at x = c. + –
c x c x

Moreover, we know that f(x) is increasing where f ′(x) > 0 and decreasing where f ′(x) < 0.
These observations are the basis of the following test.

THE FIRST DERIVATIVE TEST

Let c be a critical point of a function f(x).

1. If f ′(x) changes from positive to negative at c, then f(x) has a local maximum at c.
2. If f ′(x) changes from negative to positive at c, then f(x) has a local minimum at c.
3. If f ′(x) does not change sign at c, then f(x) has no local maximum or minimum at c.

EXAMPLE 19 Find the critical points of the function f(x) = x3 – 3x2 – 9x + 6, and classify each critical
point as a local maximum, a local minimum, or neither.

Solution f ′(x) = 3x2 – 6x – 9 = 3(x – 3)(x + 1)

x = 3 and x = –1 are the critical points (where f ′(x) = 0). Since f ′(x) is a polynomial
function, it is differentiable everywhere. Thus, we have no points c such that f ′(c) is not
defined.
x –¥ –1 3 +¥

f ¢(x) + – +

f(x)

(max) (min)
From the sign chart, f increases for x < –1 and decreases for –1 < x < 3. So, f has a local
maximum at x = –1.
Similarly, f decreases for –1 < x < 3 and increases for x > 3. So, f has a local minimum at x = 3.

356 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 20 Find the local extrema of the function f(x) = x2/3 + 2.

2
2 –1 2
Solution f ′( x) = ⋅ x3 = 1
3
3 ⋅ x3
There is no root of f ′(x) = 0.
Now we will look for the values of x such that f ′(x)
is not defined but f(x) is defined. We see that f is
defined for all the values of x but f ′ is not defined
at x = 0. So, 0 is a critical point.

x –¥ 0 +¥

f ¢(x) – +

f(x)

(min)

Thus, the first derivative test tells us that x = 0 is

a local minimum of f.

EXAMPLE 21 Find the local extrema of the function f(x) = |x – 1|.

Solution If x > 1, then x – 1 > 0. So, f(x) = x – 1.

If x < 1, then x – 1 < 0. So, f(x) = 1 – x.
1, x>1
f ′(x) =
–1, x<1

Since f ′(1– ) ≠ f ′(1+), f ′(x) is not defined at x = 1.

So, x = 1 is a critical point. Furthermore, f ′(x) is not equal to zero anywhere.
For x > 1, we have f ′(x) = 1 > 0. So, f(x) is increasing on this interval.
For x < 1, we have f ′(x) = –1 < 0. So, f(x) is decreasing on this interval.

x –¥ 1 +¥

f ¢(x) – +

f(x)

(min)
Thus, f has a local minimum at x = 1.

Applications of the Derivative 357

EXAMPLE 22 Find the local extrema of the function f(x) = 5x3 + 4x.

Solution f ′(x) = 15x2 + 4 is always positive. There is no real solution of f ′(x) = 0.

x –¥ +¥

f ¢(x) +

f(x)

f is increasing for all the values of x.

Since f(x) is a polynomial function, f(x) is continuous and differentiable everywhere.
Thus, f(x) has no local extrema.

Check Yourself 6
Find the local extrema of the following functions.
x2 +1
1. f(x) = 2x2 – 2x + 5 2. f(x) = 1 – x4 3. f(x) = 4. f(x) = |x2 – x|
x
Answers
1 1
1. min.: x = 2. max.: x = 0 3. max.: x = –1, min.: x = 1 4. max.: x = , min.: x = 0, x = 1
2 2

EXAMPLE 23 If the function f(x) = x3 + ax2 + 15x + b has a local maximum at the point (1, 10), then
find a and b.

Solution We know that an extremum of a function must occur at a point where f ′(x) = 0 or f ′(x) does
not exist. Since f is a polynomial function, f is differentiable everywhere.
So, we have f ′(1) = 0.
f ′(x) = 3x2 + 2ax + 15
f ′(1) = 0
3 ⋅ 12 + 2a ⋅ 1 + 15 = 0
a = –9
Since the point (1, 10) is on the graph of f, we say that f(1) = 10.
f(1) = 10
13 + a ⋅ 12 + 15 ⋅ 1 + b = 10
a + b = –6
b = 3 (since a = –9)

358 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 24 The graph of the derivative of the function f(x) is shown in y
y = f ¢(x)
the figure. Find the intervals where f(x) is increasing or
decreasing and find the local extrema of f. -2 -1
1 x

Solution We know that f(x) is increasing when f ′(x) > 0. f ′(x) > 0 means that the graph of f (x) must
be above the x-axis. In the figure f ′(x) > 0 for x > 1. So, f(x) is increasing for x > 1. Similarly,
f(x) is decreasing when the graph of f ′(x) is below the x-axis. So, f(x) is decreasing for x < 1.

x –¥ 1 +¥

f ¢(x) – +

f(x)

(min)

From the chart, f has a local minimum at x = 1.

EXAMPLE 25 For what values of m does the function f(x) = x3 – (m – 1)x2 + 3x – 2 have no local extrema?

Solution Since f has no extrema, there must be no root of f ′(x) = 0.

f ′(x) = 3x2 – 2(m – 1)x + 3

The equation 3x2 – 2(m – 1)x + 3 = 0 must have no root.

A quadratic equation has
1. two solutions when We need Δ < 0:
Δ > 0.
2. one solution when [–2(m – 1)]2 – 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 < 0
Δ = 0.
3. no solution when 4(m2 – 2m + 1) – 36 < 0
Δ < 0.
4(m2 – 2m – 8) < 0

4(m – 4)(m + 2) < 0

Let us construct a chart to solve the above inequality:

–2 4
+ – +

So –2 < m < 4.

Applications of the Derivative 359

 Check Yourself 7
1. The function f(x) = x3 – 3x2 – 9x + a has a local maximum value of 10. Find a.

2. The graph of the derivative of the function f(x) is given. Find the local extrema of the
function f.
y

–2 1 2 4
–1 3 x

y = f ¢(x)

Answers
1. 5 2. max.: x = 0, x = 4, min.: x = –2, x = 2

4. Finding the Absolute Extrema

In most types of maximum-minimum problems, we are more interested in the absolute
extrema rather than the local extrema. Recall that the absolute extrema of a function are the
largest and the smallest values of that function in its whole domain. The following figures
show the graphs of several functions and give the maximum and minimum values of the
functions if they exist.

y y y

x
x
–1
x

minimum value is – 1 minimum value is 0 no minimum value

maximum value is 1 no maximum value no maximum value

We have seen that some functions have absolute extrema, whereas other do not. In what
conditions does a function have both the absolute maximum and the absolute minimum?
The following theorem answers this question.

360 Algebra 10
 Theorem
If a function f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b], then f has both an absolute maximum
and an absolute minimum on [a, b].

The above theorem guarantees the existence of the absolute extrema of a continuous
function on a closed interval [a, b]. Moreover, we know that each absolute extremum can
occur either at a critical point in the interior of [a, b] or at an endpoint of the interval. The
following steps give a useful method for finding the absolute extrema of a continuous
function on [a, b].

CLOSED INTERVAL METHOD

1. Find the critical points of f on the interval [a, b].

2. Evaluate f(x) at each critical point.
3. Evaluate f(a) and f(b).
4. The largest of the values of f found in Steps 2 and 3 is the absolute maximum, the
smallest of these values is the absolute minimum.

EXAMPLE 26 Find the absolute extrema of the function f(x) = x2 – 4x + 3 on [0, 3].

Solution Let us apply the Closed Interval Method step by step:

1st Step: To find the critical points of f, we must solve f ′(x) = 0 and also find where f ′(x)
does not exist.
f ′(x) = 2x – 4 = 0 gives x = 2.
The domain of the function is [0, 3]. So, x = 2 is in the domain.
And there is no point where f ′(x) is not defined.
Thus, the only critical point on [0, 3] is x = 2. y
max
3
2 Step: f(2) = 2 – 4 ⋅ 2 + 3 = –1
nd 2

3rd Step: f(a) = f(0) = 02 – 4 ⋅ 0 + 3 = 3

f(b) = f(3) = 32 – 4 ⋅ 3 + 3 = 0 1 2 3
x
4rd Step: fmax[0, 3] = 3, fmin[0, 3] = – 1. -1 y = f (x)
The graph of f confirms our results. min

Applications of the Derivative 361

EXAMPLE 27 Find the maximum and minimum values of the function f(x) = 2x3 + 12x2 + 18x + 6 on
the closed interval [–2, 0].

Solution f ′(x) = 6x2 + 24x + 18 = 6(x + 1)(x + 3)

f ′(x) = 0 when x = –1 and x = –3.
But x = –3 is outside the interval [–2, 0]. So, we do not take it.
The only critical point is x = –1.
Additionally, we should consider the endpoints of the interval [–2, 0].
Now, we evaluate f(x) at x = –1, –2, and 0:
f(–1) = –2
f(–2) = 2
f(0) = 6
fmax[–2, 0] = 6, fmin[–2, 0] = –2.

Notation
fmax[a, b] denotes the maximum value of the function f on the interval [a, b].
fmin[a, b] denotes the minimum value of the function f on the interval [a, b].

EXAMPLE 28 Find the absolute extrema of the function f(x) = 2 – |x – 1| on [–1, 3].

Solution If x > 1, then x – 1 > 0. So, f(x) = 2 – (x – 1) = 3 – x.

If x < 1, then x – 1 < 0. So, f(x) = 2 – (1 – x) = x + 1.

⎧ 3 – x, x>1
⎪
We have f(x) = ⎨ 2, x=1.
⎪
⎩ x + 1, x<1
We say that f ′(1) does not exist because f ′(1–) = 1 and f ′(1+) = –1 are not equal.
So x = 1 is a critical point.
Next we consider the endpoints of the interval [–1, 3]. So, we should find the values of f for the
points x = 1, –1, and 3.
f(1) = 2
f(–1) = 0
f(3) = 0
fmax[–1, 3] = 2, fmin[–1, 3] = 0.

362 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 29 x 2
Find the maximum and minimum values of the function f ( x) = + on [–3, 3].
2 x

1 2 x2 – 4
Solution f ′( x) =
– 2=
2 x 2 x2
x = –2 and x = 2 are the roots of f ′(x) = 0. So, they are critical points. Next, f ′(x) does not
exist when x = 0, but f is not defined at this point; so 0 is not a critical point.
Now let us find the values of f for critical points and endpoints.
13 13
f (–3) = – , f ( –2) = –2, f (2) = 2, f(3) =
6 6
13 13
f max [–3,3]= fmin =[–3, 3]= –
6 6

Check Yourself 8
Find the absolute extrema of each function on the given interval.

1. f(x) = x2 – x + 2, [0, 1] 2. g(x) = x3 – 2x2 + x + 1, [–1, 2]

3. h(x) = x – ñx, [1, 4]
Answers
7
1. fmax = 2, fmin = 2. fmax = 3, fmin = –3 3. fmax = 2, fmin = 0
4

Applications of the Derivative 363

EXERCISES 5 .2
A. Intervals of Increase and Decrease 5. For what values of m is the function
1
1. You are given the graphs of two functions. f ( x) = − x3 + mx2 − 4x +1 decreasing
3
Determine where the functions are increasing for all real numbers?
and where they are decreasing.
a. y b. y
1
y = f (x) 6. The function f(x) = ax3 – (a – 2)x2 + x
3

–2 2
is always increasing for all the values of x. Find a.
x –3 –1 x
–1 y = f (x)

x2 − ax
7. Find the values of a, so that f ( x) = is
x2 − 4 x + 3
2. Find the intervals where each of the following
always decreasing in its domain.
functions is increasing or decreasing.
a. f(x) = 3 – 8x
8. Find a, so that the function
b. f(x) = x2 + 1
2
f(x) = x3 – 3x2 + 3ax + 15 is increasing on
c. f(x) = –x + 4x + 3
(–∞, –2) and (4, ∞), and decreasing on (–2, 4).
d. f(x) = x3 + 6x
x3
e. f(x) = – 2x2 + 2 9. Let f be an increasing function on (0, ∞). State
3
f. f(x) = 3x4 + 4x3 – 12x2 whether each of the following functions are
1 increasing or decreasing on the same interval.
g. f(x) =
2–x a. –f(x) b. x + f(x)
h. f(x) = x2/3 1
c. d. f(x2)
5−x f ( x)
i. f(x) =
x2
3
j. f(x) = x –1
10. The graph of the function f is y

⎛ π⎞ given on the closed interval

› k. f ( x) = sin ⎜ x + ⎟
a b
⎝ 3⎠ [a, b]. State whether each of
x
the following functions are
increasing or decreasing on
3. Find the intervals where the function
[a, b].
f(x) = sin x + cos x is decreasing on [0, 2π].
a. x ⋅ f(x) y = f(x)

4. Show that the function f(x) = Arctanx is increasing b. f 2(x) + x

for all the values of x. c. x2 – f(x)

364 Algebra 10
B. Maximum and Minimum Values 15. The function f(x) = x3 – 9x2 + 15x + 7 is given.
Find the sum of the x-coordinates of its local
11. For each of the points from x1 to x9, state whether
extrema.
f has a local maximum or minimum, and an
absolute maximum or minimum.
y
16. The graph of y = ax2 + bx has an extremum at
y = f (x)
(1, –2). Find the values of a and b.

17. Find k, if f(x) = x3 – 2x2 – 7x + k has a local

x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7 x8 x9
maximum value of 8.
x

12. Find the critical points of the following functions.

1 18. Given that f(x) = x3 + ax2 + bx + 1 has a local
a. f(x) = x3 + x b. f(x) = 2x –
x2 maximum at x = –1 and a local minimum at
c. f(x) = |x + 1|
x = 2, find a and b.
13. y

19. Find the value of m, if the curve y = x3 + 2mx2 + 30

is tangent to the line y = –2.
y = f (x)

a b c d e x
20. Find the relation between a and b, if the function
In the figure above the graph of a function f with f(x) = ax3 + bx + c has one local maximum and
the critical points at a, b, c, d, and e are shown. one local minimum.
a. State why these points are critical.
b. Classify each of them as a local maximum, a
local minimum, or neither. 21. For what values of m does the function
2
14. Find the local extrema of the following functions. f(x) = mx + 1 have no local extrema?
x −1
a. f(x) = 8x + x2
b. f(x) = –x3 + 3x + 2
x3 22.
c. f(x) = + 2x2 + 4x + 5 y
3
2
d. f(x) = (x – 1)2(x + 3)2
1 3 7
x
e. f(x) = –2 6 x
x +1
16 y = f ¢ (x)
f. f(x) = x2 – –3
x
g. f(x) = |4 – x2| The graph of the derivative of a function f is
›› h. f(x) = sin x + sin x 2
given. Find the local extrema of f.

Applications of the Derivative 365

23. Find the absolute extrema of each function on Mixed Problems
the given interval.
28. Given a parametric function y = f(x) with
››
2
a. f(x) = 2x – 4x + 3, [0, 2] y = 2t2 + 4t + 5
x = t3 + t.
b. f(x) = –x2 + 2x – 1, [–2, 2]
a. Find the intervals of increase and decrease of f.
3
c. f(x) = x – 6x, [1, 4] b. Find the local extrema of f.

d. f(x) = 2x3 – 15x2 + 24x + 19, [0, 2]

29. y
›
e. f(x) = x2 – 4ñx, [0, 3]
–3 –1 2 4 6
f. f(x) = x5 – 5x4 + 1, [0, 5] –4 5

g. f(x) = 9x2 – x4, [–3, 3] y = f ¢(x)

h. f(x) = 9 – x2 , [–1, 2]
The graph of the derivative of a function f is
1
i. f(x) = x – , [1, 3] given.
x
a. Find the intervals of increase and decrease of f.
j. f(x) = 3x2/3, [–1, 1]
b. Find the local extrema of f.
x–1
k. f(x) = , [0, 4]
x +1 30. At what point does the tangent to the curve
2
› x3
› l. f(x) = |x – 3x|, [1, 4] y= – 2 x2 + x – 5 have the smallest slope?
3
› m. f(x) = 9sin x – sin 3x + 3, [–π, 0] 31. In the figure, graph of f ′(x) y
› y = f ¢(x)
is given. Given that the
24. Find the sum of the smallest value and the greatest equation f(x) = 0 has only
one root and that root is a b
x
value of f(x) = x2 – 4x + 8 on [–2, 3].
positive, plot a rough graph
of f(x).

25. If the point (1, 4) is the highest point of the graph 32. Find the range of the function
of f(x) = ax2 + 2x + b, find a + b. ›
⎧⎪3x4 − 4 x3 − 24 x2 + 48 x, x ≥ 0.5
f ( x) = ⎨ .
⎪⎩8 x3 +12 x2 + 2, x < 0.5
26. Let f(x) = ax3 – bx. Find a and b, if f(2) = 4 is the
maximum value of f on [0 , 4]. 33. For which values of a does the interval ⎡⎢0, 1 ⎤⎥
›› ⎣ 3⎦
completely include the range of the function
27. Find the maximum value of f(x) = sinx + cosx. 1
f ( x) = 4 ?
› 3x − 8ax3 +12 a2 x2 + a

366 Algebra 10
A. CONCAVITY
In this section we discuss the concept of concavity. As illustrated in the following figures, two
increasing graphs on an interval may have different shapes. This depends on how the graphs
bend or turn. As we scan the graphs from left to right, we see that the graph of f turns to the
left (upward), while the graph of g turns to the right (downward). We say that the function f
is concave up on the interval (a, b) and the function g is concave down on
the interval (a, b). We now define concavity geometrically.

y y

y=f(x)
y=g(x)

a b x a b x

increasing, concave up increasing, concave down

Definition concavity
A function f is concave up on an interval I if the graph of f lies above all of its tangent lines
on the interval I.
Similarly, f is concave down on I if the graph of f lies below all of its tangent lines on I.

Applications of the Derivative 367

 concave up (slopes increasing) concave down (slopes decreasing)

The graphs above illustrates the definition of concavity. Now, we shall see that the
second derivative f ′′ tells us where f is concave up and where f is concave down. If f is
concave up on (a, b), then the slopes of the tangent lines increase from left to right as shown
f ′ > 0 ⇔ f is increasing
in the left figure above. This means that the first derivative f′ is increasing on (a, b). We know
f ′ < 0 ⇔ f is decreasing
that if f ′ is an increasing function, then its derivative f ′′ must be positive on (a, b). In a
similar way, it can be shown that if f is concave down on (a, b), then f ′′(x) < 0 on (a, b).
These observations suggest the following theorem.

Theorem
Let the function f be twice differentiable on the interval I.
1. If f ′′(x) > 0 for all the values of x on the interval I, then f is concave up on I.
2. If f ′′(x) < 0 for all the values of x on the interval I, then f is concave down on I.

EXAMPLE 30 Determine where the following functions are concave up and where they are concave down.

a. f(x) = 9 – x2 b. f(x) = x3
y
Solution a. f(x) = 9 – x2 y = 9 – x2

f ′(x) = –2x and f ′′(x) = –2

Since f ′′(x) < 0 for all the values of x, f is concave down
As a conclusion of the
above theorem, we must everywhere. x
examine the sign of the
second derivative. y
b. f(x) = x3 x –¥ 0 +¥ y = x3
f ′(x) =3x2 and f ′′(x) = 6x f ¢¢(x) – +
Setting f ′′(x) = 0 gives x = 0.
f(x) concave concave x
down up

From the sign chart, f′′(x) changes sign from negative to positive at the point x = 0. Observe
that the point (0, 0) on the graph of f(x) = x3 is where f changes from concave down to
concave up. We call it the inflection point of f.

368 Algebra 10
 Definition Inflection point
An inflection point is a point where a graph changes its direction of concavity.

y y y y

a x a x a x a x

f ¢¢(a) = 0 f ¢¢(a) = 0 f ¢¢(a) does not exist f ¢¢(a) does not exist

Note
At each inflection point, either
1. f ′′(a) = 0 or
2. f ′′(a) does not exist.

FINDING THE INFLECTION POINTS

To find the inflection points of a function, follow the steps.

1. Find the points where f ′′(x) = 0 and f ′′(x) does not exist. These points are the
possible inflection points of the function f.
2. Construct the sign chart of f ′′(x). If the sign of f ′′(x) changes across the point
x = a, then (a, f(a)) is an inflection point of f.

EXAMPLE 31 Investigate f(x) = (x + 1)4 for concavity and find the inflection points.

Solution f ′(x) = 4(x + 1)3 y

f ′′(x) = 12(x + 1)2

4
x = –1 is a double root of f ′′(x) = 0.
x –¥ –1 +¥

f ¢¢(x) + +

f(x) concave concave –1 x

up up
the graph of f(x) = (x + 1)4
From the sign chart, f(x) is concave up for all the values of x.
Also, we have f ′′(x) = 0 when x = –1.
But (–1, 0) is not the inflection point of f because f ′′ does not change sign across x = –1.

Applications of the Derivative 369

EXAMPLE 32 Find the intervals of concavity and the inflection points for f ( x) =
1 4
2
x – 4 x3 +9 x2 – 7 x+5.

Solution f ′(x) = 2x3 – 12x2 + 18x – 7

f ′′(x) = 6x2 – 24x + 18 = 6(x – 3)(x – 1)
Because f ′′(x) exists everywhere, the possible inflection points are the solutions of the
equation f ′′(x) = 0; that is, x = 1 and x = 3.
x –¥ 1 3 +¥

f ¢¢(x) + – +

f (x) concave up concave down concave up

(inf) (inf)

From the sign chart for f ′′, we see that f is concave up on (–∞, 1) and (3, ∞) and concave
down on (1, 3). It would also be true to say that f is concave up on (–∞, 1] and [3, ∞) and
concave down on [1, 3].
Also, observe that f ′′(x) changes sign at x = 1 and x = 3. Therefore, the points (1, f(1)) and
(3, f(3)) are the inflection points of f.

EXAMPLE 33 Find the intervals of concavity and the inflection points for f(x) = cos x – sin x on [0, 2π].

Solution f ′(x) = –sin x – cos x and f ′′(x) = –cos x + sin x

Since f ′′ is differentiable on [0, 2π], we must find the solutions of f ′′(x) = 0 on [0, 2π].
π 5π
f ′′(x) = 0 ⇒ –cos x + sin x = 0 ⇒ tan x = 1 ⇒ x = and x = .
4 4
sin
p 5p
f ¢¢ = 0 x 0 2p
4 4
+
+
– f ¢¢(x) – + –

+ cos concave concave concave

– f(x)
down up down
–
(inf) (inf)
f ¢¢ = 0
π 5π
The sign chart of f ′′ shows that f is concave down on (0, ) and ( , 2π) and concave up on
4 4
π 5π
( , ).
4 4
π π π 2 2 5π 5π 5π 2 2
f ( ) = cos − sin = − = 0 and f ( ) = cos −sin =− + =0
4 4 4 2 2 4 4 4 2 2
π 5π
So, ( , 0) and ( , 0) are the inflection points of f.
4 4

370 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 34 The function f(x) = x3 + ax2 + bx + 3 has an inflection point at (1, 3). Find the values of a
and b.

Solution f ′(x) = 3x2 + 2ax + b and f ′′(x) = 6x + 2a

We know that the inflection point of f occurs at a point where f ′′(x) = 0 or f ′′(x) does not
exist.
Since (1, 3) is an inflection point, f ′′(1) = 0.
Also we have f(1) = 3 because the point (1, 3) is on the graph of f.
f ′′(1) = 0 ⇒ 6 ⋅ 1 + 2a = 0 ⇒ a = –3
f(1) = 3 ⇒ 13 + a ⋅ 12 + b ⋅ 1 + 3 = 3 ⇒ a + b = 0 ⇒ b = 3

EXAMPLE 35 Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve f ( x) = x2 +

1
x
at its inflection point.

Solution We first need to find the inflection point of f.

1 2
f ′( x) = 2 x − 2
and f ′′( x) = 2+ 3
x x
Setting f ′′(x) = 0 gives x = –1 and (–1, 0) is the inflection point.
f ′′ does not exist when x = 0 but this point is not the inflection point of f. (Why?)
Now we can find the equation of the tangent line at the point (–1, 0). The slope of the
equation is
1
m = f ′( −1) = 2 ⋅ ( −1) − = −2 − 1 = −3.
( −1)2
Using the point-slope form of a line,
y – y1 = m ⋅ (x – x1)
y – 0 = –3 ⋅ (x + 1) or y = –3x – 3.

Applications of the Derivative 371

 Note
In the beginning of this section we have
seen that an increasing graph can be either
concave up or concave down. This shows
that the increase and decrease of a function
is independent of the concavity of the
function.
Remember that the sign of the first derivative determines where f is increasing and decreasing,
whereas the sign of the second derivative determines where f is concave up and concave down.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN A GRAPH AND ITS DERIVATIVES

y y y y
y = f(x)
y = f(x)

y = f(x)
y = f(x)

x x x x
f ¢ > 0, f increasing f ¢ > 0, f increasing f ¢ < 0, f decreasing f ¢ < 0, f decreasing
f ¢¢ > 0, f concave up f ¢¢ < 0, f concave down f ¢¢ > 0, f concave up f ¢¢ < 0, f concave down

Check Yourself 9
1. Find the intervals of concavity and the inflection points for each function.
x +1
a. f(x) = x3 – 2x2 – 7x + 3 b. f ( x) =
x–1
2. The function f(x) = x3 + ax2 + bx + 2 has an inflection point at (1, –1). Find a and b.
y
3. The graph of a function y = f(x) is shown in the figure.
y = f(x)
a. Find the intervals of increase and decrease of f.
b. Find the intervals of concavity of f.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 x
Answers
2 2 2
1. a. concave up: ( , ∞ ) , concave down: (– ∞, ) , inflection point x = .
3 3 3
b. concave up: (1, ∞), concave down: (–∞, 1), no inflection point.

2. a = –3, b = –1 3. a. increasing: (1, 2), (4, 6), (8, 9) b. concave up: (3, 6), (6, 9)
decreasing: (2, 4), (6, 8) concave down: (1, 3)

372 Algebra 10
B. THE SECOND DERIVATIVE TEST
We have seen that the first derivative test helps us classify the critical points of a function f.
Here we learn an alternative test for determining whether a critical point of f is a local
maximum or a local minimum.

THE SECOND DERIVATIVE TEST

Let f be twice differentiable on an interval I and c be a critical point of f in I such that

f ′(c) = 0.
1. If f ′′(c) > 0, then f has a local minimum at x = c.
2. If f ′′(c) < 0, then f has a local maximum at x = c.

y y
y = f(x)

y = f(x)

c x c x

f ¢(c) = 0, f ¢¢(c) > 0 f ¢(c) = 0, f ¢¢(c) < 0

local minimum at c. local maximum at c.

The graphs above illustrates the second derivative test. We know that f is concave up near c
if f ′′(c) > 0. This means that the graph of f lies above its horizontal tangent at c and so
f has a local minimum at c.

EXAMPLE 36 Apply the second derivative test to find the local extrema of the function
f(x) = x3 – 3x2 – 9x + 6.

Solution f ′(x) = 3x2 – 6x – 9 and f ′′(x) = 6x – 6.

So, f ′(x) = 0 gives x = –1 and x = 3, the critical points of f.
To apply the second derivative test, we compute f ′′ at these points.
f ′′(–1) = –12 and f ′′(3) = 12
Since f ′′(–1) < 0, the second derivative test implies that f(–1) = 11 is a local maximum value
of f. And since f ′′(3) > 0, it follows that f(3) = –21 is a local minimum value.
Remember that we had found the same results by using the first derivative test in Example 24.

Applications of the Derivative 373

 Note
The second derivative test can be used only when f ′′ exists. Moreover, this test fails when
f ′′(c) = 0. In other words, if f ′(c) = 0 = f ′′(c), then there might be a local
maximum, a local minimum, or neither at the point x = c. In such cases we must use the
first derivative test.

EXAMPLE 37 Find the local extrema of the function f(x) = 3x5 – 5x3 + 3.

Solution f ′(x) = 15x4 – 15x2 = 15x2(x2 – 1) = 15x2(x – 1)(x + 1) = 0

So, the critical points are x = –1, x = 0, and x = 1.
The second derivative is f ′′(x) = 60x3 – 30x.
When we compute f ′′(x) at each critical point, we find that
f ′′(–1) = –30 < 0, f ′′(0) = 0, f ′′(1) = 30 > 0.
The second derivative test tells us that f has a local maximum at x = –1, a local minimum
at x = 1. Since f ′′(0) = 0, this test gives no information about the critical point 0. Let us
apply the first derivative test.
x –¥ –1 0 1 +¥

f ¢(x) + – – +

f(x)

We see that f ′ does not change sign at x = 0. So, f does not have a local maximum or
minimum.

Check Yourself 10
Apply the second derivative test to find the local extrema of each function.

1. f (x) = 4x3 + 9x2 – 12x + 7

2. f (x) = 8x5 – 5x4 – 20x3

4
3. f (x) = x +
x

Answers
1. max.: x = –2 2. max.: x = –1 3. max.: x = –2
1 3
min.: x = min.: x = min.: x = 2
2 2

374 Algebra 10
EXERCISES 5 .3
A. Concavity i. f(x) = x +1

1. The graphs of two functions are given. Find the j. f(x) = 3

5– x
intervals where the second derivative of the
› k. f(x) = –Arcsin(x – 2)
function is positive or negative.
a. y sin x
›› l. f ( x) =
1 − cos x
–4 2 4
–2 x

b.
y
3. Find a and b, if f(x) = x4 – 4x3 + ax2 + b has an
–2 inflection point at (1, 3).
–3 –1 2 x

2. Find the intervals of concavity and the inflection 4. The function f(x) = x4 + kx2 + 7x – 7 has an
inflection point at x = 1. Find the coordinates of
points for each function.
the other inflection point.
a. f(x) = x2 – 5x + 6

b. f(x) = –2x2 + 7x

c. f(x) = x3 + x2

d. f(x) = x3 – 3x2 + 5x – 7 5. The graph of the derivative of a function f is shown

in the figure. Find the intervals of concavity and
e. f(x) = 3x4 – 16x3 + 30x2 + 4 the inflection points of f.

1 4 y
f. f(x) = x – 6x2 + 4x – 7
4
–1 1 5
g. f(x) = 3x5 – 10x3 + 5x
–3 3 x

1 y = f ¢(x)
h. f(x)=
x2
Applications of the Derivative 375
B. The Second Derivative Test 9. Show that a cubic function has exactly one
inflection point.
6. Determine whether f has a local maximum or
minimum at the given value of x, using the
second derivative test.
1
a. f(x) = x3 – 3x2 – 7x + 5, x=7
3
b. f(x) = x4 – 3x2 + 2, x=0 10. Show that a polynomial function of degree 4 has
1 4 either no inflection point or exactly two inflection
c. f(x) = 4x + x ,
3 3
x = −1
points.
2
d. f(x) = x2 + , x =1
x

11. Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve

1 3 1
y= x – 2 x2 + 3x + at its inflection point.
7. Find the local extrema of the following functions, 3 3
using either the first or second derivative test.
a. f(x) = x3 + 6x2 + 9x + 1
b. f(x) = x4 + 4x3 + 2x2 + 1
x2
c. f(x) =
x–2 12. Find a, b, and c so that f(x) = ax3 – 3x2 + bx + c
2
has an inflection point at the point (–1, 1) and a
d. f(x) = ( x + 3) 3
local extremum at x = –2.
1
e. f(x) =
1 + x2
f. f(x) = x + sin x

13. The tangent line to the curve

f(x) = x3 + 3x2 + cx + 1 at the inflection point of
f is perpendicular to the line y = x + 4. Find c.
Mixed Problems
8. Given the graph of f(x), plot a rough graph of
›
f ′(x).
y
y = f(x) 14. Given that g(x) = e–x ⋅ f(x) where f is a differentiable
›
function for all real numbers and the function g(x)
has an inflection point at x = a, find an expression
a b x for f ′′(a) in terms of f ′(a) and f(a).

376 Algebra 10
 In this section we solve applied maximum-minimum problems in which the function is not
given directly. When we face such a problem, we are required to first find the appropriate
function to be maximized or minimized. The following steps will be helpful for solving these
problems.
1. Determine the quantity to be maximized or minimized and label it with a letter (say M for now).
2. Assign letters for other quantities, possibly with the help of a figure.
3. Express M in terms of some of the other variables.
4. Use the data in the problem to write M as a function of one variable x, say M = M(x).
5. Find the domain of the function M(x).
6. Find the maximum (or minimum) value of M(x) with the help of the first derivative.
Such problems where we look for the “best” value are called optimization problems.

EXAMPLE 38 A man has 40 m of fencing that he plans to use to enclose a

rectangular garden plot. Find the dimensions of the plot that
will maximize the area.

Solution We want to maximize the area A of the rectangular plot.

Let x and y represent the length and width of the rectangle.
Then, since there is 40 m of fencing,
2x + 2y = 40 or x + y = 20.
b Then we express A in terms of x and y: A = x ⋅ y
a
Given a rectangle with
Expressing A as a function of just one variable,
sidelength a and b we get A(x) = x ⋅ (20 – x) = 20x – x2 (since y = 20 – x).
Perimeter = 2(a + b)
Since the dimensions will be positive,
Area = a ⋅ b
x > 0 and y = 20 – x > 0 or 0 < x < 20.
The derivative is A′(x) = 20 – 2x. So, the only critical point is x = 10. To investigate this
critical point, we calculate the second derivative. Since A′′(x) = – 2 < 0, the second
derivative test implies that A has a local maximum x = 10.
We can verify that this local maximum is the absolute maximum by showing that the graph of
A is concave down everywhere. Since A′′(x) < 0 for all the values of x in (0, 20), maximum
value of A occurs at x = 10. The corresponding value of y is y = 20 – x = 20 – 10 = 10.
Thus, the garden would be of maximum area (100 m2) if it was in the form of a square with
sides 10 m.

Applications of the Derivative 377

 Note
Suppose that f has only one critical point c in the interval I. If f ′′(x) has the same sign at all
points of I, then f(c) is an absolute extremum of f on I. This absolute interpretation of the
second derivative test is useful in optimization problems.

EXAMPLE 39 Find two positive numbers x and y such that their sum is 15 and x2 + 5y is as small as possible.

Solution We have x + y = 15 and we want to minimize M = x2 + 5y. Expressing M as a function of

just one variable we get M(x) = x2 + 5(15 – x) = x2 – 5x + 75 (since y = 15 – x).
Since both numbers are positive, x > 0 and y = 9 – x > 0 or 0 < x < 9.
5
The derivative is M′(x) = 2x – 5. So, the critical point is x = .
2
Since M′′(x) = 2 > 0 for all the values of x in (0 , 9), the second derivative test implies that
5
x = is the minimum value of M(x).
2
5 5 25
Therefore, M gets its minimum value when x = , and y = 15 − x = 15 − = .
2 2 2

EXAMPLE 40 A manufacturer has an order to make cylindrical cans with a

volume of 500 cm3. Find the radius of the cans that will
minimize the cost of the metal in their production.

Solution In order to minimize the cost of the metal, we minimize the

total surface area of the cylinder.
500
The volume of the can is V = πr2h = 500. So, h = .
πr 2
Hence the surface area of the can as a function of r is
r
500 1000
A( r ) = 2 πr 2 + 2 πr ⋅ ( ) = 2 πr 2 + , r > 0.
h πr 2 r
1000 4( πr 3 – 250)
The surface area of a The derivative of A(r) is A′( r ) = 4πr – = .
cylinder is 2πr2 + 2πrh r2 r2
and the volume is πr2h
where r is the radius 250
Thus, the only critical point is r = 3 .
and h the height. π

2000 250
Since A′′( r ) = 4π + > 0 for r = 3 , the second derivative test implies that A gets its
r 3
π
250
minimum value when r = 3 .
π

378 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 41 Find the area of the largest rectangle that has two vertices on the x - axis and another two above
the x - axis on the parabola y = 3 – x2.

y
Solution Let (x, y) be the vertex of the rectangle in the
first quadrant. Then the rectangle has sides with
the lengths 2x and y. So, its area is A = 2xy. (x, y)
Using the fact that (x, y) lies on the parabola
y = 3 – x2, the expression to be maximized is –ñ3 ñ3

A(x) = 2 ⋅ x ⋅ (3 – x2) = 6x – 2x3. x

The domain of this function is (0, ñ3). y = 3 – x2

Its derivative is A′(x) = 6 – 6x2.

So, the critical points are – 1 and 1.
Only the positive value x = 1 lies in the
interval (0, ñ3). Since this is the only critical
value in the interval, we can apply the second
derivative test.
The second derivative is A′′(x) = –12x and in
particular A′′(x) < 0 for all the values of x in
(0, ñ3). So, the maximum value of A(x) in this interval is A(1) = 4. Therefore, the area of
the largest rectangle is 4.

EXAMPLE 42 Find the point on the line y = x + 2 that is the closest to the point (1, 2).

Solution Let (x, y) be a point on y = x + 2 such that the distance y y=x+2

d between (x, y) and (1, 2) is a minimum. (x, y)
d
We have d = ( x – 1)2 +( y – 2) 2 . 2 (1, 2)

Distance between If the point (x, y) is on the line, then y = x + 2. To

two points
(x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is rewrite d in terms of the single variable x, substitute
y = x + 2. -2
( x1 – x2 )2 +( y1 – y2 )2 .
1 x
After substitution, d = ( x – 1)2 + x2 = 2 x2 – 2 x +1.

It is clear that the minimum of d occurs at the same point as the minimum of d2. So, we
minimize d2 to simplify calculations by letting M = d2.
M(x) = 2x2 – 2x + 1 has derivative M′(x) = 4x – 2.
1 1
So, M′(x) = 0 when x = . Since M′′(x) = 4 > 0, the minimum value occurs at x = .
2 2
1 5 1 5
Since y = + 2 = , the point ( , ) is the closest point to the point (1, 2).
2 2 2 2

Applications of the Derivative 379

EXAMPLE 43 The swimmer is 40 m from the shoreline. The lifeguard is 100 m from the point on the shore
that is directly opposite the swimmer. The guard can run at a speed of 5 m/s and swim at a
speed of 3 m/s. What path should the guard follow to get to the swimmer in the least time?

Solution Let x be the distance denoted in the given diagram.

swimmer

402 + x2
40 m

guard

x 100 – x

Recall that if travel is at a constant rate of speed, then

(distance traveled) = (rate of travel) ⋅ (time elapsed).
D
In short, D = R ⋅ T or T = .
R
The total time elapsed is
swim distance run distance 40 2 + x2 100 – x
T( x) = (swim time)+( run time) = + = + .
swim rate run rate 3 5

We wish to minimize the total time elapsed. So, we differentiate this equation to get
1 1 −1 1 x 1
T ′( x) = ⋅ ⋅ (40 2 + x2 ) 2 ⋅(40 2 + x2 ) ′ − = − .
3 2 5 3 40 2 + x2 5

T′(x) = 0 gives 5x = 40 2 + x2 ⇒ 25x2 = 9(402 + x2) ⇒ 16x2 = 9 ⋅ 402 ⇒ x = ± 30.

But x ≠ –30 since x measures a distance.
It is left to the student to verify that T′′(30) > 0 which means x = 30 corresponds to a path
of minimum time.

Check Yourself 11
1. Find two positive numbers x and y such that their sum is 9 and x2y is as large as possible.
2. A rectangle has area of 144 m2. What dimensions will minimize its perimeter?
3. An open rectangular box with a square base is to be made from 300 cm2 of material. Find
the dimensions of the box with the maximum volume.
4. Find the minimum distance from the line 2x + 3y = 13 to the origin.
Answers
1. x = 6, y = 3 2. 12, 12 3. 5, 10 4. ò13

380 Algebra 10
How can we explain why a pencil appears to be
broken when it is immersed partially into water or
why objects under water appear to be nearer the
surface than they really are to an observer looking
down? It is an illusion caused by the refraction of
light.
When light passes from one transparent medium to
another(like air and water), it changes speed, and
bends according to the law of refraction which
states:
sin θ1 sin θ2
=
ν1 ν2
where,

ν1 is the speed of light in medium 1,

ν2 is the speed of light in medium 2,
θ1 is the angle between the incident ray and normal to the surface at the point P,
θ2 is the angle between the refracted ray and the normal.
N
incident
ray
q1
P medium 1
medium 2
q2
refracted
ray
The experimental discovery of this relationship is usually credited to Willebrord
Snell (1591-1627) and is therefore known as Snell’s law.
Applications of the Derivative 381
Snell’s law can be derived from a physics principle discovered by Pierre de Fermat,
the seventeenth-century mathematician. Fermat’s principle states that a ray of
light travels the path of minimum time. The derivation of Snell’s law from
Fermat’s principle represent an interesting application of the derivative.
A
Suppose a light ray is to travel from A
to B, where A is in the medium 1 and
d1
B is in the medium 2. Using the a
geometry of the figure given above, q1 d–x
medium 1
we see that the time it takes the ray medium 2
x
to travel from A to B is q2
d2
b
d d distance
t= 1 + 2 (time= ),
ν1 ν 2 velocity
d
2 2
a +x
2 2
( d − x) + b
t( x) = + .
ν1 ν2
We obtain the least time, or the minimum value of t, by taking the derivative of t
with respect to x and setting the derivative equal to zero.
x d−x
t′( x) = −
ν 1 a2 + x2 ν 2 ( d − x)2 + b2
The function t is differentiable for all the
values of x. So, the only critical values are the
solutions to the equation t′(x) = 0. This
equation gives the condition that
x d−x
= .
ν 1 a2 + x2 ν 2 ( d − x )2 + b2
x d−x
From the figure, we see that sin θ1 = and sin θ 2 = .
a2 + x2 ( d − x)2 + b2
sin θ1 sin θ 2
Using these equations, we obtain = , which is Snell’s law.
ν1 ν2
382 Algebra 10
EXERCISES 5 .4
1. Find two positive numbers such that their sum is
30 and their product is as large as possible.
2. One number is 4 larger than another. How must
they be chosen in order to minimize their
product?
7. A man has 120 metres of fencing. He wishes to
enclose a rectangular garden adjacent to a long
existing wall. He needs no fence along the wall.
What are the dimensions of the largest area he
can enclose?

8. A closed rectangular
3. The sum of two positive integers is 10. Find the box is to be made with
maximum value of the sum of their squares. 192 cm2 of material.
The length of its base
y
is twice its width.
x
What is the largest 2x
4. Find the minimum possible value of the sum of possible volume of
two positive numbers such that their product is m. such a box?

5. Find the value of m if the sum of squares of the

roots of x2 + (2 – m)x – m – 3 = 0 is to be
9. An open tank with a square base is to be made of
minimum.
sheet iron. Its capacity is to be 4 m3. Find the
dimensions of the tank so that the least amount of
sheet iron may be used.
6. A farmer has 100 m of fencing and wants to build
a rectangular pen for his horse. Find the
dimensions of the largest area he can enclose.

10. A rectangular sheet of x

tin, 30 cm by 48 cm,
x
has four equal squares
cut out at the corners.
48 cm

The sides are then

turned up to form an
open rectangular box.
Find the largest possible
volume of the box. 30 cm

Applications of the Derivative 383

11. A closed cylindrical drum with the volume 54 m3 17. In the figure on the right, y

is to be manufactured using the minimum ›

the point (x, y) lies on 4
amount of metal sheet possible. Find the diameter the graph of the ellipse P(x, y)
of the base of the drum. x 2
y 2
+ =1 in
9 16
the first quadrant. O A 3 x
For what value of y will
12. The sum of two non-negative numbers is 10. Find the area of the triangle POA be maximum?
the minimum possible value of the sum of their
cubes.
18. Find the length of the diagonal of the rectangle
›
with the largest area that can be inscribed in an
isosceles triangle of base 24 cm and height 10 cm.
13. Find the area of the
largest rectangle that is D C 19. A right cylinder is inscribed
inscribed in a circle with ›
2R in a right circular cone with
the radius R. ([AC] is the the radius 3 cm and height
A B
diameter of the circle 5 cm. Find the dimensions
because an angle inscribed in a of the cylinder of maximum
semicircle is a right angle). volume.

20. Car A is 125 km directly west of car B and begins

›
14. What is the shortest distance from a point on the moving east at 100 km/h. At the same time, car B
›
curve y2 = 8x to the point (4, 2)? begins moving north at 50 km/h. At what time t
does the minimum distance occur?

15. Find the point on the curve y = lnx that is closest

›
to the line y = x.

16. What is the minimum y

›
possible area of a right
triangle that is formed
(4, 3)
21. Among all tangents to graph of
in the first quadrant by a 3 ›› 45
y = x 3 − 6 x2 + x +1 at positive x-values, the
line passing through the 4
4 x one which intersects y-axis at maximum y-value
point (4, 3) and the
coordinate axes? is chosen. Find that y-value.

384 Algebra 10
A. ASYMPTOTES
When plotting the graph of a function, we need to know the behavior of the function at
infinity and the behavior near points where the function is not defined. To describe these
situations, we define the term “asymptote”. y = f(x)
An asymptote is a line that a curve approaches closer and P
closer until the distance between the asymptote and the
points on the curve approaches zero.
x −1
Consider the graph of the function f ( x) = .
x+ 2 asymptote
Observe that f is increasing on the interval (–2, ∞). So, you
might think that its values f(x) increase without bound as x y
We represent an asymptote
by drawing a dashed line. increases without bound. (f(x) → ∞ as x → ∞). However, we x–1
y=
can see that the graph of f approaches the line y = 1 as x+1

x → ∞. So, we say that y = 1 is a horizontal asymptote of f. y=1

Next, the function f is not defined at x = –2. Let us examine
the behavior of f near –2. We see that the graph of f goes to x

plus infinity as x approaches –2 from the left, whereas the

graph goes to minus infinity as x approaches –2 from the x = –2
right. So, we say that x = –2 is a vertical asymptote.

Definition vertical asymptote

The line x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of f(x) if y
either

lim f(x) = ±∞ or lim f(x) = ±∞.

x → a+ x → a–
x

vertical
asymptote

FINDING THE VERTICAL ASYMPTOTE

P( x)
A rational function f ( x) = has a vertical asymptote x = a whenever only the
Q( x)
denominator of f(x) equals zero (that is, Q(a) = 0 but P(a) ≠ 0).

Applications of the Derivative 385

EXAMPLE 44 Find the vertical asymptotes of the function f ( x) = 2
x
x –4
.

Solution Let P(x) = x and Q(x) = x2 – 4.

Note that x = –2 and x = 2 are the roots of the denominator.
Since P(–2) ≠ 0 and P(2) ≠ 0, x = –2 and x = 2 are both vertical asymptotes of the graph of f.

Definition horizontal asymptote

The line y = b is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of f(x) y
if either horizontal
asymptote
lim f(x) = b or lim f(x) = b.
x → –∞ x→∞

FINDING THE HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTE

an xn + an −1x n −1 +...+ a1x + a0

A rational function f ( x) = has the following limit as
bm xm + bm −1x m −1 +...+ b1x + b0
horizontal asympote:
±∞ if n>m
lim f ( x) = an / bm if n = m.
x→ ∓ ∞

0 if n<m

EXAMPLE 45 Find the horizontal asymptote of the function f ( x) =

x
2
x –4
.

Solution To find the horizontal asymptotes we must evaluate lim f ( x).

x →∞

Since the degree of the polynomial in numerator is smaller than the degree of the polynomial
x
in denominator, lim 2 = 0. So, y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote of f.
x →∞ x – 4

EXAMPLE 46 Find all the vertical and horizontal asymptotes of the function f ( x) = 2
x2 – x
2 x – 5x + 3
.

Solution To find the horizontal asymptotes we must evaluate lim f ( x).

x →∞
x2 – x 1
Since the degree of x2 – x equals the degree of 2x2 – 5x + 3, lim = . So, y = 1/2
x →∞ 2 x2 – 5 x + 3 2
is a horizontal asymptote of f.
Next, to find the vertical asymptotes we must solve 2x2 – 5x + 3 = 0.
2x2 – 5x + 3 = (x – 1)(2x – 3) = 0 gives x = 1 and x = 3/2.
However, x = 1 is also a root of numerator. So, only x = 3/2 is a vertical asymptote of f.

386 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 47 Find all the vertical and horizontal asymptotes of the function f ( x) =
2 x2 − 3x +5
x2 +1
.

Solution 2 x2 − 3x +5
lim = 2. So, y = 2 is a horizontal asymptote of f.
x →∞ x2 +1
Since the denominator x2 + 1 is never equal to zero, f has no vertical asymptotes.

EXAMPLE 48 Find all the asymptotes of the function f ( x) = 2 x3 − 5x2 + 7 x − 12.

Solution The function f is a polynomial function. But we can write it as a rational function with
2 x3 − 5x2 + 7x − 12
the denominator 1 such as f ( x) = .
1
Since the denominator is never equal to zero, f has no vertical asymptotes.
Next, compute lim (2 x3 − 5 x2 + 7 x − 12).
x →±∞

We know that the limit of a polynomial at infinity is the limit of the term of highest degree.
So, lim (2 x3 − 5 x2 + 7 x − 12) = lim 2 x3 = 2 ⋅( ∞) 3 = ∞.
x →+∞ x→+∞

lim (2 x3 − 5 x2 + 7 x − 12) = lim 2 x3 = 2 ⋅( −∞) 3 = −∞.

x →−∞ x→−∞

In other words, lim f ( x) and lim f ( x) do not exist. Therefore, f has no horizontal asymptote.
x →+∞ x →−∞

Note
A polynomial function has no vertical or horizontal asymptotes.

Definition oblique asymptote

The line y = mx + n is an oblique asymptote of the graph of f(x) y oblique asymptotes
if either

lim[ f ( x) − ( mx + n)] = 0 or lim[ f ( x) −( mx + n)] = 0.

x →∞ x →−∞
x

To find the equation of an oblique asymptote, we use long division.

P( x)
For a rational function f ( x) = for which the degree of P is exactly one more than the
Q( x)
c
degree of Q, by dividing Q(x) into P(x), we get f ( x) = mx + n + .
Q( x)
c
In this case, we have lim[ f ( x) − ( mx + n)]= lim = 0.
x →±∞ x→±∞ Q( x )

So, the line y = mx + n is an oblique asymptote of the graph of f(x).

Applications of the Derivative 387

 x2 + x
EXAMPLE 49 Find all the asymptotes of the graph of f ( x) =
x–2
.

Solution x = 2 is a vertical asymptote of the graph of f because 2 makes only the denominator zero.
Note that the degree of the numerator is one more than the degree of the denominator. So,
the graph of f has an oblique asymptote.
x2 + x 6
By long division of x – 2 into x2 + x, we can find that f ( x) = = x + 3+ .
x–2 x−2
So, y = x + 3 is an oblique asymptote of f.

Check Yourself 12
Find all the asymptotes of the graph of each of the following functions.
x −1 5x x2 − 9 x2 − x − 2
1. f ( x) = 2. f ( x) = − 3. f ( x) = 4. f ( x) =
2x + 3 3 + x2 −3+7 x − 2 x2 x −1
Answers
3 1 1 1
1. x = − , y = 2. y = 0 3. x = ,y=− 4. x = 1, y = x
2 2 2 2

B. CURVE PLOTTING
Curve plotting is the final part of our study of the derivatives. So far we have seen how to use
the derivatives to find the most interesting features of a graph. With the use of all the
information about the graph of a function, we can easily draw it.

STEPS OF CURVE PLOTTING

1. Domain: Find where f(x) is defined.

2. Intervals of Increase and Decrease: Construct the sign chart of f ′(x) to determine the
intervals where f(x) is increasing and where f(x) is decreasing.
3. Local Extrema: Find the critical points of f and classify each as a maximum, a
minimum, or neither by using the First Derivative Test.
4. Concavity and Inflection Points: Construct the sign chart of f ′′(x) to determine the
intervals where f(x) is concave up and where f(x) is concave down. With the help of
the chart, find the inflection points.
5. Intercepts: In y = f(x) setting x = 0 gives the y-intercept and y = 0 gives the
x-intercept(s). To find the x-intercept(s) may be difficult, in which case we do not use
this information.
6. Behavior at Infinity: Consider lim f(x) and lim f(x) to see how the graph of f
x → +∞ x → –∞
behaves as x → ±∞.
7. Asymptotes: Find all the asymptotes of the graph and draw the asymptotes in a
coordinate plane by using dashed lines.
8. Graph: Start graphing by plotting the local extrema, inflection points, and intercepts.
Then, using the rest of the information, complete the plot by joining the plotted points.

388 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 50 Plot the graph of the function f(x) = x3 – 3x – 2.

Solution 1. Domain: Recall that the domain of a polynomial function is all real numbers. So, f is
defined for all the values of x.

2. Intervals of Increase and Decrease: f ′(x) = 3x2 – 3 = 3(x + 1)(x + 1)

When f ′(x) = 0 we have x = –1 and x = 1. x –¥ –1 1 +¥
The sign chart of f ′ shows that f is increasing
f ¢(x) + – +
on (–∞, –1) and (1, ∞) and decreasing on (–1, 1).
f(x)

(max) (min)

3. Local Extrema: We have learned that a polynomial function is differentiable everywhere.

So, the critical points of f(x) are the roots of f ′(x) = 0.
From the results of Step 2, we say that f has a local maximum at x = –1 and a local
minimum at x = 1.

4. Concavity and Inflection Points: f ′′(x) = 6x = 0

When f ′′(x) = 0 we have x = 0. x –¥ 0 +¥

The sign chart of f ′′ shows that f is concave f ¢¢(x) – +

down on (–∞, 0) and concave up on (0, ∞). concave concave
f(x)
down up
So, f has an inflection point at x = 0.

5. Intercepts: x = 0 ⇒ y = –2 (y-intercept)
Setting y = 0 leads to a cubic equation. Since the solution is not readily found, we will
not use this information.

6. Behavior at Infinity: Recall that the limit of a polynomial function at infinity is the limit
of the term of highest degree.
lim f(x) = lim (x3 – 3x – 2) = lim x3 = (–∞)3 = –∞
x → –∞ x → –∞ x → –∞

(This means that f(x) decreases without bound as x decreases without bound. So, the
graph of f goes to plus infinity as x → –∞)
lim f(x) = lim (x3 – 3x – 2) = lim x3 = (+∞)3 = +∞
x → +∞ x → +∞ x → +∞

(This means that f(x) increases without bound as x decreases without bound. So, the
graph of f goes to plus infinity as x → +∞)

7. Asymptotes: A polynomial function has no asymptotes.

Applications of the Derivative 389

 8. Graph: We can find f(–1) = 0, y

f(1) = –4, and f(0) = –2. local f(x) ® +¥

Plot a local maximum at (–1, 0) a local maximum
as x ® +¥
minimum at (1, –4), an inflection –1 1
point at (–1, 0), and the y-intercept at x
y = –2. Finally, complete the graph by
passing a smooth curve through the y = f(x)
inflection
plotted points. –2 point

f(x) ® –¥
as x ® –¥
–4 local
minimum

It is clear from the graph of f that x = –1 is a root of f(x) = 0. So, x + 1 is a factor of

x3 – 3x – 2. The other factor can be found by division:
f(x) = (x + 1)(x2 – x – 2) = (x + 1)2(x – 2).
Hence x = 2 is also a root of f(x) = 0 and the graph crosses the x-axis at this point. But note
that x = –1 is a “double root” of f(x) = 0 and the graph is tangent to the x-axis at x = –1.

EXAMPLE 51 Plot the graph of the function f(x) = –x4 + 8x2 – 7.

Solution 1. Domain: Since f is a polynomial, it is defined for all the values of x.

2. Intervals of Increase and Decrease:

x –¥ –2 0 2 +¥
f ′(x) = –4x3 + 16x = –4x(x2 – 4)
When f ′(x) = 0 we have x = –2, x = 0, f ¢(x) + – + –
and x = 2. f(x)
f is increasing on (–∞, –2) and (0, 2), and
(max) (min) (max)
decreasing on (–2, 0) and (2, +∞).

3. Local Extrema: From the sign chart of f ′(x), f has local maximum at x = –2 and
x = 2, a local minimum at x = 0.

4. Concavity and Inflection Points: 2 2

–
x –¥ ñ3 ñ3 +¥
f ′′(x) = –12x2 + 16 = 0
2 f ¢¢(x) – + –
When f ′′(x) = 0 we have x = ± .
3 concave concave concave
f(x)
2 2 down up down
f has inflection points at x = − and x = .
3 3
5. Intercepts: x = 0 ⇒ y = –7 (y-intercept)
y = 0 ⇒ x1 = –1, x2 = 1, x3 = –ñ7, x4 = ñ7 (x-intercepts)

390 Algebra 10
 6. Behavior at Infinity:
lim f(x) = lim (–x4) = –(–∞)4 = –∞ and lim f(x) = lim (–x4) = –(+∞)4 = +∞
x → –∞ x → –∞ x → +∞ x → +∞

The graph goes to –∞ to the left and to the right.

7. Asymptotes: Since f is polynomial, it has no asymptotes.

2 5 2 5
8. Graph: f(–2) = 9, f(0) = –7, f(2) = 9, f ( − )= , f( )= .
3 3 3 3

y
local (and absolute) local
maximum (and absolute) maximum
9

inflection point (– 2 , 5 )
ñ3 3 ( 2 , 5 ) inflection point
ñ3 3
5
3

–ñ7 –2 –1 1 2 ñ7 x

y = f(x)

f(x) ® –¥ –7 f(x) ® –¥
as x ® –¥ local as x ® +¥
minimum

Check Yourself 13
Plot the graph of each function.
1. f(x) = 2x3 – 3x2 – 12x 2. f(x) = x2(x – 2)2

Answers
1. y 2. y

7 y = f(x) y = f(x)

2
–1 x 1

1 2 x

–20

Applications of the Derivative 391

EXAMPLE 52 Plot the graph of the function f ( x) =
x−3
2x + 4
.

Solution 1. Domain: Recall that the domain of a rational function is all real numbers except the
numbers that make the denominator zero. So, f is defined everywhere except x = –2.
1 ⋅ (2 x + 4) − ( x − 3) ⋅ 2 10
2. Intervals of Increase and Decrease: f ′( x) = 2
=
(2 x + 4) (2 x + 4)2
Since f ′(x) > 0 for all the values of x except –2. So, f is always increasing in its domain.
3. Local Extrema: Note that f ′ does not change its sign. By the first derivative test, we say
that f has no local extrema.
−40
4. Concavity and Inflection Points: f ′′( x) =
(2 x + 4)3
The sign chart of f′′ shows that f is concave up x –¥ –2 +¥
on (–∞, –2) and concave down on (–2, –∞).
f ¢¢(x) + –
Observe that f ′′ changes its sign at x = –2. But
at this point f is not defined. Therefore, there is f(x) concave concave
up down
no inflection point.

3
5. Intercepts: x = 0 ⇒ y = − ( y - intercept)
4
y = 0 ⇒ x=3 ( x - intercept)

6. Behavior at Infinity:
x−3 1
lim f(x) = lim = .
x → ±∞ x → ± ∞ 2x + 4 2

1
7. Asymptotes: From Step 6, y = is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of f.
2
Also, x = –2 is a vertical asymptote of the graph of f because –2 makes the denominator zero.
8. Graph: y

y = f(x) y = 1 horizontal asymptote

2
1
2

–2 3 x
–3
4
x = –2
vertical asymptote

392 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 53 Plot the graph of the function f ( x) = 2
x
x –4
.

Solution 1. Domain: The domain of f is all real numbers except x = –2 and x = 2.

1 ⋅ ( x2 – 4) – x ⋅ 2 x – x2 – 4 –( x2 + 4)
2. Intervals of Increase and Decrease: f ′( x) = 2 2
= 2 2
= 2
( x – 4) ( x – 4) ( x – 4) 2
Since f ′(x) < 0 for all the values of x except –2 and 2, f is always decreasing in its domain.

3. Local Extrema: f has no local extrema.

4. Concavity and Inflection Points: x –¥ -2 0 2 +¥

2
2 ⋅ x( x +8) f ¢¢(x) – + – +
f ′′( x) =
( x2 – 4)3
f ′′(x) = 0 only when x = 0. f(x) concave concave concave concave
down up down up
f ′′ is not defined at x = –2 and x = 2. (inf)

Thus, f is concave up on (–2, 0) and (2, ∞) and concave down on (–∞, –2) and (0, 2). The
sign of f ′′(x) changes at the points x = –2, 0, and 2. But the only inflection point is
x = 0 because f is not defined at –2 and 2.
5. Intercepts: x = 0 ⇒ y = 0 and y = 0 ⇒ x = 0.
The point (0, 0) is the only intercept.
6. Behavior at Infinity:
x
lim f(x) = lim 2
= 0.
x → ±∞ x → ±∞ x –4

7. Asymptotes: From Step 6, y = 0 (the x – axis) is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of f.

Next, x = –2 and x = 2 are vertical asymptotes of the graph of f because they make the
denominator zero.
8. Graph: y

x=–2
vertical
asymptote y = f(x)

–2
2 x
y=0
horizontal
asymptote
x=2
vertical
asymptote

Applications of the Derivative 393

EXAMPLE 54 Plot the graph of the function f ( x) =
x2 − x + 4
x –1
.

Solution 1. Domain: f is defined for all the values of x except x = 1.

(2 x − 1) ⋅ ( x − 1) − ( x2 − x + 4) x 2 − 2 x − 3
2. Intervals of Increase and Decrease: f ′( x) = =
( x – 1)2 ( x − 1)2
When f ′(x) = 0, x = –1 and x = 3.
x –¥ –1 1 3 +¥
Also, note that f ′(x) is not defined at x = 1.
From the sign chart of f ′, f is increasing on f ¢(x) + – – +
(–∞, –1) and (3, ∞) and decreasing on f(x)
(–1, 1) and (1, 3).
(max) (min)
3. Local Extrema: f has a local maximum at x = –1 and a local minimum at x = 3.

x –¥ 1 +¥
8
4. Concavity and Inflection Points: f ′′( x) =
( x − 1)3 f ¢¢(x) – +
We conclude that f is concave down on (–∞, –1) and
concave concave
concave up on (1, ∞). But it has no inflection point f(x)
down up
because –1 is not in the domain of f.
5. Intercepts: x = 0 ⇒ y = –4 (y-intercept)
y = 0 ⇒ x2 – x + 4 = 0 ⇒ Δ < 0 (no x – intercepts)
2
6. Behavior at Infinity: lim f(x) = lim x – x + 4 = ±∞.
x → ±∞ x → ±∞ x–1
7. Asymptotes: Note that the degree of the numerator of f is exactly one more than the
degree of the denominator of f. y
(3, 5)
So, f has an oblique asymptote. local min.

4
By long division, we have f ( x) = x + .
x–1 5 y=x
So, y = x is an oblique asymptote of f. oblique
asymptote
Next, x = 1 is a vertical asymptote of f.
–1
8. Graph: f(–1) = –3 and f(3) = 5. 3 x

–3
–4 x=1
vertical
asymptote
(–1, –3)
y = f(x) local max.

394 Algebra 10
 Check Yourself 14
Plot the graph of each function.
x x +1
1. f ( x) = 2. f ( x) =
x +1 2
2−x
Answers
1. y
y = f(x)
1/2
–1
1 x
–1/2

2. y
y = f(x)

–1 1/2 2
x
–1

Fill in the 3 × 3 field of squares such that

the graph of the derivative is located
1 2 below each graph.
a b c

3 4

d e f

5 6

Applications of the Derivative 395

EXERCISES 5 .5
A. Asymptotes 5. The graph of the y
function
1. Find all the asymptotes of the graph of each function. 3 y = f(x)
f(x) = a(x – 2)2(x + b)
2 1
a. f ( x) = b. f ( x) = is shown in the figure.
x +1 ( x − 1)3
Find a and b. 2 3 x
3 2 3x + 2
c. f(x) = x – 4x – 5x + 6 d. f ( x) =
4−x 6. The graph of the function y
y = f(x)
−3 x 2 f(x) = a(x + b)3(x + c) is
e. f ( x) = f. f ( x) = x +1
( x + 3)2 1 − x2 shown in the figure. f has
2 2
an inflection point at –1
g. f ( x) = 2( x − 1) h. f ( x) = 4 −2 x − 3x x = –1. 2 x
x + 2x − 3 2 x + 3x − 9 Find the sum a + b + c.
–2
i. f ( x) = x−3 j. f ( x) = x3
x2 − 5 x − 6 x2 +9
y
2 7. Find the equation of a y = f(x)
k. f ( x) = x + 2 x + 3
x −1 polynomial function of 4

degree 4 whose graph is

shown in the figure. –1
3x − 1
2. The curve y = has exactly one vertical –2 2 x
x2 + x + m
asymptote. Find m.
8. Plot the graph of each rational function.
B. Curve Plotting x −1 1
a. f ( x) = b. f ( x) = 2
x +1 x +1
3. Plot the graph of each polynomial function.
x −1 2
a. f(x) = x3 – 6x2 c. f ( x) = d. f ( x) = 2( x + 1)
b. f(x) = (x – 1)2(x + 3) x − 2x − 3
2
x − 4x + 3
c. f(x) = x3 – 2x2 + x – 2 2 2

2
e. f ( x) = x2 − 9 f. f ( x) = x + x
d. f(x) = (x – 4)(3 – x) x + 3x x−2
e. f(x) = x4 – 2x2 + 1
f. f(x) = x(x – 1)(x + 1)2 Mixed Problems
9. Plot the graph of each function.
4. In the figure the graph of y
y = f(x) ›
a cubic function y = f(x) x–2
a. f ( x) = −x 4 − x2 b. f ( x) =
is given. Find the local x+ 2
–1 1
minimum value of f. x c. f(x) = sin x + cos2x

–2 10. State how many solutions the equation

› 2x3 + 3x2 – 12x + 3 = a has for each value of a.

396 Algebra 10
 CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 5A
x2 + x – 2 5. For what values of k is f(x)=x3 +(k+1)x2 +3x+2
1. Find lim .
x →1 x2 – 4 x + 3 always increasing?
3 3 2
A) 1 B) − C) 0 D) – E) A) –6 < k < 3 B) k > 0
2 4 3
C) –4 < k < 0 D) –3 < k < 2

E) –4 < k < 2

6. Which of the following is a local extremum of

x
1 – sin f(x) = x3 – 3x2 + 3x + 1?
2. Find lim 2 .
x →π π–x A) –6 B) –1 C) 0
1 1
A) 1 B) C) 0 D) – E) –1
2 2 D) 2 E) no extremum

7. Which of the following is false y

y = f(x)
for the graph of the
3. Find the interval on which f(x) = x2 – 6x + 2 is function y = f(x)? 1
–2 –1 2 x
decreasing.

A) (–∞, 3) B) (–3, 3) C) (3, ∞) A) f(2) = 0 B) f ′(–1) = 0

D) (0, ∞) E) (–∞, 6) C) f ′′(1) > 0 D) f ′′(–1) > 0

E) f ′(0) < 0

8. Find the interval on which y = (x + 2)3 is

3
x –1 concave up.
4. Find the value of the limit lim .
x →1 x2 – 1
A) (–2, ∞) B) (–∞, –2) C) (–2, 2)
1 1 1
A) 0 B) C) 1 D) E)
2 3 6 D) (–∞, ∞) E) (2, ∞)

Chapter Review Test 5A 397

 9. For what value of m does the polynomial 13. Let x1 and x2 be the roots of the equation
P(x) = x4 + x3 + (m – 1)x2 have an inflection y = x2 – (m + 1)x + 2m – 1 = 0. Find the value
point at x = –1? of m that minimizes x12 + x22.

A) –3 B) –2 C) –1 D) 0 E) 1 A) 0 B) 1 C) –1 D) 2 E) –2

x2
14. Find the point on the parabola y = that is
10. The graph of the derivative y 2
y = f ¢(x) 3
of the function closest to the point (– , 0).
2
f(x) = x3 + ax2 + bx + 1 is 1 1
given in the figure. A) ( –1, ) B) (1, ) C) (0, 0)
2 2 2
Find a + b. x 1 1 1 1
–1 D)(– , ) E) ( , )
2 8 2 8

A) 17 B) 11 C) 5 D) –17 E) –10

15. Given the graph of a y

cubic function f, find 5

2
f(2).
11. Find the intersection point of the asymptotes of
3– x
y= . –1 1 x
x+ 2
y = f(x)
A) (–2, 3) B) (3, –1) C) (–2, –1) 3 5
A) B) 0 C) –1 D) –2 E) –
2 2
D) (2, 1) E) (–1, 3)

16. Which one of the following graphs could be the

graph of y = x4 – 2x2?
12. Which of the following is true for the function
A) y B) y C) y
f(x) = 2x3 + 3x2 + 12x + 4?

A) f has a local minimum at x = 0.

x x x
B) f′(2) < 0
1 D) y E) y
C) f is concave up on ( −∞, − ).
2
D) f is always increasing. x

E) f has a local maximum at x = –1. x

398 Algebra 10
 CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 5B
1. Let f be an increasing function on the closed 6. If x = a and y = b are the asymptotes of the graph
interval [–4, 4]. Which of the following is definitely x2 + 3x + 2
of f ( x) = , find a + b.
true? x2 – 2 x – 3
A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4 E) 5
A) f(3) > 0 B) f(–2) < 0

C) f ′ (1) < 0 D) f(2) < f(–2) 7. Find the maximum possible area of a right
triangle whose hypotenuse is 6 cm.
E) f(–1) < f(1)
A) 36 B) 12 C) 3 D) 18 E) 9
2
x +x
2. If the function f ( x) = has a local extremum 8. Given the graph of the y
x+ a
function f, find the slope of 3
at x = 2, find a.
the tangent line to the
4 2 4 2 –4
A) B) C) –1 D) – E) – graph of g(x) = x ⋅ f(x) at
5 5 5 5 –3 x
x = – 3.
y = f(x)

3. Find the local minimum value of f ( x) = x + 84 . A) 3 B) –4 C) –6 D) 0 E) –3

x
5 3 5 3 9. y
y = f ¢(x)
A) 1 B) C) D) E)
2 4 4 2
–3 –1 5 7
–5 2 4 x
4. Find the sum of the maximum and minimum
x–2
values of f ( x) = on the interval [–4, 1].
x–3 Given the graph of the derivative of a function f,
19 9 17 8 what is the sum of the abscissa of inflection
A) B) C) 1 D) E)
14 7 14 7 points of f?

A) –9 B) –6 C) 4 D) 7 E) 16
5. Which of the following is y

false for the graph of the 10. Which of the following is y

function y = f(x)? –3 –1 4 the function whose graph

–4 2
2 x is given in the figure?
y = f(x)
A) f(x) = (x + 1)2(x – 2) –1 2 x
11 B) f(x) = (x + 1)(2 + x)
A) f ′(2) = 0 B) f ′′ ( ) <0 y = f(x)
5
C) f(x) = (x + 1)(2 – x)
C) f(–1) = 0 D) f ′(1) > 0
D) f(x) = (x + 1)2(2 – x)
13
E) f ′′ ( – ) < 0
4 E) f(x) = (x – 1)2(x – 2)

Chapter Review Test 5B 399

11. Which one of the following could be the graph of 14. Find m if the inflection point of the function
2x 1 3 2
the function f ( x) = 2 ? f ( x) =x − x2 + mx + is on the parabola
x –1 3 3
A) y B) y y = x2 – 2x + 3.

A) 2 B) 1 C) 0 D) –1 E) –2

–1 –1
1 x 1 x

y
C) D)
y

–1
–1 1 x 15. Which one of following could be the value of m if
1 x
x2 − 1
the function f ( x) = has no local extrema?
mx + 3
A) –2 B) –1 C) 0 D) 2 E) 4
y
E)

–1
1 x

16. Which of the following is y

12. Given that the function f(x) = x4 – ax3 + bx2 – 2x + 3
the function whose graph
has a local minimum at the point (1, 2), find a. 1
is given in the figure?
3
A) –2 B) –1 C) 0 D) 1 E) 2 –1 1 3
x

x +1 x −1
13. Let A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) be the extremum A) y = B) y =
x2 − 2 x − 3 x2 − 2 x − 3
x2 +1
points of y = . Find the distance between x +1 x +1
x C) y = 2 D) y = 2
x + 2x + 3 x +3
these points.
−1
E) y =
A) ñ5 B) 2ñ5 C) 3ñ5 D) 4ñ5 E) 5ñ5 x2 − 2 x − 3

400 Algebra 10
 Imagine you have a bag of marbles. Your friend asks
you how many marbles there are in your bag. If you
did not know the answer, you would probably count
the marbles: one, two three, four, etc. Matching a
word to a marble like this is one way of counting.
But we can match other things, too. A prisoner
might match every day he spends in his cell to a
mark on the wall, or a shepherd might match every
sheep he looks after to a pebble in a bag. These are
different ways of counting. In these section we will
look at different ways of counting.

A. THE ADDITION PRINCIPLE

Ali wants to go to the cinema to watch a movie. There are two different halls at the cinema.
Three movies are showing in the first hall and four different movies are showing in the
second hall. In how many ways can Ali choose a movie to watch?
Since Ali cannot be in two different halls at the same time, there are 3 + 4 = 7 different ways
for Ali to choose the movie.

Definition addition principle

Let A and B be two actions that cannot both be performed at the same time. If action A can
be performed in m ways and action B can be performed in n ways, then the action A or B can
be performed in m + n ways.

EXAMPLE 1 Mary has three different Barbie dolls and two different Cindy dolls. She wants to take them
out to play with her friend. However, Mary’s mother will only let Mary choose one doll. In
how many ways can Mary choose a doll?

Solution Mary has three alternatives for her Barbie dolls and two alternatives for her Cindy dolls. So
she can choose a doll in 3 + 2 = 5 ways.
In this example, Mary had five different dolls. If we name the dolls D1, D2, ..., D5 then we can
list the possible results of Mary’s choice as {D1, D2, ..., D5}. Each element in this set is a
possible outcome of Mary’s choice.

402 Algebra 10
B. SYSTEMATIC LISTING
In the previous examples it was easy to list the outcomes. Sometimes, however, it can be
more difficult: there may be many different outcomes in a problem, or a task may be
complicated. In this section we will look at different ways of listing the outcomes of a task or
decision.

1. Simple Listing
If our task contains only one part, listing the possible outcomes is very
easy. For example, if we roll a fair dice there are six different possible
results. The list of outcomes is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.

EXAMPLE 2 David wants to buy a shirt. There are four different colored shirts in David’s size. In how
many different ways can David buy a shirt?

Solution Let us assume that the colors of the shirts are blue, red, yellow and
green. We can list the available shirts as {blue, red, yellow, green}.
Since David only chooses one shirt, each shirt in this set is a possible
outcome. So the answer is four.

2. Using a Product Table

If our task contains two parts, our listing method is a little different. We can use a table called
a product table to list the possible outcomes of the task. Let us look at some examples.

EXAMPLE 3 Selman needs to go into and out of the library. If the library has two doors, in how many ways
can Selman go in and out?

Solution There are two tasks for Selman: going into the library and going out. Let the two library doors
be A and B. For each task, Selman can choose either door.
The product table for Selman’s library visit looks like this:

Go out
Selman’s library visit
A B
A (A, A) (A, B)
Go in
B (B, A) (B, B)

We can see that there are four different ways for Selman to go into and out of the library.

Probability 403
EXAMPLE 4 How many two-letter words can be formed from the letters in the set {a, b, c}?

Solution This task contains two parts: choosing the first letter and choosing the second letter. Let us
make a product table to list the possible outcomes.
Second letter
Two-letter combinations
a b c
a aa ab ac
First letter b ba bb bc
c ca cb cc
The table shows us that the outcomes are aa, ab, ac, ba, bb, bc, ca, cb and cc. So there are
nine possible words.
Of course, these are not real words in English. In problems like this, ‘word’ means a sequence
of letters, not a real English word.

EXAMPLE 5 Anton is in his first year at university. He has to take one math or science course in the first
term and a different math or science course in the second term. The courses available are
Algebra, Geometry, Physics, Biology and Chemistry. In how many ways can Anton choose his
two courses?
Solution The required task has two parts: choosing the first term’s course and choosing the second
term’s course. If we denote each course by its first letter, we can show the possibilities in a
table as follows:

Second term
Anton’s courses
A G P B C
A AG AP AB AC
G GA GP GB GC
First
P PA PG PB PC
term
B BA BG BP BC
C CA CG CP CB

Notice that some pairs are omitted from the table since Anton cannot take the same course
twice. So there are 20 distinct possibilities.
What would happen if Anton had to take two courses together in the same term? In this case
there would only be 10 possibilities. Can you see why?

Check Yourself 1
1. How many two-digit numbers can be formed from the digits 3, 5 and 9?
2. Two dice are rolled and their numbers are added. How many possibilities are there that
the result is prime?
Answers
1. 9 2. 15

404 Algebra 10
 3. Using a Tree Diagram 180
A tree diagram is another useful way to list and count possibilities 30 6
or outcomes. We use tree diagrams in several subjects. In 15 2 2 3
combinatorics, they help us to cope with some complex problems
3 5
that cannot be easily solved by using product tables. 180 = 3 × 5 × 2 × 2 × 3
2 2
=2 ×3 ×5

This tree diagram helps us

to find the prime
factorization of 180.

EXAMPLE 6 Joseph has one black and one navy pair of pants. He has also three shirts which are red,
yellow and green respectively. In how many different ways can Joseph choose to wear his pants
with a shirt? Pants Shirt Result
Solution Let us list the choices of pants as {B, N} and the choices R BR
of shirts as {R, Y, G}. Since it is not important whether B Y BY
G BG
Joseph chooses his pants or shirt first, we may assume 6 results
that he chooses his pants first. R NR
N Y NY
The tree diagram for this problem is opposite. We can see
G NG
that Joseph has six possible choices.

EXAMPLE 7 A student rolls a dice and then tosses a coin. How many different outcomes are possible?

Dice Coin Result

Solution This task contains two different parts which occur in an
T 1T
order. Constructing a tree diagram will help us to list the 1
H 1H
different possible outcomes systematically. Let us list the
T 2T
outcomes of the dice roll as {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and the 2
H 2H
outcomes of tossing the coin as {T, H}.
T 3T
The tree diagram shows us that there are 12 different 3
H 3H
possible outcomes. T 4T
4
H 4H
T 5T
5
H 5H
T 6T
6
H 6H

EXAMPLE 8 In a company, three people applied for a department manager’s position and three different
people applied for an accountancy position. Show all the different ways of filling these two
positions using a tree diagram.

Solution Let A, B and C be the people who applied for the manager’s position. Similarly, let D, E and
F be the people who applied for the accountancy position. Then we can construct a tree
diagram as follows:

Probability 405
 Department Accountant Result
manager
D AD
A E AE
F AF
D BD We can see that there are nine possible ways to fill
B E BE
the positions.
F BF
D CD
C E CE
F CF
The data in the tree diagrams we have created so far could also have been shown in a product
table. This is because the problems we have looked at contain at most two tasks. However, if
we want to use a product table for a question that includes three or more tasks, we will have
to construct a three-dimensional table. This is difficult to draw on paper. In this case, a tree
diagram is the most appropriate way of listing the outcomes.

Check Yourself 2
Solve each question by making a tree diagram.
1. There are three different routes from city P to city Q and four different routes from city Q
to city R. Aydos wants to travel from city P to R through city Q. In how many ways can he
do this?
2. How many three-digit numbers can be made from the set {5, 6, 9} if
a. any digit can be used more than once in a number?
b. each digit can only be used once in a number?
3. An international conference is being held in Merida, Mexico. The Kyrgyz team must
choose a flight route from Bishkek to Merida. The possible routes are shown in the
following diagram.

Houston Frankfurt Moscow

Merida Bishkek

Mexico City Barcelona Istanbul

Regardless of the number of flight connections, how many different possible routes are there?
Answers
1. 12 2. a. 27 b. 6 3. 7

406 Algebra 10
C. THE MULTIPLICATION PRINCIPLE
In the previous section we studied different ways of listing all the possible outcomes of a par-
ticular task. However, writing out the entire list of outcomes may sometimes be very time-con-
suming and unnecessary. We need a different approach for problems which only ask us to cal-
culate the number of possible outcomes.
In many of the problems we have looked at so far, the outcome of each part of a task is
equally possible. We say that these tasks satisfy the uniformity criterion. However, in some
problems there have been restrictions, for example: two people always have to sit together, or
only one person in a team can pilot a certain type of space shuttle. These problems do not
satisfy the uniformity criterion.
When we need to calculate the number of possible ways of performing a task which satisfies
the uniformity criterion, we can use the multiplication principle.

Definition multiplication principle (fundamental principle of counting)

Let a multiple-part task which satisfies the uniformity criterion consist of k parts. If the first
part of the task can be performed in n1 ways, the second part can be performed in n2 ways
and so on, then the number of ways to perform the entire task is n1 ⋅ n2 ⋅ n3 ⋅.....⋅ nk.

EXAMPLE 9 Nicole has four different skirts, three different blouses and two pairs of shoes which she can
wear for a business meeting. In how many ways can Nicole dress for the meeting?

Solution We can use a table with three boxes, one for each part of the task. This problem satisfies the uni-
formity criterion because any of the three blouses can be worn with any of the skirts and shoes.

Skirts Blouses Shoes

4 3 2
choices choices choices
Using n1 = 4, n2 = 3 and n3 = 2, by the multiplication principle Nicole can dress in
4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 = 24 ways.

EXAMPLE 10 How many different two-digit numbers can be formed using the digits in the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}?

Solution This task has two parts: choosing the tens digit and choosing the units digit. Since there are
no restrictions we can start by choosing either the tens digit or the units digit, and each digit
can take five different values.
Tens Units
5 5
choices choices

By the multiplication principle, we can form 5 ⋅ 5 = 25 different numbers.

Probability 407
EXAMPLE 11 In the previous example, how many numbers can be formed if a digit cannot be used twice
in a number?
Solution This time we cannot use a digit that we have already used. Therefore, we can choose any of the
five digits in the set for the tens but only four digits remain for the units.
This situation still satisfies the uniformity criterion because we always have five choices for the
tens and four choices for the units.
Tens Units
5 4
By the multiplication principle, the number of two-digit numbers that can be formed without
using a digit twice is 5 ⋅ 4 = 20.

EXAMPLE 12 How many three-digit counting numbers are there?

Solution It is easy to think that we can use any of the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9 for each place
value in a number. The answer therefore seems to be 10 ⋅ 10 ⋅ 10 = 1000, since we can use a
digit as many times as we like. However, notice that we cannot put zero in the hundreds place
since this would not give us a proper three-digit number. For example, 048 is not a three-digit
counting number.

Hundreds Tens Units

9 10 10

So the number of three-digit counting numbers is 9 ⋅ 10 ⋅ 10 = 900.

EXAMPLE 13 How many different three-digit odd numbers can be formed using the digits in the set
{4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}?

Solution The number formed must be an odd number. This is a restriction. In such cases we should
first consider the digit(s) affected by the restriction. In this question it is the units digit that
determines whether the number is odd or even. If the number is odd then the units digit
must be 5, 7 or 9. So there are three ways to choose the units digit. We are free to choose the
two other digits.

Hundreds Tens Units

6 6 3

So the answer is 6 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 3 = 108 numbers.

408 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 14 In a particular country, the automobile license plates are made up of 2
letters followed by 3 digits. Any of the 26 letters of English alphabet and
the digits 0-9 can be used. How many different possible license plates
are there?

Solution We have 26 possibilities for each letter and 10 possibilities for

each digit. So the answer is
26 ⋅ 26 ⋅ 10 ⋅ 10 ⋅ 10 = 262 ⋅ 103 = 676000.

EXAMPLE 15 A company must form a committee comprising a manager, an assistant and a secretary from
a group of nine people. Assuming that any person can do any job, in how many ways can the
committee be formed?

Solution The restriction here is that no one can hold more than one position. Since the order of
selection is not important, suppose that we first select the manager, then the assistant and
finally the secretary. Then there are nine possible ways to select the manager, eight ways to
select the assistant, and seven ways to select the secretary.
Manager Assistant Secretary
9 8 7

So there are 9 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 7 = 504 different ways to form the committee.

EXAMPLE 16 A briefcase has a five-digit combination lock. The second digit in the combination is 5. At
most how many different combinations must we try if we want to open the lock?

Solution 10 ⋅ 1 ⋅ 10 ⋅ 10 ⋅ 10 = 104 = 10000

EXAMPLE 17 A four-digit number is formed using the digits in the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
a. How many different numbers can be formed?
b. How many numbers can be formed if no digit can be used more than once?
c. How many numbers greater than 4000 can be formed if no digits are repeated?
d. How many numbers less than 3000 and divisible by 5 can be formed if no digits are
repeated?

Probability 409
 Solution a. Since there is no restriction and there are six digits, the answer is 6 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 6 = 1296.
b. Since no digit can be used more than once, the answer is 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 = 360.
c. There are two restrictions: the thousands digit must be greater than 3 and no digit can be
used more than once. Since our number must be greater than 4000, the possible values
for the thousands digit are 4, 5 and 6. Therefore there are  3
⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 = 180
4,5,6
numbers which satisfy the conditions.

d. This problem sets three restrictions. First, no digit can be repeated. Second, the number
must be divisible by 5, so the units digit must be 5. Third, the number must be less than
3000. So there are two possible numbers for the thousands digit: 1 and 2.
2
⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 

Consequently, the total number of possibilities is  1 =24.

1,2 5

EXAMPLE 18 A three-digit number is formed using the digits {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.

a. How many different numbers can be formed?
b. How many different numbers which are greater than 300 and divisible by 5 can be formed
if no digit is repeated?
c. How many even numbers greater than 200 can be formed if all the digits are different?
d. How many numbers divisible by 4 can be formed if all the digits are different?

Solution a. Provided we do not use zero in the hundreds place, all the other digits can be used
without restriction.
Hundreds Tens Units
So there are 5 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 6 = 180 possible numbers.
5 6 6

b. There are restrictions on the first and last digits. Since the digits cannot be repeated there
are two cases: if a number is greater than 500 it will not end with a 5, but any other num-
ber can end with zero or 5.
First case: Consider the case in which the first digit is 5. Then for the units digit only zero
is possible since the number must be divisible by 5. Since 5 and zero are used, there are
four possible digits left for the tens place.

Hundreds Tens Units

1 4 1
 

 

 

only 5 1,2,3, or 4 only zero

As we can see, there are four possible numbers (they are 10, 520, 530 and 540).

410 Algebra 10
 Second case: Now suppose the number does not begin with 5. Then the hundreds digit
will be 3 or 4. There are two possibilities for the units digit: zero and 5. Since two digits
have been used for the first and last digits, there are four possible digits left for the tens.

Hundreds Tens Units

2 4 2
 

 

3 or 4 zero or 5

The answer to the question is the sum of these cases: 4 + (2 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 2) = 20.

c. In this question there is a restriction on both the hundreds digit and the units digit.
Because we cannot use the digit 2 twice, we need to count the numbers ending in 2
carefully. Let us consider the three possibilities for the units digit.

Hundreds Tens Units

If the units digit is zero:
4 4 1
 

 

2, 3, 4, 5 zero

Hundreds Tens Units

If the units digit is 2:
3 4 1
 

 

3, 4, 5 2

Hundreds Tens Units

If the units digit is 4:
3 4 1
 

 

2, 3, 5 4
In conclusion, we can form (4 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 1) + (3 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 1) + (3 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 1) = 40 even numbers greater
than 200.
d. For a three-digit number to be divisible by 4, the last two digits must be 04, 12, 20, 24, 32,
40, or 52. This means that the last digit in any number we form must be even.
Hundreds Tens Units
If the units digit is zero:
4 2 1
 

 

2 or 4 zero

Hundreds Tens Units

If the units digit is 2:
3 3 1
 

 

1, 3 or 5 2

We need to consider the case in which 4 is the units digit in two parts. (Can you see why?)

Probability 411
 Hundreds Tens Units
4 in the units place, 2 in the tens place:
3 1 1
 

 

 

1, 3, 5 2 4
Hundreds Tens Units
4 in the units place, zero in the tens place:
4 1 1
 

 

 

1, 2, 3 or 5 zero 4

The union of all these possibilities gives us the total number of three-digit numbers which
are divisible by 4. So there are (4 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1) + (3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 1) + (3 ⋅ 1 ⋅ 1) + (4 ⋅ 1 ⋅ 1) = 24 numbers.

Notice that problems b, c and d in Example 26 did not satisfy the uniformity criterion
directly. However, we were able to break each problem up into separate cases which satisfied
the uniformity criterion and then we added he result of each case. This is a useful strategy
when we are solving combinatorics problems.

Check Yourself 3
1. Kamil lives in city E. He wants to go to city G via city F. Four different bus companies
travel from E to F and three more bus companies travel from F to G.
a. In how many different ways can Kamil travel by bus from E to G?
b. Kamil does not want to use the same companies again on his way back home. In how many
different ways can he arrange his trip from E to G and back?
2. We have a list of 12 questions for the second part of this chapter. We need to choose one
question as an Example, one for a Check Yourself section and one for an Exercises
section. Assuming that any question can be used in any section, in how many different
ways can we make our choice?
3. An astronomer wants to name 7000 celestial objects with a code made up of two letters
from the English alphabet followed by a digit. Is this possible?
4. Almaz’s teacher asks him to write a five-digit number whose first and last digits are even
while the others are odd. How many different numbers can Almaz write if he does not
want to use the same digit twice?
5. How many three-digit numbers greater than 450 can be formed from the digits in the set
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}?
Answers
1. a. 12 b. 72 2. 1320 3. no 4. 960 5. 168

412 Algebra 10
Facial identification is an important part of forensic science. When a person commits a crime,
witnesses of the crime can sometimes describe the person’s appearance to the police. A forensic artist
works with the witnesses to make a picture of the person’s face, either with pen and paper or with a
computer program. This process is called facial reconstruction.
Facial reconstruction programs store many pictures (or variations) of different parts of a face: the eyes,
nose, ears, mouth and hair, etc. Some of these parts, such as the eyes and nose, are very important in
determining the overall appearance of a face. Sometimes the forensic artist guides the witness to keep
the different parts of a face consistent and in natural proportion.
There are several different facial reconstruction programs. Newer programs allow an operator to
construct a face in three dimensions. One program has the following number of variations for the
different parts of a face:

The following pictures are examples of some two-dimensional faces produced by the program:

By the multiplication principle, we can calculate that this program can produce over 1030 possible faces
using the given variations.
EXERCISES 6 .1
A. The Addition Principle
1. A box contains 5 different white balls and 7
different red balls. In how many ways can we
randomly pick a ball from the box?
B. Systematic Listing
2. A house has 5 windows and 2 doors. In how many
ways can a burglar break in through a window and
get out through a door? Show the possibilities in
a product table.
3. How many two-digit prime numbers can we form
using the digits 1, 2, 3 and 5?
4. In how many ways we can distribute 3 different
gifts to Ömer, Ali and Cihan if each person gets
one gift?
5. In how many ways can a president and a secretary
be chosen from a group of 4 people if anyone can
hold either position?
6. A play-off game is a contest or series of contests
that are played to break a tie and determine the
winner of a championship. In play-off games, the
contests stop as soon as it is clear that one team
will win the play-off. A play-off between 2
basketball teams has at most 3 contests. How
many different play-offs are possible between the
two teams?
7. A family has 3 children. List all the possible
gender combinations (male or female) for these
children, ordered from oldest to youngest.
8. Sheena needs to go to a school, a restaurant, a
cinema and a supermarket. If she must not go to
the restaurant before the supermarket, in how
many different ways can her trip be arranged?
414
9. A power panel has 5
electric switches and
the power supply
depends on their
positions. The power
supply is on unless 2 adjacent
switches are both off. How many switch settings
will keep the supply on?
10. A group of tourists in a country want to visit 5
cities A, B, C, D and E once. They will fly to each
city, beginning at city C and ending at city E. If
there is no flight between cities B and D, in how
many ways can they organize the journey? Show
the possibilities in a tree diagram.
C. The Multiplication Principle
11. A dice is rolled, a coin is flipped and a card is drawn
from a deck of 52 cards. How many outcomes are
possible?
12. Rashid has 4 different colored pens and wants to
color each letter in the word ANTARCTICA so
that the same letters are the same color. In how
many different ways can he do this?
13. A new scooter is available in 4 different colors
with 3 types of engine and 2 types of seat. How
many different configurations of this model are
possible?
14. n dice are rolled together and all of them show the
same number. In how many ways can this be
done?
15. An ice-cream shop advertises that it can prepare
126 different varieties of ice cream. An ice-cream
variety is determined by the way it is served, its
flavour and its topping. It can be served in a bowl,
a waffle or a cone and it can be topped with
chocolate sauce or ground walnuts or hazelnuts.
How many different flavours can be ordered?
Algebra 10
16. Igor is preparing a test of 12 multiple-choice 22. A briefcase is locked with two different four-digit
questions for his students. Each question has 4 combination locks. A thief knows that the
choices of answer. How many different possible combination for the first lock is a number from
answer keys could Igor prepare? 2000 to 5999 and that the first digit of the second
lock is the last digit of the first lock. At most how
many different combinations must the thief test in
order to open both locks?
17. Dastan is going to take the test described in the
previous question. In how many ways can Dastan
complete his answer sheet if
a. he is not allowed to leave any answer blank?
23. In how many different ways can we pour tea into
b. he is allowed to leave an answer blank?
10 cups if
a. the cups are identical?
b. the cups are different?
18. Two teachers and 5 students will form a row to
have their photos taken. In how many different
ways can they be arranged if the teachers must be
at the ends of the row?
24. The password on Enzi’s e-mail account is a
number with non-repeating digits.The password is
at least 2 and at most 4 digits long. How many
19. In how many ways can 5 boys and 5 girls be possibilities are there for Enzi’s password?
seated in a row if the same genders cannot sit next
to each other?

25. The auto license numbers of all the cars registered

in a particular city are made up of two letters
20. A word which reads the same both forward and followed by three or four digits. If there are 26
backward is called a palindrome. (For example:
possible letters, how many license numbers can
RADAR is a palindrome.) How many palindromes
end with 91?
of 7 letters can be formed using the 26 letters of
the English alphabet?

26. An organisation wants to create a registration code

21. The combination for a combination lock has 5
digits. We know that the second and fourth digits
are the same and the last digit is odd. How many
different possible combinations are there for the
lock?
format using the 26 letters A-Z and the digits 0-9.
The format for all codes must have 7 characters
four digits followed by three letters and there must
be enough possibilities to register 200 million
different people. Is this possible?

Probability 415
27. A man in Italy once suggested the following
automobile license number format: each number
should consist of two letters followed by three
digits. If the first digit could not be zero and there
are 21 letters in the Italian alphabet, could this
format be used to register 400 000 vehicles?
28. How many two-digit numbers can we form using
the elements of the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} if
a. repetition is allowed?
b. repetition is allowed and the number must be
even?
29. In an experiment, a die is rolled 5 times and the
numbers obtained are written as digits in order.
How many different five-digit odd numbers greater
than 40 000 can be produced in this way?
30. How many different three-digit odd numbers can
be formed using the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5 with no
repetition?
31. How many three-digit numbers can be formed
using the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6 if no two odd
digits must be next to each other?
32. How many numbers between 500 and 1000
inclusive contain repeated digits?
33. How many four-digit numbers have at least one
odd digit?
34. A machine generates all the possible four-digit
numbers using the digits 1, 2, 3 and 4. In how
many numbers is the digit 4 on the left of (but not
necessarily next to) 2 if repetition is not allowed?
416
35. A machine generates all the possible five-digit
numbers from the digits in the set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7}. How many of them are divisible by 25 if
a. repetition is allowed?
b. repetition is not allowed?
36. How many different numbers with nonrepeating
digits from 4000 to 6000 can be produced using
the digits {0,1,3,4,5,6,9} if
a. the numbers must be odd?
b. the numbers must be divisible by 9?
37. The controls on Anton's spaceship are activated
with a password. Anton has forgotten the password
but he knows that password is a number from 5
digit to 7 digit length which does not begin with
zero. At most how many different passwords must
Anton try?
38. A security password consists of 7 characters and
› each character must be either a digit or a
lower-case letter. The password must contain at
least one letter and at least one digit. If there are 26
possible letters, how many different passwords can
be set?
39. Bahadýr wants to set a password for his computer.
The password must be between 3 and 5 letters long
and the first and last letters must be vowels. If
there are 26 possible letters, how many different
passwords can Bahadýr set?
40. A monogram is a symbol made up of a person’s
initials. Explain why in a group of 700 people at
least 2 people have a monogram made from the
same two-letter monogram.
Algebra 10
 We can define a permutation as an ordered arrangement of some or all of the elements in a
given set. The way a set of books is arranged on a shelf, the seating positions of a group of
people at a table or the way the players in a football team line up for a team photo are some
examples of permutations since in each case, the order of the elements is important.

A. PERMUTATION FUNCTIONS
Definition permutation function

Let A be a non-empty set. A one-to-one and onto function from A to A is called a permutation
function in A.
For example, consider the function f: A → A with A = {0, 1, 2, 3} A A
and f(0) = 1, f(1) = 3, f(2) = 0, f(3) = 2. .0 .0

f is shown in the Venn diagram opposite. We can see that it is a .1 .1

.2 .2
one-to-one and onto function, and so it is a permutation function.
.3 .3
f = {(0, 1), (1, 3), (2, 0), (3, 2)}.
⎛ 0 1 2 3⎞
Alternatively we can write it in the form f = ⎜ ⎟.
⎜ 1 3 0 2⎟
⎝ ⎠
This is a common way of writing a permutation function.

Note that f is not the only permutation which can be defined in A in the example above. In
fact, we can define n! different permutation functions in a set with n elements. So in this exam-
ple we can define 4! = 24 different permutation functions in A.
⎛0 1 2 3⎞ ⎛0 1 2 3 ⎞ ⎛0 1 2 3 ⎞
f2 = ⎜ ⎟ , f3 = ⎜ ⎟ and f4 = ⎜ ⎟ are three examples of such permutation
⎜3 2 0 1⎟ ⎜2 1 0 3 ⎟ ⎜0 1 2 3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
functions.

EXAMPLE 19 List all the permutation functions defined in K = {p, q, r}.

⎛p q r⎞ ⎛p q r ⎞ ⎛p q r ⎞ ⎛p q r ⎞ ⎛p q r ⎞ ⎛p q r ⎞
Solution f1 = ⎜ ⎟ , f2 = ⎜ ⎟ , f3 = ⎜ ⎟, f 4 = ⎜ ⎟, f5 = ⎜ ⎟, f = ⎜ ⎟
⎜p q r⎟ ⎜p r q⎟ ⎜q p r ⎟ ⎜q r p ⎟ ⎜r p q ⎟ 6 ⎜r q p ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

Probability 417
 1. Identity Permutation Functions
Definition identity permutation function

Let I be a permutation function defined in a set A. If I(x) = x for every x ∈ A then I is called
the identity permutation function in A.

For example, if I is the identity function defined in the set P = {1, 2, 3, 4} then I(1) = 1,
I(2) = 2, I(3) = 3 and I(4) = 4.
⎛1 2 3 4 ⎞
We can write this identity permutation function as I = ⎜ ⎟.
⎜1 2 3 4 ⎟
⎝ ⎠

2. Composite Permutation Functions

We have already stated that a permutation function in a set A must be a one-to-one and onto
function. If f and g are two permutation functions defined in A, then f g and g f are also
permutations in A.

⎛1 2 3 4 ⎞ ⎛1 2 3 4 ⎞
For example, suppose f = ⎜ ⎟ and g = ⎜ ⎟ are two permutation functions defined
⎜3 1 4 2 ⎟ ⎜ 3 2 4 1⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
in the set P = {1, 2, 3, 4}. Then the composite function f g is f g(x) = f(g(x)), so
f g(1) = f ( g(1)) = f (3) = 4 ⎫
⎪
f g(2) = f ( g(2)) = f (2) =1 ⎪⎪ ⎛1 2 3 4 ⎞
⎬ , i.e. f g= ⎜ ⎟.
f g(3) = f ( g(3)) = f (4) = 2 ⎪ ⎜4 1 2 3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎪
f g(4) = f ( g(4)) = f (1) = 3 ⎪⎭

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
We can visualize this as f o g = f o g= o = .
3 1 4 2 3 2 4 1 4 1 2 3

EXAMPLE 20 ⎛a b c d⎞
f =⎜
⎜d b a c⎟
⎛a b c d⎞
⎟ and g = ⎜ ⎟ are two permutations defined in H = {a, b, c, d}. Show
⎜b c a d⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
that f g ≠ g f.

⎛a b c d⎞ ⎛ a b c d ⎞ ⎛a b c d ⎞ ⎫
Solution f g=⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ ⎪
⎜ d b a c⎟ ⎜ b c a d ⎟ ⎜b a d c ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎪⎪
⎬⇒ f g≠g f
⎛ a b c d ⎞ ⎛ a b c d ⎞ ⎛a b c d ⎞ ⎪
g f =⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ ⎪
⎜ b c a d ⎟ ⎜ d b a c ⎟ ⎜d c b d ⎟ ⎪⎭
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

418 Algebra 10
 Notes
1. The composition of permutation functions is not commutative: f g≠g f.
2. The composition of permutation functions is associative: ( f g) h=f (g h) because
‘∀x ∈ A’ means ‘for all ( f g) h = f( g(h(x))) = f ( g h).
elements x in A’. 3. For any permutation f and identity permutation I in a set A, f I=I f = f since
∀x ∈ A, f I(x) = f(I(x)) = f(x) and I f(x) = I(f(x)) = f(x).

3. The Inverse of a Permutation Function

Since a permutation f in a set A is both one-to-one and onto, by reversing the ordered pairs
of f we get the inverse permutation function of f, denoted by f –1.
For example, if P = {0, 1, 2, 3} is a set and
⎛0 1 2 3 ⎞ −1
⎛3 1 0 2 ⎞ ⎛0 1 2 3 ⎞
f =⎜ ⎟ is a permutation in P then f = ⎜ ⎟ , i.e. f −1 = ⎜ ⎟.
⎜3 1 0 2 ⎟ ⎜0 1 2 3 ⎟ ⎜2 1 3 0 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
–1
Note that f f = f –1 f = I.

⎛Δ †  œ  ⎞
EXAMPLE 21 In a set K = {{,‹,œ,…,U}, the permutation function g = ⎜
⎜†  Δ œ ⎟
⎟ is defined.
–1
Show that g g = I. ⎝ ⎠

⎛Δ †  œ  ⎞ ⎛Δ †  œ ⎞
Solution If g = ⎜ ⎟ then g−1 = ⎜ ⎟.
⎜†  Δ œ ⎟ ⎜ Δ  œ †⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
⎛ Δ † œ  ⎞ ⎛ Δ †  œ  ⎞ ⎛ Δ †  œ  ⎞
So g g −1 = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟ = I.
⎜ †  Δ œ ⎟ ⎜ Δ  œ † ⎟ ⎜ Δ †  œ  ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
⎛1 3 5 7 9 ⎞
EXAMPLE 22 f =⎜
⎝
⎟ and g are two permutations defined in the set K = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}.
⎜ 37 9 5 1 ⎟
⎠
⎛1 3 5 7 9 ⎞
g f =⎜ ⎟ is given. Find g.
⎜ 75 3 9 1 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Solution To find g, we have to eliminate f from g f.
We can achieve this by composing g f with the inverse of f, since
–1 –1
(g f) f =g (f f )=g I = g.
⎛1 3 5 7 9 ⎞ ⎛1 3 5 7 9 ⎞
So we must find f –1. If f = ⎜ ⎟ then f −1 = ⎜ ⎟.
⎜ 37 9 5 1 ⎟ ⎜9 1 7 3 5⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

–1
⎛1 3 5 7 9 ⎞ ⎛1 3 5 7 9 ⎞ ⎛1 3 5 7 9 ⎞
So g = (g f) f =⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟.
⎜ 75 3 9 1 ⎟ ⎜ 9 1 7 3 5 ⎟ ⎜1 7 9 5 3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
given

Probability 419
 Check Yourself 4
⎛0 1 2 3 ⎞ –1
1. f = ⎜ ⎟ is defined in K = {0, 1, 2, 3}. Find f .
⎜3 2 1 0 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛2 4 6 8 ⎞
2. g = ⎜ ⎟ is defined in P = {2, 4, 6, 8}. Find g g.
⎜6 2 8 4 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛ Δ †  œ⎞ ⎛ Δ †  œ⎞
3. g = ⎜ ⎟ and f are defined in H = {€, œ, …, Δ}. g f =⎜ ⎟ is given. Find f .
⎜† œ  Δ ⎟ ⎜†  Δ œ ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

Answers
⎛0 1 2 3 ⎞ ⎛2 4 6 8 ⎞ ⎛Δ †œ⎞
1. ⎜ ⎟ 2. ⎜ ⎟ 3. ⎜ ⎟
⎜3 2 1 0
⎝
⎟
⎠ ⎝8 6 4 2 ⎠ ⎝Δ œ † ⎠

B. PERMUTATIONS OF n ELEMENTS
We have defined a permutation as ordered arrangement of a set of elements or items. In a
permutation, the order of the items is important. We considered some permutation problems
in our study of the multiplication principle.

Here is another example of a permutation problem: in how many different ways can the three
students Faruk, Oleg and Evgeny be seated at a desk?

420 Algebra 10
 Definition permutation

An ordered arrangement of some or all of the elements of a given set is called a permutation.
The number of permutations of all of the n distinct elements in a set is denoted by P(n, n),
where P(n, n) = n(n – 1) ⋅ (n – 2) ⋅...⋅ 2 ⋅ 1 = n!.
In our library seating problem we can see that there are six ways for three students to sit at
a desk. Using the permutation notation described above, we can write P(3, 3) = 6.

EXAMPLE 23 What is the number of permutations of 5 different math books piled on a table?

Solution By the definition above, the answer is P(5, 5) = 5! = 120

permutations because there are five distinct books.
We can check this answer using the counting technique we
learned when we studied the multiplication principle:
First book Second book Third book Fourth book Fifth book
5 4 3 2 1
Again we find that there are 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1 = 120 ways to put the books in a pile.

EXAMPLE 24 How many different eight-letter permutations are there of the letters in the word
ISTANBUL?

Solution Notice that there are eight letters and each letter is distinct. So we can use the formula for
P(n, n) using n = 8: P(8, 8) = 8! = 40320 permutations.

EXAMPLE 25 A football league has 18 teams. How many different rankings from first to last are possible in
the end-of-season league table, assuming that there are no ties?

Solution Since each football team is distinct we can use the permutation formula. Therefore the
answer is P(18, 18) = 18! possible rankings.

Probability 421
EXAMPLE 26 Murat has 5 different math books, 3 different biology books and
4 different physics books. In how many different ways can
Murat arrange his books
a. on a book shelf?
b. in three different file holders, if each holder is for a
different subject?

Solution a. There is no restriction on the order of the books on the shelf so we do not need to
consider the subjects. Since there are twelve books, the answer is P(12, 12) = 12!
different ways.
b. In this case we need to consider the subjects separately.
P(5, 5) ⋅ P(3, 3) ⋅ P(4, 4) ⋅ 3! = 5! ⋅ 3! ⋅ 4! ⋅ 3! = 120 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 24 ⋅ 6 = 103 680 arrangements.
math biology physics

Check Yourself 5
1. In how many different ways can 5 students form a queue?
2. Rasim, Togrul and Elnur are going to establish a company whose name will be a
combination of their initials. How many company names are possible?
3. There are 10 desks in a classroom and each desk has two seats. In how many different
ways can 20 students sit in the classroom?

Answers
1. 120 2. 6 3. 20!

These toys are some

interesting samples for
permutation puzzles.

422 Algebra 10
C. PERMUTATIONS OF r ELEMENTS SELECTED FROM n
ELEMENTS
Many permutation problems ask us to consider arrangements of r things chosen from n things
(0 ≤ r ≤ n), i.e. permutations of r elements chosen from a set of n elements.

EXAMPLE 27 How many different two-letter combinations can we form from the letters of the word KANO
if a letter cannot be used more than once?
Solution The order of the letters is important and a letter cannot be used more than once. By the
multiplication principle, the number of combinations is: 4 ⋅ 3 = 12. These combinations are
KA AK NK OK
KN AN NA OA .
KO AO NO ON

In this section we will use a new formula to solve problems of this type.

Definition permutation of r elements selected from n elements

The number of permutations of r elements selected from a set of n elements is

n!
P( n, r ) = ( n, r ∈ and 0 ≤ r ≤ n).
( n − r )!

If we apply this formula to Example 39, we can write the answer as

4! 4!
Some books use nPr or P(4, 2) = = =12.
Pnr to mean P(n, r).
(4 − 2)! 2!

Note
Any question which can be solved using this permutation formula can also be solved using
the multiplication principle.

EXAMPLE 28 Calculate P(5, 3) ⋅ P(7, 2).

5! 7! 5! 7!
Solution P(5, 3) ⋅ P(7, 2) = ⋅ = ⋅ = 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 = 2520
(5 − 3)! (7 − 2)! 2! 5!

Probability 423
EXAMPLE 29 Evaluate the expressions.
a. P(7, 3) b. P(n, n) c. P(n, 0)

7! 7! 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4!
Solution a. P(7,3) = = = = 210
(7 − 3)! 4! 4!

b. P( n, n) = n! n! n!
= = = n!
( n − n )! 0! 1

c. P( n,0) = n! n! n!
= = =1
( n − 0)! n! n!

EXAMPLE 30 P(n, 3) ⋅ 5 = P(n, 4) is given. Find n.

Solution P(n, 3) ⋅ 5 = P(n, 4)

n! n!
⋅5=
( n − 3)! ( n − 4)!
5 1
=
( n − 3) ⋅ ( n − 4)! ( n − 4)!

5= n − 3

n=8

EXAMPLE 31 How many three-digit numbers can be formed from the digits in the number 13567 if a digit
cannot be used more than once?
Solution We are choosing three digits from five digits. So there are
5! 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2!
P(5, 3) = = = 60 different three-digit numbers.
(5 − 3)! 2!
Notice that we could have solved the same question using the multiplication principle:
5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 = 60.

EXAMPLE 32 Three raffle tickets will be selected in order from a box containing 30 tickets. The
person holding the first ticket will win a car, the person with the second ticket will win a
computer, and the person with the third ticket will win a CD player. In how many different
ways can these prizes be awarded?
Solution Since the question is about an ordered arrangement of three tickets selected from thirty
tickets, we can use the formula:
30! 30! 30 ⋅ 29 ⋅ 28 ⋅ 27!
P(30, 3) = = = = 24360.
(30 − 3)! 27! 27!

424 Algebra 10
 Remark
The number of permutations of r elements selected from n elements is the product of r
successive numbers less than or equal to n:
P( n, r ) = n ⋅ ( n − 1) ⋅ ( n − 2) ⋅... ⋅( n − r +1).
r factors

For example,
P(5, 4) = 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 = 120, P(10, 3) = 10 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 8 = 720 and P(20, 1) = 20 = 20.
4 factors 3 factors 1 factor

EXAMPLE 33 A fighter plane has seats for a pilot and a copilot. In how many
different ways can these be selected from a squadron of 18 soldiers?

Solution P(18, 2) =18 ⋅17 = 306

2 factors

EXAMPLE 34 How many different combinations of at least 3 letters can be formed from the letters in the
word MATHS if no letter can be used more than once?
Solution ‘At least 3 letters’ means the combination can have 3 letters, 4 letters or 5 letters. So we need
to consider three mutually exclusive cases: combinations of 3 letters, 4 letters and 5 letters.

Mutually exclusive cases Then we add the number of permutations in each case:
are cases which cannot
happen at the same time.
P(5, 3) + P(5, 4) + P(5, 5) = (5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3) + (5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2) + (5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1)
3 - letter words 4 - letter words 5 - letter words = 60 + 120 + 120 = 300.

So there are 300 possible combinations.

EXAMPLE 35 Kemal’s bookcase has three shelves. Kemal has 5 different math books, 6 different biology
books and 7 different physics books. He wants to arrange 3 math books, 4 biology books and
5 physics books on the shelves so that each shelf is for one subject only. In how many differ-
ent ways can Kemal arrange his books?
Solution There are P(5, 3) possible ways to arrange the math books. There are also P(6, 4) and P(7, 5)
different possible ways to order the biology and physics books respectively.
However, Kemal can choose the shelves for the subjects in 3! ways. As a result there are
P(5, 3) ⋅ P(6, 4) ⋅ P(7, 5) ⋅ 3! = 60 ⋅ 360 ⋅ 840 ⋅ 6
math biology physics shelves

= 108 864 000 ways for Kemal to arrange his books.

Probability 425
EXAMPLE 36 A three-digit number is formed by choosing elements from the set {1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9}
without repetition.
a. How many numbers do not contain the digit 5?
b. How many numbers contain the digit 5?
c. How many numbers contain 1 or 7 or both 1 and 7?

Solution a. The problem is the same as finding the number of three-digit permutations of the set
{1, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9} (5 excluded): P(6, 3) = 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 = 120.
b. The total number of three-digit permutations of the set {1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9} is
P(7, 3) = 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 = 210. From part a, 120 of these permutations do not contain the digit 5.
So there are 210 – 120 = 90 three-digit numbers which contain the digit 5.
c. We begin by calculating the number of three-digit permutations in which 1 and 7 are not
used: P(5, 3) = 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 = 60 permutations. So there are 210 – 60 = 150 three-digit
numbers which contain 1 or 7 or both 1 and 7.

Check Yourself 6
1. There are 7 different pieces of fruit on a tray. We will choose 3 of them and arrange them
in a row on a plate. How many different arrangements are possible?
2. The students in a class are photographed in pairs such that each student is photographed
with every other student. If there are 90 photos, how many students are there in the class?
3. A machine generates all the possible two-letter combinations of the letters ABCDE,
without using a letter twice. What percentage of the combinations do not contain a
consonant?
4. How many of the four-digit numbers formed from the digits of the number 12345
without repetition do not begin with the digit 2?
5. A group A contains 6 students and a group B contains 8 students. In a class photo, two
students who are to sit in the front will be from A and three students who are to stand at
the back will be from B. How many arrangements are possible?

Answers
1. P(7, 3) = 210 2. 10 3. 10% 4. P(5, 4) – P(4, 3) = 96 5. P(6, 2) ⋅ P(8, 3) = 10080

426 Algebra 10
D. PERMUTATIONS WITH RESTRICTIONS
1. Permutations with Grouped Elements
Sometimes a permutation problem states that we should not separate two or more elements
in the set. In this case we count the elements as a single element. Then we apply the
ordinary permutation rules. However, we need to consider the number of arrangements
within the group of combined elements. By the multiplication principle, we multiply the
results to get the answer.

EXAMPLE 37 How many five-letter words can we form using all the letters in the word MERAK if A and K
must be next to each other?

Solution First we count the group of letters A and K as a single element. Then the problem is to find
the number of permutations of four elements, namely M, E, R and (A, K). However, for each
permutation of these four elements there are two arrangements within the group (A, K).
Therefore the answer is

( 3 + 1 ) ! ⋅ 2! = 4! ⋅2! = 24 ⋅2 = 48 words.
M , E, R group of A, K
A and K

EXAMPLE 38 Solve the roller-coaster problem in Example 11 by using grouping and permutation.

Solution Since Ahmet and Cemal must sit together, we count them as single element.
( 2 + 1 )! ⋅ 2! = 3! ⋅2!
Berk and Deniz group of Ahmet , Cemal
Ahmet and Cemal

=12. This is the answer we found in Example 11.

EXAMPLE 39 In how many ways can the children Anar, Maksat, Sasha, Dilshat, Catalin and Mehmet sit in
a row if Maksat and Catalin must not sit together?

Solution The total number of possible arrangements of six children is 6! = 720.

From these, the number of permutations in which Maksat and Catalin sit together will be
(4 + 1)! ⋅ 2! = 5! ⋅ 2! = 240.
Maksat , Catalin

So the number of permutations in which Maksat and Catalin are not together is
720 – 240 = 480.

Probability 427
EXAMPLE 40 In Example 38, Murat had five different math books, three different biology books and four
different physics books. In how many ways can Murat arrange his books on a shelf if
a. the math books must be kept together?
b. the biology and physics books must be kept together in two different groups?
c. all the books on the same subject must be kept together?

Solution a. Since the math books must be together we consider them as a single book.
So the answer is

( 1 + 3 + 4 )! ⋅ 5 ! = 8! ⋅ 5!.
group of biology physics math
math books books books books

b. ( 1 + 5 + 1 )! ⋅ 3! ⋅ 4! = 7! ⋅ 3! ⋅ 4!
group of math group of biology physics
biology books physics books books
books books

c. ( 1 + 1 + 1 )! ⋅ 3! ⋅ 4! ⋅ 5! = 3! ⋅ 3! ⋅ 4! ⋅ 5!
group of group of group of biology physics math
biology math books physics books books books
books books

EXAMPLE 41 In the My Documents folder on my computer there are

3 files with the extension jpg, 5 files with the extension
txt, and 6 files with the extension hzm. In how many
ways can the files be listed if the files are ordered by
type, ignoring alphabetical order?

Solution ⎛ 1 + 1 + 1 ⎞
⎜ group of group of group of ⎟! ⋅ 6! ⋅ 3! ⋅ 5! = 3! ⋅ 6! ⋅ 3! ⋅ 5!
⎝ hzm files jpg files txt files ⎠ hzm files jpg files txt files

Check Yourself 7
1. A company owns 3 different green cars, 2 different red cars, one blue car and one yellow
car. In how many different ways can they be parked in the company’s parking lot so that
cars of the same color are parked together?
2. Five different countries each send 3 people to an international meeting. A photographer
wants to photograph all the people in a row such that people from the same country stand
together. How many different photographs are possible?
Answers
1. 4! ⋅ 3! ⋅ 2! 2. 5! ⋅ 3! ⋅ 3! ⋅ 3! ⋅ 3! ⋅ 3!

428 Algebra 10
 2. Permutations with Identical Elements
Remember that order is important in a permutation: for three objects A, B and C, the
permutations (A, C, B) and (B, A, C) are different.
Now suppose that we are asked to find the number of permutations of the letters A, A, B, C,
D. The number of permutations of five objects is P(5, 5) = 5! = 120. However, some
of these of these permutations will be the same because there are two A’s in the list. For
example, let A1 and A2 be the two A’s. Then the permutations (A1, B, A2, D, C) and
(A2, B, A1, D, C) are indistinguishable. In order to find the number of distinguishable
permutations we can use the following formula:

Theorem distinguishable permutations of a set with identical elements

Let A be a set of n elements which has n1 of one kind of element, n2 of a second kind, n3 of
a third kind, and so on, where n1 + n2 + n3 + ... +nr = n .
n!
Then the number of distinguishable permutations in A is .
n1 ! ⋅ n2 ! ⋅ n3 ! ⋅ ... ⋅ nr −1! ⋅ nr !

EXAMPLE 42 What is the number of permutations of the digits in the number 5711?

4!
Solution By the formula above, there are = 12 different permutations.
2! ⋅ 1! ⋅ 1!
To check our answer let us list the possible permutations. To avoid confusion between the
two 1 digits we will name them 11 and 12.

571112 511712 511127 751112 711512 711125 115712 115127 117512 117125 111257 111275

571211 512711 512117 751211 712511 712115 125711 125117 127511 127115 121157 121175

We can see that the permutations in the bottom row are the same as those in the top row. In
the bottom row, we have simply swapped the positions of the two identical digits. So there are
indeed 12 different permutations.

EXAMPLE 43 How many distinguishable permutations are there of the letters in the word NAHCIVAN?

Solution The letters A and N each occur twice.

8! 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2!
By the formula, the answer is = = 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 = 10080.
2!⋅ 2! 2! ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1

Probability 429
EXAMPLE 44 In a kitchen there are 3 identical porcelain dishes, 2 identical metal dishes and 4 identical
glass dishes. In how many ways can they be piled up?

n!total 9!
Solution = = 1260
n!porcelain ⋅ n!metal ⋅ n!glass 3!⋅ 2!⋅ 4!

EXAMPLE 45 A teacher has 5 identical math books, 3 identical biology books

and 4 identical physics books. In how many different ways can
the teacher arrange her books on a shelf if books about the
same subject must be together?

Solution The books are identical.

3! 4! 5!
( 1 + 1 + 1 )! ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ = 3! ⋅1 ⋅1 ⋅1
group of group of group of 3! 4! 5!
biology math books physics biology physics math
books books books books books

= 6 different ways.
As an extension to this example, try calculating the number of possible arrangements if books
on the same subject do not have to be kept together.

EXAMPLE 46 How many three-letter words can be formed from the letters in the word NARIN if each word
must contain both N’s?

Solution We have three possible sets of letters: {A, N, N}, {R, N, N} and {I, N, N}.

For each set, the number of words that we can form is 3! = 3.

2!
Since there are 3 sets, there are 3 ⋅ 3 = 9 possible words:

ANN, NAN, NNA, RNN, NRN, NNE, INN, NIN, NNI.

EXAMPLE 47 I toss a coin successively 7 times. In how many ways can I get 4 heads and 3 tails?

Solution Let H represent heads and T represent tails. Then we can write the result of 7 tosses as a
sequence of 7 letters. So the problem is equivalent to finding the number of seven-letter
words which contain 4 H letters and 3 T letters, such as HHTHTTH, HTTHHTH or
TTTHHHH.
7! 7 ⋅6 ⋅5
So the answer is = = 35 different ways.
3!⋅ 4! 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅1

430 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 48 Every day, Lazar walks from his house to school. Lazar’s
North
school
neighborhood has streets laid out in a grid system, as shown
by the grid lines opposite. If Lazar is only allowed to walk
eastward and northward along the streets, in how many house
different ways can he walk to school?
East
Solution There are 3 northward paths and 5 eastward paths. Let N
stand for a northward path and E stand for an eastward school
path. Then, since Lazar can walk only northward and North
eastward, any of Lazar’s routes can be represented by any
word formed of 3 N’s and 5 E’s. For example, the word
house
EENEENEN represents the path opposite.
8! East
So the total number of ways will be = 56.
3!5!

Check Yourself 8
1. In a competition, 2 students will receive a gold medal, 3 students will receive a silver
medal and 4 students will receive a bronze medal. In how many ways can the medals be
awarded to 9 students?
2. A restaurant prepares a shish kebab with 5 identical pieces of meat,
3 slices of tomato and 2 identical pieces of pepper. In how many
different ways can these pieces be put on the skewer

3. Esra is writing a test of multiple choice questions. Each question has 5 possible choices,
and the test will include 20 questions. Esra will also prepare an answer sheet. How many
different possible answer sheets can she prepare if the number of correct choices are
equally distributed?
Answers
20!
1. 1260 2. 2520 3.
4!4!4!4!4!

3. Circular Permutations
Consider the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 and
look at two different ways of arranging 1 2 3 4 5 3 4 5 1 2
them in a line:
Now imagine that we connect the ends of each 5 2
line to make the arrangements circular.
We can see that the linear arrangements are completely 4 1 1 3
different, but the second circular arrangement is simply a
rotation of the first. Provided we do not mark a particular
3 2 5 4
position as the top of the circle, we can say that the two
circular arrangements are identical.

Probability 431
 Let us look at another example. In how many ways can we arrange the letters A, B and C in
a line and in a circle?
Linear arrangements Circular arrangements

A A
ABC ACB
BAC BCA
CAB CBA B C C B
There are 3! = 6 linear arrangements. To calculate the number of circular arrangements, we
keep one letter in the same position and permute the rest. For example, let us keep A at the
top and consider the linear permutations of the remaining letters B and C:
A

2! = 2 ways
B C

So there are two circular arrangements.

This is a simple example of a circular permutation of three things. What about the general
case for n things?
Let us try to see a pattern. In the following circles, each arc represents a possible place for
an object around the circle:
1st object 2nd object 3rd object 4th object nth object

1 possible arc (place) 1 possible place 2 possible places 3 possible places n – 1 possible places
(1 – 1) (2 – 1) (3 – 1) (4 – 1)
14444444444424444444444443
Total number of permutations of three objects = 1 × 1 × 2 = (3 – 1)!

144444444444444424444444444444444443
Total number of permutations of four objects = 1 × 1 × 2 × 3 = (4 – 1)!

14444444444444444444444244444444444444444444443
Total number of permutations of n objects = 1 × 1 × 2 × 3 × ... × (n – 1) = (n – 1)!

Conclusion
The total number of circular permutations of n distinct objects is (n – 1)!.

432 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 49 In how many different ways can 5 girls sit around a circular table for
dinner?

Solution Since there are 5 distinct people, the number of possible

arrangements is (5 – 1)! = 4! = 24.

EXAMPLE 50 In how many different ways can a family of 2 parents and 4 children sit around a circular
dining table if the parents must sit together?

Solution Four children together with the parents make 6 people. In this question we can think of the
parents as a single member of the group. So there are 5 members.
There are (5 – 1)! = 4! = 24 ways of sitting 5 people around a table. However, within the
group of parents there will be 2! = 2 different possible linear arrangements. So the family
can sit in (5 – 1)! ⋅ 2! = 24 ⋅ 2 = 48 ways around the table.

EXAMPLE 51 In how many ways can 3 Turkish, 5 Kyrgyz and 4 Turkmen diplomats be seated around a
circular table if diplomats from the same country must sit next to each other?

Solution There are 3 groups of diplomats so the groups can be seated in

(3 – 1)! different ways around the table. However, we must
also consider the linear permutation of the diplomats in each
group.
So there are (3 – 1)! ⋅ 3! ⋅ 5! ⋅ 4! = 2 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 120 ⋅ 24 = 5760
different possible ways of seating the diplomats.

EXAMPLE 52 A room contains a circular table with 5 chairs and a bench for 3 people. In how many ways
can 8 students be seated in the room?

Solution Let us first sit 3 students on the bench. This is a linear permutation, so there are P(8, 3) ways
to do this. Then the remaining 5 students can be arranged around the circular table in
(5 – 1)! different ways. So the total number of arrangements is P(8, 3) ⋅ (5 – 1)! = 8064.

Probability 433
EXAMPLE 53 In how many different ways can 3 girls and 3 boys be seated around a circular table with 6
chairs if no two girls must sit together?

Solution 1 If no two girls can sit together, the students must sit alternately:

B
G G

B B
G

We can seat the boys in (3 – 1)! different ways. However, if we fix the position of one boy
(say B1), we can think of the rest of the seats as a linear arrangement:

B1

G G
G B G B G
B B
G

In this linear arrangement, the boys can be seated in 2! ways and the girls can be seated in
3! ways. So there are a total of 2! ⋅ 3! = 12 different ways to seat the students.
Solution 2 Alternatively, we can make use of circular permutation. The boys can sit in (3 – 1)!
different ways and the girls can also sit in (3 – 1)! different ways. However, a certain girl (say
G1) can sit in three different positions with respect to a certain boy (say B1):

B1 B1 B1

G1 G1

G1

In conclusion, the children can be seated in (3 – 1)! ⋅ (3 – 1)! ⋅ 3 = 12 different ways.

434 Algebra 10
 Some permutation problems ask us to arrange objects on a chain or on a circular string, for
example: arrange a set of beads on a necklace, or arrange a set of keys on a key ring. In these
problems we must divide the total number of circular permutations by 2 since two
permutations can simply be the same arrangement viewed from the front and back.

EXAMPLE 54 In how many ways can a red bead, a blue bead, a green bead and a yellow bead be arranged
on a necklace?

(4 − 1)!
Solution The answer is = 3 ways. We divide by 2 because there are two different points of view,
2
from the front and from the back.

For instance, and are the same arrangement viewed from

the front and the back.

Check Yourself 9
1. The construction department on Planet Zop is building a new flying saucer with 5
windows equally spaced around it. Each window will have a different color. In how many
different ways can the windows be arranged?
2. In how many different ways can we put 6 keys on a key ring?
3. Three families will have a supper at a large round table. Each family has 2 parents and
the families have 1, 2 and 3 children respectively. In how many different ways can all the
people be seated around the table if members of the same family must sit together and
the children must sit between their parents?
Answers
(6 − 1)!
1. (5 – 1)! = 24 2. = 60 3. 192
2

Probability 435
EXERCISES 6 .2
A. Permutation Functions 8. Seven people will be in a group photograph. In
how many different ways can the photograph be
⎛ Δ †  œ⎞
1. g = ⎜ ⎟ is a permutation function set up if 3 people must be in front and 4 must be
⎜ † œ Δ ⎟
⎝ ⎠ at the back?
defined in Q ={€, œ, …, Δ}. Find g–1.
9. A group photograph will be taken of 5 boys and 5
girls. Five people must be in the front and 5
⎛1 2 3 ⎞ ⎛1 2 3 ⎞
2. The functions f = ⎜ ⎟ and g = ⎜ ⎟ are people must be at the back. If the girls must sit
⎜3 1 2⎟ ⎜3 2 1 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ together, in how many ways can the photograph
–1
defined in A = {1, 2, 3}. Find f g be taken?

C. Permutations of r Elements Selected

3. Two permutation functions f and g are defined in
from n Elements
D = {1, 2, 3, 4} such that f(x) = 5 – x and
g(x) = x. Write ( f g)(x) as a permutation function. 10. Evaluate the expressions.

a. P(11, 2) b. P(8, 3) ⋅ P(5, 4)

⎛a b c d e ⎞ P( n, 4) P(4, 3) + P(8, 3)
4. The functions f = ⎜ c. d.
⎟ and g are defined in P( n, 3) P(6, 3)
⎜d a e c b⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛a b c d e⎞ P(5, 5)
S = {a, b, c, d, e} such that ( f g) = ⎜ ⎟. e.
⎜b e a d c⎟ P(7, 7)
⎝ ⎠
Find g.
11. Solve the equations.

B. Permutations of n Elements a. P(n + 2, 2) = 12 b. P(n, 4) = 12 ⋅ P(n, 2)

5. How many different five-digit numbers can be P( n +1, 2)
c. P(x, 2) = 72 d. =2
formed by using the digits in the number 75491 P( n, 3)
once?

12. In how many ways can the first, second and third
6. In how many ways can a group of 7 students be places be decided in an 8-horse race if there is no
seated in a row of 7 chairs if a particular student tie?
insists on being in the first chair?
13. In a computer shop, 7 out of 10 different laptop
computers can be displayed in a row in the shop
7. In how many different ways can we name a
window. Find the number of possible window
regular pentagon using letters P, Q, R, S, T?
displays.
436 Algebra 10
14. Three students will be selected from a group of 10
students such that one student will study physics,
one will study math and the other will study
chemistry. If any student can study any subject, in
how many ways can the students be selected?
15. How many different three-digit numbers can be
formed using the digits in the number 8479235
without repetition?
16. How many combinations of at most 5 letters can
be formed using the letters in the word CHARITY
without repetition?
17. Murat set a password on his e-mail account using
the letters of the English alphabet. The password
is between 1 and 3 letters long and does not
contain repeated letters. How many possible
passwords are there?
18. In how many different ways can 2 parents and 3
children be seated in a car if one of the parents
must be in the driver’s seat and the children sit in
the back while the parents sit in front?
19. A four-letter password will be set up of the
letters in the set {A, B, C, K, V, X}. How many of
the possible passwords contain repeated letters?
20. Iona, Florica, Anton and their four friends are in
a group. Four students are selected from the
group to line up in a row. How many of the
possible rows
a. do not include Iona and Florica?
b. include Anton?
21. In how many different ways can 5 students be
seated in a row of 8 chairs if there must be no
empty chairs between them?
Probability
22. A computer is generating palindromic sequences of
letters using the 26 letters of the English alphabet.
Each palindrome must be at least 7 letters long and
at most 9 letters long with no repeated letters. How
many different palindromes can be formed?
23. A meeting room has 5 seats in the front row and
4 seats in the back row. In how many different
ways can 3 friends be seated in the two rows if
they must all sit together?
24. A shopkeeper has 7 different pairs of slippers. She
wants to display 4 pairs of slippers on a shelf so
that the pairs are kept together. Each pair can be
placed facing the wall or facing out. In how many
ways can she display them?
D. Permutations with Restrictions
25 . How many six-digit numbers can be formed from
the digits {2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9} if the digits 5 and 7
must be together and no digit is repeated?
26. Mulan has 4 different types of rose bulb, 6
different types of lily bulb and 7 different
types of violet seed. In how many different ways
can she plant them in a flower bed row if
a. she can plant them in any order?
b. flowers of the same type must be planted
together in a row?
27. Jabari, Valery and their four friends need to be
seated in a row. In how many ways can this be
done if Jabari and Valery refuse to sit together?
437
28. In a class photograph of 9 students, 4 students
must be in front and 5 must be at the back. In
how many different ways can the students be
seated if the 3 friends Mariam, Katyusha and
Nataly want to sit next to each other?
29. A car dealer has 3 identical red cars, 4 identical
blue cars and 2 identical white cars. In how many
different ways can he display them in a row?
30. How many different permutations of the letters in
the word GALATASARAY are possible if the
vowels must be kept together?
31. How many ten-letter words can be formed from
the letters in the word TAKLAMAKAN if each
letter is used only once?
32. Mulan has 3 identical rose bulbs, 4 identical lily
bulbs and 6 identical violet seeds. In how many
different ways can she plant them in a row in a
flower bed?
33. How many different seven-digit even numbers
can be made by rearranging the digits in the
number 2352547?
34. How many different six-digit numbers can be
made by rearranging the digits in the number
335505?
35. Humuhumunukunukuapua
is the native Hawaiian name
for the triggerfish.
Find the number of different
permutations of the letters
in this word.
438
36. Find the number of eight-letter words that can be
formed by using each of the letters of the word
AMUDERIA once if each word must begin with
DER.
37. A rabbit is trained to
move only down and
right through the
maze opposite. In
how many different
ways can the rabbit
reach the carrot?
38.
The figure above shows the road network in a part
of Ankara. Nuran must go from point A to point B
on foot via point C using the shortest possible
route. Find the number of routes that Nuran can
take.
39. A child has 4 different math books, 5 identical
dictionaries and 3 different story books. In how
many different ways can she put them on a
bookshelf if
a. they can be put in any order?
b. books of the same kind must be kept together?
40. A restaurant offers a breakfast of 5 different items
arrranged in a circle on a plate. How many
different breakfast plates can be made?
Algebra 10
41. Three Turkish and 5 German diplomats will have 47. 3 identical wooden horses, 4 identical cars and 2
a meeting around a circular table. In how many identical swans are arranged on merry-go-round.
ways can they be seated if diplomats from the In how many ways can this be done?
same country must sit together?

48. A lion, a parrot, a wolf, a dragonfly and a rabbit

42. A hot air balloon is made up of are attending a meeting. In how many ways can
24 pieces of material and each they be seated around a circular table if the wolf
piece is a different color. How and the rabbit must not sit together?
many different balloons can be
made?
49. In how many different ways can Aygerim put 7
different keys on his key ring?

43. In how many ways can 5 boys and 5 girls be

seated around a circular table if children of the Mixed Problems
same gender must not sit next to each other?
50. How many zeros are there at the end of
› (4!)! + (5!)! + 240!?

44. A group contains 5 boys and 5 girls. In how many

different ways can the boys and girls be seated
51. In how many different ways can the letters in the
around 2 different circular tables if each table has
word MATHEMATICS be arranged if the vowels
5 seats and the boys and girls must sit at
must be kept together?
separate tables?

52. A ferris wheel has 22 cars and each car has 2

45. A company is making a seats. 22 couples will ride on the wheel so that
merry-go-round with 3
each couple rides in different car. In how many
different wooden horses,
different ways can they do this?
2 different miniature
cars and 3 different
miniature planes. In how many ways can these 53. Faruk has 5 different neckties. On condition that
things be arranged on the merry-go-round if the he doesn’t wear the same tie on two consecutive
planes must be kept together? days, in how many ways can Faruk wear his ties
an his five days at the office?

46. A Formula 1 racetrack is a simple closed curve.

Seven racing cars are racing round the track. If 54. A group of 20 people includes 2 brothers. In how
there is no tie and without considering which car › many ways can this group be seated in a circle

is first, second, third, etc., in how many ways can such that there is exactly one person between the
the cars be arranged on the racetrack? brothers?

Probability 439
 When the order of the elements chosen from a set is important, we use permutation.
However, order is not always important when we are choosing elements. For example, we
may want to choose a certain number of people from a group to form a committee. The order
of the chosen members is not important since the result is a group of people, not an ordered
set. An unordered selection of elements like this is called a combination.
When we talk about a combination of n objects taken r at a time, we mean the r-element
subsets of a set with n elements. We write total the number of such combinations as
An r-element subset is a
subset with r elements. ⎛ n⎞
C(n, r) or ⎜ ⎟ (n, r ∈ ] and 0 ≤ r ≤ n).
⎝r ⎠
For example, if we are asked to choose two digits from the set {2, 3, 5}, we might choose
{3, 5} or {5, 3}. These are the same combination. This is very different to the problem of
forming a two-digit number using the digits 3 and 5 because 35 and 53 are two different
outcomes.

A. COMBINATIONS OF r ELEMENTS SELECTED FROM n

ELEMENTS
Consider the set K = {1, 2, 3}. Let us compare the
K = {1, 2, 3}
two-element combinations with the two-element
Combinations Permutations
permutations of the set K in a table: with 2 elements with 2 elements
{1, 2} 12 21
{2, 3} 23 32
{1, 3} 13 31
We can see that the number of permutations with two elements is twice the number of the
combinations with two elements: 2 ⋅ C(3, 2) = P(3, 2).
A = {a, b, c, d}
If we now consider the
Combinations
three-element combinations Permutations with 3 elements
with 3 elements
and permutations of the set {a, b, c} abc acb bac bca cab cba
A = {a, b, c, d}, we get the {a, b, d} abd adb bad bda dab dba
following table:
{a, c, d} acd adc cad cda dac dca
{b, c, d} bcd bdc cbd cdb dbc dcb

440 Algebra 10
 There are four combinations and 24 permutations. We can see that the number of permuta-
tions with three elements is 3! times the number of combinations with three elements: 3! ⋅
C(4, 3) = P(4, 3).
If we repeated this exercise for two-element permutations and combinations we would find
2! ⋅ C(4, 2) = P(4, 2).
We can generalize this pattern as

C( n, r ) ⋅ r! = P( n, r ), which gives us the formula

 


ways of choosing ways of arranging

a group arranging those
with r elements elements

n!
P( n, r ) ( n − r)! n!
C( n, r ) = = = .
r! r! ( n − r )!⋅ r !

Definition combination

Let n and r be non-negative integers such that 0 ≤ r ≤ n.

A subset of r elements chosen from a set of n elements is called an r-e
element combination
of that set.
The number of r-element combinations of a set of n elements is
n!
C(n, r) = ( n, r ∈ ] and 0 ≤ r ≤ n).
r ! ⋅ (n – r)!
C(n, r) is sometimes
written as Crn ,
⎛ n⎞
C ⎜ ⎟ , n Cr or n Cr .
⎝r⎠
n r is sometimes read as
C
‘n, choose r’.

EXAMPLE 55 Calculate C(8, 3).

8! 8! 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5!
Solution By the formula, C(8, 3) = = = = 56.
3! ⋅ (8 – 3)! 3! ⋅ 5! 3! ⋅ 5!

EXAMPLE 56 Evaluate C(12, 5) ⋅ C(7, 2).

12! 7! 12! 7! 12!

Solution C(12, 5) ⋅ C(7, 2) = ⋅ = ⋅ =
5! ⋅ (12 – 5)! 2!(7 – 2)! 5! ⋅ 7! 2! ⋅ 5! 5! ⋅ 2! ⋅ 5!

12 ⋅ 11 ⋅ 10 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5!
= = 11 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 = 16632
5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 5!

Probability 441
EXAMPLE 57 Find the number of groups of 3 students which can be chosen from a class of 10 students.

10! 10 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 8
Solution The number of such groups is C(10, 3) = = = 120.
3!⋅ (10 − 3)! 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅1

EXAMPLE 58 There are 8 fruit pieces of different kinds including an

apple on a tray. How many selections of 4 pieces of fruit
can we make if we have to include the apple?

Solution If we have to include the apple, we need to select three

pieces of fruit from the seven remaining: C(7, 3) = 35.

EXAMPLE 59 There are 10 players in a list. A basketball coach will choose 6 players from the list for a
school team and make one of them the captain. In how many ways can the coach form the
team?
⎛ 10! ⎞
Solution The coach can choose 6 players in 210 ways ⎜ C(10, 6) = = 210 ⎟.
⎝ 6!⋅ (10 − 6)! ⎠

Additionally, any one of these six chosen players can be the captain. By the multiplication
property, the coach can form the team in C(10, 6) ⋅ 6 = 1260 ways.

EXAMPLE 60 In a group of 9 children, 4 children will be given apples, another 3 children will be given
oranges and the rest will be given peaches. In how many ways can these fruits be given?

⎛ 9⎞
Solution We can choose four children from nine in ⎜ ⎟ ways and from the remaining five children we
⎝ 4⎠
⎛ 5⎞
can choose three in ⎜ ⎟ ways. There will only be one way to choose the other two children.
⎝ 3⎠
⎛ 9⎞ ⎛ 5⎞
So the total number of possible groupings is ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ 1 = 1260.
⎝ 4⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
Note that we can also solve this problem by treating it as a permutation with some identical
elements.

442 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 61 A cafe offers chocolate, lemon, sour cherry and vanilla
flavors of ice cream. A customer can choose one, two or
three scoops but the flavours must all be different. How
many different possible ice creams can a customer
order?

Solution There are four types of ice cream.

⎛4⎞ ⎛4⎞ ⎛4⎞
The number of possible ice creams is ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ = 4+6+ 4 =14.
⎝1 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠
Notice that
⎛ 4⎞ ⎛ 4⎞ ⎛ 4⎞ 4! ⎛4⎞
⎜ ⎟ and ⎜ ⎟ are equal: ⎜ ⎟ = = ⎜ ⎟.
⎝1 ⎠ ⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠ 1!⋅ 3! ⎝ 3 ⎠

EXAMPLE 62 Classes 10A and 10B have 12 and 18 students respectively. A basketball team of 5 players will
be formed by choosing 2 students from 10A and 3 students from 10B. How many different
teams can be formed?

Solution The basketball team has five players.

⎛ 12 ⎞
We can choose 2 students from 12 students in ⎜ ⎟ ways.
⎝2⎠
⎛ 18 ⎞
We can choose 3 students from 18 students in ⎜ ⎟ ways.
⎝3⎠
⎛ 12 ⎞ ⎛18 ⎞
So the team can be formed in ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ = 66 ⋅ 816 = 53856 ways.
⎝2⎠ ⎝3⎠

EXAMPLE 63 How many three-digit numbers abc can we write which satisfy the condition c < b < a?

Solution Notice that the digits a, b and c must all be different. So any three-element set of digits
{a, b, c} will be enough to form a valid number, because we can just arrange the digits to
satisfy the condition. For example, the digits set is {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} and from the
chosen subset {3, 5, 8} we can form the number 853. So we just need to find the total
number of three-digit subsets of the set of digits: C(10, 3) = 120 different numbers can be
formed.

Probability 443
EXAMPLE 64 A watchmaker has 7 different jewels. He wants to
choose four of them to decorate the quarters
(3, 6, 9, 12) on the face of a clock. How many
different decorations are possible?

⎛7⎞
Solution The watchmaker can choose four jewels in ⎜ ⎟ different ways and set them around the quarters
⎝ 4⎠
⎛7⎞
on the dial in 4! different ways. So the total number of possible decorations is ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ 4! = 840.
⎝ 4⎠

(Notice that we cannot use circular permutation in this problem. Can you see why?)

EXAMPLE 65 A room contains a circular table with 5 chairs and a bench for 3 people. In how many ways
can 8 students be seated in the room?

Solution We studied this problem in Example 64. In that solution we began by sitting three of the stu-

dents on the bench. Now let us begin by sitting five students at the circular table. We can
8
choose these students in ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ different ways. Then they can be arranged around the table in
⎝5⎠
(5 – 1)! ways. Finally, we have 3! ways for the remaining students to sit at the bench. So the
8
total number of arrangements is ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ ⋅ 4!⋅ 3!= 56 ⋅ 24 ⋅ 6 = 8064.
⎝5⎠

EXAMPLE 66 In a queue of 5 students at the canteen, 2 students are from class A and the rest are from
class B. If we know that there are 7 students in class A and 9 students in class B, find the
total number of possible ways to form the queue.
⎛7⎞
Solution In a queue, the order is significant. There are ⎜ ⎟ possible two-student groups from class A
⎝2⎠
⎛ 9⎞
and ⎜ ⎟ possible three-student groups from class B. Those five students can form a queue
⎝ 3⎠
in 5! different ways.
⎛7⎞ ⎛9⎞
So the total number of possibilities is ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ 5!= 21 ⋅ 84 ⋅120 = 211680.
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 3⎠

Remark
The number of r-element subsets of a set of n elements is equal to the number of
(n – r)-element subsets: C(n, r) = C(n, n – r) (n, r ∈ ] and 0 ≤ r ≤ n).

Check: C( n, n – r ) = n! n! n!
= = = C( n, r ).
( n – r )! ⋅ [ n – ( n – r )]! ( n – r)! ⋅ [ n – n+ r]! ( n – r)! ⋅ r!

444 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 67 The number of 3-element subsets of a set is equal to the number of 6-element subsets of the
same set. Find the number of 7-element subsets of this set.

Solution We know that C(n, r) = C(n, n – r) and we have C(n, 3) = C(n, 6). So n = 9.
⎛9⎞
So the number of 7-element subsets of this set is ⎜ ⎟ = 36.
⎝7 ⎠

EXAMPLE 68 There are 9 students in a class. Four of them will be chosen to go on a picnic and the rest of
the students will form a basketball team. In how many ways can the picnic group be
chosen?

Solution Let us calculate the number of ways of establishing the basketball team, since each student
is only involved in one activity:
⎛9⎞ 9! 9 ⋅8 ⋅7 ⋅6 ⋅5
⎜5⎟ = = =126.
⎝ ⎠ 5!⋅ (9 − 5)! 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅1
Note that would have found the same answer if we had begun by considering the picnic group.

EXAMPLE 69 On Planet Zop there are 7 Zozos and 5 Yoyos. The army wants to form a crew of 3 members
for a spacecraft. How many different crews can be formed if there must be at least one Yoyo
in the crew?
⎛ 12 ⎞
Solution The number of groups with three members is ⎜ 3 ⎟ . This number is the sum of the
⎝ ⎠
⎛7⎞
number of groups with only Zozos ( ⎜ ⎟ ) and the number of groups with at least one Yoyo.
⎝ 3⎠
Let us call this second group y. Then we can write
⎛ 12 ⎞ ⎛ 7 ⎞ ⎛12 ⎞ ⎛7 ⎞
⎜ 3 ⎟ = ⎜ 3 ⎟ + y, so y = ⎜ 3 ⎟ − ⎜ 3 ⎟ which means y= 220 −35 =185.
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
So there are 185 crews which contain at least one Yoyo.
As an exercise, try to develop an alternative way of solving this problem.

EXAMPLE 70 Esma has 4 pigeons and 5 parrots. How many different pairs
containing a parrot and a pigeon can Esma choose?
Solution 1 We can solve this question by using the multiplication principle:

First bird Second bird

⎛ 4⎞ ⎛ 5⎞ → 4 ⋅ 5 =20.
⎜ 1⎟ ⎜ 1⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

Probability 445
 9 4
Solution 2 Alternatively, there are ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ ways of choosing a pair of birds. Of these, ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ pairs contain only
2
⎝ ⎠ ⎝2⎠
⎛5⎞
pigeons and ⎜ ⎟ pairs contain only parrots. Let d be the remaining number of mixed pairs.
⎝2⎠
Then ⎛⎜ 9 ⎞⎟ = ⎛⎜ 4 ⎞⎟ + ⎛⎜ 6 ⎞⎟ + d, so d = ⎛⎜ 9 ⎞⎟ − ⎡⎢ ⎛⎜ 4 ⎞⎟+ ⎛⎜ 5 ⎞⎟ ⎤⎥ = 36 − (6 +10) = 20.
⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦
This second solution may seem a bit longer than the first one. However, the strategy we have
just used will be helpful in other questions.

EXAMPLE 71 A football team is made up of 10 players plus a goalkeeper. Five more players are reserves. The
team coach wants to substitute 2 team players (not including the goalkeeper) with 2 reserves
and then choose 3 forward players from the resulting team. If each player can play any
position, in how many ways can the coach choose the 3 forward players?

Solution ⎛ 10 ⎞
The coach can choose the players to substitute in ⎜ ⎟ different ways. He can choose the
⎝2⎠
reserve players in ⎜ ⎟ different ways. Finally, he can arrange the forwards in ⎛⎜ 10 ⎞⎟ different
⎛ 5⎞
⎝2⎠ ⎝3⎠
⎛ 10 ⎞⎛ 5 ⎞⎛10 ⎞
ways. So the forwards can be chosen in ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = 54000 different ways.
⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 3 ⎠

EXAMPLE 72 In how many different ways can 10 people be separated into 2 equivalent groups if
a. one group travels to Izmir and the other group travels to Kayseri?
b. the two groups play basketball together?

10
Solution a. The group which goes to Izmir can be chosen in ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ = 252 ways.
⎝5⎠
The rest of these ten people will go to Kayseri. So the answer is 252 ways.
10
b. There will be two teams of five players each. We can choose the first team in ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ = 252
⎝5⎠
ways and the rest of the people will be in the second team.
However, half of these 252 possible teams will be the same as the other half.
⎛ 10 ⎞
⎜5⎟
⎝ ⎠ = 126
So the ten people can be separated into two teams in ways.
2
In the same way, 15 people can be separated into three teams of five members in
⎛ 15 ⎞⎛10 ⎞⎛ 5 ⎞
⎜ 5 ⎟⎜ 5 ⎟⎜ 5 ⎟
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠
ways.
3!
In how many ways could 12 students be separated into four equal teams?

446 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 73 Derive a formula that gives the number of diagonals in a convex polygon with n sides.

Solution A polygon with n sides has n vertices A diagonal is a line segment which joins two

non-adjacent vertices. The total number of line segments which join any of the vertices is
⎛ n⎞ n! n ⋅ ( n − 1)
determined by the two-element subsets of all the vertices: ⎜ ⎟ = = .
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2! ⋅ ( n − 2)! 2
However, line segments which join two adjacent vertices are not counted as diagonals. They
are the sides.
If we subtract n sides from the first formula, the formula for the number of diagonals is
⎛ n⎞ n ⋅ ( n − 1) n ⋅ ( n − 3)
⎜2 ⎟ − n = 2
−n =
2
.
⎝ ⎠
6 ⋅ (6 − 3)
For example, in a hexagon there are = 9 diagonals.
2

EXAMPLE 74 I toss a coin successively 7 times. In how many ways can I get 4 heads and 3 tails?

Solution We have already solved this question as a permutation in Example 59. Now we can solve it
as a combination. Let the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 represent each toss of the coin. Then
any four-element subset chosen from this set will represent a group of outcomes in which the
coin is heads. For example, 1, 2, 4, 6 means heads on the first, second, fourth and sixth toss.
2, 3, 4, 5 is another possibility.
7
There are ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ = 35 such groups, so can get the result in 35 ways.
⎝4⎠

EXAMPLE 75 A canteen has 2 circular tables with 4 seats each and a bench with 5 seats. In how many
different ways can 13 students chosen from a class of 15 students sit in the canteen?

⎛ 15 ⎞
Solution We can choose 13 students in ⎜ 13 ⎟ different ways.
⎝ ⎠
⎛ 13 ⎞ ⎛9⎞
From these students, ⎜ ⎟ students will sit at the first circular table and ⎜ 4 ⎟ students will
⎝4⎠ ⎝ ⎠
sit at the second circular table. These students can be seated in 3! and 3! ways respectively.
The remaining five students can sit on the bench in 5! different ways.
So the total number of possible arrangements is a product:
⎛ 15 ⎞ ⎛13 ⎞ ⎛ 9 ⎞
⎜ 13 ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ 4 ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ 4 ⎟ ⋅ 3! ⋅ 3! ⋅ 5!=105 ⋅715 ⋅126 ⋅6 ⋅6 ⋅120 = 40 864 824 000.
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Probability 447
EXAMPLE 76 There are 13 bulbs in a box. Five of the bulbs are defective.
We will select a set of 4 bulbs from the box. In how many
ways can we do this if
a. none of the bulbs must be defective?
b. we want at least half of the set to be defective?
8
Solution a. There are eight working bulbs, so we must select four bulbs from eight bulbs: ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ = 70
⎝4⎠
possible sets.

b. There are four bulbs in the set. If the set contains at least two defective bulbs, there must
be 2 or 3 or 4 defective bulbs and 2 or 1 or zero working bulbs in each set:
⎛ 5 ⎞⎛ 8 ⎞ ⎛ 5 ⎞⎛ 8 ⎞ ⎛ 5 ⎞⎛ 8 ⎞
⎜ 2 ⎟⎜ 2 ⎟ + ⎜ 3 ⎟⎜ 1 ⎟ + ⎜ 4 ⎟⎜ 0 ⎟ =(10 ⋅ 28)+(10 ⋅8)+(5 ⋅1) = 365.
⎝
 ⎠⎝
⎠ ⎝ 
 ⎠⎝
⎠ ⎝ 
 ⎠⎝
⎠
groups with 2 groups with 3 groups with 4
defective bulbs defective bulbs defective bulbs

EXAMPLE 77 There are 11 points on a circle. How many triangles can we form using any three of these
points as the vertices?

Solution Any three points on the circle are not collinear. So any three points will
11
make a triangle. So the total number of triangles is ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ =165.
⎝3⎠

EXAMPLE 78 Seven points are given as shown in the adjacent figure.

a. How many lines can be draw which pass through at
least two of the points?
b. How many triangles can be formed using the points
as vertices?
Solution a. Two lines are already given. There are three collinear points on the top line and four
collinear points on the bottom line. Other lines can pass through one of the top and one
of the bottom points. There are 3 ⋅ 4 = 12 such lines. Including the top and bottom line,
there are 12 + 2 = 14 possible lines.

b. For any triangle we want to draw, there are two cases:

Case 1: A side is on the upper row and the vertex is a

point on the lower row. Since two points determine a

3
side, there can be ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ ⋅ 4 =12 such triangles.
2
⎝ ⎠
Some of them are shown in the figure.

448 Algebra 10
 Case 2: A side is on the lower row and the vertex is on
4
the upper row. There are ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ ⋅ 3 = 18 such triangles.
⎝2⎠
Some of them are shown in the figure.

In conclusion, we can form 12 + 18 = 30 triangles.

EXAMPLE 79 There are 4 permanent members and 9 elected members on a company’s board of
directors. For a decision to be passed, there must be at least 8 votes in favor of the decision
and all of the permanent members must vote in favor. In how many ways can a decision be
passed by the board, assuming that all members vote?

Solution For a decision to be passed, all the permanent members must vote in favor. This is possible
⎛4⎞
in ⎜ ⎟ = 1 way.
⎝4⎠
But this is not enough. At least four more votes are necessary since at least eight votes are

needed in favor. These four or more votes can be provided by the nine elected members of

the board in ⎛⎜ 9 ⎞⎟ , ⎛⎜ 9 ⎞⎟ , ⎛⎜ 9 ⎞⎟ , .... or ⎛⎜ 9 ⎞⎟ different ways.

⎝4⎠ ⎝5⎠ ⎝6⎠ ⎝9⎠
9 9 9 9 9 9
So there are ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ + ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ + ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ + ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟+ ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟+ ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ ways in which at least four of the nine
⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 5 ⎠ ⎝ 6 ⎠ ⎝7 ⎠ ⎝ 8 ⎠ ⎝9 ⎠
elected members can vote in favor of the decision. As a result, a decision can be passed in
⎛4⎞ ⎛9⎞ ⎛4⎞ ⎛9 ⎞ ⎛4 ⎞ ⎛ 9 ⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎛9 ⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎛9 ⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎛9 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ ⎟+ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ ⎟+ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ ⎟+ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ ⎟
⎝4⎠ ⎝4⎠ ⎝4⎠ ⎝5 ⎠ ⎝4 ⎠ ⎝ 6 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝7 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝8 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝9 ⎠

⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎡⎛ 9 ⎞ ⎛ 9 ⎞ ⎛ 9 ⎞ ⎛ 9 ⎞ ⎛ 9 ⎞ ⎛ 9 ⎞ ⎤
= ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎢⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟+ ⎜ ⎟+ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎣⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 5 ⎠ ⎝ 6 ⎠ ⎝ 7 ⎠ ⎝ 8 ⎠ ⎝ 9 ⎠ ⎦

=1 ⋅ (126+126+84+ 36+9+1) = 382 ways.

EXAMPLE 80 ⎛ n ⎞ ⎛ n − 1⎞ ⎛ n − 1 ⎞
Prove that ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟+ ⎜
⎝ r ⎠ ⎝r −1⎠ ⎝ r ⎠
⎟ , where n, r ∈ ` with r ≤ n.

Solution This solution is left as an exercise for you.

Probability 449
 Theorem number of subsets of a set
The total number of subsets of a set with n elements is 2n:
⎛ n⎞ ⎛ n⎞ ⎛ n⎞ ⎛n⎞ n
⎜ 0 ⎟ + ⎜ 1 ⎟ + ⎜ 2 ⎟ + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + ⎜ n ⎟ = 2 , n ∈ ] (0 ≤ n).
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

Proof For a given subset there are two possibilities for each element of the main set: either it is in
the subset or not in the subset. If the n elements are a1, a2, a3, ..., an we can construct the
following table:

a1 a2 a3 ... an

2 2 2 ... 2
.
 

n elements

So the total number of subsets is 2n.

EXAMPLE 81 Find the total number of subsets of the set K = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h}.

Solution Since the set K has 8 elements, the total number of subsets is 28 = 256.

EXAMPLE 82 How many subsets of the set P = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} contain 2 or 6 or both 2 and 6?

Solution The total number of subsets of P is 27. The subsets which do not contain either of the digits
2 and 6 are in fact the subsets of the set {1, 3, 4, 5, 7}, which has 25 subsets.
So the number of subsets that contain 2 or 6 or both is 27 – 25 = 128 – 32 = 96.

Check Yourself 10
1. P(n, 3) = (n + 1) ⋅ C(n, 3) is given. Find n.
2. Find the number of subsets of the set {a, b, c, d, e} which contain at least 3 elements.
3. There are 12 people in a room. Each person shakes hands with all the other people. How
many handshakes are there?
4. In how many different ways can Hunfrid distribute 9 different toys among 3 children so
that each child gets 3 toys?
5. A box holds 7 red cards and 5 green cards. How many different groups of 6 cards can be
selected from the box if the selection must contain at least 3 red cards?
Answers
⎛5⎞ ⎛5⎞ ⎛5⎞ ⎛ 9 ⎞⎛ 6 ⎞⎛ 3 ⎞
1. 5 2. ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ 3. 66 4. ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ 5. 812
⎜ 3⎟ ⎜ 4⎟ ⎜ 5⎟ ⎜ 3 ⎟⎜ 3 ⎟⎜ 3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠

450 Algebra 10
EXERCISES 6 .3
A. Combinations of r Elements Selected 8. Snow White wants to choose 3 of the 7 dwarfs to
from n Elements clean her house. How many different groups can
she choose?
1. Evaluate the expressions.

a. C(4, 2) 9. A computer programmer wants to set a key

combination for an operation in a program. For
b. C(6, 2) + C(8, 3) this purpose, he will use two of the keys Shift, Ctrl
P(7,4) or Alt together with one of 26 letters. How many
c. different key combinations can he choose from?
C(7,4)

d. ⎛⎜ 9 ⎞⎟ + ⎛⎜ 9 ⎞⎟ + ⎛⎜ 9 ⎞⎟ + ⎛⎜ 9 ⎞⎟ +...+ ⎛⎜ 9 ⎞⎟ 10. In a group of 10 people, everybody shakes hands

⎝ 0 ⎠ ⎝1 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝9⎠
with everybody else. How many handshakes are
e. ⎛⎜ 13 ⎞⎟ + ⎛⎜13 ⎞⎟ + ⎛⎜13 ⎞⎟ +...+ ⎛⎜13 ⎞⎟ there?
⎝0⎠ ⎝2⎠ ⎝4⎠ ⎝12 ⎠
11. A, B, C, D and E are 5 distinct points on a circle.
2. Simplify the expressions. Assuming that an arc is represented by two letters
C( n, 3) and the order of the letters is important, how
a. 2C(4, 2) b. c. C(n, 2) + C(n, n – 2)
P( n, 2) many different arcs can we define?

3. Solve the equations. 12. Three different digits a, b and c are chosen from
the set {2, 3, 4, 5, 6,}. How many three-digit
a. C(n, 2) = 15 b. ⎛⎜ n ⎞⎟ + 20 = ⎛⎜ 8 ⎞⎟ numbers abc can be formed in this way such that
⎝2 ⎠ ⎝3⎠
a < b < c?
c. ⎛⎜ n +1⎞⎟ = ⎛⎜ n − 1 ⎞⎟ +17
⎝ n −1⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ 13. In an aquarium there are 5 different white fish, 7
different goldfish and 4 different black fish. Four
4. List all the three-element subsets of the set of the fish must be moved to a different
G = {k, l, m, n, r}. aquarium. In how many ways can this be done?

5. How many subsets of at least 4 elements does the

set K = {, z, œ, …, €, X,
6. How many of the three-element subsets of the set
H = {a, b, c, d, e, f} include the letter e?
7. In how many different ways can one novel, one
biography and one poetry book be chosen from 3
novels, 4 biographies and 5 poetry books?
14. Joo-Chan is making a 6 × 8 crossword puzzle in
} have?
which he wants to put 12 black squares. How
many different crossword patterns can he make?
15. In an attempt to travel around the world, you
must visit 36 out of 40 predetermined cities
which are all located near the Equator. In how
many ways can you choose the group of cities you
will not visit?

Probability 451
16. There are 11 children of different heights in a
class. We want to choose any 4 children and line
them up according to their height. In how many
different ways can this be done?
17. Junko must choose two courses from the list M,
N, Q, P and R for this semester. How many
choices does he have if the lessons for M and Q
are given at the same time?
18. A ship has 12 different barrels of oil. Eight of
them will be unloaded at a port. Of these 8
barrels, 3 barrels will be painted. In how many
ways can the 3 barrels be chosen?
19. In a class of 55 students, the number of
possible pairs which can be formed by the girls is
equal to the total number of boys in the class.
Find the number of boys in this class.
20. Two basketball teams of 5 players each are
playing a match. We want to choose 2 players
from each team and seat them around a
circular table after the match. In how many
different ways can this be done?
21. In classes 9A, 9B and 9C there are 12 students,
10 students and 9 students respectively. A football
team will be formed by choosing 5 students from
9A, 4 students from 9B and 2 students from 9C.
How many different football teams can be
formed?
22. Ali and his 7 friends are in group. Three people are
chosen from the group to form a committee. How
many of the possible committees include Ali?
452
23. In a group of 7 people, 3 people have a driver’s
license. How many different groups of 5 people
can be chosen to travel in a car if the group must
have at least one driver?
24. A research group of 4 people will be chosen from
a board of 3 professors and 5 research managers.
If the group must include at least one professor,
how many different groups can be chosen?
25. An urn contains 5 green marbles and 7 red marbles.
A student takes a sample of 7 marbles from the urn.
How many different samples are possible if
a. the sample must contain exactly three green
marbles?
b. the sample must include at least five red mar-
bles?
26. There are 5 candidates for the presidency of a
school committee. A voter is allowed to vote for at
most 3 candidates. In how many different ways
can a student prepare her vote?
27. There are 7 points on a circle. How many
pentagons can we form by joining 5 of the points?
28 . The figure below shows nine points on the
› perimeter of a triangle.
a. How many different lines can be drawn which
pass through at least two of the given points?
b. Using the given points as vertices, how many
different triangles can be constructed?
Algebra 10
29. How many parallelograms are formed by the inter- 35. Find the number of different non-negative
section of the parallel lines in the figure below? ››
integer solutions to a + b + c + d ≤ 2006.
d1 d 2 d 3 d4
l1 36. Fifty identical marbles are to be distributed among
l2
6 children. If each child must get at least one
l3
l4 marble. How many possible distributions are pos-
l5 sible?
l6
l7
37. Twenty-five identical red marbles and 33 identical
yellow marbles are to be distributed among 5
children so that each child should take any kind,
30. a, b, c and d are 4 digits such that a < b < c < d. how many different distributions are there?
If we write all the possible four-digit numbers
abcd in ascending order, in which position will
the number 3458 appear? 38. A chocolate shop sells 12 different types of
chocolate. A customer wants to buy a selection of
20 chocolates. How many different selections are
31. A student must select 4 out of 6 essay questions possible?
and 10 out of 15 multiple-choice questions in his
mid-term examination. In how many different
39. A teacher wants to distribute 20 identical gifts
ways can the student select the 14 questions?
among his 16 students. In how many different
ways can he do this if

32. A company has 4 workers who can build a wall, 5 a. he must give each student at least one gift?
workers who can paint a wall and 2 workers who b. there is no restriction on the number of gifts a
can do both. A job requires 3 builders and 3 student can receive?
painters. In how many ways can the company
choose the workers for the job?
Mixed Problems
40. If P(n + 1, 4) = 40 ⋅ C(n –1, 2), find n.
B. Combinations with Identical Elements

33. Find the number of different positive integer

41. In how many ways can 4 people be seated on a
solutions to a + b + c + d + e = 27.
sofa for 6 people?

34. Find the number of different non-negative 42. In how many ways can 4 out of 6 people be
integer solutions to a + b + c + d = 18. seated on a sofa for 4 people?

Probability 453
43. In how many ways can 3 out of 5 people be
seated on 5 chairs in a row?
44. In how many ways can 5 out of 7 people be
seated around a circular table?
45 . In how many ways can we arrange 4 out of 5
different math books and 4 out of 6 physics books
on a shelf if
a. the books can be put in any order?
b. books on the same subject must be together?
46. A software package consists of 7 programs
including an antivirus program and a word
processor. Ali’s computer has 3 available hard
drives. Ali must install 4 different programs from
the package, two of which must be the antivirus
program and the word processor. In how many
different ways can Ali do this?
47. A restaurant offers
a self-service buffet
lunch. For lunch
there are 3 choices
of soup, 6 choices
of main meal and 5
choices of dessert.
Customers can also make a salad from 3 out of 18
things served at the salad bar. In how many
different ways can a customer make a four-course
meal of soup, a main meal, salad and dessert?
454
48. Five countries each send 4 diplomats to an
international meeting. After the meeting, 2
diplomats from each country are chosen for
another meeting around a circular table. How
many different seating arrangements are possible
around the table if diplomats from the same
country must sit together?
49. Jandos has 6 rubber stamps
and a circular holder that
can hold 12 rubber stamps.
In how many ways can
Jandos put his stamps in the
holder?
50. A scuba diving school has 7 teachers and 2
student teachers. Five of these people will dive in
a coral reef and the rest will teach in a classroom.
In how many ways can the groups be arranged if
the two student teachers must be kept together?
51. Ali, Veli and their 6 friends are in a sports club. A
teacher wants to choose a group of 3 people from
the club so that Ali is chosen but Veli is not
chosen. In how many ways can she do this?
52. Four women and 7 men are at a restaurant. One
of the men is married to one of the women. In
how many different ways can 5 people from this
group be seated around a circular table if the
group must contain the couple and the couple
must sit together?
Algebra 10
A. PASCAL’S TRIANGLE AND BINOMIAL EXPANSION

Look at the picture opposite. A mouse is moving from 1

circle to circle from left to right across the page. After
each circle there are two ways for the mouse to 1
proceed: right and up or right and down. The
1 4
number in each circle is the number of
ways in which the mouse can 1 3
reach that circle.
Start 1 2 6
The numbers in the circles
show a pattern which is known 1 3
as Pascal’s triangle. This triangle
1 4
has many interesting properties. To
understand them, let us move the 1
triangle to an upright position.
1

Row Sum

0 1 1
1 1 1 2
2 1 2 1 4
3 1 3 3 1 8
4 1 4 6 4 1 16
5 1 5 10 10 5 1 32
6 1 6 15 20 15 6 1 64
7 1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1 128
8 1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1 256
↓ ↓

Probability 455
 First notice that each row begins and ends with 1.
Secondly, notice that the sum of any two consecutive terms in a row gives us the term
between them on the next row. For instance, the number 15 marked in red in the sixth row is
the sum of the 10 and 5 located above it. We can extend the triangle infinitely downwards by
using this rule.
Notice also that the first row is row zero. For convenience, when we count the positions of
the numbers in each row we also begin with zero (not 1). For example, number 21 marked
in green is the second entry (not the third entry) in the seventh row. The entries in Pascal’s
triangle are related to the coefficients of the expansion of a binomial with a non-negative
integer power. To understand the relationship, look at some binomial expansions with the
first few powers and notice their coefficients.

( a + b )0 = 1
( a + b)1 = a + b
= 1a + 1b
( a + b)2 = a2 + 2 ab + b2
= 1a2 + 2ab + 1b2
( a − b )3 = a3 − 3a2 b + 3ab 2 − b 3
= 1a3 − 3a2 b + 3ab2 − 1b3
( x + 2 y)4 = x4 +8 x3 y + 24 x2 y2 + 32 xy3 +16 y4
= 1x4 + 4x3(2 y)+ 6 x2(2 y)2 + 4x(2 y)3 + 1(2 y)4
We can see that the coefficients in each expansion are the same as the entries in the
corresponding row of Pascal’s triangle.

Remark
The expansion of a binomial expression to the nth power has the following properties:
² There are n + 1 terms in the expansion.
² The coefficients of the terms in the expansion correspond to the entries in the nth row of
Pascal’s triangle.
² The power of the first term in the binomial expression begins at n in the expansion and
decreases by 1 in each term down to zero.
² The power of the second term in the binomial expression begins at zero in the expansion
and increases by 1 in each term up to n.
² In the expansion of (x + y)n, the sum of the exponents of x and y in each term is n.
² The sum of the coefficients of an expansion can be found by substituting 1 for each variable
A constant term in an
expression is a term that in the binomial expression.
does not change with the ² If the binomial expression is a polynomial then substituting zero for each variable in the
variable.
binomial expression gives us the constant term of the expansion.

456 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 83 How many terms are there in the expansion of (x + y)12?

Solution Since the power is 12 (n = 12) there will be n + 1 = 13 terms.

EXAMPLE 84 Expand (2x + y)6.

Solution The primary coefficients of the terms in the expansion will be the entries in the sixth row of
Pascal’s triangle: 1, 6, 15, 20, 15, 6, 1.
The first term of the binomial is 2x. To avoid any mistakes, let us keep 2x in parantheses to
begin with:
(2x + y)6 = (2x)6 + 6(2x)5y + 15(2x)4y2 + 20(2x)3y3 + 15(2x)2y4 + 6⋅2xy5 + y6
= 64x6 + 6(32x5)y + 15(16x4)y2 + 20(8x3)y3 + 15⋅4x2y4 + 6⋅2xy5 + y6
= 64x6 + 192x5y + 240x4y2 + 160x3y3 + 60x2y4 + 12xy5 + y6.

EXAMPLE 85 Expand (x2 – 3y)4.

Solution We will use the entries in the fourth row as the coefficients: 1, 4, 6, 4, 1. If we write
consider (x2 – 3y)4 as (x2 + (–3y))4 then
(x2 – 3y)4 = (x2)4 – 4(x2)3(3y) + 6(x2)2(3y)2 – 4(x2)(3y)3 + (3y)4
= x8 – 12x6y + 6x49y2 – 4x227y3 + 81y4
= x8 – 12x6y + 54x4y2– 108x2y3 + 81y4.

86
7
EXAMPLE Expand ⎛⎜ n + 1 ⎞⎟ .
⎝ n⎠

Solution Use the seventh row:

7 2 3 4 5 6 7
⎛ 1⎞ 7 6 1 5 ⎛1 ⎞ 4 ⎛1 ⎞ 3 ⎛1 ⎞ 2 ⎛1 ⎞ ⎛1 ⎞ ⎛1 ⎞
⎜ n + ⎟ = n +7 n + 21n ⎜ ⎟ + 35 n ⎜ ⎟ + 35 n ⎜ ⎟ + 21n ⎜ ⎟ +7 n ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟
⎝ n⎠ n ⎝n ⎠ ⎝n ⎠ ⎝n ⎠ ⎝n ⎠ ⎝n ⎠ ⎝n ⎠
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= n7 +7 n6 + 21n5 2 + 35 n4 3 + 35 n3 4 + 21n2 5 +7 n 6 + 7
n n n n n n n
35 21 7 1
= n7 +7 n5 + 21n3 + 35 n + + + + .
n n3 n5 n7

EXAMPLE 87 Find the sum of the coefficients in the expansion of (3x + y2)6.

Solution If we substitute 1 for each variable in (3x + y2)6 we get (3 ⋅ 1 + 12)6 = 46 = 4096.

Probability 457
EXAMPLE 88 Find the constant term in the expansion of (7x + 3)5.

Solution Substitute zero for each variable in (7x + 3)5: (7 ⋅ 0 + 3)5 = 35 = 243.

Check Yourself 11
Expand the binomials.
3
⎛ 1⎞
1. (3x + y) 4
2. ⎜ x – ⎟ 3. (2 – ñ2)5
⎝ x⎠
Answers
3 3 1
1. 81x4 + 108x3y + 54x2y2+12xy3 + y4 2. x – 3x + – 3. 232 – 164ñ2
x x3

B. FINDING BINOMIAL TERMS USING COMBINATION

A laboratory mouse has been exposed to five types of virus. A scientist wishes to find out how
many viruses are now present in the mouse. In how many ways could the mouse have been
infected?
Infected with no viruses: C(5,0) = 1 (mouse is clean)
Infected with 1 type of virus: C(5,1) = 5
Infected with 2 types of virus: C(5,2) = 10
Infected with 3 types of virus: C(5,3) = 10
Infected with 4 types of virus: C(5,4) = 5
Infected with 5 types of virus: C(5,5) = 1.
Can you see the similarity between the number of combinations and the entries in the fifth
row of Pascal’s triangle?
Perhaps one of the most interesting characteristics of Pascal’s triangle is its relationship with
combination. We can describe this relationship simply: entry number r in row n is the
number of subsets of r elements which can be taken from a set with n elements.
This gives us another interesting characteristic of Pascal’s triangle: the sum of the terms in
the nth row of the triangle is 2n (can you see why?).
The symmetrical property of Pascal’s triangle can also be related to the combination rule
⎛ n⎞ ⎛ n ⎞
⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ ( n, r ∈ ] and 0 ≤ r ≤ n).
⎝ r ⎠ ⎝n − r⎠

458 Algebra 10
 For example, the third entry in the eighth row of the triangle is the same as the fifth entry in
the same row since C(8, 3) = C(8, 5) = 56.
Let us now redraw Pascal’s triangle using combination:

Row

⎛0⎞
0 ⎜0⎟
⎝ ⎠

⎛1 ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
1 ⎜0⎟ ⎜ 1⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

⎛2⎞ ⎛2⎞ ⎛2⎞

2 ⎜0⎟ ⎜1 ⎟ ⎜2⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

⎛ 3⎞ ⎛ 3⎞ ⎛3⎞ ⎛ 3⎞
3 ⎜0⎟ ⎜1 ⎟ ⎜2⎟ ⎜ 3⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

⎛ 4⎞ ⎛ 4⎞ ⎛4⎞ ⎛ 4⎞ ⎛ 4⎞
4 ⎜0⎟ ⎜ 1⎟ ⎜2⎟ ⎜ 3⎟ ⎜ 4⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

⎛5⎞ ⎛ 5⎞ ⎛5⎞ ⎛ 5⎞ ⎛5⎞ ⎛ 5⎞

5 ⎜0⎟ ⎜ 1⎟ ⎜2⎟ ⎜ 3⎟ ⎜ 4⎟ ⎜ 5⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

⎛6⎞ ⎛6⎞ ⎛6⎞ ⎛6⎞ ⎛6⎞ ⎛6⎞ ⎛6⎞

6 ⎜0⎟ ⎜ 1⎟ ⎜2⎟ ⎜ 3⎟ ⎜ 4⎟ ⎜5⎟ ⎜6⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

Using the above triangle, we can generalize the expansion of a binomial to any power n as

⎛ n⎞ ⎛ n⎞ ⎛n⎞ ⎛ n ⎞ n −1 ⎛ n ⎞ n .
( x + y)n = ⎜ ⎟ xn + ⎜ ⎟ xn −1y + ⎜ ⎟ x n − 2 y2 +. . .+ ⎜ ⎟ xy + ⎜ n ⎟y
0
⎝ ⎠ 1
⎝ ⎠ 2
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ n −1⎠ ⎝ ⎠

Notice that the coefficient 1 in the first and last terms of the expansion is obtained from ⎛ n⎞
⎜0 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
and ⎛⎜ n ⎞⎟ respectively.
⎝ n⎠

EXAMPLE 89 Expand (x + y)6 using combination.

⎛6⎞ ⎛6 ⎞ ⎛6 ⎞ ⎛6 ⎞ ⎛6 ⎞
Solution ( x + y)6 = x6 + ⎜ ⎟ x6 −1y + ⎜ ⎟ x6 −2 y2 + ⎜ ⎟ x6 −3 y3 + ⎜ ⎟ x6 −4 y4 + ⎜ ⎟x6 −5 y5 + y6
1
⎝ ⎠ 2
⎝ ⎠ 3
⎝ ⎠ 4
⎝ ⎠ ⎝5 ⎠
= x6 + 6x5y + 15x4y2 + 20x3y3 + 15x2y4 + 6xy5 + y6

Probability 459
EXAMPLE 90 Expand (2a – b)5.

Solution ⎛5⎞ ⎛5 ⎞ ⎛5 ⎞ ⎛5 ⎞
(2a − b )5 = (2 a)5 + ⎜ ⎟(2 a)5 −1( − b)+ ⎜ ⎟ (2 a)5 −2( −b) 2 + ⎜ ⎟(2 a) 5 −3( −b) 3 + 5 −4 4
⎜4 ⎟(2 a) ( −b) +( −b)
5
1
⎝ ⎠ 2
⎝ ⎠ ⎝3 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

= 32 a5 − 5 ⋅ 16 a4 b +10 ⋅ 8 a3 b2 −10 ⋅4 a2 b3 +5 ⋅2 ab4 − b5

= 32 a5 − 80 a4 b +80 a3 b2 − 40 a2 b3 +10 ab 4 − b5

91
7
EXAMPLE Expand ⎛⎜ x + 1 ⎞⎟ .
⎝ x⎠

⎛ 1⎞
7
⎛7 ⎞ 6 ⎛1 ⎞
⎛7 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛7 ⎞
2
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛7 ⎞
3 4
⎛1 ⎞
Solution ⎜ x + ⎟ =( x ) + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ( x ) ⎜ ⎟+ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟( x )
7 5
⎜ ⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟( x )
4
⎜ ⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟( x )
3
⎜ ⎟
⎝ x⎠ 1
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ x ⎠ 2 ⎝ x ⎠ ⎝3 ⎠ ⎝ x ⎠ ⎝4 ⎠ ⎝x ⎠
⎝ ⎠
⎛7⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
5
⎛7 ⎞ 6
⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞
7

+ ⎜ ⎟ ( x )2 ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟( x ) ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟
⎜5⎟ ⎝ x⎠ ⎜6 ⎟ ⎝x⎠ ⎝x⎠
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= x7 +7 x6 + 21 x5 2 + 35 x4 3 + 35 x3 4 + 21 x2 5 +7 x 6 + 7
x x x x x x x
35 35 x 21 7 x 1
= x3 x +7x2 + 21 x + + + 4+ 6 + 7
x x3 x x x

The relation between combination and Pascal’s triangle helps us to calculate any particular
term in a binomial expansion without writing out the entire expansion.

For example, suppose that we are asked to find the third term in the expansion of (x – 2y)3.
Using our knowledge of the properties of binomial expansion, we can say that 2y will have
exponent 2 in this term and x will have exponent 1 since the sum of the exponents must be
3
3. Now we only need to find the coefficient, which we can calculate as ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ = 3.
⎝2⎠
⎛3⎞ 2 2 2
So the third term is ⎜ ⎟ x(2 y) = 3x ⋅ 4y = 12 xy . We can easily check this against the full
⎝2⎠
expansion: (x – 2y)3 = x3 – 6x2y + 12xy2 – 8y3.
We can formulize our findings as follows:

460 Algebra 10
 Remark
n ⎞ n−( r −1) r −1 ⎛ n ⎞ n− r+1 r−1
The rth entry in the expansion of (x + y)n is ⎛⎜ ⎟x y =⎜ ⎟x y .
⎝ r − 1⎠ ⎝ r − 1⎠

EXAMPLE 92 Find the ninth term in the expansion of (a + b)12.

12 ⎞ 12 − 9 +1 9 −1
Solution Substitute n = 12 and r = 9 in the formula: ⎛⎜ ⎟x y = 495a4 b8 .
⎝ 9 − 1 ⎠

EXAMPLE 93 Find the sixth term in the expansion of (2x + y)9.

Solution We will use n = 9 and r = 6. So r – 1 = 5 and the sixth term is

⎛9⎞ 9 −5 5 4 5 4 5
⎜ 5 ⎟ (2 x) y = 126 ⋅16 x y = 2016 x y .
⎝ ⎠

EXAMPLE 94 What is the coefficient of the fourth term in the expansion of (2x – 4y)7?

7
Solution r = 4 means r – 1 = 3. So the fourth term is ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ (2 x)7−3( −4 y)3 = 35 ⋅16 x4( −64) y3. From this
⎝ 3⎠
we can calculate the coefficient to be –35840.

Probability 461
EXAMPLE 95 Find the middle term in the expansion of (2x3 + 3y)8.

Solution Since there are nine terms in the expansion of a binomial to the eighth power, the middle
⎛8⎞ 3 8 −4 4 12 4
term will be the fifth term. So the middle term is ⎜ ⎟ (2 x ) ( −3y) = 90720 x y .
⎝4⎠

EXAMPLE 96 27xy3 is a term in the expansion of (ax + 2y)4. Find a.

Solution The exponent of y is 3 and this is one less than the order of the term. Using r – 1 = 3 in the
⎛4⎞ 4−3 3
formula gives the term as ⎜ ⎟ ( ax) (2 y) .
⎝3⎠
If we equate this with the given term we have
⎛4⎞ 4−3 3 7 3
⎜ 3 ⎟ ( ax) (2 y) = 2 xy
⎝ ⎠
4(ax)4–3(2y)3 = 27xy3

4(ax)23y3=27xy3

25(ax)y3 = 27xy3. So a is 22 = 4.

97
10
What is the constant term in the expansion of ⎛⎜ 2 + x ⎞⎟ ?
3
EXAMPLE
2
⎝x 2 ⎠

⎛ 10 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞10 − r +1 ⎛ x3 ⎞ r − 1
Solution Let the constant term be ⎜ ⎟
⎜ r − 1⎟ ⎜⎝ x2 ⎟⎠ ⎜ ⎟ .
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠

⎛ 10 ⎞ 11 − r 5 r −25
⎜ r − 1⎟ 2 x
This becomes ⎝ ⎠ after simplification.
2 r −1
If this is the constant term then the power of x must be zero. This gives us 5r – 25 = 0 and
r = 5. In other words, the constant term is the fifth term.
⎛ 10 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ 211−5 x5⋅5−25
⎜ 5 − 1⎟ 26 ⋅ 210
⎝ ⎠ = = 840, which is
Substituting r = 5 in the expression gives us 5−1
2 24
the constant term.

462 Algebra 10
 EXAMPLE 98 Evaluate ⎛⎜ 5 ⎞⎟ + 2 ⎛⎜ 5 ⎞⎟ + 2 2 ⎛⎜ 5 ⎞⎟ + 2 3 ⎛⎜ 5 ⎞⎟ + 2 4 ⎛⎜ 5 ⎞⎟ + 2 5 ⎛⎜ 5 ⎞⎟.
⎝0⎠ ⎝1 ⎠ ⎝2⎠ ⎝3⎠ ⎝4 ⎠ ⎝5 ⎠

n n n
Solution Notice that the expression is the same as ( x + y)n = ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ xn + ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ xn −1y +...+ ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ yn
⎝0⎠ ⎝1⎠ ⎝n⎠
for n = 5.
⎛5⎞
Since there is nothing but the coefficient ⎜ ⎟ in the first term, the first term in the
⎝0⎠
⎛ 5⎞
binomial is 1. The term with the coefficient ⎜ ⎟ is 25.
⎝ 5⎠
We can rewrite the expression as follows:
⎛ 5 ⎞ 5 ⎛ 5 ⎞ 4 1 ⎛ 5 ⎞ 3 2 ⎛5 ⎞ 2 3 ⎛5 ⎞ 4 ⎛5 ⎞ 5
⎜ 0 ⎟ ⋅ 1 + ⎜ 1 ⎟ ⋅ 1 ⋅ 2 + ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⋅1 ⋅ 2 + ⎜ 3 ⎟ ⋅1 ⋅ 2 + ⎜ 4 ⎟ ⋅1 ⋅ 2 + ⎜ 5 ⎟ ⋅2 .
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
By the formula we have (1 + 2)5 = 35 = 243.

EXAMPLE 99 7
What is the rational term in the expansion of ( 3 x + 2 x ) ?

Solution Let us write the rational term as ⎛⎜ 7 ⎞⎟ ( 3 x )7− r+1(2 x )r −1 and try to solve for r.
⎝ r − 1⎠
8−r r −1 13+r
⎛ 7 ⎞ r −1 ⎛ 7 ⎞ r −1
A rational term is a term Simplifying gives us ⎜ ⎟2 x
3
x 2
=⎜ ⎟2 x
6
. We need to find a value of r to
⎝ r − 1⎠ ⎝ r − 1⎠
that contains no irrational
expressions. make this rational.

13+r
In ⎛⎜ 7 ⎞⎟ 2 r −1 x ⎛ 7 ⎞ and 2r–1 have rational values for any integer r.
6
, the factors ⎜ ⎟
⎝ r − 1⎠ ⎝ r − 1⎠
13+r 13+5
However, x 6 is only rational for the value r = 5, so ⎛⎜ 7 ⎞⎟ 25−1 x 6
= 560 x3 is the
⎝ 5 − 1⎠
rational term.

Check Yourself 12
1. What is the coefficient of the fourth term in the expansion of (x+b)15 ?

2. What is the seventh term in the expansion of (3x+y)11?

9
⎛ 2 ⎞
3. What is the constant term in the expansion of ⎜ x4 + 2 ⎟ ?
⎝ x ⎠
Answers
⎛ 15 ⎞
1. ⎜ ⎟ = 455 2. 112266x5y5 3. 5376
⎜3⎟
⎝ ⎠

Probability 463
EXERCISES 6 .4
A. Pascal’s Triangle and Binomial B. Finding Binomial Terms Using
Expansion Combination
5
1. Expand each expression. ⎛ 3 ⎞
7. ⎜ 3 + 2 x ⎟ =...+( a ⋅ x)+... is given. Find a.
⎝x ⎠
a. (3x + 5)5 b. (2x2 – 5)4 c. (4x3 – 3y2)5

2. What is the constant term in the expansion of

(2x – 3)5?

8. Evaluate
⎛9⎞ ⎛9⎞ ⎛9 ⎞ ⎛9 ⎞ ⎛9 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ + 4 ⎜ ⎟ + 42 ⎜ ⎟ + 43 ⎜ ⎟ +...+ 4 9 ⎜ ⎟.
⎜0⎟ ⎜1 ⎟ ⎜2 ⎟ ⎜3⎟ ⎜9 ⎟
3. Find the middle term in the expansion of ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
(2x – 5y)4.

4. Find the sum of the coefficients in each expansion.

a. (3x + 2)4 b. (3x2 + 2y)15

9. What is the constant term in the expansion of
10
⎛ 3 1 ⎞
⎜ 2x + 2 ⎟ ?
⎝ x ⎠

5. Find the twelfth term in the expansion of (3x + 1)15

when the terms are written in order of decreasing
powers of x.

6. Find the sixth term in the expansion of (3x4 + y3)8 10. The sum of the coefficients in the expansion of
when the terms are written in order of decreasing (x + y)n is 1024. What is the greatest coefficient
powers of x. in this expansion?

464 Algebra 10
 In this section we will learn some rules of probability which are frequently used for solving
problems.
Rule rules of probability
1. For every event E, 0 ≤ P(E) ≤ 1.
2. For a sample space S, P(S) = 1.
3. For two mutually exclusive events A and B, P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B).
4. For any two events A and B, P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A ∩ B).
5. For any event A, P(A) +P(A′) = 1. In other words, P(A′) = 1 – P(A).

Note
Many problems in probability are written in natural language. The key word for recognizing
the union operation (∪) in a written problem is ‘or’. When we use the word ‘or’ (A or B) in
mathematics, we mean A or B or both.
The key word for recognizing the intersection operation (∩) in a written problem is ‘and’.
When we use the word ‘and’ (A and B) in mathematics, we mean both A and B.

EXAMPLE 100 A die is rolled. Find the probability that it shows 3 or 5.

Solution Let T mean the die shows 3 and F mean the die shows S. Then ‘3 or 5’ means T ∪ F.
Since T and F are mutually exclusive events, by the rules of probability we can write
P(T ∪ F) = P(T) + P(F)
1 1 1 1
= + = . So the probability is .
6 6 3 3

EXAMPLE 101 A die is rolled. Find the probability that it shows an even number or a prime number.
Solution The possible prime numbers are 2, 3 and 5 and the even numbers are 2, 4 and 6. Showing
an even number (E) or a prime number (P) are not mutually exclusive events, since the
outcome is in both events.
1 1
Since P(2) = , P( E ∩ P) = .
6 6
So the probability of E or P is P( E ∪ P ) = P( E) + P( P ) – P( E ∩ P )

1 1 1
= + –
2 2 6
5
= .
6
Probability 465
EXAMPLE 102 An urn contains five blue marbles, four red marbles and six yellow marbles. We want to take
one marble from the urn. What is the probability of taking a red or a yellow marble?
Solution 1 Since a marble cannot be both red and yellow, drawing a red
marble and drawing a yellow marble are mutually exclusive
events.
So the probability is
4 6 10 2
P( R ∪ Y ) = P( R)+ P( Y ) = + = = .
15 15 15 3
Solution 2 We can also solve the problem in another way. Let E be the event
that a red or yellow marble is drawn. Then the complement of
E (written E′) is the event that neither a red nor a yellow marble is drawn. In other words,
E′ is the event that a blue marble is drawn.
We also know that P( E)+ P( E ') =1.
 

drawing
a blue marble

5 10 2
So the probability of drawing a red or yellow marble is P( E) =1 − P( E ') =1 − = = .
15 15 3

EXAMPLE 103 We have twenty cards numbered from 1 to 20. A card is drawn at random. What is the
probability of drawing an even number or a number divisible by 3?
Solution Let the event that an even number is drawn be E = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20} and
the event that a number divisible by 3 is drawn be T = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18}. We can see that
E ∩ T = {6, 12, 18}.
10 6 3 13
So we can write P( E ∪ T ) = P( E)+ P( T ) − P( E ∩ T ) = + − = .
20 20 20 20

EXAMPLE 104 A coin is tossed four times. What is the probability that the coin shows tails at least once?
Solution The sample space contains 24 = 16 outcomes. If E is the event that we
get tails at least once then E′ is the event that we get no tails. In other
words, E′ is the event that we get heads three times (can you see
1
why?). Since there is only one way to do this, P( E ') = .
16
1 15
So P( E) = 1 − P( E ') = 1 − = .
16 16
We can check this result with the sample space:
S = {HHHH, HHHT, HHTH, HTHH, THHH, HHTT, HTHT, THHT, TTHH, HTTH, THTH,
HTTT, THTT, TTHT, TTTH, TTTT}.

466 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 105 A group of 6 people is selected at random. What is the
probability that at least two of them have the same birthday?
Solution First let us assume that there are 365 days in a year. Then the
sample space for one person’s birthday has 365 outcomes because
there are 365 possible dates for a contains. Let the desired event be A.
Then A′ is the event that none of these six people have a common
birthday.
So A′ contains 365 ⋅ 364 ⋅ 363 ⋅ 362 ⋅ 361 ⋅ 360 outcomes.
Let E be the sample space for the experiment. Then E contains 3656 possible outcomes,
because there are six people.
n( A ') 365 ⋅ 364 ⋅ 363 ⋅ 362 ⋅361 ⋅360
So the probability of A is 1 − = 1− ≅ 0.05.
n( E) 3656

Check Yourself 13
1. A die is rolled. What is the probability that the die shows a number greater than 3 or an
even number?
2. A number is drawn at random from the set A = {1, 2, 3, ... ,100}.
a. What is the probability that the number is divisible by both 2 and 3?
b. What is the probability that the number is divisible by 2 or 3?
Answers
1. 2 2. a. 4 b. 67
3 25 100

A patient is talking to his doctor about a

necessary operation.
–– ‘I’m worried about this operation,
Doctor. They say it’s 99 per cent risky.’
–– ‘That’s true, but you needn’t worry.’
–– ‘Why?’
–– ‘Because you are the hundredth
patient. The other 99 have already
died!’

Probability 467
 In our probability studies up to now, we have considered sample spaces with only a small
number of outcomes. These outcomes can be listed easily. But sometimes the sample space of
an experiment has a large number of outcomes. Determining this number might not always be
easy or practical. In such cases we can use the counting methods we learned in Chapter 1 to
determine the number of outcomes in a sample space and an event.

EXAMPLE 106 A{1,number is selected at random from the three-digit numbers formed using the digits
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} without repetition. Find the probability that the selected number is an
even number.
Solution The number of outcomes in the sample space is 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 = 210. There are also three even
numbers in the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}. So there are three possible choices for the units digit.
There are then six possible choices for the hundreds digit and five possible choices for the
tens digit.
90 3
So the number of outcomes in the event is 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 3 = 90 and the desired probability is = .
210 7

EXAMPLE 107 Arepetition

machine generates all the three-letter sequences of the letters in the word KAHVE, with
allowed. Each sequence is written on a card and the cards are put in a box. Ömer
draws a card. Find the probability that he draws a sequence beginning with the letter H.
Solution There are 5 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 5 = 125 possible sequences, so n(S) = 125. If H is the event that the
n( H ) 25 1
sequence begins with H, n(H) = 1 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 5. So the probability is P( H ) = = = .
n(S) 125 5

EXAMPLE 108 Six people including Murat and Saim are to be seated around a circular table. Find the
probability that Murat and Saim are seated next to each other.

Solution 1 We can use the formulas for circular permutation. The number of outcomes in the desired event
is (5 – 1)! ⋅ 2! = 4! ⋅ 2! and the number of outcomes in the sample space is (6 – 1)! = 5!.
So the probability is 4!⋅ 2! = 2 .
5! 5
Solution 2 Alternatively, let us seat Murat first. Then we need to seat five
more people in the remaining chairs, as shown opposite. Saim Murat
can sit in any one of these chairs, so there are five possible
places for him. But only two of the chairs are next to Murat, so
2
the probability that he sits in one of these chairs is .
5

468 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 109 A box contains 4 yellow marbles and 6 red marbles. Two marbles are drawn at random from
the box. What is the probability that both marbles are yellow?

Solution We can draw any two marbles from ten marbles

⎛ 10 ⎞
without restriction in ⎜ ⎟ ways.
⎜2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Similarly, we can draw two yellow marbles from
⎛4⎞
four yellow marbles in ⎜ ⎟ ways.
⎜2⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛4⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜2⎟
⎝ ⎠ 2
So the desired probability is = .
⎛ 10 ⎞ 15
⎜ ⎟
⎜2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠

EXAMPLE 110 A box contains 18 light bulbs. 5 of these bulbs are defective.
We choose 3 bulbs at random. What is the probability that
a. two of the chosen light bulbs are defective?
b. at least one of the chosen light bulbs is defective?

Solution a. We need to choose 2 defective bulbs from 5 bulbs and one

working bulb from 13 bulbs.
⎛ 5 ⎞ ⎛ 13 ⎞
So the number of outcomes in the event is ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ =130.
⎝2⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠
The number of outcomes in the sample space for selecting 3
⎛ 18 ⎞
bulbs from 18 is ⎜ ⎟ =186.
⎝3⎠
⎛ 5 ⎞ ⎛ 13 ⎞
⎜ ⎟⋅⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠ = 65 .
So the probability is
⎛ 18 ⎞ 408
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠3
b. Let the event be E. Then E′ is the event that no defective bulbs are selected. In other
words E′ is the event that three working bulbs are selected.
⎛ 13 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
3 265
So the answer is P( E) =1 − P( E ') =1 − ⎝ ⎠ = .
18
⎛ ⎞ 408
⎜ ⎟
⎝3⎠
Probability 469
EXAMPLE 111 A coin is tossed eight times. What is the probability of getting 5 heads and 3 tails?
Solution 1 The number of outcomes in the sample space is n(S) = 28 = 256. The number of outcomes
in the desired event is n(E) = C(8, 5) ⋅ C(3, 3).
⎛ 8 ⎞ ⎛ 3⎞
⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
n( E) ⎝ 5 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠ 7
Therefore the probability is P( E) = = = .
n(S) 256 32

Solution 2 Alternatively, we can think of the desired event as an arrangement of the letters in
8! 8 ⋅7 ⋅6
HHHHHTTT. By permutation with repetition, n( E) = = = 56.
5! ⋅ 3! 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅1
56 7
So P( E) = = .
256 32

EXAMPLE 112 In a group of 13 people, 4 people speak English, 6 people speak Turkish and 3 people speak
German. A committee of 5 people is chosen at random from the group. What is the
probability that the committee contains 2 English speakers, 2 Turkish speakers and one
German speaker?

Solution We can choose 5 people from 13 in C(13, 5) different ways without any restriction. So the
number of outcomes in the sample space is C(13, 5). However, the desired selection can be
achieved in C(4, 2) ⋅ C(6, 2) ⋅ C(3, 1) different ways.
⎛ 4⎞ ⎛6 ⎞ ⎛3⎞
⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ 4! 6! 3!
⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎜1 ⎟ ⋅ ⋅
n( E) ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ 2!⋅ 2! 2! ⋅ 4! 2! 30
So the probability is P( E) = = = = .
n(S) ⎛ 13 ⎞ 13! 143
⎜ ⎟ 5!⋅ 8!
⎜5⎟
⎝ ⎠

EXAMPLE 113 Aquestions.

student is taking a test which has 15 true-or-false
If the student guesses every answer, what is the
probability that he or she will answer exactly eleven
questions correctly?
Solution There are two possible answers (true or false) for each
question. Therefore the sample space has 215 outcomes
⎛ 15 ⎞
and the desired event has ⎜ ⎟ outcomes because the
⎝ 11 ⎠
event is the same as selecting 11 questions among 15.
⎛ 15 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 11 ⎠ 1365
So the probability is P( E) = 15 = ,
2 32768
or approximately 0.04.

470 Algebra 10
EXAMPLE 114 A machine generates a random four-letter sequence of letters from the letters in the word
KARTAL. What is the probability that the word begins and ends with A?

Solution Let us find the sample space. We have three cases:

Case 1: 4! possible sequences do not contain an A, since there are four other letters to choose
from {K, R, T, L}.
⎛4⎞
Case 2: ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ 4! possible sequences contain only one A.
⎝3⎠
⎛4⎞ 4!
Case 3: ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ possible sequences contain two A’s.
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2!⋅ 1!⋅ 1!
⎛4⎞ ⎛4⎞ 4!
So the sample space is 4 + ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ 4!+ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ .
3
⎝ ⎠ 2
⎝ ⎠ 2! ⋅ 1! ⋅ 1!
⎛4⎞
The number of outcomes of the desired event is ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ 2! because there are four letters left to
⎝2⎠
choose from if the two A’s have to be chosen.
⎛ 4⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⋅ 2!
⎝ 2⎠ 1
= .
So the required probability is
⎛ 4⎞ ⎛4⎞ 4! 16
4! + ⋅ 4!+ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅

⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠ 2 2!⋅ 1!⋅ 1!
sequences
with no A
 
⎝ ⎠ 

sequences sequences
with one A with two A's

Check Yourself 14
1. A student will choose 4 courses at random to study next term. There are 14 courses in
the list. Six of them are science courses. What is the probability that the student chooses
all science courses?
2. A machine generates a three-letter sequence of letters from the elements in the set
{a, b, c, d, e}, with repetition. What is the probability that the letters in the word are all
different?
3. Ahmet, Kemal and their seven friends are called randomly to sit in 9 chairs placed side
by side. What is the probability that Ahmet and Kemal are seated next to each other?
4. Set A has 6 elements. Each subset of A is written on a card and all the cards are put in a
box. A student chooses a card at random. What is the probability that he selects a card
which shows four elements?

Answers
15 12 2 15
1. 2. 3. 4.
1001 25 9 64

Probability 471
 A STICKY PROBLEM!

A box contains seven sticks which are respectively 2 cm,

3 cm, 4 cm, 5 cm, 7 cm, 8 cm and 11 cm long.

Find the probability that any three

sticks chosen at random from the box
will form a triangle.

Two mathematicians were talking about how important their jobs were.
‘My dear friend, our country is not taking math seriously. I think the government
should tax people who can’t do math,’ complained one mathematician.
‘That is what the lotto is for!’ said the other.

472 Algebra 10
Many countries hold a 6/49 lottery. ‘6/49’ means that you must correctly guess
six numbers from the first 49 positive integers to win the first prize. Does it
sound easy? Only six numbers!
In fact, it is not very easy to win a lottery like this. There are so many possible
combinations of six numbers that the chances of choosing the right
combination is very small indeed.
Here are two sets of six lottery numbers: A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and
B = {5, 12, 18, 23, 33, 41}. Which set of numbers do you think is more
likely to win? Some people think that set B is more likely than set A. In fact, both
sets of numbers have an equal chance, since six numbers are chosen from 49
at random.

So what is the real probability that you will win the lottery with one ticket? The
1
answer is . In other words, about one in 14 million! Can you believe
13983816
it? Think about the math:
⎛ 49 ⎞
The number of different ways to choose six numbers from 49 is ⎜ ⎟.
⎝6⎠
49! 49 ⋅ 48 ⋅ 47 ⋅ 46 ⋅ 45 ⋅ 44
This is equal to = = 13983816. Your
(49 − 6)! ⋅ 6! 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅1
lottery ticket is only one of these sets of six numbers, so the probability that you
1
will win the lottery with one ticket is ≅ 0.00000007.
13983816
To be sure of winning the lottery, you would therefore need to fill in 13983816 tickets, using each possible
combination of numbers just once. If it takes you 15 seconds to fill in one ticket, you would need approximately
58265 hours to complete them all. This is the same as 2427 days, or 6.65 years with no break. And of course, you
would have to pay for all the tickets.
Do you still want to play the lottery?
EXERCISES 6 .5
1. Ahmet, Berk, Can, Deniz and Engin are seated at 9. 5 boys and 4 girls are seated at random in a row
random around a circular table. What is the prob- of 9 seats. What is the probability that the boys
ability that Ahmet and Can are seated next to and girls are seated alternately?
each other?
10. Two dice are rolled together 900 times. How
2. Two integers are randomly selected from the set many times would you expect to get a sum of 7?
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} without repetition. What
is the probability that the sum of the numbers is
11. There are 4 different letters and 6 different
10?
mailboxes. Each letter will be put in a random
mailbox. What is the probability that all four
3. Five math books and 4 physics books are arranged letters will be put in the same mailbox?
randomly on a bookshelf. What is the probability
that books about the same subject are all together?
12. 200 patients were treated with a new medicine. 32
of them were not cured. Four patients from the 200
4. An integer is randomly selected from the set
are selected at random. What is the probability that
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} and then replaced. Then
three of them were cured?
another integer is selected. What is the probability
that the sum of the two integers is 10?
13. The first 5 positive integers are written randomly in
a row. Find the probability that the numbers are
5. Nine people want to be seated around a circular
written in either ascending or descending order.
table. What is the probability that two particular
people will not be seated next to each other?
14. A four-digit number is formed using the digits
6. Two numbers are drawn at random from 5 {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} without repeating the digits.
positive and 3 negative numbers. What is the Find the probability that the number is an even
probability that the product of the selected number.
numbers is positive?
15. A box contains 4 red marbles and 8 other marbles
7. Two numbers are selected randomly from 6 odd of different colors. What is the probability that 4
numbers and 5 even numbers. What is the marbles selected at random from the box are not
probability that the product of the selected red?
numbers is even?
16. Seven points A, ..., G are arranged in a circle. A
8. In a lottery game, a player must pick 4 winning triangle is drawn by connecting three points
numbers from 42 numbers to win the prize. Find chosen at random. What is the probability that
the probability of winning the prize. point E is a vertex of the triangle?

474 Algebra 10
17. Three hundred people apply for 4 jobs. Ninety of
the applicants are women. Four people are selected
at random for the jobs. Find the probability of each
event.
a. all the selected people are men
b. exactly two people are men
c. exactly one person is a man
d. no men are selected
18. A standard piano keyboard has 88 different keys.
A cat jumps on 6 keys of the keyboard at random
(possibly with repetition). Find the probability
that the cat will strike the first six notes of
Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony.
19. The square in the figure is
divided into 9 smaller squares.
A quadrilateral is chosen
at random from all the
quadrilaterals in the figure.
What is the probability that the quadrilateral is a
square?
20. An urn contains 3 red, 3 blue and 4 yellow
marbles. Three marbles are drawn at random.
Find the probability no red marbles are drawn.
21. A box contains 4 red, 5 yellow and 4 white marbles.
›
We draw 3 marbles at the same time. What is the
probability that only one of them is a red marble?
22. Three numbers are selected from the set
›
{1, 2, 3, ..., 15}. What is the probability that the
product of the numbers is divisible by 3?
23. A subset is drawn from all of the four-element
›
subsets of the set A = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h}. What
is the probability that the selected subset does not
contain the element d?
Probability
24. A committee of 4 men and 3 women is chosen at
› random from a group of 8 men and 5 women that
includes Sami and Dilara. What is the probability
that both Sami and Dilara are chosen?
25. A teacher distributes 20 questions before an exam
› and tells her students that 10 of them will be in
exam. Mehmet can solve 15 of the questions. In
order to pass the exam a student must answer at
least 6 questions correctly. What is the probability
that Mehmet will pass the exam?
26. Abraham and Bill are in a group of 12 people.
› Seven people are chosen randomly from the group
and seated in a row. Find the probability that
Abraham and Bill are seated next to each other.
27. Three numbers are selected from the set
›› {1, 2, 3, ..., 15}. What is the probability that the
sum of the selected numbers is divisible by 3?
28. We draw two numbers at random from the set
›› {1, 2, 3, ..., 100}. What is the probability of
drawing a pair of consecutive numbers?
29. A committee of 4 people is chosen from 6 men
and 5 women. What is the probability that the
committee contains at least one man?
30. A group of 4 people is chosen at random from 6
›› couples. What is the probability that there is no
couple in the group?
31 . A chessboard has 64 squares and the length of the
›› side of each square is 1 unit. A rectangle is
drawn at random on the chessboard. What is the
probability that the perimeter of the rectangle is
greater than 4 units?
32 . Two numbers are drawn at random from the set
››
{1, 2, 3, ..., 100}. Find the probability that one of
the drawn numbers is half of the other.
475
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 6A
1. There are 3 routes 5. A box contains 5 different green balls and 9
from city A to city A B C
different blue balls. In how many different ways
B, 4 routes from can Salim pick out a green and a blue ball in any
city B to city C and order?
2 direct routes from A to C. In how many
A) 54 B) 45 C) 40 D) 35 E) 9! – 5!
different ways can Serkan travel from A to C?

A) 7 B) 9 C) 10 D) 12 E) 14
6. In how many ways can we name the vertices of a
pentagon using any five of the letters O, P, Q, R,
S, T, U in any order?

2. In each sequence below, L represents one of the A) 2520 B) 9040 C) 5140

letters in the 26-letter English alphabet and D
D) 4880 E) 3600
represents a digit. A factory wants to register 10
million different product items. Which sequence
shows a possible registry format? ⎛1 2 3 4 ⎞
7. The permutation functions f = ⎜ ⎟ and
A) LLDDD B) LDDL C) DDDDL ⎜1 3 4 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛1 2 3 4 ⎞
D) DDDLLL E) DDLLL g=⎜ ⎟ are given. Find the permutation
⎜4 2 3 1 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
function h such that f D g = h.
⎛1 2 3 4 ⎞ ⎛1 2 3 4 ⎞
A) h = ⎜ ⎟ B) h = ⎜ ⎟
3. How many two-digit odd numbers can be formed ⎜3 4 2 1 ⎟ ⎜2 3 4 1 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
from the digits {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} if repeated
⎛1 2 3 4 ⎞ ⎛1 2 3 4 ⎞
digits are allowed? C) h = ⎜ ⎟ D) h = ⎜ ⎟
⎜3 4 1 2⎟ ⎜2 3 1 4⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
A) 14 B) 42 C) 28 D) 21 E) 49
⎛1 2 3 4 ⎞
E) h = ⎜ ⎟
⎜4 2 1 3⎟
⎝ ⎠

( n + 2)!( n − 2)!
4. Evaluate . 8. How many six-digit numbers can be formed from
( n +1)!( n − 1)!
the digits {2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8} without repetition if the
( n +1) digits 3 and 7 must be together?
A) (n – 3) B) (n – 1) C)
( n + 2)
( n + 2) A) 120 B) 180 C) 144 D) 96 E) 240
D) E) 49
( n − 1)

476 Algebra 10
 9. How many eight-letter sequences can be formed 13. There are 11 students of different heights in a
from the letters in the word ALTAYLAR? class. We choose any 4 students and line them up
from tallest to shortest in order. How many
A) 2120 B) 2480 C) 3200
different orders are possible?
D) 3360 E) 3640
A) 280 B) 330 C) 480 D) 660 E) 7920

14. What is the middle term in the expansion of

(2x + 5y)4?

A) 600x2y2 B) 120xy2 C) 5000xy3

10. In how many different ways can 5 couples be D) 6x2y2 E) 160x2y2

seated around a circular table if the couples must
15. There are 8 different math books, 4 different
not be separated?
biology books and 6 different geometry books on a
A) 768 B) 724 C) 844 D) 696 E) 576 table. Nuran wants to select 4 math books, 3
geometry books and 2 biology books and then
arrange them on a bookshelf so that books on the
same subject are together. How many different
arrangements are possible?

⎛ 8 ⎞⎛ 4 ⎞⎛ 6 ⎞
A) ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ 9! ⋅ 3! ⋅ 4! ⋅ 2!
11. Which one of the following is a mathematical ⎝ 4 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 3 ⎠
combination? ⎛ 8 ⎞⎛ 4 ⎞⎛ 6 ⎞
B) ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ 3! ⋅ 3! ⋅ 4! ⋅ 2!
⎝ 4 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 3 ⎠
A) a social security number
8 4 ⎞⎛ 6 ⎞
B) the key for a combination lock C) ⎛⎜ ⎞⎛⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ 3!
⎝ 4 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 3 ⎠
C) a committee chosen from a group of 10 people
8 4 ⎞⎛ 6 ⎞
D) the PIN code for a cellular phone D) ⎛⎜ ⎞⎛⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ 9!
⎝ 4 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 3 ⎠
E) your name and surname
E) 3! ⋅ 4! ⋅ 2!

16. A company in Ankara will send a group of 10

12. There are 5 different green balls and 9 different
blue balls in a box. In how many different ways
can Salih pick out two balls?
managers to participate in a seminar in Istanbul.
However, only 6 plane tickets are available. The
rest of the managers will go by bus. Two people
are afraid of flying so they do not want to go by
plane. In how many ways can the group be
divided for the journey to Istanbul?

A) 132 B) 124 C) 111 D) 104 E) 91 A) 18 B) 24 C) 28 D) 42 E) 56

Chapter Review Test 6A 477

CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 6B
1. 6. Fatma has 5 different history books and 4
different math books. In how many ways can she
arrange them all on a shelf so that the history
books are together and all the books are between
two math books?

A) 2640 B) 2880 C) 5160

D) 8640 E) 12520
In how many different ways can the mouse in the
picture get to the cheese without passing by a cat
if all the gates allow only one direction pass?

A) 48 B) 36 C) 24 D) 44 E) 60
7. In how many ways can we exhibit 5 of 8 different
new cars in a row if a certain car must be the first
2. What is the sum of all the four-digit numbers which on the right?
can be made from the elements of the set {1, 2, 3, 4}
with no repeated digits? A) 720 B) 760 C) 840 D) 900 E) 960

A) 66660 B) 62600 C) 57420

D) 48800 E) 36000

3. How many three-digit even numbers smaller than 8.

550 can be formed from the digits in the set
{0, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} if no digit can be used more
than once in a number?

A) 24 B) 32 C) 35 D) 42 E) 45

(2 n)! n!
4. Solve ÷ = 28 for n.
(2 n − 3)! ( n − 2)!
The cube in the figure is made up of 27 sticks. An
A) 2 B) 3 C) 4 D) 5 E) 6 ant is trained to walk up and right along the
sticks, relative to the cube. If it starts at point A
5. How many four-letter sequences can be formed and walks only along the sticks, in how many
from the letters in the sequence THISWORD if different shortest ways can it get to piece of the
no letter can be used more than once? sugar at point S?

A) 1680 B) 1540 C) 1420 D) 136 E) 1260 A) 90 B) 120 C) 144 D) 150 E) 180

478 Algebra 10
 9. How many seven-digit odd numbers can be formed 14. What is the coefficient of the term containing
by rearranging the digits in the number 5321233? x12y6 in the expansion of (x3 – 2y2)7?

A) 144 B) 168 C) 196 D) 225 E) 240 A) 84 B) –280 C) 560 D) 448 E) 35

10. How many different necklaces can we make by

threading 3 different red beads, 3 different green
beads and 3 different yellow beads onto a chain if 15. A group of 5 people will be selected from 4
beads of the same color must be kept together? doctors and 7 nurses such that the group
contains at least one doctor. After the selection,
A) 240 B) 216 C) 196 D) 164 E) 144
the group will hold a meeting around a circular
table. How many different seating arrangements
are possible around the table?
11. The figure shows ten
4 7⎞ 11
points. Three of the A) ⎛⎜ ⎞⎛
⎟⎜ ⎟ 4! B) ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ 4!
⎝ ⎠⎝ 4 ⎠
1 ⎝5⎠
points are chosen at
⎡ 11 7 ⎤
random to form a C) ⎛⎜ 7 ⎞⎟ 4! D) ⎢⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ − ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ ⎥ 4!
triangle. How many different triangles can be ⎝ 5⎠ ⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 5 ⎠ ⎦
5
constructed?
E) ⎛⎜ 4 ⎞⎛
⎟⎜
7⎞
⎟ 4!
⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 3 ⎠
A) 80 B) 90 C) 100 D) 110 E) 120

12. Six women and 8 men are in a table tennis club.

If each game needs 2 players for each team, how
16. A group of 12 people booked tickets to the theater.
many different games between men and women
When they arrive they find that 5 places in the
can be arranged?
front row and 7 places in the back row have been
A) 240 B) 276 C) 360 D) 420 E) 480 reserved for them. 3 people do not want to sit at
the front and 2 of them do not want to sit at the
back. In how many different ways can the 12
people be seated?
13. A committee of 4 people will be selected from 8
girls and 12 boys in a class. How many different ⎛ 10 ⎞⎛ 7 ⎞
A) ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ B) 5! ⋅ 1!
selections are possible if at least one boy must be ⎝ 3 ⎠⎝ 4 ⎠
selected?
C) ⎛⎜ 7 ⎞⎟ 12! D) ⎛⎜ 12 ⎞⎛ 9⎞
⎟⎜ 4 ⎟
⎝ 3⎠ 3
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠
A) 2865 B) 3755 C) 4225
E) ⎛⎜ 7 ⎞⎟ 5! ⋅ 7!
D) 4455 E) 4775 ⎝ 3⎠

Chapter Review Test 6B 479

 EXERCISES 1 .1
1. a. f: → b. g: – {5} → c. h: – {0} → – {3} d. t: (–4, ∞) – {1} → (–2, 3] 2. a. [–ò13, ò13]

b. – [–1, 4) c. – (0, 5] 3. a. [–11, 7] b. (–3, 5] c. [5, 8) 4. a. [0, 2] b. [0, 4] 5. a. (ñx + 1)2 b. x2 +1

1
6. a. g(x) = x + 1, h(x) = ñx, t(x) = , r(x) = 5 – x, f(x) = r(t(h(g(x)))) 7. a. f –1: → , f –1(x) = 2 – 5x
x
–3x – 3 x – 1+ 2 1
b. f –1: – {2} → – {3}, f –1(x) = c. f –1: [1, +∞) → [1, +∞), f –1(x) = 8. a. b. 2
x+ 2 2 2

3 7 7
9. a = , b = 4 10. a. increasing b. increasing c. decreasing 11. a. (– ∞, ] b. [ , ∞ ) 12. a. odd b. even
2 4 4
c. odd d. odd e. odd

EXERCISES 1 .2
1. 2 2. a. y b. y c. y

y = f(x)
1 y = f(x)
6 y = f(x)
x 1
O 1
4 x
–1 O
–1
–2
1
x
O
–1

⎧⎪ x + 3 if x ≥ –3 ⎧⎪ 2 x if x ≥ 0 ⎧⎪ x2 – x – 2 if x ∉ (–1, 2)
3. a. f ( x) = ⎨ b. f ( x) = ⎨ c. f ( x) = ⎨
⎪⎩ – x – 3 if x < –3 ⎪⎩ 0 if x < 0 ⎪⎩ – x2 + x + 2 if x ∈ (–1, 2)

⎧ –2 x +5 if x<2 ⎧ –2 x if x < –1
⎪⎪ ⎪⎪ ⎧⎪2 x2 + 2 x if x ≥ –4
d. f ( x) = ⎨ 1 if 2 ≤ x < 3 e. f ( x) = ⎨ –2 if –1 ≤ x < 1 f. f ( x) = ⎨
⎪ ⎪ ⎪⎩ –6 x if x < –4
⎪⎩ 2 x – 5 if x>3 ⎪⎩ 2 x if x ≥1

480 Answers to Exercises

4. a. y b. y c. y d. y
y = |x2 – 4x – 5|
y = |–x| y = |2 – 4x| y = |x2 – 1| 9

2 1 5
x
O x x
O 1 –1 O 1
21 x
–1 O 5

e. y f. y 5. a. x > 0 b. x < 1 c. x ∈ {–1, 0, 1}

y = x|x + 1| + 3

d. x ∈ {–1, 0, 1}
3
3 y = |5x + 4| + 2x – 1
–4
5
x x
–3 –2 –1 O –2 O

–2
–3

6. a. y b. y c. y

y = sgn(xx + 1
y = sgn(x2) y = sgn(x – 1) – 2)
1 1
1
x x x
O O 1 –1 O 2
–1 –1

5 7
7. a. x ∈ [–2, –1) b. x ∈ [2, 3) c. x ∈ [–3, –2) d. x ∈ [1, ) e. x ∈ (– , – 1]
2 3
8. a. y b. y c. y d. y e. y
y = f(x) y = f(x) y = f(x) y = f(x) y = f(x)
2 5 1 4 4
4 1
–2 –11 –1 – 1 2
3
3 2 x
x 2
O1 2 2 O 1 2 1
–1 1 –2 –1
1 –1 x x
O1 2
x –2 –1 O 1 2 –1
–3 –2 –1 O 1
–2 –2
–3
–3 –4

⎧ x2 + 2 x if x > 1 ⎧ x +1
⎪⎪ ⎪ if x > 3
9. x ∈ {–1, 4} 10. f ( g( x)) = ⎨ 3x + 4 if 0 < x ≤ 1 11. ⎪ 4
f –1 : → , f –1( x) = ⎨
⎪ ⎪ x–1
⎪⎩ 3x +7 if x ≤ 0 ⎪⎩ if x ≤ 3
2

⎧⎪ x – 1 if x > 1 ⎧⎪ x2 – 3x – 4 if x ∉ (0, 3) ⎧⎪ x3 – x if x ≥ 0
12. a. f ( x) = ⎨ b. f ( x) = ⎨ c. f ( x) = ⎨
⎪⎩ 1 – x if x ≤ 1 ⎪⎩ – x2 + 3x – 4 if x ∈ (0, 3) ⎩⎪ – x – x if x < 0
3

Answers to Exercises 481

 ⎧⎪ x2 if x ≥ 0 ⎧⎪ 2 x – 1 if x ≥ 1 ⎧⎪ 2x + 3 if x ∉ (–1, 3)
13. a. f ( x) = ⎨ b. f ( x) = ⎨ c. f ( x) = ⎨
⎩⎪ – x if x < 0
2
⎪⎩ 1 if x < 1 ⎪⎩ 2 x2 – 2 x – 3 if x ∈ (–1, 3)

⎧ –2 x +1 if x < 0 ⎧ –1 if x<2 ⎧ x2 – x – 1 if x ≤ –1
⎪⎪ ⎪⎪ ⎪ 2
– x – x +1 if –1 < x < 0
d. f ( x) = ⎨ 1 if 0 ≤ x < 1 e. f ( x) = ⎨ 2 x – 5 if 2 ≤ x < 3 f. f ( x)= ⎪⎨
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ – x2 + x +1 if 0 ≤ x <1
⎪⎩ 2 x – 1 if x ≥ 1 ⎪⎩ 1 if x≥3 ⎪
⎩
2
x +x –1 if x ≥1

EXERCISES 2 .1
1. 17 2. 24 3. 27 4. 17 5. 2k + 1 6. 2a3 + a2 7. b2 – 2b + 1
y y y
8. y = f(x) 5 9. a. 0 b. 4 c. –4 10. a. –2 b. does not exist
y = f(x)
4 2 y = f(x)
5
3 c. 2
1
–5 x
–2 –3 O
x x
O 3 O 2 –2

–4
–7

–5
11. (11.7, 12.3) 12. (–5.1, –4.9) 13. (3.99, 4.01) 14. (4.95, 5.05) 16. a. –3 b. 1 c. –1 d. 0
–5.1 –4.9
e. 1 f. 2 17. p ∈ {–2, –1, 0, 1, 3} 18. a. lim+ f ( x) = 0, lim f ( x) =1, lim+ f ( x) =1, lim f ( x) =1, lim+ f ( x) =1,
x → –1 x → –1– x→0 x →0– x →1

lim f ( x) = 0 b. x = –1, x = 1 19. a. lim f ( x) = –4, lim f ( x) = –3 b. x = –2 20. x = 0 21. a. does not exist
x →1– x→0 x→1

15
b. 1 22. 28 23. a. 1 b. 0 c. 1 d. –1 e. –1 f. –1 24. a. 5 b. –1 c. 0 d. e. –11 f. 0 25. a. 4
8
2
b. does not exist c. –1 d. –2 e. does not exist f. 0 g. 31 26. a. –2 b. 0 c. ∞ d. does not exist e. 1 27. a.
3
b. 1 c. 1 d. –2 e. –2 f. 2 28. a. ∞ b. ∞ c. –∞ d. does not exist e. –∞ 29. a. 0 b. –∞ c. ∞ d. ∞ e. –∞
1 3
6
f. –∞ g. ∞ h. 0 30. a. –∞ b. –∞ c. –∞ d. –∞ 31. –6 32. a. b. 16 c. 0 d. 2ñ3 e.
2 3

EXERCISES 2 .2
1 5 5 1 2 1 1
1. a. b. c. –7 d. 15 e. 6 f. 2 g. 1 h. m i. 16 2. a. b. c. 3 d. e. f. g. –1 h. 1 i. 2
10 3 7 2 2 2 2
6 2 4 1 1
j. –6 3. a. 3 b. 0 c. –∞ d. –∞ e. 0 f. 1 g. –1 h. 2 4. a. b. 5 c. 3 d. 5. a. – b. – c. –∞ d.
7 5 9 2 2
5 1 1
6. a. b. – c. 2 d. 7. a. e2 b. e–9 c. e3 d. e1/3 e. e–4/3 f. e6/5 g. e14/5 h. e–18 i. e–1 j. e4
2 2 2

482 Answers to Exercises

 EXERCISES 2 .3
1. continuous at x = –2, x = –1, x = 0, x = 2, discontinuous at x = –3, x = 1, x = 3 2. continuous
3. discontinuous 4. x = 1, x = 2 5. continuous 6. 3 7. m = 0, n = ±2 8. a ∈ {1, ±ñ2} 9. a. b.
c. – {1} d. – {–1, 6} e. – {0} f. g. – (–2, 2) h. – [–1, 4] 10. a. b. – {x | x = 2kπ, k ∈ }
5 3
c. {x | 2kπ ≤ x ≤ (2k + 1)π, k ∈ } d. – {2} e. [3, 5] f. – [–2, 2] g. [– , – ] 11. – 6 12. 4
2 4

EXERCISES 3 .1
1. a. fourth b. third c. third d. third e. third f. second 2. a. 0.785 b. 1.832 c. –1.221 d. 1.346 e. 16.336
24π ⎛ ⎞
3. a. 154° b. 359° c. 10 π d. 4. a. (–1, 0) b. ⎜ − 2 , − 2 ⎟ 5. 108° 6. a. x = 105° + (k ⋅ 180°)
9 19 ⎜ 2 2 ⎟⎠
⎝
π k ⋅ 2π 2 34
b. x = π + 24kπ c. x = k ⋅ 90°
d. x = + 7. a. ò17 b. c. 8. ò91 9. 6 10. 8+ 2 3 11. 13
3 3 6 6
9 729
12. a. b. 12 13. units 14. a. sec x b. 1 c. csc x ⋅ sec x d. sin x e. sin x f. cot x 15. a. 1– sin x b. 1– sin
4 32
x c. sin2 x d. cot x e. 1 f. (sec x + 1)2 18. a. 1 b. 3 19. 2

EXERCISES 3 .2
1 π kπ
1. a. 0 b. 0 c. –1 d. 3 e. 0 2. a. b. c. − { + + }, k ∈ d. − {–1 + kπ}, k ∈
2 8 4
2 kπ 5 π kπ π kπ nπ
e. − { + }, k ∈ f. − { + }, k ∈ g. h. − { + } ∪ { }, k, n ∈ 3. a. [–1, 1] b. [–5, 5]
3 3 18 3 4 2 5
c. [–7, –1] d. [–2, 6] e. [0, 6] f. [–4, 0] g. h. i. (–∞, 0] ∪ [2, ∞) j. (–∞, –3] ∪ [1, ∞) k. 4. a. +
b. – c. + d. + e. + f. – g. – h. + i. – j. + k. + l. – 5. e, f, j, k 6. a. 7, 1 b. 2, –2 c. 4, –6
d. ∞, –∞ e. ∞, –∞ f. ∞, –∞ 7. a. cos 299° b. sin 66° c. tan 88° d. cot 30° 8. a. y < x < z b. b < a < c < d
c. r < m < n d. y < x < z < k e. b < a < c 9. a, b, c, d, f 10. a, d, e, f 11. a, b, d 13. a. 0 b. 1
14. a. 12° b. 68° c. 32° d. 48° e. 50° f. 30° g. 70° h. 10° 15. a. 25° b. 40° c. 65° d. 55° e. 5° f. 85° g. 80°
π
h. 40° 16. a. 80° b. 36° c. 60° d. 30° e. 20° f. 51° g. 80° h. 5° 17. a. b. 5π c. 5π d. 3π e. 2π f. 2π
11 12 13 14 13 5
π π π
g. 5π h. 2π 18. a. b. 3π c. d. 5π e. π f. π g. 5π h. 2π 19. a. b. π c. 3π d. 4π e. π
17 19 8 10 12 14 6 9 12 15 6 3 13 15 7
15π π 19π 3 1 2 1
f. g. h. 21. a. b. − c. –1 d. –1 e. f. g. 1 h. –ñ3 22. a. 2 b. − 3
73 7 99 2 2 2 2 2 2

c. ñ3 d. –ñ3 e. − 1 f. 2 g. –1 h. − 3 23. a. 1 b. 1 c. 1 d. – ñ3 e. − 2 f. − 1 g. –1 h. –ñ3

2 2 3 2 2 2 2

Answers to Exercises 483

 2
24. a. − 1 b. − 1 c. –1 d. ñ3 e. − f. − 1 g. 1 h. ñ3 25. a. ñ2 b. 0 c. 6 26. a. tan α + cot α – 2sin α b. 0
2 2 2 2
2
27. a. cos θ = 1 , tan θ = 3 , cot θ = 3 b. sin θ = , tan θ = –1, cot θ = –1 c. sin θ = − 5 , cos θ = − 4 , cot θ = 4
2 3 2 41 41 5
3 3 2 2
d. sin θ = − , cos θ = , tan θ = −
28. a. cos θ = , tan θ = –1, cot θ = –1
13 13 2 2
7 7 24 4 1 1
b. sin θ = − , tan θ = , cot θ = c. sin θ = , cos θ = − , cot θ = −
25 24 7 17 17 4
2 7 2 1 3 1 7 1 3 17
d. sin θ = cos θ = , tan θ = 29. a. b. c. d. 4 30. a. cot α = b. cos α = −
10 10 7 25 13 4 3 13
2
c. sec α = 31. a. ò57 b. 3 3 32. P = 26, A = 21ñ3 33. a. 48° 30′ b. 136° 12′ c. 213°45′ d. 313° 47′ 34. a. 121.25°
3 2
–
b. 346.8 3° c. 198.32° d. 23.94° 35. a. 0.3971 b. 0.5842 c. 2.9208 d. 0.4975 36. a. 0.8549 b. 0.9737 c. –1.1323
π 2π 2π π 2π π π π
d. 0.0032 37. a. b. c. π d. e. f. 38. a. b. c. 5π d. 39. 2π2 40. a.
3 5 3 5 3 2 5 5
π
b. 2π c. 2π d. 2π e. π f. π g. 2π h. 2π i. π j. 3π 41. π 42. 2
2
43. a. y
3

p
–p 1
2
6
0 p p
–p 6 3
2p x
3 3
–1

b. y c. y
5

1 p p p p p p x
– – –
–p p 2p 2 3 6 6 3 2
–p p 3p x
2 2 2

d. y
p p p p
– 3p – – 3p 3p
–p 4 2 4 4 2 4 p 2 2p
x

–2

–4

484 Answers to Exercises

e. y 44. a. y

6 1

1 p
2
p 3p
–
8 8 p p 2p 5p p x
p p p 6 3 3 6
p
– –3p – p 8 4 2 x
2 2 4

–1
–4

b. y c. y d. y
2
p p 3p ñ2
4 2 4 p
x
p
2
p x
–1 2
p
p x
2

e. y

3
2

p x

45. III, V, VI 46. a. y = 2 sin x b. y = sin 3x c. y = 3+sin x 47. a. 0° b. –45° c. –90° d. 45°

π π π π 5π π π 2π
e. 0° f. 150° g. 90° h. 180° 48. a. b. – c. d. e. f. – g. – h. 49. a. 1
4 4 4 2 6 6 3 3
3 1 12 3 3 2 3 π π π 24 4
b. c. d. e. 0 f. 50. a. b. c. d. e. − f. − 51. a. b.
2 2 13 4 2 2 2 3 4 4 25 5
1 17 4 5 3 24 3 7 120 ⎡ 5 3⎤
c. 2ñ2 d. – e. f. ñ3 52. a. b. – c. d. – e. f. 53. a. ⎢ − , − ⎥
3 17 7 2 3 7 7 169 ⎣ 2 2 ⎦
⎡ 1⎤ ⎡2 4⎤ π 5π 17 13 π 4
b. ⎢ −1, − ⎥ c. [2, 4] d. ⎢5 , 5⎥ e. f. 54. − 55. 0 56. 57. 58. 59. –
⎣ 3⎦ ⎣ ⎦ 4 6 65 3 5
48+ 25 3 π 5
60. − 61. 0 62. 1 63. 64.
11 3 2

Answers to Exercises 485

 EXERCISES 3 .3
1. a. 13 − 6 3 b. −3+ 37 c. 1 + ò13 d. 2 5 − 2 3 2. a. 113 b.
ò13 c. 14 d. 19 e.
2 f. 79 3.
120°
2 3 2 2 2
7 3 − 15 10 14 3
4. 135° 5. a. ñ2 + ñ6 b. ñ2 c. 9.6 6. a. 5 b. c. d. 2 7. π units 8. a. 5ñ6 cm b. 5ñ2 cm
6 16 10 3 3
17
9. 6 cm 10. m(∠A) = 30°, m(∠B) = 60°, m(∠C) = 90° 11. 84 cm2 12. units 13. a. 2 ( 3 +1)
2 4
2 2 2 1 5 3
b. ( 3 – 1) c. 2 + ñ3 d. (1 − 3) e. ñ3 – 2 f. 2 – ñ3 g. (1 − 3) h. –2 – ñ3 14. a. +
4 4 4 6 12
1 5 3 5⎛1 ⎞ 5⎛1 ⎞ 5 5 3 34
b. – c. ⎜ − 3 ⎟ d. ⎜ + 3 ⎟ e. − 55 (9 3 + 32) f. − 71 (9 3 + 32) 15. a. 1 b. 34
6 12 6 ⎝2 ⎠ 6 ⎝2 ⎠
c. 2 d. 47 17 e. 0 f. 4 17 16. a. cos x b. 2cos x cos y c. 3 sin x d. 2sin y cos x
2 289 17
3tan α − tan 3 α 24 7 24
17. cos 3α = 4cos3 α – 3cos α, tan 3α = 18. a. sin 2 x = , cos 2 x = , tan 2 x=
1 − 3tan α
2
25 25 7

120 119 120 336 527 336

b. sin 2 x = – , cos 2 x = – , tan 2 x= c. sin 2 x = – , cos 2 x = , tan 2 x= –
169 169 119 625 625 527
15 7 15 12 5 12
d. sin 2 x = – , cos 2 x = , tan 2 x= – e. sin 2 x = , cos 2 x = – , tan 2 x= –
8 8 7 13 13 5
x 5 x 2 5 x 1 x 5 x 2 5 x 1
19. a. sin = , cos = , tan = b. sin = , cos = – , tan = –
2 5 2 5 2 2 2 5 2 5 2 2
x 1 x 2 2 +3 x 1
c. sin = , cos = , tan =
2 18+12 2 2 18+12 2 2 2 2 +3

x 1 x 2 +1 x
d. sin = , cos = , tan = 2 −1 e. sin x = 6 , cos x = – 30 , tan x = – 5
2 4+ 2 2 2 4+ 2 2 2 2 6 2 6 2 5

x 1 x 5+ 26 x 1 2 6 2 2
f. sin = , cos = − , tan = − 20. a. b. c. − d. ( 3 − 1)
2 52+10 26 2 52+10 26 2 5+ 26 2 2 2 2

2 f. g. 2 h. π 5x 3x 11x 7x
e. 0 2 sin 21. a. 2sin 4x ⋅ cos x b. −2 cos ⋅ sin c. 2sin 5x ⋅ sin x d. 2 cos ⋅ cos
2 2 8 2 2 2 2
9x 5x 7x x 3x 33
e. −2 cos ⋅ sin f. 2 sin ⋅ cos g. sin 11x + sin 9x = 2sin 10x ⋅ cos x h. 2 sin ⋅ sin x 24. 25 25. –
2 2 2 2 2 19 65
8 3 10 2 33 55 3
29. 3 31. sin 40 ° = 2 x 1 − x
2
26. − 27. 28. 30. − 32. − 33. – 34. 2–ñ3
11 10 ( n +1)2 4 56 24 4

1 3 + 2x
35. − 6 36. 2ñ6 37. 38. 39. − 3 40. − 2 41. 1
5 16 4 4 4
486 Answers to Exercises
 EXERCISES 3 .4
π 3π π π 2π π
1. a. + 2 kπ, + 2 nπ, k, n ∈ or ( −1) k + k π, k ∈ b. − + 2kπ, − + 2 nπ, k, n ∈ or ( −1) k +1 + k π, k ∈
4 4 4 3 3 3
π kπ π kπ π π kπ 3π
c. ( −1)k +1 + , k∈ d. ( −1)k+ , k∈ e. ( −1)k +1 + + kπ, k ∈ f. , k∈ g. − +6 kπ, k ∈
12 2 9 3 3 5 5 4
2
( −1)k +1 arcsin
π 3 + kπ , k ∈ j. π + 4kπ, k ∈ π
h. ± + kπ, k ∈ i. k. ( −1)k +1 + 2 kπ, k ∈ l. no solution
3 4 4 2
π 5π π π 2 kπ π 2 kπ
2. a. ± + 2kπ, k ∈ b. ± + 2 kπ, k ∈ c. ± + + , k∈ d. no solution e. ± + , k∈
4 6 20 20 5 18 3
π π 2kπ π 3π 9π 11π π π kπ
f. + kπ, k ∈ g. + , k∈ h. , , , i. 0 3. a. − + kπ, k ∈ b. + , k∈
6 30 5 8 8 8 8 4 12 2
11π kπ π kπ π π
c. + , k∈ d. + , k∈ e. –3arccot 2 + 3kπ, k ∈ f. + kπ, k ∈ 4. a. + kπ, k ∈
60 5 90 3 2 4
π kπ 3π kπ π kπ 3π
b. + , k∈ c. + , k∈ d. + , k∈ e. − + 3kπ, k ∈ f. –2arccot 2 + 2kπ, k ∈
24 4 8 2 3 3 4
π kπ π π kπ π
5. a. 4340 ° b. 3420° c. 1620° 6. a. + , + nπ, k, n ∈ b. + , ± + nπ, k, n ∈
8 4 2 4 2 3

π π 3 π
c. π + 2 kπ, ± + 2 nπ, k, n ∈ d. + kπ, ± arccos + 2 n π, k, n ∈ e. kπ, ( −1)n+1 + nπ, k, n ∈
3 2 4 6
π kπ π π kπ π kπ n π
f. + , 2 nπ, k, n ∈ 7. a. kπ, ± + 2 nπ, k, n ∈ b. ( −1)k + , k∈ c. + , , k, n ∈
8 4 3 30 5 8 4 2
kπ 2π 4π π 3π π kπ π kπ π
d. , k∈ e. , f. , g. + , k∈ h. + , ( −1)n +1 + nπ, k, n ∈
3 3 3 4 4 4 2 4 2 6

π kπ π π kπ π kπ π
8. a. + , k∈ b. + kπ, − arctan 2+ nπ, k, n ∈ c. + , k∈ d. + , k∈ e. + kπ, k ∈
18 6 4 4 2 6 2 4
π π 2 kπ 5 π 2 n π π kπ π
f. π + 2 kπ, + 2 nπ, k, n ∈ 9. a. + , + , k, n ∈ b. ± + , k∈ c. + kπ, k ∈
2 18 3 18 3 36 2 4
π kπ 7π kπ 4
d. + 2 kπ, k ∈ 10. , k∈ 11. + , k∈ 12. a. no solution b. − arctan + 2 kπ, k ∈
6 2 36 3 3
12 π 7π π
c. arctan + 2 kπ, k ∈ d. − + 2kπ, + 2 nπ, k, n ∈ e. + 2kπ, π + 2 nπ, k, n ∈
5 12 12 3

π π 1 π
f. + 2 kπ, + 2 arctan 2+ 2 n π, k, n ∈ 13. a. − arctan + kπ, k ∈ b. + kπ, k ∈
2 2 2 6

π π
c. + kπ, − arctan 2+ nπ, k, n ∈ d. − + kπ,arctan3+ nπ, k, n ∈ 14. a. 5, –5 b. 2, –2 c. 3, –3 d. ñ2, –ñ2
4 4
Answers to Exercises 487
 π π π π π π
15. a. [0, 26] b. [–2, 4] c. [–5, –1] 16. + kπ, nπ, k, n ∈ Z 17. a. ( , ) b. ( , 0) c. ( , 0), (0, )
2 6 6 2 4 4
π 3π π
18. 0, , π, , 2π 19. kπ, + 2 nπ, k, n ∈ Z 20. –ò34 ≤ a ≤ ò34 21. 0
2 2 2

π π π π
22. ( x, y) = (2 kπ, − 2 kπ) or ( + k π, − k π), k ∈ Z 23. ( −1)k +1 + kπ, ( −1)n + n π, k, n ∈ Z
4 4 3 3

π π 2kπ 7 π 2kπ π π
24. + kπ, arccot2+ nπ, k, n ∈ Z 25. a. − + < x< + , k∈ b. − + 2kπ < x < + 2k π, k ∈
4 18 3 18 3 2 6
π 5π 17 π 2 kπ 8 π 2 kπ π 2 kπ
c. − + kπ ≤ x ≤ + kπ, k ∈ d. − + ≤x≤ + , k∈ e. x ≠ − +
8 8 45 3 45 3 10 5

π π π 5π 9π 9π
26. a. − + kπ < x < + kπ, k ∈ b. + kπ < x < + kπ, k ∈ c. − +6 kπ ≤ x ≤ +6 k π, k ∈
3 3 2 6 4 4

π π kπ π kπ
d. no solution e. + 4kπ < x < π + 4kπ, k ∈ 27. a. − + < x< + , k ∈
3 6 3 12 3

π kπ π kπ 2π 23 π π kπ π kπ
b. − + < x< – + , k∈ c. − + 2kπ ≤ x < + 2 k π, k ∈ d. − + < x< + , k ∈
8 4 24 4 9 18 15 5 10 5

5π kπ π kπ 3π
28. a. + < x< + , k∈ b. 2kπ < x ≤ + 2k π, k ∈
18 3 3 3 2

⎡ π π ⎞ ⎛ 3π 7π ⎤
29. a. ⎢ − + 2kπ, + 2kπ ⎟ ∪ ⎜ + 2 nπ, + 2 nπ ⎥ , k, n ∈
⎣ 6 4 ⎠ ⎝ 4 6 ⎦

⎛ π π ⎤ ⎡π π ⎞ ⎡π 2π ⎤ ⎡ 2π π ⎤
b. ⎜ − + 2kπ, − + 2kπ ⎥ ∪ ⎢ + 2 nπ, + 2 nπ ⎟ , k, n ∈ c. ⎢ + 2 kπ, + 2 kπ ⎥ ∪ ⎢− + 2 n π, − + 2 n π ⎥, k, n ∈
⎝ 3 6 ⎦ ⎣6 3 ⎠ ⎣3 3 ⎦ ⎣ 3 3 ⎦

⎛ π π ⎤ π 3π
d. ⎜ − + kπ, + kπ⎥ , k ∈ e. ( kπ, + kπ) ∪ ( + k π, π+ k π), k, n ∈
⎝ 3 6 ⎦ 4 4

2π 4π
30. a. [–π + 2kπ, 2kπ], k ∈ b. ( + 2 kπ, + 2 kπ), k ∈
3 3

2π 1 1 2π ⎡ π π ⎤
c. ( − + 2 kπ, − arccos + 2 k π) ∪(arccos + 2 n π, + 2 n π), k, n ∈ d. ⎢ − + kπ, + kπ ⎥ , k ∈
3 3 3 3 ⎣ 4 4 ⎦

π 3π π π
e. ( + kπ, + kπ), k ∈ 31 a. ( − + kπ, + kπ), k ∈
4 4 3 3

π π π ⎡π π ⎤ ⎡ 3π 5π ⎤
b. ( − + kπ, − arctan 2+ kπ) ∪( + n π, + n π), k, n ∈ c. ⎢ + kπ, + kπ ⎥ ∪ ⎢ + n π, + n π ⎥, k, n ∈
2 4 2 ⎣ 6 4 ⎦ ⎣ 4 6 ⎦

488 Answers to Exercises

 ⎡ π 2kπ π 2kπ ⎤ ⎡ 7π 2 kπ π 2 kπ ⎤ ⎡π 5π ⎤
32. a. ⎢ − + , + , k∈ b. ⎢ − + , + , k∈ c. ⎢ + kπ, + kπ ⎥ , k ∈
⎣ 12 3 12 3 ⎥⎦ ⎣ 18 3 18 3 ⎥⎦ ⎣ 12 12 ⎦
7π π π 5π
d. ( − + kπ, + kπ), k ∈ e. ( + 2 kπ, + 2 kπ) ∪ ( π + 2 n π, 2 n π), k, n ∈
12 12 6 6
π kπ π kπ π kπ π kπ π π π
33. a. ( − + ,– + ), k ∈ b. ( + , + ), k ∈ 34. a. + 2 kπ, k ∈ b. ( + kπ, + kπ), k ∈
12 6 36 6 4 2 2 2 4 4 2
π 5π
c. ( + kπ, + kπ), k ∈
3 12

EXERCISES 4 .1
5 1 4 1
1. a. 5 b. –7 c. –2 d. –2 e. 0 f. g. – h. 2. a. y = 2x + 5 b. y = 3x c. y = 11x – 16 d. y = x + 2 3. –2
4 4 9 2
16 π
4. 30; 40 5. 6. 9;11 7. a. rate of change of fuel consumption with respect to change in velocity b. if velocity
9
increases by 20 km/h, oil consumption decreases by 0.05 litres per hour 8. a. x10; 1 b. 3
x; 8 c. 3x; 4 d. cos x; π

3 3 3
9. a. 2x – 2 b. – c. – d. 10. no; f ′(8–) ≠ f ′(8+) 11. does not exist
( x – 1)2 2x x 2 3x +1
12. –2, 0, 6 : discontinuity; 1, 3 : corner 13. no; discontinuity at x = 1 14. does not exist 15. D, E, C, A, B

16. –2 17. (–2, 8), (2, 8) 18. a. 50 b. 60 19. a = 1, b = 6, c = 0 20. 0 21. 9.95

EXERCISES 4 .2
1
2 7 – 1
1. a. 0 b. 0 c. 0 d. x e. 1.6x–0.2 f. x 5 g. 0 h. 0.21x–0.3 i. –84 x–13 j. 10x – 3 k. 2 x + 2 + 2 l. –16t–5 + 9t–4 – 2t–2
3 x
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3
m. + + n. – – o. 2 – 2. a. 15x2 – 5 b. 12x + 1 c. –300x – 20 d. 4x3 + 3x2 – 1
2 x 3
3 x 2 5
5 x 4 2 x x x x2 x 2x x
3
3 – 21 6 3 5 1 − 3x2
e. 5x4 – 4x3 + 9x2 – 6x + 2 f. 5t 2 + 4t – t g. – h. i. – j.
2 (2 x + 4)2 (2 x +1)2 (1+ 3x)2 2 x( x2 +1)2
x2 – 2 x – 2 1
k. l. − 3 3x + 2 x + 3 3. a. 8 b. 2 c. –9 d. 1 4. –3 5. a. –1 b. 8 c. –8 d. 8
( x2 + x +1)2 2 x(3x − 1)2 2 x
40 x +12 4x
6. a. 6(3x – 1) b. 10x(x2 + 2)4 c. 7(x5– 3x2+6)6(5x4– 6x) d. –3(x–2)–4 e. − f. −
(5x2 + 3x − 1)3 (4 x2 +1)3

1 1 4 6
h. 4( x − 1) (4 x +1) i. − (3x − 1) (18 x + 29)
2
g. 3( x +1+ x )2 ⋅ ( + ) j. 405( x − 3)
2 x +1 2 x 2
(2 x +1)5 8( x + 2)4
(3x +1) 3

Answers to Exercises 489

 1
5 2x − 1 3 2 3 2
–
3 2 –3x2
k. l. 3 + [2 x + ( x +1) ] 4 [4 x + 2( x +1)3 x ] 7. –12 8. a. 8x + 4 b. 2x c.
2(2 x − 1)(3 x +1) 3 x+1 4 ( x3 – 1)2
(2 x – 1)( x2 – x – 1) 2 1 12
d. 9. a. 6 b. 14(x2 + 1)5(13x2 + 1) c. ( x – 1)3 d. – 10. a. 120x – 18 b. − 4
2
2( x – x) x – x 2 (2 x – 1) 2 x – 1 x
81 5
c. d. 384x – 576 11. y = 7x – 5 12. – 2 x + 27 13. a. x x f ( x)+ x2 x f ′( x )
8(3x − 1) 2
3x − 1 25 50 2
2 3
′ 63
b. 3x2[f(x)]2 + 2x3f(x)f ′(x) c. 3x f ( x) – x f ( x) d. 2 xf ( x)+ f ( x)+1 14. use the product rule twice 15. –
[ f ( x)]2
2 x 25

0.2 – 0.2 t2 ⎛ ⎞ ′ ′ ′ ′
16. a. C ′(t ) = 2 2
b. 0, – 3 17. 6 18. f ′ ⎜ g( x)h( x) ⎟ ( g ( x)h( x)+ g( x)h ( x))m( n( x)) −2g( x)h( x)m ( n( x))n ( x)
(t + 1) 125 ⎝ m( n( x)) ⎠ ( m( n( x)))

1 n!
19. –3 + 4ñ3 20. 1 21. − 15 22. ( –1)n
4 2 xn+1

EXERCISES 4 .3
1. a. 3cos(3x – 5) b. –2xsin(x2 – 1) c. cos x + sin x d. sec2x(2 + sin x) e. sin x(sec2x + 1)
20 sin x(1 − cos x) 9
f. –cos x + 2tan x + 2xsec2x + xsin x g. −2 cos(2 x3 − 3 x)sin(2 x3 − 3 x) ⋅(6 x2 − 3) h.
(cos x +1)11

cos x(cos x + sin 2 x+1) 1 – cos x 9 2 sin x 2 2

i. − j. 10( ) k. (2 x − 1)sec x − x − 1 l. 9x2cot2(x3 – 1)csc2(x3 – 1)
2
sin x(cos x + 1) 2
1+ cos x (1+ cos x)2
2 x2 − x − 1
x3 x3
(2 x4 − 6 x2 )sec 2 tan 2
m. 5( x2 sin( x − 1))4(2 x sin( x −1)+ x2 cos( x −1)) n. x −1
2
x −1 2. y = –x
( x2 − 1)2

2 5 y 3x2 + 2x − y 6 x3 + y 2x 2 x +5 y
3. ± 2π + 2π k, k ∈ 4. a. 0 b. c. 2 d. 0 5. 5 6. a. b. c. d. e. − f. −
3 3 4 1− x x x 3y 5x + 3y2

y – 2 xy3 y xy − 6xy 2t – 2 t2 +1 2t + 3
g. h. 7. a. y = x – 3 b. y = x 8. a. b. 2 c. d. (4t +6) t +1
– x + 3x2 y2 4xy2 − x xy 3 t (2t +1) 3t 2 – 2t

3t ⋅ 3 t 2 4 17 6( t2 − t − 1) 6 1
e. − f. – 5 cot t 9. a. y = x – 1 b. y = x – 10. a. b. 2 c. 0 11. a.
4−t 2
4 3 3 (2t − 1)3 t 4 − x2

x2 +1 2 x +1 1 x 1
b. – c. d. + e. 12. y = 3x + π − 3
6
– x + 3x – x 4 2 1+( x2 + x − 1)2 1+ x2 1 – x2 2 cos x − cos x
4 2
3 6 3

6y 27 x4 3x 2 xy + 2y2 3 2
d. 2 y + 2 y
3
13. a. sin x b. –299cos 2x c. –35sinx – xcosx 14. a. b. − − c. 3
x2
16 y7
2y3
( x + 2 y)
3x 3 x 3x 3 x2
1
15. y = 2x – 2 16. 17. –sec2x 18. 48 19. (–∞, 0)\{–1} 20. 2
π⋅ 2 4

490 Answers to Exercises

 EXERCISES 5 .1
1 3 1 2 1 6 5 5 1 3 1 1
1. a. 0 b. c. d. –3 e. f. 3 g. – h. – i. − 2 ⋅ 3 j. k. cos a l. –1 m. – n. o. p. 2. a. 0
6 2 2 5 48 9 6 4 4 3 4
5 1 4 1 3
b. –1 c. 1 d. e. 3. a. b. 1 c. 0 d. 0 e. – f. 0 g.
3 3 3 π 2

EXERCISES 5 .2
1. a. increasing: (–∞, –2) and (0, 2); decreasing: (–2, 0) and (2, ∞) b. increasing: (–∞, –3); decreasing: (–3, 0) and (0, ∞)

2. a. decreasing: (–∞, ∞) b. increasing: (0, ∞); decreasing: (–∞, 0) c. increasing: (–∞, 2); decreasing: (2, ∞)

d. increasing: (–∞, ∞) e. increasing: (–∞, 0) and (4, ∞); decreasing: (0, 4) f. increasing: (–2, 0) and (1, ∞); decreasing:

(–∞, –2) and (0, 1) g. increasing: (–∞, 2) and (2, ∞) h. increasing: (0, ∞); decreasing: (–∞, 0) i. increasing: (–∞, 0)
5π π
and (10, ∞); decreasing: (0, 10) j. increasing: (–∞, ∞) k. increasing: ⎛⎜ − ⎞
+ 2π k, + 2π k ⎟, k ∈ ; decreasing:
⎝ 6 6 ⎠
⎛π 7π ⎞ π 5π 1
⎜ + 2π k; + 2π k ⎟ , k ∈ 3. ( , ) 4. f ′( x) = > 0 for all x, so f is increasing 5. –2 < m < 2 6. 1 < a < 4
⎝ 6 6 ⎠ 4 4 1+ x2

7. 1 < a < 3 8. –8 9. a. decreasing b. increasing c. decreasing d. increasing 10. a. decreasing b. increasing

c. increasing 11. local max.: x2, x4, x6; local min.: x3, x5, x7, x8; absolute max.: x6; absolute min.: x1, 12. a. no critical point
b. –1 c. –1 13. a. f ′(a) = f ′(b) = f ′(c) = 0, f ′(d) and f ′(e) do not exist. b. local max.: a, d; local min.: b; neither: c, e
14. a. min.: x = –4 b. max.: x = 1; min.: x = –1 c. no local extrema d. min.: x = –3, x = 1; max.: x = –1

e. no local extrema f. min.: x = –2 g. max.: x = 0; min.: x = –2, x = 2 h. min.: x = 7π + 2π k, x = 11π + 2 π k;

6 6
π 15. 6 16. a = 2, b = –4 17. k = 4 18. a = – 3 , b = –6 19. m = –3 20. ab < 0
max.: x = + π k, k ∈
2 2

21. –1 < m < 0 22. max.: x = –2, x = 7; min.: x = 3 23. a. f min =1, fmax = 3 b. f min = −9, fmax = 0

c. f min = −88, fmax = −7 d. f min =19, fmax = 30 e. f = −3, f = 9 − 4 3 f. f min = −255, fmax =1
min max

8 3
g. f min = 0, fmax = 20 h. f = 5, f = 3 i. f min = 0, fmax = j. f min = 0, fmax = 3 k. f min = −1, fmax =
min max 3 5
1
l. f min = 0, fmax = 4 m. f min = −7, fmax = 3 24. 24 25. 2 26. a = – , b = –3 27. ñ2
4
28. a. increasing: (–2, ∞); decreasing: (–∞, –2) b. min.: x = –2 29. a. increasing: (–∞, –4) and (4, 6); decreasing:
(–4, 4) and (6, ∞); b. min.: x = 4; max.: x = –4, x = 6 30. x = 2 32. (–∞, 6] ∪ [16, ∞) 33. a ≥ 3

Answers to Exercises 491

 EXERCISES 5 .3
1. a. positive: (0, ∞); negative: (–∞, 0) b. positive: (–∞, –3), (–3, –1), (2, ∞); negative: (–1, 2) 2. a. concave up: (–∞, ∞),
1 1
no inflection point b. concave down: (–∞, ∞), no inflection point c. concave up: ( – , ∞ ), concave down: ( – ∞, – ),
3 3
inflection point x = – 1 d. concave up: (1, ∞), concave down: (–∞, 1), inflection point: x = 1 e. concave up:
3
5 5 5
(–∞, 1), ( , ∞ ), concave down: (1, ), inflection points: x = 1 and x = f. concave up: (–∞, –2), (2, ∞),
3 3 3
concave down: (–2, 2) inflection points: x = –2 and x = 2 g. concave up: (–1, 0), (1, ∞), concave down: (–∞, –1), (0, 1)
inflection points: x = –1, x = 0, x = 1. h. concave up: (–∞, 0), (0, ∞), no inflection point
i. concave down: (–1, ∞), no inflection point j. concave up: (5, ∞), concave down: (–∞, 5), inflection point: x = 5
k. concave up: (1, 2), concave down: (2, 3), inflection point x = 2 l. concave up: (2πk, π + 2πk), concave down:
(π + 2πk, 2π + 2πk), inflection point x = π + πk, k ∈ 3. a = 6, b = 0 4. (–1, –19) 5. concave up: (–1, 3),
concave down: (–∞, –1), (3, ∞), inflection points: x = –1, x = 3 6. a. minimum b. maximum c. minimum d. minimum

7. a. max.: x = –3, min.: x = –1 b. max : x = –3+ 5 , min : x = 0, x = –3 – 5 c. max.: x = 0, min.: x = 4

2 2
d. min.: x = –3 e. max.: x = 0 f. no extremum

8. y 9. consider the second derivative of f(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d 10. consider the second
a
b x derivative of f(x) = ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e 11. y = –x + 3 12. a = –1, b = 0, c = 3
13. c = 2 14. 2f ′(a) – f(a)

EXERCISES 5 .4
512
1. 15 and 15 2. –2 and 2 3. 50 4. 2ñm 5. m = 1 6. 50 m by 50 m 7. 30 m by 60 m 8. cm 3 9. 2, 2 and 1 m
6 3 5
10. 3888 cm3 11. 3 m 12. 250 13. 2R2 14. 2ñ2 15. (1, 0) 16. 24 17. y = 2ñ2 18. 13 19. r = 2 cm, h = cm
π 3
20. 1 hour 21. 9

EXERCISES
1. a. x = –1, y = 0
g. x = –3, y = 1
5 .5
b. x = 1, y = 0 c. no asymptotes d. x = 4, y = –3 e. x = –3, y = 0 f. x = ±1, y = –1
3 3 4 1
h. x = , x = –3, y = – i. x = 6, x = –1, y = 0 j. y = x k. x = 1, y = x + 3 2. − ,
2 2 9 4

3. a.y b. y c. y d. y e. y f. y
1 1
3 1 2 –2 2 3
4 3
x x
6 x
50 –1 1 x
–3 – 27 –1 1 x
–32 –2
–5/3 1 x
–12

492 Answers to Exercises

 4 3 7 1
4. – 5. a = – , b= – 6. 0 7. y = ( x – 2)2 ( x +1)( x + 2)
27 14 2 2
8 a. y b. y c. y d. y e. y f. y
1
1 1
1/3 1/3
1 x 3
–1 x –1 1 3 x 5/3 –3 3 x
–1 –1 –3
1 3 x
2 x

–8

9 a. y b. y c. y 10. 1 solution if a ∈ (–∞, –4) ∪ (23, ∞),

2
2 solutions if a ∈ {–4, 23},
2 1
–2 x
1 3 solutions if a ∈ (–4, 23)
p/2 x
–2
–2 2 x

EXERCISES 6 .1
1. 12 2. 10 ways Windows 3. 4 5. 12 6. 6 7. {MMM, MMF, MFM, MFF, FMM, FMF, FFM, FFF}
1 2 3 4 5
A 1A 2A 3A 4A 5A
Doors
B 1B 2B 3B 4B 5B

8. 12 9. 13 10. 4 11. 624 12. 46 13. 24 14. 6 15. 14 16. 412 17. a. 412 b. 512 18. 240 19. 28800
20. 264 = 456976 21. 5000 22. 4 000 000 23. a.10 b. 210 = 1028 24. 5850 25. 74360 26. No
27. No 28. a. 25 b. 10 29. 1944 30. 48 31. 135 32. 159 33. 8500 34. 12 35. a. 1792
b. 320 36. a. 140 b. 36 37. 9990000 38. 367 – 267 – 107 = 70322353920 39. 52(26 + 262 + 263) = 456950
40. Hint: Apply to the pigeonhole principle

EXERCISES 6 .2
⎛ Δ †  œ⎞ ⎛1 2 3 ⎞ ⎛1 2 3 4 ⎞ ⎛a b c d e ⎞
1. g−1 = ⎜ ⎟ 2. ⎜ ⎟ 3. ⎜ ⎟ 4. ⎜ ⎟ 5. 5! = 120 6. 720 7. 120 8. 5040
⎜  Δ œ †⎟ ⎜2 1 3⎟ ⎜4 3 2 1⎟ ⎜e c b a d⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
1
9. 5! ⋅ 5! ⋅ 2! = 28800 10. a. 110 b. 81 c. n – 3 d. 3 e. 11. a. 2 b. 6 c. 9 d. 3 12. 336
42
13. P(10, 7) = 604800 14. P(10, 3) = 720 15. P(7, 3) = 210
16. P(7, 1) + P(7, 2) + P(7, 3) + P(7, 4) + P(7, 5) = 3619 17. P(26, 1) + P(26, 2) + P(26, 3) = 16276
18. 2! ⋅ 3! = 12 19. 64 – P(6, 4) = 576 20. a. 120 b. 4 ⋅ P(6, 3) = 480 21. 4 ⋅ 5! = 480
22. 2 ⋅ P(26, 4) + P(26, 5) 23. 2 ⋅ 3! + 3 ⋅ 3! = 30 24. P(7, 4) ⋅ 24 25. 5! ⋅ 2! = 240
26. a. 17! b. 3! ⋅ 4! ⋅ 6! ⋅ 7! = 522547200 27. 6! – 5! ⋅ 2! = 480 28. (2! ⋅ 3! ⋅ 5!) + (3! ⋅ 3! ⋅ 4!) = 2304

Answers to Exercises 493

 9! 13!
29. =1260 30. 7! = 5040 31. 75599 32. = 60060 33. 540 34. 50
3! ⋅ 4! ⋅ 2! 3! ⋅ 4! ⋅ 6!
20! ⎛ 8! ⎞⎛ 4! ⎞ 12!
35.
9! ⋅ 2! ⋅ 2! ⋅ 2! ⋅ 2!⋅ 2!
36. 60 37. 126 38. ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = 168 39. a. b. 3! ⋅ 4! ⋅ 3! 40. 4! = 24
⎝ 6!⋅ 2! ⎠⎝ 2!⋅ 2! ⎠ 5!

41. 3! ⋅ 5! = 720 42. 23! 43. 4! ⋅ 5! = 2880 44. 2! ⋅ 4! ⋅ 4! = 1152 45. 5! ⋅ 3! = 720 46. 6! = 720

8! 8! 4!
47. =140 48. 12 49. 360 50. 4 51. ⋅ = 6 ⋅ 8! 52. 21! ⋅ 222 53. 5 ⋅ 44 = 1280 54. 2 ⋅ 18!
3! ⋅ 4! ⋅ 2! 2!⋅ 2! 2!

EXERCISES 6 .3
n−2
1. a. 6 b. 71 c. 24 d. 29 = 512 e. 212 = 4096 2. a. 12 b. c. n2 – n 3. a. 6 b. 9 c. 9
6
4. {(k, l, m), (k, l, n), (k, l, r), (k, m, n), (k, m, r), (k, n, r), (l, m, n), (l, n, r), (l, m, r), (m, n, r)} 5. 64 6. 10

⎛ 16 ⎞ ⎛ 48 ⎞ ⎛ 40 ⎞
7. 60 8. 35 9. 78 10. 45 11. 20 12. 10 13. ⎜ ⎟ =1820 14. ⎜ ⎟ = 69668534468 15. ⎜ ⎟ = 91390
⎜4 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 12 ⎠ ⎝4 ⎠

⎛ 11⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎛ 3⎞ ⎛ 3⎞ ⎛ 12 ⎞ ⎛ 8 ⎞ ⎛5⎞ ⎛5⎞ ⎛ 12 ⎞ ⎛10 ⎞ ⎛ 9 ⎞

16. ⎜ ⎟ = 330 17. ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ = 9 18. ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ = 27720 19. 45 20. ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ 3! = 600 21. ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ ⎟
⎝4⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝1 ⎠ ⎝1 ⎠ ⎝ 8 ⎠ ⎝3⎠ ⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠ ⎝ 5 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝2⎠

⎛7 ⎞ ⎛ 7 ⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎛8⎞ ⎛5⎞ ⎛ 5 ⎞⎛ 7 ⎞
22. ⎜ ⎟ = 21 23. ⎜ ⎟ or ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = 21 24. ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ = 65 25. a. ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = 350
⎝2⎠ ⎝ 5 ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝4⎠ ⎝4⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠⎝ 4 ⎠

⎛ 7 ⎞⎛ 5 ⎞ ⎛ 7 ⎞⎛ 5 ⎞ ⎛ 7 ⎞ ⎛5⎞ ⎛ 5⎞ ⎛5⎞ ⎛5 ⎞ ⎛ 9⎞ ⎛ 3⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞
b. ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ = 246 26. ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ = 26 27. 21 28. a. 29 b. ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ = 79
⎝ 5 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 6 ⎠⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝ 7 ⎠ ⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 1⎠ ⎝0 ⎠ ⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠

⎛7 ⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎛8 ⎞ ⎛7 ⎞ ⎛ 26 ⎞ ⎛ 21⎞
29. ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ = 126 30. ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ + 3 = 94 31. 45045 32. 600 33. ⎜ ⎟ = 14950 34. ⎜ ⎟ = 1330
⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠ ⎝ 3⎠ ⎝3⎠ ⎝4 ⎠ ⎝3⎠

⎛ 2010 ⎞ ⎛ 49 ⎞ ⎛ 29 ⎞ ⎛ 37 ⎞ ⎛ 19 ⎞
35. ⎜ ⎟ = 678072034710 36. ⎜ ⎟ = 1906884 37. ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ = 7843173975 38. ⎜ ⎟ = 75582
⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝5 ⎠ ⎝5⎠ ⎝ 5⎠ ⎝ 11 ⎠

⎛ 19 ⎞ ⎛ 35 ⎞ ⎛6⎞
39. a. ⎜ ⎟ = 3876 b. ⎜ ⎟ = 3247943160 40. 4 41. ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ 4! = 360 42. P(6, 4) = 360
⎝ 15 ⎠ ⎝ 15 ⎠ ⎝4⎠

⎛5⎞ ⎛7 ⎞ ⎛5⎞ ⎛6 ⎞ ⎛5⎞

43. ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ P(5,3) = 600 44. ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ 4!= 504 45. a. ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ 8! b. P(5, 4) ⋅ P(6, 4) ⋅ 2! = 86400 46. ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ 34 = 810
⎝ 3⎠ ⎝5⎠ ⎝4⎠ ⎝4⎠ ⎝2⎠

⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎛ 6 ⎞ ⎛ 5 ⎞ ⎛ 18 ⎞ ⎛ 12 ⎞ ⎛7 ⎞ ⎛7 ⎞
47. ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ = 146880 48. 65 ⋅ 4! ⋅ 25 = 5971968 49. ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ 5! = 110880 50. ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ = 56
⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝6⎠ ⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠

⎛9⎞
51. 15 52. ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ 3! ⋅ 2! = 1008
⎝ 3⎠
494 Answers to Exercises
 EXERCISES 6 .4
1. a. 243x5 + 2025x4 + 6750x3 + 11250x2 + 9375x + 3125 b. 16x8 – 160x6 + 600x4 – 1000x2 + 625

c. 1024x15 – 3840x12y2 + 5760x9y4 – 4320x6y6 + 1620x3y8 – 243y10 2. –243 3. 600x2y2

⎛ 15 ⎞ ⎛8⎞
4. a. 625 b. 515 5. ⎜ ⎟ (3x)4 6. ⎜ ⎟ (3x4 )3 ⋅ ( y3 )5 7. 240 8. 59 9. 3360 10. 252
⎝ 11 ⎠ ⎝5⎠

EXERCISES 6 .5
1 2 1 1 3 13 8 1 1 5! ⋅ 4! 1
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. = 9. 10. 150 11.
2 9 63 4 4 28 11 ⎛ 42 ⎞ 111930 9! 63
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4⎠
⎛ 32 ⎞⎛168 ⎞ ⎛4⎞ ⎛ 210 ⎞
⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1 ⎠⎝ 3 ⎠ = 12419456 1 3 4 3 ⎝ 4 ⎠ = 532
12. 13. 14. 15. 1 − ⎝ ⎠ 16. 17. a.
⎛ 200 ⎞ 32342475 60 7 ⎛ 12 ⎞ 7 ⎛ 300 ⎞ 2235
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝4⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠

⎛ 210 ⎞⎛ 90 ⎞ ⎛ 210 ⎞⎛ 90 ⎞
⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎛ 90 ⎞ ⎛7 ⎞
⎜ 2 ⎟⎜ 2 ⎟ 11837 ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠ = ⎝ 1 ⎠⎝ 3 ⎠ = 9968 4 5162 1 7 3 7
b. c. d. ⎝ ⎠ = 18. 19. 20. ⎝ ⎠ =
⎛ 300 ⎞ 44551 ⎛ 300 ⎞ 133653 ⎛ 300 ⎞ 668265 88 6 18 ⎛ 10 ⎞ 24
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 4 ⎟ ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝3⎠
⎝ ⎠

⎛ 4 ⎞⎛ 5 ⎞⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞⎛ 5 ⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎛ 10 ⎞ ⎛7⎞ ⎛ 7 ⎞⎛ 4 ⎞
⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1 ⎠⎝ 1 ⎠⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠ = 72 3 67 3 1 3 2 3
21. 22. 1 − ⎝ ⎠ = 23. 1 − ⎝ ⎠ = 24. ⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠ =
⎛ 13 ⎞ 143 15
⎛ ⎞ 91 8
⎛ ⎞ 2 8 5
⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞ 10
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎝3⎠ ⎝3⎠ ⎝4⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠⎝ 3 ⎠

⎛ 15 ⎞⎛ 5 ⎞ ⎛15 ⎞⎛ 5 ⎞ ⎛15 ⎞⎛ 5 ⎞ ⎛15 ⎞⎛ 5 ⎞ ⎛15 ⎞ ⎛ 10 ⎞ ⎛ 5 ⎞ ⎛ 5 ⎞⎛ 5 ⎞⎛ 5 ⎞

⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ 6!⋅ 2! 3 ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎝ 6 ⎠⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 7 ⎠⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 8 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 9 ⎠⎝1 ⎠ ⎝ 10 ⎠ ⎝5⎠ =
1 ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠⎝ 1 ⎠⎝ 1 ⎠ = 31
25. 26. 27.
⎛ 20 ⎞ ⎛ 12 ⎞ 11 ⎛ 15 ⎞ 91
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ 7! ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 10 ⎠ ⎝7⎠ ⎝3⎠

⎛5⎞ ⎛6⎞ 4
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⋅2
99 1 ⎝ 4 ⎠ = 65 ⎝4⎠ 16 64 77 50 1
28. = 29. 1 − 30. = 31. 1 − = 32. =
⎛ 100 ⎞ 50 ⎛ 11⎞ 66 ⎛ 12 ⎞ 33 ⎛ 9 ⎞⎛ 9 ⎞ 81 ⎛ 100 ⎞ 99
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝4⎠ ⎝4⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠

Answers to Exercises 495

TEST 1 TEST 2 TEST 3A TEST 3B
1. A 9. C 1. A 9. A 1. E 9. E 1. D 9. E
2. D 10. E 2. A 10. E 2. A 10. C 2. B 10. B
3. E 11. C 3. E 11. C 3. B 11. C 3. D 11. E
4. B 12. C 4. B 12. C 4. E 12. D 4. B 12. C
5. D 13. B 5. C 13. E 5. E 13. A 5. C 13. A
6. B 14. C 6. E 14. B 6. E 14. B 6. D 14. D
7. D 15. D 7. E 15. E 7. A 15. D 7. D 15. C
8. A 16. C 8. B 16. A 8. E 16. C 8. E 16. D

TEST 3C TEST 3D TEST 3E TEST 3F

1. E 9. C 1. D 9. E 1. B 9. B 1. B 9. D
2. B 10. E 2. A 10. B 2. D 10. C 2. D 10. B
3. B 11. E 3. E 11. A 3. C 11. A 3. C 11. C
4. A 12. C 4. D 12. D 4. D 12. A 4. D 12. E
5. C 13. A 5. B 13. D 5. A 13. D 5. E 13. B
6. A 14. C 6. A 14. C 6. C 14. E 6. A 14. C
7. A 15. B 7. D 15. B 7. E 15. B 7. C 15. A
8. D 16. C 8. C 16. A 8. D 16. C 8. A

TEST 4A TEST 4B TEST 5A TEST 5B

1. C 9. B 1. A 9. C 1. B 9. B 1. E 9. C
2. E 10. C 2. E 10. C 2. C 10. C 2. D 10. D
3. C 11. C 3. E 11. E 3. A 11. C 3. B 11. B
4. D 12. C 4. C 12. E 4. E 12. D 4. A 12. E
5. A 13. B 5. E 13. B 5. E 13. B 5. E 13. B
6. E 14. A 6. C 14. D 6. E 14. A 6. D 14. A
7. C 15. A 7. E 15. D 7. D 15. D 7. E 15. E
8. A 16. E 8. B 16. B 8. A 16. E 8. A 16. B

TEST 6A TEST 6B
1. E 5. B 9. D 13. D 1. A 5. A 9. E 13. E
2. D 6. A 10. A 14. A 2. A 6. D 10. B 14. B
3. C 7. B 11. C 15. B 3. E 7. C 11. D 15. D
4. D 8. E 12. E 16. C 4. C 8. A 12. D 16. E

496 Answers to Exercises

Answers to Exercises 497
498 Answers to Exercises
Answers to Exercises 499
500 Answers to Exercises