Personality in Context Walters Jung

3
Carl Jung and Analytical Psychology

In 1906 a Swiss psychiatrist by the name of Carl Jung, intrigued with Sigmund
Freud’s theory of unconscious motivation, sent a letter to Freud, initiating a 7-year
correspondence. Jung’s own research on the word association test had garnered
support for some of Freud’s fundamental postulates about the unconscious and
Freud invited Jung and his wife to visit him in Vienna. In their initial meeting
Freud and Jung met for 13 straight hours. Freud considered Jung, who was 19
years his junior, the son who would succeed him as leader of the psychoanalytic
movement and nominated him for the inaugural presidency of the International
Psychoanalytic Association. Jung, for his part, perceived Freud as the powerful
father figure he never had. Even before Jung assumed his duties as head of the
international association, it was apparent that he and Freud held disparate views on
the unconscious. B oth men tried to overlook their differences, but the chasm that
formed between them soon grew too wide to ignore. The irreconcilable breach that
would eventually bring an end to their personal and professional relationship freed
Jung to pursue and cultivate his own theory of personality.
JUNG, THE PERSON

Carl Gustav Jung was born in Kesswil, Switzerland, a small village on the shores
of Lake Constance, on July 26, 1875. His father, Paul Jung, was a Protestant
minister, and his mother, Emilie, was a rather large boned, generally bossy woman
who would mumble to herself and act in a manner indicative, at least to Jung, of
someone in touch with the spirit world. It should be noted that Jung’s older
brother, who was born two years before him, died after only a few days; an event
that may have made Jung’s parents more protective of him than they would have
otherwise been had his brother survived. Because Jung’s only other sibling, his
sister Gertrude, with whom he never formed a close bond, was not born until 1884,
he was an only child for the first 9 years of his life. Jung perceived that his parent’s
marriage was unsatisfying to both parties, which both confused and frightened him.
W hen he was only 3 years old Jung’s mother was hospitalized for depression and
60 Personality Theory in Context
he apparently developed a strong attachment to the dark-haired, olive-complected

maid who cared for him during his mother’s absence. In his autobiography Jung
states that “this type of girl later became a component of my anima” (Jung, 1961,
p. 8). After several months in the hospital his mother returned home but Jung never
forgave her for what he construed as her willful abandonment of him. Fear of
abandonment was a theme that played out repeatedly in Jung’s life from childhood
to death, leading him to construct a view of women as unreliable.
By all accounts, Jung was a shy and frightened child who harbored ambivalent
feelings toward both parents. He viewed his mother as powerful but unreliable and
his father as reliable yet powerless. Jung’s mother could be warm and loving one
moment and intrusive and caustic the next. Moreover, she would confide in Jung
about problems in her marriage that he could not possibly comprehend. These
inappropriate self-disclosures only served to confuse the boy further. Jung judged
his father as someone who had lost his faith. Although the senior Jung served as a
Protestant pastor for a number of country parishes around Basel, Switzerland, he
was beset with religious doubt and would give sermons that his son felt lacked
feeling and commitment. Since the cemetery was not far from the vicarage, Jung
had the opportunity to witness many burials as a young child. People he had seen
every day suddenly disappeared and he would later learn “that they had been
buried and that Lord Jesus had taken them to himself” (Jung, 1961, p. 9). This
created in Jung a sense of fear, mistrust, and ambivalence toward Jesus and
anything associated with him. At the age of three Jung had a dream that would
make a lasting impression on him. In the dream he found himself descending to the
lower depths of the earth to find a large phallic-like organism “made of skin and
naked flesh” sitting on a golden throne. Near the end of the dream Jung recalled
hearing his mother exclaim “that’s the man-eater.” Jung never shared his
ithyphallic dream, as he would later call it, with anyone until he was in his sixties.
He kept the dream secret from his parents because he could not trust them to
respond appropriately. Keeping secrets became a life-long pattern for Jung.
W hen Jung was four years old he began to sense the company of two distinct
personalities within himself, what he later labeled his No. 1 and No. 2
personalities. Personality No. 1 was the mask or false self that he projected to the
world. The No. 2 personality, on the other hand, was a secret self wise beyond its
years which he regarded as cosmic, timeless, and impersonal. Jung also saw his
mother as having two personalities. He described his mother’s No. 1 personality as
warm, caring, and pleasant, and her No. 2 personality as nocturnal, ruthless, and
packed with primitive spirituality. Throughout his life, Jung sought to mend the
split he experienced in himself. From a relatively early age Jung engaged in
symbolic rituals designed, in part, to assist with the mending process. Three rituals
appear to have been particularly critical in this regard. First, Jung made a habit of
lighting and tending a sacred fire he would set in an interstice formed by the bricks
of a stone wall that bounded the family garden. Second, he would spend hours
sitting on a large stone located on a slope outside the old garden wall wondering
whether he was the one “sitting on the stone, or am I the stone on which he is
Jung and Analytical Psychology 61
sitting?” (Jung, 1961. P. 20). Third, he made a manikin that helped soothe him
when he felt troubled:
At the end of this ruler I now carved a little manikin, about two inches
long, with frock coat, top hat, and shiny boots. I colored him black
with ink, sawed him off the ruler, and put him in the pencil case, where
I made him a little bed . . . In the case I also placed a smooth, oblong
blackish stone from the Rhine, which I had painted with water colors to
look as though it were divided into an upper and lower half, and had
long carried around in my trouser pocket. This was his stone. All this
was a great secret. Secretly, I took the case to the forbidden attic at the
top of the house (forbidden because the floorboards were worm-eaten
and rotten) and hide it with great satisfaction on one of the beams
under the roof—for no one must ever see it! (Jung, 1961, p.21)
Jung was a solitary, isolated child who would often play alone even when
surrounded by children his own age. A childhood companion of Jung’s, Albert
Oeri (1977), states that his initial contact with Jung at age five was memorable:
Carl sat in the middle of the room, occupied himself with a little
bowling game, and didn’t pay the slightest attention to me . . . I have
never come across such an asocial monster before. (p. 3)
Academically, Jung did well in school except for mathematics. Oeri (1977)
comments that a lack of aptitude for math was something that ran in Jung’s family;
even his famous grandfather, Carl Gustav Jung, could not escape its grip. It had
been rumored that the senior Carl Gustav Jung was the illegitimate son of the
famous writer Goethe, and while there was no apparent truth to the rumor, the
junior Carl Gustav Jung would often boast to friends that he was Goethe’s great-
grandson. His identification with Goethe and the older Carl Jung was so intense
that Jung changed his given name from Karl to Carl in an effort to emulate his
highly respected grandfather. During his early school years Jung suffered from
anxiety dreams, suffocation fears, depression, and pseudo-croup. W hen he was 12
years old he was pushed to the ground by a school-mate and hit his head on the
curbstone. Although he was not seriously injured he used the incident as an excuse
for being absent from school for six months.
W hile he enjoyed the solitude that his home life provided, far removed from the
social and academic pressures of school, Jung began feeling guilty after
overhearing his father express concern about his son’s ability to make a living for
himself given his sickly nature. Jung returned to school shortly thereafter and
tackled his lessons and assignments with a vigor and devotion that he had not
previously demonstrated. He did so well, in fact, that one teacher wrongly accused
him of plagiarizing a term paper. As Jung delved into the philosophy of men like
Kant and Schopenhauer his self-confidence grew, even though he continued to
isolate himself from others. His socially aloof attitude earned him the nickname
“Abraham the Patriarch” from his classmates. W hen he was 12 years old Jung was
bothered by a recurrent obsessive thought of God squatting on his golden throne
and dropping a giant turd to earth that shatters the beautiful shiny dome of the
cathedral in Basel. This vision reflected Jung’s ambivalent attitude toward religion
in general and toward his minister father in particular. It was during this time that
Jung began to believe that he had a special relationship with G od whereby God
would reveal himself to Jung, a belief that would remain with him until his death
nearly 75 years later.
In April 1895 Jung entered medical school at Basel University with designs on
studying zoology and biology. His father tried to discourage him from following in
his footsteps and implored his son to be “anything you like except a theologian”
(Jung, 1961, p. 75). A confident public speaker, Jung became more sociable during
his medical school years but retained a certain degree of moodiness and a
predilection for social isolation under pressure. Jung had decided before enrolling
in medical school that if he was going to graduate he would need to emphasize his
No. 1 personality over his No. 2 personality. Of course, there was no way to
completely divest himself of his No. 2 personality, which found expression in
Jung’s budding interest in the occult. He would hold seances in his house, often
with the aid of a talented medium who also happened to be his younger female
cousin. Jung was impressed with the results of his forays into the realm of the dead
and eventually conducted his doctoral dissertation on the subject. However, it soon
became evident that his young cousin, who had a schoolgirl crush on Jung, had
craftily fabricated the messages from the dead in order to keep Jung interested in
her. A year after Jung entered medical school his father died. Besides the grief
Jung felt for the loss of a man he believed never had the opportunity to know
himself, Jung was now the patriarch of the family. To help support his mother and
sister after his father’s death, Jung took over the practice of a village physician
who was on vacation and found that he enjoyed working directly with patients.
After graduating from Basel in 1900, Jung pursued an M.D. degree in psychiatry
at the University of Zurich. His practical training in psychiatry consisted of a heavy
dose of severely disturbed patients from the Burghöltzli asylum, under the
direction of Eugen Bleuler, a pioneer in the study of schizophrenia. Jung remained
at Burghöltzli after receiving his M.D. degree in 1902. During his nine years at
Burghöltzli Jung had a reputation for listening intently to the reports of psychotic
patients and trying to make sense of their delusions and hallucinations. His
sensitivity and conscientiousness in working with schizophrenics earned him the
admiration of both staff and patients. In 1901 he and several colleagues at
Burghöltzli began working with Galton’s word association test. The results of their
analyses, which continued until Jung left Burghöltzli in 1909, implied that people’s
associations often had unconscious origins, lending credence to the concept of
unconscious motivation proposed by the Viennese neurologist, Sigmund Freud. It
was during his time at Burghöltzli that Jung had occasion to spend several months
in Paris learning from the famous French neurologist, Pierre Janet. M any years
later Jung would acknowledge Janet as having had a major impact on his beliefs
about the unconscious.
On February 14, 1903 Jung married Emma Rauschenbach, the well educated
daughter of a wealthy Swiss-German industrialist. From the outset Jung was
ambivalent about Emma’s wealth. Some writers have argued that Jung sought fame
in an attempt to finance his own fortune so that he would not have to rely on his in-
law’s money. The marriage produced five children and was from all appearances
a reasonably happy union. Jung would later comment that Emma met the needs of
his No. 1 personality. What, though, of his No. 2 personality? This is where Jung’s
two long-standing affairs with former patients come into play. The first affair took
place between 1906 and 1909 and involved a bright young Russian Jewish woman
named Sabina Spielrein who fantasized about bearing Jung a son, a feat his wife
had not yet been able to accomplish. After an emotional breakdown in which
Spielrein confronted Jung with a knife, she moved to Vienna and entered long-term
analysis with Freud. The other long-term affair was with another former patient
who eventually became a Jungian analyst, Toni W olff, and ran from 1911 until
W olff’s death in 1953. Unlike many other aspects of his life, Jung did not keep his
affair with W olff secret; in fact, W olff regularly accompanied the Jung family on
outings and holidays. Evidently, Emma Jung and Toni W olff each accepted their
individual roles in Jung’s life, as the complements to his No. 1 and No. 2
personalities, respectively, and formed an uneasy peace.
Jung began corresponding with Freud in 1906. Apparently, it was Jung who
proposed to Freud that they develop a father-son relationship. Jung, in fact, shared
with Freud one of his secrets in a letter written on October 28, 1907: “as a boy I
was the victim of a sexual assault by a man I once worshiped” (McGuire, 1974, p.
44). Freud’s advice to Jung was to approach the traumatic event with humor,
counsel that was apparently ineffective in helping Jung overcome the trauma.
Freud viewed Jung as the future of psychoanalysis and Jung viewed Freud as the
powerful father he never had. Both eventually had their expectations dashed. W ith
Freud’s blessing, Jung assumed the presidency of the International Psychoanalytic
Association in 1910. In early 1909 Jung had quit his job at Burghöltzli in order to
devote more time to his private practice and the running of the international
association. However, he found himself at odds with some of Freud’s ideas and
was disheartened by the older man’s apparent unwillingness to modify the sexual
aspects of his theory. Freud begged Jung to “promise me never to abandon the
sexual theory. That is the most essential thing of all. You see, we must make a
dogma of it” (Jung, 1961, p. 150). But Jung found it increasingly more difficult to
abide by Freud’s exclusive emphasis on sex. Publication of the second part of
Symbols of Transformation in 1912— where Jung argued that incest should not be
taken too literally, but serves more as a “symbol” of a higher impersonal
phenomenon— precipitated the final break with Freud. After 1913 Jung and Freud
never spoke or wrote to one another again.
The Freud-Jung schism was harder on Jung than Freud. By 1913 Freud had a
well established reputation and a relatively large group of followers. Jung, on the
other hand, lost many of his followers to Freud after the split and was not nearly as
well known as Freud. After leaving Burghöltzli in 1909 Jung had built a house on
the lake at Küsnault where he and his family lived and where he saw patients. This
was where he retreated in 1913 when he began a period of extreme introversion,
some say psychosis, commonly called Jung’s creative illness. During this period
Jung withdrew from many regular activities, such as his lectures at Zurich
University, though he continued seeing patients. Between patients Jung would
collect stones and use them to erect elaborate miniature villages. He also spent a
substantial amount of time painting and analyzing his dreams and visions.
Preceding the onset of W orld W ar I by eight months, Jung dreamt that a red wave
of bodies engulfed all of the nations that would later participate in the war.
Switzerland, protected by the Alps, avoided the flood and was, in fact, neutral
throughout the war. This experience convinced Jung that dreams could be
prophetic. Toni W olff played an important role in helping Jung through his period
of creative illness, which many supporters believe was his first concerted effort to
mend the split in his personality by opening up to his No. 2 personality.
Jung’s period of creative illness or self-analysis lasted approximately four years
and was followed by the unveiling of his theory on the collective unconscious and
such noteworthy books as Psychological Types, first published in 1920. In the
same year that Psychological Types was published, Jung traveled to several north
African countries in an effort to observe Europe from the “outside.” He also
studied the Pueblo Indians in New M exico and traveled to east Africa, Egypt, and
India in order to gain first-hand knowledge of primitive psychology and
spiritualism. Jung was a voracious reader whose theory was not only influenced by
philosophy, but by early Christian Gnosticism, mythology, folklore, Hinduism,
astrology, and alchemy as well. His adolescent interest in the occult led him to
parapsychology and the study of such paranormal phenomena as ESP and UFOs.
Jung disliked flying because he believed air travel was too quick and that a portion
of one’s psyche got left behind. He also suspected that dead relatives and friends
were coming back to him as animals and he had a life-long habit of personally
greeting the kitchen utensils each morning. It is generally believed that Jung
introduced little new material into his theory after 1920, although he sought to
clarify and expound on his ideas by presenting them in new and novel ways.
One of Jung’s crowning achievements was the construction of a small house that
he called his Tower, which was located on a lake in the town of Bollingen. The
Tower was a kind of stone cabin where Jung went to meditate and write. It was
deliberately kept rustic so that he was forced to live primitively and get in touch
with his No. 2 personality. He drew his water from the lake and cut his own
firewood, which was critical because a fireplace was his only source of heat during
the cold winter months. Over the front door he chiseled “Sanctuary of Philemon,
penitence of Faust.” Philemon was an old man Jung visualized during his four-year
period of self-analysis or introspection who guided Jung through his collective
unconscious and taught him about the reality of the psyche. Faust was the main
character in the tragedy of the same name by Goethe. Jung not only identified with
Goethe, telling people he was Goethe’s great-grandson, but surmised that the split
between Faust and Mephistopheles paralleled the split he perceived between his
own No. 1 and No. 2 personalities. Jung began working on his Tower in 1923, two
months after his mother’s death, and finished it in 1955, several months after his
wife’s death. Consistent with his occult beliefs he maintained that his Tower
provided him with a spiritual link to the dead.

In 1933 Jung gave a series of lectures on dreams to a group of German
psychiatrists in Berlin and was interviewed by the G erman Press. The Nazis had
already assumed power in G ermany and were looking for alternatives to the
“Jewish-based” theories of Freud and Adler. Jung may have seen this as an
opportunity for analytical psychology to displace psychoanalysis in the hearts and
minds of Germans and many other Europeans. For whatever reason, some of
Jung’s comments seemed to cater to the National Socialist agenda. Apparently
impressed by H itler’s ability to reflect or channel the will and energy of the
German people, Jung was not altogether unsympathetic to the German form of
government: “there is no more ideal form of government than a decent form of
oligarchy” (Jung quoted in Hayman, 1999, p. 314). He even equated the infamous
S.S. with a caste of knights. Jung not only criticized the theories of Freud and
Adler, he also eluded to “parasitic elements in Jewish psychology” (Hayman, 1999,
p. 314). Those who support Jung contend that he was misunderstood, or at worst
exercised poor judgement, whereas his detractors have labeled him a Nazi
sympathizer. The truth probably lies somewhere in between. On the one hand, Jung
showed signs of anti-Semitism and was particularly derogatory in his portrayal of
American blacks. On the other hand, he himself acknowledged his lack of political
savvy and admitted that some of his ideas and words may have been twisted by
men like Goebbels looking for an opportunity to supplant psychoanalysis with an
approach more in keeping with their Aryan views.
In 1944 at the age of 68 Jung fell while walking in the snow and broke his fibula.
Ten days later he developed emboli in the heart and lungs which nearly killed him.
For days he hovered near death and believed himself to be on the threshold of the
next life. The visions he experienced as he lay in his hospital bed were for him
further proof that the collective unconscious was real. This period is sometimes
referred to as Jung’s second creative illness and was preceded by increased
productivity in both his writing and painting. Jung also viewed this experience as
a transition from his No. 1 personality to his No. 2 personality, the latter of which,
while dormant prior to Jung’s first creative illness, became the dominant force in
his life. Despite a sickly childhood, Jung enjoyed good health throughout his adult
life. His final major work was his autobiography, aptly entitled Memories, Dreams,
Reflections (Jung, 1961), which received high praise from reviewers and readers
alike. Unfortunately, several major aspects of Jung’s life, particularly his
relationships with Sabina Spielrein and Toni W olff, the former omission being
Jung’s and the latter omission being his family’s, were given little or no attention.
On June 6, 1961, several months before Memories, Dreams, Reflections was
published, Jung died in Zurich, Switzerland at the age of 85.
Sources: Feldm an (1992), Hannah (1976), Haym an (1999), Jung (1961), Sm ith
(1996), Stevens (1999).
ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY, THE THEORY
Key Concepts
Key concepts in Jung’s theory include the psyche— which subsumes the
conscious, personal unconscious, and collective unconscious— his reformulation of
Freud’s libido construct, the two psychological attitudes and four psychological
functions that comprise his typology of behavior, and the notion of synchronicity.
The Psyche
Jung visualized the personality or psyche as an organic entity composed of three
layers: the conscious, the personal unconscious, and the impersonal or collective
unconscious. Consciousness consists of everything about which a person is
currently aware, with the ego at its core. Jung defined ego as the thinking, feeling,
perceiving, and remembering organ of the personality. The primary function of the
ego is to represent how a person views him or herself and the surrounding
environment. The ego, according to Jung, is selective in the sense that it focuses on
a portion of the internal and external environment, while ignoring the rest. Jung
also located the persona on the conscious layer of the psyche. The persona is the
mask or veneer a person projects to others and as such, constitutes the person’s
public personality. W hereas the persona is necessary for social living, if it becomes
the individual’s sole means of identity it can severely limit the person’s ability to
express the unconscious elements of his or her experience.
At the next level of the psyche lies the personal unconscious. Jung defined the
personal unconscious as thoughts, feelings, and images that were once conscious
but have been lost to awareness because of repression, forgetting, inattention, or
subliminal perception. Jung’s personal unconscious parallels the unconscious and
preconscious found in Freud’s topographical model, with two important
exceptions. First, Jung’s personal unconscious not only stores past experiences but
also anticipates future events. Second, Jung’s personal unconscious serves an
adaptive function by accentuating qualities and dispositions under-represented in
the conscious. The principal elements of the personal unconscious are an
“agglomeration of associations” known as complexes. A complex is an
emotionally charged constellation of associated thoughts, wishes, perceptions, and
memories. Hence, a power complex might consist of a group of interrelated
thoughts, memories, wishes, and perceptions centering around issues of power and
control (see Figure 3.1).
At the deepest layer of psyche lies the impersonal or collective unconscious.
Compared to the personal unconscious, which is said to be unique to each person,
the collective unconscious is hypothesized to be the same for everyone. The
collective unconscious is a remnant of our ancestral past and a foundation for
legend, myth, and folklore. Similarities in mythology or folklore across different
Figure 3.1
Schematic Diagram of Jung’s Conception of the Psyche
Note. Adapted from D. S. Cartwright (1974). Introduction to personality. Chicago: Rand McNally.
cultures were cited by Jung as verification of the collective unconscious. W hereas

the personal unconscious is comprised of complexes, the collective unconscious
contains instincts and archetypes. Instincts are defined as unconscious physical
impulses to action, while archetypes derive from instincts and serve as the psychic
counterpart to and symbolic expression of instincts. Archetypes operate according
to an inherent organizing principle or psychic predisposition to think and act in a
particular way. Jung posited that archetypes were universal forms with no content,
the content being supplied by the cultural and personal experiences of the
individual. As primordial images, archetypes find their symbolic expression in
dreams, fantasies, and hallucinations.
Jung drew up a list of archetypes but admitted that many archetypes did not
appear on his list because the list was virtually inexhaustible. One archetype that
Jung did study was the persona. Although the persona is expressed at the conscious
level of the psyche (see Figure 3.1), the predisposition to project an image to the
outside world lies within the collective unconscious. An archetype expressed at the
level of the personal unconscious would be the shadow. The shadow is the
underbelly of the personality and has its foundation in primitive animal instincts.
Robert Louis Stevenson described the shadow in his portrayal of the feral Mr.
Hyde in his classic novel, Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. Because the shadow embodies
the undesirable or unacceptable aspects of one’s personality it is often projected

onto others. After W orld W ar II Jung argued that the German nation under Adolph
Hitler had projected its shadow onto the Jews who had become the scapegoat for
everything that went wrong in Germany. Another major archetype in Jung’s system
is the anima/animus. The anima is the feminine side of the man and the animus is
the masculine side of the woman. Like Freud, Jung believed that humans were
bisexual, though the opposite sex archetype was often repressed from
consciousness. Sensitivity and caring in men and assertiveness and reasoning in
women are attributed by Jungians to the anima and animus, respectively.
It should be noted that archetypes have no content but are simply predispositions
or potentialities. Archetypes nonetheless exert a profound effect on personality and
often serve as the hub of the complexes found in the personal unconscious. A
mother or father complex links thoughts and memories repressed from
consciousness but held together by the unifying action of the mother or father
archetype. Archetypes can also be integrated or blended to create new forms. The
hero and wise old man archetypes can be combined to yield the “philosopher king”
(e.g., Abraham Lincoln), while the hero and demon archetypes can be joined to
produce the “satanic leader” (e.g., Joseph Stalin). Jung even credited Freud with
discovering an archetype, the Oedipus complex, which he complemented with the
Electra complex, a young girl’s desire for her father and competition with her
mother. The central archetype in Jung’s system, however, is the self. Jung pictured
the self as a mandala, the symbol of unity in many Eastern religions, to indicate
that the self provides balance between the conscious and unconscious layers of the
psyche. W hereas the ego is the center of consciousness, the self is the center of the
personality.
Libido
Freud viewed libido as sexual energy. Jung, who disagreed with the sexual
emphasis of Freud’s theory, expanded the libido construct to encompass all forms
of energy. Libido in Jung’s system is equated with general psychic energy. Jung
based his libido theory on three interlocking principles. The principle of opposition
holds that conflict between opposing processes or forces, a major tenet of Jung’s
theory, creates psychic energy. The principle of equivalence posits that psychic
energy directed at a particular goal or objective is restructured or counterbalanced
to accomplish an opposite goal or objective. Finally, Jung’s principle of entropy
states that the psychic system is continually moving toward equilibrium or balance.
In short, resolution of conflict contributes to equalization of tension. Hence, Jung
visualized a system of energy created by a conflict of opposing forces, that
balanced itself, and moved the organism toward equilibrium.
Psychological Types
Jung proposed a model of psychological attitudes and functions that he believed
could elegantly explain the process by which people construe themselves and the
world. The two psychological attitudes that Jung highlighted were introversion
and extraversion. Introversion is a turning of the libido inward to where the
person is more influenced by the inner world than by the outer world.
Extraversion, on the other hand, is a turning of the libido outward so that the
individual pays greater attention to the outer world than to the inner world. Jung
recognized that the vast majority of people fall somewhere between these two
extremes, even as most of us gravitate toward one end of the continuum or the
other. By means of a process known as compensation the individual balances his
or her conscious attitude with an equally powerful unconscious attitude. Thus, in a
woman whose conscious behavior is profoundly introverted, we would expect to
find a strongly extraverted unconscious that would be reflected in her dreams,
fantasies, and artwork. By the same token, we can anticipated that an extraverted
man will have an introverted fantasy life.
The four psychological functions that comprise Jung’s theory are thinking,
feeling, sensing, and intuiting. The thinking function is marked by a tendency to
use the intellect to understand and interpret one’s experience. Evaluating one’s
experience against subjective standards of acceptance and rejection evolves out of
the feeling function. Determining whether an experience is present through the
senses of sight, sound, smell, touch, or taste is how the sensing function operates.
The most difficult of the four functions to comprehend is the intuiting function.
Here the individual uses intuition or the unconscious to perceive reality and size up
situations. Thinking and feeling are considered rational functions in that they are
based on reasoning and judgment, whereas sensing and intuiting are irrational
functions in that they focus on immediate perception independent of reasoning and
judgement. Jung believed that most people rely on one of the four functions, which
he referred to as the primary or superior function, although he made allowances for
two or three well differentiated functions in some individuals. The goal of self-
realization or individuation is the synthesis and differentiation of all four
functions, a task relatively few people ever accomplish.
The two psychological attitudes can be crossed with the four psychological
functions to create a fluid typology (fluid because Jung rejected rigid typologies
and believed that people could move between types). Extraverted individuals who
gravitate toward the thinking function tend to be good problem solvers who often
make strong leaders (Jane). Introverted individuals who prefer the thinking
function are apt to be abstract thinkers who find fulfillment in fields like
philosophy and theoretical science (Dick when he is sober). Extraverts who rely on
the feeling function base their judgements on external criteria, are outgoing, and
are likely to be found in socially oriented professions (Cliff as an adult). Introverts
who depend heavily on the feeling function base their judgements on internal
criteria and are likely to come across as sensitive and perceptive (Violet). The
extraverted sensing type is pleasure or experience oriented and is often found in
the business world (Hutch), while the introverted sensing type is more aesthetically
and artistically inclined (Chip). Extraverts who are intuitive will base their
decisions on hunches that may lead to creative solutions or even inventions (Cliff
as an adolescent), whereas intuitive introverts are more likely to come across as
idealists (Dick when he is drunk).
Synchronicity
Late in his career, long after he had laid out the major tenets of his analytical
theory, Jung came up with the theoretical notion of synchronicity. Synchronicity
was defined by Jung as an acausal linking phenomenon that appeared when an
event in the outside world coincided with a psychological event or state of mind.
Hence, the two events are correlated in space and time without necessarily being
causally connected. Thinking about your father and learning shortly thereafter that
he died around the same time you were thinking about him is an example of what
Jung meant by synchronicity. Jung believed that synchronicity illustrates the
relativity of space and time and the narrow corridor that separates the inner and
outer worlds by way of the collective unconscious. Telepathy, clairvoyance, and
other paranormal events were believed by Jung to be the result of synchronicity. A
report card outlining research support for key concepts in Jung’s theory is
reproduced in Table 3.1.
Development
Like Freud, Jung took a stage-based discontinuous view of development. Unlike
Freud, Jung focused on development across the lifespan, paying particular
attention to the years after age 35 or 40. The four stages of Jung’s developmental
scheme are childhood, youth, middle age, and old age.
Childhood
From birth to adolescence the human organism’s experience, according to Jung,
is dominated by the personal and collective unconscious. Fantasies emanating from
the instincts, archetypes, and wish fulfillment are featured during the childhood
stage of development. The human child is dependent on adults for satisfaction of
its basic needs but as the ego develops the organism becomes increasingly more
autonomous. Jung postulated three phases of childhood development. During the
first or anarchic phase the child is beset by chaotic primitive images that have
little apparent connection with one another. In the second or monarchic phase the
ego begins to develop, providing the child with a rudimentary sense of self.
However, the ego is perceived as an object and therefore children in this phase
characteristically refer to themselves in the third person. The advent of the third or
dualistic phase marks the appearance of connected islands of conscious thought
and the ability to take both an objective and subjective view of the ego. Children in
this phase accordingly refer to themselves in the first person.
Table 3.1
Report Card on Key Concepts in Analytical Psychology
Key Concept Summary of Research Findings Grade
Psyche While there is some evidence that myths, symbols, and D

forms transcend culture, there is no evidence that these
archetypes exist in a biologically based collective
unconscious (Noll, 1994; Pietikainen, 1998).
Libido Like many of Jung’s concepts libido is imprecisely defined D

and largely inaccessible to empirical testing. Logical
problems with Jung’s concept of libido have also been
noted (Jones, 2001).
Psychological There is evidence from the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator B

Types and other measures that supports predictions derived from
Jung’s theory of psychological types (Thompson &
Ackerman, 1994; Vacha-Haase & Thompson, 2002).
Synchronicity Synchronicity, by definition, is virtually impossible to test. F

Likewise, more parsimonious explanations for phenomena
Jung attributed to synchronicity are possible (Faber, 1998).
Youth
Starting around puberty and extending to middle adulthood, Jung’s youth stage
of development ushers in a period of increased consciousness. D uring this stage
youth begin taking on adult-like attributes, roles, and functions, as marked by
physical maturation, the advent of new social and occupational roles, and the
formation of sexual relationships. Jung stressed that during the youth stage people
must look forward rather than backwards and be willing to be guided in their
journey toward “psychic rebirth” by paths or patterns established by one or more
idealized others. The chief developmental task during the youth stage of
development is turning one’s libido outward and engaging life.
Middle Age
After age 35 or 40 the human organism turns its attention inward in an attempt to
better integrate the conscious and unconscious elements of the psyche. In an effort
to integrate the unconscious, which was largely ignored during the youth stage,
with the conscious the individual becomes more introverted and less extraverted.
Spiritual interests may also surface during middle age. The process by which a
person synthesizes the conscious and unconscious elements of his or her

personality is called individuation or self-realization. The union of opposites,
which Jungians ascribe to a transcendent function, further facilitates the process of
individuation, seeing as most conflicts in the psyche pit an unconscious attribute
(e.g., introversion) against a conscious attribute (e.g., extraversion). By integrating
polarities and synthesizing dualities people become more functional and
homogeneous individuals, thus permitting development of the self, the archetype
Jung placed at the center of the personality.
Old Age
Old age in Jung’s developmental scheme marks a return to the unconscious
preoccupation of childhood. Consciousness fades into the ground while the
unconscious assumes the position of figure. It is vital that the individual deal with
his or her fear of death during this stage because fear of death can block realization
of the principal task of old age— to prepare for death and the rebirth that Jung
believed followed death. Besides the literal translation of Jung’s views on rebirth,
namely reincarnation, Jung also proposed a figurative interpretation of changes
occurring during old age. Death can serve as a metaphor for the loss of the old
personality and rebirth may symbolize the advent of a new, more integrated
personality.
Assessment
To Jung, assessment was an integral part of the change process. There were
several assessment procedures Jung and his followers introduced in an effort to
measure such key concepts as the collective unconscious and psychological types.
Five of these are discussed here.
Word Association Test

Back in 1901, shortly after he started working at the Burghöltzli asylum, Jung
and several colleagues began experimenting with Galton’s word association
technique. A list of 100 stimulus words was compiled under the name W ord
Association Test. The test administrator reads the first word on the list and
instructs the patient to respond with the first image or thought that comes to mind
and then records the response and reaction time. Physical measures of breathing
and galvanic skin response are also sometimes included in the evaluation.
Repeated responses, prolonged reaction times, or a change in respiration or
galvanic skin response are believed to signal the presence of a complex, which the
reader will recall is an emotionally-charged collection of associated thoughts,
wishes, perceptions, and memories. Research on word association tests has
generated some interesting findings, but the widespread clinical use of these
measures is currently restricted to certain neuropsychological applications in which
the word associations are used to assess neuropsychological deficits rather than
psychological complexes (Maloney & W ard, 1976).
Dreams
Jung agreed with Freud that dreams were an excellent source of unconscious
material. Jung also concurred with Freud that dreams sometimes represented wish
fulfillment of unsatisfied needs and fantasies. Unlike Freud, however, Jung
believed that dreams served compensatory and prospective objectives. The
compensatory function of dreams is the balance they provide between opposites in
the psyche. If a man projects a masculine persona in his everyday life, he will
likely have dreams that feature his anima (female side of the man) as a means of
compensating for the masculine preoccupation of his conscious mind. Jung also
believed that dreams were capable of foretelling future events based on the ageless
wisdom of the collective unconscious. W hen interpreting dreams Jung would rely
on elaboration and amplification in order to broaden dream content, images, and
meaning. Elaboration entails having the patient free associate to the dream
symbols in an effort to gain a clearer understanding of their meaning to the patient.
Amplification is used to compare the dream symbols with cultural myths as a
means of unraveling the dream’s archetypal content. Jung also interpreted dreams
in a series so that related dreams could be evaluated in succession. A dream series
allows for the detection of recurrent themes and symbols and can be of assistance
in correcting erroneous interpretations based on a single dream.
Active Imagination
Jung also found it helpful to guide patients through simulated dream
experiences. Using a procedure known as active imagination Jung would instruct
patients to close their eyes and visualize a scene or character, often from a dream,
with the intent of facilitating elicitation of unconscious material. Often Jung would
have patients imagine themselves descending a stairway or ladder, simulating a
journey into the unconscious regions of the personality, during which time he
would query them on the details of the experience and any associations they may
have had to the string of images produced by this procedure. In using active
imagination Jung believed it was possible to access the farthest reaches of the
psyche without having to ask the patient to reconstruct his or her dreams.
Expressive Techniques
During the four year period known as Jung’s creative illness he made extensive
use of expressive techniques like painting, music, dance, and building. Expressive
techniques illustrate the intimate connection Jung believed existed between
assessment and change. Painting and building not only do an excellent job of
uncovering unconscious material, they are also highly effective in synthesizing the
conscious-unconscious polarities that Jung believed caused neuroses and

psychoses. Moreno’s psychodrama technique (Holmes, Karp, & W atson, 1994),
in which people act out various roles, while not devised specifically by Jung, was
inspired, in part, by some of Jung’s ideas on the unconscious.
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

The M yers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI: Myers, 1962) is a psychological
questionnaire designed to measure Jung’s psychological types. Unlike the W ord
Association Test, the MBTI enjoys wide popular support among counselors and
clinicians. The MBTI has made inroads into the business community, where it is
used to evaluate leadership styles and judge teamwork skills, in high schools and
colleges, where it is used for career counseling and academic advising, and in
mental health centers, where it is used for personality assessment. Form G of the
MBTI, the form normally used in counseling settings, is comprised of 94 self-
scored items and 126 computer-scored items. Besides Jung’s two attitudes
(introversion, extraversion) and four functions (thinking, feeling, sensing,
intuiting), the MBTI appraises a respondent’s preference for structure and
spontaneity (perceptive versus judging). Scores on the MBTI indicate which of the
16 types is most characteristic of the respondent. Although the MBTI possesses
substantial face validity, the instrument’s scientific merit has been questioned
(Cooper & Miller, 1991; Garden, 1991) and its forced-choice response format and
dichotomous classification scheme criticized (Vacha-Haase & Thompson, 2002).
Change
Jung was more optimistic about change than Freud but still felt that change
required the presence of a shaman-like therapist who was less neurotic than his or
her patients. A firm believer in the necessity of personal analysis for all therapists,
Jung insisted that all of the therapists who worked under him pursue a personal
analysis with a senior therapist. Jung preferred individual to group therapy based
on his belief that: (1) change is a function of the numinous encounter that takes
place between a therapist and patient, and (2) the group format interferes with the
numinous processes of the collective unconscious. For Jung, technique was less
important than creation of a therapeutic relationship. W hile Jung would interpret
his patients’ dreams and transference reactions, he conceptualized therapy as a
process of self-discovery and was willing to accept and use whatever techniques
helped him realize this goal. The overall objective of Jungian psychotherapy is to
bring unconscious contents, particularly elements of the collective unconscious, to
consciousness so that the individual can achieve a more integrated self. Jung’s
approach to the assisted change process can be broken down into four primary
stages: confession, elucidation, education, and transformation.
Confession
The goal of the initial stage of Jungian therapy, confession, is to get patients to
the point where they can share with the therapist repressed emotions and secrets
that are either the source of their presenting complaints or are currently
maintaining these difficulties. Before this can be accomplished, a trusting
relationship between the therapist and patient must be in place. Consequently,
formation of a strong therapeutic bond was viewed by Jung as integral to effective
intervention. Jung believed that traditional psychiatric practices like diagnosis and
prognosis stood in the way of the therapeutic relationship and were to be avoided
whenever possible. Sharing repressed feelings and secrets with another person,
Jung observed, can reduce tension. Catharsis, the term Jung used to describe the
cleansing of pent-up emotion, is often a highly reinforcing experience, which, in
turn, acts to reinforce the therapist-patient relationship. Thus, the therapeutic
alliance and confession enter into a mutually beneficial bidirectional relationship.
Elucidation
The goal of the second stage of Jung’s psychotherapeutic approach is to clarify
and elucidate the factors responsible for the patient’s current difficulties. Through
interpretation and explanation the therapist steers the patient toward self-discovery.
Transference relationships and dream analysis figure prominently in this second
stage of the therapy process. Jung altered his opinion of the centrality of
transference at several points in his career but finally settled on the view that
transference, which he defined as the sum total of all patient projections discharged
onto the therapist, was of cardinal significance in bringing about therapeutic
change. It is crucial that the therapist differentiate between transference arising
from the personal unconscious and transference originating from the collective
unconscious. Jung believed that personal transference was relatively easy to
assimilate into the personality but that collective transference required active
assistance from the therapist in the form of countertransference. Using symbols to
represent aspects of the personal and collective unconscious, Jung would assist
patients in uncovering their personal myths and heroic attitudes, two aspects of the
unconscious mind that he believed must be made more conscious before recovery
from neurosis and some psychoses could become a reality.
Education
The third stage of Jung’s model of assisted change is education. After gaining
insight into some of their major conflicts and complexes patients need to be drawn
out of themselves so that they can attain a greater degree of adaptability in the
external world. W hereas the first two stages of Jungian psychotherapy are devoted
to helping patients gain greater access to their unconscious, the education stage is
designed to put patients in touch with external reality. By the third stage of therapy
the patient should be well acquainted with the principle of compensation, which
states that for every conscious action there is an equally powerful unconscious
counter-action. During the education stage of therapy the therapist seeks to
strengthen the patient’s ego through encouragement and instruction and helps the
patient meet the demands of everyday life whether through enhanced
responsibility, augmented sociability, or guidance in how to parent one’s child.
Transformation
Transformation is the fourth and final stage of Jungian therapy. The primary
goal of transformation is to assimilate conflicting elements from the conscious and
unconscious that are at the root of the patient’s current difficulties. In helping the
patient achieve individuation and realize a self representative of all aspects of the
psyche, conscious as well as unconscious, countertransference reactions on the part
of the therapist are essential. Contrary to Freud, who considered
countertransference detrimental to the therapy process, Jung maintained that
countertransference reactions were critical for lasting change. Therapists who
project their own archetypes onto the patient, can facilitate the individuation
process by supplying patients with the material and images necessary to synthesize
the polarized aspects of the patient’s psyche. The significance of the
countertransference relationship in Jungian therapy is one reason why Jung insisted
that therapists affiliated with his school of psychotherapy receive analysis
themselves before working with patients. In fact, Jung was instrumental in
establishing the psychoanalytic tradition of personal analysis prior to his break
with Freud. A therapist with little insight into his or her personal or collective
unconscious, Jung reasoned, could do more harm than good.
Case Study: Violet Visits a Jungian Analyst

Violet looked up a Jungian analyst after reading about Jung in her psychology
class. During their first several meetings the analyst sought to create a therapeutic
alliance with Violet by providing her with the opportunity to cathartically vent
repressed feelings. Violet soon revealed to her analyst that her parents went
through a difficult divorce when she was a child and that she has had trouble
trusting people ever since. After several more sessions she shared with him her
recurring nightmare of a large ape-like creature who tries to break down her door
and enter her apartment. Using elaboration the analyst had Violet free associate to
the ape-like creature in order to gain a sense of what the image meant to her and he
followed this up with amplification whereby he tied the dream to the animus
archetype. The analyst did not immediately share his impressions with Violet,
allowing her to discover their unconscious meaning on her own. Later the analyst
instructs Violet in active imagination so that she can gain a clearer understanding
of the unconscious nature of her mistrust and related concerns. She eventually
creates a personal myth of herself as a wise and powerful queen who is both self-
and other-reliant. After guiding Violet through several everyday problems

(education) the analyst helps her synthesize opposing aspects of her personality, in
part, through the use of his own countertransference reactions (transformation).
Sources: Clark (1992), Jung (1911/1967, 1916/1953, 1921/1971, 1928/1966,
1931/1954, 1934/1968, 1952/1960), Whitm ont & Kaufm ann (1973).
JUNG AND ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY, THE PERSON-THEORY

INTERFACE
In the first several pages of a biography on Jung, Ronald Hayman (1999) writes
that the words peasant and natural are repeatedly mentioned with respect to Jung’s
life. Jung related well to the peasants and laborers who attended his father’s
church— mimicking their simple ways, envying their intimate ties to the earth, and
adopting many of their beliefs about spirits and paranormal phenomena. Jung’s
early interactions with the people of the village would have far-reaching
implications for his personal life and theory. The notion of the animalistic
collective unconscious may owe its existence to his encounters with this
environment. Moreover, the charisma, simplicity, and frankness that made Jung a
popular speaker and subject of television and radio interviews may have also been
influenced by the culture in which he was raised. Other aspects of Jung’s
subjective, historical, cultural, and intellectual context that appear to have
contributed to his analytical theory of personality are discussed with respect to the
belief systems that make the implicit-explicit theory nexus possible.
Self-View
Reflected Appraisals
The reflected appraisals that impacted Jung’s self-view and ultimately shaped his
implicit and explicit theories of personality can be classified into two general
categories. First there are the reflected appraisals for his No. 1 personality. For the
first decade of his life Jung viewed himself through others eyes as a depressed,
sickly child who did well in school but didn’t interact much with other children. As
his physical stature grew and his intelligence and gift for oration became more
evident he gained self-confidence but remained somewhat aloof in his dealings
with others (Hayman, 1999). Upon being admitted to medical school Jung made a
conscious effort to project his outward self, or what he called his No. 1 personality,
to others because he believed that this personality had the best chance of
succeeding academically. Personality No. 1 was not only more conventional and
likeable than personality No. 2, it was also more driven for material success. Jung’s
views on the ego and persona, the two primary components of the conscious layer
of personality, can be traced back to his reflected appraisals for personality No. 1
in the sense that when under the influence of his No. 1 personality Jung planned for
success (ego) and maintained a pleasant exterior (persona).
The other group of reflected appraisals that helped configure Jung’s explicit
theory of personality were the reflected appraisals for his No. 2 personality.
Personality No. 2, according to Jung (1961), was the more sensitive, primitive, and
animalistic of the two personalities. As a boy, Jung never felt that he had much say
in the formation of his No. 1 personality, for it surfaced in response to the demands
of those around him. Jung’s No. 2 personality, on the other hand, was more internal
and less a product of others’ expectations. Research indicates that the reflected
appraisal process is more active than symbolic interactionalists had previously
suspected (Ichiyama, 1993). This certainly appears to have been the case with
Jung’s No. 2 personality. W here his No. 1 personality may have been largely
passive in constructing its reflected appraisals, the generalized other— upon which
reflected appraisals are based (M ead, 1934)— for his No. 2 personality was largely
of his own device. In turn, Jung’s reflected appraisals for personality No. 2
encouraged him to be more sensitive, secretive, and spiritual, all of which are
mirrored in his explicit theory of personality. Eventually, the reflected appraisals
for personality No. 2 were represented in Jung’s theory with respect to his views
on the personal myth and hero identity.
Social Comparisons
Jung displayed a powerful father complex, to borrow a term from analytical
psychology. It can be inferred from Jung’s autobiography that he was disillusioned
by what he perceived as his father’s hypocrisy and lack of conviction in his chosen
profession. Diametrically contrasting himself with his father, who was the polar
opposite of Jung’s No. 2 personality, may have opened the younger man’s eyes to
the theoretical notion of compensation (Stevens, 1999). Although he professed
great love for his parents, Jung was bitterly disappointed in them. He viewed his
mother as powerful but unreliable and his father as reliable but powerless. Jung
would eventually displace the ambivalent feelings he had toward his parents onto
other important people in his life, to include his wife, various lovers, and a string
of colleagues. In one of his final letters to Freud, Jung expressed the ambivalence
he felt toward his former father-figure: “. . . and at one stroke uproot the vice of
being in two minds about you” (McGuire, 1974, p. 253; italics added). Jung’s
ambivalence toward significant people in his life may not only explain the
fascination compensation held for him in the construction of his explicit theory of
personality, but also the emphasis he placed on polarity. In fact, the dual mother
role Jung introduced early in his career (Jung, 1911/1967) seems to mirror the
ambivalence he felt toward his own mother and the realization that she, like him,
had two distinct personalties.
Because many of Jung’s social comparisons with his father were of the
downward variety, he needed a respected father figure in order to construct upward
comparisons. Jung apparently found several father substitutes, most notably Eugen
Bleuler, his supervisor at Burghöltzli, Freud, the American psychologist W illiam
James, and Théodore Flournoy, a highly respected professor of psychology at the
University of Geneva. Jung eventually lost two of his surrogate fathers, Bleuler and
Freud, through various differences of opinion, but remained on good terms with
James and Flournoy and may have been influenced by both men’s positive attitudes
toward religion and openness to parapsychological phenomena to embrace
spirituality in his later years. Given that Jung experienced only periodic contact
with Flournoy and saw even less of James, it was up to him to find a target for his
upward and parallel comparisons. Jung’s solution was unique and innovative and
had lasting implications for his evolving theory of personality. In effect, Jung made
self-comparisons, judging himself against the elements of the collective
unconscious as they appeared to him in visions, hallucinations, and dreams and
introducing the concept of archetypes into the field of psychology. The
introspective nature of analytical psychology owes its existence to Jung’s
propensity for self-evaluation and the confidence (some would contend
overconfidence) he had in his own beliefs.
Self-Representations
Jung experienced a conflicted childhood and responded by withdrawing into
himself and forming an introverted attitude. M any of Jung’s earliest memories
were devoid of human content, consisting principally of descriptions of nature and
sensory experience (Feldman, 1992). It may have been his childhood rituals with
which Jung identified the most. The manikin that he kept hidden in the attic was for
Jung a kind of security blanket or teddy bear (Hayman, 1999) or what W innicott
(1964) called an impersonal transitional object. However, the manikin may have
also served a self-representational function for Jung. The top hat, frock coat, and
boots were not unlike the clothes his father, eight minister uncles, and members of
the burial procession wore. Later, when working on his book Symbols of
Transformation, Jung (1911/1967) came to believe that the painted stone he had
placed in the pencil box with the manikin was like the sacred churinga stones of the
Australian Aborigines and that the manikin represented a cloaked god of the
ancient world such as the Telesphoros of Asklepios. It could be argued that the
manikin furnished Jung with a sense of stability during his chaotic and insecure
childhood by creating a male figure for self-representation that would not reject or
disappoint him as the real male figures in his life had. Regardless, the manikin had
a deep-seated effect on Jung’s later theorizing for it proved to him the existence of
an impersonal or collective unconscious, for how else could a child of nine have
known of such things as churingas and the Telesphoros.
Jung’s adult self-representations were also dominated by non-human content. He
was a man of ideas and when first confronted with the necessity of choosing a
profession he was torn between science and the humanities. Jung viewed science as
more congruent with his No. 1 personality and humanities as more in line with his
No. 2 personality. Although he eventually settled on his No. 1 personality and
science, his attitude gradually shifted in the direction of his No. 2 personality and
a growing interest in mysticism during his later years. Jung’s life, in fact, can be
conceptualized as a struggle between the two polar forces represented by his No.
1 and No. 2 personalities, a struggle in which the No. 2 personality eventually
gained the upper hand. In building his Tower at Bollingen Jung was actualizing
another self-representation: “I felt the Tower as in some way a place of
maturation— a maternal womb or a maternal figure . . . as if I were being reborn in
stone” (Jung, 1961, p. 225). Jung’s tendency to select the impersonal or non-social
aspects of his environment for self-representation has sometimes been attributed to
the dysfunctional relationship he formed with his mother who was hospitalized
when he was three years old (Dolliver, 1994). W hether or not this is true, the fact
that Jung’s analytical theory is more asocial than the other major psychodynamic
theories of personality can be traced back to his choice of non-human self-
representations throughout his life.
Inasmuch as Jung’s self-representations were mostly of the non-human or asocial
variety, there were several human self-representations that made a deep impression
on his theory. Perhaps the most salient social self-representations for Jung were
those upon which he based the anima archetype. Jung (1961) states in Memories,
Dreams, Reflections, his autobiography, that he developed a strong emotional
attachment to the dark-haired, olive-skinned maid who cared for him after his
mother was hospitalized for depression. He later discovered that she was
instrumental in putting him in touch with his anima or the female side of his
personality. Part of the fascination Jung had with Sabina Spielrein and Toni W olff
was that they displayed some of the same physical features, dark-hair and olive-
complexion, as the maid (Hayman, 1999). Even with the only reference to Sabina
Spielrein in Jung’s autobiography being his characterization of her as a “talented
psychopath” and Toni W olff being nearly totally written out of the book at the
request of Jung’s children, both women formed a powerful presence in Jung’s life
and work (Elms, 1994). Not only did they cater to many of his emotional and
sexual needs, they also served as active participants in his investigations on the
anima archetype, one of the more popular and well-know facets of Jung’s explicit
theory of personality. Other archetypes also had human analogues that helped Jung
visualize the archetype more precisely, but no analogue was as pronounced or
potent as the one provided by the maid, Sabina Spielrein, and Toni W olff in the
construction of Jung’s anima archetype.
Role Identity
One of Jung’s goals in working with patients was to help them identify their
personal myth. Jung’s personal myth seems to have been to penetrate the secrets of
nature. In realizing his personal myth Jung assumed the role of misunderstood
hero, not unlike Freud. In fact, part of Freud’s appeal to Jung may have been his
perception that in supporting Freud he was joining a holy crusade against a much
larger enemy of doubt and non-belief (Smith, 1996). Jung gradually distanced
himself from Freud when it became apparent that Freud wanted to make his sexual
theory a dogma. Nonetheless, this did not prevent Jung from continuing the
struggle on his own. In his 1961 autobiography, Memories, Dreams, Reflections,

Jung unequivocally states that his personal myth was to plumb the depths of the
human psyche by taking a spiritual journey through the conscious and personal
unconscious, to the farthest reaches of the collective unconscious (Charet, 2000).
Jung, who believed that from an early age he had entered into a special relationship
with God, considered himself a kindred spirit to the shamans of hunting and
gathering societies who enter trances in an effort to cure the tribe (Hannah, 1976).
Jung’s personal myth, however, should not blind us to his personal shortcomings,
which included narcissism, opportunism, insensitivity, and stubbornness in the
wake of findings incongruent with his views (McLynn, 1996). Jung’s personal
myth gave us the collective unconscious and the notion of individuation; Jung’s
personal shortcomings made him and his theory all the more human— ingenuity
coupled with imperfection.
One of Jung’s recurrent visions during his creative illness was that of Elijah and
Salome and the large black snake that accompanied them. Elijah was an older man
whose companion was a blind, younger woman named Salome. Some have
speculated that Elijah personified Freud and Salome, Sabina Spielrein (Hayman,
1999), while others have placed Jung in the role of Elijah and Toni W olff in the
role of Salome (Smith, 1996). Jung admired Elijah but mistrusted Salome, which
in his mind represented the Logos (thinking) and Eros (feeling) components of the
psyche, respectively (Jung, 1961). It is only natural that Jung would initially
distrust the Eros component of his fantasy because emotion made his No. 1
personality uncomfortable. Over time, Jung sought to integrate the various
components of the Elijah vision and the parts of his personality represented by
Elijah, Salome, and the snake, giving rise to individuation and creation of the self,
core concepts in Jung’s explicit theory of personality. Eventually, an old man
named Philemon appeared to Jung. Philemon evolved principally from the Elijah
character but contained aspects of Eros and Salome. The old man became Jung’s
guide in his journey through the unconscious during his creative illness. Philemon
gave rise to the concept of rebirth and the archetype known as the wise old man, a
primordial image with which Jung identified (Hannah, 1976).
Possible Selves
The desired selves that Jung pursued were those supplied by the example set by
his famous grandfather, Carl Gustav Jung, and the writer Goethe. A rumor had
circulated through the villages where Jung grew up insinuating that Jung’s
grandfather was the illegitimate son of Goethe. Be this as it may, Aniela Jaffé
reports in a footnote (Jung, 1961, pp. 35-36) that there was never any truth to this
legend; in fact, Goethe was not even in the German city where Jung’s great-
grandmother lived at the time his grandfather was conceived. W hat the legend
lacked in veracity, it more than made up for in fantastic speculation. As a juvenile,
Jung tried to convince his classmates that he was a descendent of the great Goethe.
Even as an adult Jung would periodically entertain the fantasy that he may well
have been Goethe’s great-grandson. Jung read Goethe’s Faust as a boy and
immediately came to the conclusion that it spoke personally to him and his
situation. The split between Faust and M ephistopheles, as outlined by Goethe,
seemed to replicate the split he felt in his own psyche and was the foundation for
the dualities that define Jung’s theory, from introversion/extraversion to
conscious/unconscious. Jung’s pursuit of Goethe steered him in the direction of
philosophy, which had attracted Goethe as a young man (Hannah, 1976), and
peaked his interest in the non-rational romantic movement. Non-rational writers
like Goethe and Nietzsche inspired Jung to explore the non-rational aspects of his
own life, from seances to dreams, and fostered an abiding interest in the collective
unconscious and the symbolic nature of the deeper layers of the human psyche.
Three feared selves played a salient role in Jung’s implicit and explicit theories
of personality. First, there was the feared self of being like his father. Jung (1961)
viewed his father’s lack of faith as partially responsible for his death and wanted to
avoid a similar fate. Fueled perhaps by the fear of turning out like his father, Jung
professed great confidence in his ideas and theories, even when such faith was
unwarranted. A second fear that motivated Jung was his fear of abandonment and
rejection. To avoid the painful rejection he felt when his mother was hospitalized
Jung insulated himself emotionally by retreating into a world of secrets, a world
symbolized in his formal theory of personality. Growing up under the Puritan ethic
that engulfed Switzerland during Jung’s childhood and adolescent years made
secrets a logical alternative if he wished to avoid rejection. Even as a boy Jung was
bright enough to understand that he could never share many of his dreams (e.g., the
ithyphallic dream), visions (e.g., God’s great turd), and rituals (e.g., manikin) with
his parents or the other adults of the village, for they would surely never
understand (Stevens, 1999). A third feared self that may have helped shape Jung’s
belief systems and evolving theory of personality was his fear of insanity. W hen
Jung first began experiencing the dreams and visions that marked his creative
illness he believed he was going insane (Hannah, 1976). Satinover (1985)
postulates that Jung used his theory of the collective unconscious to stabilize his
personality during this period. It was probably a relief for Jung to be able to
ascribe these experiences to a universal mechanism, the collective unconscious,
rather than to a deteriorating psychological state. An outline of the contributions
Jung’s self-view made to analytical psychology is provided in Table 3.2.
W orld-View
Organismic-Mechanistic
Jung’s world-view was largely organismic. The realization of a split within his
own personality that mirrored his mother’s No. 1 and No. 2 personalities is what
may have initially given rise to the organismic bent of Jung’s world-view. In the
course of mending his own split Jung came upon the holistic constructs of
individuation and the self. His subsequent study of Eastern philosophy and
Table 3.2
Contributions of Jung’s Self-View to Analytical Psychology
Reflected Social Self- Role Possible

Appraisals Comparisons Representations Identity Selves
Ego Archetypes Introversion Individuation Non-rational
Persona Compensation Collective Rebirth Dream Analysis
Personal Myth Polarity unconscious Self Symbolism
Anima
religion, particularly his reading of I Ching, reinforced in Jung’s mind the

superiority of the organismic metaphor over its mechanistic counterpart in
describing the human condition. Jung’s rejection of theoretical reductionism and
his championing of concepts like synchronicity speak to his belief in a holistic
force that held the universe together, all of which can be traced back to his
organismic world-view.
Agenticism-Fatalism
Although Jung rejected the sexual determinism of Freud’s psychoanalysis, his
theory still falls on the deterministic side of the continuum. Jung considered both
causality (driven by the past) and teleology (pulled by the future) vital to human
personality, but in both cases human behavior was at least partially propelled by
factors outside the individual’s control. His proclivity for teleological determinism
is communicated in the following statement taken from his autobiography: “the
future is unconsciously prepared long in advance and therefore can be guessed by
clairvoyants” (Jung, 1961, pp. 234-235). W hereas Freud underscored the
determinism of the personal unconscious, Jung stressed the determinism of the
impersonal or collective unconscious. It seems likely that this facet of Jung’s
theory can be traced back to the fatalistic elements of his world-view and his belief
in destiny: “I had to obey an inner law which was imposed on me and left me no
freedom of choice” (Jung, 1961, p. 357).
Fairness-Inequity
Jung’s world-view seemed to lean slightly toward the fairness side of the
fairness-inequity continuum. D espite the fact Jung encountered his share of
injustice and unfairness in life, he was blessed with good health and a wife who
supported him socially, emotionally, and professionally despite his involvement in
long-standing affairs with Sabina Spielrein, Toni W olff, and others. Jung’s
narcissism may have led him to believe that his blessings were the fruits of his own
labor and therefore something to which he was entitled, perchance making him less
sensitive to the plight of the less fortunate (McLynn, 1996). His fairness leaning
world-view may not only have hardened him to the situation of German Jews
during the rise of Hitler and the National Socialists, but may have also contributed
to his acceptance of the theoretical notion of an underlying universal force that
balanced the opposing forces of good and evil.
Malevolence-Benevolence
Jung complemented his fairness-leaning world-view with a largely benevolent
perspective on the world and the people in it. Although Jung’s theory was
originally founded on the experiences of schizophrenic patients at Burghöltzli
asylum, by 1918 one-third of his caseload was comprised of normal people
struggling with problems of everyday living. Compared to Freud, who worked
almost exclusively with neurotic patients, Jung saw a greater variety of clients,
which may have influenced both their world-views and formal theories of
personality. Possibly because Switzerland was neutral during W orld War I and two
of Freud’s sons fought on the side of Austria, the two men adopted very different
perspectives on the war that paralleled their world-views. Jung saw the world war
as a clash of opposites, with the forces of good eventually triumphing over the
forces of evil, while Freud viewed the war as evidence of man’s inherent
destructiveness, reflecting a fairness-benevolent world-view on Jung’s part and an
inequity-malevolent world-view on Freud’s part.
Present-View
Perceptual Function
The information to which Jung was exposed greatly influenced the structure and
content of his theory. During the early stages of theory development, Jung was
working with schizophrenic patients at Burghöltzli asylum. By interviewing
patients, administering them the word association test, and interpreting their
dreams Jung believed he had corroborated Freud’s view of the unconscious. It was
also during this period that he began gathering evidence for the existence of an
impersonal or collective unconscious. After quitting his job at Burghöltzli, Jung
started a private practice that included a large number of normal individuals who
were neither neurotic nor psychotic, but simply searching for life meaning. Later
still, his thinking was swayed by his reading of alchemy texts and eastern religions.
The more bizarre experiences of the schizophrenic patients were blended with the
personal striving of his normal clients and the holistic principles outlined in I
Ching to create the foundation for concepts like the collective unconscious, self,
and four psychological functions of thinking, feeling, sensing, and intuiting. Then,
of course, there was Jung’s self-analysis or period of creative illness between 1913
and 1917. This experience not only colored Jung’s present-view, it also helped
configure his theory. Jung himself recognized the role biased assimilation played
in the evolution of his explicit theory of personality: “analytical psychology is

fundamentally a natural science, but it is subject far more than any other science to
the personal bias of the observer” (Jung, 1961, p. 200).
Executive Function
Two of Jung’s greatest attributes as a therapist were his persistence and self-
confidence. He did not give up easily on patients. He did not give up easily on his
theoretical ideas either. Hayman (1999) writes that Jung listened more intently to
the voices in his head than to the voices of those around him and viewed his
unconscious or No. 2 personality as infallible. This led some people to view him as
arrogant, but these opinions never registered as reflected appraisals because Jung
rarely acknowledged them. W hen he first started working with schizophrenic
patients at Burghöltzli, Jung, unlike most of the other psychiatrists, paid close
attention to his patients’ verbal reports. Christiana Morgan, paramour and assistant
to Henry Murray, went to Jung for therapy and noticed that by the mid-1920s Jung
had basically stopped listening to his patients, choosing instead to educate and
dictate to them, and, in a manner ironically reminiscent of Freud, Jung welcomed
findings that confirmed his theory but ignored observations that contradicted his
beliefs (Robinson, 1992). Another trend in the executive function of Jung’s
present-view was his propensity for rationalization. W hen Jung was caught in an
act of impropriety or unethical behavior he would frequently assign blame to his
daimon.1 One particularly noteworthy example of rationalization surfaced when
Jung was confronted by the mother of Sabina Spielrein after she learned of his
affair with Sabina. Jung replied that seeing as he had not charged Sabina for the
therapy sessions a true doctor-patient relationship did not exist and so their sexual
liaison was not unethical (Carotenuto, 1984).
Past-View
From an early age Jung began collecting secrets and engaging in esoteric rituals.
Secrets, in fact, comprised a good portion of Jung’s past-view. The role of secrets
in Jung’s life and theory is revealed in the following quote: “It is important to have
a secret, a premonition of things unknown. It fills life with something impersonal,
a numinosum” (Jung, 1961, p. 356). Jung’s interest in the past was enlivened by his
reading of mythology and archeology, activities he engaged in enthusiastically until
his death in 1961 (Forrester, 1980). H e was particularly intrigued by Fredrich
Cruezer’s four-volume set entitled Symbolism and Mythology of the Ancient
Peoples Especially the Greeks. The personal past that held Freud’s fancy was less
1
Daimon is a term from Greek mythology that represents any of the secondary divinities ranked
between gods and men; Jung used this term to describe the less savory aspects of his own unconscious
mind, particularly that which might be located in the archetype he called the shadow.
interesting to Jung than humankind’s primordial past. W ith the advent of the
collective unconscious Jung believed that he had discovered the prehistoric roots
of human personality and the reason why diverse cultures shared many of the same
rituals, rites, and symbols. Jung’s personal past-view— namely, the major changes
that occurred in his life and the ages at which these changes took place—it should
be pointed out served as the foundation for his stage theory of personality
development.
Future-View
Jung placed greater emphasis on the future than Freud and once related an
incident in which he predicted to an initially skeptical and subsequently shaken
Freud the sounding of a loud noise from a bookcase in Freud’s study seconds after
an initial crack had been heard by both men (Jung, 1961). Throughout his life Jung
based many of his decisions on his dreams. His interest in the occult probably both
reflected and helped shape Jung’s approach to dream interpretation. W hereas
Freud took a retrospective view of dreams, Jung, in his approach to dream
interpretation, took a prospective or future-oriented stance. An episode that
reinforced Jung’s belief in the prophetic nature of dreams took place during the
later stages of the First W orld W ar, several years after he had his premonition
about the onset and eventual destructiveness of the war. As a condition of the
Geneva Convention Switzerland had to intern POW s who escaped into
Switzerland. Jung worked in one such camp for British POW s. Discipline was lax
and the officers were allowed to stay with their wives in town. Jung began working
with one of the officer’s wives who shared with him a dream about a giant sea
serpent. Since snakes and snake-like objects symbolized illness to Jung, he
surmised that an outbreak of Spanish flu several days later verified his prospective
theory of dreams (Jung, 1961).
EVALUATING JUNG’S THEORY

In this section Jung’s explicit theory of personality will be judged against the
criteria of comprehensiveness, parsimony, precision, internal consistency,
fruitfulness, empirical support, and personal relevance.
Comprehensiveness
There are a wide variety of disciplines and information encompassed by Jung’s
theory. His influence extended well beyond the fields of psychology and
psychiatry, to include the realms of anthropology, literature, and religion.
Consequently, outside of Freud, Jung may be the most recognizable personality
theorist to non-psychologists. One reason for Jung’s broad appeal is the
comprehensiveness or inclusiveness of his theorizing. Although not as
comprehensive as Freud’s theory, Jung’s analytical approach achieves moderately
high marks on the comprehensiveness criterion.
Parsimony
Being one of the more complex and intricate theories ever devised to explain
human personality, Jung’s theory lacks parsimony. Jung relied on a relatively large
number of concepts, assumptions, and postulates in presenting his theory to the
world. Consequently, the theory can be cumbersome and unwieldy, making it
difficult even for psychologists to understand. In constructing a grand theory from
his own experiences Jung devised a system of theoretical explanation that was as
confusing as it was intriguing and the model’s parsimony suffers as a result.
Precision
Low precision is one of the most vexing weaknesses of Jung’s theory. His
writing style can best be described as vague, oblique, and circuitous. It has been
argued that Jung deliberately avoided specificity in order to maintain an
atmosphere of mystery and numinosity (Hayman, 1999). W hether or not this is
true, Jung’s imprecise concepts and writing make it virtually impossible for
researchers to test many of his postulates. Additionally, Jung borrowed terms from
Freud, like regression and libido, to which he assigned new definitions. Jung was
also in the habit of using terms interchangeably, such as individuation and self-
realization. For these reasons, Jung’s theory receives a low rating on the precision
criterion.
Internal Consistency
The non-rational approach Jung used to construct his theory created a number of
internal contradictions and logical inconsistencies. The fact that so much of his
theory is based on his own self-analysis where events came out in a chaotic rather
than organized fashion partially explains the moderately low internal consistency
of Jung’s model. A prime example of the problems Jung’s theory encounters when
evaluated against a criterion of internal consistency is that he seemed to accept
Lemarck’s premise of an “inheritance of acquired characteristics.” Lemarck, as the
reader may recall from the Freud chapter, argued that changes conducive to the
survival of one generation of organism could be passed down or inherited by future
generations. Jung would later contend that there was no specific content in the
collective unconscious, only a general predisposition that may or may not be
actualized, leading him to draw a distinction between archetypes and archetypal
images, causing further problems for the model’s internal consistency. Jung was
also inconsistent in how he presented various aspects of his theory. In his
autobiography he refers to his No. 2 personality as his self, but his No. 2
personality was with him from the age of 4. It may be more accurate to state that
his No. 2 personality represented the unconscious, which he then integrated with
his conscious or No. 1 personality to form the self.
Fruitfulness
Analytical psychology, though it has not stimulated as much empirical research
as many of the other models presented in this book, has been fruitful in the sense
that a number of Jung’s concepts have been integrated into other major theories of
personality. The Jungian concepts of self and self-realization are integral to the
humanistic theories of M aslow and Rogers. Introversion-extraversion, on the other
hand, has received a great deal of attention from trait theorists, particularly
Eysenck. Development across the lifespan was an idea advanced by Jung that finds
its most vibrant expression in Erikson’s psychosocial theory of psychological
development. Murray was also influenced by a number of Jungian concepts in the
course of constructing his personological theory of needs and presses. Taking all
of this into account, it would seem that Jung’s theory is moderately fruitful.
Empirical Support
A majority of Jung’s concepts do not lend themselves to analysis and even those
that do have not fared particularly well when subjected to empirical scrutiny. In a
critique of Jung’s theory of archetypes, Neher (1996) finds many of Jung’s
assumptions and beliefs about the role of the collective unconscious in normal and
paranormal behavior wanting and in need of reformulation. Even research on
psychological types measured using the MBTI, probably the research area most
supportive of Jung’s ideas, has met with mixed results (Cooper & Miller, 1991;
Garden, 1991). Because many aspects of Jung’s theory are not amenable to
empirical evaluation and those aspects that have been tested have yielded less than
impressive results his theory earns moderately low marks on the empirical support
criterion.
Personal Relevance
Jung’s theory was not rated by Hjelle and Ziegler (1981) on the nine basic
dimensions of human nature so W alters (2003) rated the theory himself and
calculated Euclidean distance estimates between student belief systems and Jung’s
theoretical model to find analytical psychology ranking ninth out of 12 theories.
Students completing a course in personality theory directly ranked the personal
relevance of Jung’s theory tenth out of the 12 theories (W alters, 2003). Based on
this admittedly limited sampling of responses Jung’s theory receives a low rating
on the relevance criterion.
Table 3.3
Summary of an Evaluation of Jung’s Analytical Psychology Theory of Personality
Comprehens Parsimony Precision Consistency Fruitfulness Validity Relevance

M/H L/M L L/M M L/M L
Note. H = high; M/H = moderately high; M = moderate; L/M = moderately low; L= low.
SUM M ARY
Jung’s subjective, historical, cultural, and intellectual contexts clearly affected
his analytical theory of human behavior. Subjectively, Jung encountered polarities
and dualities in life that he incorporated into his explicit theory of personality.
Historically, he lived through two world wars and witnessed rapid social-economic
change, from the horse-drawn carriages of his youth to the supersonic jets of his
golden years. Culturally, Jung’s affinity for secrets can be traced to the repressive
Swiss-Protestant culture in which he grew up and his abiding interest in symbols
can be attributed to his reading of eastern religions which began when he was still
just a boy. Intellectually, Jung’s belief systems and theories about the unconscious
were influenced by his association with Freud and his non-rational approach to
science was inspired by German romantic writers like Goethe. However, except for
a moderately high rating on the comprehensiveness criterion and a moderate rating
on the fruitfulness criterion, Jung’s theory rates low to moderately low on the
criteria of a good theory. W hile Jung’s theory does not fare well on traditional
standards of scientific viability, it makes unique contributions not found elsewhere.
First, Jung introduced the concept of introversion-extraversion into the
psychological nomenclature. Second, Jung was the first theorist to talk about the
self, a central concept in humanistic theories of personality. Third, Jung discussed
topics largely ignored by other leading theorists: the role of mythology in the
formation of a cultural identity and synthesis of eastern religious principles into
western thought, in particular. For these reasons, Carl Jung’s name will continue to
be mentioned when the subject of personality theory is broached.
APPLICATION AND INTEGRATION
1. W hat effect did growing up with a minister father and eight minister uncles have
on the evolution of Jung’s theory of personality? (I)
2. Review and compare the early lives of Freud and Jung to determine whether
they provide any clues as to why their relationship dissolved after such a promising
start. (I)
3. Throughout his life Jung insisted that there were two personalities within
himself. Do you believe this to be true, and if so, do you believe that you have
more than one personality? (A&I)
4. Synchronicity is a central concept in Jung’s theory but cannot be directly

attributed to any of the components of the self-view (see Table 3.2). How do you
believe synchronicity rose to such prominence in Jung’s theory? (I)
5. Create a word association test from ten common words. Administer the test to
four friends, asking them for the first image that comes to mind in response to each
word (be sure to get their consent before administering the test). W hat conclusions
can you draw from your results? W hat information do you need before you can
meaningfully interpret your findings? (A)
6. W hat role did Switzerland’s neutrality during the two world wars and the
repressive Swiss-Protestant culture in which Jung grew up play in the evolution of
his theory? (I)
7. Freud and Jung had very different approaches to dream interpretation. How
might you account for these differences using what you know about their
respective past- and future-views. (I)
8. A personal myth, according to Jung, is a story we create to understand ourselves

and our role in life. Ask yourself the following four questions— (1) W ho am I; (2)
W hy am I here; (3) How do I fit into the world; (4) W here am I going— and the
select a fictional character (hero) with whom you identify to construct a
preliminary version of your personal myth. (A)

Personality in Context Walters Jung

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3

Carl Jung and Analytical Psychology

JUNG, THE PERSON

he apparently developed a strong attachment to the dark-haired, olive-complected

provided him with a spiritual link to the dead.

ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY, THE THEORY

cultures were cited by Jung as verification of the collective unconscious. W hereas

the undesirable or unacceptable aspects of one’s personality it is often projected

Key Concept Summary of Research Findings Grade

Psyche While there is some evidence that myths, symbols, and D

Libido Like many of Jung’s concepts libido is imprecisely defined D

Psychological There is evidence from the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator B

Synchronicity Synchronicity, by definition, is virtually impossible to test. F

person synthesizes the conscious and unconscious elements of his or her

Word Association Test

conscious-unconscious polarities that Jung believed caused neuroses and

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

Case Study: Violet Visits a Jungian Analyst

and other-reliant. After guiding Violet through several everyday problems

JUNG AND ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY, THE PERSON-THEORY

struggle on his own. In his 1961 autobiography, Memories, Dreams, Reflections,

Reflected Social Self- Role Possible

religion, particularly his reading of I Ching, reinforced in Jung’s mind the

in the evolution of his explicit theory of personality: “analytical psychology is

EVALUATING JUNG’S THEORY

high marks on the comprehensiveness criterion.

his conscious or No. 1 personality to form the self.

Comprehens Parsimony Precision Consistency Fruitfulness Validity Relevance

APPLICATION AND INTEGRATION

4. Synchronicity is a central concept in Jung’s theory but cannot be directly

8. A personal myth, according to Jung, is a story we create to understand ourselves

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