Facilitating Techniques - Pre-CAP Course Work

Change Acceleration Process (CAP) Pre-Course Work
Facilitation
Tools
Pre-Course Work for Change Acceleration Process
July 2011 1
Contents
Facilitating with the right language
Icebreakers and Energisers
Barriers
Defining Goals
GRPI = A Model for Team Effectiveness
Contracting Needs and Desires Questions
Contracting Template
Sample Meeting Agenda
Dealing with special problems in groups
Facilitation Tools
July 2011 2
Facilitating with the right language

 Ask for reactions
o “How do you feel about…?”
o “Would you say that…?”
 Encourage individual participation
o “Fred, what’s your feeling about this…?”
o “We have not had input from Bill yet, Bill,…”
 Re-state
o “I’m hearing that we ought to…is that right?”
o “Are you saying…?”
 Summarize
o “It seems to me that we’ve agreed to…does everyone else see it that way?”
o “We have had a thorough discussion; who can summarize the key points?”
 Get clarification
o “I’m not clear on what you suggested, Frank. Can you elaborate?”
o “Joe, do you understand what Alice is saying?”
 Press for new ideas
o “What are some other ways to get at this issue?”
o “Matt, is there another dimension to this issue that we ought to explore?”
 Share impressions of the process
o “I think we are getting hung up on…?”
o “I don’t think we are giving Judy a chance to explain her point.”
 Open a discussion of the process itself
o “How to people feel about how we are proceeding?”
o “Are there any comments about the way we are operating as a team?”
 Ask for examples
o “Jose, can you give me an example of how that would work?”
o “Alicia, can you expand on your comment so we get a clearer picture of what you
mean?”
July 2011 3
 Poll the group

o “Let’s take a straw vote; who’s in favor of Mike’s proposal?”
o “How do each of you feel about this plan? Let’s start with Eddie and go around
the table.”
 Test assumptions
o “Your proposal assumes we will get total cooperation from Finance, is that
correct?”
o “Bud, are you assuming that the schedule cannot be met at all?”
 Test goal orientation
o “Are we dealing with the real issue here?”
o “Do you all feel we are on the right path?”
 Confront!
o “Bill, you’re shaking your head; don’t you agree with our plan?”
o “Bob, that look on your face suggests you’re not happy with the proposal?”
 Test other perspectives
o “Let’s look at this from the GM’s point of view; how would…?”
o “Pretend you were in Betty’s job, how would you feel about...?”
 Test other’s feelings
o “Mel, I don’t think you liked my suggestion; am I right?”
o “I get the impression that Lou is frustrated by our slow progress.”
July 2011 4
Icebreakers and Energizers
Power of Observation
 Draw the front and back of a US penny (or relevant country coin) on a flip chart with
Lincoln’s face on one side and the Lincoln Memorial on the other . Exclude 6 pieces of
data and replace with a question mark. Point to each piece of data and ask the group
what that is. The six pieces include:
o IN GOD WE TRUST (Front, Top)
o LIBERTY (Front, Middle left)
o Coin Date ex. 1999 (Front, Lower right)
o UNITED STATE OF AMERICA (Back, Top)
o E PLURIBUS UNUM (Back, Top, below USA)
o ONE CENT (Back, Bottom)
 After exercise. Ask: Why don’t we remember details about something that we see every
day?
 Say: As facilitators it is extremely important for us to be aware of every thing that is going
on in the room at all times. Our power of observation has to be at a heightened state at all
times in order to assess group dynamics and enable the group to get to its specified goals.
Paying attention even to those things that may seem routine are critical.
Common & Unique
 Ask each participant to write on a post-it note, one thing that most people would know
about them and one thing that they would not. Post the items on a flipchart and after
breaks take each one and have the group guess who it is. If the group is small, the exercise
can be done at one time.
 This exercise is useful as an initial icebreaker. When used throughout the session it helps
to build rapport among the team.
Truth or Lie
 A variation on the above exercise is to have participants write two truths and on lie about
themselves on a post-it. The group is then to first guess who the person is and which one
is the lie.
July 2011 5
Who’s Left Standing?
 Set up chairs in a circle (minus one participant). The participant standing is to say one
thing about themselves that they have done that they think no one else in the group has
done (e.g. I have met President Bush). Any individual who has done that must quickly
stand up. Anyone who stands must quickly find an empty seat to sit in. The last person
standing, must repeat the process (say one thing about themselves that they think no one
else has done). Continue this until everyone has had a chance to stand up or until the
group is very energized.
 This activity can be used to energize the team when there is a lull or they are getting tired.
It is also an icebreaker in a sense since it can help build rapport within the group.
Coin Teaser
 Hold three coins in your hand and say: Tommy’s Mom had three children. The first was
named Penny (hold up a penny). The second was named Nicky (hold up a nickel). What
was the third named (hold up a quarter)? Answer: Tommy.
 Ask: Why didn’t some of us get the answer right away? Answer: This is just a simple
exercise to show that we aren’t always listening carefully. As a facilitator our listening
skills have to more heightened than they normally might be.
Silent Birthdays
 Ask the participants to stand up in a row by the order of their birthdays (month & day
only). They are to do so without speaking or writing it down. Once they have lined up, ask
them to call out their dates. Sing Happy Birthday to anyone that is within of few days of
the class.
 This exercise can be done in the same room or you can move them to another location. It
can be used to energize the team when there is a lull or they are getting tired.
Alphabet Pictures
 Divide the alphabet letters up by the number of participants in the group. Eliminate the
letters X and Z (for example, 3 participants would then have 8 letters).
 For each alphabetical letter in the group of letters, ask the participants to begin a word or
short statement that describes what the team/group has accomplished in a positive way.
 Or – ask participants to draw a picture representing each word/statement (optional shorter
version: draw just one picture for their favorite word/statement).
July 2011 6
Ten Pennies
 Give everyone 10 pennies. Each person must name one thing about himself/herself that is
different from everyone else. (For example, an adventurous group member might say, "I
have climbed Pikes Peak.") The speaker puts a penny in the middle. If another player has
also climbed Pikes Peak, he/she can put in a penny as well. The first person to get rid of all
his/her pennies wins.
A Basketful of Ideas
 This works as a great closing activity for a meeting. Pass around a basket full of various
objects (light bulb, toys, tea bag, band aid, bell, $1, old pair of glasses, small clock, map,
deck of cards...anything you can find around the house or office) and have each participant
remove the item they are drawn to. Once everyone has selected, in turn they explain to the
group how the item symbolizes what they learned from the meeting. For example, a light
bulb = a new idea (and describing what it is), $1 = a way to save some money for the
department, glasses = can see a problem more clearly) etc.
Tower of Truth
 You will need the following for each group of 5-7 people: A grocery sack full of old
newspapers--lots of papers/one standard roll of masking tape/one pair of scissors.
 Tell each group they have 30 minutes to build a "Tower of Truth" to these specifications:
o The Tower must be at least 5 feet, but not more than 6 feet tall.
o The Tower must be able to withstand being lifted and then dropped from a height
where the bottom of the tower is 3 feet above the floor. The Tower cannot collapse
when dropped.
o The Tower must be pleasing to the eye.
o The Tower must in some manner reflect "truth."
 Observe the groups as they work. Ask them to describe how they reached decisions, why
individuals did certain tasks, whether or not everyone participated and why, and so forth.
Great exercise for closing out a day of team building or lengthy meeting. Process this as you
would any other team building activity.
July 2011 7
Synergism
Interacting Opposites
 Life is plagued by many contrasting elements, feelings and duties. F. Scott Fitzgerald said in
The Last Tycoon: “The true test of a good and fair mind is its ability to hold two opposite
ideas at the same time, and still function.” This activity involves looking at those contrasting
ideas in everyday life.
 Give each participant a piece of paper. Ask participants to divide the paper into four
quarters. In the first section or upper left-hand quarter, they are to list ten people with
whom they like to work; in the upper right-hand quarter, the ten things they like to do at
work; in the lower left-hand quarter, ten people with whom they don’t like to work. In the
last quarter, they are to list ten things they don’t like to do at work.
In small groups discuss

 What would happen if you took the ten people you like to work with and did the work you
don’t like to do?
 What would happen if you worked with the people you don’t like to work with and did the
work you liked to do?
Getting Acquainted
Objective
 To allow participants to become acquainted through a structured exercise.
Procedure
 At the opening session of a group meeting, each individual is given a blank name tag.
 Each person completes the following items:
o My name is __________________________________
o I have a question about______________________________________
o I can answer a question about_________________________________

 After being given a few minutes to respond to the statements, allow 10-15 minutes in which
the group is encouraged to meet and mix with as many people as possible.
Materials Required Blank name tags

Approximate Time Required 15-20 minutes, depending on the size of the group
July 2011 8
Getting acquainted
Objective
 To enable first-time attendees in a training session to become acquainted with other
participants; to help build a climate of friendliness and informality.
Procedure
 Each person is given a blank name tag and asked to put his/her first name or nickname on it.
Then they are asked to list five words or brief phrases that tell something about themselves
that can be used as conversation starters. Examples could be home states, hobbies, children,
etc. An illustration follows:
o Mary (Freckles)
- Arizona resident
- Wisconsin native
- Football nut
- Jogger
- Disco enthusiast
 After giving the group enough time (about 5 minutes) to write down their 5 items, have
them start mixing around in groups of 2-3 (maximum). Every few minutes, tell the group to
“change partners” in order to encourage everyone to meet as many new people as possible.
Discussion Questions
 Was this exercise helpful to you in getting to know some other people?
 What kinds of items made the greatest impact on you?
 How do you now feel about your involvement in this group?
Materials Required: Blank stick-on name tags
Approximate Time Required: Flexible, depending on group size. Minimum time 15 minutes.
July 2011 9
Abilities
What’s right about you?

 Give each participant two small pieces of paper. Instruct each person to write down one
personal strength on each piece of paper, fold the paper in half, and put it in a paper sack.
When everyone is finished, ask for a volunteer to pick one piece of paper, read the strength
and give a reason why that strength is important to the group or in a work situation.
Continue around the room until all the papers are gone or time runs out.
Great accomplishments
 To introduce this activity, share with the group what has been a great accomplishment in
your life. Next, ask participants to write down what their greatest accomplishment has
been. After two minutes, instruct the participants to find a partner and share their
accomplishment. If time permits, have each person share his or her partner’s greatest
accomplishment with the whole group.
What are you good at?

 In this activity participants are sharing a talent or specialty they have that is important to
them. Ask participants to sit in a circle (for groups larger than ten, break into smaller
groups). Give them two minutes to think of something that is not part of their job that they
could effectively teach someone else to do or to understand (e.g., cooking, sailing, sewing,
knitting, golf, tennis, scuba diving, etc.). It can be as specific or as general as the
participants choose. Go around the circle and ask each person to share his or her talent.
After the last person has shared, have a large-group discussion regarding the importance of
interests and hobbies.
July 2011 10
Values – Coat of Arms

 Make a cardboard template in the shape of a coat of arms (see illustration below) and
prepare a blank for each participant in the group.
 Before distributing the COAT of ARMS TEMPLATE, ask each person to complete the
following personal assessment:
o Something you are very good at doing...
o The one value you hold the highest...
o The material possession most significant to you...
o Your greatest achievement...
o The personal motto you live by...
o Three words you would most like to have said about you after you die...
 Instruct the members of the group to design their own coat of arms, substituting pictures or
symbols with information from their personal assessment. At the end of ten minutes, have
each member of the group hang his or her coat of arms on the wall and take turns
explaining the design.
July 2011 11
Find a person who…
 Find a person who matches each of the following descriptions.
 When you have found one or more persons to match all 20 items, bring your list to the front
of the room. Don’t forget to write down any additional information the question asks.
1. Has been to a baseball game this month and ask them who played and who won
2. Has broken at least 3 bones in their body and ask them which bones
3. Traveled from a different time zone within the US to get to this meeting
4. Likes spinach
5. Is double-jointed and ask them to prove it
6. Played a varsity sport in college and ask them which sport
7. Is a morning person
8. Went to college of more than 10,000 students. Write down the school name
9. Still watches Saturday-morning cartoons
10. Can recite the alphabet backward and ask them to do it
11. Has been to Alaska
12. Doesn’t have any cousins
13. Enjoys knitting
14. Can slalom water-ski
15. Knows karate
16. Knows 3 of the 7 natural wonders of the world & ask them which ones they know
17. Has eaten at an Italian restaurant this month
18. Played an instrument in their high school band/orchestra and which one
19. Can rub their stomach & pat their head at the same time. Ask them to demo it.
20. Enjoys interior decorating
July 2011 12
Who are you?

Objective
 To enable participants to become acquainted with one another in an informal setting.
Procedure
 Individuals are instructed to jot down three questions that they would like to ask a person
whom they are just meeting. Suggest they be creative and not ask the more obvious
questions (name, organization, etc.)
 After allowing 3-5 minutes, ask the participants to start moving around, exchanging
questions and answers. Encourage the group to meet as many new people as possible.
 Reassemble the entire group and have all persons introduce themselves. As each individual
is introduced, other participants are encouraged to add other pieces of information or
details shared earlier. This will eventually provide a highly enriched composite picture of
each participant.
Discussion Questions
 What were some of the more interesting things discovered about people? Would they have
been uncovered in “normal” cocktail party conversations? Why not?
 What were some of the more productive questions asked?
 What questions proved to be less productive? Why?
Materials Required None
Approximate Time Required 30 minutes, depending on group size
July 2011 13
Barriers
How well do you communicate?
 How you communicate is determined mainly by the ways you think and feel. The following
are a few examples of the barriers to communication that are universal. Instruct
participants to form groups of four. Write each one of the definitions below on a separate
piece of paper, fold them and put them in a bag or container. Ask one member of each
group to pick a topic.
 When each group has a topic, give the members five minutes to list all the ways this barrier
affects their lives. Each group should have a recorder and group reporter. Have each group
report on its findings. If time permits, discuss as a large group.
o BY-PASSING -- is misunderstanding in which the meaning of the word used by the
person speaking is DIFFERENT from the meaning attached to that word by the person
receiving the message. The Oxford Dictionary shows 14,070 different meanings for the
500 basic words that people use. For example, the word “round” has 73 different
meanings.
o STEREOTYPING -- is the use of a term, which is GENERAL, as if all members of the group
represented by the term, were the same. Attitudes favoring or rejecting certain groups
are a determining factor in the formation of and use of stereotypes.
o POLARIZATION -- (“black” or “white” thinking) is the tendency to reduce everything to
one of two opposite classes. The tendency to force things into one or the other of a pair
of contraries will distort the reality and create a verbal impression that does not fit
reality.
o ALLNESS -- is the tendency to look at a situation from a single point of view and feel that
all that is relevant or important has been observed, said, heard or considered, the
tendency to arrive quickly at a “that’s-all-there-is-to-it” attitude. The result of this
tendency is a closed mind.
o INFERENCE-PRONENESS -- is the tendency to go beyond the facts that are seen or heard
and form conclusions too hastily.
July 2011 14
Defining Goals
Goals and Objectives
 Meetings and organizations with clearly defined goals and objectives have been proven to
be more successful than meetings and organizations with undefined goals.
 This activity is a revealing way to assess knowledge of the existence of goals and objectives.
Instruct the group to form partnerships and define the goals of the meeting or organization
(if the participants all work for the same organization). After four minutes, instruct the
pairs to rank their goals from most important to least important. Ask each of the pairs to
read their top three objectives and record them on chalkboard or on a flip chart.
July 2011 15
GRPI – A Model for Team Effectiveness
Goals: (vision, mission, objectives)

 Are the mission and goals of the team clear and accepted by all team members?
 Are the mission and goals in tune with the team’s environment?
Roles: (allocation of work)

 Are the roles and responsibilities clearly defined and understood?
 Do the defined roles fully support the team mission and goals?
 Do team members have the right competence and resources to fulfill their responsibilities?
Processes: (e.g. decision making, problem solving, communication)

 Are the processes and procedures operating in the group (for such things as problem
solving, decision making, conflict resolution, etc.) acceptable to all and supportive of team
mission and goals?
Interpersonal Relationships: (individual styles)

 Are the relationships among team members healthy and supportive of good team work?
 Is there a healthy level of trust, openness and acceptance?
 Is there evidence that the group members value the diversity within the group?
July 2011 16
Contracting Needs and Desires Questions

 Who is the client(s) with whom you need to contract? (the team, the team’s
sponsor/decision makers?)
 What is the purpose of the meeting (understand the mission)?
 What is the product/output expected from the session? (what is the take-away when it is
over?)
 What are the parameters of the meeting? That is, what is in scope and out of scope?
 Who has a stake in the subject(s)? Who should attend? Who else might add value to the
effort?
 What specifically will be the leader’s role? Kick-off and close?
 Is pre-CAP session work required? If so, what is it and who should do it?
 What thoughts have already been formulated around agenda and plans for the meeting?
 What does the team/sponsor expect from you in each of the key steps of the facilitation
process? (e.g. planning/during the meeting/after the meeting)
 What do you want from the client/team?
July 2011 17
Event Name:
Date(s): (if predetermined)
Leader/Meeting Planner: Phone Number:
Business Leader Sponsor:
Location of Meeting:
Desired Objective: (or Problem Statement)
Key Deliverables: (Goals)






Scope: (Critical Boundaries and Non-Negotiables)
Potential Stakeholders and Key Stakeholders:
Required Facilitator Skill Level:

Strategic: A meeting that Basic: A single or multiple day Light: A meeting that
supports a key initiative meeting that includes using requires monitoring of
for a senior leader (i.e., quality, CAP or Work-Out tools team dynamics or to
Integration, Cross- (i.e.; Work-Out, Team Building facilitate small team
Functional, Work-Out, for Work Teams, Brainstorming activities (i.e., Break-Out
Team Building) session) Session, Group Report-
Outs, Ice Breaker)
Business Location
Lead Facilitator
Co-Facilitator Business Location
July 2011 18
Utilize the following checklist to ensure adequate preparation:
____1. Location: where? (consider T&L expense)

____2. Date and time: when? (check for holidays, popular vacation times, etc.)
____3. Number of participants: who? (make a list, check it twice)
____4. Main room and break-out spaces: how large?
____5. Design/Configuration of room. (U-shaped recommended for groups under 20)
____6. Audio visual equipment
____7. Participants agenda
____8. Facilitators agenda/day plan: more detailed; what product/outcome?
____9. Notice to participants: 15-30 days ahead of session.
____10. Information packet, binders, portfolios, etc.: preparation and delivery to site.
____11. Meals, beverages, snack services, breaks.
____12. Social activity/component: dinner, evening, athletics, entertainment, etc.
____13. Icebreaker/warm-up exercise for opening and after lunch each day: enter on facilitator’s
day plan.
____14. Giveaways? (order ahead: T-shirts, coffee mugs, etc.)
____15. Travel information/assistance for out-of-town participants.
____16. Message phone number at meeting site: distribute in advance.
July 2011 19

Purpose Statement____________________________________________________________
Desired Outcome Statement ____________________________________________________
By the end of this meeting we will have ___________________________________________
Parameters (In Scope / Out of Scope) _____________________________________________
A CAP agenda should look like this.
Notice that the OBJECTIVES are simple and do not contain CAP terminology or the name of tools.
This is because the agenda needs to be understood by the CAP team members, who will not have
an understanding of the CAP language. In the meeting, the facilitator will need to explain how the
tools are used before facilitating them.
July 2011 20

Issue
Recommendation
What When Action Owner
Pay-Off
Resources Required to Implement Potential Barriers
July 2011 21
Dealing with special problems in groups
 Silence in the group

 Talk as an avoidance
 The chronic monopolist
 Acting-out or hostile behavior
 Scapegoating
 Absences
 The manipulator
 Do-gooders
 Resistance
Even experienced group facilitators encounter occasional difficulty in attempting to deal with the
numerous situations that occur in a group. Why, for example, does a group seem to interact well
one week and fall silent the next? Why do certain members remain in the group and still seem to
resist the attempts of others to help them? Why does John constantly monopolize the
conversation? Why is attendance dropping off?
In reality, most of the problem areas suggested in these questions do not occur in isolation.
Absences from a group meeting as well as member tardiness for the start of a session, for
example, could be resistance to the process. So, too, could group silence be considered
resistance, but it may also be the result of an emotion that has overwhelmed the members.
Therefore, while certain group problems will be treated in isolation in this chapter, you should
bear in mind that they are presented this way for organizational purposes only.
July 2011 22
Silence in the Group
The silent group, or perhaps the silent group member, can be a frustrating experience for
facilitators. In reality, a silence that is warm and accepting is a way of pacing an interaction, of
giving an individual time to think, and of allowing him or her to bring forth that material that is
important. For the neophyte facilitator, the ability to utilize silence in a constructive manner is a
learned skill. When appropriately utilized, it is a significant part of facilitation, either with
individuals or in groups.
Silence in the group may have a number of meanings:
 Silence may be a deliberate holding back of self in order to punish the facilitator or other
group members.
 Silence often is the way in which members run away from turmoil: it is an escape from the
reality of conflict.
 Sometimes silence indicates suspicions and fears of the reactions of others in the group.
 Silence can mean a particular member’s inability to formulate his or her reactions because
he /she never acquired the habit of articulating strong feelings.
 Silence may conceal ambivalence.
 Silence may have positive aspects, often overlooked by the facilitator. Silence may be a
means to an end. In this privacy, members remove outward defenses and cast about for
satisfying and acceptable substitutes.
Silence in groups may be due to the anxiety that members experience in meetings, which occurs
most frequently in the initial stages of group life. Silence may also result from a fear of discussing
something that may be displeasing to the facilitator, or hostile toward the facilitator, or hostile
toward one of the members. Silence in a group may signify a need for group members to think
through what they wish to say. Silence, however, can also communicate shock (following a hostile
outburst) or support.
Silence can occur for other reasons. For example if orientation to the group has been poor, some
members may be surprised by the personal mode of interaction and remain quiet. Others feel that
their contributions may not be worthwhile and fear that ridicule will follow their verbalizations. Still
others find that some individuals dominate the discussion and that they have difficulty getting in
even when they try.
There is no single way for the facilitator to handle silence nor should he or she feel it necessary to
always keep the group moving. The facilitator should ask:
 Why is he/she disturbed by the silence?
July 2011 23
 Is the group disturbed by it?

 Is the member (or are the members) really not participating because of silence?
 What does the silent member mean to the group?
 Are there nonverbal activities that may be dealt with?
Silence of individual members may be handled by a friendly intervention directed to the group
member. When the entire group becomes silent, support and clarification from the facilitator are
recommended, with responses like: “Silence is sometimes uncomfortable. Can you think of why this
happened?”
A group should not be allowed to remain silent for more than a few moments. The facilitator has
several possible techniques to use with regard to silence:
 Asking the group about their thoughts on silence--they may or may not deal with it.
 Asking what feelings are being experienced about the silence.
 Changing the subject to one that is more comfortable.
It is important for the facilitator to assess properly the anxiety level of the group prior to making
an intervention. It is further suggested that facilitators ask questions such as “We have a couple
of members who are not talking. Do you have any idea why they are quiet?” Silent members
should never be mentioned by name and observations should be general and directed toward the
group.
Of interest to the facilitator is Walter Lifton’s well conceptualized discussion of how the silent
client communicates. After listing all the nonverbal cues he could think of, he found that such
cues could be categorized under three labels:
 Cues that reflected avoidance behavior such as lack of eye contact, a mouthful of gum,
chewing a pencil, or the movement of an individual’s chair away from the group.
 Cues that reflected emotions of pleasure or anger including a smile, frown, clenched fist,
and upraised hand.
 Cues that had symbolic meaning with a cultural context such as the girl who flutters an
eyelash or playfully rolls her eyes.
Since the major role of the facilitator is to facilitate group awareness, he or she might respond to
such nonverbal cues with statements like: “John and Bill have said they favor the plan, but Jim
and Betty seem to be shaking their heads in disagreement”.
July 2011 24
Talk as an Avoidance
The facilitator who feels pressured to keep the group going may well be delighted with the member
who takes up slack with a long and sometimes highly personal discussion or a pet topic. While with
some members, this may represent an approach to seeking group help, it may indicate a need. Even
when an individual is revealing what appears to be significant aspects of self, he or she may be either
consciously or unconsciously trying to control the group’s potential impact on him or her.
As long as an individual is speaking, he or she holds the group’s attention, prevents interaction and
minimizes the probability of being confronted by another group member. Since the discussion is
personal, he or she runs little risk of evoking negative comments from others; since he or she may be
speaking with considerable effect, he or she can probably elicit feelings of support, advice, and
positive feelings from, others. In a way, this behavior is similar to that of a child who fears some
unpleasant task (going to school), so he or she discusses a hurt or illness designed to evoke sympathy
from parents and siblings. The child, in a sense, is setting up the adult for the desired emotional
response.
The facilitator will also encounter other individuals who employ talk as an avoidance-resistance
device, or the individual who searches for topics to discuss. He or she is characterized by such
statements as: “What about the war?” or “Do you think the President is doing a good job?” When
such nongroup topics are discussed, the individual can avoid personal interaction.
The Co-facilitator is a frequent member. This is the individual who tends to follow the facilitator’s
cues, repeats his or her interpretations, and performs a host of other group chores. While it is
desirable as the group develops to share leadership, this Co-facilitator uses leadership techniques
to minimize his or her involvement. The Co-facilitator also may appear as Junior Freud or King
Solomon. Other group members avoid personal involvement through joking, acting as a
protector of others, and functioning as housekeeper - the individual who goes after missing
chairs, opens windows, etc.
The facilitator must be alert to these avoidance techniques, and gradually the group members
will also understand the goals of such behavior. The facilitator’s role with the talking avoider
should be one of helping the member understand why overt behavior is really in opposition to his
or her ultimate goals. Like other members, he or she probably desires feedback and help, and
wants to become liked and accepted in the group. Yet he or she may fear the group, its
facilitator, and may be overly anxious that verbalizations directed toward him will be negative.
When rapport has developed and group cohesion exists, the facilitator might note that “Some of
us seem to want to talk all the time, almost as if we were a little hesitant to come into the group.
Does anyone have any thoughts about this? or “We joined this group to get a better idea of how
we affect each other. I wonder if everybody is really trying to do that.” As with the silent
member, the group-oriented question is preferable, at least as a starting point, with those who
use talk as an avoidance device.
July 2011 25
The Chronic Monopolist
Like the individual who uses talk as an avoidance device, the chronic monopolist is the type of
person who must hold the group’s attention and who becomes anxious when the focal point
shifts to another member. Individuals who attempt to monopolize the group proceedings are
employing a defensive overreaction to the fear of attack or isolation from the group. In general,
most individuals who work with groups agree that the individual who persists in remaining the
center of the group’s attention should not be a part of the group. An individual who is
monopolizing an ongoing group can be offered individual counseling until he or she can function
more appropriately in groups.
Acting-out or Hostile Behavior
The acting-out group member is perhaps as much of a concern to the beginning facilitator as the
discipline problem is to the student teacher. Often the behavior erupts suddenly and catches
both the facilitator and the group unaware. Acting-out behavior can also be observed in patterns
of lateness, absences, alcoholic indulgences, and overt forms of hostility between members. In
some cases, the disruptive member can actually be a benefit to the group in that such members
tend to bring certain problems to the conscious attention of the other members.
A frequent cause of acting-out behavior is the negative feelings individuals have toward the
facilitator that cannot be expressed. It is important, therefore, that the facilitator not react
defensively to the hostility of the members, since this encourages further acting-out.
No single solution is available for dealing with disruptive persons. The facilitator might discuss
the disturbing individual’s role in the group and what the other members think of him or her. The
extremely agitated person may be allowed to take a break until the session is over and engage in
a conference with the facilitator following the session.
The design and structure of the group also provide certain safeguards and limitations against
acting-out behavior. The facilitator’s skill in helping the group recognize hostile feelings is a
significant part of the group process.
July 2011 26
Scapegoating
In some groups an individual member is sometimes consciously or unconsciously identified as the

individual who personifies all that is or could be wrong inside or outside the group. Thus, when
someone seems to be blocking the process, when the groups wants to identify the too-silent or
too-disruptive member, one or perhaps two individuals may be singled out to bear the brunt of
the group’s animosity. Such individuals become the group’s Scapegoats.
The use of a scapegoat is a convenient way for the group members to reduce anxiety by making
the assumption that one or a few individuals are the sole possessors of undesirable traits,
mannerisms, or behaviors. Thus an ongoing member may accuse the scapegoat of excessive
anger or the nonparticipant may find that he or she participates more than the scapegoat. It is an
interesting group phenomenon to notice how some individuals will attempt to solve their own
problems through the use of elaborate advice and direction to the scapegoat. “Harry, if you
would keep your voice down a little, we would hear you better” is an example of a loud individual
solving a problem for another. Another way in which scapegoating is used is through the
mechanisms of displacement. Individuals direct statements that may have negative
consequences toward a scapegoat instead of toward the actual target of their displeasure.
Since scapegoating is obviously a growth-hindering aspect of group life, the facilitator must be
alert for signs of an individual being singled out for this purpose. A question like: “We all seem
to be blaming one or two individuals for our failure to progress. I wonder what is happening in
the group?” will generally serve to call the group’s attention to what is happening. If this fails,
the facilitator may have to make a more direct interpretation or confrontation: “Mary, you’re
saying that Joe really bugs you, but is it possible that much of what you find annoying comes from
John?”
July 2011 27
Absences
Although absences from group sessions can occur for legitimate reasons (business trips, illness,
etc.), they may also be the result of increased anxiety. As a group develops and members sense that
subsequent interaction may penetrate into areas that are frightening or potentially harmful, some
may become absent. Other factors, of course, can and do influence absenteeism. Members may
not be meeting individual needs, the size of the group may be too large to ensure participation, or
subgrouping and insensitive facilitation may have prevented cohesion.
For the group to be successful, it must be a significant aspect of the member’s life. For these and
other reasons, the orientation to group life, the clarification of goals, and skillful leadership are
essential. While absenteeism is frequently regarded as a form of resistance in groups, a member’s
absence may be his or her way of testing the limits of acceptance in the group, although
absenteeism can represent resentment.
It is interesting to note that groups in the early minutes of sessions often take role and seek out who
is absent and why. Although there is not always open resentment about the absent member, there
may be considerable discussion about what the group did to him or her at the last meeting, or about
the absent member’s lack of commitment. Discussions of the absent member provide the group
with a focal point, delay the work at hand, and allow some individuals to verbalize why they may not
be able to speak freely when the absent member is present.
Perhaps the most effective approach the facilitator can take with regard to member absences is to
deal with the problem directly. The Facilitator may ask: “How do you feel when others are absent?”
or “How does it affect the group when someone isn’t here?” While the group may deny any feelings
about the absences during early meetings, they may become quite hostile as the group progresses,
in that they feel that some members are deliberately avoiding the group and slowing its progress.
In a pragmatic sense, the facilitator should make a direct effort to contact absent members,
especially in the early stages of group life. Members need to know that their presence is desired
and that they have been missed. A personal phone call from the facilitator can effectively
communicate to the absent individual that he or she does have an important identity in the
group.
July 2011 28
The Manipulator
It is not uncommon for the facilitator to encounter manipulative members within the group.
Such individuals tend to steer the group interaction to meet their own ends. For example, a
group member may try to put the heat on a certain individual that he or she dislikes, or he may
joke or clown if the process is touching close to an area that he does not wish to deal with. He or
she may also try to manipulate the facilitator into recognizing him or her as the favorite or one
whose behaviors and verbalizations in the group are recognized and rewarded.
Some facilitators unwittingly fall prey to the manipulator’s plans in that their goal to get the
group moving may be supported by the subtle manipulation of one or more members. In some
cases, this takes the form of revealing some personal thought, not for the purpose of achieving
self-understanding or some other agreed upon goal, but for the purpose of gaining group or
facilitator attention. The manipulator may carefully choose what he or she says, revealing only
enough to steer the group toward whatever response is desired. Once he or she has succeeded
in this purpose, the person may become relatively silent to observe the fruits of his or her efforts.
Manipulation may be used by the facilitator as a basis for discussion in the group. By noting that
“some individuals seem to be taking advantage of others in the group--has anyone else been
aware of this?” Again the facilitator should not use the individual’s name directly, but should
introduce the topic to help the group develop insights into the ways individuals seem to be
utilizing the group.
Do-Gooders
There may be individuals in the group who perform in socially proper ways in the group and are
still disruptive. Members who fill this category are labeled do-gooders. The do gooder’s behavior
is usually evident through the desire to give advice to others, to help members plan what they
should do, and through exaggerated assistance in helping another member achieve. Do-gooders
may be repeating manipulative behavior patterns that led them to earlier successes, or so that
they may become saviors to the receivers of help, who then fail to make needed gains for
themselves.
July 2011 29
Resistance
All the behaviors listed can be considered forms of individual resistance. The silent member, the
member who singles out a scapegoat, the do-gooder and others may, in one way or another, be
attempting to impede the group’s progress because of personal fears that they will be subjected
to unpleasant experiences in the group.
Resistance may mean

 Protection of the ego and an attempt to adjust to social demands.
 An attempt on the part of an individual to escape the uncertainties and fears he or she may
be asked to explore.
 A means to keep those less pleasant personal sides from being recognized.
 Anger toward self for having revealed his or her inadequacies.
 A means for stating that he or she cannot utilize the help offered.
A basic sense of trust and member involvement is necessary for a group to progress satisfactorily
toward the working stage wherein members will bring their problems to the group for assistance
in making decisions and understanding dilemmas.
As might be expected, resistance to personal exploration is greatest during early sessions where
cohesiveness and trust are minimal. The group experience may be novel to most participants and
the fear of the unknown is to be expected. As the group develops and trust and cohesiveness
emerge, the initial fears tend to dissipate and resistance will become less of a problem. The
important thing for the facilitator to remember is that early and sharp probing will tend to
increase resistance and perhaps destroy the group. Groups need time to develop and grow, and
unnecessary haste accompanied by didactic lectures or unwarranted interpretations can destroy
the group and cause individual harm.
There is a leadership-by-default technique in which the facilitator responds to initial tensions in

the group by turning back questions. Since, in his or her thinking, initial questions are authority-
ridden and reflect members’ wishes to be led, the facilitator simple invites the speaker to give an
answer in a warm but firm reply - “Let me hear what you think about this.” This approach is
effective in helping group members become aware that they must handle their own problems.
Assurance
The facilitator expresses approval or agreement to the group or to an individual member. The
approval is usually intended to encourage the group or individual member.
July 2011 30
Humor
The facilitator eases tension with a humorous remark. This may be done when, in the facilitator’s
opinion, the group tension is too high for optimal functioning.
Objective Materials
The facilitator uses materials -- a story or a poem -- to promote discussion. This technique is
probably more effective with children’s groups.
Personal Reference
Personal references are a means for the facilitator to insert his own personality into the group --
“I feel that...”, “I think that...”. “It seems to me...”.
Non-personal Anecdote
The use of the experience of another person to illustrate a point.
Member Responses as Springboards

The facilitator follows a group member’s lead and uses it to involve other group members in the
discussion --”Joan says she’s still not sure what we’re to do here. I wonder if others are unsure
too?”
Like other techniques, none of these produce instant magic. Yet if timed properly, they are useful
during the early stages of group life.
Hidden Agendas
Any group works on two levels: the level of the surface task with which the group is immediately
concerned, and the level of the hidden, undisclosed needs and motives of its individual members.
Participants’ aspirations, attitudes, and values affect the way they react to the group’s surface
task. Such individual “hidden agendas” siphon off valuable energy that could be used for
accomplishing the task at hand and for group maintenance.
Understanding how these hidden agendas work in the life of a group helps the group achieve its
common goal more efficiently.
July 2011 31
Individual Needs
A person joins a group in order to fulfill or express certain personal needs. His behavior as a
member of that group is neither random nor haphazard: It is keyed to personal motivations,
which may be social or emotional, explicit or hidden to the group, know or unknown to the
individual.
Needs take different forms and can be satisfied in different ways for different people. Physical
and security needs are basic. An individual must have food, shelter, and warmth in order to
maintain life; if he is not to be overwhelmed by anxiety, he must also achieve some security and
stability in his environment.
When such basic survival needs are met, other needs press for satisfaction. An individual has
social, ego and self-fulfillment requirements as well. These are the needs that can best be
fulfilled in a group situation; thus, their satisfaction is often the individual’s motivation for joining
a group.
As individuals seek acceptance from others, social needs become apparent; when these are filled,
the person’s ego presses for its satisfaction. Finally, as the individual begins to understand his or
her own unique identity, he or she can become fully unique.
Hidden Needs
Hidden beneath the surface of the group’s life are many individual, conflicting currents: its
members’ needs for belonging, acceptance, recognition, self-worth, self-expression, and
productivity.
Such needs are personal and subjective but they are not necessarily “selfish”. Looking for the
satisfaction of personal needs through group membership is both “normal” and “natural”. We
are not concerned here with the question of how or whether these needs should be satisfied, but
with their effect on the group as a whole.
If one individual’s needs block another from achieving his or her needs, or if such personal needs
hinder the group from accomplishing its goals, then we become concerned. We want to
legitimize the individual’s fulfillment of his or her needs in ways that do not raise obstacles for
other members of the group.
July 2011 32
Hidden Agendas
Some Suggestions for Leaders
The leader should keep in mind the fact that a group continuously works on both the hidden and
the surface levels. Hidden agendas may prevent the group from moving as fast as participants
would like or expect.
What can be done about hidden agendas:
 The leader can look for hidden agendas and learn to recognize their presence.
 A group member may help surface hidden agendas by saying “I wonder if we have said all
that we feel about the issue. Maybe we should take time to go around the table and ask for
individual comments so that we can open up any further thoughts.”
 Hidden agendas can be brought into the open and discussed. But not all hidden agendas can
be confronted successfully by a group; some are best left under the surface.
 The leader should not criticize the group for the presence of hidden agendas; they are
legitimate and must be worked with just like the surface task. The amount of attention that
should be given to the hidden agendas depends on the degree of their influence on the
group’s task.
 The leader should help the group find the means of solving hidden agendas. Problem-
solving methods are needed, though techniques vary.
 The group should spend some time evaluating its progress in handling hidden agendas. The
last fifteen minutes of a meeting devoted to such evaluation is often very helpful.
Better and more open ways of dealing with hidden agendas should become apparent through
experience. And as groups mature, hidden agendas are often reduced, thus increasing the
amount of energy the group has to devote to its surface tasks.
Win/Lose Situations
Win/Lose situations pervade our culture. In the law courts, we use the adversary system.
Political parties strive to win elections and to win points in legislatures. Debates are common at
schools, universities and in the media. The put-down is generally regarded as wit. Competing
with and defeating an opponent is the most widely publicized aspect of a good deal of our sports
and recreation.
The language of business, politics, and even education is dotted with win/lose terms. One “wins”
a promotion, “beats” the competition, buys a lubricant to obtain “the racer’s edge” for his or her
auto. Students strive to “outsmart” the teacher. Although we do recognize cooperative effort
and collaboration, it seems that we tend to emphasize “healthy” competition.
July 2011 33
In an environment that seems to stress winning, it is no wonder that competitive behavior

persists where it is not appropriate. Imagine a typical committee meeting to decide on a suitable
program for a club. Members interrupt each other to introduce their own ideas. Proposals are
made which other members do not even acknowledge. Partnerships and even power blocs are
formed to support one program against proponents of another. When members of such a
committee are enabled to analyze the operation of the group, they commonly agree that they
were not listening to each other because they were thinking of ways to state a case or to counter
the proposal of someone else. They were interrupting to get a point out before the speaker
clinched the sale of his or her idea. In these ways they were acting as competing individuals
rather than a collaborating group. They had started out to reach the best decision regarding
program, but had slipped into a win/lose contest. Very often the original purpose is completely
overshadowed by the struggle to win. This is a common failing of committees.
Group meetings are not the only sphere in which win/lose can arise. Visualize a consultant
discussing a client’s problem. For any of a number of reasons, the client may perceive the helpful
suggestions not as the consultant intends but as criticism of the client’s methods. As a result, the
client might also feel in competition with the consultant. The contest would resolve around
whose methods were more effective or who could do the job better. Instead of listening to the
recommendations, the client would be trying to shoot them down. Then, the consultant would
be concentrating on defending his or her expertise. When consultant and client are locked in a
win/lose match, the chances are very small that the consultant’s advice will be used.
Win/lose contests can also develop in an organization. Individuals may strive for dominant
position. Battles can rage discreetly, and otherwise, between departments. For example, a
planning department might develop a new assembly procedure. When it is introduced to the
assembly department, the workers might resent it and lock horns with planners. It is easy to
interpret the situation in win/lose terms. The planners are showing that they know more and can
design a procedure better than the men or women on the job. If the new procedure works well,
the planners “win.” On the other hand, if the innovation does not improve production, the
planners “lose,” and, in a sense, the assemblers “win” because their normal operation proved
superior. Seen in this light, it should be expected that the workers will not be committed to
giving the innovation a fair trial. In extreme cases, they may even sabotage it “to show those
theoretical snobs in Planning.” In fact, all efforts to plan for others are plagued by win/lose traps.
In some companies and institutions, internal win/lose rivalries absorb more effort than the main
production or service.
July 2011 34
Win/Lose Situations – Potential Results for Win / Lose
Although there are obviously some instances where win/lose is a positive factor, it is generally
destructive. Win/lose is too often poison to interpersonal relations and organizational
effectiveness. Suppose a husband loses an argument with his wife so that they go dancing
instead of to a horse race. He can retaliate by being sullen or obnoxious. He has turned a
win/lose situation into an ordeal where both partners are miserable. Often win/lose “victories”
become losses for both parties. This has been termed a “lose/lose” result.
Some of the negative results of win/lose have been shown in the examples already given. Here is
a list of fourteen problems which may arise from win/lose combination. They are not in any
particular order, nor are they comprehensive.
Win / Lose may

 Divert time and energy from the main issues
 Delay decisions
 Create deadlocks
 Drive unaggressive committee members to the sidelines
 Interfere with listening
 Obstruct exploration of more alternatives
 Decrease or destroy sensitivity
 Cause members to drop out or resign from committees
 Arouse anger that disrupts a meeting
 Interfere with empathy
 Leave losers resentful
 Incline underdogs to sabotage
 Provoke personal abuse
 Cause defensiveness
July 2011 35
Win/Lose Situations – Adjusting Win / Lose
Since win/lose events will undoubtedly be experienced often in the course of time, it is important
to know how to cope with them. Since the predominant trend of win/lose contests is toward
lose/lose outcomes, it becomes a matter of redirecting them toward “win/win” results. In a
“win/win” result everyone comes out on top.
It is extremely difficult for one person alone to re-orient a win/lose. You are likely to be treated
as a third party in the scrap, or you may have both adversaries turn on you. Although it would be
ideal to have all parties committed to avoid win/lose, the efforts of a significant segment of a
group can usually be effective. In a one-to-one conflict, one of the parties can often turn off a
contest. It takes two to fight. If people in a win/lose situation recognize the dangers in such a
struggle and want to adjust the situation, their chances of success will be greater.
Situation
Some means of adjustment:
 Have clear goals, understood and agreed upon. Use the goals to test whether issues are
relevant or not.
 Be on the lookout for win/lose. It can develop subtly. If you feel under attack, or feel
yourself lining up support, you are likely in a win/lose situation.
 Listen empathetically to others. Stop yourself from working on counter-arguments while
another person is speaking. Take the risk of being persuaded. Try the other person’s
reasoning on for size.
 Avoid absolute statements that leave no room for modification. “I think this is the way...” is
better than “this is THE ONLY way...”
 If you are planning for others, provide some means for their involvement. The doers should
feel that they can have influence on decisions that affect them.
 Try to make decisions by consensus rather than by victory of the majority.
 Test to see that trade-offs and compromises are truly accepted by all.
 Draw a continuum line and have members place themselves on it regarding the issue. It
often occurs that the different “sides” are not far apart.
 Be alert to selling or winning strategies in others, and avoid using them yourself. “Any
intelligent person can see the advantages....” would be a danger signal.
Again this list is not exhaustive, but may provide a beginning toward more productive
relationships. The key idea in adjusting win/lose is to strive for what is best for all rather than
trying to get your way.
July 2011 36
Facilitation Tools
Idea Generation
 Brainstorming
 Storyboarding
 Nominal Group Technique
Prioritization
 Implementation / Payoff Matrix
 Circle of Control / Concern
 Threat vs. Opportunity
Techniques to reach agreement

 Voting
 Multi-voting – N over 3
 Ranking
 Delegation
 Negotiation
 Consensus
 Multi-voting
Problem Solving
 Cause and Effect Analysis
 Process Mapping
Action Planning
 Force Field Analysis
 Contingency Diagram
July 2011 37
Brainstorming
Brainstorming is a widely recognized technique to encourage creative thinking. Groups can use this
idea generation tool to identify work-related problems, their causes, and possible solutions.
Brainstorming uses the thinking and creative resources of the entire Problem-Solving group. The
ideas generated by a group are likely to be more numerous and creative that those of an individual.
Brainstorming allows for the pyramiding of ideas. At the end of the exercise, the group moves to
another activity to analyse or prioritise the best ones.
Guidelines
 Gather ideas verbally and record them on the flipchart

 Clarify the ideas
 No critical judgment – no not disagree or evaluate any ideas at this stage
 Quantity is important – encourage the group to get more ideas and stretch them
 Build on ideas of others
 Crazy ideas may work
Storyboarding
Storyboarding is a highly visible of gathering information. This time, instead of gathering ideas
verbally, like we do with brainstorming, we ask the group to record their ideas on post-its. This
doesn’t allow us to build ideas from other people but it does allow everyone to participate.
Guidelines
 Write ideas on post-its – 1 idea on 1 post-it

 No critical judgment – no not disagree or evaluate any ideas at this stage
 Clarify the ideas
 Duplicate ideas and categorize them
 No limit of ideas – but limit of time
July 2011 38
CATEGORY CATEGORY CATEGORY
Idea Idea Idea
Idea
Idea Idea
Idea
Idea Idea
Idea
July 2011 39
Idea Generation Tool – Nominal Group Technique
Application
 Nominal Group Technique is a method to encourage participation and collect information from
all group members. It is a form of individual brainstorming.
 It is a carefully designed, structured, group process which involves participants in activities as
individual contributors rather than in the usual interactive mode of conventional groups.
Uses
 It is used to gather all views on a topic and to break a pattern of participation being dominated
by a few members.
Process
 Present the issue or topic to the group.
 Provide a time limit within which each group member will silently brainstorm a list
of responses to the issue and write them down. If the team is engaged in problem
definition and analysis, the questions may relate to describing the current
situation and relevant information. If the team is looking for solutions, the
questions should elicit ideas around potential solutions.
 Collect one response from each participant in turn and record it on flip chart
paper. Questions can only be asked to clarify the idea, not to debate or evaluate
it. Collect a second response and record it, and repeat the process until all
responses have been collected. Individuals may “pass” at any point.
 The facilitator assists the group in clarifying all recorded ideas one at a time. The
group may:
 Suggest combination of one idea with another
 Modify an idea after participant clarifies
 Ask for deletion of item
July 2011 40
Prioritization Tool – Implementation/Payoff Matrix
Application
 A simple 2 x 2 matrix can quickly help determine which ideas should be afforded the
greatest priority.
Process
• As the team develops a list of ideas, they are placed in the appropriate quadrant of the
Implementation/Payoff Matrix.
• Implementation not only deals with cost, resources and time, but with the difficulty of
gaining approval.
• Pay Off or Impact indicates the impact on the market and customers. Do you think it will
have a high or low impact
HIGH IMPACT HIGH IMPACT

EASY TO IMPLEMENT HARD TO IMPLEMENT
 Home Runs  Too much effort

 Big Pay-off  Consider magnitude of obstacles
 Pursue All  May not be worth it
 Good result
 Low hanging result  Waste of Time

 Some benefit  Time Consuming
 Quick successes – but second best  Little chance of success
 Get the ball rolling
LOW IMPACT LOW IMPACT

EASY TO IMPLEMENT HARD TO IMPLEMENT
July 2011 41
Prioritization Tool – Circle of Control / Circle of Concern
Application
 Helps develop an understanding of the team's authority to ensure they are working on issues
that are within their authority and scope to effect, implement, impact or change.
Guidelines
 Some issues we have the ability or authority to handle. Others we may be motivated to deal
with but have neither the ability nor the authority to address them.
 The issues we can deal with fall within our CIRCLE OF CONTROL.
 Those we are motivated to address, but cannot impact, fall within our CIRCLE OF CONCERN.
 Organizations also have Circles of Control and Concern. For example, we may feel a particular
process is unnecessary and can change it, or may be able to influence others to make the
change. On the other hand, we may be upset about a particular policy change made by
customers, executive management, or regulators. In these cases, we lack the authority or
influence to cause a change.
Process
 Team members analyze each issue to determine whether it falls into the CIRCLE OF CONTROL
or the CIRCLE OF CONCERN.
 Items in the CIRCLE OF CONCERN may seem worth pursuing, but the probability of success is
lower.
 To maximize the chances of success, the team should be encouraged to focus on issues within
the CIRCLE OF CONTROL.
July 2011 42
Prioritization Tool – Circle of Control / Circle of Concern
Items within our Circle of control are worth pursuing, as success is probable.
Items in the Circle of Concern may seem worth pursuing, but the probability of success is low. It
is more remote the farther the issue falls from the Circle of control.
To maximize chances of success, focus on issues within the Circle of Control.
CIRCLE OF
CONCERN
CIRCLE OF
CONTROL
July 2011 43
Techniques to reach agreement
Voting
If the issue is minor, this can be a viable approach. The team members are polled and the
majority rules. Since a simple majority (51%) can determine the outcome, there may be a lower
level of support as the other 49% may not be satisfied with the decision. This method tends to
erode the level of acceptance by the group. As a result, the participants will give a lower level of
support. Voting should be used when the decision has minor importance.
Multi-Voting
This technique is useful when the number of items on the table needs to be narrowed down.
Steps:
Brainstorm a list of ideas.
Divide the number of ideas by 3 (N / 3) and this will give you the number of votes each participant has.
Participants cannot give more than 1 vote per idea.
Multi-voting is a priority tool only; not a selection tool – so do not reduce the list to one item
Full Ranking
Each team member is asked to rank the total number of ideas from highest to lowest. This allows
all ideas to be voted on, ensuring that all contributions are considered, thereby increasing the
level of acceptance by all participants.
Delegation
The team entrusts a sub-group or an individual to make a decision. There must be a high level of
trust among the participants. This method can work well if the team is at a high-performing
stage.
Negotiation
Parties confer with one another to arrive at a settlement. It requires a lot of communication and
give and take. It is important that the negotiating parties feel that they each have “won” on some
of the issues. If this does not occur, the participants will not support the ultimate agreement.
Consensus
Team members agree to implement a decision because they believe their points of view have
been heard and that the decision reached is the best one possible under the circumstances. All
parties agree to proceed without reservation. Because all parties agree without reservation, this
method provides the best chance for successful implementation
July 2011 44
Process Map
Whether a team is involved in a Work-Out session or any kind of meeting where decisions must
be made, there is a need for methods and processes to reach agreement or break gridlocks.
Depending on the importance of the issue, there is a variety of methods a team can use. All
participants must have an opportunity to be heard and to gather as much information as
possible. The magnitude of the issue should drive the method the group uses to reach
agreement.
Applications:
 This technique is useful when the number of items on the table needs to be narrowed down.
 Steps:
o Each team member may vote as often as they like but only once for each item. They vote for
each item on the list they want to keep for consideration.
o Votes are tallied and the bottom 50% of vote getters are eliminated.
o Second pass – each participant gets a number of votes equal to half of the number of
remaining items.
o Tally votes and eliminate the bottom 50% of vote getters.
o This process is repeated until the list is narrowed to 3-5 items for consideration.
o Multi Voting is a priority tool only, not a selection tool – so do not reduce the list to one item.
o Team members determine how many issues they will address, then each person is allocated a
certain number of votes and may cast his or her ballot according to the rules the group has set
forth.
July 2011 45
Problem Solving Tool – Cause and Effect Analysis
Application
 Cause-and-Effect Analysis is a technique for identifying the possible causes of a specific
problem ("the problem is the effect”) and is normally the first step in Problem-Solving
analysis. It is an organized approach to representing the relationship between an observed
effect and its causes.
 Cause and Effect Analysis, Fishbone Diagram, or the Ishikawa Diagram, is used to identify all
possible causes of a problem, or to identify relationships for potential process improvement.
Procedure
 Determine the problem or characteristic to be studied for control or improvement.
 Write the problem statement.
 Add the main causal categories (e.g. manpower, machine, method, material and
measurement) which may be causing the problem.
 Use Brainstorming or Nominal Group Technique to generate all causal factors to the end
effect.
 Prioritize causal factors to direct further action.
Guidelines
 Ask “what are the reasons or causes for the defined effect?” This assumes many causes are
possible and opens process to search for causal interaction.
 Ask “How does X (causal factor) cause Y (effect)?” Then, ask “Why?”.
 Ask “Are there other causal categories that can/should be considered?”.
 If a causal factor applies to more than one category, place it in both locations. Ask question
#2 above. This may bring out interrelationship causes, or further define a unique root cause.
 Writing the brainstorming ideas on the cause and effect diagram frequently reveals
differences of opinion on how flow, processing, handling actually takes place, and how it
should take place
 Discussion of these differences add to the members’ knowledge and help create a common
understanding of the problem
 Do not expect to complete the cause-and-effect diagram for a problem in one meeting. As
additional information is gathered between meetings, new ideas are triggered and new
causes identified.
July 2011 46
Cause & Effect Analysis
Example: Why can’t anyone around here make a good pot of coffee?
MEASUREMENTS METHODS MACHINES
Too Much Long Cycle Coffee

Coffee Time Too Hot
Everyone has
Not Enough Different Taste Dirty Pot
Sugar Requirements
BITTER CUP
OF COFFEE
Poor Quality
Coffee beans
Sour Milk
MANPOWER
MATERIALS
Further Investigation: Ask “Why?” five Times.
MACHINES
Coffee
too Hot Why?
Heater is on BITTER CUP

Why? OF COFFEE
Set High
Why? Still on Morning
Warm-up Cycle
Why?
No Feedback
Why?
July 2011 47
Problem Solving Tool - Process Mapping: SIPOC
A process-oriented tool that asks the team to consider the Project (the “P” in SIPOC) in the
context of Suppliers (the “S”) who provide Inputs (the “I”) in the form of data, knowledge,
resources, etc., and certain key Outputs (the “O”) for whom there are Customers (the “C”) who
have a variety of expectations, wants, and requirements. Similar to the way many businesses are
examining key work processes these days using a technique called Process Mapping, SIPOC
challenges the team to consider all elements of the project “system” while setting clear
boundaries of where thee project starts and stops in terms of overall scope of work.
Process Focus (SIPOC + Start / Stop)

Using a story boarding technique, put seven "header cards" on the wall: Supplier, Inputs,
Process Name, Outputs, Customer, and below Process Name put the two cards that
bound the process: Start & Stop. Use the first steps in process mapping to help them
identify the process they are really addressing in their project. By doing this, they will
really look at the system they must consider, and who the eventual stakeholders
(suppliers, customers) are to be mobilized, communicated with, etc.
SUPPLIER(S) INPUTS PROCESS NAME OUTPUTS CUSTOMERS
START STOP
Uses
 Valuable when a team is tackling a large, complex project that is not well-scoped. It is
especially useful when there is little understanding about who supplies critical inputs to the
project, or when project deliverables and the requirements customers of the project have for
these deliverables are unclear.
Process
 Gather all storyboard materials and find a wall space large enough to accommodate the
completed map.
 Help the team get organized to complete the map. A hint here: build the chart using a POCIS
view of the project (our Project will produce what Outputs for which Customers, and to be
successful, we will need Inputs from these Suppliers).
 Discuss with Champion/Functional Leader and other key stakeholders and resolve differences.
July 2011 48
Action Planning Tool – Force Field Analysis
Application
 Force Field Analysis provides a useful view of obstacles to change.
 It is a creative problem-solving technique that helps groups understand change. It also
encourages group commitment and provides a starting point for problem-solving. It can be
used to design an action plan to implement change.
Procedure
 Outline the problem or situation.
 State the explicit goal - what do you want to be different?
 List on one flip chart, all the current obstacles (restraining forces) that prevent achieving the
desired outcome.
 List on a separate flip chart all the current resources (driving forces) that can be utilized to
achieve the goal.
 Use arrows of varying length to illustrate the magnitude of the force.
 Identify an action plan that will eliminate or reduce the restraining forces and/or strengthen
the forces to promote the goal.
GOAL STATEMENT: Sam participates during team meetings
Driving Forces: Restraining Forces:

Forces that help us reach the goal Forces that hinder us in reaching the goal
Desire to be Heard Fear of Being Laughed at
Desire for Respect Others Talk too Much
Desire for Influence Sam Doesn’t Understand
July 2011 49
Action Planning Tool – Contingency Diagrams
Applications
 Helps clarify the role and responsibility of each individual in the implementation of a
successful plan.
 Enables a team to look at problems from a fresh perspective.
 Identifies possible causes of a problem before the action plan is drafted so potential problems
are not a surprise during implementation.
Procedures
 Write the desired result at the top of the flipchart.
 Ask “what can we do to ensure that we don’t achieve our desired result?”
 Review and prioritize barriers to achieving desired result.
 Decide on actions to overcome these barriers.
Problem
Sam, one of your employees does not participate during team meetings.
Never Handout
Written Material
Don’t Talk to
Sam Before
the Meeting
Continually Sam actively

Take Up New participates in team
Topics meetings.
Don’t Give Any

Background Prior
to Meeting
Use Insider Jargon
July 2011 50

Facilitating Techniques - Pre-CAP Course Work

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Change Acceleration Process (CAP) Pre-Course Work

Facilitating with the right language

 Poll the group

Icebreakers and Energizers

Common & Unique

Who’s Left Standing?

In small groups discuss

o I have a question about______________________________________

o I can answer a question about_________________________________

Materials Required Blank name tags

Materials Required: Blank stick-on name tags

What’s right about you?

What are you good at?

Values – Coat of Arms

5. Is double-jointed and ask them to prove it

6. Played a varsity sport in college and ask them which sport

9. Still watches Saturday-morning cartoons

10. Can recite the alphabet backward and ask them to do it

11. Has been to Alaska

12. Doesn’t have any cousins

13. Enjoys knitting

14. Can slalom water-ski

15. Knows karate

17. Has eaten at an Italian restaurant this month

20. Enjoys interior decorating

Who are you?

Materials Required None

Approximate Time Required 30 minutes, depending on group size

GRPI – A Model for Team Effectiveness

Goals: (vision, mission, objectives)

Roles: (allocation of work)

Processes: (e.g. decision making, problem solving, communication)

Interpersonal Relationships: (individual styles)

Contracting Needs and Desires Questions

 What is the purpose of the meeting (understand the mission)?

 What specifically will be the leader’s role? Kick-off and close?

 What do you want from the client/team?

Date(s): (if predetermined)

Leader/Meeting Planner: Phone Number:

Business Leader Sponsor:

Desired Objective: (or Problem Statement)

Key Deliverables: (Goals)

Potential Stakeholders and Key Stakeholders:

Required Facilitator Skill Level:

Co-Facilitator Business Location

Utilize the following checklist to ensure adequate preparation:

____1. Location: where? (consider T&L expense)

Sample Meeting Agenda

Sample Meeting Agenda

Resources Required to Implement Potential Barriers

Dealing with special problems in groups

 Silence in the group

Silence in the Group

Silence in the group may have a number of meanings:

 Silence may conceal ambivalence.

 Is the group disturbed by it?

The Chronic Monopolist

Acting-out or Hostile Behavior

In some groups an individual member is sometimes consciously or unconsciously identified as the

Resistance may mean

There is a leadership-by-default technique in which the facilitator responds to initial tensions in

Member Responses as Springboards

Some Suggestions for Leaders

In an environment that seems to stress winning, it is no wonder that competitive behavior